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UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS  LIBRARY  AT  URBANA-CHAMPAIGN 


THE  CATHOLIC 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


•'  INTERNATIONAL  WORK  OF  REFERENCE 
ON  THE  CONSTITUTION,  DOCTRINE, 
DISCIPLINE,  AND  HISTORY  OF  THE 
CATHOLIC  CHURCH 

:ating  Art,  Biography,  Education,  Exploration,  History,  Law, 
Literature,  Nations,  Philosophy,  Races,  Religion, 

Science  and  Sociology 

EDITED  BY’ 

1  YARD  A.  PACE,  Ph.  D„  D.  D.  CONDE  B.  PALLEN,  Ph.  D„  LL.  D 
THOMAS  J.  SHAHAN,  D.  D.  JOHN  J.  WYNNE,  S.  J. 

ASSISTED  BY  NUMEROUS  COLLABORATORS 


SUPPLEMENT  I 
VOLUME  XVII 


IRew 

THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  PRESS.  INC. 


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ARTHUR  J.  SCANLAN,  £>.  D. 

CENSOR 

Imprimatur 

*  PATRICK  J.  HAYES 

ARCHBISHOP  OP  NEW  YORK 


Copyright ,  1922 

By  THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  PRESS,  INC 


The  articles  in  this  work  have  been  written  specially  for  The  Catholic 
Encyclopedia  and  are  protected  by  copyright.  All  rights,  includ¬ 
ing  the  right  of  translation  and  reproduction,  are  reserved. 


A 


PREFACE 


The  Catholic  Encyclopedia  was  completed  in  1913;  the  Index 
Volume,  with  supplementary  articles,  in  1914.  Since  then  the  editors 
have  published  “The  Catholic  Encyclopedia  and  Its  Makers,”  con¬ 
taining  biographies  of  the  contributors  and  others  engaged  in  produc¬ 
ing  the  work,  and  a  volume  containing  the  revisions  in  the  New  Code 
of  Canon  Law.  This,  therefore,  is  the  first  Supplement  in  the  real 
sense.  It  was  impossible  to  issue  one  sooner,  owing  to  war  conditions. 
With  great  difficulty  the  volume  is  published  now,  owing  to  the  delays 
in  correspondence,  and  the  impossibility  of  getting  in  touch  with  many 

former  contributors.  This  volume  shows  that  Tun  Catholic.  Ency- 

\ 

clopedia  is  a  work  of  permanent  value  that  in  substance  many  of  its 
articles  on  Art,  Education,  Law,  Literature,  Philosophy,  Religion  and 
social  questions  need  scarcely  any  revision,  that  additional  or  supple¬ 
mental  matter  is  needed  chiefly  in  biography  and  geography,  to  cover 
the  changes  that  have  come  about  in  territorial  boundaries  and  in  the 
establishment  of  new  nations,  in  the  constitution  of  new  dioceses  and 
the  opening  up  of  new  missions ;  the  origin  of  new  social,  political  and 
religious  organizations  and  movements  and  the  development  of  those 
that  were  already  in  progress.  The  articles  on  these  subjects  bring  the 
whole  work  up  to  date,  making  it  actually  more  valuable  than  ever  as 
a  work  of  reference. 

In  size,  form  and  style,  editorial  and  typographical,  this  volume 
conforms  in  every  particular  with  the  original  volumes  of  the  Ency¬ 
clopedia  and  we  trust  its  readers  will  find  it  as  useful  as  a  source  of 
information  as  well  as  a  record  of  progress. 


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SUPPLEMENT 

AND 

YEAR-BOOK 


A 


Aachen.  See  Cologne. 

Abbess  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-7b). — A  nun  is  ineligible  for 
the  office  of  abbess  unless  she  is  of  legitimate  birth, 
and  is  at  least  forty  years  old;  ten  years,  moreover, 
must  have  elapsed  since  her  first  profession  in  the 
order.  These  are  the  only  requirements  laid  down 
by  the  Code,  which,  however,  confirms  whatever 
more  rigid  qualifications  are  prescribed  by  the  Con¬ 
stitutions  of  the  various  orders.  The  Council  of 
Trent  was  less  rigorous,  as  it  fixed  the  years  of 
t  profession  at  eight,  and  authorized  lowering  the 
age  to  thirty  and  the  period  of  profession  to  five 
years,  when  no  suitable  candidate  possessing  the 
stricter  qualifications  could  be  found. 

Abbir,  a  titular  see  in  Proconsular  Africa,  for¬ 
merly  Abbir-Cella  or  Abbir  Majus,  to  distinguish 
it  from  Abbir  Minus  in  the  same  locality.  It  was 
a  suffragan  of  Carthage.  One  of  its  Bishops,  Felix, 
is  mentioned  in  the  lists  of  African  prelates  as 
having  taken  the  Catholic  side  in  the  great  Car¬ 
thaginian  conference  of  411  between  Catholics  and 
Donatists.  Its  ruins  exist  to-day  at  Henchir-en- 
Naam,  about  forty  miles  southwest  of  Tunis. 

Abbot  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-15d). — An  abbot  is  the  su¬ 
perior  of  an  autonomous  community  of  monks  com¬ 
prising  as  a  rule  at  least  twelve  religious.  There 
are  two  chief  classes  of  abbots:  regular  abbots  de 
regimine,  that  is,  superiors  having  jurisdiction  only 
over  the  persons  lay  or  ecclesiastical,  attached  to 
their  abbey,  and  abbots  nullius  (i.  e.,  of  a  territory 
belonging  to  no  diocese)  whose  jurisdiction  extends 
also  over  the  faithful  and  churches  of  a  district 
around  the  abbey  entirely  separated  from  any 
diocese.  The  territory  thus  ruled  is  called  an  abbey 
nullius  and  has  its  own  clergy,  who  are  not  neces¬ 
sarily  members  of  the  monastic  institute  and  its 
own  parishes.  If  it  has  less  than  three  parishes  it 
is  governed  by  special  laws,  just  as  the  religious 
chapter  of  the  abbey  is  governed  by  its  own  laws 
and  constitutions.  The  erection,  circumscription, 
division,  union  and  suppression  of  abbeys  nullius 
are  reserved  to  the  Holy  See.  An  abbot  nullius 
must  have  the  qualifications  required  for  the  epis¬ 
copacy.  He  is  nominated  and  instituted  by  the 
pope,  unless  the  right  of  election  or  presentation 
has  been  granted  to  a  particular  organization  or 
person,  in  which  case  he  must  be  confirmed  or  in¬ 
stituted  by  the  pope.  At  the  election  he  is  chosen 
by  an  absolute  majority  of  the  valid  votes  cast, 
unless  there  is  a  special  law  requiring  a  greater  per¬ 
centage.  If  the  canons  or  the  constitutions  of  his 
order  require  him  to  be  blessed,  he  must  receive 
the  abbatial  blessing,  from  a  bishop,  whom  he  is  free 
to  select,  within  three  months  after  receiving  his 
Apostolic  letters,  unless  he  is  legitimately  prevented ; 
otherwise  he  is  by  the  very  fact  suspended  from 
jurisdiction. 

Abbots  nullius  are  included  under  the  term  ordi¬ 
nary  when  it  is  used  in  canon  law,  unless  they  are 
expressly  excluded;  they  are  also  included  under 
the  term  bishop  when  the  circumstances  or  the  con¬ 
text  do  not  show  a  different  intent  on  the  part  of 
the  lawgiver.  After  their  appointment  they  may 
not  interfere  for  any  reason  in  the  government  of 
their  abbey  personally  or  through  another  before 
taking  canonical  possession  of  it;  if  they  interfere 
they  incur  a  canonical  disability,  and  persons  who 


admit  them  before  they  have  shown  their  Apostolic 
letters  are  by  the  very  fact  suspended  from  the 
right  of  electing  during  the  pleasure  of  the  Holy 
See. 

Abbots  nullius  have  the  same  ordinary  powers 
and  obligations  as  a  residential  bishop  in  his  own 
diocese.  Even  though  they  have  not  been  con¬ 
secrated,  they  can,  if  they  have  received  the  abbatial 
blessing,  consecrate  churches  and  fixed  altars  when 
necessary,  and  within  their  own  territory  and  dur¬ 
ing  their  term  of  office  they  may  impart  all  the 
blessings  reserved  to  bishops,  except  the  pontifical 
blessing;  they  can  consecrate  chalices,  patens,  and 
portable  altars,  with  holy  oil  blessed  by  a  bishop; 
grant  indulgences  of  fifty  days;  administer  con¬ 
firmation,  and  confer  first  tonsure  and  minor  orders 
on  their  own  subjects,  even  secular,  and  on  others 
who  have  the  requisite  dimissorial  letters,  but  or¬ 
ders  conferred  by  them  in  any  other  case  would  be 
invalid. 

As  long  as  they  possess  local  jurisdiction  abbots 
nullius  can  give  dimissorial  letters  to  seculars,  even 
for  the  reception  of  major  orders.  They  can  im¬ 
part  the  papal  blessing  with  a  plenary  indulgence 
while  within  their  own  territory,  but  only  on  one 
of  the  more  solemn  feasts  each  year  (bishops  on 
the  other  hand  may  grant  it  on  two  days,  one  being 
Easter  Sunday) ;  they  can  designate  and  declare  a 
daily  perpetual  privileged  altar  in  any  church  of 
their  territories  if  there  is  none  there  already,  but 
they  cannot  do  so  in  public  or  semi-public  oratories, 
unless  these  are  united  to  a  parochial  church  or 
subsidiary  to  it,  nor  in  a  private  oratory.  Abbots 
nullius  in  their  own  territory,  even  when  they  are 
not  bishops,  use  the  pontifical  insignia  with  throne 
and  canopy,  and  may  lawfully  hold  Divine  services 
there  according  to  the  pontifical  rite;  they  may 
wear  the  pectoral  cross,  the  ring,  and  the  violet 
zucchetto,  even  when  they  are  outside  their  terri¬ 
tory. 

Abbots  nullius,  the  abbot  primate  and  abbots 
superior  of  monastic  congregations  have  a  right  to 
assist  at  oecumenical  councils  and  the  right  to  a 
decisive,  not  merely  to  a  consultive,  vote.  Abbots 
nullius,  furthermore,  must  attend  the  quinquennial 
meeting  of  the  local  ordinaries  of  their  province. 
On  being  promoted  they  must  make  a  profession 
of  faith  according  to  the  formula  approved  by  the 
Holy  See,  in  presence  of  an  Apostolic  delegate;  if 
they  fail  to  do  so  without  a  just  cause,  they  are  to 
be  warned,  and  if  the  warning  is  fruitless  they  are 
to  be  punished,  even  by  deprivation  of  office  and 
dignity,  and  of  the  enjoyment  of  its  fruits  for  the 
time  being.  On  the  death  of  an  abbot  nullius,  the 
religious  chapter  succeeds  to  the  government,  unless 
the  constitutions  of  the  abbey  provide  otherwise; 
within  eight  days  it  must  designate  a  vicar  capitular 
to  rule  the  abbey  until  the  new  abbot  is  elected; 
if  it  fails  to  do  so  the  metropolitan  is  to  appoint 
one,  unless  other  provision  is  made  in  the  constitu¬ 
tions. 

A  regular  abbot  de  regimine  lawfully  elected  is 
to  receive  the  blessing  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese 
where  his  monastery  is  situated  within  three  months 
after  his  election.  Abbots  who  are  not  exempt  are 
blessed  by  the  authority  of  their  own  bishops, 
whereas  for  the  benediction  of  exempt  abbots  the 
consent  of  the  pope  is  required.  Since  the  Bene¬ 
dictines  are  exempt,  being  engaged  in  many  distant 


ABBREVIATORS 


2 


ABORTION 


lands,  it  has  not  infrequently  occurred  that  the 
abbatial  blessing  has  had  to  be  deferred  for  a  long 
time  while  awaiting  the  mandate  from  Rome 
authorizing  the  bestowal  of  the  blessing.  Conse¬ 
quently  on  19  June,  1921,  Benedict  XV  granted  a 
general  mandate  in  virtue  of  which  the  benediction 
may  be  imparted  to  any  abbot  of  the  confederated 
Benedictines  by  the  diocesan  bishop  without  a 
special  mandate,  or  by  any  bishop  in  communion 
with  the  Holy  See  if  the  diocesan  bishop  is  dead, 
or  if  there  is  written  proof  either  that  he  has  given 
his  consent  or  that  he  is  legitimately  prevented 
from  bestowing  the  blessing.  If  a  regular  abbot 
de  regimine  is  a  priest  and  has  received  the  abbatial 
benediction  legitimately,  he  can  confer  tonsure  and 
minor  orders  on  his  own  professed  subjects;  under 
any  other  circumstances,  ordination  conferred  by 
him  would  be  void,  unless  he  possessed  the  episcopal 
character,  all  privileges  to  the  contrary  having  now 
been  revoked.  Regular  abbots  de  regimine,  like 
abbots  nullius,  may  pontificate  and  have  a  throne 
and  canopy;  they  may  wear  a  pectoral  cross  and  a 
ring,  but  not  the  violet  zucchetto.  In  conclusion, 
it  may  be  noted  that  no  one  may  now  become  an 
abbot  under  the  age  of  thirty. 

In  1921  there  were  eighteen  abbeys  nullius: 
Monte  Cassino,  Subiaco,  Monte  Vergine,  Cava  dei 
Tirreni,  and  St.  Paul -without-the- Walls  (all  in 
Italy),  New  Nurcia  (Australia),  Our  Lady  Help  of 
Christians  (Belmont,  North  Carolina),  Santa  Maria 
de  Monserrato  (Rio  de  Janeiro),  Martinsberg  (an 
archabbey,  Hungary),  Einsiedeln  (Switzerland), 
Saint  Peter  (Muenster,  Canada),  all  ruled  by  Black 
Benedictines;  Monte  Oliveto  Maggiore  (Italy) 
under  the  Olivetans;  St.  Maurice-en-Valais  (Switzer¬ 
land)  under  Augustinians ;  Wettirigen-Mehrerau 
(Vorarlberg,  Austria),  under  Cistercians;  Nonantula, 
which  is  perpetually  united  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
Modena;  San  Martino  al  Monte  Cimino  and  Saints 
Vincent  and  Anastasius  near  Rome,  formerly  under 
Cistercians,  Miridite  or  St.  Alexander  de  Oroshi 
(Albania),  formerly  under  Benedictines,  are  now 
governed  by  secular  abbots.  In  1920  Benedict  XV 
made  the  sanctuary  of  Santa  Maria  di  Polsi  in 
Calabria,  Italy,  formerly  belonging  to  the  Basilian 
monks,  a  titular  abbey  nullius.  Its  rector,  who  is 
removable  at  the  will  of  the  Bishop  of  Gerace,  is 
ipso  facto  a  titular  abbot  nullius,  with  limited 
special  powers  and  privileges,  including  authoriza¬ 
tion  to  administer  Confirmation  during  his  term  of 
office. 

Abbreviators  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-28c).— In  the  reorgani¬ 
zation  of  the  papal  chancery  under  Pius  X  the 
college  of  abbreviators  of  the  greater  presidency 
disappeared.  As  the  abbreviators  of  the  lower  presi¬ 
dency  had  been  suppressed  in  the  reforms  of 
Pius  VII,  the  last  chapter  in  the  history  of  ec¬ 
clesiastical  abbreviators  has  now  been  written. 

Abduction  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-32b),  is  viewed  in  the 
canon  law  either  (a)  as  a  crime  or  (b)  as  a 
diriment  matrimonial  impediment,  (a)  The  crime 
of  abduction  is  committed  when  a  man  with  a  view 
to  marriage  or  to  the  gratification  of  his  lust  carries 
off  any  woman  by  force  or  fraud  against  her  will, 
or  a  female  minor  who  consents,  but  does  so  with¬ 
out  the  knowledge  of  or  against  the  orders  of  her 
parents  or  guardians.  The  law  now  explicitly  re¬ 
quires  for  the  crime  of  elopement  or  abduction  by 
seduction  that  the  woman  should  be  minor.  For¬ 
merly  the  crime  of  abduction  was  punished  among 
other  ways  by  excommunication  incurred  ipso  facto 
and  perpetual  infamy;  now  there  is  no  excom¬ 
munication,  but  the  abductor  is  excluded  from 
legitimate  ecclesiastical  acts  and  is  to  be  punished 
otherwise  according  to  the  gravity  of  his  offense. 


(b)  There  can  be  no  marriage  between  a  man  who 
abducts  a  woman  with  a  view  to  marrying  her,  as 
long  as  she  remains  in  his  power;  if  the  woman, 
however,  after  being  separated  from  him  and  re¬ 
stored  to  liberty  in  a  place  of  safety  consents  to 
wed  him,  the  impediment  ceases.  The  Code  ex¬ 
tends  the  Tridentine  legislation  by  enacting  that 
the  same  impediment  arises  also  when  a  man  with 
a  view  to  marriage  detains  a  woman  by  physical 
force  in  a  place  where  she  lives  or  to  which  she  had 
gone  of  her  own  accord. 

Ayrinhac,  Penal  Legislation  (New  York,  1920),  293-96; 
Idem,  Marriage  Legislation  (New  York,  1919),  158-163. 

Aberdeen,  Diocese  of  (Aberdonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-41d). — The  fourth  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  iEneas  Chis¬ 
holm,  d.  13  January,  1918,  was  bom  at  Inverness  in 
1836,  studied  at  Blairs  College,  Aberdeen,  and  at 
the  Gregorian  University,  Rome,  being  ordained  in 
1860.  After  serving  in  various  missions  in  Scotland 
he  was  made  rector  of  Blairs  in  1890,  the  new  build¬ 
ings  being  erected  during  his  incumbency.  He  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Aberdeen  in  1899.  He  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev. 
George  H.  Bennett,  b.  in  Antigua,  B.W.  I.,  1875, 
ordained  1898,  consecrated  1918. 

The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  about 
12,000.  It  has  43  churches,  39  missions,  16  stations, 
1  abbey  (Fort  Augustus),  7  convents  for  women, 
47  secular  priests,  26  monks,  16  lay  brothers,  1  sem¬ 
inary  with  120  seminarians  and  9  professors.  The 
congregations  of  women  include  the  Religious  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  the  Sisters  of  Nazareth,  the  Sis¬ 
ters  of  Mercy  (3  houses),  the  Franciscans  and  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph.  St.  Mary’s  College,  at  Blairs, 
Aberdeen,  is  under  the  conduct  of  diocesan  clergy. 
There  is  a  school  for  girls  with  higher  and  junior 
grades  with  8  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  100. 
There  are  17  elementary  schools  with  50  teachers 
and  an  attendance  of  1931.  Under  the  Education 
Act  of  1918  all  the  elementary  schools  are  now 
taken  over  by  the  local  education  authorities  and 
supported  by  the  public  funds.  Nazareth  House, 
Aberdeen,  is  an  industrial  school  for  girls,  with  four 
teachers  and  an  attendance  of  100.  There  are  like¬ 
wise  a  home  for  old  men  and  women,  an  orphanage 
for  boys  and  one  for  girls. 

In  September,  1911,  the  centenary  of  the  death  of 
Bishop  Hay,  who  did  so  much  for  the  restoration 
of  the  Church  in  Scotland,  was  celebrated  with 
great  solemnity  at  Fort  Augustus.  During  the 
World  War  three  secular  priests  and  several  of  the 
Benedictines  served  as  army  or  navy  chaplains. 

Abjuration  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-^44c). — As  schism,  like 
apostasy  and  heresy,  is  now  punished  with  excom¬ 
munication  reserved  specially  to  the  Holy  See,  the 
ordinary  may  not  absolve  from  the  censure  if  it  is 
brought  before  him  in  the  external  forum  unless  the 
culprit  has  juridically  abjured  his  schism,  that  is  in 
his  presence  or  in  that  of  his  delegate  and  at  least 
two  witnesses,  as  in  cases  of  apostasy  or  heresy. 

Abortion  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-46d). — Those  who  actively 
and  efficaciously  bring  about  an  abortion,  the 
mother  herself  included,  incur  excommunication 
latce  sententioe,  that  is  inflicted  by  the  law  with¬ 
out  the  formality  of  a  sentence,  absolution  from 
which  is  reserved  to  the  ordinary;  if  one  of  the 
guilty  parties  is  a  cleric  he  is,  moreover,  to  be 
canonically  deposed.  The  Code,  it  may  be  re¬ 
marked,  in  speaking  of  co-operation  says  that 
those  who  command  or  induce  another  to  perform 
an  action,  or  who  aid  him  in  such  a  way  that  the 
crime  would  not  have  been  committed  but  for 
their  assistance,  share  equally  in  the  guilt  with  the 
principal  culprit,  and  so  incur  the  same  penalty. 


ABRYTUS 


3 


ABUSE 


An  irregularity,  that  is,  a  hindrance  to  the  recep¬ 
tion  or  exercise  of  orders  in  the  Church,  from 
which  an  ordinary  cannot  dispense,  even  in  the 
case  of  his  own  subjects,  is  incurred  by  those  who 
procure  the  abortion  of  a  human  foetus,  and  their 
co-operators.  The  Code  does  not  restrict  the 
penalty  to  the  case  of  an  animated  foetus  as  was 
formerly  the  accepted  doctrine.  It  should  be  noted 
that  these  penalties  are  imposed  only  for  abortion, 
not  for  other  operations  even  when  they  are  sinful 
or  criminal. 

Abrytus,  a  titular  see  of  Lower  Moesia,  a  country 
of  ancient  Europe  loosely  corresponding  to  modern 
Bulgaria,  and  suffragan  of  Marcianopolis.  This 
city  is  first  mentioned  by  the  historian  Dexippus 
as  the  place  near  which  the  Emperor  Decius  was 
killed  in  his  pursuit  of  the  invading  Goths  in  251. 
A  bishop  of  Abrytus,  Marcian,  defended  Nestorius 
at  the  Council  of  Ephesus  (431).  Some  historians 
identify  the  ancient  city  with  Aboba,  seven  miles 
northwest  of  Jenibazaar  and  north  of  Shumla; 
others  with  Abtaat  in  Dobrudja. 

Abstinence  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-67b).— The  law  of  ab¬ 
stinence  regards  only  the  quality  of  food,  while 
that  of  fasting  is  concerned  now  merely  with  the 
quantity  of  food  that  may  be  taken.  The  law  of 
abstinence  is  binding  on  all  those  who  have  com¬ 
pleted  their  seventh  year;  it  forbids  the  eating  of 
flesh  meat  or  soup  made  from  meat,  but  not  the 
use  of  eggs,  milk,  butter,  cheese,  or  of  condiments 
even  when  made  from  animal  fat.  The  prohibition 
against  eating  fish  and  flesh  at  the  same  meal  has 
been  abolished.  Abstinence  is  now  obligatory  only 
on  Fridays,  Ember  Days,  the  vigils  of  Pentecost, 
the  Assumption,  All  Saints’,  and  Christmas,  on  Ash 
Wednesday  and  the  Saturdays  of  Lent;  but  the 
obligation  ceases  on  Holy  Saturday  at  noon,  and 
also  on  all  feasts  of  precept,  except  those  falling 
on  week-days  in  Lent;  furthermore,  if  one  of  the 
vigils  mentioned  above  falls  on  Sunday  there  is 
no  abstinence  on  the  Sunday,  or  on  the  preceding 
Saturday  as  was  formerly  the  case.  For  ages  the 
Holy  See  had  persistently  refused  to  abolish  the 
Saturday  abstinence,  though  in  many  places  indults 
dispensing  from  it  had  been  granted;  but  now  ab¬ 
stinence,  as  noted  above,  is  obligatory  only  on  the 
Saturdays  of  Lent  and  the  vigil  of  Pentecost.  In 
some  countries  an  indult  has  been  grant  - 1  to  trans¬ 
fer  Saturday  abstinence  in  Lent  to  Wednesdays, 
excepting  Ember  Saturday.  There  is  no  mention 
in  the  Code  of  abstinence  on  Rogation  Days  nor 
of  the  Advent  fast  or  abstinence  as  such.  The 
regulations  set  forth  in  the  Code  do  not  affect 
special  indults  or  obligations  imposed  by  vow  or  by 
the  rules  of  religious  or  of  communities  not  bound 
by  vow. 

Local  ordinaries  may  appoint  a  special  day  of 
abstinence  for  their  own  territories  as  an  isolated 
occurrence.  They  and  parish  priests  can  in  in¬ 
dividual  cases  and  for  just  reasons  dispense  from 
abstinence  persons  or  families  subject  to  them, 
even  if  they  are  outside  of  their  territories,  and 
also  travelers,  possessing  a  domicile  or  quasi-domi¬ 
cile  elsewhere,  who  happen  to  be  within  their  terri¬ 
tories.  An  ordinary  can  dispense  the  entire  diocese 
or  a  particular  locality  for  reasons  of  public  health 
or  on  the  occasions  of  a  large  gathering  of  the 
people;  superiors  of  exempt  clerical  religious  have 
the  same  power  as  parish  priests  over  their  subjects 
and  those  living  day  and  night  in  their  houses. 

In  reply  to  a  query  concerning  the  doctrine  that 
since  the  publication  of  the  Code  it  is  permissible 
to  eat  meat  more  than  once  on  days  of  fast  only, 
the  Commission  for  the  interpretation  of  the  Code 
said  that  it  could  not  be  safely  held  in  conscience 


(Acta  Ap.  Sedis,  1919,  p.  480).  In  answer  to  another 
query  the  Sacred  Penitentiary  said  that  when  in 
virtue  of  an  indult  certain  meats  are  allowed  to 
be  eaten  on  days  specified  in  the  indult,  persons 
who  by  reason  of  age  or  labor  are  not  bound  to 
fast  may  eat  meat  as  often  as  they  like  on  such 
days;  many  years  earlier  a  similar  reply  was  given 
in  the  case  of  people  excused  from  fasting  through 
illness.  Apart  from  these  instances,  in  virtue  of  a 
special  indult  in  the  United  States  “workingmen 
and  their  families  are  permitted  to  use  flesh  meat 
once  a  day  on  all  fast  days  and  days  of  abstinence 
throughout  the  year,  with  the  exception  of  Fridays, 
Ash  Wednesday,  Spy  Wednesday,  the  forenoon  of 
Easter  Saturday,  and  Christmas  Eve.” 

Abuse  of  Power  or  Office.— The  power  placed  in 
the  hands  of  the  clergy  being  so  very  great,  we  find 
the  Church,  as  might  be  expected,  insisting  strongly 
that  it  shall  not  be  misused.  Anyone,  therefore, 
who  misuses  his  ecclesiastical  office  or  power  is  to 
be  punished  in  whatever  way  seems  proper  to  his 
lawful  superior,  unless  a  definite  penalty  is  laid 
down  by  the  canons.  Thus,  vicars  capitular  and 
all  others,  whether  members  of  a  chapter  or  not, 
who,  personally  or  through  others,  remove,  destroy, 
conceal  or  substantially  change  any  document  be¬ 
longing  to  the  episcopal  curia,  incur  excommunica¬ 
tion  reserved  simply  to  the  Holy  See;  in  addition 
they  may  be  deprived  of  their  office  or  benefice  by 
the  ordinary.  Again,  should  a  person  who  is  offi¬ 
cially  entrusted  with  the  compilation  or  care  of 
the  records  of  the  ecclesiastical  curia  or  of  the 
parish  registers,  presume  to  falsify,  forge,  destroy, 
or  conceal  any  of  them,  he  is  to  be  deprived  of  his 
office,  and  if  the  circumstances  demand  it,  he  should 
be  otherwise  severely  punished  by  the  ordinary.  If 
anyone  betrays  his  trust  in  transcribing,  transmit¬ 
ting  or  showing  acts,  documents,  or  books,  when 
his  services  have  been  lawfully  asked,  he  may  be 
punished  by  the  ordinary  by  privation  of  office, 
suspension  therefrom,  and  by  a  fine,  according  as 
circumstances  demand.  Persons  who  en  eavor  to 
bribe  curial  officials  or  ecclesiastical  administrators, 
judges,  advocates,  or  procurators,  are  to  be  pun¬ 
ished,  and  compelled  to  make  restitution  if  they 
have  caused  any  injury.  Anyone  who  charges  more 
than  the  lawfully  approved  fees  for  voluntary  acts 
of  jurisdiction,  or  for  the  administration  of  the 
sacraments  or  sacramentals,  or  the  legal  costs  of  a 
suit  is  to  be  heavily  fined,  and  if  it  is  his  second 
offense  he  is  to  be  suspended  or  removed  from 
office,  as  circumstances  demand,  and  in  addition  he 
must  restore  what  he  thus  unjustly  obtained. 

A  vicar  capitular  who  grants  dimissorial  letters 
for  ordination,  without  the  consent  of  the  chapter, 
when  the  see  has  been  vacant  more  than  a  year,  or 
if,  when  it  has  been  vacant  less  than  a  year,  he 
grants  them  to  anyone  except  a  person  who  is 
obliged  to  receive  orders  b}^  reason  of  a  benefice 
he  has  obtained  or  is  to  obtain  or  by  reason  of  an 
office  which  the  interests  of  the  diocese  require  to 
be  filled  without  delay,  is  by  that  very  fact  sus¬ 
pended  from  the  exercise  of  his  sacred  orders.  If 
a  religious  superior  unlawfully  presumes  to  send 
dimissorial  letters  for  ordination  to  a  bishop  other 
than  the  ordinary  of  the  diocese  in  which  the  house 
to  which  the  candidate  belongs  is  situated,  or  if  he 
defrauds  the  diocesan  bishop  by  sending  the  candi¬ 
date  to  another  house  or  deliberately  delays  grant¬ 
ing  the  dimissorial  letters  unto  such  time  as  the 
bishop  is  away  or  is  not  ordaining,  he  is  by  that 
very  fact  suspended  from  saying  Mass  for  a  month. 

If  the  superior  of  an  exempt  religious  house  or 
church,  on  being  admonished,  does  not  correct- 
abuses  that  have  crept  in,  the  local  ordinary  must 


ABYSSINIA 


4 


ACERRA 


immediately  inform  the  Holy  See.  In  houses  not 
fully  established,  if  abuses  have  crept  in  and  scan¬ 
dalize  the  faithful,  the  local  ordinary  can  in  the 
meantime  act  by  himself.  Again,  religious  superiors 
who  admit  to  the  novitiate  aspirants  who  have  not 
the  requisite  qualifications  or  the  proper  testimonial 
letters,  or  who  allow  a  novice  to  be  professed  when 
it  is  uncertain  whether  or  not  he  is  suited  for  re¬ 
ligious  life,  should  be  punished,  even  by  privation 
of  office. 

A  superioress  of  nuns,  even  exempt,  is  to  be  pun¬ 
ished  by  the  ordinary,  by  privation  of  office  if 
necessary,  if  she  presumes  to  spend  the  dowry  of 
a  nun  before  her  death,  or  if  she  omits  to  notify 
the  local  ordinary  about  the  approaching  admission 
of  a  candidate  to  the  novitiate  or  to  profession. 
A  religious  superior,  male  or  female,  who,  without 
the  visitor’s  consent,  transfers  a  religious  after  a 
canonical  visitation  to  another  house,  and  all  fellow- 
religious,  whether  superiors  or  not,  who  personally 
or  through  others,  directly  or  indirectly,  induce  a 
religious  to  remain  silent  or  to  conceal  the  truth 
in  any  way,  or  not  to  be  frank  when  interrogated 
by  the  visitor,  or  who  under  any  pretext  molest  a 
religious  on  account  of  the  information  he  or  she 
has  given  to  the  visitor,  are  to  be  declared  by  the 
visitor  incapable  of  holding  any  office  entailing  the 
government  of  others,  and  the  superior  is  to  be 
deprived  of  his  position.  If  a  mother  superior  vio¬ 
lates  the  canonical  rights  of  a  subject  to  confess  to 
a  priest  other  than  the  ordinary  chaplain,  she  is  to 
be  admonished  by  the  local  ordinary;  if  she  repeats 
the  offense,  she  is  to  be  deprived  of  her  office  by  the 
ordinary,  who  must  thereupon  inform  the  Sacred 
Congregation  for  Religious  about  the  occurrence. 

Abyssinia  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-75b). — A  kingdom  in 
northern  Africa  with  an  area  of  about  350,000 
square  miles,  and  an  estimated  population  of  about 
10,000,000.  It  is  divided  into  the  following  nine 
provinces:  Harar  and  dependencies,  Wollo,  Kassa 
and  Magi,  Gore,  Tigre,  Damot  and  Gojam,  Equa¬ 
torial  provinces,  Gondar,  Gima  or  Jimma.  Menelik, 
the  ruler  from  1889,  died  in  December,  1913,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Lij  Yasu.  On 
27  September,  1916,  Lij  Yasu  was  deposed  by  pub¬ 
lic  proclamation  and  Waizeru  Zauditu,  daughter  of 
Menelik,  was  nominated  empress,  and  Ras  Taffari 
proclaimed  regent  and  heir  to  the  throne.  The 
empress  was  crowned  at  Addis  Abbaba  on  11  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1917.  The  new  government  has  been  recog¬ 
nized  by  Great  Britain.  In  August,  1919,  Cabinet 
Government  was  introduced  after  more  than  a 
year’s  personal  administration  by  the  regent.  There 
are  reports,  however,  that  the  splendid  work  done 
by  King  Menelik  in  developing  the  country,  and 
which  would  probably  have  continued  under  his 
chosen  successor,  Lij  Yasu,  has  fallen  into  decay 
and  that  Abyssinia  is  relapsing  into  a  state  ap¬ 
proaching  barbarism.  Under  the  Arms  Convention 
of  1919,  France,  England,  and  Italy  bound  them¬ 
selves  not  to  supply  munitions  to  the  Abyssinians 
for  fear  that  they  would  be  used  for  slave  raiding 
purposes.  During  the  World  War  Abyssinian  troops 
served  with  the  British  in  the  East  African  cam¬ 
paign. 

There  is  a  railway  of  meter  gauge  from  the  port 
of  Jibuti  in  French  Somaliland  to  Dire  Dawa 
(about  twenty-five  miles  from  Harar),  in  the  south¬ 
east  of  Abyssinia.  In  January,  1909,  a  new  company 
was  formed  to  complete  the  line  from  Addis 
Abbaba,  taking  over  the  portion  completed  on 
French  territory;  and  the  section  fo  the  Hawash 
River,  150  miles  from  Dire  Dawa,  and  the  same 
distance  from  Addis  Abbaba,  reached  the  capital 
in  1917. 


Education. — Education,  heretofore  restricted  to  the 
secular  and  regular  clergy,  was  extended  in  October, 
1907,  an  edict  being  issued  enjoining  compulsory 
education  on  all  male  children  over  the  age  of 
twelve.  This  is,  however,  a  dead  letter.  There  is 
one  school  in  Addis  Abbaba,  directed  by  a  few 
Coptic  teachers,  introduced  by  the  Abuna;  it  has 
100  pupils,  but  the  attendance  is  irregular. 

Agriculture. — The  production  of  Harari  coffee 
is  on  the  increase,  the  supply  being  practically  un¬ 
limited.  In  1914,  3,810  metric  tons  were  exported; 
in  1915,  5,121  tons;  in  1916,  6,364  tons. 

Abyssinia,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Abyssinia), 
is  one  of  the  three  missionary  divisions  of  Abyssinia 
in  Africa.  It  comprises  Tigre,  Amhara  and  Gondar 
and  is  entrusted  to  the  Lazarist  Fathers,  the  present 
Vicar  Apostolic  being  Rev.  Edward  Grusson,  C.  M.. 
who  was  appointed  in  1906.  By  latest  statistics 
there  are  2,000  Catholics  in  this  territory  out  of  a 
total  population  of  4,000,000;  6  parishes,  6  churches 
or  chapels,  12  native  secular  priests,  5  European 
and  3  native  missionaries,  16  native  religious,  1 
seminary  with  9  students,  2  secondary  schools  for 
boys  with  60  pupils,  1  for  girls  with  20  pupils,  4 
elementary  schools  with  90  pupils,  1  mission,  and  3 
dispensaries.  Owing  to  the  almost  constant  perse¬ 
cution  to  which  the  missionaries  are  subjected,  the 
progress  of  this  vicariate  is  very  slow.  See  Galla, 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of;  Kaffa,  Southern,  Pre¬ 
fecture  Apostolic  of. 

Accession  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-95d),  Latin  accessus,  a 
procedure  in  voting  at  papal  elections,  was  abolished 
by  Pope  Pius  X  in  his  Constitution  “Vacante  Sede 
Apostolica,”  25  December,  1904. 

Accomplice  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-100a). — The  absolution 
of  an  accomplice  in  a  sin  against  the  sixth  com¬ 
mandment  is  invalid,  unless  the  accomplice  is  in 
danger  of  death;  even  if  there  is  danger  of  death 
such  absolution  would  be  illicit  on  the  part  of  the 
confessor  except  in  case  of  necessity,  i.  e.,  if  no 
other  priest  was  present,  or  could  be  got,  or  if  he 
could  not  act  without  danger  of  scandal  or  loss  of 
reputation  on  the  part  of  the  guilty  priest,  or  finally 
if  the  penitent  refused  to  confess  to  any  other 
priest.  A  priest  absolving  or  pretending  to  absolve 
in  violation  of  these  provisions  incurs  excommunica¬ 
tion  reserved  in  a  very  special  way  to  the  Holy 
See;  formerly  the  censure  was  reserved  only 
specially. 

Acerenza  (Acherontia),  Archdiocese  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
I-101a),  in  the  province  of  Lecce  and  Potenza,  Italy, 
is  united  with  the  diocese  of  Matera.  The  episco¬ 
pal  residence  is  maintained  at  Acerenza  from  May 
to  October,  and  at  Matera  from  November  to  April. 
The  present  incumbent  is  Most  Rev.  Anselmo  Pecci, 
Benedictine,  b.  at  Tramutola,  1868,  ordained  priest 
1891,  appointed  Bishop  of  Tricarico  22  June,  1903, 
promoted  to  the  see  of  Acerenza  18  September, 
1907.  In  1920  the  Catholic  population  of  Acerenza 
numbered  128,200;  there  were  28  parishes,  140  secu¬ 
lar  and  6  regular  clergy,  28  seminarians,  20  religious, 
and  140  churches  or  chapels.  At  Matera  there  were 
19,700  Catholics,  4  parishes,  25  secular  priests,  26 
seminarians,  28  sisters  and  27  churches  or  chapels. 

Acerra,  Diocese  of  (Acerrarum),  in  the  province 
of  Caserta,  Italy,  suffragan  of  Naples.  The  first 
bishop  recorded  for  this  see  is  Concordius  in  499, 
and  after  a  lapse  of  centuries  we  find  Bartholomaeus 
in  1179,  but  the  list  does  not  become  regular  until 
1247,  with  Luca.  The  see  was  united  in  1818  to 
that  of  Santa  Agata  dei  Goti,  but  was  again  made 
a  separate  see,  30  November,  1854.  It  is  dedicated 
to  Our  Lady  of  the  Assumption.  Its  present  bishop, 


ACHONRY 


ACOUSTICS 


5 


Rt.  Rev.  Francesco  di  Pietro,  b.  at  Naples,  1844, 
was  appointed  14  December,  1899.  By  1920  statistics 
the  diocese  comprises  38,000  Catholics,  12  parishes, 
98  secular  and  15  regular  clergy,  25  seminarians,  44 
churches  or  chapels,  and  28  religious  women. 

Achonry,  Diocese  of  (Acadensus:  cf.  C.  E., 
I-102d),  in  Ireland,  includes  portions  of  Mayo, 
Sligo  and  Roscommon,  and  is  suffragan  of  Tuam. 
Upon  the  death  of  Most  Rev.  Dr.  Lyster,  bishop 
of  this  diocese,  17  January.  1911,  the  present  incum¬ 
bent,  Rt.  Rev.  Patrick  Morrisroe,  succeeded  him, 
being  consecrated  3  September,  1911.  Dr.  Morris¬ 
roe,  b.  at  Charlestown,  County  Mayo,  1869,  ordained 
1894,  after  a  year  of  parish  duty,  became  professor 
of  the  Classics  and  English  at  the  diocesan  college, 
Ballaghdereen  (1895-96),  and  (1896-1911)  was  dean 
and  professor  of  liturgy  at  Maynooth.  He  con¬ 
tributed  numerous  articles  on  liturgical  subjects  to 
the  original  edition  of  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia. 

Within  recent  years  a  new  diocesan  college,  cost¬ 
ing  about  £20,000  and  accommodating  about  eighty 
students,  has  been  opened  for  boys.  A  parochial 
church  has  also  been  completed  and  dedicated  in 
the  parish  of  Straid.  Among  the  clergy  who  have 
died  were  two  prominent  workers,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr. 
Loftus  (d.  30  October,  1908),  and  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr. 
Staunton  (d.  6  November,  1910).  During  the  World 
War  three  of  the  clergy  of  this  diocese  served  as 
chaplains. 

In  1921  the  total  population  of  the  diocese  was 
76,983,  all  Irish,  and  of  this  number  only  1,927  are 
non-Catholics.  There  are  22  parishes,  43  churches, 
55  secular  priests,  8  convents  of  women,  1  seminary, 
1  college  for  men,  and  3  high  schools.  Among  the 
charitable  institutions  are  hospitals  at  Swinford  and 
Tubbercurry.  The  college  and  three  intermediate 
schools  are  aided  by  the  government.  The  Apos¬ 
tolic  Union,  “Pia  Unio  Cleri,”  and  two  missionary 
societies  are  organized  among  the  clergy,  and  the 
Sacred  Heart  League  and  Total  Abstinence  League 
among  the  laity.  The  Sisters  of  Mercy,  of  Charity, 
of  the  Sacred  Heart,  of  St.  Louis,  the  Marist  Sisters 
and  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  are  estab¬ 
lished  here. 

Aci-Reale  (Jaca  Regalis),  Diocese  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
I-105a),  in  the  island  of  Sicily,  is  immediately  sub¬ 
ject  to  Rome.  The  third  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Salvatore 
Bella,  who  succeeded  Bishop  Giovanni  Battista 
Arista-Vigo  (d.  27  September,  1920),  in  1921,  died 
29  March,  1922,  and  the  see  is  now  vacant. 

By  present  (1921)  statistics  it  comprises  18  par¬ 
ishes,  300  churches,  1  monastery  for  men,  2  for 
women,  5  convents  for  men,  287  secular  and  80 
regular  clergy,  1  seminary  with  90  seminarians,  3  col¬ 
leges  for  men  with  670  students  and  6  for  women 
with  300  students.  Among  the  charitable  institu¬ 
tions  are  2  homes  under  Catholic  auspices;  10 
societies  are  organized  among  the  laity  and  1  among 
the  clergy  and  2  Catholic  periodicals  are  published. 

Acoustics  is  that  branch  of  natural  science  which 
treats  of  the  phenomena  of  sound,  and  the  term 
“sound,”  as  used  in  physics,  is  vibration  that  may 
be  appreciated  by  the  ear.  For  the  purpose  of 
this  article  the  subject  will  be  confined  to  its  rela¬ 
tion  to  church  edifices,  as  these  buildings  must 
possess  the  proper  acoustical  properties  to  render 
them  thoroughly  serviceable  for  Divine  worship. 

Many  churches  which  are  architecturally  beau¬ 
tiful  have  failed  to  fulfill  the  expectations  of  the 
builders  in  their  acoustical  quality,  this  being  due 
primarily  to  a  general  lack  of  knowledge  of  the 
science  of  architectural  acoustics.  However,  a 
search  through  literature  on  the  subject  shows  there 
have  been  learned  writers  and  investigators  in 


many  countries  adding  valuable  contributions  to 
the  subject,  which  made  possible  the  classified 
knowledge  existing  to-day.  A  few  of  the  more 
noted  among  the  early  investigators  and  writers 
have  been  Bulfinch,  Strickland,  Mills,  Joseph  and 
Jacques  in  America;  Eichhorn,  Haege,  Orth,  Strum- 
hofel  in  Germany;  Williams  and  Lord  Rayleigh  in 
England.  In  later  years  in  America  among  the 
many  physicists  who  have  contributed  to  the 
further  development  of  the  science  are  Wallace  C. 
Sabine,  W.  S.  Franklin,  G.  W.  Stewart,  H.  O.  Taylor 
and  Jacob  Mazer.  The  foundation  laid  by  these 
scientists  and  many  others,  combined  with  recent 
inventions  of  combinations  of  materials  archi¬ 
tecturally  suitable,  has  brought  the  development  of 
architectural  acoustics  within  the  scope  of  rational 
engineering  problems. 

The  subject  is  necessarily  complex;  in  order  that 
hearing  may  be  good  in  any  church,  it  is  necessary 
that  the  sound  should  be  sufficiently  loud,  that  the 
simultaneous  components  of  a  complex  sound  should 
maintain  their  proper  relative  intensities,  and  that 
the  successive  sounds  in  rapidly  moving  articula¬ 
tion,  either  of  speech  or  of  music,  should  be  clear 
and  distinct,  free  from  each  other  and  from  extrane¬ 
ous  noises.  As  an  engineering  problem  it  involves 
the  shape  of  the  auditorium,  its  dimensions  and  the 
materials  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  this  latter 
property  is  by  far  the  one  that  most  controls  the 
acoustical  conditions. 

The  researches  above  mentioned  and  the  con¬ 
tributions  of  other  physicists  have  made  it  possible 
and  practicable  to  determine,  given  the  plans  of  a 
church  and  the  kind  of  materials  of  which  it  is  to 
be  constructed,  the  acoustical  conditions  in  the 
finished  building,  and  to  make  the  necessary  pro¬ 
visions  to  overcome  faults. 

Of  acoustical  defects,  the  most  common  is  excess 
reverberation,  including,  as  a  special  case,  the  echo. 
Sound  being  energy  will,  when  produced  in  a  con¬ 
fined  space,  continue  until  it  is  either  transmitted 
by  the  walls,  or  transformed  into  some  other  kind 
of  energy,  generally  heat.  This  process  of  decay  is 
called  absorption.  Sound,  following  the  same  gen¬ 
eral  law  as  light,  is  transmitted  by  the  intervention 
of  a  medium  capable  of  being  set  in  vibration. 
Solids  and  liquids,  as  well  as  gases,  transmit  sound 
vibrations.  If  we  take  a  membrane  similar  to  a 
drum-head  and  expose  it  to  the  light,  some  of  the 
rays  will  penetrate  the  membrane,  some  will  be 
reflected  from  it,  and  others  will  be  absorbed  by  it. 
So  it  is  with  sound  waves  when  they  strike  any  sur¬ 
face.  Some  are  reflected,  some  are  absorbed  by  it, 
and  some  will  penetrate  it  and  continue  their  mo¬ 
tion  to  the  other  side.  But  as  reverberation,  due 
to  multiple  reflection,  enters  so  largely  into  the 
subject  of  acoustics  as  applied  to  auditoriums,  a 
closer  study  of  this  phenomenon  will  assist  in  the 
proper  appreciation  of  the  difficulties  occasionally 
encountered  in  auditoriums  or  churches. 

By  the  term  “reverberation”  is  meant  the  con¬ 
tinuation  of  sound  in  a  room  after  the  source  that 
produced  it  has  ceased  to  operate.  This  is  due  to 
the  reflecting  quality  of  the  walls.  The  principal 
cause  of  the  gradual  diminution  of  sound  is  the 
absorption  of  the  surface.  The  length  of  time  that 
sound  will  endure  after  the  source  has  ceased  to 
function  is  also  spoken  of  as  the  duration  of  audi¬ 
bility.  The  continuation  of  sound  after  it  is  pro¬ 
duced  is  obviously  essential  to  hearing,  but  produces 
indistinctness  when  the  continuation  is  for  too  long 
or  too  short  a  period.  If  a  speaker  is  to  be  heard 
distinctly,  the  syllable  he  has  just  spoken  must  not 
be  too  much  in  evidence  when  he  utters  the  next 
one.  On  the  other  hand,  there  must  be  an  amount 


ACOUSTICS 


6 


ACOUSTICS 


of  reverberation  which  will  produce  a  sufficient 
volume  of  sound. 

That  reflection,  with  its  consequent  reverberation, 
is  necessary,  is  readily  understood  if  one  considers 
the  difference  in  volume  of  sound  produced  indoors 
and  out  of  doors.  Reflection  is  essential;  too  much 
reverberation  is  detrimental.  Just  how  much  re¬ 
verberation  will  produce  the  proper  effects  is  not 
entirely  a  matter  for  scientific  demonstration,  but 
is  rather  a  decision  to  be  reached  by  those  who 
have  the  correct  taste.  Inasmuch  as  the  objection 
to  excess  reverberation  is  the  resultant  confusion, 
the  element  of  rapidity  of  succession  in  the  sounds 
to  be  differentiated  enters  into  the  question.  Here 
we  have  a  hint  that  the  requirements  of  an  audi¬ 
torium  depend  upon  its  intended  use. 

Nearly  all  the  investigators  on  the  subject  have 
arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  time  of  reverbera¬ 
tion  in  an  auditorium  depends  upon  the  volume  of 
the  room  and  upon  the  absorbing  power  of  the  sur¬ 
faces.  This  will  seem  reasonable  enough  when  one 
observes  that  if  sound  loses  a  part  of  its  energy  by 
reflection,  then  the  fewer  the  number  of  reflections 
per  second,  the  less  the  loss  per  second  and  the 
longer  the  sound  will  last.  An  increase  in  the 
volume  of  the  room  of  course  increases  the  length 
of  the  paths  between  reflections,  thus  decreasing 
the  number  of  reflections  and  extending  the  time  of 
reverberation.  Again,  the  amount  lost  by  a  reflec¬ 
tion  will  depend  upon  the  absorbing  quality  of  the 
surface.  Consequently  the  greater  the  absorbing 
power  of  the  surfaces,  the  less  will  be  the  time  of 
reverberation.  Professor  Sabine  gave  a  numerical 
value  for  the  absorbing  power  of  various  materials. 

In  certain  known  instances  the  duration  of  audi¬ 
bility  has  been  computed  to  be  as  long  as  twelve 
seconds,  which  means  that  the  ear  is  capable  of 
hearing  the  same  sound  twelve  seconds  after  the 
source  has  become  quiet.  You  can  readily  see  how 
such  a  condition  produces  great  confusion,  indis¬ 
tinctness  and  discomfort.  A  deliberate  speaker  will 
utter  about  four  average  syllables  per  second. 
Nature  has  provided  a  “factor  of  safety”  of  about 
twice  as  many  in  the  ear.  That  is,  the  ear  can  hear 
without  confusion  about  ten  syllables  per  second. 
Therefore,  it  can  readily  be  understood  that  if  an 
auditorium  has  a  duration  of  audibility  of  more 
than  two  and  one-half  seconds,  it  is  very  close  to 
the  time  where  confusion  of  hearing  will  result. 

The  ideal  duration  of  audibility  in  an  auditorium 
varies  greatly.  It  depends  upon  the  uses  to  which 
the  auditorium  is  put,  and  its  size.  The  ideal  time 
of  audibility  is  slightly  less  for  speech  than  it  is 
for  vocal  music,  and  slightly  different  for  piano 
music  from  orchestral,  etc.  Oftentimes  it  is  found 
that  an  auditorium,  when  empty,  has  a  long  time 
of  audibility  which  diminishes  very  rapidly  as  the 
size  of  the  audience  increases,  and  becomes  prac¬ 
tically  normal  when  an  average  attendance  is 
reached. 

As  the  volume  increases  it  is  necessary  to  increase 
the  duration  of  reverberation.  Unfortunately,  a 
reduction  in  the  reverberation  produces  a  cor¬ 
responding  reduction  in  the  intensity.  For  this 
reason,  in  a  room  having  a  volume  of  say  400,000 
cubic  feet,  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  reduce  th.e 
reverberation  below  2.7  seconds.  This  duration  of 
reverberation  is  slightly  excessive  for  an  untrained 
speaker  but  necessary  to  insure  sufficient  intensity 
in  the  furthermost  parts  of  the  room.  In  a  small 
room  there  is  less  need  to  augment  the  sound,  for 
the  auditors  are  situated  near  the  speaker  and  also 
near  to  reflecting  surfaces.  In  the  average  room 
used  only  for  speaking,  when  the  volume  is  approxi¬ 
mately  150,000  cubic  feet,  the  reverberation  under 


average  audience  conditions  should  be  not  more 
than  1.9  seconds,  nor  less  than  1.3  seconds.  For 
most  forms  of  music  it  is  desirable  to  have  the 
reverberation  exceed  2.1  seconds.  When  a  room  is 
to  be  used  for  both  speaking  and  music,  as  in  a 
church,  it  is  usual  to  compromise,  having  the  re¬ 
verberation  slightly  excessive  for  ideal  speaking  con¬ 
ditions,  and  slightly  less  than  that  demanded  for 
ideal  musical  conditions.  The  solution  can  be 
varied,  of  course,  to  suit  the  special  conditions  pre¬ 
sented  by  each  case. 

Besides  the  duration  of  audibility,  or  time  of 
reverberation  as  it  is  often  called,  refraction  of 
sound  waves,  diffusion,  interference,  a  lack  of  reso¬ 
nance,  concentration  of  sound  energy  due  to  curved 
surfaces,  corners,  pockets,  etc.,  must  be  considered. 
However,  it  usually  happens  that  if  the  duration  of 
audibility  can  be  reduced  to  a  proper  time  all  the 
other  defects  will  automatically  cease,  since  they 
are  to  a  more  or  less  extent  its  functions. 

As  in  most  instances  a  long  time  of  audibility  is 
directly  due  to  the  non-absorbing  qualities  of  the 
interior  surfaces  of  the  room,  and  our  present  con¬ 
struction  is  tending  toward  harder  and  more  rigid 
interior  surfaces,  which  have  a  greater  capacity  for 
reflecting  sound;  it  is  necessary  in  order  to  obtain 
good  acoustical  results  to  replace  or  surmount  some 
of  the  reflecting  surfaces  with  surfaces  which  have 
the  property  of  absorbing  a  great  amount  of  the 
sound  striking  upon  them.  The  surfaces  to  be  re¬ 
placed  with  absorbing  materials  must  be  scien¬ 
tifically  chosen,  otherwise  the  effect  will  be  nullified 
or  discounted;  as  the  distribution  of  the  absorbing 
material  in  the  structure  is  of  greater  importance 
than  the  quantity.  Various  combinations  of  mate¬ 
rials  have  been  used  as  absorbing  surfaces,  but  pos¬ 
sibly  the  best  of  these  is  matted  hair  felt  about  one 
inch  thick  covered  with  a  tightly  stretched  mem¬ 
brane  of  light  canvas,  which  latter  is  secured  to 
well  braced  and  rigid  frames,  built  before  erection 
and  applied  to  the  surface  requiring  the  absorbing 
element.  When  properly  decorated  or  painted,  these 
materials  serve  a  purpose  equally  as  good  as  plaster, 
wood  or  other  interior  building  materials,  and  are 
architecturally  practical. 

It  is  very  important  to  have  an  air  space  of  about 
one-quarter  of  an  inch  between  the  tightly  stretched 
membrane  and  the  hair  felt,  since  it  has  been  found 
that  it  is  not  enough  to  have  absorbing  surfaces 
alone  to  prevent  reverberation,  but  the  absorbing 
surfaces  should  possess  the  quality  of  multiple  ab¬ 
sorption,  by  being  able  to  vibrate  and  thus  have  a 
certain  resonance  to  respond  to  the  overtones  of 
the  sound  waves,  and  give  that  quality  to  the  audi¬ 
torium  which  corresponds  to  the  resonance  quality 
of  a  violin  body  or  the  sounding  board  in  a  piano. 
It  is  the  advance  made  in  the  study  of  how  to  ob¬ 
tain  in  the  wall  and  ceiling  covering,  this  important 
quality  that  makes  it  possible  to  predetermine  the 
acoustical  success  of  a  church  and  to  correct  the  bad 
conditions  which  now  exist  in  so  many  of  our 
churches.  Based  upon  the  data  which  have  been 
obtained  in  connection  with  hundreds  of  installa¬ 
tions  throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada  of 
“acoustile”  pre-built  panels  on  the  walls  and  ceil¬ 
ings  of  churches  and  auditoriums,  the  number  of 
square  feet  of  treatment  required  in  the  average 
auditorium  can  be  roughly  estimated  at  from  2% 
to  3%  of  the  number  of  cubic  feet  in  volume,  de¬ 
pending  on  the  sound-absorbing  value  of  other 
materials  in  the  auditorium. 

It  can  thus  be  seen  that  regardless  of  the  shape, 
it  is  so  far  possible  to  obtain  good  acoustical  results 
in  a  church,  that  the  architectural  design  may  in¬ 
clude  domes,  high  groined  vaults  and  other  features 


ACQUAPENDENTE 


ADAMAWA 


formerly  looked  upon  as  having  a  distinctly  in¬ 
jurious  effect  upon  the  acoustical  properties  of  a 
building. 

Further,  those  churches  whose  acoustics  are  de¬ 
fective  can  be  remedied  by  the  application  of  the 
absorbing  panels  above  referred  to.  Prominent 
among  the  buildings  in  which  this  system  has  been 
installed  is  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  Cham¬ 
ber,  Washington,  D.  C.;  House  of  Commons, 
Ottawa,  Canada;  State  Capitol  Building,  Cheyenne, 
Wyoming;  St.  Columba’s  Church,  Johnstown, 
Penn.;  St.  Cecelia’s  Church,  Hastings,  Neb.;  Church 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  Toledo,  Ohio;  and 
the  Church  of  the  Holy  Redeemer,  Detroit,  Michi¬ 
gan.  Still  another  method  of  preventing  excess 
reverberation  is  to  construct  the  ceiling,  or  vaults, 
and  upper  portions  of  the  walls  of  a  church  or 
auditorium,  with  a  permanent  fireproof  material, 
such  as  Acoustical  sound-absorbing  tile.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  churches  have  this  material  built  in  either 
the  vaults,  or  walls,  or  both:  St.  Thomas’  Church, 
5th  Ave.  and  53rd  St.,  New  York;  First  Congre¬ 
gational  Church,  Montclair,  New  Jersey;  Church 
of  St.  Vincent  Ferrer,  New  York;  Notre  Dame 
Church,  New  York;  St.  Bartholomew’s  Church, 
Park  Ave.  and  50th  St.,  New  York. 

Emile  G.  Perrot. 

Acquapendente,  Diocese  of  (Acqu^ependensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  I-109a),  in  Italy,  at  the  present  time 
(1921)  has  13  parishes,  80  churches,  5  monasteries 
for  men  with  15  religious,  and  3  for  women,  40 
secular  priests,  45  nuns,  and  10  seminarians.  The 
Catholic  institutions  conducted  in  the  diocese  in¬ 
clude  1  asylum,  1  home,  and  2  hospitals;  these 
institutions  as  well  as  the  Catholic  schools  receive 
some  support  from  the  government.  Rt.  Rev. 
Tranquillo  Guarneri,  titular  Bishop  of  Europus,  was 
promoted  to  the  see  8  March,  1920,  succeeding 
Bishop  Gisleni  Veneri,  resigned. 

Acqui,  Diocese  of  (Acquensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-110b), 
in  the  province  of  Alexandria,  Italy,  is  suffragan  of 
Turin.  The  present  bishop  (1921),  Rt.  Rev.  Disma 
Marchese,  b.  at  Camogli,  1844,  was  appointed  bishop 
15  April,  1901,  and  made  an  assistant  at  the  pon¬ 
tifical  throne  26  May,  1918.  In  1920  there  were 
181,200  Catholics  in  this  diocese,  126  parishes,  317 
secular  and  42  regular  clergy,  30  seminarians,  459 
churches,  or  chapels,  and  95  religious,  75  sisters. 

Acre  and  Purus,  a  prelature  nullius  erected  by  the 
Apostolic  Constitution  of  4  October,  1919,  from 
territory  taken  from  the  Diocese  of  Amazones.  It 
comprises  the  Brazilian  civil  provinces  of  Alto  Area 
and  Alto  Purus,  and  is  separated  from  Peru  and 
Bolivia  by  the  territory  of  the  province  of  Alta 
Pardua.  According  to  the  Brief  it  is  to  be  the 
nucleus  of  a  diocese  and  is  endowed  at  once  with 
diocesan  privileges.  Its  titular  has  episcopal  rank 
and  jurisdiction  and  is  to  be  supported  by  the  funds 
of  the  Church  in  this  region  and  the  offerings  of 
the  faithful.  The  prelature  must  maintain  two 
pupils  at  the  South  American  College  in  Rome.  It 
is  in  charge  of  the  Servite  Fathers. 

Acta  Apostolicae  Sedis,  the  official  organ  of  the 
Holy  See  for  the  publication  and  promulgation  of 
its  laws,  decrees,  and  decisions.  It  was  established 
in  accordance  with  the  wish  of  Pius  X  expressed  in 
his  Constitution  “Promulgandi  pontificias,”  dated 
28  September,  1908,  and  appeared  first  in  January, 
1909.  It  is  published  by  a  board  of  editors  with 
offices  in  the  Palazzo  della  Cancellaria,  and  is 
printed  at  the  Vatican  Press,  Rome.  It  is  issued 
once  or  twice  a  month,  and  forms  an  annual  volume 
of  from  600  to  1,000  octave  pages,  7Mj  in.  by  10  in., 
the  cost  to  subscribers  being  12  lire  a  year  in  Italy 


and  15  francs  in  other  countries.  It  is  printed  in 
Latin,  though  occasionally  it  contains  documents 
in  Italian  or  French.  Its  contents  consist  of  the 
encyclical  and  decretal  letters,  motu  proprios  and 
similar  communications,  as  well  as  occasional 
homilies  or  consistorial  addresses  of  the  sovereign 
pontiff;  the  decrees  and  decisions  of  the  various 
Sacred  Congregations,  the  ecclesiastical  tribunals, 
and  the  Biblical  Commission ;  and  diary  of  the 
Roman  Curia,  together  with  the  names  of  all  the 
officials  throughout  the  world  appointed  or  honored 
by  the  Holy  See,  and  a  necrology  of  the  bishops 
and  cardinals.  The  “Acta  Apostolicae  Sedis”  has 
taken  the  place  of  the  Acta  Sanctae  Sedis  (q.  v.). 
In  accordance  with  the  Code  of  Canon  Law,  legis¬ 
lative  acts  of  the  Holy  See  are  promulgated  by 
their  appearance  in  the  “Acta  Apostolicae  Sedis,” 
except  in  particular  cases  where  another  method  of 
promulgation  is  prescribed ;  they  begin  to  bind  only 
three  months  after  the  date  of  the  number  of  the 
“Acta”  in  which  they  have  been  published,  unless 
from  the  nature  of  the  case  their  binding  force 
arises  at  once,  or  when  a  shorter  or  a  longer  interval 
is  expressly  prescribed  in  the  law  itself  (can.  9). 

Acta  Sanctae  Sedis  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-lllc),  a  Roman 
periodical  for  the  publication  of  ecclesiastical  docu¬ 
ments,  was  begun  in  1865  and  from  May,  1904,  was 
acknowledged  to  a  certain  extent  as  an  organ  of 
the  Holy  See.  It  is  no  longer  published  and  was 
replaced  by  the  “Acta  Apostolicae  Sedis”  in  1909. 

Acts,  Legal  Ecclesiastical. — In  one  form  of 
canonical  punishment  an  offender  is  prohibited  from 
performing  legal  or  legitimate  ecclesiastical  acts. 
He  may  be  forbidden  to  act  under  penalty  of  in¬ 
validity,  as  is  the  case  of  one  who  is  infamous  by 
law,  or  merely  of  illiceity,  as  happens  to  a  Catholic 
who  contracts  a  mixed  marriage  without  a  dispensa¬ 
tion.  In  this  connection  the  expression  legal  or 
legitimate  ecclesiastical  acts  refers  to:  the  office  of 
administrator  of  church  property;  the  functions  of 
judge,  auditor,  relator,  defender  of  the  bond,  pro¬ 
moter  of  justice  or  of  the  faith,  notary,  chancellor, 
cursor,  apparitor,  advocate  or  procurator  in  ec¬ 
clesiastical  law  suits,  or  of  sponsors  at  Baptism  or 
Confirmation;  voting  in  ecclesiastical  elections;  and 
the  exercise  of  the  right  of  patronage. 

Codex  juris  canonici,  can.  2256. 

Acuna,  Cristobal  de,  Spanish  Jesuit  and  South 
American  missionary,  b.  at  Burgos,  1597,  d.  at  Lima, 
date  uncertain.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus;  having  completed  his  studies  he 
went  to  America,  where  he  became  rector  of  the 
Jesuit  College  at  Cuenca.  In  1869  the  viceroy  of 
Peru  ordered  him  to  accompany  the  Portuguese 
general,  Pedro  Texeira,  on  his  second  journey  of 
exploration  along  the  Amazon  River,  and  to  write 
an  account  of  his  observations.  On  his  return  he 
went  to  Spain  to  present  his  work  to  the  king, 
Philip  IV,  who  received  him  coldly,  fearing  that  the 
Portuguese,  recently  revolted  from  Spain  (1640), 
would  profit  by  the  information  his  work  contained. 
Later  Acuna  became  provincial  of  the  Jesuits  in 
Rome,  and  subsequently  returned  to  Madrid  as 
censor  of  the  Inquisition.  Re-crossing  the  ocean  he 
died  at  Lima  probably  soon  after  1675.  His  “Nuevo 
Descubrimiento  del  Gran  Rio  de  las  Amazonas”  was 
published  in  Madrid  in  1641. 

Adamawa,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of,  in  Central 
Africa,  erected  28  April,  1914,  from  territory  taken 
partly  from  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Khartum, 
partly  from  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Ubanghi- 
Chari,  and  partly  from  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
Kamerun.  Its  boundaries  are  as  follows:  on  the 
north  10°  N.  lat.;  on  the  east,  the  boundaries  be- 


ADANA 


8 


ADMINISTRATORS 


tween  the  former  German  and  the  French  colonies 
from  the  10°  to  the  7°  N.  lat. ;  on  the  south,  the 
7°  N.  lat.  and  the  line  which  separates  the  civil  dis¬ 
tricts  of  Nganduere,  Banjo,  Bamum,  Bamenda,  and 
Ossidinge  forming  part  of  tl  e  new  prefecture,  from 
the  districts  of  Ober-Sanga-Ubam,  Dume,  Jaunde, 
Jabassi,  Dshang,  Johang,  Johann,  Albrecht  shore 
and  Rio  del  Rey  remaining  in  the  vicariate  of 
Kamerun;  on  the  west  by  the  former  Anglo-German 
boundaries.  This  vast  tract  of  land,  nearly  60,000 
square  miles,  was  the  northern  part  of  the  colony 
of  Kamerun.  It  is  traversed  by  a  mountain  chain 
whose  peaks  reach  an  altitude  of  6,000  feet,  situated 
to  the  south  of  Lake  Chad,  on  the  two  shores  of 
the  Benue  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Niger.  By  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles  Adamawa  became  a  French 
colony.  The  prefecture  is  entrusted  to  the  Priests 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  St.  Quentin.  The  first  pre¬ 
fect  Apostolic  was  Rev.  Frangois  Lennartz,  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  July,  1920,  by  Mgr.  J.  Plissonneau,  the 
present  incumbent,  who  on  account  of  the  devastat¬ 
ing  effects  of  the  war  and  the  retirement  of  the 
German  missionaries,  had  to  begin  a  practically  new 
work.  Contrary  to  his  expectations  he  was  received 
with  great  kindness  by  the  Sultan,  who  granted  him 
a  plot  of  land  and  sent  workmen  to  help  him  to 
replace  the  demolished  mission  buildings. 

Adana,  Diocese  of  (Adanensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-135d), 
in  Asia  Minor  (Asiatic  Turkey),  belongs  to  the 
Armenian  Rite.  The  present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev. 
Pascal  Keklikian,  b.  at  Kutahia,  1857,  ordained 
1884,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Adana  27  August, 
1911,  to  succeed  Bishop  Terzian,  who  had  been 
promoted  to  the  Patriarchate  of  Cilicia.  In  1920 
there  were  in  this  diocese  3,100  Catholic  Armenians, 
3,000  Catholics  of  other  rites,  about  100,000  heretics 
and  infidels,  8  secular  priests,  7  churches  or  chapels 
and  10  Catholic  schools. 

Adelaide,  Archdiocese  of  (Adeleidensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  I-140a),  in  South  Australia,  was  created  an 
episcopal  see  in  1843.  After  years  of  struggle  and 
privation  the  diocese  started  on  an  era  of  prosperity 
with  the  introduction  of  religious  orders.  Although 
the  Passionists  were  never  introduced  as  a  com¬ 
munity,  two  came  in  1846  and  worked  as  secular 
priests;  in  1868  the  Dominican  nuns  from  Calva, 
Dublin,  were  established;  in  1879  the  Christian 
Brothers;  in  1881  the  Carmelite  Fathers  and  Sisters 
of  Mercy;  in  1882  the  Dominicans  of  the  Third 
Order;  in  1898  the  Dominican  Fathers;  in  1902  the 
Good  Samaritan  Sisters;  in  1905  the  Loretto  Nuns; 
in  1912  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor;  and  in  1913 
the  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 

The  present  archbishop  is  Most  Rev.  Robert 
William  Spence,  O.  P.,  D.  D.,  who  became  coadjutor 
16  August,  1914,  when  he  was  consecrated  titular 
Archbishop  of  Pessinus.  On  the  death  of  Arch¬ 
bishop  O’Reilly,  6  July,  1915,  Archbishop  Spence 
succeeded  to  the  see. 

By  the  present  (1921)  statistics  the  English-speak¬ 
ing  Catholic  population  is  approximately  55,000. 
There  are:  33  parishes,  94  churches,  6  convents  for 
men  and  36  for  women,  42  secular  and  27  regular 
clergy,  7  lay  brothers,  404  Sisters;  16  high  schools 
with  an  attendance  of  1,074  boys,  2  college- 
academies  with  16  teachers  and  attendance  of  418 
boys,  1  industrial  school  with  9  teachers  and  13  in¬ 
mates.  Among  the  charitable  institutions  are: 

1  home  for  aged  poor  with  93  inmates,  1  House 
of  Providence  with  26  inmates,  1  prisoners’  home 
with  5  inmates,  2  orphanages,  1  hospital  and  1 
female  refuge  with  98  adults  and  39  children.  The 
Adelaide  public  hospital,  home  for  incurables,  con¬ 


valescent  home  and  old  folks  home,  permit  the 
priests  to  minister  in  them.  The  Sick  Priests’ 
Benefit  Fund  and  Eucharistic  League  are  established 
among  the  clergy,  and  the  Catholic  Federation, 
Hibernian  Australian  Catholic  Benefit  Society, 
Sacred  Heart,  Holy  Family,  Rosary  and  Holy  Child¬ 
hood  Confraternities,  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
Society  and  the  Catholic  Women’s  League  are  es¬ 
tablished  among  the  laity.  A  Catholic  periodical, 
‘'The  Southern  Cross,”  is  published  in  Adelaide. 
During  the  World  War  two  of  the  priests  of  the 
diocese  served  as  chaplains. 

Aden.  See  Arabia. 

Administrator  Apostolic  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-143b),  a 

cleric,  generally  one  who  has  received  espiscopal 
consecration,  to  whom  the  Holy  See  for  grave  and 
special  reasons  entrusts  the  government  of  a  diocese 
with  or  without  its  own  bishop,  temporarily  or 
permanently.  His  rights,  duties,  and  privileges  are 
set  out  in  his  letters  of  appointment  or  in  the  Code 
of  canon  law.  If  his  position  is  permanent  he  en¬ 
joys  the  same  rights  and  honors  and  has  the  same 
duties  as  a  residential  bishop;  if  it  is  only  tem¬ 
porary:  (a)  he  has  the  rights  and  duties  of  a  vicar 
capitular,  and  if  the  see  is  not  vacant  he  can  make 
a  canonical  visitation  of  the  diocese,  but  he  is  not 
bound  to  say  Mass  for  the  faithful;  that  obligation 
remains  incumbent  on  the  bishop;  (b)  if  he  has 
been  consecrated,  he  enjoys  the  honorary  privileges 
of  a  titular  bishop;  if  he  has  not  been  consecrated, 
he  has  a  right  to  the  honors  and  privileges  of 
prothonotaries  Apostolic  de  numero  'participantium, 
but  only  during  his  term  of  office  and  while  within 
their  territory. 

If  the  administrator  is  a  bishop  who,  on  being 
transferred  to  a  new  diocese,  retained  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  his  old  see,  he  has,  when  he  is  in  the 
latter  diocese,  a  right  to  all  the  honorary  privileges 
of  a  residential  bishop.  If  he  is  appointed  adminis¬ 
trator  when  the  see  is  not  vacant  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  bishop  and  his  vicar  general  is  suspended; 
but  the  administrator  must  not  meddle  in  affairs 
relating  to  the  bishop  himself,  nor  proceed  against 
the  vicar-general,  nor  concern  himself  with  the  acts 
of  the  previous  administration.  If  his  jurisdiction 
is  impeded  or  if  he  dies,  the  Holy  See  is  to  be 
notified  at  once;  meanwhile  the  regulations  for  the 
government  of  vacant  sees  are  to  be  followed,  if 
the  diocese  is  vacant  or  the  bishop  incompetent, 
otherwise  the  bishop  is  to  take  charge  of  affairs, 
unless  the  Holy  See  has  provided  differently. 
Finally  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  administrator’s 
jurisdiction  does  not  cease  with  the  death  of  the 
pope  or  the  bishop;  but  continues  till  the  new 
bishop  takes  canonical  possession  of  his  see.  In 
the  United  States  in  accordance  with  the  decrees 
of  the  third  plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  bishops 
designated  administrators  to  take  charge  of  the 
dioceses  in  case  of  their  death,  but  this  practice 
was  abrogated  by  the  Code  of  Canon  Law.  A  vicar 
or  prefect  Apostolic  on  assuming  office  must  name 
a  pro-vicar  or  pro-prefect  who  is  to  take  full  con¬ 
trol  if  his  rule  is  impeded  or  terminated,  and  if 
the  party  chosen  succeeds  he,  too,  must  delegate 
someone  to  take  his  place  in  a  similar  emergency; 
if  this  was  omitted  and  the  necessity  for  an  ad¬ 
ministrator  arises,  the  position  devolves  on  the 
senior  missionary  in  the  territory. 

Administrators  of  Ecclesiastical  Property  (cf. 

C.  E.,  I-144b). — To  secure  the  proper  administra¬ 
tion  of  church  property,  the  ordinary  is  to  appoint 
in  his  episcopal  city  a  diocesan  council,  consisting 
of  himself  as  president  and  two  or  more  persons, 


ADMONITIONS 


9 


ADOLESCENCE 


preferably  persons  having  a  knowledge  of  civil  law ; 
they  are  to  be  chosen  by  the  ordinary  after  con¬ 
sulting  the  chapter,  unless  provision  for  this  selec¬ 
tion  has  been  made  otherwise.  No  one,  however, 
may  be  an  administrator  if  he  is  related  to  the 
ordinary  in  the  first  or  second  degree  of  con¬ 
sanguinity  or  affinity,  except  with  special  permis¬ 
sion  of  the  Holy  See.  In  administrative  acts  of 
greater  moment  the  ordinary  is  to  consult  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  council,  though  he  need  not  follow 
their  advice,  except  in  special  cases  expressly  pro¬ 
vided  for  in  the  canons  or  where  the  terms  of  a 
foundation  require  their  consent.  The  members  of 
the  council  must  bind  themselves  by  oath  in  pres¬ 
ence  of  the  ordinary  to  be  faithful  and  diligent  in 
this  discharge  of  their  duties. 

In  addition  to  this  diocesan  council,  the  ordinary 
is  to  name  a  council  to  administer  the  property 
belonging  to  churches  or  holy  places,  if  administra¬ 
tors  have  not  been  provided  by  the  law  or  the 
terms  of  the  foundation.  They  hold  office  nominally 
for  three  years  only,  and  must  swear  before  the 
ordinary  or  the  vicar  forane  to  fulfil  their  duties 
faithfully.  After  expressly  or  tacitly  accepting 
office,  administrators  are  held  to  restitution,  if  by 
abandoning  it  arbitrarily  they  injure  the  church. 
They  must  exercise  the  degree  of  care  that  a 
prudent  man  would  take  in  regard  to  his  own 
property;  hence  they  are  to  see  that  the  church 
property  is  neither  destroyed  nor  injured;  that  the 
requirements  of  the  canon  and  civil  law  are  ob¬ 
served;  and  that  the  conditions  imposed  by  the 
founder,  the  donor,  or  the  lawful  authorities  are 
fulfilled;  that  the  income  is  duly  collected,  de¬ 
posited,  and  properly  expended,  that  the  surplus 
of  the  church  money  is  invested  or  deposited,  for 
the  benefit  of  the  church  with  the  ordinary’s  con¬ 
sent  ;  that  the  books  showing  the  receipts  and 
expenditure  are  kept  accurately;  that  all  documents 
and  papers  dealing  with  the  church  property  are 
in  good  order  and  deposited  in  the  archives  of  the 
church  or  other  suitable  place,  and  that  an  au¬ 
thentic  copy  of  these  titles  is  placed  in  the  curial 
archives,  if  this  can  be  conveniently  done. 

Administrators,  clerical  or  lay,  of  any  church, 
including  the  cathedral,  or  of  a  pious  place  canoni¬ 
cally  erected,  or  of  a  confraternity  must  make  an 
annual  accounting  to  the  local  ordinary,  any  cus¬ 
tom  to  the  contrary  being  reprobated.  If  by  any 
particular  law  the  accounting  is  to  be  made  to 
others,  the  ordinary  or  his  delegate  must  be  ad¬ 
mitted  to  it.  Administrators  must  not  take  part 
in  any  litigation  in  the  name  of  the  church  with¬ 
out  the  written  permission  of  the  ordinary  or,  in 
urgent  cases,  at  least,  of  the  vicar  forane,  who 
under  such  circumstances  must  inform  the  ordinary 
at  once.  Unless  they  have  first  obtained  the  writ¬ 
ten  permission  of  the  local  ordinary,  administrators 
act  invalidly  in  going  beyond  the  limits  of  ordinary 
administration;  and  the  church  is  not  responsible 
for  contracts  entered  into  by  them  without  the 
proper  superior’s  permission,  except  when  and  in 
as  far  as  it  adopts  them. 

Administrators  of  ecclesiastical  property  are  under 
an  obligation  to  see  that  the  employees  receive 
adequate  compensation;  they  must  see,  especially, 
that  they  have  suitable  time  for  their  religious  and 
family  duties,  and  that  they  are  not  overworked  or 
employed  in  work  for  which  their  age  or  sex  unfits 
them 

Admonitions,  Canonical  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-144d). — Un¬ 
der  normal  circumstances  no  member  of  a  religious 
institute  of  men,  who  has  been  perpetually  pro¬ 
fessed,  may  be  dismissed  unless  he  has  been  three 


times  guilty  of  a  serious  offense,  and  has  been 
twice  admonished  by  his  immediate  higher  superior, 
that  is  after  the  first  and  the  second  offense.  A 
canonical  admonition  is  to  be  administered  also 
before  the  imposition  of  a  censure  ferendce  senten- 
tice  in  order  to  give  the  culprit  an  opportunity  to 
abandon  his  contumacy  and  repent.  Admonitions 
are  also  expressly  required  by  the  Code  in  pro¬ 
ceedings  against  clerics  for  violating  the  law  of 
residence  or  the  regulations  governing  association 
with  women.  A  canonical  admonition  is  given  either 
orally  in  presence  of  the  chancellor  or  other  curial 
official  or  of  two  witnesses,  or  by  registered  letter, 
a  record  of  the  admonition  being  preserved  in  the 
archives.  It  may  also  be  public  or  secret;  if  public, 
it  should  be  given  before  a  notary  or  two  witnesses, 
or  by  letter,  but  in  this  case  there  should  be  docu¬ 
mentary  evidence  of  the  receipt  and  of  the  contents 
of  the  letter. 

Adolescence — Pre-adult  life  is  commonly  divided 
into  four  distinct  periods:  infancy,  childhood,  boy¬ 
hood  or  girlhood,  and  youth  or  adolescence.  In¬ 
fancy  reaches  to  nearly  the  beginning  of  the  third 
year,  childhood  to  the  beginning  of  the  ninth, 
and  the  next  ten  or  eleven  years  are  divided  almost 
equally  between  boyhood  and  youth.  However, 
no  hard  and  fast  line  can  be  drawn  between  any 
period  and  its  successor.  The  transition  is  gradual 
and  it  is  only  by  degrees  that  the  characteristics 
peculiar  to  each  period  manifest  themselves.  Again 
it  must  be  noted  that  there  are  in  this  respect, 
as  in  others,  striking  differences  between  the  sexes, 
the  races  and  individual  cases.  Boys  and  girls 
mature  more  rapidly  in  the  South  than  they  do  in 
the  North,  the  girl  everywhere  more  rapidly  than 
the  boy,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  common,  everyday 
observation  that  a  boy  or  a  girl  may  be  more 
advanced  physically  and  mentally  than  other  boys 
and  girls  who  are  their  seniors  by  one,  two  or 
even  three  years;  this  fact  is  being  taken  into  con¬ 
sideration  more  and  more  in  the  grading  of  pupils 
by  the  American  elementary  schools. 

Each  period  is  distinguished  by  certain  character¬ 
istics,  which  are  determined  by  nature  and  must 
not  be  overlooked  by  parent  or  teacher  under 
penalty  of  at  least  partial  failure  in  their  work  as 
educators.  Mentally,  even  more  strikingly  than 
physically,  the  child  differs  from  the  youth  and 
must  be  dealt  with  accordingly.  It  is  chiefly 
because  of  its  strong,  eloquent  insistence  on  this 
fact  that  Rousseau’s  “Emile”  has  retained  its  place 
among  educational  classics.  Unfortunately,  the 
author’s  views  concerning  man’s  nature  and  destiny 
betray  not  only  an  extremely  poor  psychological 
insight,  but  what  is  far  worse,  an  utter  lack  of 
sound  religious  and  moral  principles.  Man  is  not, 
as  Rousseau  would  have  us  believe,  at  the  outset 
and  for  many  years  nothing  else  than  a  creature 
of  feeling,  a  mere  animal,  but  from  the  very  be¬ 
ginning,  a  being  made  to  the  image  and  likeness 
of  God.  Just  as  the  form  of  the  tree  and  all  its 
properties  are  contained  in  the  seed,  so  the  fac¬ 
ulties,  tendencies,  abilities,  which  are  to  unfold 
during  life,  are  potentially  present  in  the  new-born 
child;  they  all  grow  and  develop  simultaneously, 
though  not  with  the  same  rapidity.  Thus,  e.  g.,  the 
child’s  first  efforts  to  speak  show  glimmerings  of 
his  reasoning  powers  and  tendency  to  imitate; 
his  thirst  for  knowledge  and  truth  is  constantly 
evidenced  by  his  questions,  at  time  so  embarrassing 
for  parents  and  teachers;  his  social  and  moral 
nature,  the  craving  for  the  companionship  of  others, 
sympathy,  love  of  justice,  fair  play,  tendency 
to  obey,  are  plainly  manifested  in  play  with  other 


ADOLESCENCE 


10 


ADOLESCENCE 


children.  Infancy,  childhood,  boyhood  and  youth, 
should  not  then  be  thought  of  independently  of 
one  another;  each  period  is  the  outcome  of  what 
preceded  it  and  the  preparation  for  what  will 
follow  it.  The  child  in  swaddling-clothes  is  the 
product  of  pre-natal  life  and  a  long  line  of  ances¬ 
tors;  if  it  is  true  to  state  that  youth  begins  around 
the  fifteenth  year  it  can  be  no  less  true  to  say  that 
it  is  rooted  in  infancy  and  is  prepared  by  child¬ 
hood  and  boyhood. 

The  chief  business  of  infancy  and  early  childhood 
is  pure  growth;  what  the  child  needs  most  at 
this  stage  is  freedom  of  movement,  plenty  of  fresh 
air,  sunlight,  pure  digestible  food,  and  careful  safe¬ 
guarding  against  any  untoward  influence  which 
might  disturb  the  natural  growth  and  development 
of  this  young  and  as  yet  very  tender  organism. 
During  these  early  years  of  its  life,  the  child  is 
quieter  than  at  any  of  the  subsequent  periods; 
the  power  of  locomotion  is  not  acquired  perfectly 
until  long  after  the  faculties  of  sense  perception 
have  reached  maturity;  imagination  soon  becomes 
very  active,  but  draws  little  or  no  distinction 
between  fact  and  fancy.  The  next  six  years,  cor¬ 
responding  to  the  primary  and  early  grammar 
grades,  might  appropriately  be  called  a  motor 
period.  In  the  preceding  period  the  ever  recurring 
question  was:  “What  is  this?”  now  it  is:  “What 
is  this  for?”  The  child  is  very  anxious  to  do  some¬ 
thing,  to  use  his  hands  at  all  kinds  of  little  tasks, 
but  is  still  very  clumsy,  because  the  motor  centers 
are  as  j>et  far  from  being  completely  developed. 
This  superabundance  of  activity,  coupled  with  the 
fact  that  much  of  the  latent  energy  is  still  needed 
for  growth,  explains  why  the  child  is  so  easily 
tired  before  reaching  his  teens.  His  senses  are 
alert  and  keen,  his  imaginations  and  memory  are 
craving  for  exercise,  but  logical  thought  is  still 
very  weak.  It  is  also  during  this  period  that  some 
of  the  fundamental  instinctive  tendencies  ripen  into 
maturity ;  chief  among  these  tendencies  is  imitation, 
which  for  good  or  evil  plays  such  a  large  part  in 
the  upbuilding  of  character. 

Youth  or  adolescence  is  ushered  in  by  puberty, 
the  importance  of  which  has  been  recognized  in  all 
ages,  and  among  savages  and  semi-civilized  peoples 
has  been  celebrated  by  strange,  curious  customs. 
It  is  a  period  of  deep  physical  and  mental  changes 
leading  to  the  metamorphosis  of  the  child  of  the 
lower  grades  into  the  boy  or  girl  of  the  upper 
grades  and  high  school.  The  process  does  not 
begin  exactly  at  the  same  time  in  all  individuals. 
It  varies  according  to  the  racial  stock,  clime,  sex, 
temperament,  environment  and  occupation.  It 
begins  earlier  among  the  peoples  of  the  Semitic 
race  than  among  those  of  the  Indo-European  group, 
earlier  in  the  tropics  than  in  the  temperate  or 
frigid  zone,  earlier  in  the  girl  than  in  the  boy. 
A  warm,  sanguine  temperament  is  likely  to  accel¬ 
erate  it  and  a  phlegmatic  one  to  retard  it.  It  is 
more  tardy  among  those  who  have  been  accus¬ 
tomed  from  childhood  to  plain  living  and  hard 
work,  than  among  those  who  have  been  brought 
up  in  luxury  and  idleness.  On  the  North  American 
continent  the  process  takes  place  in  the  majority 
of  cases  between  the  eleventh  and  fifteenth  year. 
Adolescence  in  this  country  may  thus  be  said  to 
begin  around  the  sixteenth  year,  perhaps  a  little 
earlier  in  the  southern  states  and  a  little  later  on 
the  northern  border,  but  whatever  may  be  the 
variations  in  time,  the  characteristics  of  the  period 
are  the  same  everywhere.  It  is  a  time  of  great 
physical  and  mental  expansion.  The  girl  by  the 
eighteenth  year  has  practically  attained  her  full 
height  and  weight,  but  the  boy  still  has  somewhat 


to  gain  in  both  respects.  The  brain  has  reached 
very  nearly  its  full  size  and  weight.  The  logical 
powers  are  fast  increasing;  they  crave  exercise 
and  the  boy  often  argues  quite  as  much  from  the 
love  of  debate  as  from  the  desire  to  attain  truth. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  the  memory  is  either  as 
quick  or  as  retentive  as  in  earlier  years.  Boy  and 
girl  are  led  more  by  their  impulses  and  feelings 
than  by  the  dictates  of  cold  judgment.  Authority 
no  longer  has  the  same  hold  on  them  as  in  earlier 
years,  but  they  are  very  loyal  and  generous  to 
their  friends.  Their  conception  of  the  realities  of 
life,  of  the  meaning  and  value  of  time,  are  rather 
hazy;  they  see  the  future  in  roseate  colors  and 
idealize  human  nature.  This  is  the  period  of  the 
hero,  of  romance  and  fiction,  but  it  is  also  the 
period  of  genuine  religious  growth,  of  religious  voca¬ 
tions. 

The  Pedagogy  of  Adolescence. — The  treatment 
of  the  pedagogy  of  adolescence  wuthin  the  limits 
of  this  article  is  of  necessity  restricted  to  a  brief 
consideration  of  a  few  principles  which  are  nothing 
else  than  logical  deductions  from  the  facts,  so  far 
brought  out,  interpreted  in  the  light  of  the  goal 
to  be  reached,  viz.,  strong,  healthy,  Christian  man¬ 
hood  and  womanhood.  Youth  is  a  period  of 
rapid  growth  in  every  direction;  plenty  of  food, 
sleep,  sunshine,  fresh  air,  freedom  of  muscular 
movement  are  no  less  needed  in  these  years  than 
heretofore.  The  hard  bed  with  light  covering  in 
the  cool  or  cold  room  should  be  the  rule  for  the 
healthy  boy.  Personal  cleanliness  should  by  this 
time  have  become  a  fixed  habit.  Vigorous  exer¬ 
tion  in  the  form  of  play,  gymnastics  and  work, 
not  only  on  physical  grounds  but  on  intellectual 
and  moral  grounds  as  well,  is  also  greatly  needed. 
It  will  not  only  prepare  the  youth  to  meet  effi¬ 
ciently  the  test  of  real  life,  but  will  fortify  him 
against  the  diseases  which  cause  the  rise  of  the 
death  rate  at  nineteen  and  later.  Gymnastics  can 
do  much  to  develop  the  finer  muscles,  the  higher 
motor  centers  and  to  correct  the  defects  that  have 
outlasted  or  come  in  with  puberty.  Play  is  just 
as  useful  now  as  it  was  in  childhood,  but  it  takes 
on  the  form  of  contest  and  competition,  team¬ 
work,  which  not  only  affords  useful  physical  exer¬ 
cise  but  develops  habits  of  self-control,  obedience 
to  rule,  swiftness  of  decision  as  well  as  consideration 
for  others. 

Most  essential,  however,  is  the  discipline  of  gen¬ 
uine  hard  work,  requiring  close  attention,  diligence, 
application,  the  putting  forth  of  all  one’s  energy, 
the  conscious  strenuous  effort  of  the  will,  bent  on 
completing  the  task  once  undertaken,  no  matter 
how  difficult  it  may  seem  at  the  time,  nor  how 
disinclined  one  may  feel  to  perform  it.  The  time 
was  when  there  seemed  to  be  general  agreement 
as  to  the  soundness  of  this  principle,  but  in  the  last 
hundred  years  it  has  been  challenged  by  a  “new 
school”  of  educators,  the  so-called  school  of  inter¬ 
est.  According  to  their  tenets,  the  chief  function 
of  the  teacher  is  to  arouse  the  interest  of  the 
pupil  in  the  subject  to  be  taught,  or  the  task 
to  be  performed;  he  should  study  the  native  ten¬ 
dencies  and  the  acquired  interests  of  the  child 
and  take  these  tendencies  and  interests  as  his 
starting  point  in  every  school  activity,  because  this 
is  the  surest  way  of  securing  attention  which  alone 
guarantees  apprehension;  compulsion  is  to  be 
avoided  as  much  as  possible,  not  only  because 
it  weakens  the  child’s  activity  but  because  his 
right  to  happiness  is  sacred  and  his  personality 
should  be  respected.  It  cannot  be  gainsaid  that 
the  discussion  of  the  value  of  interest  in  school 
life  has  done  much  to  soften  the  harshness,  at 


ADOLESCENCE 


11 


ADRAA 


times  extreme,  of  the  old  school;  that  it  has 
contributed  to  broadening  and  enriching  a 
curriculum  which  had  become  extremely  narrow; 
that  it  has  helped  the  teacher  in  gaining  a  better 
understanding  of  the  problem  of  attention;  that 
it  has  brought  about  a  better  adaptation  of  the 
teaching  process  to  the  capacities  of  the  growing 
mind.  However,  when  all  has  been  said  in  the 
favor  of  interest,  the  fact  remains  that  there  is 
in  the  school  and  still  more  in  life  much  of  an 
uninteresting  nature  that  must  be  done  and  on 
the  other  hand  there  are  many  things  in  themselves 
alluring  that  must  be  avoided.  Life  for  most  of 
us  is  no  path  strewn  with  roses;  it  is  full  of  diffi¬ 
culties,  setbacks,  disappointments,  hard  knocks,  and 
on  the  whole  more  bitter  pills  to  swallow  than 
sugar  plums  to  taste.  If  the  school  is  to  be  a 
preparation  for  life,  the  motto  of  its  work  should 
not  be  interest  but  effort,  for  the  chances  are 
that  the  child  wrho  has  been  fed  on  the  diet  of  in¬ 
terest  will  be  found  sadly  wanting  when  con¬ 
fronted  with  the  realities  of  the  workaday  world. 

Much  has  been  said,  and  rightly  so,  on  the 
necessity  for  the  teacher  of  appealing  to  and  train¬ 
ing  the  senses  of  his  pupils,  of  proceeding  from  the 
concrete  to  the  abstract,  from  the  particular  to 
the  general,  from  the  empirical  to  the  rational. 
This  signifies  that  in  learning  his  mother-tongue 
the  child  will  approach  grammar  through  the  liter¬ 
ary  product;  in  the  study  of  a  foreign  language, 
that  he  will  start  with  a  maximum  of  conversation 
and  a  minimum  of  formal  grammar ;  in  mathematics 
that  he  will  proceed  from  the  concrete  example 
to  the  general  definition  or  proposition;  in  geogra¬ 
phy,  that  he  will  study  first  the  particular  features 
of  the  locality  in  which  he  lives  as  a  starting  point 
for  wider  and  broader  generalizations;  in  history 
that  he  will  first  be  acquainted  with  the  great 
national  personalities  and  events;  in  science,  that 
experiment  and  laboratory  will  illustrate  and  sup¬ 
plement  the  lecture;  in  the  teaching  of  every  sub¬ 
ject,  that  the  pedagogue  will  try  to  appeal  to  the 
senses  and  imagination  of  his  class  by  means  of 
objects,  maps,  globes,  pictures,  diagrams  and  vivid 
language.  The  principle  has  found  its  widest  and 
most  successful  application  in  the  elementary  school 
but  it  has  also  been  adopted  with  good  results 
by  the  high  schools  and  the  college.  What  is 
not  always  realized  however,  or  at  least  not  suf¬ 
ficiently  stressed,  is  that  the  principle  is  but  a 
means  to  a  higher  end.  Knowledge  of  the  con¬ 
crete  is  but  a  beginning,  a  stepping-stone  to  con¬ 
cept  building,  judgment  and  reasoning,  which  are 
the  real  prerogatives  of  man  and  should  therefore 
receive  the  greatest  attention  from  the  teacher 
at  every  stage  of  the  educative  process,  but  espe¬ 
cially  during  the  period  of  which  we  treat. 
Adolescence,  as  we  have  seen,  is  a  period  of  ex¬ 
pansion  of  the  entire  being,  nowhere  more  striking 
perhaps  than  in  the  intellect.  The  youth  is  eager 
for  vigorous  mental  exertion,  eager  to  tackle  with 
genuine  difficulties,  and  he  finds  great  delight  in 
the  solution  of  any  question  calling  for  keen  intel¬ 
lectual  insight  and  close  reasoning.  The  natural 
manner  of  dealing  with  the  young  intellect  is  not 
then  to  burden  it  with  a  mass  of  concrete  facts, 
but  to  develop  by  appropriate  exercise  its  powers 
of  abstraction,  generalization,  judging  and  reason¬ 
ing.  And  after  all  that  is  the  best  preparation 
for  intellectual  leadership.  The  master  mind  in 
any  field  of  human  endeavor  is  not  the  walking 
encyclopedia,  but  he  who  can  analyze  any  given 
situation,  abstract  its  essential  elements  and  from 
these  reach  a  sound  generalization,  be  it  law  or 
principle  or -decision. 


Intellectual  education,  however  useful  or  desirable 
it  may  be,  is  secondary  to  religious  and  moral 
education,  which  looks  to  the  formation  of  good 
habits.  Such  at  least  is  the  position  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  She  has  ever  consistently  taught  that 
man’s  worth  is  not  to  be  found  in  what  he  knows 
or  thinks,  but  in  what  he  does;  that  a  virtuous 
life  in  not  only  the  logical  preparation  for  eternal 
salvation,  but  the  best  guarantee  of  happiness  in 
this  life;  that  a  sound  moral  education  is  impos¬ 
sible  without  religion. 

The  means  to  be  employed  for  moral  training 
are  many,  but  they  can  all  be  brought  under  one 
or  the  other  of  the  following  headings:  example, 
supervision,  ethical  and  religious  instruction,  and 
certain  means  provided  by  the  Church,  such  as 
the  Sacraments.  The  first  two  only  will  be  briefly 
considered  here,  the  others  having  been  treated 
at  length  in  the  first  edition  of  this  work.  The 
educative  value  of  example  can  hardly  be  over¬ 
estimated;  it  has  been  recognized  in  all  ages; 
it  has  been  insisted  upon  by  all  leading  educators; 
it  has  found  its  way  into  the  language  of  every 
civilized  nation  in  some  such  adage  as:  “Verba 
movent,  exempla  trahunt,”  “A  man  is  known  by 
the  company  he  keeps.”  Example  is  the  great 
teacher  of  all  of  us  throughout  life,  but  its  influence 
is  perhaps  nowhere  felt  more  lastingly  than  in  the 
home.  The  mother,  burdened  by  cares,  regrets 
that  she  cannot  give  more  time  to  instructing  her 
children.  She  forgets  that  in  the  example  of  her 
virtues  they  are  taught  a  lesson  a  hundred  times 
more  valuable  than  any  instruction  she  may  give 
them  in  the  school  branches.  This  influence  of 
example  has  its  explanation  in  the  deep-rooted 
human  tendency  to  imitate  whatever  captivates 
the  attention,  be  it  good  or  bad  or  indifferent. 
Hence  follows  the  sacred  duty  of  parent  and  teacher 
to  set  none  but  good  examples  before  their  charges, 
to  guard  them  against  all  evil  influences,  to  supervise 
their  readings  and  relationships.  Neglect  of  watch¬ 
fulness  in  this  regard  is  indeed  sad  enough,  but 
to  expose  a  youth  to  moral  contagion,  or  as  the 
phrase  goes,  to  allow  him  “to  sow  his  wild  oats,” 
on  the  assumption  that  he  stands  a  better  chance 
of  growing  to  be  a  respectable  citizen,  is  a  folly 
that  passes  all  description. 

Fenelon,  Telemaque;  Education  des  Filles;  Baldwin,. 
Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations  in  Mental  Development 
(New  York,  1906);  Brackett,  The  Education  of  American 
Girls;  Bushnell,  Christian  Nurture  (New  York,  1916);  Coe, 
The  Spiritual  Life  (New  York);  Fiske,  Boy  Life  and  Self- 
Government  (New  York,  1910);  Hall,  Adolescence  (New 
York,  1904);  Maher,  Psychology  (New  York,  1909);  Swift, 
Youth  and  the  Race  (New  York,  1912);  Thorndike,  Educa¬ 
tional  Psychology  (New  York,  1914);  Tracy,  Psychology  of 
Childhood  (New  York,  1909);  Idem,  Psychology  of  Adolescence 
(New  York,  1920);  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education  (New 
York,  1907);  Wagner,  Youth  (New  York,  1913). 

P.  Marique. 

Adoption  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-147c). — The  canon  law  now 
conforms  to  the  civil  law  in  each  country  regarding 
the  effect  of  legal  adoption  on  marriage.  Where, 
therefore,  the  civil  law  looks  upon  the  legal  rela¬ 
tionship  as  rendering  a  marriage  invalid,  adoption 
is  a  diriment  matrimonial  impediment;  where  the 
civil  law  considers  the  marriage  valid  but  illegal, 
the  impediment  is  merely  prohibitory;  in  any  other 
country  adoption  has  no  effect  on  marriage. 

Adraa,  a  titular  see  of  Arabia,  suffragan  of  Bostra 
in  the  patriarchate  of  Antioch,  identical  with  the 
Biblical  city  of  Edrai,  one  of  the  two  capitals  of 
Og,  King  of  Basan,  near  which  he  was  defeated  by 
the  Israelites  (Num.  xxi,  33-35;  Deut.  i,  4;  iii,  1—10) , 
when  the  country  passed  to  the  half-tribe  of 
Manasses.  Prior  to  this  time  it  was  inhabited  by 


ADRAMYTTIUM 


12 


ADRIAN  IV 


the  Raphaim,  a  race  of  giants  of  whom  Og  was  one 
of  the  last  descendants.  It  is  probable  that  the 
many  curious  dungeons  at  Deraat,  the  modern  name 
of  Edrai,  are  remains  of  the  work  of  this  primitive 
people.  Eusebius  places  this  “important  city”  of 
Arabia  twenty-four  or  twenty-five  miles  from  Bostra 
and  six  miles  from  Astaroth.  Christianity  was  in¬ 
troduced  into  Adraa  at  a  very  early  date  under  the 
form  of  Ebionism  and  spread  rapidly.  Bishops  of 
the  city  appear  from  time  to  time  in  various 
chronicles  down  to  the  Middle  Ages,  notably  Proc- 
lus,  who  condemned  Eutyches  at  the  Synod  of  Con¬ 
stantinople  (448).  To-day  Deraat  is  the  seat  of  a 
sub-prefecture  and  is  the  principal  station  on  the 
road  from  Damascus  to  Caifa,  a  city  of  about  5,000 
inhabitants. 

Adramyttium,  a  titular  see  in  Proconsular  Asia 
on  the  Gulf  of  the  same  name,  according  to  Bat- 
tandier,  a  suffragan  of  Cyzicus;  Baudrillart  assigns 
it  to.  Ephesus.  The  city  was  reputed  to  be  a  Lydian 
foundation  and  to  owe  its  name  to  Adramytus, 
brother  of  Croesus.  Later  it  was  colonized  by  the 
Athenians,  who  in  496  were  victims  of  a  Persian 
massacre.  Recovering  from  this  disaster  the  city 
prospered  under  Roman  rule  until  its  alliance  with 
Mithridates,  when  it  was  saved  from  destruction 
only  by  the  eloquence  of  Xenocles,  who  pleaded 
its  cause  before  the  Senate.  Adramyttium  is  iden¬ 
tical  with  the  Adrumetum  of  the  Bible  (Acts  xxvii, 
2),  and  it  is  probable  St.  Paul  visited  the  city  in 
going  through  Mysia  on  his  way  from  Galatia  to 
Troas  (Acts  xvi,  6,  7).  Eight  bishops  of  the  see  are 
known;  the  last,  George,  assisted  at  a  synod  of 
Ephesus  in  1230.  To-day  it  is  the  principal  town  in 
the  vilayet  of  Brusa  with  1,400  inhabitants.  It  is 
called  Adramyti  by  the  Turks. 

Adrana,  a  titular  see  in  Bythinia,  suffragan  of 
Nicomedia,  according  to  Baudrand  the  ancient  city 
of  the  Emperor  Adrian.  Comanville  identifies  it 
with  Achyrac  on  the  Hellespont.  To-day  it  is  a 
small  village  of  Anatolia,  called  Edrenos.  It  is  not 
certain  if  this  city  is  the  same  as  Adrianotera  spoken 
of  by  Charles  de  St.  Paul  as  having  a  bishop, 
Patricius,  present  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451). 

The  title  was  last  borne  by  Mgr.  Teofilo  Andres 
Melizan,  O.  F.  M.,  who,  at  the  time  of  his  death 
(1905),  was  Archbishop  of  Colombo,  but  had  been 
titular  bishop  of  Adrana  while  vicar  apostolic  of 
Ceylon. 

Adrassus,  also  known  in  ancient  documents  as 
Darasos  and  Adrassos,  a  titular  see  of  Isauria,  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Selucia  in  the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch. 
It  appears  in  the  Notitia  episcopatuum  of  Antioch 
in  the  second  century  as  one  of  the  suffragans  of 
Seleucia,  according  to  the  “Echos  d’Orient”  (1907). 
The  ecclesiastical  province  of  Isauria  is  known  to 
have  been  reunited  to  the  patriarchate  of  Constan¬ 
tinople  in  the  eighth  century,  under  Leo  the  Isau- 
rian,  and  from  that  time  until  the  tenth  century 
mention  of  Adrassus  is  found  in  several  documents. 
The  see  is  known  to  have  had  three  bishops:  Zoti- 
cus,  who  according  to  Le  Quien  in  his  “Oriens 
Christianus”  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Chal¬ 
cedon;  Paul,  who  attended  the  fifth  oecumenical 
council  (Mansi,  “Conciliorum  Collectio,”  IX.,  177); 
and  Stephen,  who  is  also  reported  by  Mansi  to  have 
been  present  at  the  council  in  Trullo. 

The  exact  position  of  the  city  is  not  known,  but 
Ramsay  in  his  “Historical  Geography  of  Asia 
Minor”  says  that  it  was  found  near  the  Taurus 
Pass  on  the  road  from  Lycaonia  to  Celenderis,  very 
probably  some  miles  south  of  Meliss-Tepe-Meloe 
or  Melouos,  on  the  Calycadnus.  In  960  Leo  Phocas, 


brother  of  the  Emperor  Nicephorus,  reported  a 
great  victory  over  the  Saracens  in  the  Pass  of 
Kylindros  or  Adarassos  (Schlumberger,  “Un  em- 
pereur  byzantin  au  XV®  siecle,”  Paris,  1890).  The 
name  seems  to  have  been  preserved  in  the  Adras- 
Dagh,  a  mountain  situated  between  Ermenek  and 
Mout.  Ramsay  (op.  et  loc.  cit.)  identifies  Adrassus 
with  Dsu-l-Kala,  a  fortress  mentioned  by  Arab  his¬ 
torians  of  the  Middle  Ages,  falsely  identified  with 
Sideropolis,  which  has  never  been  found. 

Adria,  Diocese  of  (Adriensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-155a), 
is  suffragan  of  Venice  and  has  its  episcopal  residence 
at  Rovigo.  The  Rt.  Rev.  Anselmo  Rizzi,  the 
present  bishop  (1922),  was  born  at  Ponterra  Cre- 
monese,  1874,  and  appointed  bishop  4  June,  1913, 
to  succeed  Bishop  Boggiani,  who  came  to  this  see 
in  1908  and  was  promoted  to  the  titular  see  of 
Edessa  in  1912.  There  are  91  bishops  recorded  for 
this  see  since  its  foundation.  In  1920  there  were 
203,000  Catholics  in  the  diocese,  75  parishes,  250 
secular  and  12  regular  clergy,  72  seminarians,  300 
churches  or  chapels,  and  9  religious  women. 

Adrian  IV  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-156c). — In  treating  of  the 
Donation  of  Ireland  to  Henry  II,  Arthur  Ua  Clerigh, 
the  writer  of  the  article  on  Adrian  IV  in  the  Catho¬ 
lic  Encyclopedia  declares  that  in  his  judgment 
there  is  no  controverted  matter  in  history  about 
which  the  evidence  preponderates  in  favor  of  one 
view  so  decisively  as  it  does  in  favor  of  the  genuine¬ 
ness  of  the  Donation.  He  bases  his  conclusion 
mainly  on  a  passage  in  the  “Metalogicus”  of  John 
of  Salisbury  in  which  this  writer  declares  that  he 
visited  Adrian  IV  at  Beneventum  and  obtained 
from  him  a  grant  of  Hibernia  to  Henry  II  of  Eng¬ 
land.  Adrian’s  Bull  “Laudabiliter,”  in  which  the 
Pope  expressly  approves  of  Henry’s  invasion  of 
Ireland,  is  also  accepted  as  genuine.  As  the  matter 
is  one  on  which  historians  are  divided  it  is  fitting 
to  consider  the  reasons  which  have  lead  a  scholar 
like  Cardinal  Gasquet  to  reject  Ua  Clerigh’s  con¬ 
clusions.  In  brief,  he  holds  both  the  Bull  and  the 
passage  in  the  “Metalogicus”  to  be  undoubted  for¬ 
geries,  made  later  to  uphold  the  claim  of  Henry  II 
to  Ireland.  John  of  Salisbury  says  that  he  obtained 
the  Bull  of  Henry  in  1155.  This  seems  untrue  be¬ 
cause  Henry  II  who  came  to  the  throne  in  1154  sent 
Bishop  Rotrod  of  Evreux  with  the  Abbot  of  St. 
Albans  and  the  Bishops  of  Lisieux  and  Le  Mans 
on  a  mission  to  Adrian  a  few  months  later.  John 
of  Salisbury  is  not  mentioned  in  connection  with 
this  mission,  and  in  Adrian’s  reply  of  27  February, 
1155,  nothing  is  said  about  Ireland.  Again,  John  of 
Salisbury  does  not  seem  to  have  been  known  to 
Henry  II  till  after  the  publication  of  his  “Poly- 
craticus”  in  1159,  dedicated  to  the  English  Chan¬ 
cellor,  Thomas  a  Becket.  It  is  most  improbable 
then  that  he  had  been  sent  on  a  royal  mission  to 
Rome  in  1155.  In  the  “Polycraticus”  he  speaks  of 
his  visit  to  the  pope  at  Beneventum,  but  his  de¬ 
scription  of  his  familiarity  with  the  pope  renders 
his  statement  most  improbable;  in  any  case,  he 
makes  no  mention  therein  of  the  donation  of 
Ireland.  This  would  be  incomprehensible  if  he 
obtained  the  grant,  as  the  “Polycraticus”  was  evi¬ 
dently  written  to  win  the  Chancellor’s  patronage, 
and  the  mention  of  it  would  have  served  to  get 
him  the  favor  of  king  also.  If  then  no  mention 
of  the  Donation  occurs  in  the  “Polycraticus,”  pub¬ 
lished  four  years  after  the  supposed  event,  how  then 
can  its  inclusion  in  the  “Metalogicus”  a  later  work, 
be  accounted  for? 

Assuming  that  the  Donation  is  spurious,  the  pas¬ 
sage  in  the  “Metalogicus”  would  be  a  deliberate 
forgery  by  Salisbury  to  gain  Henry’s  favor — and 


ADRIAN  IV 


13 


ADVENTISTS 


Salisbury’s  letters  show  he  could  play  a  double 
part — or  an  interpolation  at  a  later  period.  Cardinal 
Gasquet  accepts  the  latter  solution.  The  forty- 
second  or  last  chapter  of  the  “Metalogicus,”  in 
which  mention  is  made  of  the  Donation,  has  abso¬ 
lutely  nothing  to  do  with  the  preceding  forty-one 
chapters  which  deal  with  the  study  of  logic  and 
metaphysics.  It  gives  details  of  a  most  unlikely 
familiarity  between  Adrian  and  Salisbury,  and  dif¬ 
fers  in  style  from  his  other  writings ;  the  description 
of  the  interview  with  Adrian  diverges  considerably 
from  that  given  in  the  “Polycraticus” — which  has 
no  mention  of  the  Donation  or  of  the  fine  emerald 
ring  sent  for  the  investiture;  so  that  the  conclusion 
forces  itself  on  one  that  the  chapter  is  spurious. 
The  work  was  written  not  later  than  1161;  no  men¬ 
tion  was  made  by  Henry  of  the  Donation  till  1175 — 
fourteen  or  fifteen  years  of  inexplicable  silence; 
for  the  Bull  would  have  been  most  useful  in  1167 
to  justify  Norman  interference  in  Ireland,  and  it 
could  hardly  have  escaped  mention  at  the  Council 
of  Cashel  in  1172,  at  which  a  papal  legate  presided. 

The  Bull  “Laudabiliter”  is  not  given  in  Salis¬ 
bury’s  work;  it  first  appears  in  1188  in  the  “Ex- 
pugnatio  Hibernica”  of  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  a 
writer  whose  ambitions  to  become  archbishop  of 
St.  David’s,  through  the  patronage  of  Henry  II, 
have  destroyed  his  value  as  a  trustworthy  historian; 
he  candidly  admits  he  wrote  his  “Expugnatio  Hiber¬ 
nica”  to  glorify  Henry,  and  the  work  is  looked  upon 
more  as  an  epic  poem  than  as  sober  history.  The 
testimony  of  Matthew  of  Paris,  Roger  Wendover 
and  Raoul  de  Diceto  in  favor  of  the  Bull  being 
based  on  Giraldus  Cambrensis  does  not  strengthen 
the  case,  and  incidentally  it  may  be  said  that  the 
Vatican  document  on  which  Baronius  later  based 
his  agreement  favoring  the  Bull  is  only  a  MS.  of 
Matthew  of  Paris. 

There  are  three  letters  of  Alexander  III  written 
from  Tusculum  in  which  reference  is  made  to 
Ireland.  The  letters  are  all  dated  20  September; 
no  year  is  mentioned,  probably  it  was  in  1172. 
They  ignore  the  existence  of  the  Bull:  they  recog¬ 
nize  no  claim  of  Henry  to  Ireland  except  the  right 
of  might  and  the  submission  of  the  Irish  chief ; 
they  speak,  it  is  true,  of  the  pope’s  right  over  all 
islands,  but  there  is  no  known  authentic  document 
containing  this  claim;  they  refer  to  certain  papal 
rights  but  make  no  mention  of  Peterspence  which 
Adrian’s  Bull  charges  Henry  to  establish  in  Ireland. 
The  Bull  was  evidently  unknown  then  in  Rome. 
Again  though  in  1316  the  pope  insists  on  the 
English  king  doing  homage  to  him  as  he  held  Eng¬ 
land  as  a  fief  from  the  Sovereign  pontiff,  he  said 
nothing  about  doing  homage  for  holding  Ireland. 

Alexander’s  Ill’s  reputed  Bull  confirmatory  of 
Adrian’s  grant  is  no  more  reliable.  It  was  issued 
from  Rome  in  1172;  but  Alexander  was  not  in 
Rome  in  that  year;  he  was  in  Tusculum  and  did 
not  return  to  Rome  till  1178.  Again  it  is  most 
improbable  that  Alexander  would  have  shown  this 
favor  to  Henry,  who  had  supported  two  anti-popes 
against  him  and  who  had  but  two  years  earlier 
abetted  the  murder  of  St.  Thomas  a  Becket.  It  is 
known,  moreover,  that  Henry  did  not  hesitate  to 
manufacture  or  adapt  papal  documents  to  serve  his 
purposes.  There  is  little  independent  testimony 
upholding  the  authenticity  of  the  documents; 
Cambrensis  says  that  the  Bulls  were  produced  at 
a  synod  of  the  Irish  clergy  at  Waterford  in  1175, 
but  the  Irish  annals  make  no  reference  to  such  a 
synod. 

So  far  from  the  pope  having  abetted  Henry  in 
his  attempt  on  Ireland  it  is  almost  certain  that 
when  the  proposal  was  made  to  him  he  rejected 


it.  About  1158  Henry  II  and  his  avowed  enemy, 
Louis  VII  of  France,  suddenly  became  friends. 
Thereupon  they  despatched  Rotrod,  Bishop  of 
Evreux,  on  a  new  mission  to  Rome  to  ask  the 
blessing  of  the  pope  on  a  hostile  expedition  they 
were  about  to  undertake.  They  presented  that  the 
invasion  of  a  certain  land,  referred  to  merely  as 
H— ,  was  a  crusade  of  religion.  Internal  evidence 
would  indicate  that  H —  did  not  mean  Hispania 
but  Hibernia.  Adrian  refused  to  approve  of  the 
plan  and  in  a  letter  to  Louis  set  out  at  length 
the  reason  that  led  him  to  this  decision.  Granting 
that  H —  refers  to  Ireland,  as  is  almost  certain, 
it  is  difficult  after  reading  this  letter  to  believe 
that  Adrian  donated  Ireland  at  John  of  Salisbury’s 
request.  And  here  a  remarkable  fact  may  be  noted. 
The  resemblance  between  the  opening  ten  or  fifteen 
lines  of  this  authentic  letter  of  Adrian  refusing  to 
bless  Louis  and  Henry’s  proposed  expedition  and 
the  opening  of  the  Adrian’s  alleged  Bull  “Lauda- 
bilitir,”  is  too  close  to  be  the  result  of  an  accident. 
Taking  this  with  the  incidents  mentioned  above 
it  seems  almost  certain  that  Adrian’s  letter  of 
refusal  was  used  as  a  basis  for  the  Bull  which  was 
forged  later  to  uphold  Henry’s  conduct.  Naturally, 
Henry  could  not  rely  on  the  forgery  during  the 
lifetime  of  Louis  without  it  coming  to  the  knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  French  king.  Louis,  however,  did  not 
die  until  1180,  and  it  is  only  after  that  event  that 
we  find  the  wording  of  the  Bull  for  the  first  time. 
The  annalist  of  Archin  seems  to  have  known  of 
Pope  Adrian’s  refusal,  for  writing  of  the  year  1171, 
he  says:  Henry,  King  of  England,  puffed  up  with 
pride,  and  usurping  things  not  conceded:  striving, 
for  things  he  had  no  business  to  do,  prepared  ships 
and  called  together  the  soldiers  of  his  kingdom  to 
conquer  Ireland. 

Cardinal  Gasquet  sums  up  his  study  thus : 
“Whether  this  theory  as  to  the  origin  of  the  ‘Bull’ 
be  current  or  not,  it  can  safely  be  said  that  the 
evidence  upon  which  the  authenticity  of  the  docu¬ 
ment  has  so  long  been  held  is  at  best  very  doubtful, 
and  should  be  accepted  with  extreme  caution.  A 
careful  examination  will,  we  believe,  induce  most 
inquirers  to  reject  the  ‘Bull’  as  an  undoubted  for¬ 
gery,  and  to  consider  it  more  than  probable  that 
Pope  Adrian  IV,  so  far  from  granting  any  approba¬ 
tion  to  Henry  in  his  design  on  Ireland,  or  making 
any  donation  of  the  country  to  the  English  crown, 
in  reality  positively  refused  to  be  a  party  to  rush 
an  imposture. 

Adriane,  also  known  as  Adirnas  or  Adriana,  a 
titular  see  of  Asia,  in  Pamphilia.  It  was  suffragan 
of  the  metropolitan  see  of  Perga. 

Adult. — In  the  matter  of  baptism  canon  law  now 
considers  as  adults  all  those  who  have  attained  the 
use  of  reason. 

Advent  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-165b). — Marriage  may  be 
celebrated  during  Advent,  but  the  solemn  nuptial 
blessing  is  forbidden  during  this  period  and  on 
Christmas  Day,  though  for  a  just  cause  the  ordi¬ 
nary  may  allow  it. 

Adventists  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-166c). — I.  Evangelical 
Adventists  (the  original  stock). — As  the  older 
members  died  many  of  the  younger  families  joined 
other  evangelical  denominations  and  the  number  of 
churches  and  members  diminished  rapidly.  In  1906 
they  reported  18  organizations  with  481  members, 
and  8  ministers.  In  -1916  all  the  churches,  except  a 
few  in  Pennsylvania,  had  disbanded  or  discontinued 
all  services.  Apparently  even  these  few  churches  in 
Pennsylvania  were  moribund,  for  the  United  States 
Government  in  ..compiling  religious  bodies  (1916) 


ADVOCATES 


14 


AFGHANISTAN 


could  get  no  information  from  the  ministers,  and 
this  branch  of  the  Adventists  accordingly  was 
dropped  from  the  aforesaid  report  for  1916. 

II.  Advent  Christians. — In  1916  this  body  re¬ 
ported  418  churches  (a  decrease  of  10  from  1906), 
30,597  members,  and  287  ministers  engaged  in  pas¬ 
toral  work.  In  the  foreign  field  12  stations  are 
occupied  (1916),  in  addition  to  some  out-stations, 
in  India,  China,  and  Japan.  They  reported  in 
1916,  20  American  missionaries,  10  churches  with 
889  members;  11  schools  with  433  scholars;  1  hos¬ 
pital;  1  orphanage  with  80  inmates. 

III.  Seventh  Day  Adventists. — This  demonina- 
tion  reported  at  the  end  of  1916,  throughout  the 
world,  a  membership  of  141,488  with  3,987  churches, 
1,678  ministers  and  113  organized  mission  fields.  In 
the  United  States  the  membership  was  79,355,  or¬ 
ganizations  2,011,  churches  1,231,  ministers  582.  At 
the  close  of  1916  organized  work  was  carried  on 
outside  the  United  States  in  249  mission  stations 
and  353  sub-stations,  in  92  countries,  by  a  working 
force  consisting  of  880  American  missionaries,  and 
about  2,000  native  helpers. 

IV.  The  Church  of  God. — This  denomination 
reported  in  1916,  848  members  and  46  ministers, 
and  8  church  edifices. 

V.  Churches  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus. — In  1888 
various  organizations,  such  as  the  Age-to-Come 
Adventists,  Church  of  God,  Restitution  Church, 
and  some  others,  formed  the  association  known  as 
“Churches  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus.”  This  organiza¬ 
tion  is  in  general  accord  with  the  Adventist  bodies, 
though  the  term  “Adventists”  does  not  appear  in 
its  title.  In  1916  this  body  reported  87  organiza¬ 
tions,  3,457  members,  52  church  edifices,  and  50  min¬ 
isters. 

Summary:  H.  K.  Carroll’s  statistics  for  1921 
(“Christian  Herald,”  7  March,  1921)  listed  for  the 
five  Adventist  bodies,  1,665  ministers,  2,984  church 
edifices,  and  134,725  members  in  the  United  States. 

Religious  Bodies,  1906  (Washington,  D.  C.,  1909);  Religious 
Bodies,  1916  (Washington,  D.  C.,  1919);  Year  Book  of  the 
Churches,  1920  (New  York,  1920). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Advocates  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-167d). — In  criminal  suits 
in  the  ecclesiastical  courts  an  accused  party  should 
always  have  an  advocate  either  chosen  by  himself 
or  appointed  by  the  judge;  so,  too,  in  contentious 
cases  when  minors  or  the  public  welfare  are  in¬ 
volved,  if  either  the  plaintiff  or  the  defendant  has 
none,  the  judge  should  appoint  one,  and,  should 
circumstances  so  require,  he  may  appoint  an  addi¬ 
tional  advocate  for  either  side.  In  any  other  case 
a  party  may  dispense  with  the  services  of  an  advo¬ 
cate,  unless  the  judge  deems  it  necessary  for  him 
to  have  one.  The  same  person  may  appear  in  a 
suit  both  as  advocate  and  procurator.  An  advocate 
should  be  a  man  of  good  repute,  not  under  twenty- 
one  years  of  age,  a  doctor  or  at  least  an  expert  in 
canon  law;  unless  in  exceptional  circumstances  or 
in  case  of  necessity  he  must  be  a  Catholic.  A 
religious  may  act  as  an  advocate  with  leave  of  his 
superior,  but  that  is  allowable  only  if  his  order  is 
involved  in  the  suit  and  if  his  constitutions  do  not 
forbid  him  to  undertake  such  a  task.  To  be  recog¬ 
nized  officially  as  an  advocate  in  a  suit,  a  party 
requires  the  approbation  of  the  ordinary,  or  of  a 
papal  delegate  when  the  latter  is  acting  as  judge. 
If  the  suit  is  between  members  or  provinces  of  the 
same  exempt  clerical  order,  or  between  monasteries 
of  the  same  congregation,  the  advocate  must  be 
chosen  from  the  order  and  must  be  approved  by 
the  judge;  in  any  other  case  a  religious  of  a  dif¬ 
ferent  order  may  be  appointed.  Before  acting  as 
such  an  advocate  must  be  commissioned  by  a 


litigant  or  by  the  judge,  and  his  appointment  must 
be  noted  in  the  record  of  the  case;  he  may  be  dis¬ 
missed  from  the  suit  by  his  client,  who,  however, 
has  to  notify  his  adversary  and  the  judge,  if  the 
case  has  begun.  If  one  of  the  parties  in  a  suit  is 
poor  the  judge  must  appoint  an  advocate  from 
amongst  those  authorized  to  practice  before  him 
to  take  up  his  case  gratuitously,  and  he  can  compel 
the  advocate  to  do  so  under  penalty  of  suspension 
from  office. 

Advocates  possessing  more  rigorous  qualifications 
than  those  mentioned  above  are  required  also  in 
causes  of  beatification  and  canonization;  they  must 
be  doctors  of  canon  law  or  at  least  licentiates  of 
theology ;  they  must  have  been  trained  under  advo¬ 
cates  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites  or  by  the  general 
sub-promoter  of  faith,  and,  in  addition  they  must 
have  been  officially  admitted  as  advocates  of  the 
Rota. 

Advocates  of  St.  Peter  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-168a). — The 

corporation  of  the  Advocates  of  St.  Peter,  canoni¬ 
cally  instituted  at  Rome  in  1878  to  defend  and  pro¬ 
mote  the  interests  of  the  Church  and  the  Apostolic 
See,  was  abolished  by  the  motu  proprio  “Id  prseclaro 
semper”  of  Pius  X  on  26  May,  1909. 

Affinity  (cf.  C.  E.,  1-1 78b). —Affinity,  in  canon 
law,  is  now  a  relationship  arising  exclusively  from 
valid  marriage,  whether  consummated  or  not;  be¬ 
fore  the  promulgation  of  the  Code  it  arose,  on  the 
other  hand,  solely  from  intercourse,  whether  lawful 
or  illicit.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  nature 
of  the  relationship  is  quite  changed.  It  exists  only 
between  the  man  and  the  woman’s  blood  relatives 
on  the  one  hand,  and  between  the  woman  and  the 
man’s  blood  relatives  on  the  other;  the  line  and 
degree  of  relationship  between  the  husband  and 
his  blood  relatives  are  those  adopted  in  computing 
the  line  and  degree  of  affinity  between  them  and 
the  woman,  and  vice  versa.  Affinity  is  a  diriment 
impediment  to  marriage  to  any  degree  in  the  direct 
line,  but  in  the  collateral  line  it  annuls  marriages 
only  to  the  second  degree  inclusively,  whereas  for¬ 
merly  it  invalidated  them  in  the  third  or  fourth 
degrees  also;  affinity  in  the  second  degree  of  the 
collateral  line  is  a  minor  impediment.  The  impedi¬ 
ment  of  affinity  is  multiplied  as  often  as  the 
impediment  of  consanguinity  from  which  it  pro¬ 
ceeds  is  multiplied,  and  also  by  successive  marriage 
with  a  deceased  spouse’s  blood  relatives.  It  may 
be  noted  that  the  law  of  England  invalidating  mar¬ 
riage  with  one’s  deceased  wife’s  sister  was  repealed 
by  the  Parliament  in  1907. 

Slater  in  Eccl.  Rev.,  LXI  (Philadelphia),  396-401. 

Afghanistan,  a  monarchy  in  central  Asia,  between 
parallels  29°  and  38°  28'  north  latitude  and  61°  and 
72°  east  latitude,  with  a  narrow  strip  running  to 
75°  east  longitude,  bounded  on  the  west  by  Persia, 
on  the  east  by  tribal  districts  under  the  government 
of  India,  on  the  north  by  Russian  territory  and 
Bokhara,  and  on  the  south  by  British  Baluchistan. 
The  extreme  breadth  of  Afghanistan  from  northeast 
to  southwest  is  about  700  miles ;  its  length  from  the 
Herat  frontier  to  the  Khyber  Pass,  about  600  miles ; 
the  area  is  about  245,000  square  miles.  There  are 
five  larger  and  two  smaller  provinces,  in  addition  to 
the  province  of  Kabul,  each  under  a  governor  and 
each  possessing  its  own  army.  The  population  is 
about  6,300,000.  The  majority  are  Iranian-Aryan 
Tadjiks,  who  inhabit  the  settlements  and  large 
towns,  the  Mongolian  Hazaraks,  who  roam  the 
mountainous  central  regions  of  the  country,  and  the 
Turkomans  and  Uzbegs  of  northern  Afghanistan. 
The  real  Afghans,  or  Pahtos  (Pathans)  as  they  call 
themselves,  live  in  the  high  ranges  stretching  from 


AFGHANISTAN 


15 


AFGHANISTAN 


the  Solimans  past  Ghanzi  and  Kandahar  to  the 
west  toward  Herat.  Though  the  language  of  the 
Afghan  originated  from  the  old  Iran,  it  now  shows 
the  mark  of  Indian  influence.  In  writing  the  Afghan 
uses  an  Arabic  character;  Persian  and  Pushtoo  are 
the  leading  tongues.  The  largest  cities  are  Kabul, 
the  capital,  with  a  population  of  150,000;  Kandahar, 
31,500;  and  Herat,  20,000.  The  mountainous  char¬ 
acter  of  Afghanistan  allows  agriculture  only  in  the 
fertile  plains  and  valleys,  and  sheep-raising  in  the 
highlands. 

Religion. — The  establishment  of  Christian  mis¬ 
sions  has  never  been  permitted  in  Afghanistan. 
The  various  tribes  are  overwhelmingly  Moslem  and 
are  of  the  Sunni  sect  of  Islam.  Their  caliph  is  the 
Turkish  Sultan  who,  according  to  the  sacred  law, 
should  be  an  independent  sovereign,  wielding  an 
effective  guardianship  over  the  great  Moslem  holy 
places  at  Mecca,  Medina,  and  Jerusalem.  The 
Turkish  caliph  has  been  made  a  virtual  prisoner  of 
the  British  in  Constantinople  and  the  holy  places 
taken  away  from  him.  Mecca  and  Medina  are  in 
the  hands  of  the  King  of  Hijaz,  who  is  subsidized 
by  the  British;  and  Jerusalem  is  held  by  the  British 
themselves.  This  new  state  of  affairs  has  been  bit¬ 
terly  resented  by  all  of  Sunni  Islam  (except  the 
Arabs)  as  a  destruction  of  its  most  sacred  institu¬ 
tions,  and  as  a  result,  Afghanistan  has  been  greatly 
inflamed  against  the  British  government  of  India. 
In  the  Turco- Afghan  treaty  which  the  Afghan  mis¬ 
sion  to  Angora  signed  in  April,  1920,  the  Turkish 
caliphate  was  recognized  and  an  alliance  was  made 
between  the  two  parties  against  “any  alien  impe¬ 
rialism,”  presumably  meaning  the  British  empire. 
Djemal  Pasha,  one  of  Turkey’s  triumvirate  during 
the  war,  was  made  Minister  of  War  in  the  Afghan 
Cabinet,  and  has  founded  a  military  college  at 
Kabul  and  imported  forty  Turkish  officers  to  whip 
the  Afghan  army  into  shape. 

Education. — The  Government  contributes  nothing 
to  maintain  public  schools.  The  better  families  often 
send  their  sons  to  be  educated  in  the  universities 
of  India. 

History. — Afghanistan,  a  part  of  ancient  Aria, 
was  included  in  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  who  founded  Alexandria,  Arion  (Herat), 
Kandahar,  and  a  settlement  in  Kabul.  Various  bar¬ 
baric  dynasties  succeeded  one  another,  the  most 
notable  monarch  being  Kanishka  (Kanerkes),  who 
ruled  vast  domains  stretching  over  the  Upper 
Oxus  basin,  Peshawar,  Kashmir,  and  probably 
India.  On  the  decline  of  the  Bagdad  Caliphate, 
Afghanistan  formed  a  part  of  the  domains  of  the 
Samanides,  a  Mohammedan  dynasty  which  was 
overthrown  by  a  Turkish  tribe,  founder  of  the 
Ghaznevide  dynasty.  It  was  included  in  their 
realms  until  1186,  when  it  was  overrun  by  the 
Mongols  of  Genghis  Khan.  In  the  last  quarter  of 
the  fourteenth  century  it  was  subjugated  by  the 
Tartar  chief  Timur.  A  descendant  of  this  Timur, 
Baber,  founder  of  the  Mogul  Empire,  made  Kabul 
his  capital.  Its  decline  dated  from  1722,  when 
Mahmud,  an  Afghan  chief,  invaded  Persia,  captured 
Ispahan  and  dealt  a  blow  to  the  permanent  pros¬ 
perity  of  Afghanistan.  During  the  wars  which  fol¬ 
lowed  the  Afghans  were  defeated  and  driven  out  by 
Nadir  Kuli,  a  Persian,  one  of  the  conquerors  of 
Afghanistan,  who  later  became  Shah.  After  the 
assassination  of  Nadir  Shah  (1747),  one  of  his  offi¬ 
cers  Ahmed  Shah,  founded  the  Durani  dynasty  in 
Afghanistan,  which  has  since  maintained  an  inde¬ 
pendent  existence.  In  1800  the  Tsar  of  Russia  and 
the  Emperor  Napoleon  concocted  a  scheme  to  in¬ 
vade  India.  This  led  to  the  intervention  of  the 
British  government  which  sent  an  ambassador  to 
2— Oct.  22. 


Peshawar  and  in  1809  concluded  a  treaty.  The 
Barakzai  tribe,  under  the  leadership  of  Fateh  Khan, 
deposed  Shah  Shu j ah,  who  fled  from  Peshawar  to 
seek  protection  at  Lahore. 

In  1826,  Dost  Muhammad  became  Amir  of 
Afghanistan,  founding  the  present  dynasty  of 
Afghan  rulers.  Attaining  supreme  power,  he  entered 
into  negotiations  with  Russia.  The  British  inter¬ 
vened  and  the  first  Afghan  War  began  in  1838, 
partly  to  counter  the  Russian  advance  in  central 
Asia  and  partly  to  place  on  the  throne  at  Kabul  in 
place  of  Dost  Muhammad  the  dethroned  ruler 
Shah  Shuja.  The  latter  object  was  easily  attained 
and  for  two  years  Afghanistan  remained  in  the 
military  occupation  of  the  British.  Later  Dost 
Muhammad  regained  the  throne.  In  a  war  with 
Persia  in  behalf  of  the  ruler  of  Afghanistan,  the 
British  finally  restored  the  province  of  Herat  to 
Afghan  rule.  At  the  death  of  Dost  Muhammad  in 
1863,  a  rebellion  broke  out,  and  for  some  time  the 
elder  sons  of  the  Dost  reigned  conjointly  as  heirs. 
Finally  Shir  Ali  emerged  master  of  the  land.  He 
was  suspected  of  intriguing  with  Russia,  and  this 
fact,  coupled  with  the  repulse  of  a  British  mission, 
led  to  the  second  Afghan  war  (1878)  in  which  the 
British  were  victorious.  The  murder  of  the  British 
envoy  caused  the  third  Afghan  war  (1879).  Abdur 
Rahman  was  finally  left  undisputed  Amir  of 
Afghanistan,  until  his  death,  in  1901. 

Abdur  Rahman  agreed  to  leave  the  control  of  his 
foreign  relations  to  the  British  government  which, 
on  its  part,  undertook  not  to  interfere  with  the 
internal  government  of  Afghanistan,  and  in  case  of 
unprovoked  aggression  on  Afghan  dominions,  to  aid 
the  Amir  in  such  a  manner  as  to  them  might  seem 
necessary.  In  1893  this  position  was  confirmed  in  a 
conference  between  the  Amir  and  Sir  Mortimer 
Durand.  Chitral,  Bajaur,  and  Swat  were  to  be 
included  in  the  British  sphere  of  political  influence, 
while  the  Amir  was  to  retain  Asmar  and  the  Kunar 
valley  above  it,  as  far  as  Arncwai;  also  the  tract 
of  Birmal.  Kafiristan  was  included  within  the 
countries  under  Afghan  control  and  to  be  garrisoned 
by  the  Amir’s  troops.  The  Amir  had  withdrawn  his 
pretensions  to  Waziristan.  The  Durand  Agreement 
settled  the  border  of  the  country  on  the  British  side, 
except  for  a  small  section  to  the  west  of  the  Khyber, 
which  remained  a  fruitful  source  of  trouble  between 
the  Afghans  and  the  British  and  led  to  the  war  in 
1919.  This  agreement  was  confirmed  in  a  formal 
treaty  signed  on  21  March,  1905,  between  the  British 
and  Amir  Habibulla  Khan,  who  accepted  unre¬ 
servedly  the  engagements  into  which  his  father  had 
entered  with  the  British  government. 

In  the  Anglo-Russian  agreement  of  31  August, 
1907,  Great  Britain  undertook  neither  to  annex  nor 
occupy  any  portion  of  Afghanistan  nor  to  interfere 
in  the  internal  administration  of  the  country,  pro¬ 
vided  the  Amir  fulfilled  his  engagements  toward  the 
British  government.  The  Russian  government  de¬ 
clared  that  Afghanistan  was  outside  the  sphere  of 
Russian  influence  and  arranged  that  its  political 
relations  with  Afghanistan  should  be  conducted 
through  the  British  government.  The  principle  of 
equality  of  commercial  opportunity  was  to  be  ob¬ 
served.  During  the  Great  World  War  the  Amir 
maintained  strict  neutrality.  In  1918  the  new  Rus¬ 
sian  government  at  Moscow  abrogated  the  1907 
treaty,  and  with  London’s  concurrence  in  Moscow’s 
abrogation,  Afghanistan  automatically  became  “offi¬ 
cially  free  and  independent,  both  internally  and 
externally.”  The  Amir  Habib  LTllah  Khan,  who  had 
been  a  loyal  friend  of  Great  Britain,  was  murdered. 
Thereupon  ensued  a  competition  for  the  throne.  At 
Jelalabad,  a  proclamation  was  issued  that  Nasr 


AFRICA 


16 


AFRICA 


Ullah  had  assumed  the  throne  but  in  Kabul  the 
power  was  seized  by  Aman  Ullah  Khan,  third  son 
of  the  late  Amir.  Aman  Ullah  soon  showed  that 
he  had  control  of  the  situation.  Owing  to  the 
intrigues  of  the  Russian  government,  the  new  Amir 
did  not  keep  his  promise  of  preserving  the  friend¬ 
ship  of  Great  Britain,  and  in  May  a  large  Afghan 
army  crossed  the  Indian  frontier  and  commenced 
pillaging  on  a  large  scale.  Strong  British  forces 
moved  up  the  Khyber  and  seized  Dacca.  Jelalabad 
and  Kabul  we're  repeatedly  bombed  from  the  air. 
In  ten  days  the  Afghans  were  severely  defeated 
by  General  Sir  Arthur  Barrett,  commander  of  the 
British  forces.  A  peace  conference  was  opened  at 
Rawalpindi  on  26  July,  1920,  and  a  preliminary 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  on  8  August.  The  Amir’s 
subsidy  was  withdrawn  and  its  arrears  confiscated. 
The  Afghan  privilege  of  importing  arms  and  ammu¬ 
nition  from  India  was  also  withdrawn.  The  frontier 
line  of  the  Khyber  region  was  demarcated  by  the 
British  government.  A  clause  that  aroused  much 
criticism  was  the  withdrawal  of  the  stipulation  that 
the  Amir’s  government  was  to  have  no  relations 
with  any  foreign  power  except  England.  Naturally, 
on  23  February,  1921,  the  newly  independent  Afghan 
government  signed  a  Russo-Afghan  treaty  at  Mos¬ 
cow  providing  for  a  Russian  subsidy  for  its  Amir, 
for  five  Russian  consulates  within  its  frontiers,  and 
other  arrangements  so  favorable  to  Russia  that  the 
British  demanded  an  immediate  discontinuance  of 
Russian  propaganda  in  Afghanistan.  Negotiations 
have  been  made  for  a  new  Anglo-Afghan  treaty. 
Afghanistan  has  taken  advantage  of  its  indepen¬ 
dence,  also,  to  proclaim  the  first  Code  of  Criminal 
Law,  the  initial  step  toward  constitutional  govern¬ 
ment. 

Africa  (cf.  C.  E.,  I— 181b). — Recent  History  and 
Geography. — African  territory  is  entirely  under 
European  control,  with  the  exception  of  the  inde¬ 
pendent  monarchy  of  Abyssinia  and  the  Republic 
of  Liberia.  In  Abyssinia  during  1917,  1918,  and 
1919  civil  war  produced  unstable  conditions.  Under 
the  British  protectorate  proclaimed  over  Egypt  in 
1914  there  has  been  considerable  unrest  and  dis¬ 
satisfaction,  the  Egyptians  desiring  greater  inde¬ 
pendence  than  the  terms  of  the  protectorate  pro¬ 
vide.  A  compromise  is  under  consideration.  In  the 
1921  elections  in  the  Union  of  South  Africa  the 
secession  issue  failed.  This  was  a  critical  event  in 
the  history  of  the  country,  determining  its  con¬ 
tinued  dependence  on  Great  Britain.  In  Morocco 
during  1920  there  were  uprisings  of  the  natives, 
which  were  successfully  brought  under  control  by 
the  French  and  Spanish  troops.  Melilla  was  the 
center  of  fierce  fighting  between  the  Moors  and 
Spaniards  in  1921,  with  unfortunate  results  to  the 
latter,  though  their  losses  were  later  retrieved. 
Strong  French  sentiment  in  Tangier  opposed  Span¬ 
ish  propaganda  recently  active  there.  Extensive 
railway  construction  throughout  Africa  has  done 
much  towards  the  development  of  the  continent. 
The  countries  of  Africa  are  listed  in  the  following 
paragraphs  under  the  nations  on  which  they  are 
dependent. 

England.— Egypt,  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  Soma¬ 
liland,  Kenya  (formerly  British  East  Africa) 
Uganda  Protectorate,  Tanganyika  Territory  (for¬ 
merly  German  East  Africa),  Rhodesia,  Bechuana- 
land  Protectorate,  Basutoland,  Swaziland,  Union  of 
South  Africa  (including  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Natal, 
the  Transvaal,  and  Orange  Free  State),  with  a  man¬ 
date  over  former  German  Southwest  Africa,  Nigeria, 
with  a  strip  of  Kamerun  (formerly  German)  along 
its  southern  border,  Gold  Coast,  part  of  Togo  (for¬ 


merly  German),  Sierra  Leone,  Gambia,  and  the 
islands  of  Mauritius,  Zanzibar,  Pemba,  Ascension, 
Saint  Helena,  and  Seychelles. 

France.— Morocco,  Algeria,  Tunis,  French  West 
Africa  (including  Senegal,  French  Sudan  [formerly 
Upper  Senegal  and  Niger],  Upper  Volta,  French 
Guinea,  Ivory  Coast,  Dahomey  and  Mauretania), 
part  of  Togo  (formerly  German),  part  of  Kamerun 
(formerly  German),  French  Equatorial  Africa  (for¬ 
merly  French  Congo),  French  Somaliland,  Madagas¬ 
car,  Mayotte  and  Comoro  Islands,  and  Reunion 
Island. 

Spain. — Rio  de  Ordo  and  Adrar,  Spanish  Guinea, 
Spanish  Morocco,  Ifni,  and  the  islands  of  Fernando 
Po,  Annabon,  Corsico,  Great  Elobey,  and  Little 
Elobey. 

Portugal. — Angola  (Portuguese  West  Africa), 
Mozambique  (Portuguese  East  Africa),  Portuguese 
Guinea,  part  of  former  German  East  Africa  known 
as  “Kionga  Triangle,”  Cape  Verde  Islands,  Principe 
and  St.  Thomas  Islands. 

t Belgium . — Belgian  Congo,  and  the  provinces  of 
Urundi  and  Ruanda  in  former  German  East  Africa. 

Italy. — Tripolitania,  Cyrenaica,  Libia,  Eritrea,  and 
Italian  Somaliland. 

Former  German  Colonies. — Togo  (divided  be¬ 
tween  Great  Britain  and  France),  Kamerun  (divided 
between  Great  Britain  and  France),  German  East 
Africa  (provinces  of  Ruanda  and  Urundi  under 
Belgian  occupation,  and  Tanganyika  Territory  un¬ 
der  British  occupation),  German  Southwest  Africa 
(under  mandate  of  Union  of  South  Africa). 

Population. — The  most  recent  statistics  give  the 
population  of  Africa  as  from  137,000,000  to  200,000,- 
000,  of  which  180,000,000  are  blacks.  According  to 
the  “ American  Jewish  Year  Book”  for  1921,  there 
are  about  360,000  Jews  in  Africa,  distributed  as 
follows:  Abyssinia,  25,000;  Egypt,  38,635;  Tunis, 
54,665;  Algeria,  70,271;  Morocco,  103,712;  Tripoli, 
18,860;  Rhodesia,  1,500;  Union  of  South  Africa, 
46,919.  The  following  figures  for  the  Mohammedan 
population,  taken  from  the  “Moslem  World”  for 
1914,  are  the  latest  available:  Algeria,  4,175,000; 
Tunis,  1,660,000;  Morocco,  3,100,000;  French  West 
Africa,  5,705,000;  Wadai  and  the  Sudan,  2,120,000; 
Somaliland,  345,000;  Egypt,  10,269,445;  Zanzibar, 
190,000;  total,  42,039,000,  including  those  in  the 
interior  of  Africa.  According  to  the  “Egyptian 
Annuaire”  for  1916,  there  are  667,036  Orthodox 
Copts,  14,576  Catholic  Copts,  and  24,710  Protestant 
Copts  in  Egypt. 

Religious  Statistics.— The  most  recent  religious 
statistics  for  the  whole  of  Africa  are  as  follows : 
Animists  and  Fetishists,  98,000,000;  Mussulmans, 
51,000,000;  Jews  (including  the  Falashes  of  Abys¬ 
sinia),  360,000;  other  non-Christians  (Parsees, 
Buddhists,  etc.),  11,000;  Copts  of  Egypt,  706,322; 
Abyssinian  Church,  4,000,000;  Schismatic  Greeks, 
3,800,000;  Armenians,  14,000;  Protestants,  2,750,000; 
Catholics,  2,500,000;  total  Christians,  about  14,000,- 
000.  In  1916  there  were  119  Protestant  missionary 
societies  in  Africa,  with  1,761  ordained  missionaries 
in  a  foreign  staff  of  4,893,  1,641  ordained  missionaries 
in  a  native  staff  of  29,546,  and  726,823  communi¬ 
cants.  The  important  Protestant  Norwegian  mission 
at  Betseleo  in  Madagascar  has  24,417  communicants. 

Catholic  Missions.— Since  1905  the  Catholic 
Church  has  made  great  progress  in  Africa,  though 
missionaries  still  have  to  contend  with  primitive 
barbarity  in  some  localities,  as  in  Bahr-el-Gazal 
(the  Sudan),  the  prevalence  of  slavery  often  prac¬ 
ticed  secretly  under  the  guise  of  religious  ritual  or 
business  transactions,  the  custom  of  polygamy  diffi¬ 
cult  to  abolish  because  of  the  desirable  “price”  a 
bride  brings  her  father’s  household,  sorcery,  the 


AFRICA 


17 


AFRICA 


power  of  Mohammedanism  (especially  in  Nigeria),  minor  orders.  The  Congo  and  Nigeria  have  each 
the  orgies  of  paganism,  as  well  as  anti-Catholic  ordained  a  native  priest.  In  Madagascar  the  Jesuits 
propaganda  particularly  rife  in  South  Africa,  have  erected  a  seminary  for  natives.  These  native 
Treacherous  climatic  conditions  and  financial  need  clergy,  through  their  knowledge  of  languages  and  cus- 
enhance  the  hardship  of  the  missionary.  This  latter  toms,  as  well  as  their  example,  are  a  great  help  to  the 
was  felt  especially  during  the  war,  due  to  the  cessa-  missionaries.  The  catechists  also  are  zealous  aids, 
tion  of  contributions  from  nations  at  war.  The  The  leper  colonies  are  a  special  labor  of  charity, 
enlistment  of  missionary  priests  and  students,  the  this  dread  disease  being  prevalent  along  the  east 
closing  of  seminaries  (Paris,  Lyons,  Steyl,  etc.),  coast  of  Africa.  In  lesser  ailments,  curing  the  body 
left  comparatively  few  to  carry  on  the  evangeliza-  to  save  the  soul  is  also  a  great  work  of  the  mis- 
tion  of  the  African  native.  Especially  did  the  sionary.  Among. the  tribes  converted  in  great  num- 
missions  in  the  former  German  colonies  suffer.  The  bers  to  the  Church  are  the'Baganda,  the  Babemba 
German  clergy  were  deported  or  interned,  and  the  of  Rhodesia,  and  the  Kabyles.  The  king  and  queen 
missions  left  desolate.  In  Kamerun  the  Pallotines  of  the  Mendes  tribe  in  Sierra  Leone  are  Catholics, 
were  replaced  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  as  is  also  the  supreme  chief  of  the  Basutos,.  who 
the  prefecture  of  Adamawa  was  assigned  to  the  recently  visited  London.  In  Belgian  Congo  the 
priests  of  the  Sacred  Heart;  in  German  East  Africa  missions  are  flourishing.  A  special  effort  is  being 
the  White  Fathers  carried  on  the  work  of  the  made  to  evangelize  the  schismatic  Copts  of  Egypt, 
Bavarian  Benedictines.  Untrained  African  minds  and  among  the  Americo-Liberians  and  in  Nigeria 
with  difficulty  reconciled  the  war  in  which  they  took  there  is  great  scope  for  work.  On  board  the  ship 
part  with  the  Gospel  of  Peace  preached  to  them.  “Africa”  which  sank  6  January,  1920,  were  one 
But  in  spite  of  these  hardships  of  war  Catholicism  bishop,  ten  priests,  six  brothers,  one  seminarian,  and 
flourished.  The  abandoned  missions  are  regaining  one  nun,  all  members  of  the  Holy  Ghost  Order, 
their  former  prosperity.  In  Khartum  some  of  the  bound  for  Africa.  An  official  document  of  impor- 
interned  priests  have  returned.  That  Americans  are  tance  to  African  missions  is  the  mandate  for  East 
now  sharing  the  task  of  evangelization  is  witnessed  Africa  recently  issued,  by  the  terms  of  which  com- 
by  the  American  members  of  the  Holy  Ghost  Order  plete  religious  liberty  is  granted  in  that  territory, 
in  Africa,  the  La  Salette  priests  ordained  in  1920  for  Many  new  vicariates  and  prefectures  have  been 
African  missions,  and  the  women  who  have  taken  erected  in  the  last  several  years.  The  Catholic 
their  vows  in  African  sisterhoods.  One  of  the  missions  in  Africa  are  listed  in  the  table  below,  with 
glories  of  the  Church  in  Africa  is  the  beatification  date  of  establishment,  title,  and  the  society  in 
(6  June,  1920)  of  the  martyrs  of  Uganda.  On  the  charge  of  each.  The  table  following  gives  the  num- 
same  date  three  natives  of  Uganda  were  ordained  ber  of  dioceses,  vicariates  and  prefectures  apostolic 
priests  at  Villa  Maria  and  four  others  received  assigned  to  each  society. 

CATHOLIC  AFRICA 


Date  of 

Erec¬ 

tion 

Name 

Title 

Clergy 

Date  of 
Erec¬ 
tion 

Name 

Title 

Clergy 

Alexandria  (1895) 

Coptic  ffatri- 

Secular  Clergy 

1848 

Mayotte  Islands, 

Prefecture 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

arch  ate 

Nossi-Be,  Co- 

Ghost 

Alexandria 

Armenian  Bish  - 

Secular  Clergy 

mores 

■i 

opric 

1850 

Saint-Denis  (Re- 

Bishopric 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

Hermopolis  (1895) 

Coptic  Bishop- 

Secular  Clergy 

union) 

Ghost 

ric 

Secular  Clergy 

1850 

Natal 

Vicariate 

Oblates  of  Mary 

Thebes  (1895) 

Coptic  Bishop- 

1852 

Port  Victoria  (1892) 

Bishopric 

Capuchins 

ric 

1855 

Fernando  Po  (1904) 

Vicariate 

Missionaries  of  the 

202 

Carthage  (1884) 

Archbishopric 

Secular  Clergy 

Immaculate  Heart 

1234 

Morocco  (1908) 

Vicariate 

Franciscans 

of  Mary 

1263 

Ceuta  (and  Cadiz, 

Bishopric 

Secular  Clergy 

1858 

Sierra  Leone 

Vicariate 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

1851) 

Ghost 

1406 

Canaries  (Las  Pal- 

Bishopric 

Secular  Clergy 

1860 

Benin 

Vicariate 

African  Missions  of 

mas) 

Lyons 

1514 

Jb  unchal  (JYL&dGirs,) 

Bishopric 

Secular  Clergy 

1860 

Zanzibar  (Northern 

Vicariate 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

1532 

Sao  Thiago  de 

Bishopric 

Secular  Clergy 

Zanguebar) 

Ghost 

Cabo  Verde 

1863 

Senegambia 

Vicariate 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

1534 

Angra  (Azores) 

Bishopric 

Secular  Clergy 

Ghost 

1584 

Saint  Thomas 

Bishopric 

Secular  Clergy 

1866 

Oran 

Bishopric 

Secular  Clergy 

1596 

Angola  and  Congo 

Bishopric 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

1866 

Constantine 

Bishopric 

Secular  Clergy 

Ghost 

1868 

Sahara  (Bamako 

Vicariates 

White  Fathers 

1612 

Mozambique 

Prelature  nullius 

Secular  Clergy 

(1921)  and  Wagh- 

1640 

Lower  Congo  (1865) 

Prefecture 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

adugu  (1921)f 

Ghost 

1874 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

Prefecture 

Secular  Clergy 

1654 

1  r l p  o 1 1  (Libya, 

Vicariate 

Franciscans 

(Central) 

1913) 

1879 

Upper  Cimebasia 

Prefecture 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

1763 

Senegal 

Prefecture 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

Ghost 

Ghost 

1879 

Gold  Coast 

Vicariate 

African  Missions  of 

1818 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

Vicariate 

Secular  Clergy 

Lyons 

(Western) 

1879 

Zambesia  (1905) 

Prefecture 

Jesuits 

1819 

Tenenne  (San  Cns- 

Bishopric 

Secular  Clergy 

1880 

Upper  Congo 

Vicariate 

White  Fathers 

t  o  b  a  1  de  la 

1880 

Tanganyika  (1886) 

Vicariate 

White  Fathers 

Laguna) 

1882 

Dahomey 

Vicariate 

African  Missions  of 

1838 

Algiers  (1886) 

Archbishopric 

Secular  Clergy 

Lyons 

1838 

Abyssinia 

Vicariate 

Lazarists 

1883 

Victoria-N  y  a  n  z  a 

Vicariate 

White  Fathers 

1839 

Egypt 

Vicariate 

Franciscans 

(1915) 

1842 

Gaboon 

Vicariate 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

1884 

Upper  Nigeria 

Vicariate 

African  Missions  of 

Ghost 

(1918) 

Lyons 

1844 

Tananarive  (Cen- 

Vicariate 

Jesuits 

1884 

Orange  River  (1898) 

Vicariate 

Oblates  of  St. 

tral  Madagascar) 

Francis  of  Sales 

1846 

Gallas 

Vicariate 

Capuchins 

1885 

Lower  Nigeria 

Vicariate 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

1846 

Sudan  (Khartum, 

Vicariate 

Sons  of  the  Sacred 

(1920) 

Ghost 

1913) 

Heart  (Verona) 

1885 

Delta  of  the  Nile 

Vicariate 

African  Missions  of 

1847 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 

Vicariate 

Secular  Clergy 

(1909) 

Lyons 

(Eastern) 

1886 

Kimberly  in  Orange 

Vicariate 

Benedictines  of  the 

1847 

Port  Louis  (Mau- 

Bishopric 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

Primitive  Obser- 

ntius) 

Ghost 

vance  . . . 

AFRICA 


AGAUNUM 


18 


CATHOLIC  AFRICA— Continued 


Date  of 
Erec¬ 
tion 

Name 

Title 

Clergy 

Date  o; 
Erec¬ 
tion 

Name 

Title 

Clergy 

1886 

L  o  a  n  g  o  (French 

Vicariate 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

1904 

Benadir 

Prefecture 

T  Unitarians 

Lower  Congo) 

Ghost 

1905 

Kenya  (1909) 

Vicariate 

Missionaries  of  the 

1886 

Unyanyembe 

Vicariate 

White  Fathers 

Consolata  (Tu- 

1887 

Dar-es  -Salaam 

Vicariate 

Bavarian  Benedic- 

rin) 

(Southern  Zan- 

tines 

1906 

Bagamoyo  (Central 

Vicariate 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

guebar) 

* 

Zanguebar) 

Ghost 

1888 

Congo  Free  State 

Vicariate 

Congregation  of 

1909 

Ubangi-Shari 

Prefecture 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

(Leopoldville, 

Scheutveld 

Ghost 

1919) 

1909 

Great  Namaqua- 

Prefecture 

Oblates  of  St. 

1889 

Nyassa  (1897) 

.Vicariate 

White  Fathers 

land 

Francis  de  Sales 

1889 

Transvaal  (1904) 

Vicariate 

Oblates  of  Marv 

1910 

Katanga 

Prefecture 

Belgian  Benedic- 

1890 

Kamerun  (1905) 

Vicariate 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

tines 

Ghost 

1910 

Kilima-Najaro 

Vicai'iate 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

1890 

Ubanghi  (French 

Vicariate 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

Ghost 

Upper  Congo) 

Ghost 

1910 

Northern  Transvaal 

Prefecture 

Benedictines  of  the 

1892 

Lower  Cimbebasia 

Prefecture 

Oblates  of  Mary 

Primitive  Obser- 

1892 

Togo  (1914) 

Vicariate 

African  Mission  of 

vance 

Lyons 

1911 

Mat.adi 

Prefecture 

Redemptorists 

1892 

Kwango  (1903) 

Prefecture 

Jesuits 

1911 

Korogo 

Prefecture 

African  Missions  of 

1894 

Upper  Nile 

Vicariate 

Foreign  Missions  of 

Lyons 

Mill  Hill 

1911 

Southern  Katanga 

Prefecture 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

1894 

Uganda  (Northern 

Vicariate 

White  Fathers 

Ghost 

Victoria  Nyanza) 

1911 

Belgian  Ubanghi 

Prefecture 

Capuchins 

1894 

Erythrea  (1911) 

Vicariate 

Capuchins 

1911 

Eastern  Nigeria 

Prefecture 

African  Missions  of 

1894 

Basutoland  (1909) 

Vicariate 

Oblates  of  Mary 

Lvons 

1895 

Ivory  Coast 

Vicariate 

African  Missions  of 

1911 

Eastern  Welle 

Prefecture 

Dominicans 

Lyons 

1912 

Kivu 

Vicariate 

White  Fathers 

1896 

Fort -Dauphin 

Vicariate 

Lazarists 

1913 

Bahr-el-Gazal 

Vicariate 

Sons  of  the  Sacred 

(Southern  Mada- 

(1917) 

Heart  (Verona) 

gascar) 

1913 

Banguelo 

Vicariate 

White  Fathers 

1897 

French  Guinea 

Vicariate 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

(1920) 

Ghost 

1913 

Betafo  (1918) 

Vicariate 

Missionaries  of  La 

1897 

Stanley  Falls  (1908) 

Vicariate 

Priests  of  the  Sa- 

Salette 

cred  Heart  (St. 

1913 

Fianarantsoa 

Vicariate 

Jesuits 

Quentin) 

1898 

Diego-Suarez 

Vicariate 

1913 

Southern  Kaffa 

Prefecture 

Missionaries  of  the 

(Northern  Mada- 

Fathers  of  the  Holy 

Consolata  (Tu- 

gascar) 

Ghost 

rin) 

1898 

Western  Welle 

Prefecture 

Premonstratensians 

1913 

Lindi 

Prefecture 

Bavarian  Benedic- 

(1911) 

tines 

1901 

Upper  K  a  s  s  a  i 

Vicariate 

Congregation  of 

1914 

Adamawa 

Prefecture 

Priests  of  the  Sa_ 

(1917) 

Scheutveld 

cred  Heart  (St. 

1901 

Ghardaia 

Prefecture 

White  Fathers 

Quentin) 

1903 

Shire  (1908) 

Vicariate 

Company  of  Mary 

1914 

Jibuti 

Prefecture 

Capuchins 

1903 

Liberia 

Prefecture 

African  Missions  of 

1919 

New  Antwerp 

Vicariate 

Congregation  of 

Lyons 

(Belgian  Congo) 

Scheutveld 

RESUME  OF  DIOCESES  AND  MISSIONS 

IN  1920 


Clergy 

Dio¬ 

cese 

Vica¬ 

riates 

Pre¬ 

fec¬ 

tures 

Total 

Secular  Clergy  . 

14 

2 

1 

19 

(including  1 

patriarchate 

1.  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost 

and  1 
prelature) 

(Pqris)  . 

3 

12 

6 

21 

2.  White  Fathers  (of  Algiers).. 

10 

1 

11 

3.  African  Missions  (Lyons)... 

6 

3 

9 

4.  Oblates  of  Maiy  (Rome) . 

3 

1 

4 

5.  Franciscans  (Rome)  . 

3 

3 

6.  Fathers  of  the  Heart  of  Mary 

(Scheutveld)  . 

3 

3 

7.  Capuchins  (Rome)  . 

1 

2 

2 

5 

8.  Jesuits  (Rome)  . 

2 

2 

4 

9.  Lazarists  (Paris)  . 

2 

2 

10.  Sons  of  the  Sacred  Heart 

(Verona)  . 

2 

2 

11.  Priests  of  the  Sacred  Heart 

(St.  Quentin)  . 

2 

2 

12.  Oblates  of  St.  Francis  of  Sales 

(Troyes)  . 

1 

1 

2 

13.  Missionaries  of  the  Consolata 

(Turin)  . 

1 

1 

2 

14.  Benedictines  of  the  Primitive 

* 

Observance  . 

1 

1 

2 

15.  Bavarian  Benedictines  . 

1 

1 

2 

16.  Belgian  Benedictines  . 

1 

1 

17.  Missionaries  of  the  Immacu- 

late  Heart  of  Mary  (Barce- 

Iona)  . 

1 

1 

18.  Foreign  Missions  of  Mill  Hill 

(London)  . 

1 

1 

19.  Company  of  Mary . 

1 

1 

20.  Missionaries  of  La  Salette _ 

1 

1 

21.  Premonstratensians  (Tonger- 

loo,  Belgium)  . 

1 

1 

22.  Trinitarians  . 

1 

1 

23.  Redemptorists  . 

1 

1 

24.  Belgian  Dominicans  . 

1 

1 

18 

57 

25 

102 

African  Missions*,  (Verona).  See  Sacred  Heart, 
Sons  of  the. 

Agathopolis,  a  titular  see  in  the  province  of 
Hemimontus,  now  Akhtebolu,  not  far  from  the 
Black  Sea.  It  was  first  a  bishopric,  then  an  arch¬ 
bishopric,  and  finally  a  metropolitan  see,  but  noth¬ 
ing  more  is  known  of  its  ancient  history,  except 
that  it  had  its  own  coinage.  In  the  Middle  Ages 
the  city  is  mentioned  by  Byzantine  historians;  it 
is  identified  with  the  Gatapoli  which  appears  in  the 
ancient  Italian  geographical  writers  and  is  also  men¬ 
tioned  in  1204  in  the  “Partitio  Romanise.”  To-day 
Agathopolis,  called  by  the  Turks  Akhtebolu,  is 
one  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  province  of 
Adrianople  and  counts  about  3,000  inhabitants,  the 
majority  of  whom  are  Greeks.  In  1760  it  was 
raised  to  an  archbishopric  and  in  1808  was  united 
to  the  see  of  Sozopolis  to  form  a  metropolitan  see. 
The  following  are  the  names  of  some  of  the  titulars 
of  this  see:  Anthony  (1596);  Metrophanes  (1620- 
24);  Gregory,  resigned  in  1650;  Philotheas  (1650- 
59);  Macarius  (1660-73);  Lawrence  (1673); 
Sophronius  (1673);  Romanus  (about  1700); 
Neophites  (1767-74);  Gabriel  (1806). 

Agaunum  (now  St.  Maurice-en-Valais),  an 
Abbey  Nullius  in  the  Diocese  of  Sion,  Switzerland. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Maurice  of 
Agaunum,  the  oldest  monastery  in  the  world,  hav¬ 
ing  existed  without  interruption  for  over  fifteen 
centuries.  King  St.  Louis  gave  to  the  abbey,  a 
thorn  of  Christ’s  crown  in  exchange  for  certain 
other  relics,  and  the  thorn  is  still  preserved  there, 
while  the  king’s  original  letter  is  extant  in  the 
abbey  archives.  The  Abbey  exercised  a  strong  in- 


AGE 


19 


AGRIA 


fluence  in  the  political  life  of  Gaul,  and  in  the 
eighth  century  took  part  in  negotiations  between 
the  papacy  and  the  Carlovingian  kings.  The  mix¬ 
ture  of  politics  and  religion  brought  about  great 
abuses,  and  in  1128  St.  Hugh,  Bishop  of  Grenoble 
came  to  St.  Maurice  to  reform  the  monastery.  It 
was  he  who  introduced  the  Canons  Regular  of  St. 
Augustine  into  the  abbey,  where  they  have  re¬ 
mained  ever  since.  During  the  Reformation  the 
abbey  remained  true  to  the  Faith  owing  largely 
to  the  courage  of  Abbot  Bartholomew  IV,  but  suf¬ 
fered  severely  during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  as  a  result  of  the  intrusion  of  Valais 
statesmanship  into  the  inner  life  of  the  monastery. 
However  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  reforming 
zeal  of  two  holy  abbots,  Peter  IV,  Odet  (1640-57) 
and  Joseph  I,  Franc  (1669-86),  brought  about  a 
renewal  of  activities.  For  centuries  it  has  never 
been  as  prosperous  as  it  is  to-day  (1922).  It  is 
immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  and  since 
1840  the  abbot  has  carried  the  title  of  titular  Bishop 
of  Bethlehem.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Joseph  Marietan,  born  in  Val  dTlliez,  Switzerland, 
1847,  studied  at  St.  Maurice  and  the  University 
of  Fribourg,  entered  the  Canons  Regular  of  St. 
Augustine  in  1894,  was  ordained  in  1899,  appointed 
abbot  13  August,  1914,  and  consecrated  bishop  6 
December  following.  The  bishop  has  under  his 
jurisdiction  6  parishes  and  a  rectorate,  comprising 
about  3000  souls.  There  are  twenty  clergy  of  the 
Order  who  act  as  teachers  in  the  school  of  St. 
Maurice,  which  counts  about  3000  pupils.  Eight 
other  parishes  which  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Bishop  of  Sion,  are  also  served  by  these  priests. 

Age  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-206d). — To  be  bound  by  ec¬ 
clesiastical  law  one  must  be  at  least  seven  years 
old,  unless  it  is  otherwise  expressly  stated;  below 
that  age  one  is  termed  child,  baby,  or  infant  ( puer , 
parvulus,  infans),  and  is  not  held  responsible;  after 
the  age  of  seven  a  person  is  presumed  to  have  the 
use  of  reason.  Puberty  begins  in  males  at  fourteen 
complete,  in  females  at  twelve  complete.  However, 
marriage  is  invalid  if  contracted  by  males  under 
sixteen  or  females  under  fourteen.  The  imputa- 
bility  of  crime  is  to  be  considered  lessened  by  minor 
age  in  proportion  as  the  person  is  nearer  to  in¬ 
fancy,  unless  the  contrary  is  clear.  Persons  who 
are  below  the  age  of  puberty  are  excused  by  the 
Church  from  all  canonical  penalties  latce  sententice, 
that  is  those  incurred  independently  of  a  judicial 
sentence ;  however,  if  the  children  have  reached 
the  use  of  reason,  they  are  to  be  corrected  for  their 
faults  just  as  children  are  corrected  at  school.  Per¬ 
sons  who  have  reached  the  age  of  puberty  and  who 
induce  these  younger  children  to  commit  an  offense 
or  who  concur  with  them  in  a  crime  incur  the 
penalties  attached  to  the  violation  of  the  law. 
Minors  reach  their  majority  on  completing  their 
twenty-first  year. 

The  law  of  abstinence  binds  all  those  who  have 
completed  their  seventh  year;  that  of  fasting  is 
obligatory  only  oil  those  who  have  finished  their 
twenty-first  but  not  their  fifty-ninth  year.  Sponsors 
at  baptism  or  confirmation  should  as  a  rule  have 
reached  their  fourteenth  year.  In  the  Latin  Rite 
children  ordinarily  are  not  to  be  confirmed  until 
they  are  about  seven.  Children  should  receive  Holy 
Communion  when  they  understand  in  a  way  suit¬ 
able  to  their  years  the  mysteries  necessarily  ( neces¬ 
sitate  medii)  to  be  believed  for  salvation,  and  when 
they  can  receive  it  with  due  reverence,  their  con¬ 
fessors  and  parents  or  guardians  being  judges  of 
this.  The  obligation  of  confession  begins  with  the 
use  of  reason.  No  one  can  begin  his  religious 
Novitiate  validly  before  completing  his  fifteenth 


year;  hence  sixteen  years  complete  are  required 
for  a  first  profession  and  twenty-one  complete  for 
a  perpetual  profession,  whether  simple  or  solemn. 
The  law  by  which  a  higher  age  was  required  in 
the  cases  of  lay-brothers  has  now  been  abolished. 
A  master  of  novices  must  be  at  least  thirty-five 
years  old,  though  his  socius  or  assistant  need  only 
be  thirty.  Ordinary  and  extraordinary  confessors 
of  nuns,  whether  they  be  secular  or  religious  priests, 
must  as  a  rule  have  completed  their  fortieth  year! 
While  respecting  the  constitutions  of  religious  in¬ 
stitutes  requiring  more  stringent  qualifications,  the 
Code  prescribes  that  generals  of  orders  or  superior¬ 
esses  of  monasteries  of  nuns  with  solemn  vows 
should  be  at  least  forty  years  old;  but  other  higher 
superiors  need  only  be  thirty.  It  is  unlawful  for 
anyone  to  receive  tonsure  before  beginning  his 
theological  studies,  and  the  ages  of  twenty-one, 
twenty-two,  and  twenty-four  are  required  for  the 
reception  of  the  sub-diaconate,  the  diaconate,  and 
the  priesthood  respectively.  Finally  bishops,  vicars 
capitular,  diocesan  officials  (i.  e.  judges),  and  canons 
penitentiary  must  have  completed  their  thirtieth 
year. 

Agen,  Diocese  of  (Aginnum;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-209b), 
comprises  the  Department  of  Lot-et-Garonne  in 
France  and  is  suffragan  of  Bordeaux.  The  present 
incumbent  (1921),  Rt.  Rev.  Charles-Paul  Sagot  du 
Vauroux,  has  filled  the  see  since  1906.  Bora  in 
the  diocese  of  La  Rochelle  1857,  he  was  ordained 
in  1881,  made  titular  chancellor  of  La  Rochelle 
1894  and  director  of  the  “Bulletin  religieux,”  and 
appointed  bishop  21  February,  1906. 

Since  the  year  348,  when  the  regular  appointment 
of  bishops  to  this  see  commenced,  there  have  been 
82  bishops,  of  whom  4  have  been  canonized,  2  were 
patriarchs  and  3  cardinals.  In  1920  there  were 
268,083  Catholics  in  the  diocese,  47  parishes  and 
397  succursal  parishes. 

Agnes,  Saint,  Sisters  of.  See  Saint  Agnes,  Sis¬ 
ters  of. 

Agra,  Archdiocese  of  (Agraensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-225a),  in  British  India,  is  bounded  on  the  North 
by  the  Archdiocese  of  Simla,  on  the  east  by  the 
Diocese  of  Allahabad,  on  the  south  and  west  by 
the  Diocese  of  Ajmer.  Upon  the  erection  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Simla,  13  September,  1910,  the  Dio¬ 
cese  of  Lahore  and  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
Kashmir  and  Kafiristan,  which  had  formerly  been 
suffragans  of  Agra,  were  made  suffragans  of  the 
new  archdiocese. 

Most  Rev.  Charles  Gentili,  who  was  appointed 
Archbishop  of  Agra  27  August,  1898,  died  31  Decem¬ 
ber,  1916,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  incum¬ 
bent,  Most  Rev.  Raphael  Bernacchioni,  b.  in 
Tuscany,  1854,  who  went  to  the  mission  of  Agra 
in  1884,  and  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Agra  7 
August,  1917.  The  episcopal  residence  is  at  Agra 
in  the  winter  and  at  Barlowganj  in  the  summer. 

Besides  the  Capuchins  who  have  charge  of  this 
mission,  the  Brothers  of  St.  Patrick,  Sisters  of  Jesus 
and  Mary,  and  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  are 
also  established  here.  In  addition  to  the  parochial 
schools  at  Sashkar  there  are  in  all  thirteen  schools 
conducted  by  these  religious  orders,  with  a  total 
of  1,668  children  under  instruction.  In  1920  there 
were  8,915  Catholics  in  this  territory,  27  parishes, 
30  Capuchin  Fathers  and  12  native  priests,  115  sis¬ 
ters,  27  churches  or  chapels,  22  principal  mission 
stations  and  26  secondary  ones,  and  7  orphanages 
with  800  orphans. 

Agram,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Zagrab. 

Agria,  Diocese  of.  See  Eger. 


AQUAS  CALIENTES 


20 


AJACCIO 


Aguas  Calientes,  Diocese  of  (Aqile  Caudle; 
cf.  C.  E.,  I-232b),  a  Mexican  see  comprising  the 
province  of  Aguas  Calientes,  is  suffragan  of  Guada¬ 
lajara.  The  first  bishop  of  this  diocese,  Rt.  Rev. 
Jose  Maria  Portugal,  O.F.  M.,  appointed  28  May, 
1902,  died  27  November,  1912.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Ignatius  Valdespino  y  Diaz,  b„  at 
Chalchihuites,  1861,  appointed  Bishop  of  Sonora, 
19  September,  1902,  and  transferred  to  Aguas 
Calientes  10  January,  1913,  in  which  year  new 
Catholic  schools  and  a  beautiful  building  for  a 
seminary  were  begun,  the  old  ones  having  been 
usurped  and  destroyed  by  the  Revolutionists.  New 
choir  stalls  have  been  placed  in  the  cathedral  and 
handsome  gratings  replace  the  old  ones  in  the 
doors.  During  the  World  War  the  clergy,  assisted 
by  many  of  the  laity,  carried  on  an  active  campaign 
against  Socialism,  Bolshevism  and  Protestantism, 
with  the  result  that  many  Catholic  syndicates  are 
now  organized. 

The  diocese  comprises  11  parishes,  54  churches, 
3  monasteries  for  women,  58  secular  and  10  regular 
clergy,  42  brothers,  1  seminary  with  45  seminarians, 
2  secondary  schools  for  boys  with  14  professors  and 
300  students,  5  elementary  schools  with  30  teachers 
and  1,500  pupils  and  1  home  for  the  aged.  The 
Knights  of  Columbus  are  organized  in  the  diocese. 

Aikenhead,  Mary  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-234b). — The  cause 
of  her  beatification  was  introduced  15  March,  1921. 

Aila  (^Ela),  a  titular  see  in  Palsestina  tertia, 
situated  on  the  Red  Sea  at  the  foot  of  the  Gulf 
of  Akabah,  and  now  known  as  Dasr-el-Akabah, 
suffragan  of  Petra,  in  the  Patriarchate  of  Jerusalem. 
This  place  is  mentioned  first  in  Deuteronomy  (ii, 
8)  in  connection  with  the  march  of  the  Hebrews 
around  the  mountains  of  Seir.  It  was  then  joined 
to  Idumea  and  later  fell  into  the  hands  of  David 
(II  Kings,  viii,  14;  III  Kings  xi,  15,  16),  and  Solo¬ 
mon  used  its  port  with  that  of  Asiongaber  in  set¬ 
ting  sail  for  Ophir.  The  city  revolted,  with  all  the 
rest  of  Idumea,  against  Jehoram,  but  was  retaken 
by  Azarias  who  rebuilt  it  and  returned  it  to  Juda 
(IV  Kings  xiv,  22;  II  Par.  xxvii,  2).  A  little  later 
we  find  that  Rasin,  king  of  Damascus,  drove  the 
Jews  from  the  city  and  restored  it  to  Idumea 
(IV  Kings  xvi,  6),  thus  greatly  benefiting  the  com¬ 
merce  of  the  kingdom  of  Juda,  as  the  ports  along 
the  Mediterranean  were  occupied  by  the  Phcenecians 
and  Philistines.  In  spite  of  these  many  changes 
the  city  held  its  important  position  and  the  gulf, 
formed  by  a  branch  of  the  Red  Sea,  is  named 
from  it. 

The  city  has  been  known  under  many  names, 
Elath,  Ailat,  Ailath,  Aela,  etc.,  and  is  mentioned  by 
Josephus  (Ant.  IX,  XIII,  1),  Pliny  (Hist,  natur., 
V,  65,  VI,  156),  and  by  Stratonieus  (XVI,  11,  30), 
who  fixes  its  distance  as  1,200  furlongs  from  Gaza. 
Eusebius  and  St.  Jerome  tell  us  that  the  tenth 
legion  charged  and  took  this  garrison. 

At  least  three  bishops  of  this  see  are  known: 
Peter,  in  325,  who  attended  the  Council  of  Nicaea 
(Gelser,  “Patrum  nicaenorum  nomina,  Leipzig,  1898), 
Beryl  (451),  present  at  the  Council  of  Chalcedon 
(Mansi,  “Conciliorum  ampl.  collectio,”  VII,  col. 
32),  and  Paul  (536),  who  attended  the  Council  of 
Jerusalem  (Mansi,  op.  cit.,  VIII,  col.  1175). 

Conquered  by  the  Arabs  upon  their  entrance 
into  Palestine,  iEla  became  one  of  their  principal 
fortresses  as  well  as  an  important  commercial  city 
because  of  its  location  on  the  road  to  Mecca.  Oc¬ 
cupied  by  the  French  in  1116  it  was  retaken  in 
1175  with  the  Island  of  Graye,  now  called  Djezireh 
Faraoun,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  narrow 
arm  of  the  sea  and  upon  which  stands  a  chateau. 


In  1182  Renaud  of  Chatillon,  Lord  of  Kerak  and 
of  the  territory  of  the  Upper- Jordan,  vainly  at¬ 
tempted  to  take  possession  of  the  city  when  he 
organized  his  adventurous  expedition  against  the 
holy  cities  of  Islam.  To-day  it  is  called  Akaba, 
as  is  also  the  gulf  upon  which  it  is  situated;  the 
name  is  taken  from  a  rough  slope  (Akaba)  which 
faces  the  city,  and  which  the  Sultan  Ibn-Ahmed- 
Ebn-Touloun  in  the  ninth  century  made  passable 
by  the  construction  of  an  excellent  road.  It  was 
first  called  Akabah-iEla,  then  the  Slope  of  Akaba, 
and  finally  simplified  to  Akaba. 

Aire  (Aturum),  Diocese  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-237a), 
comprises  the  territory  of  the  Department  of 
Landes,  in  France,  and  is  suffragan  of  Auch.  From 
1906  to  1912  the  episcopal  residence  was  at  Saint- 
Sever,  but  by  a  decree  of  22  April,  1912,  the  bishop 
was  authorized  to  reside  at  Dax  until  he  should 
find  suitable  quarters  for  himself  and  the  seminary 
at  Aire,  which  remains  the  seat  of  the  diocese. 

Rt.  Rev.  Eugene-Frangois  Touzet,  who  was  ap¬ 
pointed  to  this  see  21  February,  1906,  died  23  Sep¬ 
tember,  1911,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present 
(1922)  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Marie-Charles-Albert  de 
Cormont,  b.  in  Paris,  1847,  ordained  1876,  appointed 
Bishop  of  Martinique  1899,  transferred  to  Aire  27 
November,  1911.  In  1920  this  diocese  had  a  Catho¬ 
lic  population  of  288,902,  28  parishes,  293  succursal 
parishes  and  41  vicariates. 

Aix,  Archdiocese  of  (Aquensis;  cf.  C.E.,  I-237d), 
in  the  Department  of  Bouches-du-Rhone,  France. 
Most  Rev.  Frangois-Joseph  Bonnefoy,  who  was  ap¬ 
pointed  to  this  see  18  April,  1901,  died  20  April, 
1920,  and  was  succeeded  by  Mos  Rev.  Marie-Louis- 
Maurice  Riviere,  b.  at  Paris,  1859,  appointed  Bishop 
of  Perigueux  1  June,  1915,  and  promoted  to  this 
see  9  July,  1920. 

The  total  Catholic  population  of  this  territory 
is  approximately  200,000.  The  diocese  comprises 
129  parishes,  226  priests  and  17  religious  orders: 
Capuchin  and  Carmelite  Fathers,  Sisters  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  Visitation  Sisters,  Sisters  of 
Mercy,  of  St.  Thomas,  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  of  the  Presentation,  of  St.  Joseph, 
of  the  Good  ShepheH  of  Notre  Dame  (Auxiliaries), 
Sisters  of  the  Seven  Dolors,  of  St.  Francis  of 
Assisi,  of  Mercy,  Franciscan  Sisters  of  Lyons,  and 
Trinitarians. 

Among  the  educational  institutions  are  2  semi¬ 
naries,  a  higher  seminary  with  5  professors  and  30 
students,  a  lower  seminary  with  7  professors  and 
80  students;  2  colleges  for  boys  (the  College  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  at  Aix,  with  12  clerical  professors,  6 
lay  professors,  and  300  students,  and  the  College 
of  St.  Etienne  at  Arles,  with  5  clerical  and  6  lay 
professors) ;  8  boarding  schools  for  girls,  15  free 
schools  for  boys  and  14  for  girls,  with  a  total  of 
286  instructors  and  6,000  pupils.  The  charitable  in¬ 
stitutions  include  50  patronages  for  boys  and  80  for 
girls,  14  hospitals,  5  orphanages,  2  nurseries  and 
14  day  nurseries.  The  principal  societies  formed 
in  the  diocese  are  the  Cercle  Saint-Mitre,  the  Cath¬ 
olic  Association,  the  Association  of  Catholic  Youth, 
the  Association  of  Catholic  Teach 'rs  of  the  Public 
Schools,  conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  the 
Tabernacle  Society,  catechetical  and  mission  socie¬ 
ties.  A  number  of  Catholic  periodicals  are  pub¬ 
lished  here:  “La  Semaine  Religieuse,”  “Croix  de 
Provence,”  “Memorial  d’Aix,”  “L’Echo  de  Bouches- 
du-Rhone,”  “Le  Forum  Arlesien,”  “Tablettes  de  la 
Schola  d’Arles,”  and  “Bulletins  paroissiaux.” 

Ajaccio,  Diocese  of  (Adjensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-238d), 
comprises  the  island  of  Corsica  and  is  suffragan  of 
Aix.  Bishop  Desantis,  who  came  to  this  see  in 


AJMER 


21 


ALABAMA 


1906,  died  12  February,  1916,  and  his  successor, 
Rt.  Rev.  August  in- Joseph-Marie  Simeone  now 
(1921)  fills  the  see.  Born  at  Marseilles  1863,  or¬ 
dained  1888,  he  was  appointed  bishop  27  May,  1916, 
and  consecrated  in  the  cathedral  of  Marseilles  31 
August  following.  In  1920  there  were  288,820  Cath¬ 
olics  in  this  diocese,  511  priests,  441  succursal 
parishes,  1  parish  of  Greek  Catholics  with  378  mem¬ 
bers,  and  55  religious  of  five  congregations  who  are 
engaged  in  various  charitable  works. 

Ajmer,  Diocese  of  (Ajmerensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII- 
635b),  in  India,  was  erected  from  the  Prefecture  of 
Rajpootana  on  21  May,  1913,  Rt.  Rev.  Fortunatus 
Caumont,  Prefect  Apostolic  of  Rajpootana  being 
appointed  the  first  bishop  (consecrated  28  October, 
1913).  The  total  area  of  the  diocese  is  156,500 
square  miles  and  the  total  population  (1921)  is 
12,950,000,  comprising  6,000  Catholics,  11,200  Prot¬ 
estants,  996,800  Mussulmans  and  11,936,000  pagans 
(Hindus,  Animists,  Jains  and  Parsis).  Of  the  Cath¬ 
olic  population  500  belong  to  the  British  Army, 
1,200  are  Anglo-Indians,  1,800  are  Indians  emigrated 
from  the  south,  and  2,500  are  natives  of  the  diocese. 
There  are  now  12  churches  and  12  chapels  served 
by  1  Indian  secular  priest  and  36  Capuchin  Fathers 
of  the  Province  of  Paris,  assisted  by  7  lay  brothers. 
The  Franciscan  nuns  number  59. 

Various  institutions  included  in  the  diocese  are: 
the  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  of 
Assisi  with  75  members,  besides  confraternities  num- 
being  about  700  members;  the  Mission  Sisters  of 
Ajmer,  with  a  novitiate  for  Indian  and  Anglo-Indian 
girls,  with  15  members;  the  “Prabhudasi”  (Hand¬ 
maids  of  the  Lord)  with  a  novitiate  for  Hindu¬ 
speaking  girls,  at  Thandla,  with  20  members.  The 
Franciscan  Nuns  of  St.  Mary  of  the  Angels  conduct 
these  two  novitiates  as  well  as  the  following  institu¬ 
tions  for  the  education  of  girls:  Convent  of  St. 
Mary  Magdalen,  Ajmer,  with  19  Sisters,  a  high 
school  with  38  boarders  and  168  day  scholars;  the 
Convent  of  the  Assumption,  Mhow,  with  22  sis¬ 
ters,  a  high  school  with  23  boarders  and  90  day 
scholars;  St.  Joseph’s  School,  Mhow,  with  26  free 
boarders;  St.  Ann’s  School,  Mhow,  with  67  free 
boarders;  and  mission  schools  at  Mariapur  and 
Mikelpura.  Under  the  Mission  Sisters  are:  St. 
Angela’s  School,  Ajmer,  with  16  free  boarders; 
Sophia  School,  with  45  pagan  girls  of  high  caste; 
girls’  schools  at  Jhabua  and  Parbalpura.  Under 
the  Prabhudasi:  the  girls’  school  at  Thandla;  in 
addition  to  these  are  orphanages  and  sewing  classes 
at  Mikelpura,  Thandla,  and  other  towns;  St.  Cath¬ 
erine’s  Hospital,  Jhabua,  conducted  by  a  medically 
qualified  mission  sister;  Surgical  Home,  Indore, 
with  Franciscan  Nuns  as  nurses:  dispensaries  in 
•  10  places;  co-operative  banks  for  the  Bhils  at 
Thandla.  “The  Crusader,”  the  monthly  organ  for 
India  of  the  Enthronement  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
and  of  the  Archconfraternity  of  the  Three  Hail 
Marys  are  published  in  the  diocese. 

Akra,  Diocese  of  (Akrensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-376a), 
is  a  Catholic  diocese  of  the  Chaldean  Rite  in 
Kurdistan,  Turkey,  in  Asia.  It  was  formerly  united 
to  the  diocese  of  Amadia,  but  by  a  decree  of  24 
April,  1910,  it  was  separated  and  is  now  temporarily 
administered  by  the  Chaldean  Patriarch  of  Babylon, 
His  Excellency  Emmanuel  Joseph  Thomas.  In  1920 
there  were  2,390  Catholics  in  the  diocese,  16  priests, 

7  mission  stations,  15  churches  or  chapels  and  7 
schools. 

Alabama  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-240a).— The  State  of  Ala¬ 
bama  lias  an  area  of  51,998  square  miles,  of  which 
719  are  water  surface  and  51,279  land  surface.  Its 
area  in  acres  is  33,278,720. 


Population. — The  fourteenth  federal  census  (1920) 
gave  the  population  of  the  state  as  2,347,295,  or 
more  than  eighteen  times  that  of  1820.  The  rate  of 
increase  of  1920  over  1910  is  9.8  per  cent.  The 
average  number  of  persons  to  the  square  mile  was, 
in  1910,  41.7,  in  1920,  45.8.  The  urban  population 
was  509,317,  including  312,410  whites  and  196,833 
colored;  the  rural  population  was  1,838,857,  includ¬ 
ing  1,134,622  white  and  703,819  colored.  The  popu¬ 
lation  of  cities  was:  Anniston,  17,734;  Birmingham 
178,806;  Huntsville,  8,018;  Mobile,  60,777;  Mont¬ 
gomery,  43,464;  Selma,  15,589. 

Resources. — The  principal  crop  of  the  state  is 
cotton,  the  yield  in  1920  being  660,000  bales,  giving 
the  state  the  eighth  position  in  cotton  production. 
The  following  are  mineral  statistics  for  1917:  iron 
ore,  7,037,797  tons;  coal,  20,413,811  tons;  coke  4,868- 
593  tons;  pig  iron,  2,953,705  tons.  In  1919  there 
were  in  the  state  3,654  manufacturing  establish¬ 
ments  with  a  capital  of  $452,912,000,  employing  3,914 
officials  and  107,159  wage  earners,  and  turning  out 
a  product  valued  at  $492,731,000.  The  following 
are  the  statistics  of  railroad  mileage  (1919) :  5,441.87 
miles  of  main  track;  1,760  miles  of  side  track;  total 
value  of  main  line,  side  track  and  rolling  stock, 
$55,000,000.  The  public  debt  of  the  state  (1919) 
was  $15,351,702;  the  state  expenditure  in  the  same 
year  was  $12,702,744. 

Education.— At  present  (1920)  about  one-fourth 
of  the  state’s  revenues  goes  to  the  support  of  public 
or  common  schools  and  the  higher  institutions  of 
learning.  A  tenth  agricultural  school  and  experi¬ 
ment  station  has  been  recently  opened  at  Lineville, 
a  state  training  school  for  girls  at  Pinson,  and  a 
school  of  trades  and  industries  at  Ragland. 

The  state  laws  relative  to  private  and  parochial 
schools  are  as  follows:  English  shall  be  the  only 
language  employed  and  taught  in  the  first  six  grades 
of  the  elementary  schools;  every  teacher  employed 
in  the  schools  giving  instruction  to  pupils  within 
the  compulsory  attendance  age  shall  after  1  October, 
1920,  hold  a  teacher’s  certificate  issued  by  the  State 
Department  of  Education;  in  every  elementary 
school  in  the  state  there  shall  be  taught  at  least 
reading,  spelling,  handwriting,  arithmetic,  oral  and 
written  English,  geography,  history  of  the  United 
States  and  Alabama,  community  civics,  agriculture, 
elementary  science,  hygiene,  sanitation  and  physical 
training;  no  money  shall  be  appropriated  for  the 
support  of  sectarian  schools  (XIV,  263) ;  parochial 
schools  shall  by  10  October  of  each  year  register 
with  the  State  Department  of  Education,  and  re¬ 
port  enrolment,  instruction,  course  of  studies,  prop¬ 
erty,  funds,  tuition,  etc.;  officers  of  parochial  schools 
must  make  reports  required  by  superintendent  with 
reference  to  attendance. 

For  the  fiscal  year  ending  1  June,  1918,  the  state 
spent  for  educational  purposes  as  follows:  public 
or  common  schools  system,  $5,725,772 ;  Alabama 
Polytechnical  Institute,  $50,000;  University  of  Ala¬ 
bama,  $66,000;  deaf,  dumb  and  blind  institutions, 
$48,000;  Alabama  Industrial  School  for  White  Boys, 
$41,000. 

History. — Alabama’s  recent  development  has  been 
along  industrial  lines,  especially  during  the  war 
(1917).  The  federal  government  began  the  con¬ 
struction  of  an  experiment  plant  at  Sheffield  for 
the  manufacture  of  nitrogen  from  the  air,  and  later, 
by  means  of  a  vast  dam  across  the  Tennessee  River 
at  Florence,  proceeded  to  utilize  the  latent  water 
power  energy  at  Muscle  Shoals,  near  Sheffield,  with 
the  purpose  of  recovering  the  nitrogen  for  use  in 
the  manufacture  of  explosives.  In  1917  the  Warren 
River  was  opened  to  navigation,  the  first  steel  ship 
going  from  Birmingham  bv  water  to  Mobile.  The 


ALAGOAS 


22 


ALASKA 


importance  of  Mobile  as  a  port  was  greatly  in-  parts  of  Alaska  are  passing  through  the  stage  of 
creased  b\r  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal.  Ala-  the  deserted  mining  camp.  1  he  adoption  01 .  & 
bama’s  contribution  to  the  World  War  was  74,678  broad  constructive  policy  that  will  make  for  the 
soldiers,  or  1.99  per  cent  of  the  United  States  Army,  rational  development  of  Alaska  through  the  peo- 
They  trained  either  with  the  31st  Division  at  Camp  pling  of  the  country  and  the  financing  ot  indus- 
Wheeler  Georgia,  or  with  the  82d  Division  of  the  tries  will  do  much,  indeed,  for  the  nation. 

National’  Army  at  Camp  Gordon,  Georgia.  Of  the  Resources.— In  1918  the  output  of  canned  salmon 

casualties  in  the  Expeditionary  Forces,  46  officers  and  was  6,605,835  cases,  and  the  total  value  ot  the 

1  205  men  died;  5  officers  and  40  men  were  taken  fisheries  of  the  territory  was  $59,099,483. 

prisoners;  156  officers  and  3,705  men  were  wounded.  The  output  of  gold  for  the  fiscal  year  1918  was 

Religion. — According  to  the  most  reliable  in-  $9,108,500;  1919,  $9,036,300.  The  national  forests 
formation  the  Southern  Baptists  in  Alabama  num-  of  Alaska  have  an  area  of  about  20,579,000  acres 
ber  207  603;  the  Methodist  Episcopalians,  South,  (30  June,  1920).  The  total  wealth  accruing  to  the 
167  938-’  the  Southern  Presbyterians,  20,428.  The  United  States  from  its  Alaskan  possessions  between 
Catholic  population  of  the  state  in  1920  was  about  1867  and  1919  is  calculated  at  nearly  $600,000,000. 
40,000.  Convents  and  schools  are  conducted  in  During  the  fiscal  year  1919  the  bulk  of  tiade,  ex- 
Montgomery  by  the  Sisters  of  Loretto,  in  Selma  by  port  and  import,  amounted  to  $135,115,025.  There 
the  Sisters  of  Mercv,  in  Cullman  by  the  Sisters  of  are  180,000  animals  farmed  out  in  herds  to  the 
the  Sacred  Heart,  and  in  Birmingham  by  the  Sisters  various  mission  centers.  I 

of  St  Benedict.  Government  and  Revenue. — By  Act  of  Congress, 

On  5  March,’  1911,  Catholic  Mobile,  under  the  approved  24  August,  1912,  Alaska  became  a  terri- 
leadership  of  its  Bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Edward  P.  Allen,  tory  with  a  legislative  assembly  consisting  of  eight 
celebrated  the  bi-centenary  of  the  foundation  of  senators  and  sixteen  representatives.  Congress  re- 
the  city  by  a  solemn  pontifical  Mass  at  which  the  served  to  itself  the  right  to  legislate  on  certain 
late  Cardinal  Gibbons  presided,  followed  by  other  subjects,  so  that  the  territory  is  now  governed 
imposing  ceremonies.  conjointly  by  Congress  at  Washington  and  its  local 

Legislation. — The  sale  of  liquors  has  been  pro-  legislative  assembly.  The  delegate  to  Congress 
hibited  by  state  and  federal  legislation.  Alabama  participates  in  the  debate  but  has  no  vote.  Regular 
was  the  thirtieth  state  to  ratify  the  prohibition  sessions  are  held  biennially  at  Juneau,  the  capital, 
amendment,  14  January,  1919,  but  refused  to  ratify  Special  sessions  are  called  by  the  governor,  who  is 
the  suffrage  amendment,  2  September,  1919.  After  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States  for 
the  passage  of  the  Federal  Suffrage  Actr  an  ex-  four  years,  and.  is  assisted  by  a  sur\  eyoi-geneial, 
traordinary  session  of  the  legislature  was  called  who  is  ex-officio  secretary  of  the  territory.  In 
(1920).  It  was  decided  that  the  same  conditions  November,  1916,  Alaska  voted  for  territorial  pro- 
which  applied  to  male  voters  were  to  extend  to  hibition.  The  judicial  power  of.  the  territory  is 
women  voters,  and  an  amendment  was  proposed  vested  in  the  United  States  .District  Court  for 
providing  that  in  order  to  register  or  to  vote  the  Alaska,  and  in  probate,  and  juvenile  courts  and 
elector  must  be  of  good  character  and  must  under-  courts  of  justice.  The  Distiict  Couit  is  divided  into 
stand  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  citizenship  four  divisions.  There  is  no  provision  for.  taxation 
under  a  republican  government.  This  was  designed  of  real  or  personal  property,  except  in  municipalities 
to  prevent  the  voting  of  undesirable  females  of  (2  per  cent  only).  The  revenues  are  derived  from 
the  negro  race.  business  licenses.  There  is  no  funded  debt.  The 

. ,  _  ci  n  t  governor’s  message  to  the  Alaska  legislature  urged 

Alagoas,  Diocese  of.  bee  Maceio.  the  revision  of  the  act  to  regulate  marriage  and 

Alaska  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-246c) .— Area  and  Accessi-  marriage  licenses,  in  order  that  any  person  author- 
bility  —According  to  the  census  of  1920,  Alaska  ized  to  solemnize  marriage  between  parties  living 
embraces,  inclusive  of  the  islands,  590,884  square  more  than  twenty-five  miles  away  from  the  office 
miles.  The  total  area  including  water  surface  is  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  could  issue  mar- 
378,165,760  acres.  There  is  a  railway  of  112  miles  riage  licenses  as  agent  for  the  commissioner, 
from  Skagway  to  the  town  of  White  Horse  in  the  Education— The  federal  (Nelson)  law  provides 

Canadian  Yukon  region;  thence  transport  is  by  for  schools  outside  of  incorporated  school  districts 
coach  or  in  summer,  by  steamer.  The  Copper  and  receives  for  their  maintenance  25  per  cent  of 
River  and  Northwestern  Railway  completed  its  the  Alaska  fund.  The  territorial  laws  provide  for 
line  from  Cordova  to  Kennecott,  a  distance  of  197  schools  in  incorporated  towns,  one-fourth  of  the 
miles,  in  1911.  In  1915  the  route  for  the  Alaska  cost  of  maintenance  being  borne  by  the  town  or 
railroad  was  decided  upon,,  to  run  from  Seward  to  district  by  taxation  of  real  and  personal  property; 
Fairbanks,  a  distance  of  471  miles.  Of  this  398  this  includes  night  schools.  The  Board  of  Educa- 
miles  are  already  being  used.  tion,  which  is  composed  of  the  governor  and  four 

Population.— The  census  of  1920  revealed  a  sur-  senators,  appoints  the  territorial  commissioner  of 
prising  decrease  in  population  from  64,356  in  1910  education.  The  schools  for  the  education  of  the 
to  54  899.  natives  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  United 

Recent  History. — Intensely  patriotic,  the  first  States  Commissioner  of  Education  in  Washington, 
thought  of  the  Alaskans  during  the  World  War  In  1920  there  were  67  schools  in  Alaska  with  3,418 
was  service  to  their  country,  and  by  the  end  of  enrolled  pupils  and  163  teachers.  The  total  cost  of 
1918  the  exodus  assumed  the  proportions  of  a  instruction  was  $330,038.  An  appropriation  of  $60,- 
typical  Alaska  stampede.  Alaska’s  contribution  was  000  has  been  made  for  the  uncompleted  Alaska 
2  102  soldiers,  or  1.06  per  cent.  The  heavy  drain  Agricultural  College  and  School  of  Mines  near  Fair- 
of  man  power  resulted  in  curtailing  the  output  of  banks.  The  report  on  education  for  1918  (156-57) 
many  industries  and  in  the  interruption  of  all  new  enumerates  in  Alaska  three  schools  of  the  Russian 
development,  with  the  exception  of  the  fishing  and  Mission  ministering  to  Indians  of  their  own  com- 
1  umbering  industries,  which  were  enlarged  to  meet  munities  and  to  Russian  white  children, 
the  demand  for  food  and  airplane  material.  The  Catholic  Missions.— The  Prefecture  Apostolic 
production  of  gold  dropped  nearly  45  per  cent  comprising  the  586,400  square  miles  that  make  up 
between  1916  and  1919,  and  the  labor  employed  in  the  Territory-  of  Alaska  and  the  Aleutian  Islands 
all  forms  of  mining  was  cut  in  half.  Considerable  was  erected  into  a  Vicariate  Apostolic  22  December, 


ALATRI 


23 


ALBANIA 


1916.  The  Prefect  Apostolic,  Mgr.  Joseph  Crimont, 
S.  J.,  became  the  first  Vicar  Apostolic  and  was 
consecrated  titular  bishop  of  Ammedara,  25  July, 

1917.  There  are  at  present  (1920)  20  Jesuit  Fathers 
and  10  coadjutor  Jesuit  brothers,  20  stations  with 
chapels,  17  churches  with  resident  priests;  17  Sis¬ 
ters  of  Charity  of  Providence  from  Montreal,  26 
Sisters  of  St.  Anne  of  Sachine  and  8  Ursulines. 
The  total  population  is  about  72,000,  of  which  12,000 
are  Catholics,  about  one-half  of  these  being  natives. 
The  total  number  of  children  in  Catholic  institu¬ 
tions  is  1,000. 

Alatri,  Diocese  of  (Alatrinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-251a),  in  the  province  of  Rome,  Italy,  is  directly 
subject  to  the  Holy  See.  In  1909  Bishop  Bevilacqua 
came  to  this  see  as  successor  to  Bishop  Spila  who 
had  retired,  and  he  filled  the  see  until  his  transfer 
to  the  titular  see  of  Rhithymna,  when  he  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  on  1  July,  1915,  by  Rt.  Rev.  Michel  Izzi. 
Bishop  Izzi  died  31  December,  1917,  and  the  present 
incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Anthony  Torrini,  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Bishop  of  Alatri  23  December,  1918.  Born 
in  the  diocese  of  Fiesole,  1878,  he  served  as  vice¬ 
rector  of  the  seminary  of  Strada  and  then  rector  of 
the  seminary  of  Fiesole,  until  his  appointment  as 
bishop.  In  1920  the  Catholic  population  of  this 
diocese  numbered  33,000  and  there  were  16  parishes, 
62  secular  and  42  regular  clergy,  52  seminarians,  77 
churches  or  chapels,  31  brothers,  and  86  sisters. 

Alba  Julia,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Fogaras  and 
Alba  Julia. 

Alba  Pompeia,  Diocese  of  (Albae  Pompeii;  cf. 
C.  E.,  I-252c),  in  the  province  of  Cuneo,  Italy,  is 
suffragan  of  Turin.  The  present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev. 
Giuseppe  Francesco  Re,  b.  in  the  diocese  of  Turin, 
1.848,  was  appointed  to  this  diocese  30  December, 
1889.  The  number  of  Catholics  recorded  for  the 
diocese  in  1920  was  150,500  and  there  were  101 
parishes,  316  secular  and  11  regular  clergy,  43  semi¬ 
narians,  675  churches  or  chapels,  6  brothers,  and  ISO 
sisters. 

Albania  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-253b),  a  country  in  the 
Balkan  Peninsula,  corresponding  to  the  ancient 
.  Epirus  and  Illyria,  and  consisting,  under  the  Turkish 
regime,  of  the  provinces  of  Scutari  and  Yanina  and 
parts  of  the  vilayets  of  Kossovo  and  Monastir.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  Jugoslavia; 
on  the  south  by  Greece;  on  the  west  by  Adriatic; 
on  the  southwest  by  the  Ionian  Sea;  and  has  an 
area  of  about  11,000  square  miles.  The  exact  boun¬ 
daries  of  the  country  have  not  yet  been  settled.  The 
principal  cities  are  Durazzo,  Scutari  (largest  town), 
Elbasan,  and  Tirana.  The  principal  ports  are 
Valona  and  San  Giovanni  di  Medua.  About  two- 
thirds  of  the  Albanians  are  Moslems  (chiefly  of  the 
Bektashi  sect) ;  of  the  remaining  one-third  the 
Christians  in  the  north  are  for  the  most  part  Catho¬ 
lic;  those  in  the  south  belong  to  the  Greek  Church. 
There  is  a  total  of  121,440  Catholics.  The  esti¬ 
mated  population  is  about  825,000,  but  the  Albanians, 
as  a  race,  are  not  confined  to  Albania  alone,  for 
there  are  25,000  Albanians  in  Italy,  and  200,000  in 
Greece. 

Ecclesiastical  Division. — Albania  is  divided 
ecclesiastically  into  the  Archdiocese  of  Scutari, 
where  the  Jesuits  have  their  seminary  with  suffragan 
sees  of  Alessio,  Pulati,  and  Sappa;  the  Archdiocese 
of  Durazzo  with  the  suffragan  see  of  Croia;  Uskub, 
without  suffragans,  and  the  abbey  nullius  of  St. 
Alexander  of  Orosci  or  Miridite  (q.  v.).  Durazzo 
and  Uskub  depend  directly  on  the  Holy  See.  An 
Apostolic  Delegation  was  erected  in  Albania 
November,  1920,  with  its  seat  in  the  city  of  Scutari. 


Mgr. ‘Ernesto  Cozzi  was  the  first  Apostolic  Delegate. 
In  1921,  following  much  political  and  religious  ani¬ 
mosity,  Albania’s  complete  separation  from  the 
Greek  Church  took  place.  This  final  excision  of 
the  Albanians  from  religious  connection  with  the 
Greek  Patriarchate  was  accomplished  by  Fan  Roli, 
who  won  much  prestige  as  president  of  Albania’s 
delegation  to  the  League  of  Nations. 

Government. — The  foundations  of  the  present 
Government  were  laid  by  the  Convention  of  Lusnia, 
January,  1920,  when  it  was  decided  that  the  govern¬ 
mental  authority  should  be  lodged  in  three  distinct 
but  correlative  bodies.  First  in  rank  comes  the 
Regency  Council — composed  of  two  Christians  and 
two  Moslems — which  takes  the  place  of  the  chief 
executive.  Its  authority  is  not  very  wide.  The  sec¬ 
ond  body  is  the  Council  of  Ministers,  or  Cabinet, 
composed  of  the  departmental  heads  of  the  Govern¬ 
ment;  it  is  responsible  to  the  third  body,  Parlia¬ 
ment.  The  Parliament  consists  of  seventy-two 
members  forming  one  chamber  and  elected  by  the 
people.  The  Cabinet  is  in  reality  the  body  that 
wields  the  executive  power,  subject  to  the  dictates 
of  Parliament  and  to  the  exigencies  of  the  party 
S3^stem.  As  to  the  future  government,  plans  are 
unsettled,  the  probability  being  in  favor  of  a  con¬ 
stitutional  monarchy. 

Recent  History. — At  Valona  on  28  November, 
1912,  the  independence  of  Albania  was  proclaimed 
and  on  20  December,  1912,  at  the  London  Ambas¬ 
sadorial  Conference  it  was  guaranteed.  The  crown 
was  offered  to  Prince  William  of  Wied  by  an 
Austrian  deputation  at  Neuwied  on  21  February, 

1914,  and  accepted.  The  government  of  the  country 
was  vested  in  the  hands  of  the  Prince,  supported 
and  advised  by  an  International  Commission  of 
Control.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War, 
however,  the  Prince'  and  nearly  all  of  the  Commis¬ 
sion  left  the  country,  which  fell  into  a  state  of 
anarchy.  An  attempt  by  Essad  Pasha  Topdani  to 
establish  a  military  government  failed  (October, 
1914).  He  had  been  expelled  from  the  country  in 
May,  but  returned  with  the  departure  of  the  Prince 
of  Wied.  In  the  secret  treaty  of  London,  April, 

1915,  Albania  was  partitioned  among  Italy,  Greece, 
and  Servia,  During  the  European  War  the  Aus¬ 
trians  overran  Albania,  capturing  San  Giovanni  di 
Medua  in  January  and  Durazzo  in  February,  1916. 
On  3  June,  1917,  General  Ferrero,  the  commander 
of  the  Italian  Expedition  in  Albania,  officially  de¬ 
clared  the  independence  of  Albania  under  the  pro¬ 
tection  of  the  Italian  Crown  and  set  up  a  provisional 
government  at  Durazzo.  In  December,  1918,  how¬ 
ever,  the  Albanians  convened  the  national  Albanian 
Assembly  at  Durazzo,  and  elected  the  first  governor 
of  the  re-established  Albanian  state  in  the  face  of 
the  opposition  of  the  Italian  authorities.  The  Ital¬ 
ians  retaliated  by  interfering  with  the  cables  and 
telegraphs,  and  suppressing  the  news  about  the  new 
Albanian  government.  Again,  in  1919,  the  partition 
of  Albania  was  proposed  and  roused  great  indigna¬ 
tion,  especially  that  of  President  Wilson  of  the 
United  States,  who  forced  the  abandonment  of  the 
proposals.  In  January  a  National  Congress  of 
Albanians  gathered  at  Lusnia  and  elected  a  Regency 
Council  of  notables  to  act  in  the  place  of  a  prince, 
and  also  a  Government  under  the  premiership  of 
Suleiman  Bey  Delvina.  Shortly  afterwards  the  seat 
of  the  administration  was  moved  to  Tirana.  The 
Italians  came  to  an  agreement  with  the  Albanians 
at  Tirana  on  2  August,  1920,  and  evacuated  the 
Valona  district,  which'  they  had  held  for  several 
years,  retaining  no  hold  on  Albania,  except  the  right 
to  fortify  Cape  Linguetta  and  Cape  Trepanti.  Italy 
retained  the  island  of  Sasseno,  and  also  recognized 


ALBANO 


24 


ALBI 


the  independence  of  Albania.  In  this  protocol'  the 
provisions  of  the  secret  Treaty  of  London  parti¬ 
tioning  Albania  were  annulled  and  the  French 
troops  were  forced  to  withdraw.  On  17  December, 
1920,  Albania  was  admitted  to  membership  in  the 
League  of  Nations.  The  Albanian  frontiers  of  1913 
are  again  being  considered  as  the  boundaries  of  the 
present  Albania,  which  means  that  Scutari,  Koriza, 
and  Argyrovastron  are  to  belong  to  her.  This,  how¬ 
ever,  leaves  out  the  1,500,000  Albanians  in  the 
provinces  of  Chameria,  held  by  Greece,  and  in 
Kossovo  and  Dibra. 

Albano,  Diocese  of  (Albanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-255d),  a  suburbicarian  diocese  in  the  province  of 
Rome,  in  central  Italy.  The  see  is  now  (1922)  filled 
by  His  Eminence  Granito  Pignatelli  di  Belmonte,  b. 
at  Naples,  1851,  ordained  1879,  attached  to  the  office 
of  the  Secretary  of  State,  1893,  and  ablegate  to 
France  the  same  year,  appointed  titular  archbishop 
of  Edessa,  10  November,  1899,  made  apostolic 
nuncio  in  Belgium  the  same  year,  and  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  1904,  returned  to  Rome,  1911,  and  made 
cardinal  priest  27  November  of  that  year.  He 
represented  the  pope  at  the  coronation  of  King 
George  V  of  England  (1911),  and  in  1914  attended 
the  Eucharistic  Congress  of  Lourdes  as  papal  legate. 
He  was  promoted  to  this  see  5  January,  1916,  as 
successor  to  Cardinal  Agliardi,  d.  19  March,  1915. 
By  1920  statistics  the  Catholic  population  of  the 
diocese  numbers  50,000  and  there  are  12  parishes, 
60  secular  and  100  regular  clergy,  35  seminarians 
and  62  churches  or  chapels. 

Albany,  Diocese  of  (Albanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-256b),  comprises  10,419  sq.  miles  in  the  State  of 
New  York,  U.  S.  A., .and  is  suffragan  of  Buffalo. 
For  more  than  twenty  years  this  see  was  filled 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  Burke,  born  in  Utica,  N.  Y., 
in  1840,  ordained  in  1864,  and  appointed  bishop 
15  May,  1894.  In  1902  he  was  made  a  knight 
of  the  Grand  Cross  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  and 
took  the  cross  as  his  coat  of  arms;  on  30  May, 

1914,  he  was  named  an  assistant  at  the  pontifical 
throne.  Bishop  Burke  died  suddenly  on  20  January, 

1915,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas 
F.  Cusack,  born  in  New  York  City  1862,  ordained 
1885,  made  superior  of  the  New  York  diocesan 
missionaries  in  1897,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Themyscira  and  auxiliary  to  the  Archbishop  of 
New  York,  11  March,  1904,  and  transferred  to 
Albany,  5  July,  1915.  Upon  the  death  of  Bishop 
Cusack  12  July,  1918,  his  successor  was  appointed 
in  the  person  of  Rt.  Rev.  Edmund  Gibbons,  10 
March,  1919,  and  consecrated  by  Mgr.  Bonzano  in 
Buffalo,  25  March  following.  Born  in  White  Plains, 
N.  Y.,  1868,  Bishop  Gibbons  made  his  final  studies 
at  the  American  College  in  Rome  in  1887,  and  was 
ordained  in  the  church  of  St.  John  Lateran,  27 
May,  1893.  He  served  as  episcopal-secretary  and 
pastor,  and  was  appointed  to  the  episcopacy  10 
March,  1919,  and  consecrated  25  March  following. 
He  is  the  sixth  bishop  of  this  see. 

The  religious  orders  established  in  the  diocese 
include :  men,  Minor  Conventuals,  Franciscans, 
Paulists,  Redemptorists  and  Brothel  s  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Schools;  women,  Religious  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic,  of  Mercy,  of  the 
Holy  Name,  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Little  Sisters 
of  the  Poor,  Daughters  of  Charity,  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  of  Carondolet,  and  Presentation  Nuns.  By 
latest  statistics  (1922)  the  Catholic  population  of  this 
territory  numbers  215,412;  comprising  Germans,  Aus¬ 
trians,  Poles,  Ruthenians,  Slovaks,  Italians,  French, 
and  Lithuanians,  besides  the  American  born.  The 
diocese  comprises  254  secular  and  52  regular  priests, 


202  churches  (1  of  the  Maronite  Rite),  47  missions 
with  churches,  64  mission  stations,  30  chapels,  82 
clerical  students,  2  colleges  for  men  and  1  for 
women,  30  parochial  high  schools  with  4631  pupils, 
6  academies  with  639  boys  and  601  girls,  2  normal 
schools  with  12  teachers  and  100  students,  60  par¬ 
ishes  with  parochial  schools  with  22,812  pupils, 
6  orphan  asylums,  2  refuges,  3  day  nurseries,  3 
hospitals,  and  6  homes;  12  public  institutions  per¬ 
mit  the  priests  to  minister  in  them.  A  total  of 
23,321  children  are  under  Catholic  care.  The 
Clerical  Fund  Society  is  established  among  the 
clergy,  and  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  Catholic 
Daughters  of  America,  Knights  of  St.  John,  Ladies’ 
Catholic  Benevolent  Association,  and  National 
Catholic  Welfare  Council  are  organized  among  the 
laity. 

Albenga,  Diocese  of  (Albiganensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-258c),  in  the  Province  of  Genoa,  Italy,  is  suffragan 
to  the  Archdiocese  of  Genoa.  Rt.  Rev.  Filippo 
Allegro,  who  came  to  this  see  in  1879  and  filled  it 
for  thirty-one  years,  died  2  December,  1910.  His 
successor,  Rt  Rev.  Joseph  Cattaroni,  was  appointed 
11  April,  1911,  but  transferred  to  Belluno  in  Novem¬ 
ber,  1913.  The  next  incumbent,  Bishop  Carletti, 
was  appointed  in  July,  1914,  consecrated  13  Septem¬ 
ber,  and  died  23  October  of  the  same  year,  before 
he  had  been  installed.  He  was  succeeded  by  the 
present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Angelo  Cambiaso,  b.  at 
Genoa,  1865,  ordained  1889,  appointed  bishop  22 
January,  1915,  and  consecrated  21  March  following. 
The  diocese  has  a  Catholic  population  of  125,000, 
167  parishes,  258  secular  and  86  regular  clergy,  50 
seminarians,  354  churches  or  chapels,  50  brothers 
and  190  sisters. 

Albi,  Archdiocese  of  (Albiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,* 
I-267a),  in  France,  comprises  the  Department  of 
Tarn.  At  the  time  of  its  re-establishment  in  1882, 
it  united  the  ancient  Bishoprics  of  Castres  and 
Laveur.  The  first  monastery  founded  in  the  arch¬ 
diocese  was  that  of  St.  Salvy  near  Albi.  Many  of 
its  parishes  are  very  ancient,  having  existed  before 
the  time  of  Charlemagne.  The  cathedral  of  St. 
Cecelia  is  southern  Gothic  in  architecture,  though 
it  gives  the  impression  of  a  fortified  church.  The 
ancient  Benedictine  Abbey  of  Soreze  was  founded 
26  August,,  816,  by  Pepin,  son  of  Louis  the  Pious. 
The  Abbey  of  Castres,  which  later  gave  birth  to 
the  city  of  Castres,  dates  from  819,  its  founder  being 
St.  Benedict  of  Aniane,  acting  under  the  patronage 
of  Louis  the  Pious.  The  monasteiy  was  originally 
called  St.  Benedict  of  Belle-Celle,  the  name  of 
Castres  being  added  in  the  middle  of  the  ninth 
century. 

The  present  (1922)  Archbishop  is  Mgr.  Pierre- 
Celestin  Cezerac,  who  succeeded  the  late  Mgr. 
Mignot  in  1918.  Born  in  1856,  at  Caussens  in  the 
Diocese  of  Auch,  he  was  ordained  in  1880,  was  made 
vicar  general  of  the  diocese  in  1900,  and  consecrated 
bishop  of  Cahors,  4  January,  1912.  Six  years  later 
he  was  promoted  to  the  titular  Archbishopric  of 
Caesarea  Mauretaniae  and  made  coadjutor  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Albi.  On  27  June,  1919,  Mgr.  Cezerac 
promulgated  the  Brief  erecting  into  an  archcon¬ 
fraternity  the  confraternity  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of 
Jesus  and  Mary  established  for  some  time  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Mary  Magdalen;  and  the  decree  of 
the  Congregation  of  Rites  granting  a  votive  Mass 
of  the  Sacred  Heart.  A  diocesan  synod  attended  by 
more  than  140  priests,  was  held  from  23  to  26 
August,  1920,  the  first  to  be  convened  since  1881. 

The  Church  in  France  suffered  a  great  loss  in 
the  predecessor  of  Mgr.  Cezerac,  Mgr.  Mignot,  who 
died  18  March,  .1918.  Born  in  1842  at  Brancourt, 


ALBI 


ALEPPO 


9q 


he  was  ordained  in  1865,  became  vicar  general  of 
the  diocese  of  Soissons,  in  1887,  and  three  years 
later  was  made  Bishop  of  Frejus,  whence  he  was 
promoted  to  Albi  in  December,  1899.  His  episcopate 
was  marked  by  the  great  impetus  given  to  doctrinal 
studies  amongst  the  clergy,  and  by  the  development 
of  the  Catholic  press  and  of  social  organizations, 
notably  L’association  de  la  jeunesse  jrancaise.  Un¬ 
der  his  wise  guidance  the  difficult  application  of  the 
Associations  and  Separation  Laws  took  place  with 
very  little  change  in  the  religious  life  of  the  diocese. 
The  schools  were  reopened  with  a  secularized  per¬ 
sonnel,  no  churches  were  closed,  and  the  numerous 
secular  clergy  were  suported  either  by  state  pensions 
or  the  funds  of  the  diocese. 

The  apostolate  of  Mgr.  Mignot  was  peculiarly  an 
intellectual  one,  and  his  published  works,  “Lettres 
a  son  clerge  sur  les  etudes  ecclesiastiques,”  “L’eglise 
et  la  critique,”  “Quelques  accusations  portees  contre 
l’eglise,”  “La  necessite  de  l’enseignement  chretien,” 
etc.,  testify  to  his  enlightened  scholarship  and  his 
worth  as  philosopher,  theologian,  and  apologist. 

Other  prominent  people  of  Albi  recently  deceased 
are  Mgr.  Gabriel  Cazes  (1849-1920),  arch-priest  of 
Castra;  the  Baroness  Renee  Reille,  foundress  of  the 
French  Patriotic  League;  Jean  Jaures,  deputy  from 
Tarn,  head  of  the  United  Socialists  and  enemy  of 
religion,  who  was  assassinated  during  the  war. 

Of  the  863  priests  in  the  diocese,  besides  56  semi¬ 
narians,  349  were  mobilized  during  the  World  War: 
7  as  chaplains,  41  as  volunteers,  15  as  commissioned, 
and  32  as  non-commissioned  officers.  The  Cross  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor  was  conferred  on  10,  the 
Military  Medal  on  5,  and  the  War  Cross  on  90, 
while  there  were  150  citations.  Sixteen  secular  and 
fifteen  regular  priests  and  nine  seminarians  gave  up 
their  lives. 

The  statistics  for  1921  are  as  follows:  507  par¬ 
ishes,  49  first  class,  452  second  class  and  6  vicarial 
chapels;  720  secular  and  50  regular  priests,  60  broth¬ 
ers,  all  secularized,  1  monastery  of  Benedictines,  1 
convent  of  men  of  the  Third  Order  Regular  of  St. 
Francis;  15  convents  of  women,  3  Carmelites,  2 
Poor  Clares,  Benedictines,  Sisters  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Agony,  Sisters  of  the 
Cross,  Daughters  of  Jesus,  Religious  Adorers  of  the 
Most  Blessed  Sacrament,  Sisters  of  the  Presentation, 
Sisters  of  St.  Dominic,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of 
Oulias  and  the  Institute  of  the  Immaculate  Con¬ 
ception.  Since  the  Associations  Law  went  into 
effect,  many  of  the  2,500  members  of  these  com¬ 
munities  have  been  doing  missionary  work  in  other 
countries.  There  are  1  theological  seminary  with 
7  professors  and  60  students,  and  3  preparatory 
seminaries  with  580  students.  The  educational  in¬ 
stitutions  include,  3  colleges  for  boys,  professors  15, 
pupils  600 ;  18  academies  for  girls,  teachers  80, 
pupils  1,000;  186  free  elementary  schools,  teachers 
431,  pupils  10,496.  Charitable  works  comprise  1 
orphanage,  3  infant  asylums.  1  insane  asylum,  1  free 
dispensary,  15  hospitals  in  charge  of  Sisters,  1  house 
of  refuge.  Missionary  work  in  the  diocese  is  done 
by  the  Franciscans  of  Ambialet. 

Organizations  amongst  the  clergy  are:  The  Re¬ 
lief  Fund,  Priestly  League,  Diocesan  Mutual  Asso¬ 
ciation,  Pious  Association  for  the  Relief  of  De¬ 
ceased  Priests,  and  the  Third  Orders.  For  the  laity 
there  are,  The  Association  for  Catholic  Young 
People,  Third  Orders  Secular  of  St.  Francis  and  St. 
Dominic,  Patriotic  League,  Professional  Association 
of  Catholic  Railroad  Workers,  and  Christian 
Workers. 

Catholic  periodicals  are  the  “Croix  de  Tarn,”  “Le 
Semeur,”  “La  Semaine  Religieuse.”  and  numerous 
parochial  bulletins. 


Albini,  Charles  Dominique,  priest  and  mis¬ 
sionary  b.  at  Mentone,  26  November,  1790;  d.  in 
Corsica,  21  May,  1839.  On  the  completion  of  his 
early  studies  he  entered  the  theological  seminary  at 
Cimiez,  where  he  was  distinguished  by  his  intelli¬ 
gence  and  piety.  After  his  ordination  in  1815,  the 
bishop  entrusted  him  with  several  important  mis¬ 
sions,  and  later  made  him  superior  of  the  seminary. 
Desiring  to  lead  a  life  of  greater  perfection,  he 
entered  the  Society  of  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate 
at  Aix  in  1824.  His  virtue  was  such  that  by  apos¬ 
tolic  indult  he  was  professed  after  a  few  months 
novitiate.  Sent  to  Marseilles,  he  labored  with  great 
zeal  and  remarkable  results,  and  later  founded  and 
took  charge  of  the  Italian  Missions.  In  1835  he 
was  sent  to  Vico,  in  Corsica,  to  open  a  new  house  of 
his  congregation;  his  indefatigable  work  in  the 
pulpit  and  in  the  confessional  gained  many  souls  to 
God.  Exhausted  by  his  untiring  labors,  he  died  a 
saintly  death  at  the  age  of  forty-nine,  receiving  the 
Last  Sacraments  from  Father  Guibert,  later  Cardinal 
Archbishop  of  Paris.  The  cause  of  Father  Albini’s 
canonization  was  introduced  14  April,  1915,  and 
confirmed  by  the  Pope. 

Albright  Brethren  (cf.  C.  I.,  I-270b).—I.  Evan¬ 
gelical  Association. — This  body,  known  variously 
as  “New  Methodists,”  “Albrights,”  “Albright  Breth¬ 
ren,”  numbered  155,114  members  in  1916.  In  the 
United  States  it  had  120,756  members,  1,582  church 
edifices  and  1,051  ministers.  It  supports  missions  in 
Japan,  China,  Germany,  Switzerland,  Russia  and 
Canada,  employing  24  American  missionaries,  chiefly 
in  Asia,  conducting  15  hospitals  and  1  orphanage. 

II.  United  Evangelical  Church. — In  1894,  due 
to  a  schism,  this  sect  broke  away  from  the  Evan¬ 
gelical  Association.  In  doctrine  it  does  not  differ 
essentially  from  that  body 'nor  from  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church.  In  recent  years  there  has  been 
a  movement  toward  reunion  with  the  parent  body, 
the  Evangelical  Association.  In  1916  it  claimed 
89,774  members,  905  church  edifices,  and  610  minis¬ 
ters.  Its  foreign  mission  work  is  confined  to  the 
province  of  Hu-nan,  in  China,  where  there  are  28 
missionaries,  8  churches,  13  schools,  and  2  hospitals 
or  dispensaries. 

H.  K.  Carroll’s  statistics  for  the  two  bodies  in 
1921  (“Christian  Herald,”  7  March,  1921),  listed 
1,597  ministers,  2,399  church  edifices,  and  209,047 
members  in  the  United  States. 

Religious  Bodies,  1916.  (Washington,  D.  C.,  1909);  Year 
Book  of  the  Churches,  1920.  (New  York,  1920.) 

Aleppo,  Archdiocese  of  (Aleppensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-283b),  in  Syria,  is  governed  by  four  Catholic 
archbishops  for  the  Melchite,  Syrian,  Armenian  and 
Maronite  Rites.  Those  of  the  Latin  Rite  are  gov¬ 
erned  by  a  vicar  apostolic,  who  is  at  the  same  time 
apostolic  delegate  of  Syria,  with  residence  at  Beirut, 
and  constitute  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Aleppo, 
which  was  separated  from  the  general  Vicariate  of 
Constantinople  in  1762.  This  territory  has  about 
2,350,000  Latin  Catholics  and  10,250  of  other  rites. 
In  1920  the  archdiocese  counted  a  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  23,476  (Greeks,  Uniats  or  Melchites,  Syrians, 
Armenians  and  Maronites),  700,000  Mohammedans, 
20,000  Jews,  30,000  Armenian  Schismatics,  15,000 
Greek  Schismatics,  4,000-  Protestants  and  6,000  of 
the  sect  of  Jezides.  There  are  6  parishes,  16  mis¬ 
sions,  5  regular  priests,  5  churches  and  5  schools 
with  370  pupils,  for  the  Armenian  Rite;  16  secular 
and  2  regular  clergy,  2  churches  and  3  schools  for 
the  Greek  Melchites ;  7  parishes,  16  priests,  5 
churches,  6  seminarians,  4  schools,  3  of  which  are 
free,  and  the  Institute  of  Notre  Dame  de  Lourdes 
at  Aleppo  under  the  Franciscan  Missionaries  of 


ALES 


26 


ALEXIAN  BROTHERS 


Mary,  for  the  Maronites;  14  secular  priests,  5  par¬ 
ishes,  4  missions  and  5  churches,  1  secondary  school 
for  boys  (200  pupils),  1  for  girls  (160  pupils),  and 
1  orphanage  for  the  Syrians.  Rt.  Rev.  Denis- 
Fphrem  Naccachi,  appointed  Archbishop  for  the 
Syrians  5  April,  1903,  died  13  March,  1920,  and  on 
28  August,  1921,  the  diocese  lost  Dr.  Philippus 
Shaual,  chorepiscopus.  A  Syrian  Catholic  fills  the 
post  of  Minister  of  Economics  and  Agriculture. 
The  diocese  is  now  administered  for  the  Syrians 
by  Most  Rev.  TheophilusrGabriel  Tappouni,  trans¬ 
ferred  to  this  diocese  in  September,  1921 ;  for  the 
Armenians  by  Most  Rev.  Augustin  Sayeghian, 
appointed  6  July,  1902,  for  the  Greek  Melchites, 
by  Most  Rev.  Peter  Macarios  Saba,  promoted  23 
June,  1919,  and  for  the  Maronites  by  Most  Rev. 
Michael  Akras,  appointed  24  February,  1913.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  World  War  the  Syrian  archbishop,  with 
several  of  the  clergy,  was  imprisoned  for  three  and 
a  half  months,  while  the  churches  and  other  build¬ 
ings  were  seized  by  the  soldiers.  Since  the  war  all 
the  territory  included  in  this  diocese  has  been  freed 
from  the  Turkish  yoke. 

Ales  and  Terralba,  Diocese  of  (Uxellensis 
and  Terralbensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-283d),  in  the 
province  of  Cagliari,  Italy,  is  suffragan  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Oristano.  The  present  bishop,  Rt. 
Rev.  Francesco  Emanuelli,  b.  at  Andagno,  1863, 
served  as  rector  of  the  seminary  of  Cagliari  and  was 
appointed  bishop  29  August,  after  a  vacancy  of  four 
years,  to  succeed  Bishop  Garau-Onida,  d.  1906.  The 
episcopal  residence  is  at  Ales.  In  1920  there  were 
59,530  Catholics  in  the  diocese,  42  parishes,  83 
secular  priests,  16  seminarians  and  108  churches  or 
chapels. 

Alessandria  della  Paglia,  Diocese  of  (Alexan- 
drinensis  Statiellorum  ;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-282d),  in 
Piedmont,  Italy,  a  suffragan  of  Vercelli.  Rt.  Rev. 
Giuseppe  Capecci,  who  was  appointed  to  this  see  19 
April,  1897,  died  16  July,  1918,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Giosue  Signori,  b.  at  Commenduno 
1859,  appointed  Bishop  of  Fossano  15  April,  1910, 
transferred  to  Alessandria  della  Paglia,  23  Decem¬ 
ber,  1918,  and  installed  10  March,  1919.  In  1920 
the  Catholic  population  of  this  diocese  numbered 
140,500  and  there  were  63  parishes,  210  secular  and 
25  regular  clergy,  50  seminarians,  200  churches  or 
chapels  and  160  sisters. 

Alessio,  Diocese  of  (Alexiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-284c),  in  Albania,  suffragan  of  Scutari.  Bishop 
Deda,  who  was  made  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Mal- 
czyinski  in  1904,  succeeded  him  as  Bishop  of  Alessio 
21  April,  1908,  and  filled  the  see  until  his  death  8 
October,  1910.  The  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev. 
Louis  Bumci,  b.  at  Scutari,  1872,  was  appointed 
bishop  18  September,  1911.  Within  the  diocesan 
limits  is  the  quasi-episcopal  abbey  of  Miridite 
(q.  v.).  In  1920  there  were  15,000  Catholics  in  the 
diocese,  9  secular  and  3  regular  clergy,  13  churches 
and  5  sisters. 

Alexandria,  Diocese  of  (Alexandrinensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  I-302d),  in  Ontario,  Canada,  is  suffragan  to 
the  Archdiocese  of  Kingston.  Its  first  bishop,  Rt. 
Rev.  Alexander  MacDonell,  who  came  to  the  see  in 
1900,  d.  29  May,  1905,.  and  the  second  bishop,  Rt. 
Rev.  William  Andrew  MacDonell,  b.  in  St.  Andre, 
1853,  was  appointed  21  March,  1906.  Bishop 
MacDonell  died  17  November,  1920,  and  on  28 
June,  1921,  the  third  and  present  bishop  of  the 
diocese,  Rt.  Rev.  Felix  Couturier,  Dominican,  titular 
Bishop  of  Myriophvtos,  was  appointed  to  succeed 
him.  By  1921  statistics  there  were  21,000  Catholics 
in  the  diocese,  22  priests,  80  religious  women,  17 


parishes,  23  churches,  6  convents,  and  1  hospital. 
The  religious  orders  established  in  the  diocese  are: 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of  Providence,  Sisters 
of  the  Holy  Cross  and  Seven  Dolors  and  Brothers 
of  the  Presentation. 

Alexandria,  Diocese  of  (Alexandrina  in  Loui¬ 
siana;  cf.  C.  E.,  X-710b),  created  in  August,  1910, 
from  the  former  See  of  Natchitoches,  is  under  the 
direction  of  Rt.  Rev.  Cornelius  Van  de  Ven,  D.  D., 
who  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Natchitoches  30 
November,  1904,  and  was  instrumental  in  having 
the  see  transferred.  It  includes  the  same  territory 
as  Natchitoches  and  has  a  Catholic  population  of 
about  44,500,  comprising  25,000  whites  of  French 
descent;  2,500  Mexicans;  2,000  Italians;  9,000  other 
whites;  and  6,000  negroes.  There  are  25  parishes 
and  50  missions  with  75  churches  in  all,  27  secular 
priests,  11  regular;  8  lay  brothers  and  10  semi¬ 
narians;  2  convents  for  men;  18  for  women  with 
197  sisters;  2  colleges  for  men  with  15  teachers  and 
an  attendance  of  450;  1  college  for  women  with  5 
teachers;  4  academies  for  girls  with  a  total  attend¬ 
ance  of  762,  and  1  normal  school.  An  orphan  asylum 
for  boys  and  girls  was  founded  in  1917  near  Pine- 
ville  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Incarnate 
Word,  of  Galveston,  and  now  has  56  inmates.  There 
are  two  Catholic  hospitals  in  the  diocese,  one  under 
the  direction  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Incar¬ 
nate  Word,  the  other  under  the  Franciscan  Sisters 
of  Calais,  France,  and  the  priests  of  the  diocese  are 
admitted  to  minister  in  the  Louisiana  Hospital  for 
the  Insane  and  the  United  States  Public  Health 
Hospital.  During  the  World  War  one  priest,  the 
Rev.  F.  J.  Plutz,  served  as  a  chaplain  in  the  army, 
and  the  laity  did  its  full  duty  in  all  respects.  The 
various  societies  established  in  the  diocese  are :  The 
Knights  of  Columbus,  Catholic  Knights  of  America 
and  the  Holy  Name  Society. 

Alexandria,  Patriarchate  of  (Alexandriensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  I-299d),  in  Egypt.  It  comprises  the 
Coptic,  Latin  and  Armenian  Rites,  the  head  of  the 
first  named  being  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  with  resi¬ 
dence  at  Cairo.  This  rite  is  at  present  under  an 
Apostolic  administrator,  Bishop  Sedfaoui,  the  last 
patriarch,  His  Excellency  Mgr.  Macaire  having  re¬ 
tired  in  1908.  Belonging  to  this  rite  there  are  5,500 
of  the  inhabitants,  11  priests,  21  churches  or  chapels, 

1  seminary,  9  secondary  schools  and  19  elementary 
schools.  The  patriarchate  for  the  Latin  Rite  is 
titular,  the  patriarch,  Mgr.  Paul  De  Huyn,  residing 
in  Rome.  Mgr.  De  Huyn  was  appointed  successor 
to  Mgr.  Marinangeli,  who  died  6  March,  1921. 

A  diocese  is  established  for  the  Armenian  Rite 
which  comprises  the  whole  of  Egypt  with  the  epis¬ 
copal  seat  at  Cairo.  The  present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev. 
John  Couzain,  born  at  Mardin,  1875,  was  appointed, 
27  August,  1911,  to  succeed  Bishop  Kojounian,  pro¬ 
moted  to  the  titular  see  of  Chalcedon.  In  1920 
there  were  in  this  diocese,  2,300  Armenian  Catholics, 
70,000  of  other  rites,  9,500,000  infidels,  650,000 
Schismatics,  87  missionaries,  5  native  regular  clergy, 

2  primary  stations,  2  secondary  stations,  and  3 
churches. 

Alexian  Brothers  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-306d).— In  1865 
Brother  Bonaventura  Thelen  established  the  Alexian 
Brothers  in  the  United  States,  in  Chicago,  Ill;, 
where  in  the  first  fifty  years  of  its  existence  the 
Brothers’  hospital  cared  for  101,633  patients,  of 
whom  50,905  were  Catholics,  37,775  Protestants, 
6,430  Jews,  and  6,523  of  no  religion.  Of  this  num¬ 
ber  35,082  were  nursed  free  of  charge.  The  present 
hospital,  erected  in  1895,  ranks  with  the  best 
equipped  hospitals  in  the  country.  Connected  with 


ALGERIA 


27 


ALGERIA 


it  is  the  mother-house  and  novitiate  of  the  Alexian 
Brothers  for  the  United  States,  and  the  training 
school  for  the  members  of  the  community.  Candi¬ 
dates  for  admission  to  this  order  are  received  be¬ 
tween  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  thirty-three  years, 
are  trained  in  hospital  work  as  well  as  in  the  duties 
of  the  religious  state,  and  observe  the  Rule  of  St. 
Augustine.  The  Brothers  also  conduct  hospitals  in 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Elizabeth,  N.  J.,  and  Oshkosh,  Wis. 

On  22  May,  1906,  at  the  meeting  of  the  General 
Chapter  of  the  Alexian  Brothers,  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
Germany,  Brother  Paulus  Overbeck  was  elected  as 
superior  general,  to  succeed  Brother  Quirinus  Bank, 
who  had  held  that  position  for  fifteen  years.  In 
1911  Overbeck  was  re-elected  and  remained  superior 
general,  by  special  permission  of  the  Holy  See, 
until  1920,  as  owing  to  the  World  War  it  was  im¬ 
possible  to  hold  a  general  chapter  for  an  election 
of •  the  general  council  of  the  community.  At  that 
date  Brother  Alexius  Jansen,  who  had  been  pro¬ 
vincial  rector  of  the  American  province,  was  elected 
superior  general.  The  general  chapter  resolved  a 
series  of  alterations  in  the  statutes  of  the  com¬ 
munity  demanded  by  the  new  Canon  Law;  these 
changes  are  now  awaiting  the  approval  of  the  Holy 
See. 

During  the  World  War  and  its  subsequent  up¬ 
heavals  the  growth  of  the  community  was  very 
much  retarded,  but  since  then  several  new  branch 
hospitals  have  been  opened;  one  at  Malseneck  near 
Munich,  Bavaria,  another  at  Yiersen,  Rheinprovinz, 
Germany,  while  a  branch  house  and  novitiate 
are  to  be  established  in  Ireland.  In  the  United 
States  the  number  of  candidates  for  the  Brother¬ 
hood  is  on  the  increase,  and  the  Brothers  contem¬ 
plate  starting  a  training  school  for  male  nurses  in 
connection  with  the  hospital  at  Chicago.  The 
present  training  of  nurses  being  restricted  to  mem¬ 
bers  and  candidates  of  the  community  only,  and 
there  not  being  such  a  school  in  existence  in  the 
United  States,  this  institution  would  be  of  great 
benefit  to  the  public. 

Algeria,  a  French  province  in  northern  Africa, 
comprising  two  great  divisions:  Northern  and 
Southern  Algeria,  which  are  in  turn  divided  into 
denartments  and  territories  as  follows:  Northern 
Algeria,  consisting  of  Civil  Territory  and  Territoire 
de  C ommandement ,  17  arrondissements  and  269 
communes,  besides  74  mixed  communes;  Southern 
Algeria,  consisting  of  four  territories,  Ain  Sefra, 
Ghardaia,  Tuggurt,  and  the  Saharan  oases,  organized 
by  decree  of  14  August,  1905,  12  communes  of  wThich 

5  are  mixed  and  7  native.  The  total  population  in 
1911  was  5,563,828,  of  which  494,306  belonged  to  the 
southern  territories.  This  included  4,411,276  natives, 
492,660  French,  70,271  Jews  and  descendants,  2,375 
Tunisians,  23,115  Moroccans,  135,150  Spaniards, 
36,791  Italians,  and  23,927  other  foreigners.  The 
largest  towns  with  their  population  (1912)  are: 
Algiers,  172,397;  Oran,  123,086;  Constantine,  65,173; 
Bone,  42,039;  Sidi-bel-Abbes,  30,942;  Tlemgen, 
39,874;  Mostaganem,  23,166. 

Religion. — The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are 
Mohammedans.  There  are  about  70,000  Jews,  with 

6  Jewish  rabbis  sharing  in  government  grants.  The 
Protestant  pastors  number  13.  The  Catholic  Church 
in  the  province  of  Algeria  is  divided  into  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Algiers  and  its  suffragans,  the  dioceses  of 
Oran  and  Constantine  (q.v.).  When  the  Law  of 
Separation  went  into  effect  in  the  French  posses¬ 
sions  (1906),  a  special  decree  (1907)  empowered  the 
Governor  General,  where  public  and  national  inter¬ 
ests  required  it,  to  grant  temporary  indemnities  to 
the  clergy  who  conducted  public  worship  in  con¬ 


formity  to  the  law.  These  indemnities  were  to  cease 
after  ten  years.  In  1917  the  suppression  of  all  state 
aid  to  the  clergy  of  Algeria  would  have  resulted 
most  disastrously,  as  many  parishes,  too  poor  to 
support  themselves,  would  have  disappeared,  and 
the  numerous  Catholics  of  Spanish,  Italian  and 
Maltese  origin  would  naturally  have  appealed  to 
their  mother-lands  for  priests  and  subsidies,  leading 
to  the  ultimate  disappearance  of  the  French  clergy. 
In  response  to  a  petition  of  the  archbishops  and 
bishops  of  Northern  Africa,  which  was  supported  by 
the  Governor  General  and  the  financial  delegation, 
the  French  government  granted  an  extension  of  the 
indemnities  for  five  years. 

Economic  Conditions. — The  European  War  con¬ 
tributed  largely  to  the  development  and  prosperity 
of  Algeria.  At  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  France 
looked  to  Algeria  for  her  food  supply  and  since  the 
war  its  power  of  production,  far  from  showing  any 
falling  off,  has  enabled  it  to  tide  over  the  critical 
period  that  threatened  to  paralyze  its  activities. 
Notwithstanding  the  difficulties  of  transport,  its 
products  realized  high  prices  in  France  and  abroad, 
and  the  growing  wealth  of  the  country  is  attested 
by  the  volume  of  foreign  trade  which  in  1919 
reached  a  total  of  2,288  millards,  or  759  millards 
more  than  in  1919.  Of  the  imports  in  1919,  61.1  per 
cent  came  from  France;  of  the  exports,  88.2  per 
cent  went  to  France.  In  1920  the  chief  imports 
were  cottons,  clothing  and  linen,  machinery  and 
parts,  wine,  and  tobacco.  In  1919,  8,170  vessels  of 
5,807,632  tons  net  entered,  and  8,107  vessels  of  5,704,- 
719  tons  cleared  Algerian  ports.  The  mercantile 
marine  consisted  on  1  January,  1920,  of  364  vessels 
of  29,505  tons.  On  31  December,  1919,  there  were 
2,221  miles  of  railway  open  for  traffic  (807  privately 
owned).  However,  the  lack  of  development  of  the 
immense  resources  of  Algeria  is  due  to  inadequate 
transportation  facilities.  Motor  routes  are  being  es¬ 
tablished  and  motor  transport  is  being  utilized  in 
every  branch  of  trade.  The  soil  is,  under  various 
systems,  held  by  proprietors,  by  farmers,  and  by 
metayers  or  khammes.  Most  of  the  state  lands  have 
been  appropriated  to  the  colonists.  In  1920  the 
yield  of  wine  was  157,136,452  gallons;  wheat,  243,000 
tons;  barley,  207,397  tons;  oats,  73,422  tons.  The 
forests  cover  6,560,232  acres,  of  which  645,000  acres 
are  devoted  to  cork  trees.  In  1919  the  mineral 
output  amounted  to  1,019,824  tons. 

Education— In  1919-20  there  were  496  Moham¬ 
medan  schools  with  35,578  pupils,  also  higher  schools 
( medersas )  at  Algiers,  Tlemgen,  and  Constantine. 
For  secondary  education,  Algeria  had  16  establish¬ 
ments  with  9,837  pupils  (7,180  boys  and  2,651  girls). 
There  were  also  1,298  primary  schools  and  kinder¬ 
gartens,  public  and  private,  with  132,617  pupils, 
two  normal  schools  for  men  with  29  professors  and 
230  students  (54  Mohammedan),  and  three  for 
women  with  21  professo.  and  200  students.  The 
university  at  Algiers  has  an  attendance  of  1,428 
pupils,  614  for  law,  359  for  medicine  and  pharmacy, 
189  for  science,  266  for  art.  Besides  the  university 
there  were  schools  for  commerce,  agriculture,  hy¬ 
drography,  and  fine  arts. 

Government. — The  administration  of  Algeria  is 
centralized  at  Algiers  under  the  authority  of  a  gen¬ 
eral  government  and  the  control  of  the  Minister 
of  the  Interior.  The  Governor-General,  nominated 
by  decree  of  the  President  of  the  Republic,  is  as¬ 
sisted  by  a  conseil  de  gouvernement  which  deals  in 
a  deliberative  or  consultative  manner  with  certain 
affairs,  and  by  a  conseil  superior,  whose  principal 
duties  include  the  examination  of  the  budget  pro¬ 
posals  and  the  division  of  the  taxes.  The  financial 
delegations  comprise  three  groups  of  members  or 


ALGHERO 


28 


ALL  HALLOWS 


delegations,  one  of  officials,  one  of  French  colonists, 
and  one  of  native  taxpayers.  Algeria  is  divided 
into  three  departments :  Algiers,  Oran,  and  Con¬ 
stantine,  each  headed  by  a  prefect,  assisted  by  a 
conseil  de  prefecture  and  a  conseil  general.  The 
civil  territory  is  divided  into  arrondissements.  The 
four  territories  of  the  south:  Ghardaia,  Ain-Sefra, 
the  Oasis,  and  Tuggurt,  form  a  separate  colony.  In 
each  of  these  the  military  commander  directs  all 
administrative  services  under  the  authority  of  the 
governor.  They  have  an  autonomous  budget  dis¬ 
tinct  from  that  of  Algeria.  The  great  aid  rendered 
by  Algeria  to  France  during  the  War  led  the  French 
government  to  cause  a  new  reform  program  to 
be  voted  by  the  Chambers.  The  law  of  4  February, 
1919,  accords  French  citizenship  to  all  Algerian 
natives  who  have  fulfilled  one  of  the  following  con¬ 
ditions:  to  have  served  in  the  French  Army  or 
Navy,  to  be  a  proprietor  or  farmer  or  be  inscribed 
on  the  license  charts,  to  know  how  to  read  and 
write  French,  and  be  holder  of  a  French  decoration. 
The  Mohammedan  Algerian  natives  who  are  not 
French  citizens  are  represented  in  all  Algerian  as¬ 
semblies  by  elected  members  holding  the  same  rank 
and  privileges  as  the  French  members.  They  are 
admitted  by  the  same  right  as  the  French  citizens 
to  all  public  functions,  except  certain  authoritative 
positions  defined  by  decree  of  26  March,  1919. 
Since  January,  1919,  colonists  and  natives  are  sub¬ 
jected  to  the  same  taxation.  The  military  force 
in  Algeria  constitutes  the  XIXth  Army  Corps,  con¬ 
sisting  of  three  divisions.  French  residents  are 
under  the  same  military  obligations  as  in  France; 
the  natives  must  serve  three  years  with  the  colors 
and  can  be  called  upon  as  reservists  at  any  time  in 
case  of  mobilization. 

Alghero,  Diocese  of  (Algherensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-310d),  in  Italy,  is  suffragan  of  Sassari.  Rt.  Rev. 
Ernest  Piovella,  who  was  appointed  to  this  see  15 
April,  1907,  was  promoted  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
Oristano  15  April,  1914,  and  the  present  bishop,  Rt. 
Rev.  Francesco  d’Errico  was  appointed  his  successor, 
12  August,  1914.  In  1920  the  Catholics  of  this 
diocese  numbered  54,300;  there  were  26  parishes, 
80  secular  priests,  20  seminarians,  and  120  churches 
or  chapels. 

Algiers,  Archdiocese  of  (Algeriensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
1-31  la),  comprises  the  province  of  Algeria  in  French 
Africa.  The  Catholics  number  300,000,  of  whom 
200,000  are  French,  30,000  Italians,  40,000  Spaniards 
and  5,000  Maltese.  Since  1917  the  archdiocese  has 
been  administered  by  the  Most  Rev.  Augustine 
Fernand  Leynaud,  b.  at  Ollieres,  26  August,  1865, 
ordained  24  June,  1888.  In  1901  he  was  made  pastor 
at  Susa  where  in  1903  he  discovered  the  famous 
catacombs  of  Hadrumetum,  which  to-day  attract 
a  great  number  of  visitors  from  all  parts  of  the 
world.  He  is  the  author  of  a  learned  and  widely 
circulated  work  on  these  catacombs,  to  which  is  due 
the  fact  that  they  are  so  well  known.  He  was 
elected  archbishop  2  January,  1917,  consecrated  at 
Carthage  6  March,  published  22  March  following 
and  enthroned  on  the  same  day.  During  his  admin¬ 
istration  many  charitable  institutions  have  been 
established  in  the  archdiocese.  The  auxiliary 
bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Alexandre  Piquemal,  a  devout 
and  zealous  prelate,  died  in  1921,  as  did  also  Sister 
Chabanne,  Yisitatrix  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity, 
who  was  a  member  of  the  order  for  seventy-eight 
years  and  died  at  the  age  of  ninety-eight. 

At  the  present  time  (1922)  the  archdiocese  con¬ 
sists  of  125  parishes,  150  churches,  5  mission  stations 
for  the  Mussulmans  of  Kabylia,  1  monastery  of  the 
White  Fathers.  5  monasteries  and  convents  for 


women  with  200  sisters,  150  seculars,  40  regulars,  1 
seminary  and  35  seminarians,  also  the  mother-house 
and  novitiate  of  the  White  Fathers,  missionaries 
in  Africa.  The  following  schools  exist  in  the  arch¬ 
diocese:  2  colleges  for  men  with  15  teachers  (250 
students),  5  for  women  with  40  teachers  (500  stu¬ 
dents),  10  elementary  schools  with  40  teachers 
(1,400  students).  Some  of  the  schools  as  well  as  the 
hospitals  are  supported  by  the  government.  There 
is  one  Catholic  periodical  published  in  the  arch¬ 
diocese.  The  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  have  estab¬ 
lished  an  asylum.  There  are  also  in  the  arch¬ 
diocese  the  following  institutions:  3  hospitals  and 
a  small  lyceum  which  admit  the  ministry  of  priests, 

1  settlement  house,  1  refuge,  2  day  nurseries.  The 
following  associations  have  been  formed  by  the 
laity:  Conference  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Associa¬ 
tion  of  Catholic  Youths,  Tertiaries  of  St.  Francis 
and  Les  Hommes  de  France  au  Sacre  Cceur. 

Alicante,  Diocese  of.  See  Orihuela. 

Alife,  Diocese  of  (Aliphanensis;  cf.  C.  E. 
I-312b),  in  the  province  of  Caserta,  Italy,  is  suf¬ 
fragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Benevento.  Rt.  Rev. 
Settimio  Caracciolo  who  was  appointed  to  this 
see  24  March,  1898,  was  transferred  to  the  diocese 
of  Aversa,  10  April,  1911,  and  the  present  incumbent, 

Rt.  Rev.  Felix  Del  Sordo,  was  appointed  his  suc¬ 
cessor.  Born  at  Nusco,  1850,  he  was  appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  Claudiopolis  and  made  auxiliary 
to  the  Bishop  of  Nusco,  14  October,  1906.  He  was 
transferred  to  Venosa  15  July,  1907,  and  12  October, 
1911,  he  was  again  transferred  to  the  see  of  Alife. 

In  1920  there  were  25,140  Catholics  in  this  diocese, 

17  parishes,  50  secular  and  8  regular  clergy,  20 
seminarians,  54  churches  or  chapels,  8  brothers  and 
14  sisters. 

Alinda,  a  titular  see  in  Caria.  Alinda  was  one  of 
the  largest  districts  of  Caria  and  was  surrendered 
to  Alexander  by  Queen  Ada,  but  he  allowed  her  to 
retain  the  government.  The  see  was  suffragan  of 
Stauropolis  and  is  mentioned  in  the  “Notilise”  of 
Epiphanius,  Basil,  and  Parthey.  Four  bishops  of 
the  see  are  known :  Promachius,  present  at  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Ephesus  (431);  John,  present  at  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon  (451);  Theodorus,  at  the  Council  of 
Constantinople  (536),  and  Theophilus,  at  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Constantinople  (879). 

All  Hallows  College  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-314d),  in  Dub¬ 
lin,  founded  in  1842,  for  the  education  of  missionary 
priests  for  foreign  countries,  especially  those  coun¬ 
tries  to  which  Irish  people  emigrated.  The  college 
is  at  present  (1922)  presided  over  by  Rev.  Thomas 
O’Donnell,  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Missions,  this 
congregation  having  been  entrusted  with  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  institution  in  1892.  In  1908,  upon  the 
establishment  of  the  National  University  of  Ireland, 
the  curriculum  of  studies  of  All  Hallows  was  some¬ 
what  changed.  Although  the  university  is  neutral, 
from  a  religious  point  of  view,  most  of  its  professors 
and  students  are  Catholic,  and  as  clerics  graduate 
from  the  university  in  large  numbers,  the  students 
of  All  Hallows  are  also  required  to  do  so.  Be¬ 
fore  entering  the  college,  they  matriculate,  and 
after  entrance  attend  daily  lectures  at  the  univer¬ 
sity,  reading  a  three  years’  course  in  arts  and  . 
philosophy.  At  the  end  of  that  period  they  are 
graduated,  and  take  their  B.  A.  degree  in  the  pass  or 
honors  course  of  classics,  philosophy  and  educa-  j 
tional  science.  A  selected  number  subsequently 
take  an  advanced  course  in  the  theory  and  practice 
of  education,  with  a  view  to  special  efficiency  in 
missionary  work;  these  are  given  a  higher  diploma, 
and  M.  A.  degree  in  that  subject.  During  their  v 


ALL  SOULS 


20 


ALMS 


theological  course  the  students  receive  lectures  on 
educational  methods,  and  th^.r  practical  application 
to  the  duties  of  the  priesthood. 

All  Souls;  Day  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-315d).— On  24  June, 
1914,  Pius  X  granted  a  plenary  indulgence  applicable 
to  the  Holy  Souls  to  be  gained  by  the  faithful,  on 
the  usual  conditions,  for  each  visit  to  a  church,  or 
public,  or  semi-public  oratory  on  All  Souls’  Day. 
The  privilege  of  saying  three  Masses  on  that  feast, 
which  Benedict  XIV  granted  for  the  dominions  of 
Spain  and  Portugal,  was  extended  to  the  whole 
world  by  Benedict  XV  in  his  Constitution  “El¬ 
ement  um  Altaris,”  of  10  August,*  1915.  When  the 
three  Masses  are  celebrated,  one  must  be  said  for  the 
repose  of  the  Holy  Souls,  a  second  for  the  intention 
of  the  pope,  and  the  third  for  whatever  intention 
the  priest  chooses;  however,  only  one  Mass  stipend 
may  be  accepted.  All  altars  are  privileged  on  that 
day.  The  first  Mass  to  be  said  is  the  one  given  in 
the  Roman  Missal  for  the  Feast  of  All  the  Faithful 
Departed;  the  second  is  the  Mass  for  the  Anniver¬ 
sary  of  the  Deceased  with  the  Dies  Irce ;  the  third 
is  the  Daily  Requiem  Mass,  also  with  the  Dies  Irce. 
Special  prayers  for  the  second  and  third  Masses 
were  prescribed  by  a  decree  of  the  Congregation  of 
Rites  on  11  August,  1915.  When  only  one  Mass  is 
said  it  must  be  the  Mass  for  the  Faithful  Departed; 
the  same  Mass  is  prescribed  when  Mass  is  to  be 
sung,  and  in  this  case  the  celebrant  may  anticipate 
the  second  and  third  Masses.  If  the  Blessed  Sac¬ 
rament  happens  to  be  exposed  for  the  Forty  Hours’ 
Adoration  on  this  day,  the  requiem  Mass,  which 
must  necessarily  be  said  with  violet  vestments,  must 
not  be  celebrated  at  the  altar  of  Exposition.  By  a 
decree  of  28  February,  1917,  the  Feast  of  All  Souls’ 
was  raised  to  a  double  of  the  first  class  for  the 
whole  Church,  so  that  it  excludes  all  local  feasts 
or  feasts  of  churches,  religious  orders  or  institutions. 
However,  if  2  November  is  a  Sunday,  the  com¬ 
memoration  of  All  Souls  is  transferred  with  all  its 
privileges  to  3  November. 

Rome,  XVIII  (Rome,  1915),  89,  247,  260. 


Allahabad,  Diocese  of  (  Allah  abaden  sis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I~31fic) ,  in  India,  is  suffragan  of  Agra  with  episcopal 
residence  at  Naini-Tal  in  the  summer  and  Allaha¬ 
bad  in  the  winter.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Capuchins 
of  Bologna,  Italy,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Angelo  Giuseppe 
Poli  of  this  order  being  the  present  bishop.  Born 
at  Casola  Valsenio,  Italy,  1878,  he  came  to  India  as 
a  missionary  in  1901,  was  elected  regular  superior 
in  1913,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Curium  and 
coadjutor  to  the  Bishop  of  Allahabad  13  March, 
1915,  and  on  18  December,  1917,  took  possession 
of  the  see  upon  the  death  of  Rt.  Rev.  Petronius 
Gramigna,  who  had  filled  the  see  since  1904  In 
1 920  ^  there .  were  10,557  Catholics  in  the  diocese, 
28  Capuchin  priests,  o  belonging  to  other  orders 
and  4  seculars  and  66  religious  women.  The  1921 
statistics  credit  the  diocese  with  25  churches,  10 
chapels,  22  stations,  41  sub-stations,  4  secondary 
schools  for  boys  with  798  pupils,  8  for  girls  with  954 
pupils,  5  free  schools  with  298  pupils,  1  native 
school  with  47  pupils,  4  orphanages  with  452  orphans, 
1  industrial  school,  6  dispensaries  and  1  hospital. 
A  Catholic  press  is  established  at  Cawnpore.  The 
sisters  of  the  Institute  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary, 
Sisters  of  Loretto,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  and  Native 
Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  conduct 
the  educational  and  charitable  institutions.  The 
most  notable  event  of  the  diocese  in  recent  years 
was  the  celebration  in  1921  of  the  fiftieth  anni¬ 
versary  of  the  dedication  of  St.  Joseph’s  Cathedral 
at  Allahabad.  Most  Rev.  Peter  Pisani,  Apostolic 


delegate  to  India,  and  many  other  prominent 
churchmen  of  India  attended  the  ceremonies. 

t  ^0m?ria>  PI0?ESE  0F  (Almeriensis;  cf.  C.  E 
i-328a),  in  Spain  is  suffragan  of  Granada.  The 
piesent  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Vincent  Casanova  y 
Marzol,  born  at  Borja,  1854,  was  appointed  bishop 

19  December,  1907.  In  1920  the  population  of  this 
diocese,  entirely  Catholic,  numbered  290,200-  there 
were  110  parishes,  239  priests,  1  seminary,  47  chapels 

20  convents  with  39  nuns  and  298  Sisters. 

Alms  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-328c). — As  the  support  of  the 
poor  and  the  works  of  religion  devolves  largely  upon 
the  faithful,  inspired  by  motives  of  charity  to  give 
freely,  it  has  become  necessary  in  view  of  the  in¬ 
creasing  number  of  calls  made  upon  the  laity  to 
protect  them  from  unnecessary  solicitation  and  to 
prevent  their  generosity  from  being  played  upon 
by  the  unscrupulous.  The  following  regulations 
therefore,  have  been  laid  down  governing  the  col¬ 
lection  of  alms  by  means  of  personal  appeals  to  the 
general  public  (they  do  not,  however,  refer  to  ap- 
peals  by  letter  or  personal  appeals  to  a  few  persons) . 
(1)  No  private  individual,  whether  lay  or  clerical, 
may  collect  for  any  pious  or  religious  institute  or 
object,  without  the  written  permission  of  the  local 
ordinary  or  of  the  Holy  See.  (2)  No  pious  asso¬ 
ciation  may  collect  alms  unless  its  statutes  authorize 
or  necessity  requires  it  to  do  so ;  even  then  it  must 
obtain  the  local  ordinary’s  permission  and  follow  his 
instructions;  furthermore,  if  the  collection  is  to  be 
made  outside  of  the  diocese,  the  written  permission 
of  both  ordinaries  is  required.  (3)  Mendicant  regu¬ 
lars,  properly  so-called  in  virtue  of  their  institute, 
need  only  the  permission  of  their  superior  for 
collecting  alms  in  the  diocese  where  their  house  is 
situated;  in  other  places  they  require  permission 
of  the  local  ordinary  also.  If  the  alms  which  they 
obtain  in  their  own  diocese  are  insufficient  for  their 
support,  the  local  ordinaries  of  other  places,  espe¬ 
cially  of  the  neighboring  dioceses,  must  not  refuse 
or  withdraw  from  them  permission  to  collect,  except 
for  grave  urgent  reasons.  (4)  No  other  religious 
of  pontifical  institutes  may  collect  alms,  except  in 
virtue  of  a  special  indult,  in  which  case  they  must 
have  the  written  leave  of  the  ordinary  of  the  place 
of  eollection,  unless  the  indult  provides  to  the  con¬ 
trary.  (5)  Religious  of  diocesan  congregations  be¬ 
fore  collecting  alms  must  obtain  permission  of  the 
ordinaries  of  their  place  of  residence  and  of  the 
place  of  collection,  but  this  must  not  be  granted 
unless  there  is  no  other  way  in  which  their  pressing 
needs  can  be  met,  and  they  must  be  restricted  to 
their  own  diocese  if  possible.  This  regulation  is  to 
be  rigorously  enforced  in  dioceses  in  which  there  is 
a  mendicant  order  properly  so-called.  (6)  Finally, 
ordinaries  of  the  Latin  Rite  must  not  allow  any 
person  belonging  to  an  Oriental  Rite  to  collect 
in  their  territories  nor  may  they  send  any  of  their 
Subjects  into  an  Oriental  diocese  for  that  purpose, 
except  when  the  collector  has  a  recent  authenticated 
rescript  from  the  Sacred  Congregation  for  tho  East¬ 
ern  Church. 

The  collections  must  be  made  by  the  religious 
themselves  and  not  by  seculars;  superiors  must 
select  for  that  purpose  professed  religious  of  mature 
age,  and  never  those  who  are  still  engaged  in  study. 
As  far  as  possible  collectors  should  not  go  unac¬ 
companied  ;  if  they  cannot  return  home  at  night,  they 
should  lodge  with  the  parish  priest,  or  with  other 
religious,  or  where  that  is  not  possible  with  a  good 
Catholic  family;  they  must  not  remain  away  from 
their  house  more  than  a  month  when  collecting  in 
their  own  diocese,  or  two  months  if  in  another  dio¬ 
cese,  and  they  must  not  be  sent  out  again  until  the 


ALPHEUS 


30 


ALSACE 


lapse  of  a  period  equal  to  that  of  their  previous 
absence.  If  sisters  are  sent  to  collect  they  must 
always  go  in  twos  and  must  have  sufficient  funds  to 
bring  them  home;  furthermore,  before  going  any¬ 
where  they  must  notify  the  person  to  whom  they 
have  to  present  the  bishop’s  letters,  so  that  he  may 

secure  proper  accommodation  for  them. 

Vermeersch-Creusen,  Epitome  juris  canonici,  n.  626-27. 

Alpheus,  Brother  (Patrick  J.  Coffey),  b.  in 
Co.  Tipperary,  Ireland,  1846;  d.  in  New  Lork, 
20  February,  1921,  one  of  the  oldest  educators  in 
the  Archdiocese  of  New  York.  In  1861  he  came 
to  the  United  States  and  entered  the  Order  of  the 
Christian  Brothers,  spending  the  first  years  of  his 
career  at  St.  Mary’s  School  and  the  old  Cathedral 
School,  New  York.  His  next  charge  was  the 
junior  class  of  old  De  La  Salle  Institute,  whence 
he  was  appointed  to  Albany  Academy.  In  1881 
Brother  Alpheus  was  named  director  of  De  La 
Salle  Institute,  where  Archbishop  Hughes  of  New 
York,  Archbishop  Mundelein  of  Chicago,  and  the 
late  Bishop  McDonnell  of  Brooklyn  were  among 
the  many  prominent  men  who  came  under  his 
influence.  For  the  past  twenty  years  he  had  been 
connected  with  the  Clason  Point  Academy  and  the 
New  York  Catholic  Protectory. 

Alsace-Lorraine  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-341d),  the  former 
German  Imperial  territory  acquired  by  France  by 
the  treaty  of  Versailles,  signed  28  June,  1919,  the 
possession  dating  from  the  Armistice  of  11  Novem¬ 
ber,  1918.  It  is  divided  into  the  departments  of  Bas- 
Rhin,  containing  1,848  sq.  miles  and  a  population  of 
700,738;  Haut-Rhin,  1,354  sq.  miles,  population  517,- 
865;  and  Moselle,  2,403  sq.  miles,  population  655,211. 
The  largest  cities  with  their  population  in  1910  are: 
Strasburg,  178,891;  Miilhausen,  105,488;  Metz,  79,318. 
In  1910  in  German  Alsace-Lorraine  (Reichsland) 
there  were  1,428,343  Catholics,  408,274  Protestants 
of  various  German  churches,  3,868  Christians  of 
other  denominations,  30,483  Jews,  and  3,046  ad¬ 
herents  of  other  religions  or  unclassified.  In  Kreis 
Zabern  the  Protestants  were  in  the  majority,  as 
also  in  Strasburg.  In  Lower  Alsace  the  Catholics 
were  about  62  per  cent  of  the  population;  in  Upper 
Alsace  they  formed  84  per  cent;  in  Miilhausen  they 
outnumbered  the  Protestants  by  six  to  one,  in  Geb- 
weiler  by  25  to  1,  and  in  Altkirch  by  44  to  1.  In 
German  Lorraine  the  proportion  of  Catholics  was 
about  90  per  cent,  Protestants  were  strongest  in 
Metz,  which  had  more  than  1  to  3  Catholics  and 
weakest  in  Kreis  Bolchen,  where  there  was  only 
one  Protestant  to  one  hundred  Catholics.  The 
Jews  have  declined  steadily  from  40,812  in  1871 
to  30,483  in  1910. 

According  to  the  census  of  1910,  1,634,260  persons 
spoke  German;  3,395  were  bilingual;  204,262  spoke 
French.  Compared  with  the  figures  of  1905  there 
is  a  decline  of  bilinguals,  and  of  French  speakers  in 
German  Lorraine,  but  an  increase  in  Alsace,  espe¬ 
cially  in  the  towns.  German  had  beon  the  official 
language  for  wasx  u®etl  in  the  schools,  and 

wao  the  only  language  heard  by  the  vast  majority 
of  the  conscripts  from  Alsace-Lorraine  during  their 
three  years  of  military  service;  the  surprising  thing 
is  that  there  has  been  any  increase  in  the  use  of 
French  in  Alsace,  a  result  which  can  be  traced  to 
the  nationalist  (Francophil)  movement.  During 
the  war  the  French  language  was  totally  prohibited 
in  Alsace-Lorraine,  French  names  being  superseded 
by  German  names,  and  the  native  soldiers  of  the 
garrison  of  Strasburg  being  forbidden  to  speak 
French  in  the  streets. 

Economic  Conditions. — The  economic  impor¬ 
tance  of  Alsace-Lorraine  centers  chiefly  around  her 


potash  mines.  They  were  discovered  in  1904,  and 
by  1913  there  were  160  borings.  Alsatian  salts  con¬ 
tain  more  potash  in  a  pure  state,  viz.,  20  per  cent 
as  against  12  to  13  elsewhere.  The  shafts  had  nearly 
all  come  to  a  working  order  by  the  outbreak  of 
the  war,  and  in  1917,  if  conditions  had  remained 
normal,  each  shaft  would  have  produced  1,000  to 
1,200  tons  a  day,  about  6,000,000  tons  for  the  whole 
area.  The  deposits  in  Upper  Alsace  are  estimated 
at  300,000,000  tons.  In  1920  about  591,000  tons  of 
potash  salts  were  mined,  an  increase  of  65  per  cent 
over  the  products  of  1913.  The  amount  of  pure 
potash  mined  was  96,546  tons.  In  August,  1920,  the 
French  Chamber  passed  a  bill  providing  for  the  ac¬ 
quisition  and  equipment  by  the  state  of  the  potash 
mines  of  Alsace.  According  to  a  decree  issued  by 
the  commissary-general  of  the  French  Republic  at 
Strasburg,  the  railway  system  of  Alsace-Lorraine 
was  to  be  reorganized  and  operated  by  an  adminis¬ 
trative  body  with  headquarters  at  Strasburg  under 
the  authority  of  the  commissary-general.  From 
1871  to  the  end  of  the  war,  they  were  the  only 
imperial  railways  in  the  German  Empire,  the  other 
state  railways  being  owned  by  the  different  states 
within  the  empire. 

Education. — In  1914,  besides  the  University  of 
Strasburg,  which  had  in  that  year  176  professors 
and  2,220  students,  the  following  educational  in¬ 
stitutions  existed:  18  gymnasia,  3  progymnasia, 
6  higher  realschulen,  7  realschulen,  4  realschulen 
united  with  gymnasia,  1  agricultural  school,  1 
technical  school,  7  seminaries,  5  preparatory  schools 
for  teachers,  68  girls’  higher  schools,  2,850  ele¬ 
mentary  schools,  68  private  elementary  schools,  504 
infant  schools,  52  intermediate  schools,  5  institu¬ 
tions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  2  institutions  for  the 
blind  and  2  for  imbeciles.  About  1,800,000  marks 
were  spent  on  the  University  of  Strasburg.  In 
their  haste  to  re-introduce  the  French  language 
into  the  schools,  the  French  have  encountered 
difficulties.  The  Alsatian  teachers  had  been  for¬ 
merly  in  German  normal  schools  and  therefore  were 
regarded  with  suspicion.  The  Germans  had  left 
nothing  undone  that  could  bestow  on  them  a 
German  mentality  and  so  combat  the  influence  of 
the  French  priests.  About  80  per  cent  did  not 
understand  French  nor  much  about  French  litera¬ 
ture,  all  they  knew  about  France  and  her  people 
being  derived  from  hostile  German  sources,  in  the 
German  normal  schools.  The  question  was  how 
to  replace  them  until  they  were  assimilated  to  the 
French  civilization. 

Ecclesiastical  History. — In  recognizing  the 
French  sovereignty  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  the  Pope 
accepted  the  resignation  of  the  German  Bishops  of 
Strasburg  and  Metz  and  appointed  them  arch¬ 
bishops  in  Partibus ,  In  April,  1919,  President  Poin¬ 
care  nominated  Monsignor  Ruch,  Bishop  of  Nancy, 
for  the  BirhopUv  uf  Strasburg,  and  Monsignor  Kelb 
for  that  of  Metz.  This  caused  an  animated  debate 
in  the  French  Chamber  and  led  the  Foreign  Min¬ 
ister,  M.  Richon,  to  explain  that  the  policy  of 
France  was  to  uphold  the  Concordat  in  Alsace- 
Lorraine.  The  nominees  were  given  canonical  in¬ 
stitution  by  the  pope. 

For  religious  statistics  see  Strasburg,  Diocese  of; 
Metz,  Diocese  of. 

Civil  History,  1910-1920. — The  recent  history  of 
Alsace-Lorraine  has  been  one  continual  agitation 
for  its  return  to  France.  In  the  first  decade  of 
the  twentieth  century  the  German  Government  felt 
that  the  arrangements  of  the  Government  of 
Alsace-Lorraine  were  not  satisfactory,  for  the  spirit 
of  opposition  seemed  to  grow.  Therefore,  in  June, 
1911,  a  new  Constitution  was  granted.  It  was  de- 


ALTAMURA 


31 


ALTON 


dared  that  the  sovereign  power  in  Alsace-Lorraine 
was  vested  in  the  emperor,  at  the  head  of  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  was  placed  the  Statthalter,  nominated  and 
removable  by  the  emperor.  The  task  of  legislating 
for  the  country  was  taken  from  the  Bundesrat  and 
Reichstag  and  entrusted  to  the  emperor  and  a 
Landtag  of  two  Chambers.  The  Upper  Chamber 
included  thirty-six  persons,  representatives  of  bodies 
controlling  religious  and  economic  interests,  such  as 
the  Catholic  Archbishops  of  Strasburg  and  Metz, 
etc.  The  proposed  Constitution  fell  short  of  the 
program  formulated  by  the  Autonomists,  who  de¬ 
manded  that  Alsace-Lorraine  be  placed  on  equal 
footing  with  the  other  States  of  the  empire,  al¬ 
though  it  might  have  proved  feasible  if  the  Ger¬ 
man  Government  had  not  been  suspicious  of 
French  tendencies.  In  1913  occurred  the  Zabern 
(Saverne)  incident,  the  bullying  of  a  defenseless 
cripple  by  a  young  German  officer.  The  dispropor¬ 
tionate  violence  which  at  once  placed  the  town  under 
a  state  of  siege,  the  explanation  given  that  the 
German  garrison  felt  they  were  camping  in  an 
enemy  country,  the  acquittal  of  the  young  officer 
for  wounding  the  lame  cobbler  on  the  incredible 
ground  that  he  was  acting  in  self-defense,  all  showed 
the  position  of  Alsace-Lorraine  in  the  eyes  of  the 
military  party.  A  vote  of  censure  was  passed  by 
the  Reichstag,  but  it  was  actuated  by  a  dislike  of 
the  German  military  methods,  not  by  sympathy 
with  Alsace-Lorraine,  where  the  repressive  measures 
continued  until  the  outbreak  of  the  war. 

Further  hostility  toward  Germany  is  proved  by 
the  treatment  of  Alsace-Lorraine  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  European  War.  As  early  as  20  July,  1914, 
the  country  was  placed  under  martial  law,  and 
hundreds  of  persons  who  figured  in  the  police  lists 
as  suspects  were  instantly  arrested  and  imprisoned 
without  trial.  On  their  first  entry  into  Mulhausen 
(8  August,  1914)  the  French  troops  were  received 
“with  transports  of  joy,  while  the  inhabitants  be¬ 
haved  like  a  lot  of  lunatics’’  (Breisgauer  Zeitung, 
10  October,  1915).  During  the  first  two  years  of 
the  war  forty-eight  persons  were  convicted  of  high 
treason,  fifty-four  of  aiding  and  abetting  desertion, 
317  of  anti-German  sentiments,  and  about  6,000  were 
deprived  of  their  German  nationality.  At  the  end 
of  1916  the  number  of  desertions  (Alsatian)  ex¬ 
ceeded  30,000,  and  according  to  the  French  more 
than  20,000  Alsatians  were  serving  in  the  French 
army.  For  the  details  of  the  French  campaign  in 
Alsace-Lorraine  during  the  European  War  see  War. 

By  a  decree  of  26  November,  1918,  the  French 
Government  took  over  the  administration  of  the 
territories  until  peace  should  be  signed,  French 
troops  meanwhile  having  occupied  the  country. 
French  officers  were  placed  in  charge  of  affairs  and 
on  22  March,  1919,  M.  Alexandre  Millerand  was 
appointed  governor-general.  This  acquisition  was 
confirmed  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles.  In  1919-20 
the  administrative  system  was  centralized  under  a 
commissary  general,  aided  by  an  advisory  council. 
The  unity  of  the  region  is  retained,  a  species  of 
regionalism  which  seems  very  successful.  Justice 
will  be  administered  under  the  Ministry  of  Justice 
at  Paris,  M.  Poincare  having  decided  that  hence¬ 
forth  the  redeemed  province  shall  be  treated  like 
the  old  department,  eliminating  the  German  laws 
and  courts  code.  As  might  have  been  expected, 
some  friction  took  place  in  the  passing  of  the 
region  from  German  hands.  The  local  administra¬ 
tion  and  particularly  the  administration  of  justice 
was  good;  the  railway  system  and  the  industrial 
wealth  of  the  country  were  largely  developed;  and 
m  Strasburg  a  large  amount  of  money  had  been 
spent  on  the  improvement  of  the  city,  and  above 
3 


all,  on  the  university,  whose  endowments  were  on 
lavish  scale,  all  of  course  in  the  interest  of  Ger- 
manizmg  the  country.  This  talent  for  organization 

Wa?  £llsssd  hy  the  inhabitants 

under  the  first  years  of  French  rule  and  made  the 
hange  from  German  to  French  rule  one  of  greater 
difficulty  than  was  anticipated.  Such  will  be  the 
existing  situation  for  a  few  years  to  come. 


Altamura  and  Acquaviva  (Altamurensis  et 
£  C.  E.,  I-345d),  an  exempt  archh 

Itnlv  Tna  foen  1  prOV1  uCe,  °f  Bari’  in  Southern 
Italy.  In  1920  Altamura  had  19,333  Catholics  and 

4  parishes ;  Acquaviva,  8,527  Catholics  and  1  parish- 

there  are  about  80  priests  for  the  whole  territory’ 

E-’  I-346a) . — Every  fixed  altar 
should  have  its  own  name,  the  high  altar  having  the 
same  title  as  the  church;  this  name,  unlike  that  of 
a  portable  altar,  may  not  be  changed  even  with 
the  ordinary  s  consent.  No  altar  may  be  dedicated 
under  the  title  of  one  of  the  beatified  except  by 
special  permission  of  the  Holy  See.  Care  must 
be  taken  that  an  altar  is  never  used  for  any  pro¬ 
fane  purpose;  if  a  corpse  has  been  interred  within 
a  metre  of  an  altar,  Mass  may  not  be  celebrated 
there  until  the  body  has  been  removed. 

Bishops,  abbots  and  prelates  nullius,  vicars  and 
pi  elects  Apostolic,  and  higher  superiors  of  exempt 
religious  orders  are  now  authorized  by  the  common 
law  to  designate  and  declare  privileged  daily 
and  perpetually  one  altar  in  their  cathedrals,  ab¬ 
beys  collegiate,  conventual,  parish  or  quasi-parish 
churches  provided  the  privilege  has  not  been  con¬ 
ferred  already  on  another  altar  in  such  church. 
Ihey  cannot  do  this,  however,  in  public  or  semi- 
pubfic  oratories  unless  these  are  united  to  or  are 
subsidiaries  of  a  parish  church.  All  altars  are  now 
pi  iv  lleged  on  the  feast  of  All  Souls  and  in  churches 
on  the  days  during  which  the  Forty  Hours’  Adora¬ 
tion  is  being  held  there. 

Among  recent  instances  in  which  the  privilege 
has  been  granted  to  members  of  pious  associations 
are  the  following:  in  November,  1918,  to  the  Pious 
Umon  of  the  Clergy;  in  June,  1920,  to  the  Holy 
Name  Society;  in  April,  1921,  to  the  Apostolic 
Union  of  Priests;  to  each  on  four  days  a  week* 
and  m  July,  1921,  to  the  Society  of  the  Three  Hail 
Marys  for  three  days  each  week.  In  rare  cases 
the  Church  grants  the  favor  of  a  privileged  altar 
for  the  benefit  of  the  living;  thus  on  15  June,  1917, 

1  ope  Benedict  XV  conferred  it  on  members  of  the 
sodality  called  “A  Transitu  S.  Joseph,”  as  often  as 
they  said  Mass  for  the  agonizing.  This  probably 
means  that  a  plenary  indulgence  is  applied  to  the 
dying  person  for  whom  the  Mass  is  offered,  pro¬ 
vided  he  is  in  the  state  of  grace  and  has  the 
requisite  intention  of  gaining  the  indulgence. 

.  Nothing  is  to  be  inscribed  on  an  altar  to  show 
it  is  privileged  except  altare  privilegiatum  (privi¬ 
leged  altar),  with  a  word  indicating  whether  the 
favor  has  been  granted  perpetually  or  temporarily. 
Needless  to  say  it  is  strictly  forbidden  for  anyone 
to  ask  a  larger  stipend  for  Masses  offered  at  a 
privileged  altar  than  for  those  said  elsewhere. 


Altomiinster.  See  Bridgettines. 


Alton,  Diocese  of  (Altonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-367b),  comprises  15,139  sq.  miles  in  the  State  of 
Illinois.  It  is  at  present  (1922)  under  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  its  third  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  James  Ryan, 
consecrated  1  May,  1888.  The  Franciscan  Fathers 
are  established  in  this  diocese  and  conduct  Quincy 
College  and  Seminary  in  Quincy,  St.  Francis  Mon¬ 
astery  and  novitiate  and  St.  Joseph’s  Seminary  at 
Teutopolis.  The  religious  orders  of  women  include 


ALTOONA 


32 


AMADEUS 


the  Ursuline  Sisters,  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vin¬ 
cent  de  Paul,  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood,  Hos¬ 
pital  Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  Sisters  of  Misericorde  of  Montreal,  School 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of  the  Poor  of  St. 
Francis  and  Sisters,  Poor  Handmaids  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

By  1921  statistics  this  diocese  comprises  a  Catho¬ 
lic  population  of  87,000;  170  secular  and  38  regular 
clergy,  119  parishes,  42  missions  with  churches,  20 
chapels,  21  ecclesiastical  students,  1  seminary  with 
105  students,  2  colleges  and  academies  for  boys  with 
219  students,  5  academies  for  young  ladies,  67  paro¬ 
chial  schools  with  10,465  pupils,  2  orphan  asylums 
with  288  orphans,  12,360  young  people  under  Catho¬ 
lic  care,  11  hospitals,  and  3  homes  for  the  aged. 

Altoona,  Diocese  of  (Altunensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-368b). — Bishop  Eugene  A.  Garvey,  the  first  bishop 
of  Altoona,  consecrated  8  September,  1901,  died 
22  October,  1920.  He  organized  the  diocese,  his 
special  attention  being  devoted  to  Christian  educa¬ 
tion  and  the  care  of  the  orphans  of  the  diocese. 
He  built  orphanages  at  Cresson,  Pa.,  for  boys  and 
for  girls.  He  won  the  esteem  of  non-Catholic  and 
Catholic  alike,  and  rendered  valuable  service  to  the 
country  during  the  war. 

He  was  succeeded  by  Bishop  John  Joseph  Mc- 
Cort,  a  native  of  Philadelphia,  who  was  conse¬ 
crated  auxiliary  to  the  Archbishop  of  Philadelphia 
17  September,  1912.  He  was  appointed  coadjutor 
with  the  right  of  succession  to  the  Bishop  of  Al¬ 
toona  27  January,  1920,  and  succeeded  him  in  the 
see  22  October  of  the  same  year.  Bishop  McCort 
had  in  view  two  great  objects:  the  building  of  a 
cathedral  worthy  of  the  growing  diocese  and  pro¬ 
vision  for  the  higher  education  of.  the  youth  of 
the  diocese,  both  of  which  aims  were  received  with 
generous  approval  by  priests  and  laity  and  are  at 
present  well  under  way.  A  site  for  the  cathedral 
has  been  secured  and  two  central  Catholic  high 
schools  will  open  in  September,  1922.  The  bishop 
has  also  taken  a  firm  stand  on  primary  education, 
directing  that  where  it  is  possible  every  parish  shall 
be  provided  with  a  Catholic  school. 

The  total  population  of  the  city  of  Altoona  was 
given  at  60,331  in  1920.  The  Catholic  population 
of  the  diocese  (1921)  is  135,241.  There  are  103 
parishes,  131  churches,  35  missions,  12  stations;  3 
monasteries  for  men;  secular  priests  116,  regulars 
44;  128  Sisters;  1  seminary  with  55  seminarians;  1 
college  for  men  with  15  teachers  and  an  attendance 
of  160;  9  high  schools  with  28  teachers  and  an 
attendance  of  307  (160  boys,  147  girls);  1  academy 
for  girls  (Mount  St.  Aloysius  at  Cresson  conducted 
by  the  Sisters  of  Mercy)  with  17  teachers  and  an 
attendance  of  160;  1  training  school;  46  parochial 
schools  with  256  teachers  and  an  attendance  of 
12,710;  1  home  for  working  girls  (the  Casa  Regina 
Sodality  Home  at  Altoona,  conducted  by  Sisters  of 
the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary),  3  asylums  (St. 
Joseph’s  Infant  Home  at  Ebensburg,  conducted  by 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  St.  John’s  Orphan  Asylum  for 
boys  and  St.  Mary’s  Home  for  girls,  both  conducted 
at  Summit  by  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mary);  1  hospital  (Mercy  Hospital  at  Johnstown, 
conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Mercy).  The  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  State  Sanitarium  for  Tuberculosis  at  Cresson 
has  a  Catholic  chaplain  and  the  various  hos¬ 
pitals  admit  the  ministry  of  priests.  The  Priests 
Eucharistic  League,  the  Young  Men’s  Institute,  the 
Knights  of  Columbus,  and  the  Knights  of  St.  George 
are  established  in  the  diocese.  The  Catholic  period¬ 
icals  are  the  New  Guide,  published  at  Altoona,  and 
the  Altoona  Monthly,  under  the  editorship  of  Rev. 
Morgan  M.  Sheedy,  LL.  D. 


In  1908  the  diocesan  community  of  Franciscan 
Brothers  at  Loretto,  Pa.,  were  admitted  to  solemn 
profession  in  the  Third  Order  Regular  of  St. 
Francis,  and  in  1910  their  institute  at  Loretto  was 
made  the  provincial  house  for  the  newly  erected 
province  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 

During  the  World  War,  although  limited  in 
priests,  the  diocese  sent  six  chaplains  to  the  army, 
each  of  whom  made  an  excellent  record.  Each 
parish  sent  its  quota  of  young  men  into  the  ranks 
and  there  is  hardly  a  congregation  that  did  not 
lose  one  or  more,  killed  in  the  war.  Priests  and 
prominent  laymen  made  stirring  addresses,  urging 
their  hearers  to  subscribe  for  Liberty  Bonds  and 
take  their  full  share  in  the  burdens  the  war  im¬ 
posed.  The  laity,  both  men  and  women,  and  even 
the  children  in  the  schools,  did  splendid  service. 

Amadeus  of  the  Heart  of  Jesus,  Mother 
Mary  (Sarah  Theresa  Dunne),  foundress  of 
the  Ursuline  Missions  in  Montana  and  Alaska, 
b.  at  Akron,  Ohio,  2  July,  1846;  d.  at  Seattle,  10 
November,  1920.  She  was  descended  from  the 
O’Dunne ’s  of  Iregan,  Ireland;  her  father  John 
O’Dunne,  sailed  for  America  in  1820,  having  bought 
a  tract  of  land  in  upper  Canada  upon  which  he 
intended  to  found  a  Catholic  colony  from  Ireland. 
Finding  too  much  opposition  from  Orangemen  he 
sold  out  in  1836  and  moved  to  the  United  States, 
where  he  settled  in  the  Western  Reserve,  Ohio. 
When  Sarah  was  ten  years  old  he  moved  to  Cali¬ 
fornia,  leaving  her  and  her  sister  Mary  at  school 
in  the  Ursuline  Convent  at  Cleveland.  Here  her 
character  was  moulded  to  heroism  and  she  acquired 
that  fearlessness  in  undertaking  great  things  for 
God  that  distinguished  her  in  after  life.  After 
graduation  she  entered  the  novitiate  of  the  order 
at  Toledo,  where  she  pronounced  her  vows,  23 
August,  1864.  Upon  the  death  of  the  foundress, 
in  1874,  she  was  elected  superior  and  unanimously 
re-elected.  Her  term  of  office  was  a  period  of 
flourishing  growth  for  the  Ursulines;  in  1876  she 
built  a  new  novitiate;  in  1878  she  restored  the 
enclosure  prescribed  in  1607  for  the  Ursulines  of 
Paris;  and  in  1879  she  re-established  the  convent 
at  Youngstown. 

In  1883  there  was  an  urgent  call  for  missionary 
and  educational  work  among  the  Indian  tribes  in 
the  far  West.  Bishop  Brondel,  then  Vicar  Apostolic 
of  Montana,  appealed  to  the  bishops  in  the  East 
for  aid  and  especially  for  sisters  to  establish  schools 
among  the  Indians.  Bishop  Gilmour  of  Cleveland 
responded  by  sending  him  six  Ursulines,  with 
Mother  Amadeus  at  their  head,  saying  “I  am  send¬ 
ing  you  a  Christmas  present  of  six  Ursulines  with 
the  Flower  of  my  Flock  at  their  head.”  They  left 
Toledo  in  January,  1884,  arriving  17  days  later  at 
Miles  City,  Montana,  where  Mother  Amadeus 
founded  her  first  house  in  the  West.  A  few  months 
later  with  two  of  her  nuns  she  went  to  a  mission 
in  the  Tongue  River  Reservation,  founded  the 
previous  year  by  Father  Barcelo,  S.J.,  among  the 
Cheyennes.  Thanking  God  for  the  privilege  of 
their  apostolate  the  Sisters  bore  the  privations  of 
their  primitive  surroundings  and  the  outbursts  of 
vengeance  of  the  absolutely  untamed  tribe,  when 
even  the  priests  succumbed  and  left  the  mission. 
The  personal  magnetism  and  winning  firmness  of 
the  Mother  won  over  the  chiefs  of  the  Cheyenne, 
who  never  after  wavered  in  their  loyalty  to  her. 

She  soon  extended  her  work  to  other  tribes,  and 
during  her  twenty-three  years  in  Montana  founded 
twelve  flourishing  missions. 

In  1900,  at  the  request  of  Leo  XIII,  she  attended 
the  first  chapter  general  of  the  Ursulines  in  Rome,  | 


AMADIA 


33 


AMERICAN 


and  was  elected  Provincial  Superior  for  all  the 
northern  portion  of  the  United  States.  She  was 
five  times  a  delegate  to  the  general  chapter,  en¬ 
joying  the  personal  esteem  and  appreciation  of 
Popes  Leo  XIII,  Pius  X,  and  Benedict  XV.  In 
1905  she  sent  three  sisters  to  Alaska  to  open  the 
first  mission  in  the  Yukon  delta.  Mother  Amadeus 
joined  them  in  1907,  realizing  at  last  the  ambition 
of  her  life.  At  the  cost  of  terrible  hardships  she 
founded  a  second  mission  at  St.  Michael’s;  then, 
at  the  request  of  Bishop  Crimont,  she  journeyed  to 
southwestern  Alaska  to  establish  a  mission  at 
Valdez.  This  was  an  environment  more  adapted 
to  ease  and  comfort,  and  a  large  and  well-equipped 
building  was  soon  completed.  She  returned,  how¬ 
ever,  to  her  beloved  Innuits  every  year ;  on  her 
trip  to  St.  Michael’s  in  1918  she  was  thrown  from 
her  berth  by  the  storm  and  severely  injured.  While 
still  confined  to  her  bed  in  the  convent,  the  house 
was  burned  to  the  ground  and  the  nuns  had  barely 
time  to  escape.  She  never  recovered  from  these 
repeated  shocks  and  in  the  following  June  was 
brought  to  the  home  of  the  Ursulines  in  Seattle, 
where  she  died  a  few  months  later.  In  accordance 
with  her  expressed  desire,  her  body  was  brought 
back  to  the  scene  of  her  labors  and  rests  at  the 
mission  of  St.  Ignatius. 

Amadia,  Diocese  of  (Amadiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-376a),  a  diocese  of  the  Chaldean  Rite  in  Kurdis¬ 
tan,  Turkey,  in  Asia.  In  1895  this  diocese  was 
united  to  that  of  Akra,  but  by  a  Brief  of  24  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1910,  it  was  separated.  The  present  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Francis  David,  b.  at  Aradene  1870,  or¬ 
dained  1893,  was  appointed  to  this  see  25  January, 
1910,  to  succeed  Bishop  Sakkar,  d.  13  June,  1909. 
In  1920  there  were  in  the  diocese  4,970  Chaldean 
Catholics  and  4,000  Nestorians,  19  priests,  15 
churches  or  chapels,  and  10  schools. 

Amalfi,  Archdiocese  of  (Amalphitanensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  I-379b),  in  Italy,  is  directly  subject  to  the 
Holy  See  and  has  its  seat  at  Amalfi,  not  far  from 
Naples.  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio  Maria  Bonito,  who  was 
appointed  to  this  see  17  June,  1907,  retired  and 
was  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Axum  5  August, 
1910.  His  successor,  Rt.  Rev.  Angelo  Maria  Dolci, 
appointed  27  January,  1911,  was  made  Vicar  Apos¬ 
tolic  at  Constantinople  and  transferred  to  the 
titular  see  of  Hierapolis  16  November,  1914.  The 
present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Ercolano  Marini  suc¬ 
ceeded  him  2  June,  1915.  Bom  at  Matelica,  1866, 
and  ordained  1889,  he  was  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Archelais  29  June,  1904,  and  transferred  to  Norcia, 
11  December,  1905,  filling  that  see  until  his  trans¬ 
fer  to  Amalfi. 

The  church  of  the  Assumption  at  Ravello  (dio¬ 
cese  from  1087-1818)  was  made  a  minor  basilica 
31  June,  1918.  Among  the  relics  preserved  in  this 
church,  which  is  a  gem  of  medieval  architecture,  is 
a  sealed  vessel  containing  the  blood  of  St.  Panta- 
leon,  martyred  at  Nicomedia  27  July,  303.  In  1920 
the  Catholic  population  of  Amalfi  was  counted  at 
46,000  and  divided  into  54  parishes. 

Amazones  (or  Manaos),  Diocese  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
I-381b),  in  South  America  was  formerly  dependent 
on  San  Salvador  of  Bahia  but  is  now  suffragan  of 
Belem  de  Para,  with  the  seat  at  Manaos.  Rt.  Rev. 
Frederick  de  Souza  e  Costa,  who  was  appointed 
to  this  see  8  January,  1907,  was  transferred  to  the 
titular  see  of  Tubuna,  16  April,  1914,  and  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  John 
Irenaeus  Joffily.  Born  in  the  diocese  of  Parahyba 
in  1878  he  was  ordained  in  1901,  became  director 
of  the  College  of  St.  Anthony  at  Natal  in  1903,  and 
of  the  College  of  Pius  X  at  Parahyba  1908,  was 


made  a  domestic  prelate  in  1913,  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Sufetula,  18  August,  1914,  and  trans¬ 
ferred  to  Amazones  4  May,  1916.  In  1906  a  large 
portion  of  the  territory  of  this  diocese  was  detached 
and  united  to  the  Abbey  Nullius  of  Monserrate  in 
Brazil.  There  are  no  recent  statistics  for  this 
diocese. 

Amelia,  Diocese  of  (Amerinensis;  cf.  C.  E 
I-406d),  in  the  province  of  Perugia,  Central  Italy’ 
is  dnectly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  The  present 
incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Francesco  Maria  Berti,  b.  at 
Popilio,  1868,  ordained  1890,  was  appointed  bishop 
31  August,  1907.  In  1920  there  were  19,650  Catho¬ 
lics  in  the  diocese,  20  parishes,  30  secular  and  21 
regular  clergy,  17  seminarians,  78  churches  or 
chapels,  30  brothers  and  64  sisters. 

America  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-409b) .— With  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  the  purchase  of  the  Virgin  Islands  from 
Denmark  by  the  United  States  for  $25,000,000  in  a 
treaty  proclaimed  25  January,  1917,  the  status  of 
the  American  republics  and  the  colonial  possessions 
of  the  Old  World  in  America  remains  the  same. 
However,  there  has  been  in  the  last  decade,  as  a 
result  of  the  European  War  (1914-1918),  a  closer 
connection  between  the  Old  World  and  the  New. 
The  sympathy  of  the  Americas  with  the  Allies  was 
attested  in  the  continuous  stream  of  men,  muni¬ 
tions,  and  food  from  the  British  possessions  as  well 
as  from  the  countries  which  had  broken  relations 
with  German^y.  America’s  concern  with  the  eco¬ 
nomic  rehabilitation  of  Europe  after  the  war  sent 
her  representatives  to  the  Peace  Conference  at 
Versailles  and  the  beginning  of  1922  witnessed  the 
unusual  spectacle  of  the  foremost  statesmen  of  the 
world  gathered  in  Washington  to  discuss  not  only 
the  limitation  of  armaments,  but  the  vexing  prob¬ 
lems  rising  from  the  European  War  in  the  Far  East 
and  the  Pacific.  Historical  details  will  be  found 
under  the  titles  of  the  various  countries  of  North, 
South  and  Central  America. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  accurate  statistics  of  the 
Catholic  population  of  America,  for  even  in  the 
United  States  the  number  usually  given,  “about 
17,000,000,”  is  a  conjecture  more  or  less  accurate. 
The  United  States  of  America  alone  contains  14 
archbishoprics,  86  bishoprics,  and  1  vicariate  apos¬ 
tolic.  The  remainder  of  America  divides  into  213 
dioceses,  51  of  which  are  seats  of  metropolitans. 
There  are  to-day  four  American  cardinals:  Joaquim 
Arcoverde  de  Albuquerque,  Archbishop  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Brazil,  created  in  1905;  William  O’Connell, 
Archbishop  of  Boston,  created  in  1911;  Louis- 
Nazaire  Begin,  Archbishop  of  Quebec,  Canada, 
created  in  1914;  Dennis  J.  Dougherty,  Archbishop 
of  Philadelphia,  created  in  1921. 

American  Christian  Convention.  See  Christian 
Church. 

American  College,  Louvain  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-424d).— 
During  the  war  the  American  flag  flew  constantly 
over  the  portals  of  the  college,  and  the  building 
was  spared.  The  few  students  who  remained  in 
August,  1914,  formed  themselves  into  ambulanciers, 
and  the  college  was  used  as  a  hospital.  Monsignor 
De  Becker,  with  the  heads  of  the  University,  was 
roughly  handled  by  the  Germans  and  taken  to 
Brussels  as  a  hostage,  but  Brand  Whitlock,  United 
States  Minister  to  Belgium,  insisted  on  his  release 
and  the  rector  was  allowed  to  return.  In  October, 
1919,  the  college  reopened  with  some  twenty 
students,  fourteen  of  whom  were  Americans,  Rev. 
Charles  C.  Curran,  of  Providence,  being  appointed 
vice-rector.  The  numbers  have  increased  since  the 
reopening,  but  are  far  below  the  pre-war  roster. 
The  American  College  course  of  studies  forms  the 


AMERICAN 


34 


AMERICAN 


scholci  minor  of  the  faculty  of  theology  at  the 
University,  and  includes  two  years  of  philosophy 
and  four  of  theology.  The  professors  are  all  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  faculties  of  the  University,  teaching  in 
both  the  schola  minor  and  the  schola  major. 

The  library  is  the  gift  of  the  friends  of  the  college 
and  contains  especially  a  fine  collection  of  books 
in  English  on  philosophical  and  theological  sub¬ 
jects  from  the  late  Archbishop  John  Spalding,  the 
founder  of  the  college. 

There  is  no  museum.  A  monthly  publication, 
The  American  College  Bulletin ,  was  founded  by 
Rev.  Joseph  Van  der  Hayden,  a  priest  of  the  dio¬ 
cese  of  Boise  City,  who  has  lived  in  Louvain  for 
the  past  twenty  years. 

American  College,  The  South  (cf.  C.E.,  I-425d), 
in  Rome  (legal  title,  Collegio  Pio  Latino  Americano 
Pontificio).  The  present  rector  is  Rev.  Juan 
Bigazzi,  and  the  cardinal  protector  is  His  Eminence 
Cardinal  Billot.  The  college  is  under  perpetual 
direction  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  and  draws  its  stu¬ 
dents  from  the  many  different  countries  of  the  New 
World,  where  Spanish  and  Portuguese  is  the  lan¬ 
guage  spoken.  In  1922  there  were  104  students 
sent  to  Rome  from  dioceses  in  the  following  coun¬ 
tries:  Ecuador  1,  Argentina  15,  Bolivia  3,  Brazil  7, 
Chile  11,  Colombia  5,  Costa  Rica  1,  Cuba  3, 
Guatemala  2,  Mexico  36,  Paraguay  2,  Peru  8,  the 
Philippines  5,  Porto  Rico  2,  San  Salvador  1, 
Uruguay  1,  and  Venezuela  1.  There  is  an  increase  of 
25  students  over  the  number  of  last  year.  Twenty 
students  are  priests,  6  deacons,  3  sub-deacons,  and 
75  without  orders;  of  these  17  are  students  of  canon 
law,  45  of  theology,  39  philosophy,  and  3  of  the 
humanities. 

The  benefits  derived  from  this  college,  which 
gathers  together  students  from  so  many  countries 
to  study  in  the  shadow  of  the  Vatican,  can  readily 
be  seen  by  reading  the  lists  of  honors  conferred 
on  its  1122  graduates  (among  whom  is  Cardinal 
Arcoverde,  Archbishop  of  Rio  de  Janeiro)  and  the 
good  works  effected  by  them,  especially  in  in¬ 
structing  in  diocesan  seminaries. 

American  Federation  of  Labor,  The,  was  or¬ 
ganized  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  8  December,  1886,  by 
a  convention  composed  of  representatives  of  the 
national  and  international  trade  unions.  The  sixth 
annual  convention  of  the  Federation  of  Organized 
Trades  and  Labor  Unions  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada  (founded  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  in  1881), 
then  in  session  at  Columbus,  voted  to  dissolve  and 
merge  with  the  Federation.  In  1889  the  conven¬ 
tion  of  the  Federation  declared  that  the  “con¬ 
tinuity  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  be 
recognized  and  dated  from  the  year  1881  in  all 
future  documents”;  therefore  it  is  usually  stated 
that  the  Federation  was  founded  in  1881.  The 
primary  object  of  the  Federation  is  the  thorough 
organization  of  the  wage-earners  into  local  trade 
and  labor  unions,  the  federation  of  the  local  unions 
into  central  trade  and  labor  unions,  the  combi¬ 
nation  of  the  central  bodies  in  state  and  provincial 
organizations,  the  establishment  of  national  and 
international  unions,  and  the  federation  of  all  the 
organizations  in  the  American  Federation  of  Labor. 
The  general  object  of  the  Federation  is  the  pro¬ 
tection  and  promotion  of  the  economic,  political, 
and  social  rights  of  all  working  people.  Proceeding 
from  the  principle  that  the  economic  interests  of 
all  workers  are  identical  and  can  only  be  safe¬ 
guarded  by  associated  effort,  the  Federation  urges 
the  workers  to  unite  in  trade  unions  regardless  of 
nationality,  sex,  color,  creed,  race,  or  politics. 

As  the  name  implies,  the  American  Federation 


of  Labor  is  a  federation  of  labor  organizations. 
The  affiliated  bodies  enjoy  complete  self-govern¬ 
ment,  craft  autonomy  of  each  trade  being  the 
basis  upon  which  the  national  and  international 
unions  are  established.  The  jurisdiction  of  the 
international  unions  is  limited  to  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  these  countries  being  also  the  juris¬ 
diction  limits  of  the  Federation  itself.  The  powers 
of  the  Federation  are  conferred  upon  it  by  the 
constitution  and  the  annual  conventions.  The  con¬ 
vention,  which  is  a  delegate  body  elected  by  the 
affiliated  organizations,  is  the  supreme  legislative 
and  judicial  authority.  The  government  of  the 
Federation  is  administered  by  the  executive  coun¬ 
cil,  composed  of  the  president,  secretary,  treasurer, 
and  eight  vice-presidents,  all  elected  annually  by 
the  convention.  In  addition  to  executing  the  laws 
the  executive  council  may  take  the  initiative  in 
matters  affecting  the  interests  of  the  workers  which 
arise  between  conventions;  these  interim  actions, 
however,  are  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  sub¬ 
sequent  convention. 

The  affiliated  bodies  consist  of  national  and  in¬ 
ternational  unions,  state  federations,  city  central 
bodies,  and  directly  affiliated  local  trade  and  federal 
labor  unions.  The  local  trade  and  federal  labor 
unions  are  composed  of  wage-earners  employed  in 
crafts  and  callings  in  which  no  national  union  is 
established.  They  are  directly  affiliated  to  the 
Federation.  Since  1896,  eighty-five  national  and 
international  unions  have  been  formed  out  of  the 
directly  affiliated  local  unions.  The  Federation  has 
affiliated  with  it  (in  1922)  112  national  and  inter¬ 
national  unions,  representing  36,247  local  unions; 
49  state  federations,  910  city  central  bodies,  and 
658  local  trade  and  federal  labor  unions.  There 
are  also  five  trade  departments,  with  783  local  de¬ 
partment  councils. 

The  average  dues-paying  membership  of  the 
affiliated  bodies  was  548,321  in  1900;  ten  years 
later  the  number  was  1,562,102,  rising  to  4,078,740 
in  1920.  The  prolonged  unemployment  of  1920-21 
reduced  the  average  dues-paying  membership  to 
3,906,528  in  the  latter  year.  Although  most  of 
the  trade  unions  in  the  United  States  are  affiliated 
with  the  Federation,  the  railway  brotherhoods  are 
not.  The  railway  department  of  the  Federation, 
however,  includes  railway  workers’  unions  with  a 
membership  of  600,000. 

The  revenue  of  the  Federation  is  mainly  derived 
from  charter  fees  and  taxation.  The  charter  fee 
for  national  and  international  unions  is  five  dollars; 
for  state  federations,  city  central  bodies,  and  local 
trade  and  federal  labor  unions,  fifteen  dollars.  The 
national  and  international  unions  pay  a  per  capita 
tax  of  one  cent  per  member  per  month ;  the 
state  federations  and  city  central  bodies  pay  a 
tax  of  ten  dollars  per  year;  the  directly  affiliated 
locals  pay  a  per  capita  tax  of  25  cents  per  mem¬ 
ber  per  month,  17 V2  cents  of  which  is  set  aside  for 
strike  benefits  and  subscription  to  the  official 
journal  of  the  Federation,  leaving  but  7%  cents 
for  the  Federation’s  general  expenses.  The  total 
revenue  of  the  Federation  for  1900  was  $71,125;  in 
1910  the  revenue  rose  to  $193,470;  in  1920  it  was 
$921,255,  and  in  1921,  $832,169. 

The  political  policy  of  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor  is  non-partisan.  This  principle  is  applied 
both  in  qualifications  for  representation  in  the  con¬ 
ventions  as  well  as  in  contemporaneous  political 
action.  The  1890  convention  declared  that  “a 
political  party  of  whatsoever  nature  is  not  entitled 
to  representation  in  the  American  Federation  of 
Labor”;  the  1895  convention  declared  that  “party 
politics  ....  shall  have  no  place  in  the  conven- 


AMERICAN 


35 


AMERICANIZATION 


tions  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor.”  Sub¬ 
sequently  this  declaration  was  made  a  part  of  the 
Federation’s  constitution.  In  its  contemporaneous 
political  action  the  Federation  recommends  the 
defeat  of  candidates  for  public  office  who  are  hostile 
to  the  trade  union  movement  and  the  election 
of  those  who  may  be  relied  upon  to  support  meas¬ 
ures  favorable  to  labor.  The  Federation’s  test  is 
not  the  candidate’s  political  party,  but  his  record. 
The  same  test  is  applied  to  political  parties.  In 
practice  the  Federation  submits  its  legislative  de¬ 
mands  to  the  party  conventions,  reporting  to  the 
workers  whether  the  convention  declarations  are 
favorable  or  unfavorable  to  labor.  With  respect 
to  candidates  for  public  office,  the  Federation 
compiles  each  candidate’s  record  on  the  question 
of  fairness  or  unfairness  to  labor  and  submits 
the  report  to  the  candidate’s  wage  earning  con¬ 
stituency.  Should  there  be  no  fair  party  candi¬ 
dates  the  Federation  recommends  the  nomination  of 
independent  labor  candidates.  In  1920  the  Federa¬ 
tion  expended  $53,934  in  this  advisory  work. 

Although  affirming  the  inherent  and  constitu¬ 
tional  right  of  the  wage  earners  to  quit  work  for 
any  reason  whatsoever,  the  Federation  is  not 
authorized  to  declare  strikes.  With  respect  to  the 
affiliated  national  and  international  unions,  the 
strike-declaring  power  rests  with  the  unions  them¬ 
selves.  With  the  directly  affiliated  local  trade  and 
federal  labor  unions,  the  executive  council’s  power 
is  limited  to  approving  or  authorizing  a  strike  con¬ 
templated  by  the  locals.  The  Federation  may  give 
its  moral  support  to  a  strike  declared  by  an  an  affil¬ 
iated  organization,  and  may  issue  appeals  for  strike 
funds;  the  executive  council  has  the  constitutional 
power  to  levy  an  assessment  of  one  cent  per 
month  for  not  exceeding  ten  months  in  one  year 
to  assist  an  affiliated  union  in  a  protracted  strike 
or  lockout;  fifteen  such  assessments  have  been 
levied  since  1881;  in  seven  of  them  one  cent  was 
the  total  levy,  the  maximum  of  ten  cents  having 
been  called  for  in  but  one  instance.  Under  its 
authority  to  raise  strike  funds  by  appeals  for 
voluntary  contributions,  the  executive  council  col¬ 
lected  $426,823  in  support  of  the  iron  and  steel 
workers  strike  in  1919-20. 

The  contemporaneous  demands  of  the  Federation 
include  the  recognition  of  principles  regarded  as 
fundamentally  necessary  for  the  freedom  of  the 
workers.  Among  the  more  important  are:  the 
right  of  the  working  people  to  organize  in  trade 
unions,  to  practice  collective  bargaining  through 
representatives  of  their  own  choosing,  to  work 
and  cease  work  collectively,  to  collectively  bestow 
or  withhold  patronage,  and  to  exercise  collective 
activities  in  the  furtherance  of  the  welfare  of  labor. 
In  the  legislative  field  the  Federation  demands 
legal  protection  against  the  conception  that  there 
is  a  property  right  in  human  labor  power;  prohi¬ 
bition  of  injunctions  in  labor  disputes  where  they 
would  not  apply  in  the  absence  of  such  disputes; 
suitable  laws  to  prohibit  the  courts  from  declaring 
Acts  of  Congress  unconstitutional;  election  of 
judges;  exemption  of  trade  unions  from  anti-com¬ 
bination  laws;  legislation  prohibiting  courts  from 
holding  trade  unions  and  individual  trade  unionists 
liable  for  damages  for  the  unlawful  acts  of  others; 
legislation  declaring  that  labor  organizations  are 
not  co-partnerships;  repeal  of  state  industrial  court 
laws;  prohibition  of  immigration  for  two  years  and 
restricted  immigration  thereafter;  the  general  appli¬ 
cation  of  the  initiative  and  referendum  in  federal 
and  state  political  affairs;  public  administration 
of  credit;  inauguration  of  a  federal  employment 
service;  abolition  of  child  labor  under  sixteen 


years;  equal  wages  for  equal  work  of  men  and 
women  wage  earners;  graduated  tax  on  usable  lands 
above  the  acreage  cultivated  by  the  owner;  gov¬ 
ernment  aid  for  farm  and  home  ownership  and 
home  building;  progressive  inheritance,  income, 
and  land  value  taxes;  state  monopoly  of  work¬ 
men’s  compensation  insurance;  state  colleges  for 
workingmen’s  children;  complete  freedom  of  press, 
speech,  assemblage,  and  association;  substitution  of 
state-use  system  for  contract  convict  labor  system; 
democracy  in  industry  and  education  as  well  as 
in  government. 

In  1920  and  1921  the  Federation  convention  de¬ 
clared  in  favor  of  “government  ownership  and 
democratic  operation  of  the  railroad  systems  of 
the  United  States.”  It  also  favors  government 
ownership  and  development  of  water  power,  govern¬ 
ment  ownership  and  operation  of  wharves  and 
docks  connected  with  public  harbors,  and  govern¬ 
ment  ownership  and  operation  or  control  of  public 
and  semi-public  utilities.  The  Rochedale  plan  of 
productive  and  distributive  co-operation  was  ap¬ 
proved  by  the  1917  convention  as  necessary  for 
the  protection  of  the  wage  earners  “in  their  rela¬ 
tions  with  the  merchants  and  business  men  in  the 
same  sense  that  the  trade  union  movement  protects 
them  from  employers.”  The  Federation  has  a 
special  fund  for  promoting  co-operation.  It  also 
supports  farmers’  co-operatives,  such  as  dairies, 
canneries,  packing  houses,  grain  elevators,  and  dis¬ 
tributing  houses. 

For  the  adjustment  of  disputes  between  em¬ 
ployees  and  employers  the  Federation  favors  volun¬ 
tary  arbitration  applied  by  collective  bargaining, 
under  which  the  organized  workers,  through  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  their  own  choosing,  deal  directly  with 
the  employers  or  their  representatives.  The  Feder¬ 
ation  is  opposed  to  compulsory  arbitration  in 
every  form,  claiming  that  it  re-establishes  compul¬ 
sory  work  similar  to  that  -of  the  slave  and  feudal 
periods.  In  the  interests  of  federal  labor  legislation 
the  Federation  maintains  a  special  bureau.  The 
state  federations  maintain  state  bureaus  to  look 
after  state  labor  legislation. 

The  headquarters  of  the  Federation  are  situated 
at  Washington,  D.  C.  It  publishes  a  monthly 
official  journal,  the  “American  Federationist” ;  the 
“American  Federation  of  Labor  Weekly  News 
Service”  for  the  benefit  of  the  labor  press,  and 
maintains  an  information  and  publicity  service. 
The  officers  of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor 
(1922)  are:  president,  Samuel  Gompers;  vice-presi¬ 
dents,  James  Duncan,  Joseph  F.  Valentine,  Frank 
Duffy,  William  Green,  W.  D.  Mahon,  T.  A.  Rickert, 
Jacob  Fischer,  Matthew  Woll;  treasurer,  Daniel  J. 
Tobin;  secretary,  Frank  Morrison. 


Americanization,  also  known  as  civic  education 
and  citizenship  training,  was  one  of  the  problems 
which  received  the  widespread  attention  of  the 
American  people  at  the  entrance  of  the  LTnited 
States  into  the  World  War.  Prior  to  that  time 
formal  instruction  in  civics  was  given  almost  solely 
in  secondary  schools  and  higher  institutions  of 
learning.  The  discovery  of  millions  of  unassimilated 
immigrants,  revelations  of  disloyalty  to  America 
and  of  hostility  to  organized  Government  by  radical 
groups  of  our  population,  disclosures  by  the  Selec¬ 
tive  Draft  of  an  astoundingly  high  rate  of  illiteracy 
among  the  men  recruited  for  service  in  the  army 
and  navy,  all  focussed  public  attention  upon  the 
necessity  of  evolving  an  educational  program  which 
would  make  America  more  American.  The  wave 
of  patriotism  which  swept  over  the  United  States 
at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  caused  the  average  and 


AMERICANIZATION 


36 


AMERICANIZATION 


previously  indifferent  American  citizen  to  realize 
that  while  enjoying  all  the  privileges  of  American 
citizenship  he  had  not  been  shouldering  his  full 
share  of  its  duties  and  responsibilities,  and  that  he 
and  his  Government  had  done  little  to  bring  about 
the  assimilation  of  13,000,000  or  more  unnaturalized 
immigrants  who  were  included  in  our  war-time 

population.  . 

The  seriousness  of  the  problem  was  first  impressed 
upon  the  military  authorities  of  the  country  as  a  re¬ 
sult  of  psychological  tests  conducted  in  various  can¬ 
tonments  by  the  War  Department.  One  significant 
result  may  be  quoted:  Of  1,566,011  men  examined, 
25.3  per  cent  were  unable  to  “read  and  understand 
newspapers  and  write  letters  home”  (Memoirs 
of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences,  XV).  Thirty- 
one  per  cent  of  this  number  were  native-born  Amer¬ 
icans.  The  presence  of  2,953,011  foreign-born  whites 
over  ten  years  of  age  (census  of  1910)  who  were 
unable  to  speak  the  English  language  was  regarded 
as  a  potential  handicap  to  the  winning  of  the  war 
and  a  menace  to  our  national  unity,  security  and 
progress.  The  publication  at  that  time  of  nearly 
1500  foreign-language  newspapers  (there  were  1244 
such  papers  listed  by  the  Census  Bureau  in  1920) 
was  regarded  as  an  influence  which,  to  a  certain 
extent,  served  to  keep  in  ignorance  of  the  English 
language,  American  institutions  and  American  laws, 
literally  millions  of  unassimilated  immigrants,  living 
in  the  United  States  and  profiting  financially 
through  employment  in  American  industries.  This 
ignorance  on  the  part  of  a  great  number  of  foreign- 
born,  who  were  employed  in  what  the  Government 
designated  as  essential  war  industries,  made  them 
the  easy  prey  of  agitators  who  opposed  the  Govern¬ 
ment’s  war  policy,  with  the  result  that  many  dis¬ 
turbances  were  fomented  among  foreign-born  war- 
workers  to  the  disadvantage  of  America’s  war 
program. 

These  and  other  circumstances  impelled  the  Fed¬ 
eral  Government,  the  various  states,  and  communi¬ 
ties  to  formulate  programs  of  Americanization  with 
the  intention  of  correcting  the  unfavorable  condi¬ 
tions.  A  great  variety  of  agencies  immediately  took 
up  the  work  and  co-operated  with  the  Federal  Gov¬ 
ernment  and  other  official  agencies  in  carrying  on 
the  movement.  These  co-operating  groups  included 
well  known  semi-public  organizations,  chambers  of 
commerce,  church  societies,  labor  unions,  industrial 
corporations,  councils  of  defense,  philanthropic  soci¬ 
eties,  lodges  and  fraternal  organizations,  racial  or¬ 
ganizations,  and  a  great  variety  of  small  groups 
scattered  throughout  the  country.  The  report  of 
the  Commissioner  of  Naturalization  for  1921  lists 
3526  communities  as  co-operating  with  the  Naturali¬ 
zation  Bureau  in  the  work  of  citizenship  training. 
As  a  result,  Americanization  work  became  one  of 
the  most  widespread  educational  movements  ever 
launched  in  the  United  States. 

The  Americanization  Bureau  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Education  divided  the  work  of 
Americanization  into  four  phases:  educational, 
social,  racial,  and  informational.  The  educational 
phase  took  cognizance  of  the  problem  of  illiteracy, 
the  non-English-speaking  groups,  and  the  training 
of  Americanization  teachers.  The  function  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  in  this  connec¬ 
tion  dealt  with  the  working  out  of  methods  of 
instruction,  the  preparation  of  text-books,  the  or¬ 
ganization  of  schools  and  classes,  the  encouraging 
of  the  states  and  communities  to  activity  in  Amer¬ 
icanization  work  and  the  bringing  about  of  a  co¬ 
ordination  of  the  educational  facilities  of  the 
Bureau  of  Education  and  of  the  educational  agencies 
of  the  various  States.  The  social  phase  dealt  with 


such  related  problems  as  housing  and  sanitation, 
community  recreation,  public  health,  prevention  of 
the  exploitation  of  the  immigrant,  protection  of  his 
savings,  and  the  education  of  our  native-born 
people  to  a  sympathetic  and  tolerant  understanding 
of  the  problems  of  the  foreign-born.  The  racial 
phase  of  Americanization  work  took  into  considera¬ 
tion  co-operation  with  racial  organizations,  with 
the  foreign-language  press,  and  with  the  foreign- 
born  generally.  The  informational  service  dealt 
with  publications  and  bulletins  explaining  technical 
methods  of  Americanization,  organization  of  speak¬ 
ers’  bureaus,  and  dissemination  to  the  press  of 
general  propaganda  in  reference  to  the  needs,  the 
aims  and  purposes,  and  the  methods  of  carrying  on 
the  work. 

The  Americanization  work  of  the  reconstruction 
period  expressed  itself  in  two  distinctly  different 
schools.  One  reflected  the  negative  attitude,  which 
assumed  that  the  immigrant  constituted  the  sole 
problem  of  citizenship  development.  This  group 
advocated  a  compulsory  Americanization  process 
for  all  aliens;  disregarded  the  history  of  the  demo¬ 
cratic  strivings  of  immigrant  peoples  and  their 
nationalistic  language,  customs  and  traditions ;  tried, 
through  drastic  police  power,  restrictive  legisla¬ 
tion  and  irritating  espionage,  even  by  imprisonment, 
to  inculcate  Americanism  by  implanting  a  fear  of 
America  rather  than  by  cultivating  an  understand¬ 
ing  of  and  a  belief  in  America  and  its  democratic 
institutions. 

Under  the  pretence  of  attacking  Bolshevism,  there 
developed  in  some  localities  organizations  which 
made  sinister  attempts  to  control  programs  _  of 
Americanization  for  the  purpose  of  promoting 
special  interests  and  thwarting  efforts  toward  social 
justice.  The  terms  “Americanism”  and  “Ameri¬ 
canization”  were  in  several  instances  found  to  be 
mere  cloaks  for  un-American  undertakings.  Most 
of  these  pseudo-Americanization  schemes  over¬ 
reached  their  mark  and  were  exposed  in  due  time. 
These  activities  created  in  many  quarters,  espe¬ 
cially  in  the  minds  of  the  immigrant,  distrust  for 
the  very  idea  of  Americanization. 

The  other  school  brought  to  the  work  of  Amer¬ 
icanization  a  saner,  more  sympathetic  and  more 
constructive  point  of  view.  The  proponents  of 
this  school  realized  that  neither  the  indifferent 
native-born  citizen  nor  the  unnaturalized  immigrant 
could  be  forced  into  a  mould  of  good  citizenship. 
They  held  that  democracy  is  a  co-operative  under¬ 
taking  and  that  upon  the  measure  of  co-opera¬ 
tion  given  by  the  individual  citizen  depends  the 
failure  or  success  of  our  American  political  in¬ 
stitutions.  This  school  advocated  that  good  citizen¬ 
ship  should  be  promoted  among  native-born  and 
immigrant  alike,  for  the  purpose  of  fixing  an  ideal 
of  social  justice  and  civic  responsibility  toward 
which  all  might  strive  in  practical  fashion.  It 
realized  that  the  foreign-born  alone  should  not 
be  shouldered  with  the  entire  responsibility  of 
America’s  deficiency  in  true  citizenship  and  it  held 
that  the  foreign-born,  simply  because  they  were 
foreign-born,  were  not  responsible  for  all  radical 
and  Bolshevistic  movements.  It  stated  that  the 
native-born  must  share  the  responsibility  for  both 
these  unfortunate  conditions.  It  believed  that  the 
ideals  of  fair  play  and  the  square  deal,  freedom 
of  expression,  freedom  of  religious  worship,  appre¬ 
ciation  of  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  citizen¬ 
ship  and  co-operation  in  democracy’s  work  should 
be  held  before  the  American  people  and  be  made 
the  goal  of  their  strivings  as  individuals  and  as 
citizens.  This  school  looked  upon  the  teaching 
of  English  as  an  instrument  by  which  the  ideals 


AMERICANIZATION 


37 


AMERICANIZATION 


of  American  citizenship  may  be  acquired,  but  it 
did  not  overlook  the  native  tongue  as  a  vehicle 
of  expression  of  democracy  and  of  Americanism. 

It  recognized  that  sympathy,  interest,  and  the 
manifestation  of  a  spirit  of  real  brotherhood,  on 
the  part  of  the  native-born  American  toward  the 
foreign-born  were  necessary  if  the  aims  contem¬ 
plated  by  the  Americanization  movement  were 
to  be  attained;  that  a  greater  knowledge  by  the 
native-born  of  the  immigrant  groups  in  America — 
of  their  racial  characteristics,  of  their  patriotic 
struggles  for  democracy  at  home  was  required;  that 
their  racial  contributions  to  the  literature,  art, 
sciences,  and  general  culture  of  the  world,  as  well 
as  the  spiritual  richness  of  their  national  lives,  must 
be  taken  into  consideration.  This  school  reflected, 
and  in  fact  was  greatly  influenced,  by  the  Catholic 
attitude  toward  the  work  of  Americanization  as 
evidenced  by  nation-wide  campaigns  for  better 
citizenship  carried  on  by  the  National  Catholic 
War  Council  and  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  the 
two  organizations  recognized  by  the  United  States 
Government  as  the  official  agencies  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  welfare  activities  growing  out  of  the 
war.  Through  lectures  delivered  by  such  well 
known  men  as  Dr.  James  J.  Walsh,  Conde  B.  Palles, 
Peter  Collins,  Joseph  Scott,  and  David  Goldstein, 
the  Knights  of  Columbus,  with  the  co-operation 
of  their  2000  councils,  carried  on  an  effective  cam¬ 
paign  against  Bolshevism,  Socialism*  and  other 
forms  of  radicalism.  The  Knights  of  Columbus 
night-schools  and  correspondence  courses  were 
sources  of  constructive  Americanization  work. 
There  is  grave  need  to  defeat  the  destructively  anti- 
American  propaganda,  which  is  carried  out  under 
the  cloak  of  re-writing  American  history  more  ac¬ 
curately,  and  in  order  to  do  this  effectively  the 
Knights  of  Columbus  have  planned  the  publication 
of  a  standard  American  history,  in  which  the  story 
of  America  will  be  told  for  Americans  and  the 
traditions  of  America  perpetuated. 

The  nation-wide  program  of  the  National  Catholic 
War  Council,  jointly  directed  by  John  A. 
Lapp,  LL.  D.,  a  well  known  authority  in  the  field 
of  civics,  and  by  the  writer  of  this  article,  was 
likewise  a  positive  and  constructive  movement  in 
behalf  of  better  citizenship.  The  N.  C.  W.  C.  pro¬ 
gram  was  based  on  the  following  principles:  that 
every  youth  should  have  before  leaving  school  ade¬ 
quate  training  in  the  duties,  obligations  and  rights 
of  citizenship,  to  which  end  such  training  should  be 
given  in  the  elementary  grades;  that  a  broad  pro¬ 
gram  of  instruction  in  social  science  should  be  given 
in  the  high  schools  and  colleges  for  the  development 
and  more  extensive  training  of  civic  leaders;  that 
all  persons,  native  or  immigrant,  who  had  not  had 
courses  in  citizenship,  should  have  the  opportunity 
of  taking  such  courses  in  order  better  to  fulfil  their 
obligations  to  the  community;  that  immigrants  who 
come  to  this  country  with  the  intention  of  staying 
for  any  great  length  of  time  should  assume  their 
part  of  the  common  burdens  of  society  by  seeking 
citizenship  and  by  performing  the  tasks  of  citizen¬ 
ship  with  understanding;  and  finally,  that  develop¬ 
ment  of  individual  character,  the  teaching  of  correct 
moral  principles,  and  the  inculcation  of  religion  are 
essential  to  the  making  of  good  citizens.  A  series 
of  Americanization  pamphlets,  the  total  issue  of 
which  exceeded  one  million  copies,  was  widely  used 
in  explaining  the  principles  underlying  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  our  American  Government,  the  privileges, 
opportunities,  rights  and  duties  of  American  citi¬ 
zens,  the  process  of  naturalization  and  the  means 
of  acquiring  citizenship. 

Realizing  that  in  the  elementary  school  system 


the  subject  of  civics  had  been  universally  neglected 
and  that  only  10  per  cent  of  the  elementary  school 
graduates  eventually  reach  high  school,  where  the 
subject  is  formally  taught,  the  directors  of  the 
N.  C.  W.  C.  campaign  brought  about  the  introduc¬ 
tion  of  a  simple  course  in  patriotism  and  civics 
in  the  6551  Catholic  elementary  schools.  The  “Fund¬ 
amentals  of  Citizenshin  ”  a  short  text  explaining 
the  A  B  C’s  of  our  American  democracy,  and  the 
“Civics  Catechism/’  a  question-and-answer  exposi¬ 
tion  of  the  rights  and  duties  of  American  citizens, 
were  widely  used  both  in  the  Catholic  schools  and 
in  community  Americanization  work.  These  texts 
were  also  reproduced  in  installments  in  the  leading 
Catholic  papers  and  periodicals  of  the  country  and 
in  many  secular  newspapers  as  well,  thereby  reach¬ 
ing  millions  of  our  population.  The  “Catechism” 
was  published  in  the  language  of  several  of  the 
leading  nationalistic  groups,  the  English  text  ap¬ 
pearing  in  parallel  column  form  with  the  foreign 
translation,  thereby  permitting  the  stranger  to  read 
in  his  own  language  of  the  privileges,  opportunities 
and  rights  of  American  citizenship,  the  process  of 
naturalization,  and  at  the  same  time  to  obtain 
a  knowledge  of  the  English  language.  Many  for¬ 
eign-language  publications  co-operated  in  printing 
both  the  English  and  foreign-language  texts  of  these 
two  pamphlets.  There  was  employed  effectively  a 
series  of  motion  picture  programs,  utilizing  short- 
reel  subjects  which  visualized  the  opportunities  of 
America,  industrially  and  educationally,  and  pro¬ 
vided  entertaining  pictures  of  a  patriotic,  dramatic 
and  educational  character.  The  motion  picture  fea¬ 
tures  were  most  successfully  employed  in  industrial 
centers  where  large  populations  of  immigrants  were 
found.  The  “Speakers’  Outline  of  Talks  on  Citizen¬ 
ship”  instructed  speakers  in  the  preparation  and 
delivery  of  short  talks,  both  in  English  and  in  the 
native  language  of  the  group,  dealing  with  the  simple 
facts  of  government,  and  set  forth  full  instructions 
to  pastors,  community  leaders  and  others  for  or¬ 
ganizing  civic  education  activities.  Educational 
features  contributed  by  the  foreign-born  groups 
themselves  added  to  the  appeal  and  interest  of 
these  entertainments. 

In  all  the  Americanization  work  of  the  N.  C.  W.  C. 
it  was  pointed  out :  that  the  success  of  a  democracy 
depends  on  knowledge,  moral  character  and  reli¬ 
gious  faith ;  that  the  Catholic  Church  has  always 
taught  the  fundamentals  of  good  citizenship  and 
emphasized  the  social  rights  and  responsibilities 
of  citizens;  that  in  all  teaching  of  civics  it  should 
be  kept  in  mind  that  religion  supplies  the  only 
adequate  and  stable  as  well  as  the  highest  and  the 
noblest  motives  for  the  discharge  of  civic  obliga¬ 
tions;  and  that  our  democracy  cannot  long  endure 
unless  all  the  people  are  animated  by  motives  of 
religion  in  their  dealings  with  one  another.  Citizen¬ 
ship  was  defined  as  “our  duty  to  God,  fulfilled  in 
our  care  and  solicitude  for  our  country  whose  wel¬ 
fare  God  has  placed  in  our  hands.”  The  Catholic 
program  pointed  out  America  to  the  foreigner  as 
a  land  of  freedom  and  of  opportunity.  It  told 
the  American-born  that  a  knowledge  of  the  consti¬ 
tution  is  necessary  if  he  is  to  become  a  desirable 
citizen,  and  that  this  knowledge  is  equally  necessary 
to  the  foreign-born  if  he  is  to  take  up  the  task 
of  faithful  citizenship.  It  pointed  out  that  a  demo¬ 
cratic  government  is  not  secured  simply  by  as¬ 
suming  the  name,  but  that  democracy  demands 
a  knowledge  and  sense  of  responsibility,  respect  for 
human  rights,  and  personal  interest  in  the  affairs 
of  government. 

The  Catholic  program  of  Americanization,  there¬ 
fore,  emphasized  four  practical  aspects  of  the  work 


AMERICANIZATION 


38 


AMERICANIZATION 


of  citizenship  training:  first,  training  of  children 
of  the  Catholic  school  system,  citizens  of  the  next- 
generation,  in  the  elementary  principles  of  democ¬ 
racy  and  in  the  rights,  duties  and  privileges  of 
citizenship  under  a  democracy;  secondly,  educating 
America’s  immigrant  population  in  the  workings 
of  our  government  and  instilling  in  them  the  desire 
to  become  American  citizens  and  to  take  part  in 
our  civic,  political  and  social  life;  thirdly,  arousing 
the  average  citizen  to  a  more  active  performance  of 
his  civic  duties;  and  fourthly,  emphasizing  to  all 
persons  the  fact  that  religion  supplies  the  only  ef¬ 
fective  motives  for  the  conscientious  discharge  of 
civic  obligations. 

The  constructive  features  of  the  Catholic  Amer¬ 
icanization  work  soon  won  recognition  from  many 
organizations  outside  the  Catholic  Church,  and  its 
program  and  literature  were  utilized  by  many  of 
them.  Americanization  leaders,  editors,  and  edu¬ 
cators  referred  to  the  program  of  the  N.  C.  W.  C.  as 
the  most  constructive  and  practical  one  presented 
to  the  American  public.  A  typical  editorial  com¬ 
ment  is  the  following  from  the  “Post-Intelligencer,” 
Seattle,  Washington:  “It  is  reassuring  to  other 
religionists  and  provocative  of  public  confidence 
to  be  assured  that  the  Americanization  work  of 
the  Welfare  Council  is  free  from  denominationalism 
of  any  kind;  that  the  Council  is  planning  in  the 
most  constructive  way  that  it  can  devise  to  make 
Americans,  actual  and  potential,  realize  that  good 
citizenship  is  a  matter  of  great  concern  to  them  not 

only  on  election  day,  but  on  every  other  day . 

But  beyond  the  immediate  work  of  the  Welfare 
Council  is  the  assurance  that  the  effective  machin¬ 
ery  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  exerting  its 
great  influence  in  these  fretful  days  of  reconstruc¬ 
tion  in  the  direction  of  better  Americanism  and 
better  citizenship.  The  Church  itself  is  interna¬ 
tional,  but  its  hierarchy  and  its  membership  in 
America  is  American.  This  speaks  in  many  ways, 
but  in  none  more  plainly  and  forcibly  than  in  the 
work  of  the  N.  C.  W.  C.” 

One  of  the  problems  closely  related  to  the  work 
of  Americanization  was  that  of  immigration.  Eccle¬ 
siastical  authorities  recognized  that  lack  of  proper 
attention  to  the  needs  of  Catholic  immigrants  at 
the  various  ports  of  entry  to  the  United  States,  and 
failure  to  follow  them  up  after  their  arrival  in 
America,  had  in  past  years  resulted  in  a  great  leak¬ 
age  from  the  Church  and  delay,  if  not  failure,  in 
their  becoming  good  citizens  of  the  country.  Prior 
to  the  war,  inadequate  facilities  prevented  proper 
care  of  Catholic  immigrants  arriving  in  America. 
The  authorities  of  the  National  Catholic  Welfare 
Council  determined  upon  a  national  bureau  of 
immigration  as  one  of  the  main  activities  of  that 
organization.  Assisting  Catholic  immigrants,  both  at 
the  principal  ports  of  embarkation  and  entry,  aiding 
immigrants  to  their  destination,  co-operation  with 
local  Catholic  agencies,  co-ordination  of  Catholic 
immigration  activities,  distribution  of  Americaniza¬ 
tion  and  religious  literature  and  aiding  the  immi¬ 
grant  to  final  naturalization,  were  the  principal 
functions  and  “follow-up”  activities  of  this  bureau. 

Probably  the  greatest  hindrance  to  the  civic  as¬ 
similation  of  immigrants  is  the  trickery  and  fraud 
perpetrated  by  the  unscrupulous  upon  the  newcom¬ 
ers.  Some  of  the  things  which  the  N.  C.  W.  C. 
citizenship  program  recommended  to  be  done  to 
prevent  the  exploitation  of  immigrants  were:  the 
purging  of  the  police  courts  and  other  petty  courts 
of  every  practice  of  injustice;  the  establishment  of 
small  claims  courts  where  claimants,  native  as  well 
as  immigrant,  may  secure  their  rights  without  cost ; 
the  discontinuance  of  arbitrary  methods  of  police 


and  inspection  departments  and  the  substitution  of 
uniform  treatment  of  air  persons,  citizens  and  immi¬ 
grants;  the  prohibition  of  the  business  of  private 
and  personal  banking,  except  where  such  is  under 
government  supervision;  the  encouragement  of  the 
use  by  immigrants  of  United  States  Postal  Savings 
Banks;  the  scrutiny  of  employment  agency  meth¬ 
ods  to' prevent  immigrant  exploitation;  the  careful 
supervision  of  business  agencies,  such  as  steamship 
companies,  loan  societies,  etc.,  catering  to  for¬ 
eigners,  the  prohibition  of  payment  of  tributes  for 
the  right  to  work  or  for  the  securing  of  jobs,  and 
protection  by  voluntary  agencies  from  such  exploi¬ 
tation;  and  the  establishment  of  legal  and  business 
aid  bureaus  by  welfare  organizations. 

Under  the  new  Immigration  Law  passed  by  the 
67th  Congress,  the  number  of  aliens  of  any 
nationality  who  may  be  admitted  to  the  United 
States  in  any  fiscal  year  was  limited  to  three  per 
centum  of  the  number  of  foreign-born  persons  of 
such  nationality  resident  in  the  United  States,  as 
determined  by  the  United  States  Census  of  1910. 
The  effect  of  this  Act  was  a  lessening  of  the  acute¬ 
ness  of  the  immigration  problem,  both  as  regards 
Americanization  work  generally  and  as  regards  the 
aid  and  follow-up  work  of  the  Catholic  body  in 
behalf  of  the  immigrants  coming  from  Catholic 
countries. 

The  average  number  of  immigrants  entering  the 
United  States  annually  during  the  ten  years  prior 
to  the  enactment  of  the  new  Immigration  Law  was 
573,581.  Under  the  new  law  the  alien  influx  .will 
be  approximately  250,000  per  year.  According  to 
the  1920  census,  the  total  foreign-born  population 
of  the  United  States  on  1  January,  1920,  numbered 
13,920,692,  an  increase  of  404,806,  or  3  per  cent  since 
1910.  Of  this  total  6,493,088  were  naturalized, 
1,223,490  had  taken  out  their  first  papers,  and 
5,398,605  were  aliens,  and  for  the  remaining  805,509 
the  citizenship  status  was  not  ascertained.  Ex¬ 
pressed  in  percentages  the  distribution  was:  natu¬ 
ralized,  46.6  per  cent;  first  papers,  8.8  per  cent; 
alien,  38.8  per  cent;  not  reported,  5.8  per  cent. 
Wide  differences  in  citizenship  status  appear  among 
the  natives  of  the  various  foreign  countries,  the 
proportions  naturalized  among  those  twenty-one 
years  of  age  and  over  ranging  from  74.4  per  cent 
for  the  Welsh  to  5.5  per  cent  for  the  Mexicans. 
For  the  five  countries  which  contributed  the  largest 
numbers  of  immigrants,  the  percentages  naturalized 
were  as  follows:  natives  of  Germany,  73.6;  of 
Ireland,  •  66.1 ;  of  Russia, .  42.1 ;  of  Italy,  29.8;  and 
of  Poland,  28.9.  The  natives  of  these  five  countries 
formed  more  than  half  of  the  total  foreign-born 
white  population  of  the  United  States  in  1920. 
Limiting  the  comparison  to  persons  twenty-one 
years  of  age  and  over,  the  natives  of  Germany 
numbered  1,648,884;  of  Italy,  1,408,933;  of  Russia, 
1,211,337;  of  Poland,  1,048,050;  and  of  Ireland, 
1,021,677.  Of  the  total  white  population  twenty-one 
years  of  age  and  over  22.7  per  cent  were  immigrants 
and  11.3  per  cent  were  naturalized  immigrants. 
Thus  in  the  white  population  of  voting  age  there 
were  146  naturalized  immigrants  to  every  1000 
natives. 

According  to  the  1921  Annual  Report  of  the  Com¬ 
missioner  of  Naturalization,  18,981  foreign-born  resi¬ 
dents  of  the  United  States  (10  per  cent  of  the 
total  applicants)  were  refused  certificates  of  natu¬ 
ralization  during  the  fiscal  year  (30  June,  1920,  to 
30  June,  1921),  for  the  following  reasons:  already 
a  citizen,  immoral  character,  incompetent  witnesses, 
insufficient  residence,  ignorance,  no  certificate  of 
arrival,  declaration  invalid,  no  jurisdiction,  motion 
of  petitioner  to  deny,  premature  petition,  want  of 


AMERICANIZATION 


39 


AMERICANIZATION 


prosecution,  inability  of  petitioner  to  produce  wit¬ 
nesses  or  depositions,  deceased,  and  miscellaneous 
reasons  which  include  denials  because  petitioner 
claimed  exemption  from  military  service  on  ac¬ 
count  of  alienage.  The  number  of  certificates 
granted  during  the  last  fiscal  year  was  163,656. 

According  to  the  1920  census,  of  the  13,497,886 
foreign-born  whites  ten  years  of  age  or  over,  1,488,- 
948  or  11  per  cent  were  reported  as  unable  to  speak 
English.  Both  the  number  and  the  per  cent  are 
about  one  half  as  large  as  in  1910,  when  2,953,011 
foreign-born  whites  ten  years  of  age  and  over,  or 
22.8  per  cent  of  the  total,  were  returned  as  unable 
to  speak  English.  Of  the  105,710,620  persons  shown 
by  the  1920  census  as  constituting  the  population 
of  the  United  States,  4,931,905  persons  ten  years 
of  age  and  over  are  listed  as  illiterates.  Of  this 
figure  1,242,572,  or  a  percentage  of  2.0,  are  native 
whites;  and  1,763,740,  or  13.1  per  cent  are  foreign- 
born  whites.  Of  the  total  number  of  illiterates 
twenty-one  years  of  age  and  over  (4,333,111)  the 
native  white  males  form  13.0  per  cent  and  the 
native  white  females  11.0  per  cent.  Of  the  total 
negro  population  of  ten  years  and  over,  8,053,225, 
the  illiterates  are  given  as  1,842,161,  or  22.9  per 
cent.  Illiteracy  among  the  rural  population  of  the 
'  United  States  is  found  to  be  3.3  per  cent  greater 
than  in  the  cities.  Of  the  4,931,905  illiterates  ten 
years  of  age  and  over  in  the  United  States,  2,976,793 
reside  in  the  rural  districts  as  against  1,955,112  in  the 
cities.  In  the  cities  illiteracy  is  slightly  greater  among 
the  females  while  in  the  rural  sections  the  reverse 
is  true.  Figures  furnished  by  the  Bureau  of  the 
Census  based  on  the  1920  census  show  that  illiteracy 
is  decreasing.  The  decennial  illiteracy  percentage 
for  the  years  1880  to  1920  are  17.0,  13.3,  10.7,  7.7, 
and  6.0. 

The  decrease  in  illiteracy  and  in  the  number  of 
persons  unable  to  speak  the  English  language  is 
explained  partly  by  the  decrease  in  immigration 
during  the  war  and  an  increase  in  the  facilities 
supplied  through  the  Americanization  movement, 
especially  those  enabling  the  immigrant  to  learn 
the  English  language.  Twenty-six  states  have  re¬ 
cently  enacted  laws  requiring  the  use  of  the  English 
language  as  the  sole  medium  of  instruction  for 
all  common  school  subjects.  Catholics  and  organi¬ 
zations  representing  them  unquestionably  carried 
out  a  program  of  practical  and  constructive  Amer¬ 
icanization  work  unexcelled  by  that  of  any  of  the 
numerous  groups  and  organizations  participating  in 
this  great  movement.  Especially  was  this  true  of 
the  Catholic  schools,  whose  Americanism  during 
and  after  the  crisis  of  the  war,  measured  up  to  the 
highest  standards  of  patriotic  duty.  The  war  gave 
the  Catholic  school  another  chance  to  prove  be¬ 
yond  a  doubt  that  its  teaching  of  religion  and  of 
practical  morality  develops  the  finest  type  of 
citizenship.  It  proved  that  the  Catholic  school 
believes  in  America,  teaches  love  and  respect  for 
America,  and  is  second  to  no  other  American  in¬ 
stitution  in  its  promotion  of  American  ideals.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  period  of  the  World  War  the  Catholic 
school  engaged  in  every  form  of  national  aid  and 
patriotic  endeavor.  It  sent  its  product,  the  parish 
school  boy,  into  the  service  in  numbers  out  of  all 
proportion  to  the  strict  demands  of  loyalty.  The 
spirit  of  patriotism  as  developed  in  the  Catholic 
school  has  probably  never  been  better  stated  than 
in  the  historic  pledge  of  the  American  Hierarchy 
delivered  to  President  Wilson  at  the  entrance  of 
America  into  the  World  War  by  the  late  Cardinal 
Gibbons,  a  product  of  the  Catholic  school.  The 
following  is  an  excerpt  from  this  pledge:  “Standing 
firmly  upon  our  solid  Catholic  tradition  and  history 


from  the  very  foundation  of  this  nation,  we  re¬ 
affirm  in  this  hour  of  stress  and  trial  our  most 
sacred  and  sincere  loyalty  and  patriotism  toward 

our  country,  our  Government,  and  our  flag . 

Acknowledging  gladly  the  gratitude  that  we  have 
always  felt  for  the  protection  of  our  spiritual  lib¬ 
erty  and  the  freedom  of  our  Catholic  institutions 
under  the  flag,  we  pledge  our  devotion  and  our 
strength  in  maintenance  of  our  country’s  glorious 
leadership  in  those  possessions  and  principles  which 

have  been  America’s  proudest  boast . We 

stand  ready,  we  and  all  the  flock  committed  to 
our  keeping,  to  co-operate  in  every  way  possible 
with  our  President  and  our  national  Government, 
to  the  end  that  the  great  and  holy  cause  of  liberty 
may  triumph,  and  that  our  beloved  country  may 
emerge  from  this  hour  of  test  stronger  and  nobler 
than  ever.  Our  people  now,  as  ever,  will  rise  as 
one  man  to  serve  the  nation.  Our  priests  and  con¬ 
secrated  women  will  once  again,  as  in  every  former 
trial  of  our  country,  win  by  their  bravery,  their 
heroism  and  their  service,  new  admiration  and  ap¬ 
proval.  We  are  all  true  Americans,  ready,  as  our 
age,  our  ability,  and  our  condition  permit,  to  do 
whatever  is  in  us  to  do,  for  the  preservation,  the 
progress,  and  the  triumph  of  our  beloved  country.” 

Some  of  the  outstanding  results  of  the  movement 
for  better  citizenship  may  be  stated  as  follows: 
Development  of  special  teacher-training  courses, 
methods  and  textbooks  dealing  with  the  teaching 
of  citizenship  to  aliens;  introduction  of  an  elemen¬ 
tary  course  in  civics  in  6551  Catholic  elementary 
schools  and  in  many  other  public  and  private 
schools;  establishment  of  numerous  night  schools 
and  other  special  schools  affording  facilities  to  the 
immigrant  for  the  study  of  the  English  language 
and  for  preparation  for  the  naturalization  process; 
organization  of  community  Amercanization  activi¬ 
ties  by  Catholic  and  other  agencies  in  many  cen¬ 
ters  of  foreign  population;  a  closer  understanding 
and  a  more  sympathetic  attitude  by  the  native- 
born  toward  the  unassimilated  groups  of  our  for¬ 
eign  population ;  education  of  the  immigrant  peoples 
to  a  sense  of  their  duty  to  become  American  citi¬ 
zens  while  enjoying  the  opportunities  and  benefits 
of  our  country;  a  general  awakening  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  people  to  a  keener  sense  of  their  obligations 
and  responsibilities  as  citizens;  a  reduction  in 
illiteracy  among  both  the  native-born  and  foreign- 
born  population;  a  more  widespread  appreciation 
and  a  greater  usage  of  the  English  language,  espe¬ 
cially  by  non-English-speaking  immigrants;  an  in¬ 
crease  in  the  number  of  naturalized  citizens ; 
enactment  of  legislation  restricting  immigration  and 
the  consequent  debarring  of  many  undesirable  aliens 
from  the  United  States;  adoption  of  protective 
measures  against  immigrant  exploitation;  establish¬ 
ment  by  Catholics  and  others  of  immigrant  agen¬ 
cies  at  ports  of  embarkation  and  entry;  co-ordination 
throughout  the  United  States  of  follow-up  work 
aimed  to  protect  the  faith  of  Catholic  immigrants 
and  to  hasten  their  assimilation  as  American  citi¬ 
zens;  and  a  more  general  recognition  of  the  fact  that 
religion  is  the  foundation  upon  which  good  govern¬ 
ment  and  good  citizenship  rest.  The  pioneer  efforts 
of  those  engaged  in  Americanization  work  during 
the  war  and  reconstruction  period  have  laid  the 
foundations  for  its  continuance  in  the  schools  and 
elsewhere  as  one  of  the  permanent  and  necessary 
forces  of  education  in  the  interest  of  the  public 
welfare. 

Bulletins  of  Department  of  Interior,  Bureaus  of  Census, 
Naturalization  and  Education.  The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa¬ 
tion’s  circular,  Immigrants :  Americanization  and  Education, 
lists  practically  all  the  books  and  pamphlets  that  have  been 
written  on  the  general  subject  of  Americanization.  See  in 


AMETTE 


40 


AMOVIBILITY 


particular  Thompson,  Schooling  of  the  Immigrant  (New  York, 
1920);  Daniels,  America  via  the  Neighborhood  (New  York, 
1920) ;  Park  and  Miller,  Old  World  Traits  Transplanted  (New 
York,  1921),  and  Davis,  Immigrant  Health  and  the  Commun¬ 
ity  (New  York,  1921);  Breckinridge,  New  Homes  for  Old 
(New  York,  1921);  N.  C.  W.  C.  Civic  Education  Series  (pub¬ 
lished  by  National  Catholic  War  Council,  Washington,  D.  C.) : 
Program  for  Citizenship,  Civic  Education  Through  Motion 
Pictures;  Speakers’  Outline  of  Talks  on  Citizenship ;  The 
Fundamentals  of  Citizenship ;  Civics  Catechism  on  the  Rights 
and  Duties  of  American  Citizens;  Egan  and  Kennedy,  The 
Knights  of  Columbus  in  Peace  and  War  (New  York,  1920); 
Williams,  American  Catholics  in  the  War  (New  York,  1921)  ; 
N.  C.  W.  C.  Education  Series:  Ryan,  Catechism  of  Catholic 
Education  (published  by  Paulist  Press,  vid.  chapter  on 
“Americanism  of  the  Catholic  Schools”);  Lapp,  The  Catholic 
Citizen  (New  York,  1921). 

Charles  A.  McMahon. 

Amette,  Leon-Adolphe,  Archbishop  of  Paris, 
Cardinal,  b.  at  Douville,  Eure,  6  September,  1850, 
d.  at  Antony,  Paris,  29  August,  1920.  He  made  his 
early  studies  at  Evreux,  whence  he  entered  the 
seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  and  was  ordained  in  1873. 
His  first  appointment  was  to  the  cathedral  at 
Evreux;  in  1880  he  was  made  private  secretary  to 
the  bishop.  Later  he  became  a  titular  canon  and 
vicar  general  of  the  diocese,  and  in  January,  1899, 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Bayeux.  In  February, 
1906,  he  was  raised  to  the  titular  Archbishopric  of 
Sida  and  made  coadjutor  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Paris  with  the  right  of  succession.  On  the  death 
of  Cardinal  Richard,  January,  1908,  he  succeeded 
to  the  see,  and  27  November,  1911,  was  created 
cardinal-priest.  Entering  on  his  episcopate  shortly 
after  the  passage  of  the  law  of  Separation,  he  faced 
the  delicate  and  difficult  task  of  a  general  religious 
reorganization.  At  the  head  of  a  body  scorned  by 
the  ruling  powers,  he  yet  won  his  way  to  the  hearts 
of  the  people  and  conquered  the  respect  and  con¬ 
fidence  of  those  in  authority  by  his  rare  qualities  of 
heart  and  head  and  sheer  devotion  to  duty.  To 
this  huge  work  Cardinal  Amette  brought  unfailing 
tact,  an  innate  gift  of  graceful  conversation  and 
eloquent  public  speaking,  and  a  rare  faculty  of 
realization  and  adaptability.  His  policy  was  one 
of  conciliation  wherever  possible;  his  preoccupation, 
problems  of  practical  action  for  the  glory  of  God; 
his  aim,  the  re-establishment  of  harmony  between 
religious  and  secular  society. 

During  the  World  War  Cardinal  Amette  never 
left  his  diocese  and  was  everywhere  a  pillar  of 
strength  and  consolation.  Taking  his  place  in  all 
public  functions,  he  was  one  of  the  most  ardent 
apostles  of  the  Sacred  Union  and  one  of  the  most 
notable  figures  in  the  Committee  of  National  Aid, 
where  every  political  party  and  religious  belief  were 
represented.  He  was  likewise  the  champion  of  the 
workman,  being  instrumental  in  obtaining  much 
beneficial  legislation  in  his  behalf. 

One  of  the  great  joys  of  Cardinal  Amette’s  epis¬ 
copate  was  the  consecration  of  the  Basilica  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  at  Montmartre,  16  October,  1919,  at 
which  the  papal  legate,  nine  cardinals  and  nearly  all 
the  bishops  of  France  assisted.  Before  all  a  man 
of  God  and  a  true  shepherd  of  souls,  under  his 
leadership  46  churches  were  erected  in  the  diocese, 
and  five  are  in  the  course  of  construction;  parish 
committees  and  parish  unions  have  been  formed; 
free  primary  instruction,  abolished  by  the  proscrip¬ 
tion  of  religious  orders,  has  been  given  a  new 
existence,  while  an  organized  hierarchy  by  its 
vigilant  and  apostolic  action  has  established  the 
best  of  material,  moral  and  spiritual  conditions. 

Amida  (Diarbekir),  Diocese  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-429c), 
of  the  Armenian  Rite,  in  Mesopotamia,  Asiatic 
Turkey.  It  comprises  also  the  Chaldean  and  Syrian 
Rites.  Rt.  Rev.  Suliman  Musa  Sabbagh,  appointed 
6  June,  1897,  is  bishop  for  the  Chaldean  Rite. 


For  the  Syrian  Rite  the  diocese  is  united  to  that 
of  Mardin  and  is  administered  by  Mgr.  Rahmani, 
Syrian  Patriarch  of  Antioch.  For  the  Armenian 
Rite  the  see  is  vacant,  Rt.  Rev.  Elie  Andre  Chele- 
bian,  who  filled  it  from  1899,  having  been  thrown 
into  the  Tigris  in  1915.  In  1920  there  wrere  5,000 
Armenian  Catholics,  300  Syrians,  4,180  Chaldeans, 
100  Melchites,  132,000  Schismatics  and  16,000  Mo¬ 
hammedans  in  the  diocese.  There  are  18  mis¬ 
sionary  priests,  10  parishes,  10  churches  or  chapels 
and  12  schools  for  the  Armenian  Rite;  12  native 
priests,  9  churches  and  10  schools  for  the  Chaldean 
Rite. 

Amiens,  Diocese  of  (Ambianensis;  cf.,  C.  E., 
I-429d),  comprising  the  department  of  Somme, 
France,  is  suffragan  of  Reims.  Rt.  Rev.  Jean-Marie- 
Leon  Dizien  who  came  to  this  see  in  1896,  died  27 
March,  1915,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Andre 
du  Bois  de  La  Villerabel,  appointed  1  June,  1915. 
Bishop  de  La  Villerabel  was  transferred  to  Rouen 
9  December,  1920,  and  Canon  Lecomte,  Vicar  Gen¬ 
eral  of  Lille,  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  9  March, 
1921.  In  1912  the  church  of  Notre  Dame  de  Bre- 
bieres,  at  Albert,  a  minor  basilica,  was  granted  a 
Gregorian  altar,  i.  e.,  the  same  benefits  are  attached 
to  Masses  for  the  deceased  as  to  those  offered  at 
the  privileged  altar  of  the  church  of  St.  Gregory 
on  Monte  Coelio  in  Rome.  By  a  decree  of  12 
December  of  the  same  year  no  more  Gregorian 
altars  are  to  be  granted.  In  1920  there  were  520,161 
Catholics  in  this  diocese,  60  primary  parishes,  609 
succursal  parishes,  173  chapels  and  772  churches. 

Ammedara,  a  titular  see  of  Africa  now  known  as 
Haidra,  north  of  Tebessa,  not  a  suffragan  of  any 
metropolitan  see.  The  city  was  of  Byzantine  origin 
and  its  name  appears  under  numerous  forms:  Ad 
Medera,  Admedera,  Almedera,  Ammedara,  Am- 
medera,  and  Metridera.  The  city  is  identified  with 
the  modern  Haidra,  situated  about  twenty-two  miles 
northeast  of  Tebessa.  It  was  originally  a  colony  of 
veterans  founded  by  Vespasian  or  his  sons,  whence 
the  name,  Colonia  Flavia  Augusta  Emerita  Am- 
msedara.  Despite  the  ruins  to  which  it  was  reduced 
by  the  Arab  invasion,  or  by  modern  excavations, 
important  remains  are  still  found  on  both  banks 
of  the  river  Oued  Haidra,  but  principally  on  the 
left  bank.  The  Council  lists  show  many  bishops 
of  Ammedara,  where  Christianity  seems  to  have 
penetrated  at  an  early  date.  The  first  of  these 
known  is  Eugenius,  a  contemporary  of  St.  Cyprian, 
who  assisted  at  the  Council  of  Carthage  (256). 
Like  most  of  the  other  African  cities,  Ammedara 
was  invaded  by  the  heresy  of  Donatism  and  at  the 
conference  of  Carthage  in  411  the  Catholic  bishop 
Speratus  found  his  schismatic  rival,  Crescentianus, 
also  there. 

Amovibility  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-437a). — The  Code  of 
Canon  Law  prescribes  that  all  dioceses  are  to  be 
divided  into  parishes,  each  having  its  own  priest, 
termed  a  rector,  who  enjoys  fixity  of  tenure,  not 
absolute  fixity,  however,  as  he  may  be  removed  in 
a  legal  way.  Rectors,  consequently,  are  classed  as 
irremovable  or  removable,  according  to  their  greater 
or  less  stability  of  tenure.  As  a  rule  all  new 
parishes  are  to  have  irremovable  rectors;  once  a 
rector  has  been  made  irremovable  all  his  succes¬ 
sors  enjoy  the  same  privilege.  Among  the  reasons 
for  removing  rectors  of  either  class  are  ill-health, 
mal-administration,  loss  of  reputation,  or  public 
hatred,  even  when  unmerited,  if  it  is  such  as  to 
interfere  seriously  with  the  spiritual  welfare  of 
the  parishioners.  In  the  legal  procedure  for  the 
removal  of  rectors,  the  chief  difference  between 


AMOY 


41 


ANCHIALOS 


the  two  classes  is  that  the  irremovable  may  demand 
a  second  investigation  of  their  case  by  the  bishop 
and  two  synodal  examiners,  and  may  even  then 
appeal  to  a  tribunal  composed  of  the  bishop  and 
two  diocesan  consult ors,  whereas  a  removable  rec¬ 
tor  if  he  is  dissatisfied  with  the  first  decision  has 
no  remedy  but  an  appeal  to  the  Holy  See. 

Amoy,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Amoensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  I^37c),  in  China,  is  entrusted  to  the  Spanish 
Dominicans.  Formerly  the  island  of  Formosa 
formed  a  part  of  this  vicariate,  but  in  August,  1913, 
it  was  made  an  Apostolic  Prefecture,  the  civil  pre¬ 
fectures  of  Lonyen-tcheou,  Yung-tchoen-tcheon, 
Hing-hon-fou,  the  island  of  Nanjik  and  the  small 
islands  dependent  on  the  prefecture  of  Hsing-houn- 
fou,  being  joined  to  it.  The  present  vicar  apostolic 
is  Rt.  Rev.  Emanuel  Prat,  titular  Bishop  of 
Mactaris.  In  1920  the  total  population  of  this  terri¬ 
tory  was  4,500,000,  of  whom  10,582  are  Catholic,  and 
of  this  number  2,143  are  in  Formosa.  There  were 
5,214  catechumens,  21  European  and  10  native 
priests,  15  churches,  24  chapels,  96  stations,  1  semi¬ 
nary  with  30  students,  23  schools  for  boys,  18  for 
girls,  50  orphanages,  and  13  religious  of  the  Order 
of  St.  Dominic. 

Ampurias  (or  Castelsardo  and  Tempio),  Diocese 
of  ( Ampuriensis  ;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-440c),  in  Sardinia,  is 
suffragan  of  Sassari.  The  see  was  vacant  from 
1907  until  the  appointment  of  the  present  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Maria  Sanna,  b.  at  Oristano, 
1873,  appointed  bishop  22  December,  1914.  During 
its  vacancy  the  see  was  administered  by  Mgr. 
Parodi,  Archbishop  of  Sassari.  In  1920  Ampurias 
had  11,200  Catholics,  8  parishes,  20  secular  priests, 
5  seminarians,  34  churches  or  chapels;  Tempio  had 
29,200  Catholics,  18  parishes,  42  secular  priests,  5 
seminarians  and  73  churches  or  chapels. 

Amyzone,  a  titular  see  in  Caria,  Asia,  now  known 
as  Mazyn-Kalchsi,  suffragan  of  Stauropolis.  Until 
the  Roman  epoch  the  little  city  of  Aymzone  had 
its  own  coinage,  bearing  the  insignia  of  a  head, 
two  specimens  of  which  are  preserved  in  the  British 
museum.  Amyzone  appears  as  a  diocese,  suffragan 
of  Stauropolis  in  all  notices  of  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries,  under  various  forms  of  the 
name.  Several  ancient  bishops  of  this  see  are 
known :  Philetus,  who  signed  at  the  council  of 
Ephesus  (431);  John,  present  at  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (451) ;  and  Andrew,  present  at  the  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Contanstinople,  under  the  Patriarch  Menas 
(536).  Theophylact  attended  the  second  Council 
of  Nicaea  (787),  and  in  the  biography  of  St.  Paul 
the  Younger  a  certain  Bishop  of  Amyzone  is  men¬ 
tioned  among  the  benefactors  of  the  monks,  but 
his  name  is  not  given.  The  diocese  is  mentioned 
in  a  judgment  of  Isaac  Angelus  (1185-95),  and  we 
find  an  Act  of  the  Patriarch,  Manuel  II  (1244-45), 
exempting  the  monks  of  St.  Paul  of  Latros  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  neighboring  bishops,  particularly 
the  Bishop  of  Amyzone,  who  is  mentioned  three 
times.  At  this  time  the  see  bore  a  double  title, 
in  addition  to  the  name  Amyzone  it  added  that  of 
a  neighboring  locality,  Coracia  or  Coracium.  The 
city  cannot  have  survived  long  after  the  time  at 
which  it  is  mentioned  in  the  documents,  and  must 
have  been  destroyed  by  the  Turkish  invasion.  The 
ruins  of  the  ramparts  of  the  fortress  can  be  seen 
at  the  summit  of  a  hill  on  the  eastern  slope  of 
Mount  Latros  (to-day  Bech  Parmak  Dagh),  above 
the  village  of  Kafarlar  in  the  province  of  Symrna. 
The  Turks  call  the  remains  Mazyn  Kalehsi,  i.  e., 
fortress  of  Amyzone. 

Anagni,  Diocese  of  (Anagninensis;  cf.  C.  E., 


I-448d),  in  the  province  of  Rome,  Italy,  is  directly 
subject  to  the  Holy  See.  Leo  XIII  conferred  upon 
the  bishops  of  this  see  the  perpetual  right  to  the 
pallium.  Bishop  Sardi  di  Rivisondoli,  who  was 
appointed  to  this  see  in  1908,  was  transferred  to 
the  titular  see  of  Caesaria  in  Palestine  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev. 
Silvio  Gasperini,  b.  at  Bevagna,  1852,  appointed 
to  the  Congregation  of  the  Consistory  2  December, 
1912.  In  1920  the  Catholics  of  this  diocese  num¬ 
bered  41,700;  there  are  26  parishes,  60  secular  and 
52  regular  priests,  20  seminarians,  50  churches  or 
chapels,  23  brothers  and  113  sisters. 

Anatolia — For  early  history  see  Asia  Minor 
(C.  E.,  I-782c). — The  present  confusion  in  Ana¬ 
tolia  lies  in  the  eagerness  of  the  great  powers  to 
share  in  the  after-war  despoliation  of  Turkey. 
Even  as  early  as  26  April,  1915,  in  the  Pact  of 
London  arranged  between  Italy  and  her  allies, 
France,  Great  Britain  and  Russia  recognized 
Italy’s  desire  to  maintain  a  political  balance  of 
power  in  the  Mediterranean  and  her  right  to 
take  over,  at  the  break-up  of  Turkey,  a  portion 
equal  to  theirs  in  the  Mediterranean,  namely,  in 
that  part  which  bordered  on  the  Province  of 
Adalia,  where  Italy  had  already  acquired  special 
rights  and  interests  laid  down  in  the  Italo-British 
convention.  In  the  Treaty  of  Sevres,  August, 

1920,  Smyrna  with  the  surrounding  strip,  compris¬ 
ing  Tireh,  Odemish,  Magnesa,  Akhissar,  Bergama, 
and  Aivali  was  to  be  administered  by  Greece  under 
Turkish  sovereignty,  but  in  five  years  a  plebiscite 
was  to  decide  to  whom  the  district  was  to  be 
annexed.  The  Turkish  Nationalists  objected  to 
the  loss  of  their  part  of  western  Anatolia,  and 
immediately  commenced  a  campaign  for  the  re¬ 
vision  of  the  treaty.  They  overran  Anatolia  and 
soon  had  300,000  troops  there.  To  the  powers  it 
became  evident  that  the  Treaty  of  Sevres  could 
not  be  executed  without  a  prolonged  struggle,  and 
a  conference  was  called  in  London  in  February, 

1921,  to  revise  the  treaty.  The  question  of  Smyrna 
was  compromised,  the  demilitarized  zone  in  the 
Straits  was  reduced  considerably,  and  a  substantial 
arrangement  of  the  financial  clauses  of  the  treaty 
was  made.  It  is  doubtful  whether  these  proposals 
will  stand,  as  hostilities  have  broken  out  between 
Turkey  (q.v.)  and  Greece  (q.v.). 

At  present  the  country  is  in  a  bad  condition 
economically,  as  foreign  interests  have  been  con¬ 
fiscated  and  destroyed  during  the  past  five  years. 
The  resources  of  the  country  were  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  military  authorities,  who  have  seized 
the  crops  and  live  stock  at  their  discretion.  The 
population  has  suffered  enormous  losses;  Moham¬ 
medans  have  been  drafted  into  the  army  whose 
casualties  have  been  heavy;  the  Armenians  have 
nearly  all  been  massacred,  and  of  the  other  Chris¬ 
tians  nearly  all  suffered  severely  from  deportation, 
forced  labor,  and  Turkish  cruelty.  In  the  late  years 
of  the  European  War  there  was  an  increased  de¬ 
mand  from  the  Central  Empires  for  Anatolian 
products,  and  vigorous  measures  were  taken  to 
stimulate  production.  The  effect  of  this  has  been 
permanent  and  beneficial,  a  new  market  being 
opened  up  for  Anatolian  products.  There  are  no 
trustworthy  statistics  regarding  the  population  of 
Anatolia. 

For  Catholic  statistics  see  Asia  Minor,  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of. 

Anchialos,  a  titular  see  in  the  province  of  Hemi- 
montus  in  Thrace,  suffragan  of  Adrianople.  The 
ancient  city  of  Anchialos  originated  in  a  little 
Greek  colony  situated  in  Thrace  on  the  western 


ANCONA  AND  UMANA 


42 


ANGLICANISM 


side  of  tlie  Black  Sea,  which  belonged  to  the  inhabi¬ 
tants  of  Apcllonia,  now  called  Sizebolou.  From 
the  reign  of  Trojan  it  was  known  as  Ulpia  and  the 
coinage  of  the  imperial  epoch,  from  Domitian  to 
Gordian  III,  is  stamped  with  a  head.  With  the 
invasion  of  the  Slavs  and  Bulgars  in  the  sixth  and 
following  centuries  the  city  was  the  scene  of  re¬ 
peated  sieges  and  battle  and  17  June,  762,  the 
Byzantines  won  an  important  victory  over  the 
Bulgars,  but  they  were  completely  defeated  in  766; 
Anchialos  had  suffered  so  severely  during  these 
conflicts  that  the  Empress  Irene  rebuilt  the  city 
in  784.  On  20  August,  917,  the  Byzantines  under¬ 
went  a  bloody  defeat,  and  at  this  time  the  city 
was  called  Achelos,  which  was  the  popular  form 
of  the  name,  and  by  modern  historians  Acheloiis. 
In  1423  the  city,  which  had  till  then  belonged  to 
the  Greeks,  was  conquered  by  the  Turks  and  re¬ 
mained  in  their  possession  until  1885,  when  it  was 
annexed  to  the  province  of  Rumelia  in  the  prin¬ 
cipality  of  Bulgaria.  The  city,  populated  principally 
by  Greeks,  was  almost  entirely  wiped  out  during 
the  summer  of  1906  by  an  internal  war  between 
two  factions. 

The  exact  date  of  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
into  this  city  is  not  known,  but  it  seems  to  have 
been  very  early;  according  to  the  legend  of  St. 
Sebastian  there  were  Christians  there  as  early  as 
the  end  of  the  first  century.  In  any  case  it  is  cer¬ 
tain  that  an  organized  Church  did  exist  here  in  the 
last  half  of  the  second  century,  whose  bishop,  Sotas, 
wished  to  exorcise  Priscilla,  the  companion  of 
Montanus.  Anchialos  appears  as  an  archdiocese 
in  the  province  of  Rhodope,  directly  dependent 
on  Constantinople;  it  remained  so  until  the  six¬ 
teenth  century.  At  the  present  time  (1922)  the 
Greek  metropolitan  of  Anchialos,  situated  in  Bul¬ 
garia,  is  directly  subject  to  the  Greek  Patriarchate 
of  Constantinople  in  Turkey.  For  the  Roman  Rite 
Anchialos  is  a  titular  see.  The  list  of  bishops  of 
this  see  from  Sotas,  in  170,  is  quite  regular. 

Ancona  and  Umana,  Archdiocese  of  (Anconi- 
tana  et  Humana;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-463d),  in  the  province 
of  Ancona,  Italy.  In  1904,  upon  the  occasion  of 
the  episcopal  jubilee  of  Cardinal  Manara,  Pius  X 
raised  this  see  to  the  dignity  of  an  archdiocese 
without  suffragans;  the  bishops  of  this  see  are  ipso 
facto  given  the  title  of  count.  The  present  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  John  Baptist  Ricci,  b.  at  Montenuovo, 
1895,  and  transferred  to  Iesi  9  June,  1902,  and  pro¬ 
moted  to  this  see  15  July,  1906,  to  succeed  Cardinal 
Manara.  By  1920  statistics  there  are  90,964  Catho¬ 
lics  in  this  diocese,  37  parishes,  82  secular  and  28 
regular  priests,  30  seminarians,  85  churches  or 
chapels,  10  brothers  and  115  sisters. 

Andreis,  Felix  de  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-470b). — The 
decree  of  the  introduction  of  the  cause  of  his 
beatification  received  the  papal  approbation  25 
July,  1918. 

Andria,  Diocese  of  (Andriensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-475c),  in  the  province  of  Bari,  Italy,  is  suffragan 
of  Trani.  By  a  decree  of  9  June,  1916,  the  Congre¬ 
gation  of  the  Consistory  accorded  the  title  of  cathe¬ 
dral  to  the  basilica  of  St.  Savinus  at  Canossa. 
Bishop  Staiti  di  Braceleone,  who  was  appointed  to 
this  see  in  1899,  died  14  December,  1916,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev. 
Eugenio  Tosi,  b.  at  Busto  Arsizio,  1863,  appointed 
bishop  of  Squillace  5  April,  1911,  and  transferred 
to  Andria  22  March,  1917.  In  this  diocese  there  is 
preserved  a  thorn  of  the  crown  of  Our  Lord,  the  tip 
of  which  bears  brown  stains,  the  inhabitants  holding 
the  tradition  that  whenever  Good  Friday  falls  on 
25  March  these  stains  become  actual  blood.  This 


coincidence  occurred  in  1911  and  upon  examination 
of  the  thorn  by  civil  and  church  authorities  the 
facts  were  proven  to  be  true  to  tradition.  In  1920 
the  diocese  counted  101,000  Catholics,  15  parishes, 
200  secular  and  5  regular  priests,  15  seminarians, 
53  churches  or  chapels,  6  brothers  and  60  sisters. 

Angers,  Diocese  of  (Andegavensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-489b),  comprises  the  department  of  Maine-et- 
Loire,  in  France,  and  is  suffragan  of  Tours.  The 
present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Rumeau,  b.  at 
Tournon,  1849,  ordained  1872,  was  made  secretary 
to  the  Bishop  of  Agen  and  vicar  general,  1881,  and 
appointed  bishop  28  November,  1898.  By  1921  sta¬ 
tistics  there  are  502,200  Catholics  in  the  diocese. 
There  are  37  first  class  parishes,  377  succursal  par¬ 
ishes  and  129  vicariates  with  salaries  formerly  paid 
by  the  state.  A  legally  constituted  lay  society  has 
bought  back  the  lower  seminary,  which  was  taken 
from  the  diocese  as  a  result  of  the  Law  of  Separa¬ 
tion  in  1906.  The  municipality  of  Angers,  with  the 
authorization  of  the  Government,  showed  a  great 
spirit  of  justice  and  liberality  in  the  negotiations 
just  completed,  and  the  lower  seminary  of  Beau- 
preau  in  the  same  diocese  has  also  been  bought 
back. 

Anglicanism  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-498d).— In  1914  a  Welsh 
Church  Act  was  passed  by  Parliament,  disestab¬ 
lishing  the  Church  of  England  in  Wales.  Owing 
to  the  war  this  act  was  not  put  into  effect  until 
1919,  when  another  act  completed  the  disestablish¬ 
ment  of  the  Church  of  Wales  and  Monmouthshire 
as  from  31  March,  1920.  Wales  was  made  a  sepa¬ 
rate  archbishopric.  Property  belonging  to  the 
Anglican  Church  in  Wales,  and  a  sum  of  £1,000,000 
have  been  assigned  to  a  temporary  body,  “Welsh 
Commissioners,”  for  distribution  to  a  body  repre¬ 
senting  the  Welsh  Church,  and  to  certain  other 
authorities,  including  the  University  of  Wales.  This 
disestablishment  was  bitterly  opposed  by  many 
Anglicans,  who  fear  that  it  forebodes  the  disestab¬ 
lishment  of  the  Church  in  England.  In  Canada 
the  proposal  (1918)  to  change  the  name  of  the 
“Church  of  England  in  Canada”  to  some  broader 
title  has  not  as  yet  been  adopted. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  total  number  of 
Anglicans  in  the  world,  since  the  returns  for 
England  and  the  United  States  (Protestant  Epis¬ 
copal  Church)  list  communicants  and  not  the 
total  constituency.  On  the  basis  of  marriages 
in  England  (59.7%  in  1919  were  Anglican),  there 
are  probably  about  20,000,000  at  least  loosely 
affiliated  with  the  Anglican  Church  in  that  country. 
The  1,104,000  communicants  in  the  United  States 
may  represent  3,000,000  constituents;  there  are 
nearly  5,000,000  constituents  in  the  rest  of  the 
world,  and  as  many  of  the  statistics  are  no  later 
than  1911  it  is  fair  to  estimate  the  entire  Anglican 
constituency  in  the  world  in  1922  as  about  30,000,- 
000.  The  following  figures  are  for  total  membership 
(constituents)  except  for  England,  Scotland,  and 
the  United  States,  for  which  only  communicants  are 
listed.  British  statistics  are  taken  from  the  States¬ 
man’s  Year-Book,  1921;  in  some  cases  they  show 
a  decrease  from  the  earlier  figures  of  the  Catholic 
Encyclopedia.  England,  2,360,000;  Scotland,  56,000; 
United  States,  1 ,104,000 ;  Ireland,  576,000;  Canada 
and  Newfoundland,  1,121,000;  Australia,  1,731,000; 
New  Zealand,  459,000;  South  Africa,  542,000;  India, 
493,000. 

The  doctrinal  tendency  of  Anglicanism  in  recent 
years  is  epitomized  in  the  Kikuyu  incident.  In 
June,  1913,  a  conference  of  Protestant  missions  with 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  (Low  Church 
Anglican)  was  held  at  Kikuyu,  British  East  Africa, 


ANGLICANISM 


43 


ANGLICANISM 


the  chief  object  apparently  being  to  arrange  a  com¬ 
mon  basis  of  work  among  the  various  Protestant 
missionary  bodies  there.  An  interdenominational 
compact  was  drawn  up  whereby  one  district  was  to 
be  assigned  to  each  church  exclusively.  Doctrinally 
the  “Federation”  acknowledged  the  Bible  as  the 
rule  of  faith  and  practice;  the  Apostles’  and 
Nicene  Creeds  as  a  general  expression  of  belief; 
and  “the  vital  importance  of  belief  in  the  atoning 
death  of  our  Lord  as  the  ground  of  forgiveness.” 
The  Anglican  bishops  of  Mombasa  (in  which 
Kikuyu  is  situated)  and  Uganda  were  present  and 
with  the  representatives  of  the  other  churches 
pledged  themselves:  to  recognize  common  member¬ 
ship  between  federated  churches;  to  establish  a 
common  form  of  church  organization;  to  admit 
to  any  pulpit  a  preacher  recognized  by  his  own 
church;  to  admit  to  communion  a  recognized  mem¬ 
ber  of  any  other  church;  to  draw  up  and  follow 
common  courses  of  instruction  both  for  candidates 
for  baptism  and  candidates  for  ordination.  Finally 
at  the  end  of  the  conference  the  Anglican  bishop 
of  Mombasa  (although  theoretically  the  agreement 
needed  ratification  by  the  authorities  in  England) 
“celebrated  the  Holy  Communion,”  according  to 
the  Anglican  ritual,  in  a  Presbyterian  Church,  and 
admitted  to  communion  as  many  of  the  Protestant 
delegates  as  presented  themselves.  In  this  he  was 
not  without  precedent,  for  the  bishop  of  Hereford 
in  England  had  about  a  year  before  acted  in  a 
similar  manner. 

The  action  of  the  two  bishops,  on  the  two  points 
of  the  proposed  federation  and  the  intercommunion 
service,  was  criticized  by  the  High  Church  Bishop 
of  Zanzibar,  who  had  refused  to  attend  the  con¬ 
ference.  His  complaint  was  referred  by  the  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Canterbury  to  the  Consultative  Body 
of  bishops,  the  question  being  whether  “due  con¬ 
sideration  being  given  to  precedent  and  to  all  the 
facts  of  the  case,  the  action  of  the  bishops  who 
arranged  and  conducted  the  admittedly  abnormal 
service  was  consistent  or  inconsistent  with  princi¬ 
ples  accepted  by  the  Church  of  England.”  The 
decision  was  substantially  as  follows:  (1)  Minis¬ 
ters  of  other  bodies  may  be  welcomed  as  visitors 
to  preach  in  Anglican  churches,  if  accredited  by 
the  diocesan  bishops;  (2)  non- Anglicans  may  be 
admitted  to  communion  in  Anglican  churches  under 
authority  of  diocesan  bishops,  on  acceptance  of 
the  Apostles’  and  Nicene  creeds,  the  deity  of  Christ, 
and  the  absolute  authority  of  the  Scriptures; 
(3)  Anglicans  must  not  receive  the  communion 
from  ministers  not  episcopally  ordained  or  wrhose 
orders  are  otherwise  irregular;  (4)  it  is  wisest  to 
abstain  from  such  services  as  the  closing  service 
held  at  Kikuyu.  The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
in  1915  issued  a  statement  embodying  the  report  of 
the  Consultative  Body.  The  controversy  which 
had  arisen  when  the  Kikuyu  incident  first  came  to 
light,  broke  out  again,  the  High  Church  clergy 
objecting  to  what  they  considered  a  minimizing  of 
Anglican  doctrine.  The  archbishop  refused  to 
prosecute  the  bishops  of  Uganda  and  Mombasa, 
and  the  Anglican  Church  had  once  more  clearly 
shown  its  policy  to  be  that  of  laissez  jaire. 

The  incident,  with  two  other  cases  cited  also  by 
the  bishop  of  Zanzibar  in  his  complaint,  the  wide¬ 
spread  controversy,  and  the  decision  in  the  matter, 
seem  to  indicate  plainly  that  the  preponderance 
of  authority  and  of  opinion  to-day  in  the  Anglican 
Church  leans  toward  the  “Protestant”  or  Low 
Church  party.  Of  the  Kikuyu  incident  the  bishop 
of  Zanzibar  said  “there  has  not  been  a  Conference 
of  such  importance  to  the  life  of  the  Ecclesia 
Anglicana  since  the  Reformation,”  while  another 


advanced  Anglican  likened  it  in  importance  to 
the  bavoy  Conference  of  1661,  “the  work  of  which 
the  Kikuyu  Conference  has  set  itself  to  undo.” 

In  the  Open  Letter”  of  the  bishop  of  Zanzibar, 
attacking  the  Kikuyu  Conference,  there  was  also 
complaint  made  against  the  book  “Foundations” 
written  by  seven  Oxford  men,  and  the  attitude  of 
the  church  authorities  toward  its  editor  was  severely 
criticized.  This  book  treated  as  open  questions 
to  be  accepted  or  rejected  freely  by  Anglicans: 
the  necessity  of  the  episcopate  in  the  Christian 
Church;  the  institution  by  Christ  of  any  church  at 
all  and  of  any  sacraments;  the  reliability  of  the 
Bible  as  a  witness;  the  Resurrection  of  our  Lord 
from  the  dead,  and  His  divinity.  No  public  official 
condemnation  was  taken  in  the  case,  although  six 
of  the  authors  were  Anglican  clergymen.  The 
editor,  who  had  also  contributed  one  of  the  essays, 
was  merely  asked  to  resign  his  chaplaincy  “privately 
and  quietly.”  The  fact  that  in  these  controversies 
a  fight  was  made  for  conservative  doctrine  and 
practice  is  interpreted  by  many  as  evidencing  the 
presence  of  a  strong  High  Church  or  “Catholic” 
party  in  Anglicanism;  the  truth  is,  however,  that 
m  each  case  the  point  at  issue  was  not  High 
Church  doctrine  as  such,  it  was  merely  the  tradi¬ 
tional  Anglican  doctrine  that  was  at  stake,  and  the 
fact  that  only  700  clergymen  were  found  to  request, 
a  definite  pronouncement  by  the  church  authorities 
on  the  doctrines  called  in  questions  by  “Founda¬ 
tions”  shows  only  too  clearly  that  the  drift  is 
toward  liberal  Protestantism  or  doctrinal  indiffer- 
entism  in. the  Anglican  Church  to-day.  (For  the 
third  point  of  complaint  voiced  by  the  Bishop  of 
Zanzibar  see  Ritualism). 

This  same  tendency  is  also  somewhat  apparent 
in  the  attitude  of  the  Anglicans  on  the  question 
of  church  unity.  In  1920  the  Lambeth  Conference 
issued  an  appeal  and  some  resolutions  differing 
somewhat  from  the  Lambeth  Quadrilateral.  The 
Conference  (1)  speaks  of  union  of  communions 
rather  than  of  churches;  of  the  communions  of 
the  East  and  the  West,  of  episcopal  and  non-epis- 
copal  communions;  (2)  it  speaks  of  ministries  of 
grace  in  all  of  them;  (3)  it  disclaims  the  idea,  even 
the  right,  of  pronouncing  upon  the  validity  of  the 
sacraments  of  other  communions;  (4)  it  considers 
that  the  Creed  does  not  impose  a  test,  but  that 
it  is  offered  and  accepted  as  a  symbol  of  unity. 
Actually  these  proposals  bear  considerable  resem¬ 
blance  to  the  “federation  plan”  of  Kikuyu.  No 
results  are  as  yet  (1922)  apparent  and  in  fact,  broad 
as  are  the  conditions,  the  Federal  Council  of  Free 
Churches  and  the  National  Free  Church  Council, 
both  of  Scotland,  practically  rejected  them  as  stand¬ 
ing  too  strongly  for  episcopacy,  while  the  Metho¬ 
dists  have  formally  rejected  the  overtures,  refusing 
to  consider  reordination  of  their  clergy. 

In  missionary  work  the  Church  of  England  has 
maintained  its  attitude  against  Protestant  propa¬ 
ganda  in  Catholic  countries,  notably  in  the  World 
Missionary  Conference  of  1910,  at  Edinburgh.  As 
a  consequence  the  American  missionaries  devised 
the  “Panama  Conference”  (see  Protestantism)  for 
the  purpose  of  furthering  Protestant  work  in  Latin 
America.  (See  also  Ritualism  and  Book  of  Com¬ 
mon  Prayer.) 

Wace,  Some  Questions  of  the  Day  (London,  1912);  Gasquet, 
The  Ecclesia  Anglicana  in  Catholic  World ,  XCVIII  (1914), 
633;  Nankivel,  Kikuyu:  the  New  Situation  in  Catholic  World, 
CII  (1915),  32;  Britten,  Kikuyu  (with  bibliography)  in  Dublin 
Review,  CLIV  (1914),  335;  Henson,  Kikuyu  (Low  Church 
exposition)  in  Hibbert  Journal,  XII  (1913-14),  481;  Knox, 
Some  Loose  Stones  (London,  1913),  (Anglican  answer  to 
Foundations;  the  author  later  became  a  Catholic);  Idem  (as 
a  Catholic),  Tendencies  of  Anglicanism  in  Dublin  Review, 
CLXII  (1918),  25;  Ollard  and  Crosse,  A  Dictionary  of  English 
Church  History  (London,  1919) ;  Year  Book  of  the  Churches 


ANGLONA  AND  TURSI 


44 


ANTIGONISH 


(New  York,  annual);  Statesman’s  Year-Book,  (London, 
annual);  Selbie,  English  Sects  (London,  n.  d.);  Moyes,  Aspects 
of  Anglicanism  (London,  1909);  Wotherspoon  Intercommunion 
and  Lambeth  in  Constructive  Quarterly,  IX  (1921);  Mason, 
The  Church  of  England  and  Episcopacy  (London,  1914) ; 
The  Ministry  of  Women,  report  of  committee  appointed  by 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (London,  1919);  Conference  of 
Bishops  of  the  Anglican  Communion  Holden  at  Lambeth 
Palace,  1920  (London,  1920);  Emhardt,  Historical  Contact  of 
the  Eastern  Orthodox  and  the  Anglican  Churches  (New 
York,  1920);  Discussions  theologiques  entre  tes  Anglicans  et 
les  Orthodoxes  (Athens,  1919). 

Gerald  Shaughnessy. 


Anglona  and  Tursi,  Diocese  of  (Anglonensis  et 
Tursiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-512c),  in  the  province  of 
Potenza,  Italy,  suffragan  of  Acerenza.  Rt.  Rev. 
Vincent  Pisani,  who  came  to  this  see  5  February, 
1908,  retired  5  September,  1910,  and  was  made  ad¬ 
ministrator  apostolic  of  Thebes  and  on  3  January, 
1912,  titular  bishop  of  that  see.  He  was  succeeded 
by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  John  Pulvirenti, 
b.  at  San  Antonio,  1871,  appointed  Bishop  of 
Anglona  and  Tursi  27  November,  1911.  In  1920 
there  were  96,000  Catholics  in  the  diocese,  107 
secular  priests,  19  seminarians,  40  parishes,  120 
churches  or  chapels  and  4  sisters. 

Angola  and  Congo,  Diocese  of  (Angolensis  and 
Congenensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-512d),  also  known  as 
Santa  Cruz  de  Reino  de  Angola,  and  Sao  Paolo 
de  Loanda,  in  Portuguese  West  Africa,  suffragan  of 
Libson,  with  episcopal  residence  at  Sao  Paolo  de 
Loanda.  From  1909-15  the  see  was  filled  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Joao  Evangelistao  de  Lima  Vidal,  but  on 
9  December,  1915,  he  was  promoted  to  the  titular 
see  of  Mytilene  and  made  suffragan  to  the  Patriarch 
of  Lisbon,  since  which  time  the  see  has  been 
vacant.  In  1920  the  total  population  of  this  diocese 
numbered  2,000,000,  of  whom  1,000,000  are  Catho¬ 
lics  ;  there  are  82  parishes,  36  priests,  8  Missionary 
Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  8  churches  and  10 
chapels. 

Angora,  Diocese  of,  of  the  Armenian  Rite  (cf.  C. 
E.,  I-513a),  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  known  to  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  as  Ancyra.  Rt.  Rev.  Clement  Gha- 
zarossian,  appointed  to  this  see  28  August,  1901,  d. 
21  November,  1910.  He  was  succeeded  by  the 
present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Gregory  Bahabanian,  b. 
at  Angora,  1866,  appointed  27  August,  1911.  During 
the  World  War  Bishop  Bahabanian  was  interned  by 
the  Turks  (1915).  By  latest  statistics  there  are  3000 
Armenian  Catholics  in  this  diocese,  5  missionary 
priests,  1  parish,  1  church,  2  schools  with  60  pupils, 

1  orphanage  and  4  government  orphanages  caring 
for  60  children.  From  1907-21  thirty  priests  have 
died  in  this  territory,  some  from  natural  causes 
and  some  by  martyrdom  during  the  World  War, 
and  by  the  same  causes  the  diocese  lost  2000  of  its 
faithful.  During  the  year  1915  the  Turks  deported 
or  killed  numbers  of  the  Christians  and  set  fire 
to  the  whole  Catholic  s'ection  of  the  city  of 
Angora,  destroying  the  bishop’s  house,  four 
churches,  the  Sisters’  monastery,  the  seminary, 
'schools  and  shrines. 

Angouleme,  Diocese  of  (Engolisma;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-513b),  comprises  the  Department  of  Charente  in 
France  and  is  suffragan  of  Bordeaux.  Since  1907 
the  see  has  been  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Henri-Marie 
Arlet,  b.  at  Martel  in  1858,  ordained  1881,  appointed 
bishop  7  August,  1907.  Under  his  direction  an 
exhibition  of  the  relics  was  held  in  the  diocese  in 
April,  1918.  By  1920  statistics  the  population  of 
the  diocese,  entirely  Catholic,  numbers  346,424^  of 
whom  38,211  are  in  Angouleme;  there  are  30  first 
class  parishes,  237  succursal  parishes,  and  42  vica¬ 
riates,  formerly  under  state  subvention. 

Angra,  Dtocese  of  (Angrensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-513c), 
in  the  island  of  Terceira,  Azores.  On  the  death  of 


Mgr.  Joseph  C.  C.  Monteiro,  who  had  been  bishop 
of  the  diocese  for  five  years,  he  was  succeeded  by 
the  present  bishop,  Emanuel  Damascene  da  Costa,, 
chancellor  of  Viseu,  born  2  February,  1867;  elected 
bishop  of  Angra  2  October,  1914.  He  took  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  see  26  May,  1915,  and  died  27  January, 
1920. 

The  Catholics  of  the  diocese  number  250,000 
Portuguese.  There  are  173  parishes,  and  185 
churches  wTith  313  secular  priests;  1  seminary  with 
8  professors  and  60  seminarians ;  3  elementary 
schools  with  a  total  of  145  students;  5  homes,  8 
asylums,  1  of  which  admits  the  ministry  of  priests; 
4  societies  or  organizations  for  the  clergy,  and  a 
great  many  for  the  laity.  The  Catholic  publica¬ 
tions  consist  of  6  weeklies  and  1  monthly. 

Anhalt,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See  Paderborn. 


Ann,  Saint,  Sisters  of.  See  Saint  Ann,  Sis¬ 
ters  of. 

Anna  Maria  Taigi,  Blessed  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV-430d), 
beatified  30  May,  1920,  by  Benedict  XV . 

Annam.  See  Indo-China. 

Anne  de  Beaupre,  Sainte  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-539c). — 
This  famous  American  shrine,  near  Quebec,  Canada, 
was  entirely  destroyed  by  fire  in  March,  1922.  The 
only  one  remaining  of  the  group  of  buildings  con¬ 
nected  with  the  basilica  is  the  Memorial  Chapel, 
to  which  were  transferred  the  relics  and  statue 
of  St.  Anne,  saved  from  the  flames.  A  temporary 
church  will  be  erected  to  accommodate  the  pil¬ 
grimages  for  1922,  and  a  larger  edifice  along  the 
general  lines  of  the  former  basilica  will  eventually 
replace  the  destroyed  structure. 

Anne  of  St.  Bartholomew,  Blessed  (cf.  C.  E., 

VI-378d) ,  was  beatified  on  6  May,  1917,  by  Pope 
Benedict  XV. 

Annecy,  Diocese  of  (Anneciensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-540b),  in  Haute-Savoie,  France,  suffragan  of 
Chambery.  Rt.  Rev.  Pierre-Lucien  Campistron, 
who  was  appointed  bishop  of  this  diocese  9  June, 
1902,  died  22  August,  1921,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Florent  du  Bois 
de  La  Villerabel,  transferred  to  this  see,  18  Novem¬ 
ber,  1921.  Bishop  de  La  Villerabel  an  alumnus  of 
the  French  Seminary  at  Rome,  was  born  at  St. 
Brieuc,  1877,  served  as  a  professor  of  philosophy 
and  theology  at  the  higher  seminary  at  St.  Brieuc, 
was  mobilized  and  discharged  in  1915,  became  vicar 
general  of  Amiens  the  same  year,  was  appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  Enos,  7  May,  1920,  and  made 
auxiliary  with  right  of  succession  to  the  Archdiocese 
of  Tours,  which  office  he  filled  until  his  transfer  to 
Annecy.  In  1920  there  were  257,606  Catholics  in 
this  diocese,  29  first  class  parishes,  270  succursal 
parishes  and  169  vicariates  with  salaries  formerly 
paid  by  the  state. 

Antigonish,  Diocese  of  (Antigonishensis;  cf. 

C.  E.,  I-562d),  in  Canada,  is  a  suffragan  to  the 
Archdiocese  of  Halifax.  The  present  incumbent, 
Rt.  Reverend  James  Morrison,  was  born  at  Saint- 
Andre,  Prince  Edward  Island,  9  July,  1861,  ordained 
1  November,  1889,  acted  for  a  time  as  apostolic 
administrator  of  this  diocese,  was  appointed  bishop 
25  May,  1912,  and  consecrated  4  September  of  the 
same  year.  He  succeeded  Rt.  Rev.  John  Cameron, 

D.  D.,  who  filled  the  see  from  1886v until  his  death, 
6  April,  1910. 

In  1919  the  Trappist  Monastery  at  Tracadie,  N. 
S.,  one  of  the  oldest  institutions  of  the  diocese,  was 
closed  and  the  12  Fathers  and  brothers  who  were 
conducting  the  institution  returned  to  France. 


ANTIGONISH 


45 


ANTIOCH 


The  Antigonish  ‘‘Educational  and  Social  Confer¬ 
ence,”  organized  in  1917,  has  had  four  annual  meet¬ 
ings  and  is  growing  yearly  in  importance  and  influ¬ 
ence.  In  1920  the  first  retreat  for  lady  teachers  was 
held  in  the  diocese  at  Mt.  St.  Bernard’s  College 
and  plans  have  been  made  for  similar  retreats  every 
two  years. 

The  chief  seat  of  learning  of  this  diocese  is  St. 
Francis  Xavier  University  at  Antigonish  with  19 
professors  and  196  students,  85  of  whom  are  resi¬ 
dent.  Mt.  St.  Bernard’s  Ladies  College,  affiliated 
writh  the  university,  has  42  students  doing  university 
work  and  87  doing  high  school  work.  During  recent 
years  the  university  has  led  in  a  great  educational 
movement  and  many  new  buildings  and  useful 
equipment  have  been  added  through  the  generosity 
of  friends  of  the  institution.  In  1920  extension 
teaching  was  undertaken  and  a  “People’s  School,” 
modeled  after  similar  schools  in  Belgium  and  Hol¬ 
land,  was  established.  In  the  same  year  a  success¬ 
ful  campaign  for  $500,000  was  conducted  and  the 
Carnegie  Corporation  contributed  $58,750  for  a 
chair  of  French. 

By  present  (1921)  statistics  the  population  of  this 
diocese  is  92,000,  of  whom  50,000  are  Scotch,  24,000 
French,  14,000  Irish.  There  are:  70  parishes,  45 
missions,  115  churches,  109  secular  priests,  18  con¬ 
vents  of  women,  296  sisters,  17  seminarians.  A 
number  of  educational  institutions  are  conducted 
by  the  various  communities  represented  in  the  dio¬ 
cese;  the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame  with  92 
sisters  and  mother-house  at  Montreal  have  9  con¬ 
vents;  the  Daughters  of  Jesus,  with  24  sisters,  have 
2  schools;  the  Sisters  of  Charity  with  92  sisters  and 
mother-house  at  Halifax  have  8  schools.  There  are 
in  all  14  high  schools  with  24  teachers  and  an  at¬ 
tendance  of  657  boys  and  770  girls,  and  33  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  with  133  teaching  sisters  and  77  lay 
teachers,  and  an  attendance  of  10,034.  In  this 
province  Catholic  schools  recognized  by  local  school 
boards  are  public  schools  and  as  such  receive  their 
share  of  provincial  aid.  As  a  result  nearly  all  the 
towns  have  Catholic  public  schools,  which  conform 
in  every  detail  to  requirements  of  the  public  school 
law  and  are  subject  to  official  inspection;  the  prop¬ 
erty  usually  belongs  to  the  parish  and  is  rented 
to  the  public  school  board  for  school  purposes. 

A  number  of  the  charitable  institutions  are  under 
the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Martha,  a  diocesan 
community  with  88  sisters  and  mother-house  at 
Antigonish;  they  are  in  charge  of  the  domestic 
work  at  St.  Francis  Xavier  University  and  at  St. 
Augustine’s  Seminary,  Toronto,  St.  Martha’s  Hos¬ 
pital  and  House  of  Providence,  St.  Joseph’s  Hos¬ 
pital,  St.  Mary’s  Orphanage  and  Ross  Memorial 
Hospital.  The  Daughters  of  Jesus  conduct  a  home 
for  the  aged  at  Sydney  and  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
have  a  hospital  at  North  Sydney  and  a  sanitorium  at 
Lourdes.  Several  of  these  institutions  receive  grants 
from  the  municipal  and  provincial  governments. 
Among  the  clergy  St.  Joseph’s  Society,  the  Priests’ 
Eucharistic  League  and  the  Priests’  Total  Absti¬ 
nence  Union  are  established,  and  among  the  laity 
the  usual  parish  societies  and  the  Knights  of 
Columbus,  Catholic  Women’s  League  of  Canada, 
League  of  the  Cross  Total  Abstinence  Society,  Holy 
Name  Society,  Catholic  Society  of  Canada,  Ancient 
Order  of  Hibernians,  and  the  Assumption  Society. 
The  diocese  has  one  weekly  periodical,  “The  Cas¬ 
ket”;  a  monthly  paper,  “The  Xaverian,”  issued  by 
the  students  of  the  university,  “The  Memorare,”  a 
quarterly  by  the  students  of  the  Ladies’  College, 
and  two  annual  publications,  “The  Catholic  Year 
Book  of  the  Maritime  Provinces”  and  “The  Easter 
Lily.” 


During  the  World  War  the  diocese  of  Antigonish 
responded  with  great  patriotism  and  the  most  cor¬ 
rect  figures  obtainable  show  4,791  enlistments,  558 
killed  and  691  wounded.  Five  priests  of  the  diocese 
served  as  chaplains  at  the  front,  and  St.  Francis 
Xavier  University  sent  a  hospital  unit  of  eleven 
medical  officers  and  twenty-seven  nurses.  One  of 
these  nurses  was  made  matron-in-chief  of  all  the 
Canadian  nurses  and  served  in  that  capacity  during 
the  whole  war.  Four  priests  and  five  brothers  from 
the  Trappist  monastery  returned  to  France  and 
served  in  various  capacities.  In  response  to  a  letter 
from  Bishop  Morrison  to  the  Knights  of  Columbus, 
11  May,  1918,  in  which  he  suggested  that  they 
raise  a  fund  for  the  Canadian  soldiers  overseas,  a 
fund  of  $1,000,000  was  raised  throughout  Canada 
before  the  end  of  October  of  that  year,  and  of  this 
sum  $132,305.65  were  raised  in  Nova  Scotia  alone. 
The  following  statistics  published  in  December, 

1915,  show  the  various  religions  of  1,200  men  re¬ 
cruited  in  Cape  Breton  County  (a  part  of  this 
diocese),  by  Captain  Rev.  E.  Watering,  a  non- 
Catholic  clergyman  of  Florence,  C.  B.  Roman 
Catholic  47.9  per  cent,  Presbyterian,  27.5  per  cent, 
Church  of  England,  14.4  per  cent,  Methodist  6.5 
per  cent.  For  further  details  see  “Catholics  of  the 
Diocese  of  Antigonish,  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  War” 
(St.  Francis  Xavier  University  Press). 

Antioch,  Patriarchate  of  (Antioquiensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  I-568c),  comprises  four  rites  united  with  Rome, 
the  Greek-Melchite,  Maronite,  Syrian  and  Latin, 
with  a  patriarch  for  each.  The  official  title  of  the 
Greek-Melchite  patriarch  is,  “Patriarch  of  Antioch, 
Alexandria,  Jerusalem  and  all  the  Orient,”  and  he 
has  his  residence  at  Damascus.  He  has  three 
patriarchal  vicars,  at  Damascus,  Alexandria  and 
Jerusalem,  and  since  1859  has  had  jurisdiction  over 
the  Greek  Catholics  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Con¬ 
stantinople.  The  present  patriarch,  His  Excellency 
Joseph  Dimitri  Cadi,  b.  at  Damascus,  1861,  ordained 
in  Paris  1888,  appointed  bishop  1903,  and  conse¬ 
crated  at  Alexandria,  named  vicar  apostolic  of  the 
Melchites  after  the  death  of  the  Patriarch  Geha, 

1916,  appointed  patriarch  3  July,  1919.  By  1920 
statistics  there  are  10,835  members  of  this  rite,  11 
secular  and  15  regular  priests,  14  churches  and  2 
schools. 

The  residence  of  the  Syrian  Patriarch  is  at  Mar- 
din,  the  Catholic  hierarchy  of  the  Syrians  having 
been  re-established  in  1783.  The  present  patriarch, 
His  Excellency  Ignatius  Denis  Ephrem  Rahmani,  b. 
at  Mossul,  1848,  an  alumnus  of  Propaganda  College, 
was  consecrated  titular  Archbishop  of  Edessa,  1887, 
transferred  to  Aleppo,  1894,  and  appointed  patriarch 
29  October,  1898,  under  the  name  of  Ignatius 
Ephrem  II.  He  was  named  a  consultor  of  the 
Congregation  for  the  Oriental  Church  27  November, 

1917,  There  are  two  patriarchal  vicars  for  this  rite, 
at  Mardin  and  at  Homs,  and  a  procurator  of  the 
patriarch  at  Rome.  In  1920  there  were  4,200  Syrian 
Catholics,  14  secular  and  13  regular  priests  and  8 
churches  or  chapels. 

The  Maronite  Rite  has  its  residence  at  Bekorki 
in  Lebanon.  The  patriarch  has  jurisdiction  over  all 
Maronites  scattered  throughout  the  Orient,  the 
Ottoman  Empire,  in  Egypt  and  in  Cyprus;  the 
patriarchal  diocese,  or  see  of  the  patriarch  is  Gibail 
and  Batrun.  The  present  patriarch,  His  Excellency 
Elie  Pierre  Hoyek,  b.  in  the  diocese  of  Batrun  1842, 
ordained  1870,  consecrated  titular  Archbishop  of 
Area  1889,  and  made  patriarchal  vicar,  director  of 
the  Maronite  College  at  Rome,  1897,  was  appointed 
patriarch  6  January,  1899.  After  a  period  of  exile 
he  returned  to  Bekorki  in  October,  1917,  and  in 


ANTIOQUIA  AND  JERICO 


46 


APOLOGETICS 


1919,  accompanied  by  four  archbishops,  he  went  to 
Paris,  to  defend  the  interests  of  Lebanon  at  the 
Peace  Conference.  There  are  three  patriarchal 
vicars  in  Lebanon  and  one  in  Egypt.  In  1920  there 
were  85,000  Maronite  Catholics  in  this  district,  470 
priests,  277  churches  or  chapels,  1  seminary,  12 
monasteries  of  the  Baladites  with  177  monks,  2 
monasteries  of  the  Aleppines  with  30  monks,  the 
Antonians  with  2  monasteries  and  9  monks,  the 
Baladite  Sisters  with  1  monastery  and  18  religious 
and  2  convents  of  native  sisters  with  21  religious. 

For  the  Latin  Rite  the  see  is  merely  titular, 
the  patriarch  residing  in  Rome  or  some  place  in  the 
West.  The  present  patriarch,  His  Excellency 
Ladislas  Michel  Zaleski,  b.  1852,  appointed  titular 
archbishop  of  Thebes,  1892,  was  appointed  patriarch 
7  December,  1916. 

Antioquia  and  Jerico,  Diocese  of  (Antioqtjiensis 
et  Jericoensis),  in  Colombia,  South  America,  is 
suffragan  of  Medellin.  The  diocese  of  Jerico  was 
founded  29  January,  1915,  by  a  division  of  the 
Diocese  of  Antioquia,  sixteen  parishes  from  the 
southern  part  of  that  diocese  constituting  the  new 
see.  On  5  February,  1917,  it  was  reunited  with 
Antioquia,  each  diocese  having  equal  rights,  and 
at  the  same  time  a  portion  of  the  united  dioceses 
was  erected  into  the  new  Diocese  of  Santa  Rosa  de 
Osos.  Rt.  Rev.  Emanuel  Antonio  de  Mesa  who 
filled  this  see  from  1902  until  his  death  in  1910, 
was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Maxmilian  Crespo,  ap¬ 
pointed  18  October,  1910.  Upon  the  erection  of  the 
diocese  of  Santa  Rosa  de  Osos,  Bishop  Crespo  was 
transferred  to  that  see,  and  the  present  incumbent, 
Rt.  Rev.  Francis  Christopher  Toro  was  transferred 
to  the  united  sees  of  Antioquia  and  Jerico,  8 
February,  1917.  Bishop  Toro,  b.  at  Antioquia  1869, 
ordained  1894,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Socorro  18 
October,  1910,  and  transferred  to  Santa  Marta  16 
December,  1913.  By  1920  statistics  there  are  211,315 
Catholics  in  this  diocese,  75  secular  and  regular 
clergy  and  80  churches  or  chapels. 

Antivari,  Archdiocese  of  (Antivarium;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-582b),  is  the  Catholic  metropolitan  see  of  Monte¬ 
negro,  and  is  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See. 
Monsignor  Simon  Millinovic,  who  came  to  this  see 
in  1886,  died  24  March,  1910,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  present  incumbent  Most  Rev.  Nicolas  Dobrecic, 
b.  at  Antivari,  1872,  appointed  archbishop  16  Jan¬ 
uary,  1912.  In  1920  there  were  about  25,000  Catho¬ 
lics  in  this  diocese,  14  parishes  of  which  10  are 
served  by  the  Friars  Minor,  27  churches  or  chapels, 
12  secular  priests  and  12  Friars  Minor. 

Antofogasta,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Antofogas- 
tensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-583a),  in  Chili.  By  a  decree  of 
22  November,  1918,  the  territory  commonly  known 
as  the  Department  of  Taltal  was  taken  from  the 
Diocese  of  Serena  and  united  to  the  vicariate  of 
Antofogasta,  thus  changing  the  boundaries  of  this 
vicariate.  The  present  vicar  apostolic,  Don  Luiz  Silva- 
Lezaeta  was  appointed  in  1907,  and  made  titular 
Bishop  of  Olena,  5  January,  1912.  By  1920  statistics 
the  Catholic  population  of  this  territory  numbers 
200,000,  of  whom  35,000  are  in  the  city  of  Antofo¬ 
gasta.  At  present  (1921)  there  are  20  parishes, 
22  secular  and  6  regular  clergy  (Missionaries  of  the 
Heart  of  Mary),  3  congregations  of  Sisters  with  27 
members,  1  monastery  for  men,  1  convent  for  men, 
3  secondary  schools  for  boys  with  6  teachers  and 
300  students,  1  professional  school  and  80  elemen¬ 
tary  schools.  A  lyceum  for  boys  and  one  for  girls, 
and  the  industrial  school  are  supported  by  the  gov¬ 
ernment.  Fifteen  different  societies  are  organized 
among  the  laity. 

Antonians,  Chaldean  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-556a). — These 


religious  of  the  Congregation  of  St.  Hormisdas  have 
three  monasteries  in  Mesopotamia  in  the  Chaldean 
Archdiocese  of  Mossul.  The  prior  of  the  monastery 
of  Notre  Dame  is  Fr.  Elia  Hanna;  prior  of  the 
monastery  of  St.  Hormisdas,  Fr.  Stephan  Eugen; 
and  prior  of  the  monastery  of  St.  George,  Fr.  Ber- 
rianien  Ounan.  In  1917,  at  the  death  of  Dom 
Samuel  Giamil,  general  of  the  order  since  1901,  the 
Chaldean  patriarch  appointed  Dom  Mose  Geramie 
vicar  general.  The  congregation  numbers  17  priests, 
44  lay  brothers,  and  5  novices.  The  priests  have 
missions  in  the  towns  and  villages,  where  their  min¬ 
istry  is  requested  by  the  patriarch  or  bishops. 

AntsirabS,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
XVI-68a),  formerly  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
Betafo,  in  Madagascar.  This  territory  was  erected 
into  a  prefecture  Apostolic  15  May,  1913,  by  a 
division  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Central  Mada¬ 
gascar,  and  was  raised  to  a  vicariate  24  August, 
1918,  and  entrusted  to  the  Mission  aries  of  La 
Salette.  On  10  January,  1921,  the  name  was  changed 
to  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Antsirabe.  Rev.  Father 
Frangois  Pra,  who  was  appointed  superior  of  this 
mission  14  July,  1900,  died  at  Antsirabe  17  February, 
1918.  The  present  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Francois-Joseph  Dantin,  b.  at  Meyrieux^Trouet, 
1870,  appointed  prefect  apostolic  of  Betafo  24  June, 
1913,  and  promoted  to  the  titular  see  of  Satala,  and 
made  the  first  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Betafo,  10  Septem¬ 
ber,  1918.  During  the  World  War  five  of  the  priests 
from  this  mission  were  mobilized  and  served  in  the 
field  hospitals. 

The  Catholic  population  numbers  about  56,000, 
almost  all  of  the  Hova  race.  At  the  present  time 
(1922)  the  vicariate  comprises  5  parishes,  5  churches, 
5  missions,  246  mission  stations,  4  convents  of  men 
and  3  of  women,  17  missionary  priests,  9  brothers, 
22  sisters,  5  seminarians.  The  educational  institu¬ 
tions  include:  3  secondary  schools  with  5  teachers, 
50  boys  and  10  girls;  1  normal  school  with  2  teach¬ 
ers  and  20  pupils;  20  elementary  schools  with  40 
teachers  and  2,160  pupils.  Four  of  the  public 
institutions  permit  the  ministry  of  the  priests  and  5 
societies  are  organized  among  the  laity. 

Aosta,  Diocese  of  (Augustanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-591d),  in  Italy,  suffragan  of  Turin.  The  diocese 
contains  (1922)  87  parishes,  566  churches,  chapels 
and  oratories,  3  convents  for  men,  1  for  women  with 
191  sisters,  170  secular  priests,  25  regulars,  8  lay 
brothers,  2  seminaries  and  26  seminarians.  There 
are  one  college  with  10  professors,  and  174  students; 
600  secondary  schools,  all  of  which  are  maintained 
by  the  government,  and  one  mission  school.  The 
following  charitable  institutions  exist  in  the  diocese : 
5  asylums,  1  hospital,  1  refuge,  2  day  nurseries,  2 
diocesan  shelters.  Among  the  clergy  there  exists 
one  association  and  three  among  the  laity. 

During  the  World  War  numerous  priests  served 
their  country  as  chaplains  in  the  Italian  army,  five 
of  them  being  killed.  Two  thousand  soldiers  be¬ 
longing  to  the  diocese  gave  up  their  lives  for  the 
cause.  The  seminary  of  St.  Anselm  was  used  as  a 
hospital  for  wounded  soldiers.  Monuments  were 
erected  in  many  towns  as  memorials  for  those  who 
had  fallen  in  the  war.  The  present  incumbent  is  the 
Rt.  Rev.  William  Calabrese,  b.  at  Modane,  1867, 
ordained  September,  1889,  elected  7  May,  1920, 
consecrated  at  Susa,  1  July  following.  Since  1907 
the  church  of  St.  Anselm  has  celebrated  its  cen¬ 
tenary  and  a  Marian  Congress  was  held  in  the 
diocese. 

Apologetics  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-618b). — The  history  of 
apologetics  in  the  last  fifteen  years  is  chiefly  cen- 


APOLOGETICS 


47 


APOLOGETICS 


tered  in  the  defense  of  traditional  Catholic  faith 
against  the  insidious  dangers  of  Modernism.  In 
addition  to  this  the  vindication  of  the  Christian 
conception  of  God  and  the  human  soul  has  been 
prompted  anew  by  the  steadily  growing  anti-theistic 
rationalism  in  the  learned  world  of  to-day.  Mod¬ 
ernism  is  little  more  than  the  infiltration  of  Prot¬ 
estant  liberal  thought  into  the  Catholic  views  of 
revelation,  Holy  Scripture,  Christology,  the  Church 
and  the  sacraments.  The  philosophy  underlying 
liberal  Protestantism  is  closely  related  to  the  sub¬ 
jectivism  of  Kant,  rejecting  external  proofs  for 
the  existence  of  God  and  stressing  the  conscious¬ 
ness  we  have  of  God  working  within  us.  Sharing 
the  prejudice  of  the  modern  scientific  world  against 
Divine  intervention  in  the  realm  of  nature,  it  re¬ 
jects  all  miracles  and  prophecies,  even  the  historic 
reality  of  the  Resurrection,  and  denies  the  Divinity 
of  Jesus,  to  whom,  indeed,  it  attributes  surpassing 
goodness  and  ethical  wisdom,  but  concedes  only  a 
knowledge  subject  to  human  limitations  and  not 
wholly  free  from  error.  In  accordance  with  its  de¬ 
structive  criticism  of  the  Bible,  it  declares  the 
Christ  of  the  Gospels  to  be  an  idealization  of  the 
historic  personage  Jesus,  the  exact  portraiture  of 
whom  is  beyond  recovery.  Only  a  small  kernel  of 
His  recorded  sayings  is  accepted  as  genuine.  On 
the  basis  of  this  rigorously  sifted  evidence,  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  in  His  mature  years  Jesus 
went  about  preaching  the  kingdom  of  righteousness 
as  foretold  by  the  Prophets  and  making  known  that 
He  was  the  Messias;  but  that  in  preaching  this 
Messiahship,  He  lived  and  died  a  Jew,  faithful  to 
the  Law,  conforming  rigidly  to  its  ritual.  That  He 
had  in  mind  the  radical  innovations  of  Christianity, 
that  He  instituted  a  Church  with  a  sacramental 
system  hitherto  unknown  to  Judaism  is  declared  to 
be  absolutely  incompatible  with  His  genuine  say¬ 
ings,  especially  with  His  insistence  on  the  nearness 
of  the  great  Judgment  and  of  the  end  of  the  world. 

Such  in  brief  is  the  attitude  of  liberal  Protes¬ 
tantism,  common  to  many  scholars  calling  them¬ 
selves  Christian  in  Germany,  Holland,  France  and 
England.  Unhappily,  their  views,  so  subversive  of 
historic  Christian  faith,  found  favor  with  a  number 
of  Catholic  scholars,  some  of  them  of  no  mean 
ability,  who  were  strongly  attracted  by  the  brilliant 
studies  of  men  like  Harnack  and  Sabatier,  and 
who  flattered  themselves  that  by  interpreting 
Catholicism  in  the  light  of  this  phase  of  modern 
scholarship,  they  could  make  Catholic  faith  more 
widely  respected  and  more  readily  acceptable  to 
scholars  of  university  training.  For  this  reason  they 
became  known  as  Modernists.  Prominent  among 
these  liberalizing  Catholics  were  the  Abbe  Loisy 
in  France,  Father  Tyrrell,  S.  J.,  in  England,  and 
in  Italy  Fogazzaro  and  Abbate  Murri.  Loisy’s 
earlier  writings  had  put  him  in  the  front  rank  of 
Catholic  Scriptural  scholars.  His  Modernist  views, 
partly  revealed  in  his  work  “l’Evangile  et  l’Eglise” 
(1902),  found  bolder  expression  in  his  “Autour  d’un 
Petit  Livre”  (1903).  Of  equal  influence,  if  not 
scholarship,  was  Father  Tyrrell  in  English-speaking 
countries.  In  his  works,  “Lex  Orandi”  (1903),  and 
“Lex  Credendi”  (1906),  favorably  mentioned  in  the 
article  Apologetics  (C.  E.,  I-623b),  he  had  given 
expression  to  a  few  statements  of  Modernist  sig¬ 
nificance,  which  were  generally  overlooked  in  his 
many  excellent  utterances  of  an  edifying  character, 
but  a  new  light  was  thrown  on  his  radical  interpre¬ 
tation  of  Catholicism  in  his  little  treatise  printed 
for  private  circulation,  “A  Confidential  Letter  to  a 
Friend,  Who  Is  a  Professor  of  Anthropology”  (1906). 
The  storm  of  criticism  provoked  by  this  letter  led 
soon  after  to  the  publication  of  his  “Much  Abused 
4 


(1^06),  and  “Through  Scylla  and  Charybdis” 
(1907),  in  which,  while  seeking  to  justify  his  posi¬ 
tion  as  that  of  a  true  Catholic,  he  plainly  revealed 
how  inconsistent  were  his  views  with  traditional 
Catholic  belief.  At  the  same  time  a  similar  trend 
of  thought  was  finding  expression  in  the  published 
utterances  of  Abbate  Murri,  author  of  “Psicologia 
della  religione”  (1905),  and  “Democrazia  e  Cris- 
tianesimo  (1906),  and  of  Fogazarro,  author  of  “II 
Santo”  (1905). 

The  assertions  of  all  these  writers  and  of  their 
less  prominent  followers  were,  to  a  large  degree, 
the  reflex  of  modern  liberal  Protestant  thought  ar¬ 
rayed  in  the  specious  garb  of  Catholic  terminology. 
Their  teaching  was,  to  use  the  happy  saying  of 
Father  Donat,  S.  J.,  “Kant  preaching  in  the  robe 
of  a  Catholic  theologian”  (Freedom  of  Science,  p. 
167).  Not  all  kept  pace  with  the  Abbe  Loisy,  who 
went  so  far  as  to  hold  views  subversive  of  belief 
in  the  Divinity  of  Christ  and  in  the  Divine  origin 
of  the  Church  and  of  the  sacraments.  But  common 
to  most  of  them  was  the  view  that  the  Gospel  por¬ 
traiture  of  Christ  is  not  wholly  true  to  the  original, 
that  miracles,  including  the  Resurrection,  elude  the 
human  power  of  demonstration,  that  the  old  con¬ 
ception  of  faith  resting  on  a  positive  Divine  com¬ 
munication  from  without  and  having  for  its  object 
a  message  from  God  definite  in  its  contents  and 
admitting  no  change,  must  give  place  to  the  new 
idea  that  faith  is  the  conviction  of  man’s  responsi¬ 
bility  to  God,  born  of  and  fostered  by  the  con¬ 
sciousness  of  the  presence  and  working  of  God 
within  us,  and  that  revelation  is  naught  else  than 
the  self-manifestation  of  the  Divine  in  our  inward 
life. 

It  would  be  outside  the  scope  of  this  survey  of 
the  recent  history  of  Apologetics  to  describe  in  de¬ 
tail  the  nature  and  fate  of  Modernism.  That  has 
already  been  well  done  in  the  able  article  Mod¬ 
ernism,  by  Father  Vermeersch,  S.  J.  (C.  E.,  X-415b). 
Suffice  it  to  say  that  in  July,  1907,  the  Decree 
“Lamentabili,”  of  the  Holy  Office,  branded  as  false 
and  un-Catholic  sixty-five  theses  expressing  Mod¬ 
ernist  views  on  Scripture,  revelation  and  faith,  the 
Divinity  of  Christ,  prophecies  and  miracles,  espe¬ 
cially  that  of  the  Resurrection,  the  Church  and  the 
sacraments.  This  Syllabus  of  errors  was  followed 
in  September  by  the  Encyclical,  “Pascendi,”  of  Pope 
Pius  X,  condemning  Modernism  as  a  synthesis  of 
teachings  destructive  of  Catholic  faith.  The  ex¬ 
communication  of  its  chief  exponents,  Loisy,  Tyr¬ 
rell,  Murri  and  Fogazarro,  followed  soon  after,  in 
consequence  of  their  unwillingness  to  submit,  and 
their  Modernist  writings  were  put  on  the  Index. 

In  refutation  of  Modernism  a  very  large  number 
of  able  treatises  have  been  published,  some  of  them 
as  books  and  pamphlets,  others  in  the  form  of 
articles  for  periodicals  and  dictionaries.  While  some 
of  these  have  aimed  to  show  the  untenableness  of 
the  whole  system  from  the  Catholic  standpoint,  by 
far  the  larger  number  have  been  directed  against 
particular  features  of  the  new  heresy.  Among  those 
who  have  done  notable  service  in  this  field  of 
apologetics  may  be  mentioned:  Cardinal  Mercier, 
“Le  Modernisme,  sa  Position  vis-a-vis  de  la  sci¬ 
ence”  (1908) ;  A.  Vermeersch,  S.  J.,  “De  Modernismo 
Tractatus”  (1910),  also  his  article  Modernism,  in 
Volume  X  of  this  Encyclopedia;  Msgr.  Farges, 
article  “Modernisme,”  in  the  recently  issued  part  of 
the  new  “Dictionnaire  apologetique  de  la  foi  catho- 
lique,”  a  masterly  treatise  of  about  seventy-five 
thousand  words;  M.  Lepin,  S.  S.,  “Les  Theories  de 
M.  Loisy”  (1908);  “Christologie”  (1908);  “Jesus 
Messie”  (4th  ed.,  1909) ;  trans.  “Christ  and  the  Gos¬ 
pel”  (1910);  “Jesus  Christ,  sa  vie  et  son  ceuvre” 


APOLOGETICS 


48 


APOSTASY 


(1912);  J.  Lebreton,  “L’Encyclique  et  la  theologie 
moderniste”  (1908) ;  MM.  Bourchany,  Pener  et 
Tixeront,  “Conferences  apologetiques”  (1910);  MM, 
Jacquier  et  Bourchany,  “Conferences  apologetiques 
sur  la  Resurrection  et  les  miracles  evangeliques” 
(1911);  E.  Mangenot,  “La  Resurrection  de  Jesus” 
(1910) ;  J.  de  Tonquedec,  “La  Notion  de  verite  dans 
la  philosophic  nouvelle”  (1908) ;  also  “Introduction 
a  l’etude  du  Merveilleux  et  du  Miracle”  (1916). 

A  prominent  feature  of  the  Catholic  reaction 
against  Modernism  is  the  increased  emphasis  laid  on 
Scriptural  studies.  The  Biblical  Commission,  estab¬ 
lished  in  1902  under  Pope  Leo  XIII,  received  a  new 
significance  and  importance  after  the  publication  of 
the  Encyclical  Pascendi.  The  authority  of  its  de¬ 
cisions,  questioned  by  some,  was  defined  in  the 
Motu  Proprio  of  Pius  X,  November  18,  1907 
(Prsestantia  Scripturse  Sacrse),  making  them  the 
guide-posts  of  Catholic  teaching.  Two  years  later, 
the  Pontifical  Biblical  Institute  was  established  in 
Rome  and  put  in  charge  of  Jesuit  scholars.  As 
the  apostolic  letter  of  authorization  indicates,  its 
purpose  is  to  safeguard  Catholic  students  of  Scrip¬ 
ture  from  the  grave  danger  of  having  recourse  to 
non-Catholic  teachers  and  of  being  thereby  imbued 
with  Modernist  errors.  In  the  interests  of  the 
Institute,  a  new  periodical,  “Biblica,”  issued  every 
three  months,  was  presented  to  the  world  of  scholars 
in  1920.  It  is  edited  by  the  professors  of  the  Insti¬ 
tute,  the  chief  editor  being  the  noted  scholar,  Dr. 
Fonck,  S.  J.,  and  is  destined  to  publish  many  articles 
of  apologetic  value. 

The  article  on  Apologetics  in  the  first  volume  of 
this  encyclopedia  makes  mention  of  the  so-called 
“Immanence  School,”  that  was  in  vogue  twenty 
years  ago  in  France,  and  of  the  subjective  Christian 
philosophy  of  apologists  like  Olle-Laprune  and 
Fonsegrive.  The  loyalty  of  these  writers  to  Catho¬ 
lic  faith  was  unquestioned,  but  after  the  condem¬ 
nation  of  Modernism  in  1907,  their  subjective 
philosophy  fell  into  discredit,  being  so  strongly  sug¬ 
gestive  of  the  philosophy  of  Kant  as  to  be  open  to 
the  suspicion  of  leading  to  Modernism. 

The  Modernism  of  liberal  Protestantism  does  not 
mark  the  furthest  outposts  of  rationalistic  specula¬ 
tion.  Beyond  is  the  riot  of  ever-shifting  theories 
on  monistic  evolution,  on  the  physico-chemical  ex¬ 
planation  of  the  activities  of  living  organisms  from 
the  microbe  to  man,  on  the  relation  of  human 
knowledge  to  an  objective  world,  on  religious 
psychology.  The  numerous  exponents  of  these 
theories,  strong  in  criticizing  the  work  of  their  pre¬ 
decessors  and  at  the  same  time  weak  in  setting  up 
any  enduring  monument  of  their  own,  show  an 
atheistic  trend  that  bodes  no  good  for  Christian 
faith  and  gives  rise  to  serious  misgivings  when  one 
considers  that  many  of  these  leaders  of  the  blind 
are  teachers  of  the  Christian  youth  in  the  great 
universities  of  the  land.  To  neutralize  these  teach¬ 
ings  there  is  need  of  more  works  like  those  of 
Father  E.  Wassmann,  S.J.,  “Modern  Biology  and 
the  Theory  of  Evolution”  (1910) ;  “The  Berlin  Dis¬ 
cussion  of  the  Problem  of  Evolution”  (1909) :  B. 
Windle,  “What  Is  Life?”  (1908);  “Facts  and  Theo¬ 
ries”  (1912);  J.  Donat,  S.J.,  “The  Freedom  of  Sci¬ 
ence”  (1914);  Carrigou-Lagrange,  “Dieu,  son  Ex¬ 
istence  et  sa  Nature.” 

Besides  the  works  mentioned  above,  the  following 

are  of  value  for  apologetic  study: 

Ottiger,  Theologia  Fundamentalis  (2  yols.,  1918);  Esser- 
Mausbach,  Religion,  Christentiim,  und  Kirche  (3  vols.,  1913); 
D'Ales  (ed.)  Dictionnaire  Apologetique  de  la  Foi  Cat holique. 
(This  monumental  work,  begun  in  1911  and  appearing  in  parts 
is  about  half  complete);  Walshe,  Principles  of  Apologetics 
C191S) ;  Batiffol,  The  Primitive  Church  and  Catholicism 
(1911);  Idem,  Orpheus  et  VEvangile  (1910) ;  Finlay,  The 
Church  of  Christ  (1915);  Barnes,  The  Early  Church  in  the 


Light  of  the  Monuments  (1913);  Rickaby,  Authority  and 
Religious  Belief  (1916);  Cuthbert  and  Others,  God  and  the 
Supernatural  (1921);  Baudrillart,  The  Catholic  Church, 
Renaissance  and  Protestantism  (1908) ;  de  Poulpiquet,  Le 
miracle  et  ses  suppleances  (1913);  Joyce,  The  Question  of 
Miracles  (1914);  Devas,  The  Key  to  the  World’s  Progress 
(1918);  Jacquier,  Etudes  de  critique  et  de  philologie  du 
Nouveau  Testament  (1920);  Allo,  L’Evangile  en  face  du 
syncretisme  paien  (1910);  Le  Roy,  La  Religion  des  Primitifs 
(1909);  Bricout,  Ou  en  est  Thistoire  des  religions?  (1911); 
Huby,  Christus,  manuel  d’histoire  des  religions  (1913) ;  Mar- 
tindale  and  Others,  The  History  of  Religions  (5  vols.,  1910-11); 
Guibert,  Les  Origines  (6th  ed.,  1910);  Idem,  Les  Croyances 
Religieuses  et  La  Science  de  la  Nature  (1908);  Eymieu,  Le 
Naturalisme  devant  la  Science  (1921);  Windle,  The  Church 
and  Science  (1917);  Hugueny,  Critique  et  Catholique;  I.  Apolo¬ 
getique  (4th  ed.,  1919);  Langan,  Apologetica  (1921);  Brosnan, 
Institutiones  Theologiae  Naturalis  (1921). 

Charles  F.  Aiken. 

Apostasy  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-624c),  is  of  three  kinds: 
apostasy  from  the  Christian  Faith,  apostasy  from 
religious  life,  and  apostasy  from  orders.  All  apos¬ 
tates  from  the  Christian  Faith  incur  excommunica¬ 
tion  reserved  specially  to  the  pope,  by  the  very 
fact  of  their  crime;  unless  they  repent  on  being 
warned,  they  are  to  be  deprived  of  all  ecclesiastical 
benefices,  dignities,  pensions,  offices,  or  posts,  if 
they  have  any,  to  be  declared  infamous  and  if  they 
are  clerics,  on  being  warned  again,  they  are  to  be 
punished  by  canonical  deposition.  If  an  apostate 
affiliates  formally  with  a  non-Catholic  sect  or  pub¬ 
licly  adheres  to  it  he  incurs  infamy  ipso  jacto;  if 
he  is  a  cleric  he  loses  ipso  facto  any  office  he  holds, 
and  after  a  fruitless  warning  he  is  to  be  degraded. 
Those  who  receive,  favor  or  defend  apostates,  for¬ 
merly  incurred  the  same  excommunication;  this  is 
no  longer  the  case,  though  the  censure  is  incurred 
by  the  publishers  (not  the  printers,  as  heretofore)  of 
works  of  apostates  defending  apostasy,  heresy,  or 
schism.  Contrary  to  the  former  discipline,  the  Code 
enacts  that  infamy,  one  of  the  punishments  men¬ 
tioned  above,  does  not  affect  those  who  are  related 
by  consanguinity  or  affinity  to  the  party  excom¬ 
municated;  his  children,  however,  would  be  pro¬ 
hibited  from  receiving  orders  as  long  as  he  re¬ 
mained  unrepentant.  Apostasy  debars  from 
ecclesiastical  burial  and  from  requiem  or  memorial 
Masses,  but  this  is  so  only  when  notorious,  and 
the  party  has  died  without  giving  signs  of  repent¬ 
ance.  Catholics  are  most  earnestly  urged  in  the 
canons  to  avoid  marriage  with  apostates;  if  they 
are  deaf  to  this  warning  the  parish  priest  must 
not  assist  at  the  marriage  without  the  permission 
of  the  bishop.  Any  person  who  knowingly  receives 
orders  from  an  apostate  prelate  incurs  a  suspension 
a  divinis  reserved  to  the  Holy  See. 

Absolution  of  apostates  in  the  internal  forum,  or 
confession,  is  specially  reserved  to  the  Holy  See; 
but  if  the  crime  of  apostasy  is  brought  to  the  exter¬ 
nal  forum  of  the  local  ordinary  in  any  way,  the 
bishop,  or  vicar  capitular,  but  not  the  vicar  general 
without  a  special  mandate,  may  by  his  ordinary 
power  absolve  the  penitent  in  the  external  forum 
after  obtaining  from  him  a  judicial  abjuration  (that 
is  one  made  in  the  presence  of  the  local  ordinary 
or  of  his  delegate  and  two  witnesses) ,  and  observing 
the  other  legal  requisites.  Having  been  thus  freed 
from  the  censure,  the  penitent  may  be  absolved 
from  his  sin  by  any  confessor.  The  bishop’s  power 
in  this  matter  is  ordinary  and  may,  therefore,  be 
delegated,  such  delegation  to  priests  being  the  usual 
practice  in  the  United  States. 

Apostates  from  religious  life  are  those  who  being 
professed  with  simple  or  solemn  perpetual  vows 
leave  their  religious  house  illegitimately,  with  the 
intention  of  not  returning,  or  who,  having  gone  out 
with  permission,  do  not  return,  in  order  to  with¬ 
draw  themselves  from  religious  obedience.  Such  a 
person’s  evil  intent  is  presumed  by  the  law-  if  within 


APOSTLES 


49 


APPEALS 


\ 


a  month  the  religious  does  not  return  or  at  least 
inform  the  superior  of  his  intention  to  return. 
Superiors  are  to  seek  out  such  apostates  to  induce 
them  to  return,  and  are  to  receive  them  if  they  re¬ 
turn  penitently.  If  the  apostate  is  a  sister  or  a 
nun,  the  local  ordinary,  and  also  the  regular  superior, 
if  there  is  question  of  an  exempt  monastery,  are 
to  interest  themselves  prudently  in  securing  her 
return.  A  religious,  of  course,  who  flees  with  a 
person  of  the  other  sex  is  ipso  facto  lawfully  dis¬ 
missed  from  the  order.  Apostates  from  religious 
life,  by  the  very  fact  of  their  crime,  incur  excom¬ 
munication  reserved  to  their  higher  superior,  or  if 
the  order  is  lay  or  nonexempt  to  the  ordinary  of 
the  place  in  which  the  apostates  sojourn;  they  are 
excluded  from  legitimate  ecclesiastical  acts,  and  lose 
all  the  privileges  of  their  order;  if  they  return  to 
religion  they  are  deprived  perpetually  of  active  and 
passive  voice,  and  should  be  suitably  punished  by 
the  superiors  in  accordance  with  the  rules. 

The  fugitive  or  runaway  religious  is  one  who 
leaves  his  house  without  the  superior’s  leave  but 
with  the  intention  of  returning  to  the  religious 
life.  He  is  by  the  very  fact  of  his  crime  deprived 
of  his  office,  if  he  held  any  in  his  order,  and,  if  he 
is  ordained,  he  incurs  suspension  reserved  to  his  own 
higher  superior;  when  he  returns  he  is  to  be  pun¬ 
ished  according  to  the  rule;  if  the  rule  has  made 
no  provision  regarding  the  penalty,  the  superior 
should  inflict  suitable  punishment.  It  may  be  noted 
that  a  nun  with  solemn  vows  who  leaves  her 
monastic  enclosure,  even  for  a  short  time,  without 
a  special  indult  of  the  Holy  See,  except  in  an 
urgent  case  of  grave  danger,  incurs  excommunica¬ 
tion  reserved  simply  to  the  pope. 

A  third  kind  of  apostasy,  though  not  classed  as 
such  in  the  Code  is  apostasy  from  orders,  the  aban¬ 
donment  of  the  clerical  state  and  dress  by  clerics 
who  have  received  major  orders.  To-day  a  cleric 
who  abandons  his  clerical  dress  is  to  be  seriously 
admonished  by  his  ordinary  to  wear  it  again;  if  a 
month  elapses  without  the  warning  being  regarded, 
a  minor  cleric  is  ipso  jure  expelled  from  the  ranks  of 
the  clergy;  if  the  cleric  is  in  major  orders,  any  office 
he  hold  becomes  vacant  ipso  facto,  he  is  to  be  sus¬ 
pended  from  the  orders  he  has  received ;  if  he  openly 
adopts  a  profession  or  business  foreign  to  the 
clerical  state  he  is  to  be  warned  again,  and,  if  three 
months  elapse  without  this  second  warning  being 
heeded,  he  is  to  be  deposed. 

Apostles  (cf.  C.  E.,  626d). — Though  the  history  of 
the  evangelical  career  of  some  of  the  Apostles  is 
wrapped  in  obscurity  or  legend,  the  following  are 
the  places  of  which  they  are  commonly  credited  as 
being  in  an  especial  way  the  Apostles:  St.  Peter, 
Antioch  and  Rome;  St.  Andrew,  Achaia  and  Scy¬ 
thia;  St.  John,  Ephesus;  St.  James  the  Greater, 
Spain;  St.  James  the  Less,  Judea;  St.  Thomas, 
Mesopotamia  and  India;  St.  Jude,  Persia;  St. Simon, 
Egypt;  St.  Matthew,  Persia  and  Macedonia;  St. 
Bartholomew,  Arabia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Asia 
Minor;  St.  Philip,  Phrygia.  In  addition  we  have 
St.  Paul,  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles;  St.  Barnabas 
in  Cyprus  and  Antioch;  and  St.  Matthias  in  Asiatic 
Ethiopia.  The  following  also  are  honored  as  the 
apostles  who  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Faith  in 
the  regions  or  among  the  peoples  mentioned,  or  who 
by  their  efforts  there  to  revive  or  save  it  won  the 
title  of  apostle:  Abyssinia,  St.  Frumentius;  The 
Alps,  St.  Bernard  of  Menthon;  Armenia,  St.  Gregory 
the  Illuminator;  Artois,  St.  Vedas;  Austria,  St. 
Severinus;  Auvergne,  St.  Austremonius ;  Bavaria, 
St.  Severinus;  Brabant,  St.  Willibrord;  Brazil,  Ven. 
Jose  Anchieta;  Brittany,  St.  Paul,  de  Leon;  Bur¬ 


gundy,  St.  Benignus;  Carinthia,  St.  Virgil;  Corsica, 
Bl.  Alexander  Sauli;  Crete,  St.  Titus;  Denmark, 
St.  Anschar;  East  Anglia,  St.  Felix;  England,  St. 
Augustine;  Finland,  St.  Henry;  Flanders,  St. 
Livinus ;  France,  St.  Martin  of  Tours;  Franconia, 
St.  Killian;  Friesland,  St.  Suitbert  and  St.  Wulfran; 
Georgia,  St.  Nina;  Germany,  St.  Boniface;  Goth¬ 
land,  St.  Sigfrid;  Guelderland,  St.  Plechelm;  Hol¬ 
land,  St.  Willibrord;  the  Indies,  St.  Francis  Xavier; 
Ireland,  St.  Patrick;  Livonia,  Bishop  Berthold; 
Mechlin,  St.  Rumold;  the  Mecklenberg  Wends, 
Berno;  Mercia,  St.  Ceadda;  North  Britain,  St.  Nin- 
nian;  Norway,  St.  Olaf;  Persia,  St.  Maruthas;  the 
Piets,  St.  Colmcille;  Pomerania,  St.  Otto;  Portugal, 
St.  Christian;  Provence,  St.  Lazarus  and  St.  Martha; 
Prussia,  St.  Adalbert  and  St.  Bruno  of  Querfurt; 
Ruthenia,  St.  Bruno;  Sardinia,  St.  Ephesus;  Saxony, 
St.  Willihad;  Scotland,  St.  Palladius  and  St.  Colm¬ 
cille;  the  Slavs,  Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius;  Spain, 
St.  James  and  St.  Euphrasius;  Sussex,  St.  Wilfrid; 
Sweden,  St.  Anschar;  Switzerland,  St.  Gall  and 
St.  Andeol;  Tournai,  St.  Piat  and  St.  Eloi;  Tyrol, 
St.  Valentine;  Valencia,  St.  Felix;  the  Wends, 
Boso;  Wessex,  St.  Birinus;  Westphalia,  St.  Ludger. 
The  following  titles  also  are  commonly  accepted: 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Apostle  of  Charity;  St.  Peter 
Claver,  Apostle  of  the  Negro  Slaves;  "Father  Bar- 
tolome  de  las  Cassas,  Apostle  of  the  Indians ;  Father 
Theobald  Mathew,  Apostle  of  Temperance;  Ven. 
Camillo  Pacetti,  Apostle  of  Perugia;  St.  Francis  de 
Sales,  Apostle  of  Chablais;  Bl.  Peter  Canisius, 
Apostle  of  Germany;  St.  Philip  Neri,  Apostle  of 
Rome,  and  Bl.  Sebastian  Valfre,  Apostle  of  Turin. 

Apostolicae  Sedis  Moderationi  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-645c), 
the  Constitution  in  which  Pius  IX  set  forth  the 
modern  law  of  censures  and  reservations,  is  now 
only  of  historic  interest,  as  all  pontifical  censures 
and  penalties  contained  in  papal  documents  were 
abolished  in  1918,  except  those  mentioned  in  the 
Code  of  Canon  Law  which  came  into  effect  that 
year. 

Apparitors  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-650a)  may  be  described 
as  sheriffs  of  the  ecclesiastical  tribunals;  they  may 
at  the  same  time  act  also  as  cursors  or  heralds. 
They  are  usually  laymen,  and  their  nomination, 
suspension  and  recall  are  governed  by  the  rules 
enacted  concerning  notaries. 

Appeal  as  from  an  Abuse.  See  Privileges, 
Ecclesiastical. 

Appeals  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-652b). — Any  party  to  an 
ecclesiastical  suit  who  believes  himself  wronged  by 
the  judgment  of  the  court,  and  likewise  the  pro¬ 
motor  of  justice  and  the  defender  of  the  marriage 
bond,  in  cases  in  which  they  are  interested,  may 
appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  trial  judge  (judge 
appellee)  to  a  higher  or  appellate  judge.  Indeed 
the  defender  of  the  bond  must  appeal  against  the 
decision  of  the  court  of  first  instance  if  it  annuls  a 
marriage.  However,  no  appeal  can  be  taken  from  a 
decision  of  the  pope  or  of  the  Apostolic  Signature; 
or  from  the  decision  of  a  judge  who  has  been  dele¬ 
gated  by  the  Holy  See  to  try  a  case,  if  the  rescript 
appointing  him  contained  the  clause  appellatione 
remota  (without  right  of  appeal)  from  a  judgment 
that  is  still  null  and  void;  or  when  the  matter 
in  dispute  has  been  once  definitely  settled  by  the 
court;  or  from  a  definitive  judgment  based  on  an 
oath  decisive  of  the  suit;  or  from  a  judicial  decree 
or  an  interlocutory  judgment  not  having  definitive 
force,  unless  it  is  joined  with  an  appeal  from  a 
definitive  judgment;  or  from  a  judgment  in  a  case 
which  the  canons  require  to  be  decided  without 
any  delay;  or  from  a  judgment  against  a  contu- 


APPEALS 


50 


APPROBATION 


macious  person  who  has  not  purged  himself  from 
his  contumacy;  or  from  s,  judgment  against  one 
who  has  expressly  renounced  in  writing  his  right 
of  appeal.  If  a  judge  decides  he  is  relatively  com¬ 
petent  to  hear  a  case  there  is  no  appeal  allowed 
against  such  a  decision;  though  if  he  declares  him¬ 
self  incompetent  either  .of  the  parties  may  appeal 
if  he  believes  himself  wronged  by  the  decision. 

Usually  the  judge  of  appeal  or  of  second  instance 
is  the  metropolitan  or  archbishop,  yet  if  the  latter 
has  acted  as  trial  judge,  the  judge  of  appeal  will 
be  any  bishop  whom  he  has  selected  once  for  all 
for  that  purpose,  with  the  approval  of  the  Holy 
See.  If  the  archbishop  has  no  suffragans  or  if  the 
trial  judge  was  a  local  ordinary  immediately  sub¬ 
ject  to  the  Holy  See,  the  appeal  is  to  be  made  to  a 
neighboring  metropolitan.  In  the  case  of  exempt 
religious  an  appeal  is  made  from  a  decision  of  the 
provincial  to  the  general,  or  from  the  local  abbot 
to  the  head  of  the  monastic  congregation.  Appeals 
against  episcopal  decrees  are  to  be  taken  to  the 
various  Roman  Congregations,  not  to  the  Sacred 
Rota. 

An  appeal  may  me  made  verbally  before  the 
judge  in  court,  if  the  decision  is  given  there  pub¬ 
licly,  and  in  that  case  it  must  be  immediately  re¬ 
corded  by  the  notary.  In  any  other  case  it  has 
to  be  made  in  writing,  except  when  the  party  can¬ 
not  write.  An  appeal  must  be  made  before  the 
judge  appellee  within  ten  days  after  notice  of  the 
publication  of  the  decision,  and  must  be  brought 
before  the  judge  of  appeal  or  appellate  judge  within 
a  month,  unless  the  judge  appellee  has  granted  an 
extension.  This  is  done  by  the  appellant  asking 
the  appellate  judge  to  amend  the  decision,  at  the 
same  time  presenting  a  copy  of  the  judgment  and 
of  the  notice  of  appeal,  which  he  shall  have  pre¬ 
viously  shown  to  the  judge  appellee.  If  he  cannot 
obtain  a  copy  of  the  judgment,  the  time  which 
is  allowed  within  which  to  appeal  ceases  to  run; 
the  appellate  judge  is  then  to  be  notified,  and  he 
must  compel  the  judge  appellee  to  give  the  copy 
as  soon  as  possible.  If  one  of  the  litigants  dies  or 
changes  his  status  or  resigns  from  the  office  in  virtue 
of  which  he  was  acting,  within  the  time  for  appeal¬ 
ing,  but  before  the  appeal  has  been  interposed, 
those  who  are  interested  should  be  informed  about 
the  judgment,  and  the  time  for  appeal  begins  to  run 
from  the  day  on  which  they  are  so  notified;  if  the 
change  happens  after  notice  of  appeal  has  been 
given,  the  parties  interested  are  similarly  to  be  in¬ 
formed,  and  from  that  moment  the  time  for  con¬ 
tinuing  the  appeal  begins  to  run. 

An  appeal  made  by  the  plaintiff  may  be  utilized 
by  the  defendant  and  vice  versa.  If  one  of  the 
litigants  appeals  against  part  of  the  judgment,  his 
adversary  may  appeal  against  other  parts  of  it,  even 
though  he  had  already  lost  his  right  to  appeal  by 
lapse  of  time;  and  he  can  do  this  also  with  an  un¬ 
derstanding  that  he  is  to  withdraw  his  appeal  if  his 
opponent  does  likewise.  If  the  appellant  attacks  only 
certain  parts  of  the  judgment,  he  is  considered  as 
having  acquiesced  in  the  remainder,  but  if  he  speci¬ 
fies  no  particular  part,  he  is  deemed  to  have  ap¬ 
pealed  against  the  entire  decision.  If  one  of  several 
plaintiffs  or  defendants  appeals,  all  are  considered  to 
have  appealed,  if  what  is  sought,  or  if  the  decision 
affects  them  jointly;  but  if  the  judge  of  appeals 
confirms  the  decision  of  the  lower  court,  the  actual 
appellant  alone  has  to  bear  the  costs  of  the  appeal. 
There  is  never  an  appeal  properly  so-called  al¬ 
lowed  on  the  question  of  costs,  but  an  aggrieved 
party  may  apply  within  ten  days  to  the  judge  who 
gave  them,  and  he  may  re-open  the  question.  All 
appeals  suspend  judgments  unless  the  law  states 


otherwise;  however,  in  a  case  of  grave  necessity 
a  provisional  execution  may  be  allowed,  if  an  ade¬ 
quate  bond  is  lodged  in  court  as  security  against 
loss  in  case  the  appeal  is  upheld.  As  soon  as  the 
appeal  has  been  brought  before  the  higher  tribunal, 
the  lower  court  must  supply  a  certified  copy  or  the 
original  documents  of  the  proceedings  to  the  judge 
of  appeal,  who  can  deal  only  with  the  case  exactly 
as  it  was  presented  to  the  lower  court,  though  addi¬ 
tional  proofs  of  the  questions  involved  may  be 
introduced. 

When  a  sentence  rendered  is  null  and  void  the 
remedy  is  not  an  appeal,  but  a  complaint  of  nullity. 
The  sentence  is  irremediably  null  if  it  was  given 
by  an  absolutely  incompetent  judge  or  by  a  tribunal 
of  judges  lacking  the  canonical  number;  or  if  one 
of  the  party  was  incompetent  to  litigate;  or  if  the 
suit  was  conducted  in  the  name  of  a  party  but  with¬ 
out  his  leave.  Under  these  circumstances  the 
question  of  nullity  may  be  raised  as  an  exception 
{per  viodum  exceptionis )  at  any  time,  or  by  lodging 
a  complaint  within  thirty  years  with  the  judge  who 
rendered  the  decision.  On  the  other  hand  the  defect 
in  the  sentence  may  be  remediable;  this  happens 
when  the  citation  was  illegal,  or  when  no  reasons 
for  the  decision  were  given  by  the  judge  (excepting 
in  decisions  of  the  Apostolic  Signature),  or  where 
the  requisite  signatures,  dates,  or  name  of  place 
were  omitted.  In  this  case  the  complaint  with  an 
appeal  may  be  made  within  ten  years,  or  the 
complaint  alone  within  three  months  from  the  time 
of  publication  of  the  judgment;  the  application  is 
to  be  made  to  the  judge  who  heard  the  case,  but  if 
the  applicant  mistrusts  him  he  can  demand  to  be 
heard  by  another  judge  of  the  same  standing.  If 
a  definitive  sentence  does  wrong  to  a  third  party, 
he  may  intervene  before  its  execution  by  a  pro¬ 
ceeding  known  as  oppositio  tertii,  in  which  he  either 
petitions  the  adjudicating  judge  to  revise  his  de¬ 
cision  or  appeals  to  a  higher  court. 

If  a  question  has  become  a  res  judicata,  that  is 
definitively  closed  or  settled,  for  instance  when  the 
first  decision  has  been  upheld  on  appeal,  or  where 
no  appeal  is  allowed  bj''  law,  or  when  the  appeal 
was  not  begun  or  prosecuted  in  time,  an  aggrieved 
party  may  have  recourse  to  the  extraordinary  rem¬ 
edy  known  as  restitutio  in  integrum  (restoration  of 
the  party  to  his  original  condition),  if  the  decision 
was  manifestly  unjust.  A  decision  is  not  considered 
manifestly  unjust,  however,  unless  it  is  shown  that 
it  was  based  on  false  documents,  or  was  obtained 
by  the  fraud  of  one  of  the  parties,  or  that  the  pro¬ 
visions  of  the  law  were  clearly  disregarded,  or  that 
new  documents  have  been  discovered  establishing 
facts  that  clearly  necessitate  a  reversal  of  the  sen¬ 
tence.  The  petition  for  a  hearing  is  to  be  made  to 
the  adjudicating  judge,  unless  it  is  based  on  a  claim 
that  the  judge  neglected  the  prescriptions  of  the 
law,  in  which  case  it  is  to  be  addressed  to  the  court 
of  appeal.  A  propos  of  res  judicatae  it  must  be 
noted  that  the  question  of  a  person’s  status,  for 
instance  where  the  validitjr  of  a  marriage  is  in¬ 
volved,  is  never  a  res  judicata,  yet  if  a  decision  has 
been  rendered  and  upheld  on  appeal  no  re-hearing 
is  allowable,  unless  it  is  based  on  new  and  grave 
arguments  or  documents. 

Approbation  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-656d)  .—Under  the 
Tridentine  regime  a  minister  of  confession,  besides 
sacerdotal  orders,  required  jurisdiction  and  approba¬ 
tion.  Approbation  was  defined  as  a  juridical  de¬ 
cision  of  a  prelate  that  a  priest  was  competent  to 
hear  confession.  Without  approbation,  which  could 
be  granted  only  by  a  bishop  or  a  person  exercising 
episcopal  jurisdiction,  no  one  could  hear  the  con- 


AQUILA 


51 


ARABIA 


fessions  of  seculars,  licitly  or  validly.  The  Code 
makes  no  mention  of  approbation  in  this  technical 
sense  as  essential  for  absolution.  While  the  canon 
877  says  that  local  ordinaries  are  not  to  grant  juris¬ 
diction  and  religious  superiors  are  not  to  grant 
jurisdiction  or  permission  to  hear  confessions  except 
to  those  who  have  been  proved  by  examination  or 
who  are  known  in  some  other  way  to  be  competent 
theologians,  canon  872,  speaking  of  the  minister  of 
Penance,  says  merely  that  “in  addition  to  the  power 
of  orders  the  minister  requires  ordinary  or  dele¬ 
gated  power  of  jurisdiction  over  the  penitent  in 
order  to  absolve  him  validly  from  sin.”  (See  Juris¬ 
diction.) 

Aquila,  Archdiocese  of  (Aquilanesis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-661a),  in  the  Abruzzi,  Italy,  is  directly  subject  to 
the  Holy  See.  Most  Rev.  Pellegrino  Francesco 
Stagni,  appointed  to  this  see  18  February,  1907, 
was  transferred  to  the  titular  see  of  Ancyra,  1  Jan¬ 
uary,  1916.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  present  arch¬ 
bishop,  Most  Rev.  Adolfo  Turchi,  b.  at  Balignano, 
1863,  made  a  domestic  prelate,  1904,  named  secretary 
of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Religious,  1914,  and 
titular  Bishop  of  Canope,  promoted  to  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Aquila  17  July,  1918.  By  1920  statistics 
there  are  in  this  diocese  107,800  Catholics,  135 
parishes,  200  secular  and  29  regular  clergy,  25  semi¬ 
narians,  242  churches  or  chapels,  32  brothers,  and 
100  sisters. 

Aquino,  Sora  and  Pontecorvo,  Diocese  of 
(AqUINATENSIS,  SoRANENSIS  ET  PONTIS1  CuRVi;  cf. 
C.  E.,  I-662d),  in  the  province  of  Caserta,  Italy,  is 
directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  The  present  in¬ 
cumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio  Maria  Janotta,  b.  1847, 
was  appointed  to  this  see  in  1900  and  made  an 
assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  28  March,  1913. 
By  1920  statistics  Aquino  has  a  Catholic  population 
of  52,150,  19  parishes,  64  secular  and  8  regular  clergy, 
30  seminarians,  220  churches  or  chapels,  10  brothers, 
and  7  sisters.  Sora  has  a  population  of  95,200, 
45  parishes,  168  secular  and  30  regular  clergy,  35 
seminarians,  220  churches  or  chapels,  19  brothers, 
and  59  sisters.  The  population  of  Pontecorvo  num¬ 
bers  12,050,  and  there  are  8  parishes,  29  secular  and 
10  regular  clergy,  25  churches  or  chapels,  27  brothers, 
and  24  sisters. 

Arabia  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-663a). — A  territory  in  western 
Asia,  containing  the  new  Kingdom  of  Hejaz,  the 
Emirates  of  Nejd  and  Hasa,  Jebel  Shammar,  and 
Kerak,  the  principate  of  Asir,  the  Imamate  of 
Yemen,  the  British  Protectorate  of  Aden,  and  the 
Sultanates  of  Oman  and  Koweit.  The  total  area 
is  approximately  1,000,000  square  miles  with  a  popu¬ 
lation  of  between  five  and  six  millions. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War,  Turkey 
was  in  possession  of  the  whole  Red  Sea  littoral 
from  Akaba  to  Mocha,  with  the  single  exception  of 
Idrisi’s  territory,  a  stretch  of  about  100  miles  from 
Shukeik  to  Wadi  Ain.  The  Ottoman  holding  aver¬ 
aged  inland  about  150  miles,  but  its  connection  with 
the  main  body  of  the  Empire  was  slender  and 
precarious.  The  oases  of  Teima  and  Kheibar  were 
held,  not  by  the  Turks,  but  by  Ibn  Rashid  of 
Hail;  Yemen  in  the  north  was  free  from  the  Turks, 
also,  and  the  region  east  of  Sana.  When  war  broke 
out,  Great  Britain  feared  a  holy  war  on  the  part  of 
the  Moslems,  the  possible  loss  of  Aden,  and  the 
destruction  of  the  British  trunk  route  to  the  East. 
In  search  of  a  local  ally  to  combat  these  dangers 
Great  Britain  naturally  turned  to  the  Grand  Sherif 
Husein,  who  desired  the  independence  of  the  Meccan 
Sherifate.  He  had  been  astute  enough  to  undertake 
for  Turkey,  who  had  nominated  him  in  1908,  mili¬ 


tary  operations  which  equally  served  his  purpose  of 
weakening  Ins  rivals  by  encroaching  on  the  domain 
°£th?  Yali  of  Hejaz  until  by  1913,  he  was  the  most 
effective  power  in  Mecca  and  Jidda.  In  the  sum¬ 
mer  of  1915  he  opened  negotiations  with  Great 
Britain,  who  guaranteed  the  autonomy  of  Hejaz  in 
the  event  of  a  successful  revolt. 

Kingdom  of  Hejaz.— On  5  June,  1916,  Husein  Ibn 
Ali,  proclaimed  his  independence,  and  in  November, 
1916,  issued  a  proclamation  assuming  the  title  King 
of  Hejaz.  The  Treaty  of  Peace  with  Turkey  recog¬ 
nizes  Hejaz  as  a  free  and  independent  state.  By 
the  end  of  1917,  when  Husein  had  borne  the  title 
of  “Malik”  for  more  than  a  year,  and  successfully 
presided  over  two  pilgrimages,  Turkish  authority 
had  disappeared  throughout  northwestern  Arabia 
from  Ivunfuda  to  Akaba,  except  at  Medina.  In 
Mecca  and  southern  Hijaz  the  king’s  rule  rests 
on  a  traditional  local  loyalty  and  among  other 
tribesmen  there  exists  some  vague  sentiment  of 
nationalism.  The  new  kingdom  has  an  area  of 
about  100,000  square  miles,  and  an  estimated  popu¬ 
lation  of  at  least  750,000.  Its  capital  is  Mecca 
(80,000  inhabitants) ;  the  second  largest  city  is 
Medina  (40,000);  the  chief  port  is  Jidda  on  the 
Red  Sea,  population  30,000. 

The  Emirate  of  Nejd  and  Hasa,  the  more  power¬ 
ful  of  the  two  Central  Arabian  principalities,  has 
its  capital  at  Riyadh,  whence  the  Saud  dynasty 
exercises  jurisdiction  over  the  neighboring  groups 
of  oases.  The  present  Emir  is  Abd  el-Aziz  es-Saud, 
who  expelled  the  Turks  from  Hasa  in  1913  and 
has  extended  his  influence  to  include  Hofuf  in  the 
region  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  Estimated  population, 
250,000  inhabitants.  South  Nejd  has  about  50,000 
inhabitants,  Central  Nejd,  about  100,000;  Kasin, 
50,000;  Stasa,  50,000. 

The  Emirate  of  Jebel  Shammar  is  ruled  by 
Abdullah  ibn  Mitah,  who  succeeded  on  the  assassi¬ 
nation  of  his  father,  Ibn  Rashid,  in  May,  1920.  Its 
capital  is  at  Hail  and  its  population,  including  the 
Shammar,  numbers  200,000  (estimated). 

The  Principiate  of  Asir  is  ruled  by  Mohammed 
ibn  Ali-el-Idrisi,  a  member  of  the  Idrisi  family. 
The  estimated  population  is  about  1,000,000;  the 
capital,  Sabiyah. 

The  Immamate^  of  Yemen,  with  its  capital  at 
Sana,  is  ruled  by  Yahya  Mohammed  Hamid  ed-Din, 
and  has  an  area  of  about  75,000  sqaure  miles  and 
an  estimated  population  of  one  million.  The  chief 
ports  are  Mocha  and  Hodeida,  population  40,000. 

The  Sultanate  of  Koweit,  on  the  northwestern 
coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  is  ruled  by  Ahmed  ibn 
Jobar,  who  succeeded  his  uncle  in  March,  1921.  The 
Sultan  is  subsidized  by  the  British  government 
which  maintains  a  political  agent  at  his  court.  The 
estimated  population  is  about  50,000. 

The  Emirate  of  Kerak  is  governed  by  Abdullah, 
son  of  King  Husein.  Kerak  is  Transjordania. 

The  Protectorate  of  Aden. — By  the  Anglo- 
Turkish  Convention  of  1914  the  boundary  of  Aden 
was  prolonged  through  the  desert  to  a  point  on  the 
coast  opposite  Bahrein  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  The 
settlement  also  includes  the  island  of  Perim  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  is  subject  to  the  Bom¬ 
bay  government.  The  government  is  administered 
by  a  political  resident  (who  is  also  General  Officer 
commanding  the  troops)  with  four  assistants.  The 
India  office  has  hitherto  exercised  internal  adminis¬ 
trative  control ;  the  Foreign  Office  has  been  re¬ 
sponsible  for  political  questions,  and  the  War  Office 
for  military  questions.  The  area  is  about  75  square 
miles,  but  with  the  Protectorate  included  it  is  about 
9000  square  miles;  the  area  of  Perim  is  5  square 
miles.  A  railway  was  begun  in  1915  for  military 


ARACAJU 


52 


ARCHBISHOP 


purposes,  from  Aden  to  Lahej,  a  distance  of  30 

lllllCS. 

Vicariate  Apostolic  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-674c). — The 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Arabia  includes  the  whole 
Arabic  territory  between  35°  and  60°  east  longitude 
and  13°  and  30°  north  latitude,  the  islands  of  Perm 
and  Socotra,  and  British  Somaliland.  In  1901  Mgr. 
Jean  Bigel  was  consecrated  titular  bishop  of 
Eumenia  and  appointed  to  succeed  Mgr.  Lasserre, 
the  first  vicar  apostolic,  who  resigned.  Mgr.  Bigel, 
who  was  elected  against  his  will,  never  acted  as 
vicar,  and  in  1902  Mgr.  Thomas  Clark  was  con¬ 
secrated  titular  bishop  of  Tingis  and  vicar  apostolic. 
Eight  years  later  Bishop  Clark  was  transferred  to 
the  diocese  of  Port  Victoria,  Seychelles  Islands,  and 
Mgr.  Raffaele  Presutti,  consecrated  titular  bishop 
of  Anchialos,  replaced  him  in  Arabia.  He  died  3 
August,  1914,  and  the  present  incumbent,  Mgr. 
Evangelista  Vanni,  titular  bishop  of  Tenedos,  be¬ 
came  vicar  in  1916.  Born  in  the  diocese  of  Pistoia, 
Italy,  in  1878,  he  entered  the  Capuchin  novitiate 
at  Cortona,  was  ordained  in  1901,  and  four  years 
later  went  as  a  missionary  to  India.  He  was  rector 
of  the  cathedral  in  Agra  when  appointed  vicar 
apostolic  of  Arabia. 

In  1912  the  Somali  chiefs,  threatening  an  insur¬ 
rection,  forced  the  English  authorities  to  close  the 
missions  in  Somaliland  founded  by  the  French 
Capuchin  Fathers,  who  were  later  given  charge  of 
the  newly  erected  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Jibuti, 
formed  from  territory  belonging  to  the  Galla  Mis¬ 
sion.  Efforts  to  evangelize  the  interior  of  Arabia 
are  still  unsuccessful.  During  the  World  War  a 
military  chaplain  was  stationed  at  Sheik  Othman. 
Catholics  in  the  vicariate  made  a  special  contribu¬ 
tion  to  the  War  Memorial. 

Statistics  for  1921  were  as  follows:  about  5,000,000 
inhabitants,  of  whom  about  1,000  were  Catholics,  600 
native  and  400  European;  2  missions,  2  churches, 
4  priests,  5  stations,  5  schools  with  247  pupils  and 
12  teachers,  2  convents  of  Franciscan  Sisters  of 
Calais  with  11  Sisters,  2  orphanages  with  50  orphans, 
4  pious  associations;  Tertiaries  of  St.  Francis, 
League  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  Societies  of 
St.  Francis  Xavier  and  of  the  Holy  Rosary;  1  co¬ 
operative  society. 

Aracaju,  Diocese  of  (Aracajunensis),  in  Brazil, 
was  erected  on  15  December,  1909,  by  the  dis¬ 
memberment  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Bahia,  of  which 
it  is  a  suffragan.  It  comprises  the  state  of  Sergipe, 
of  which  Aracaju  is  the  capital,  and  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  state  of  Alagoas,  on  the  west  and 
south  by  Bahia,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  thus  covering  an  area  of  86,993  sq.  miles. 
The  cathedral  is  dedicated  to  the  Holy  Saviour. 
The  first  and  present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph 
Thomas  Gomes  da  Silva,  b.  at  Martins,  1873,  was 
appointed  to  this  see  12  May,  1911,  and  consecrated 
19  November  following.  By  1920  statistics  the  dio¬ 
cese  has  a  Catholic  population  of  550,000,  divided 
into  28  parishes. 

Arassuahy,  Diocese  of  (Arassuahiensis),  in  the 
State  of  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil,  is  suffragan  to  the 
Archdiocese  of  Diamantina,  out  of  a  portion  of 
which  it  was  erected  25  August,  1913,  having  as  its 
western  limits  the  civil  communes  of  Theopilo 
Ottoni  and  Minas  Novas,  which  form  a  part  of  it. 
The  original  boundaries  were  changed  2  April,  1914, 
making  the  diocese  somewhat  larger  than  when  it 
was  first  erected. 

The  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Seraphino 
Gomez-Jardim,  is  the  first  bishop  of  the  diocese. 
Born  at  Olhos  d’Agua  7  September,  1875,  he  made 
his  studies  at  the  seminary  of  Diamantina  and  was 


ordained  a  priest  1  June,  1901,  became  a  professor 
in  the  seminary,  was  appointed  papal  chamberlain 
7  December,  1907,  secretary  to  the  bishop  17  August, 
1908,  and  editor  of  the  Catholic  journal,  “A  Estrella 
Polar.”  He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Arassuahy 
12  March,  1914,  consecrated  20  September,  and  in¬ 
stalled  4  October  of  the  same  year. 

The  diocese  now  (1921)  comprises:  24  parishes, 
15  secular  and  22  regular  clergy,  2  convents  for  men, 

3  lay  brothers,  5  sisters,  1  seminary  in  course  of 
construction,  1  college  for  men  and  1  for  women, 

1  asylum,  and  7  hospitals.  Societies  to  the  number 
of  10  are  organized  among  the  laity,  and  2  Catholic 
periodicals  are  published. 

Arauca,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (Araucensis), 
in  Colombia,  South  America,  was  erected  26  May, 
1915,  by  a  division  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
Casanare,  of  which  it  took  all  the  northern  part 
situated  to  the  left  of  the  River  Casanare.  It  is 
entrusted  to  the  Lazarist  Fathers  and  has  30,000 
inhabitants,  comprising  whites  and  Indians,  and  7 
missionaries. 

Araucania,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (Araucanue; 
cf.  C.  E.,  I-679a),  in  Chili,  South  America,  with 
residence  at  Valdivia.  This  mission  comprises  part 
of  the  provinces  of  Cantin,  Valdivia  and  Leauquihue, 
and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  River  Imperial, 
on  the  east  by  the  frontier  of  Argentina,  on  the 
west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  on  the  south  by  the 
River  Maipue.  It  has  143,000  inhabitants,  of  whom 
60,000  are  Indians  and  a  number  of  these  are  in¬ 
fidels.  By  1920  statistics  there  are  20  parishes,  27 
churches  or  chapels,  31  Capuchin  Fathers  and  21 
brothers,  9  communities  of  religious  of  the  Holy 
Cross  of  Menzigen  (Swiss),  9  elementary  schools 
with  519  pupils,  and  9  secondary  schools  with  538 
pupils. 

Arbitration,  Canonical  (cf.  C.  E.,  1-682). — To 
avoid  litigation  the  canons  provide  that  the  parties  to 
a  dispute  may  covenant  to  submit  it  to  one  or  more 
arbitrators  to  decide  the  issue  on  the  basis  either  of 
law  or  of  equity.  Persons  who  are  excommunicated 
or  infamous  after  a  declaratory  or  condemnatory 
sentence  cannot  act  validly  as  arbitrators;  neither 
can  laymen  in  ecclesiastical  cases,  while  religious 
must  not  undertake  to  adjudicate  without  permis¬ 
sion  of  their  superiors.  Arbitration  is  invalid  in 
criminal  cases  or  in  contentious  suits  involving  the 
validity  of  a  marriage,  or  the  title  to  a  benefice 
(though  in  this  case  the  lawful  authorities  may 
authorize  arbitration),  or  spiritual  matters  mixed 
with  temporal.  If,  however,  the  question  concerns 
church  temporal  goods  and  things  which,  though 
connected  with  spiritual  matters,  can,  nevertheless, 
be  considered  apart  from  them,  arbitration  is  law¬ 
ful;  but  in  that  case  the  regulations  concerning  the 
alienation  of  ecclesiastical  property  must  be  care¬ 
fully  observed. 

Archbishop  (cf.  C.  E.,  1-691). — The  right  of  an 
archbishop  to  intervene  in  the  dioceses  of  his  suf¬ 
fragan  is  strictly  limited  by  the  Code  as  follows: 
He  may  grant  institution  to  beneficiaries  who  have 
been  presented  by  patrons,  if  the  suffragan  has 
neglected  to  do  so  within  the  statutory  period.  He 
can  grant  indulgences  of  100  days  to  the  suffragan’s 
subjects.  He  may  appoint  a  vicar  capitular  or 
ceconomus  if  the  cathedral  chapter  has  neglected 
to  elect  one  after  the  death  of  the  bishop.  He  is 
to  see  that  the  faith  is  not  endangered  and  that 
ecclesiastical  discipline  is  strictly  observed,  and  if 
there  are  any  abuses,  he  is  to  notify  the  Holy  See. 
If  the  suffragan  has  neglected  the  canonical  visita¬ 
tion  of  his  diocese^  the  archbishop  may  make  it 


ARCHCONFRATERNITY 


53 


ARDAGrH 


after  obtaining  permission  from  Rome;  formerly 
the  practice  was  for  him  to  undertake  it  only  after 
the  matter  had  been  discussed  and  approved  at  a 
provincial  council ;  but  at  that  time  such  councils 
were  held  every  three  years,  while  now  they  need 
be  called  every  twenty  years.  When  an  archbishop 
is  canonically  visiting  a  suffragan’s  diocese  he  may 
preach,  hear  confessions  and  absolve  even  from  sins 
reserved  by  the  bishop;  he  may  investigate  the 
manner  of  life  of  the  clergy,  and  denounce  to  their 
ordinaries  those  clerics  who  are  tainted  with  infamy 
so  that  they  may  be  punished;  and  may  inflict 
equitable  punishment,  not  excluding  censures,  for 
notorious  crimes  or  for  public  notorious  offenses 
committed  against  himself  or  his  assistants.  He 
may  pontificate  in  any  church,  even  if  it  is  exempt, 
though  he  must  notify  the  ordinary  if  he  desires 
to  do  so  in  the  cathedral;  he  may  bless  the  faithful, 
and  may  have  the  cross  carried  before  him  when 
he  enters  the  church.  He  must  not,  however,  per¬ 
form  any  other  acts  which  imply  jurisdiction.  Of 
course  he  acts  as  first  judge  of  appeal  in  cases 
originating  in  his  suffragans’  courts,  but  he  may 
hear  suits  in  first  instance  when  they  directly  in¬ 
volve  the  rights  or  temporalities  of  the  bishop  or 
the  diocesan  mensa  or  curia.  Formerly  when  an 
archbishop  heard  a  suit  in  first  instance,  an  appeal, 
if  taken,  had  to  be  brought  before  the  Holy  See; 
now  the  appeal  is  taken  before  a  bishop  selected 
by  the  archbishop  for  that  purpose  once  for  all, 
with  the  approval  of  the  Holy  See. 

Archconfraternity  (cf.  C.  E.,  1-692).— The  title 
archconfraternity  can  be  conceded,  even  when  it  is 
merely  honorary,  to  an  association  only  by  the 
Holy  See,  whose  permission  must  be  obtained  also 
before  the  location  of  an  archconfraternity  can  be 
changed.  No  association  can  be  affiliated  to  an 
archconfraternity  unless  it  has  the  same  title  and 
object,  except  by  special  permission  of  the  pope. 
When  an  association  has  been  affiliated  all  the  in¬ 
dulgences,  privileges  and  other  communicable  spir¬ 
itual  favors  which  have  been  granted  by  the  Holy 
See  to  the  aggregating  association,  directly  and  by 
name,  and  all  that  are  granted  thereafter  are  com¬ 
municated  to  the  affiliated  association,  unless  the 
contrary  is  stated  by  the  Holy  See.  This  com¬ 
munication,  however,  gives  the  archconfraternity  no 
rights  whatsoever  over  the  aggregated  association. 

The  following  conditions  are  expressly  laid  down 
for  valid  aggregation:  the  association  must  have 
been  canonically  erected  and  must  not  have  been 
affiliated  to  any  other  archconfraternity  or  primary 
union ;  the  aggregation  must  be  perpetual,  and  must 
be  executed  in  the  manner  prescribed  in  the 
statutes;  the  diploma  of  aggregation  is  to  be  sent 
gratis,  voluntary  payment  for  it  being  for¬ 
bidden,  except  what  is  necessary  to  cover  expenses, 
which  shall  not  be  more  than  thirty  francs  or  six 
dollars;  the  indulgences,  privileges,  and  other  spir¬ 
itual  favors  communicated  by  aggregation  must  be 
set  forth  in  a  schedule,  authenticated  by  the  ordi¬ 
nary  of  the  place  where  the  archconfraternity  is 
established,  and  sent  to  the  aggregated  society; 
finally,  the  aggregation  must  be  made  with  the 
written  consent  and  testimonial  letters  of  the  local 
ordinary. 

Archives,  Ecclesiastical  (cf.  C.  E.,  1-696). — 
Every  diocese  must  have  a  special  place,  known  as 
the  archives,  in  which  all  writings  and  documents 
relating  to  the  spiritual  and  temporal  affairs  of  the 
diocese  are  to  be  kept  carefully  in  order  and  in¬ 
dexed  by  the  diocesan  chancellor.  The  chancellor 
is  always  a  notary  and  documents  drawn  up  by  him 
are  held  authentic.  Sometimes  he  is  given  an  assis¬ 


tant  or  vice-chancellor,  and  often  he  has  the  help 
of  other  notaries  who  may  be  laymen.  The  chan¬ 
cellor  or  the  notaries  may  be  suspended  or  removed 
by  the  bishop,  but  not  by  a  vicar  capitular  unless 
the  cathedral  chapter  consents.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
chancellor  to  draw  up  an  inventory  or  a  catalogue 
of  the  contents  of  the  archives  with  an  abstract 
of  each  document.  In  the  first  half  of  each  year 
he  must  add  a  precis  of  the  documents  of  the  pre¬ 
ceding  year  and  any  others  that  have  been  over¬ 
looked.  The  archives  are  to  be  kept  locked,  and 
no  one  must  have  access  to  them  without  the  leave 
of  the'  bishop  or  of  the  vicar-general  and  the  chan¬ 
cellor,  the  key  being  always  entrusted  to  the  latter. 
Documents  must  not  be  taken  from  the  archives 
without  leave  of  the  bishop  or  vicar-general;  if 
any  are  removed  with  permission  they  must  be 
returned  at  the  end  of  three  days,  unless  the  ordi¬ 
nary  extends  the  time. 

In  the  document  room  there  must  be  a  special 
compartment  or  irremovable  safe  in  which  all  secret 
documents  are  preserved  with  the  greatest  care. 
This  is  to  have  two  different  locks,  the  key  of  one 
lock  being  retained  by  the  bishop  or  Apostolic 
administrator,  while  the  other  is  held  by  the  vicar- 
general  or,  if  there  is  no  vicar-general,  by  the  chan¬ 
cellor.  No  one  except  the  bishop  or  the  Apostolic 
administrator  is  allowed  to  open  the  archives  or 
consult  the  secret  documents,  and  special  regula¬ 
tions  have  been  laid  down  to  prevent  the  bishop’s 
key  from  coming  into  possession  of  the  official 
holding  the  second  key,  in  case  of  the  bishop’s 
death  or  disability.  The  illegal  destruction,  re¬ 
moval  or  substantial  modifying  of  any  document 
belonging  to  the  episcopal  archives  is  punished  ipso 
facto  by  excommunication ;  however,  the  documents 
relating  to  criminal  cases  of  morality  must  be  burnt 
immediately  after  the  death  of  a  culprit  or  as  soon 
as  ten  years  have  elapsed  since  the  sentence  of 
condemnation  was  pronounced,  but  a  synopsis  of 
all  of  these  cases  with  the  text  of  the  final  judg¬ 
ment  is  to  be  preserved.  An  inventory  or  catalogue 
of  these  secret  archives  must  be  kept  as  described 
above. 

Vicars  and  prefects  Apostolic  shall  have  their 
archives,  which  are  subject  to  the  same  regulations 
as  diocesan  archives,  due  allowance  being  made  for 
differences  of  persons  and  places. 

Duplicate  inventories  or  catalogues  of  the  archives 
of  the  cathedral  and  collegiate  or  parochial  churches, 
and  also  of  confraternities  and  holy  places,  are  to 
be  made;  one  copy  is  to  be  kept  in  its  proper 
place,  and  the  other  deposited  in  the  diocesan 
archives.  At  the  end  of  each  year  parish  priests 
must  send  the  episcopal  curia  a  certified  copy  of  all 
their  parochial  books,  except  the  census  returns; 
and  administrators  of  ecclesiastical  goods  are  to 
forward  likewise  a  descriptive  inventory  of  the 
property  entrusted  to  their  care,  noting  the  values 
and  calling  attention  to  any  changes  in  the  prop¬ 
erty;  moreover,  they  must  send  the  curia  certified 
copies  of  the  documents  relating  to  the  ownership 
of  the  property,  if  that  can  be  done  conveniently. 
Anyone  who  is  interested  in  these  documents  may 
inspect  those  that  are  not  secret,  and  may  obtain 
a  copy  of  them.  Documents  may  also  be  borrowed, 
but  only  under  the  regulations  governing  the 
diocesan  archives. 

Ardagh,  Diocese  of  (Ardachadensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-699c),  in  Ireland,  by  the  census  of  1911  had  a  total 
population  of  102,380,  of  whom  94,827  were  Catholics. 
There  are  41  parishes  in  the  diocese,  96  secular  and 
4  regular  clergy,  75  churches,  12  chapels,  1  seminary, 

1  house  of  regulars,  12  convents,  and  2  monasteries. 
The  various  institutions  in  the  diocese  include  6 


AREQUIPA 


54 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 


workhouses;  the  College  of  St.  Mel,  which  cele¬ 
brated  its  golden  jubilee  in  1912;  3  intermediate 
schools;  3  industrial  schools,  and  the  Societies  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Hoare,  D.  D., 
consecrated  19  March,  1895,  to  succeed  Most  Rev. 
B.  Woodlock,  D.  D.,  is  now  bishop  of  the  diocese. 

Since  the  Easter  Rebellion  in  1916  the  diocese  of 
Ardagh  has  suffered  severe  losses  from  the  sacking 
of  Granard,  the  fierce  battles  of  Ballinalee,  the  de¬ 
struction  of  St.  Mel’s  Temperance  Hall,  one  of  the 
finest  in  Ireland,  the  burning  of  houses,  blowing  up 
of  roads  and  bridges,  and  numerous  other  deeds  of 
violence. 

Arequipa  (de  Arequipa;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-701b),  Dio¬ 
cese  of,  in  Peru,  South  America,  is  a  suffragan  of 
Lima.  The  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Mariano 
Holguin,  b.  at  Arequipa,  I860,  entered  the  Order 
of  Friars  Minor  1881,  was  ordained  1886,  appointed 
Bishop  of  Huaraz  2  July,  1904,  and  transferred  to 
Arequipa  30  May,  1906;  made  an  assistant  at  the 
pontifical  throne  12  August,  1915.  By  1920  statistics 
the  Catholic  population  of  this  diocese  numbers 
290,000;  there  are  2  rectorates,  11  deaneries  com¬ 
prising  72  parishes,  and  5  students  from  this  diocese 
are  at  the  seminary  at  Lima. 

Arezzo,  Diocese  of  (Arretinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-702b),  in  Tuscany,  Italy,  is  directly  dependent  on 
the  Holy  See.  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Volpi,  who  was 
appointed  to  this  diocese  in  1904,  was  transferred 
to  the  titular  see  of  Antioch  of  Pisidia  3  July,  1919, 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev. 
Emanuele  Mignone,  b.  at  Cavatore,  1864,  appointed 
Bishop  of  Volterra,  29  April,  1909,  and  transferred 
to  Arezzo  18  December,  1919.  The  statistics  for 
1920  for  this  diocese  give  250,300  Catholics,  330 
parishes,  400  secular  and  149  regular  clergy,  135 
seminarians,  436  churches  or  chapels,  44  brothers, 
and  147  sisters. 

Argentine  Republic  (Argentina;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-702d). — The  area  of  the  Argentine  Republic  is 
1,153,119  square  miles.  According  to  the  last  official 
census  of  1  June,  1914,  the  total  population  was 
7,885,237,  distributed  as  follows:  Argentines,  5,527, 
285;  foreigners,  402,555.  The  male  population  was 
given  as  4,227,023,  the  female  population  3,568,214. 
Of  the  foreign  population  929,863  were  Italians, 
829,701  Spaniards,  79,491  French,  126,201  Spanish- 
Americans  (Bolivians,  Chilians,  Uruguayans,  and 
Paraguayans),  36,442  Brazilians,  27,692  British,  26,995 
Germans,  38,123  Austrians,  and  3,449  citizens  of  the 
United  States  of  America.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
present  population  is  8,411,000. 

The  following  table  gives  the  figures  for  Argen¬ 
tine  immigration  and  emigration  since  1910: 


Year 

Immigrants 

Year 

Emigrants 

1910..../... 

345,275 

1910 . 

136,405 

1911 . 

281,622 

1911 . 

172,041 

1912 . 

379,117 

1912 . 

172,996 

1913 . 

364,878 

1913 . 

219,529 

1914 . 

182,672 

1914 . 

243,701 

1915 . 

83,019 

1915 . 

148,425 

1916 . 

75,381 

1916 . 

122,328 

1917 . 

51,665 

1917 . 

83,996 

1918 . 

50,662 

1918 . 

59,908 

As  the  number  of  emigrants  has  exceeded  that  of 
immigrants  since  1914,  plans  are  being  made  for 
the  attraction  of  immigration  to  the  country.  In 
1920  steps  were  taken  by  Austria  to  promote  the 
emigration  to  Argentina  of  her  working  classes  by 


means  of  opening  credits  for  intending  emigrants. 

Economic  Conditions. — Of  the  1,000,000  square 
miles  of  the  republic,  more  than  one-third  is  arable ; 
333,000  square  miles  can  be  utilized  for  cattle.  In 
1904  slightly  over  26,000,000  acres  were  under  cul¬ 
tivation,  while  in  1920  62,500,000  acres  were  reported 
under  specified  cultivation.  It  is  evident,  therefore, 
that  only  one-third  of  the  land  known  to  be  arable 
is  at  present  utilized.  According  to  the  latest 
statistics  wheat  was  sown  on  16,975,770  acres,  corn 
on  8,715,217  acres,  linseed  on  3,521,670  acres,  oats  on 
2,980,026  acres;  alfalfa  on  19,898,481  acres;  flax  on 
3,083,619  acres.  A  campaign  is  being  carried  on 
for  the  further  cultivation  of  cotton.  The  exporta¬ 
tion  of  flour  in  1919  represented  a  total  of  130,806 
tons,  estimated  at  $9,161,000.  Tucuman  produces 
over  three-fourths  of  the  total  cane  grown  in  the 
country.  In  1919  the  estimated  national  produc¬ 
tion  of  sugar  amounted  to  260,000  metric  tons. 

Foreign  Trade. — The  foreign  trade  of  the  Argen¬ 
tine  Republic  is  mainly  with  the  countries  enumer¬ 
ated  in  the  following  table.  The  values  of  this 
trade  are  given  in  gold. 


Impoi 

'ts  from 

Expoi 

'ts  to 

Countries 

1917 

1918 

1917 

1918 

Great  Britain 

$80,080,322 

.$124,960,102 

$155,217,373 

$296,626,000 

France  . 

21,811,554 

25,954,483 

70,029,308 

109,610,000 

Spain  . 

26,530,672 

41,779,305 

8,814,880 

23,086,000 

Japan  . 

3,203,081 

14,744,000 

2,036,725 

2,716,000 

United  States 

133,251,949 

169,506,948 

155,626,288 

165,151,620 

Italy  . 

25,421,356 

20,008,772 

27,883,227 

40,280,952 

Brazil  . 

33,226,402 

47,918,000 

22,021,772 

32,301,000 

CJprrrm.ny  .... 

221,628 

*Rp1orinm 

159,900 

The  United  States  trade  with  Argentina  for  five 
years  was  as  follows: 


Imports  Exports 

Year  (toU.  S.)  (fromU.S.) 

1914  .  $49,468,512  $43,507,753 

1915  .  93,706,075  75,589,885 

1916  .  119,730,145  106,988,508 

1917  .  161,270,764  138,084,920 

1918  .  165,151,620  169,506,948 


The  total  trade  of  the  republic  in  1919  was:  im¬ 
port,  $533,159,000;  export,  $867,823,000.  In  1920  it 
was:  import,  $850,000,000;  export,  $1,000,000,000. 

The  chief  import  from  Argentina  into  the  United 
States  in  the  year  1917  was  wool,  $100,533,658;  the 
chief  exports  from  the  United  States  to  Argentina 
were  textile  manufactures,  $45,748,600;  foodstuffs, 
$33,038,155;  iron  manufactures,  $17,836,366. 

Shipping  and  Navigation. — In  1917  the  registered 
shipping  consisted  of  1,108  steamers  of  2,966,518 
tons,  and  216  sailing  vessels  of  294,917  tons;  total, 
1,324  of  3,261,435  tons.  In  1917  the  number  of 
ocean-going  vessels  which  entered  the  port  of 
Buenos  Aires  was  975,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage 
of  2,420,809  tons,  as  against  1,757  of  4,527,790  tons 
in  1915. 

Hierarchy. — The  Argentine  hierarchy  consists  of 
the  Archbishop  of  Buenos  Aires,  and  the  Jlishops  of 
Cordoba,  La  Plata,  Parana,  San  Juan  de  Cuyo, 
Santa  Fe,  Salta,  Tucuman,  Santiago  del  Estero, 
Catamarca,  Corrientes.  There  is  a  seminary  in 
each  diocese  under  the  control  of  the  bishop  for 
the  support  of  which  an  appropriation  is  made 
yearly.  The  Argentine  nation  has  an  Envoy  Ex¬ 
traordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  in  Rome. 
The  Apostolic  Internunciature  to  Argentine  was 
raised  to  a  Nunciature  in  July,  1916,  when  the  re¬ 
public  celebrated  the  centenary  of  its  independence. 
The  new  envoy,  Mgr.  Alberto  Vassallo  di  Torre- 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 


ARIZONA 


55 


grossa,  titular  archbishop  of  Emesa,  arrived  at 
Buenos  Aires  in  June,  1916. 

Education. — The  system  of  education  comprises 
the  following  divisions :  primary,  secondary,  normal, 
special  (including  industrial,  commercial,  agricul¬ 
tural,  artistic,  and  education  of  defectives),  and 
higher  education.  Primary  education  is  compulsory 
for  all  children  from  six  to  fourteen  years  old;  it 
is  supported  by  the  national  Government  and  the 
Governments  of  the  different  provinces  and  its 
general  administration  is  in  charge  of  the  National 
Council  of  Education.  In  1918  there  were  in  the 
republic,  including  night  schools  and  private  institu¬ 
tions,  8,494  schools  with  1,019,944  pupils  and  31,872 
teachers.  Primary  education  covers  a  period  of 
six  years;  secondary  education  is  imparted  by  the 
‘‘Colegios  Nacionales”  (National  Secondary  Schools'), 
and  in  private  schools  under  government  super¬ 
vision.  There  are  38  “Colegios  Nacionales"  under 
the  supervision  of  the  General  Superintendent  of 
Secondary,  Normal,  and  Special  Education,  with 
an  enrolment  of  11,022  students;  39  private  secon¬ 
dary  schools  with  an  enrolment  of  3,288  students; 
moreover,  each  of  the  National  Universities  has  a 
secondary  school  department.  The  secondary  school 
course  covers  five  years. 

In  1918  there  were  82  normal  schools,  besides  the 
private  normal  schools.  Industrial  education  is 
given  in  the  so-called  industrial  schools,  of  which 
there  are  24.  There  are  8  National  Commerce 
Schools.  The  schools  of  agriculture,  five  in  num¬ 
ber,  are  of  a  regional  character,  each  being 
connected  with  an  agronomic  station.  Higher  edu¬ 
cation  is  given  in  the  three  National  Universities: 
Cordoba,  the  oldest,  with  five  faculties;  Buenos 
Aires,  the  largest,  with  six;  and  La  Plata  with  five. 
There  are  also  two  provincial  universities  at  Tucu- 
man  and  Santa  Fe.  The  government  also  main¬ 
tains  three  military  schools.  Argentina  devotes 
12  per  cent  of  its  annual  budget  to  education. 

In  1920  it  was  planned  to  establish  at  Rosario 
the  National  University  of  the  Littoral,  with  com¬ 
plete  courses  in  technical  instruction,  to  take  place 
of  the  industrial  school  formerly  in  operation  in 
Rosario.  A  popular  university  was  in  process  of 
organization  in  1920-  with  departments  of  law,  art, 
etc. 

Recent  History. — In  1911  diplomatic  relations 
between  Argentina  and  Bolivia,  which  had  been 
interrupted  on  account  of  boundaiy  disputes,  were 
resumed.  In  1915  the  first  actual  treaty  between 
Argentina,  Brazil,  and  Chile,  signed  in  Buenos  Aires 
on  25  May,  provided  for  a  five  years’  peace  among 
the  three  nations,  during  which  time  each  was 
pledged  not  to  make  war  on  either  one  of  the 
others  until  the  cause  of  the  conflict  had  been  in¬ 
vestigated  and  reported  by  an  impartial  commis¬ 
sion.  In  1917  trouble  rose  between  the  republic  and 
Germany  over  the  sinking  of  the  Argentine  ships 
by  German  submarines.  It  came  to  a  climax  when 
the  correspondence  of  the  German  minister  at 
Buenos  Aires  revealed  a  dispatch  to  his  govern¬ 
ment,  advising  the  sinking  without  warning  of 
Argentine  vessels.  Thoroughly  aroused  the  Argen¬ 
tines  immediately  broke  off  diplomatic  relations 
with  Germany,  though  they  did  not  share  in 
the  active  part  taken  by  the  United  States  in  the 
European  War.  In  1919  the  country  joined  the 
League  of  Nations.  Among  the  recent  legal  enact¬ 
ments  were  a  law,  effective  on  1  January,  1917, 
withdrawing  from  the  stores  permission  to  open  on 
Sundays,  and  forbidding  the  sale  of  liquor  from 
12  p.  m.  on  Saturdays  to  12  p.  m.  on  Sundays, 
and  a  decree  in  1920  providing  for  the  colonization 
of  30,000  square  miles  of  state  lands, 


Argyll  and  the  Isles,  Diocese  of  (Ergadiensis 
et  Insularum;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-706c),  comprises  the 
County  of  Argyll,  the  southern  part  of  Inverness 
and  the  Islands  of  Bute  and  Arran  and  the  Hebrides. 
It  is  a  suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Andrews 
and  Edinburgh,  and  is  under  the  administration  of 
Rt.  Rev.  Donald  Martin,  the  third  bishop  since  the 
restoration  of  the  diocese  in  1878,  and  successor  to 
Bishop  Smith,  who  died  18  January,  1918.  Bishop 
Martin  was  born  in  Ardnamurchan  6  October,  1873, 
appointed  bishop  2  April,  1919,  and  consecrated  at 
Oban  9  June  of  the  same  year. 

During  the  World  War,  out  of  the  very  small 
number  of  clergy  belonging  to  this  diocese,  three 
served  as  chaplains:  Rev.  John  MacNeill,  serving 
with  the  9th  Division  (Highland),  was  mentioned 
in  dispatches,  was  wounded  twice,  and  won  the 
military  cross  with  a  bar;  Rt.  Rev.  Hugh  Cameron, 
vicar  general  to  the  Lovat  Scouts,  served  in  Gal¬ 
lipoli,  Egypt,  Palestine,  and  was  mentioned  in  dis¬ 
patches;  Rev.  Duncan  Campbell  was  attached  to 
the  51st  (Highland)  Division.  Although  this  dio¬ 
cese  comprises  a  large  territory,  its  Catholic  popu¬ 
lation  is  comparatively  small  and  there  is  little 
activity.  The  present  (1921)  statistics  show:  24 
missions,  45  churches  and  mission  stations,  34 
secular  priests,  2  convents  of  sisters,  and  38  elemen¬ 
tary  schools-. 

Ariano,  Diocese  of  (Arianensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-710d),  is  a  suffragan  of  Benevento  in  Southern 
Italy.  During  the  war  twenty  priests  served  with 
the  Italian  army  and  the  canon  of  the  cathedral 
was  chaplain  in  a  military  hospital.  Rt.  Rev. 
Guiseppe  Lojacono,  b.  at  Tropea,  11  November, 
1862,  elected  bishop  4  November,  1918,  was  conse¬ 
crated  bishop  of  Ariano,  12  January,  1919.  He 
succeeded  Rt.  Rev.  Cosimo  Agistino,  who  was  born 
in  Gerace,  16  April,  1860,  elected  to  Lacedonia,  28 
July,  1913,  consecrated  at  Gerace,  23  September  fol¬ 
lowing,  transferred  1  June,  1915,  to  Ariano,  adminis¬ 
trator  Apostolic  to  Lacedonia,  22  September,  1915, 
to  22  March,  1916,  died  30  March,  1918.  His  pre¬ 
decessor  was  Rt.  Rev.  Onorato  Carcaterra,  O.  F.  M., 
v/ho  was  elected  in  1913,  and  resigned  and  was 
transferred  in  1915.  Rt.  Rev.  Andrea  Agostino 
preceded  Bishop  Carcaterra,  b.  1838,  elected  1  June, 
1888,  he  died  14  February,  1913.  In  the  diocese  are 
24  parishes,  91  churches,  3  abbeys  for  men,  4  monas¬ 
teries  for  women,  98  secular  priests,  30  sisters,  and 
50,400  Catholics;  2  colleges  for  girls,  8  seminarians, 

1  refuge,  1  asylum,  1  hospital,  and  one  paper,  the 
official  organ  of  the  bishop,  is  published. 

Arizona  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-719b).— Arizona  is  the 
newest  state  in  the  Union,  having  been  admitted 
on  14  February,  1912. 

Recent  History. — In  1906  joint  statehood  was 
proposed  for  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  and  re¬ 
jected,  almost  unanimously  in  Arizona.  In  1910 
an  enabling  act,  passed  by  Congress,  authorized 
Arizona  to  call  a  constitutional  convention.  The 
constitution,  thus  formulated,  contained  some 
salient  features,  among  which  were  the  following : 
an  eight-hour  day,  the  prohibition  of  the  sale  of 
liquor  to  Indians,  the  initiative  and  referendum, 
providing  10  per  cent  of  the  qualified  electors 
petition  for  the  former,  and  5  per  cent  for  the 
latter,  and  the  recall  of  public  officers  upon  petition 
of  25  per  cent  of  the  electors.  The  application  of 
the  recall  to  the  judiciary  caused  the  veto  of  the 
statehood  bill  by  President  Taft,  despite  the  passage 
of  the  Act  through  the  two  houses  of  Congress. 
With  the  removal  of  the  offending  feature  the  bill 
was  signed  on  22  August,  1912,  and  became  law. 
Following  the  admission  to  statehood  thus  attained 


ARIZONA 


56 


ARKANSAS 


by  renunciation  of  the  recall,  the  legislature  and 
people  had  the  power  to  re-incorporate  the  objec¬ 
tionable  feature,  which  was  adopted  on  5  Novem¬ 
ber,  1912,  by  the  people,  as  an  amendment  to  the 
state  constitution.  In  the  same  year  an  inheritance 
tax  law,  an  eight-hour  law  for  women,  and  an  alien 
land  law  were  adopted.  On  1  January,  1916,  a  state¬ 
wide  prohibition  bill  went  into  effect  as  a  result 
of  a  constitutional  amendment  adopted  3  Novem¬ 
ber,  1914.  The  federal  prohibition  amendment  was 
ratified  22  May,  1918,  and  the  suffrage  amendment 
12  February,  1920. 

During  the  World  War  Arizona  contributed  the 
largest  percentage  of  soldiers  and  sailors  to  the 
war,  per  capita  of  male  citizens,  of  any  state  in 
the  Union.  The  first  native  Arizonian  to  give  up 
his  life  for  his  country  in  France  was  Matthew 
Rivers,  a  Pima  Indian,  who  had  been  educated  in 
the  Sherman  Institute,  California. 

Population,  Climate,  Resources. — The  fourteenth 
United  States  census,  besides  32,989  Indians,  reports 
a  population  in  1920  of  334,162.  There  were  213,350 
natives  and  78,099  foreigners.  Of  negro  descent 
there  were  only  8,005.  Including  in  the  list  those 
who  could  only  read  with  those  who  could  neither 
read  nor  write,  14.5  per  cent  of  the  males  of  voting 
age  were  illiterate. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  chief  of  the 
weather  bureau,  the  highest  temperature  observed 
at  any  weather  station  in  Arizona  during  the  year 
1917  was  124°,  the  lowest  18°.  One  station  reports 
each  of  these  extremes.  The  smallest  rainfall  re¬ 
ported  for  the  same  year  from  any  station  is  2.22 
inches,  the  greatest  29.22  inches.  In  October  and 
November,  1917,  no  trace  of  snow  is  reported  at 
any  station,  and  for  the  following  six  months  to 
May,  1918,  inclusive,  the  greatest  fall  reported  is 
177  inches,  13  stations  reporting  only  a  slight  fall 
of  snow. 

Limited  by  supply  of  water  for  irrigation,  the 
area  of  farming  land  is  9,975,000  acres  out  of  72,000,- 
000.  Of  manufacturing  establishments  there  were 
480  in  the  year  1919,  with  a  capital  of  $101,486,070. 
The  value  of  products  was  $120,769,112.  The  value 
of  the  products  of  smelting  and  refining  copper  com¬ 
prises  78.0  per  cent  of  the  total  of  all  industries. 
There  are  2,416  miles  of  railroad.  The  assessed 
valuation  of  taxable  property  for  the  year  1918  was 
$834,020,592. 

State  Government. — The  state  senate  consists  of 
nineteen  members  and  the  House  of  Representatives 
of  thirty-five.  An  amendment  voted  to  the  state 
constitution  gave  the  state  the  power  to  engage  in 
industrial  pursuits.  In  the  laws  which  the  first 
legislature  of  Arizona  enacted,  the  affairs  of  the 
state  government  were  placed  under  direct  control 
of  the  people  by  means  of  the  initiative,  referendum 
and  recall. 

Education. — There  are  more  than  77,000  children 
in  the  public  schools.  In  1919-20  the  school  ex¬ 
penditure  was  $6,339,211.  State  laws  relative  to 
private  and  parochial  schools  are  as  follows:  no 
tax  shall  be  laid  or  appropriation  of  public  money 
made  in  aid  of  any  church  or  private  or  sectarian 
school  (IX,  10) ;  property  of  educational,  charitable, 
and  religious  associations  or  institutions  not  used 
or  held  for  profit  may  be  exempted  from  taxation 
(IX,  2) ;  private  schools  within  the  compulsory 
education  law  shall  be  taught  for  full  time  of  publio 
school  session. 

Ecclesiastical  History. — See  Tucson,  Diocese  of. 

Arkansas  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-724e). — Climate. — The  re¬ 
port  of  the  chief  of  the  Weather  Bureau  states  the 
highest  temperature  observed  at  any  weather  sta¬ 


tion  in  Arkansas  during  the  year  1917  to  have 
been  106°,  observed  at  two  stations,  the  lowest,  21°, 
also  observed  at  two  stations.  The  smallest  rain¬ 
fall  reported  for  the  year  is  19.80  inches,  the 
greatest  70.88  inches.  As  early  as  October,  1917, 
there  were  snowfalls  at  all  of  the  stations  except 
5;  in  February,  1918,  at  all  except  47;  no  snow  is 
reported  at  any  station  in  March  and  April.  The 
greatest  fall  of  the  season  was  30.0  inches,  the  least 
2.0  inches.  The  reports  of  temperature  are  from 
58  stations,  and  of  snowfall  from  59  stations. 

Population. — According  to  the  official  census  of 
1920,  the  population  of  the  st-.te  was  1,752,204.  Only 
13,975  were  foreign  born.  Of  negro  descent  there 
were  472,220.  Little  Rock,  with  a  population  of 
65,142,  and  Fort  Smith,  with  28,870,  were  the  only 
cities  whose  population  exceeded  25,000.  Six  other 
cities,  Helena,  Hot  Springs,  Jonesboro,  North  Little 
Rock,  Pine  Bluff  and  Texarkana  were  the  only  cities 
which  had  a  population  exceeding  8,000. 

Wealth  and  Resources. — The  total  assessed 
valuation  of  property  for  1919  was  $553,485,082;  the 
state  indebtedness  on  June  30,  1919,  $2,226,400.  In 
1919  the  value  of  the  cotton  crop  was  $151,060,000 
or  55.0  per  cent  of  the  value  of  all  crops  of  the 
state.  The  value  of  the  corn  crop  was  $79,911,000. 
A  production  is  reported  of  3,321,000  bushels  of 
potatoes  and  456,000  pounds  of  tobacco.  Of  manu¬ 
facturing  establishments  there  were  (1919)  3,123; 
the  amount  of  capital  employed  was  $138,818,000; 
the  value  of  products,  $200,3i3,000.  The  coal  pro¬ 
duction  for  1917  amounted  to  1,913,000  short  tons, 
one  half  of  which  is  classed  as  semi-anthracite.  The 
railroad  mileage  in  1919  was  reported  to  have  been 
5,350  miles. 

Education. — The  federal  census  of  1920  reported 
a  school  attendance  of  664,101,  of  whom  332,593 
were  females.  Including  in  the  list  those  who  could 
only  read  with  those  who  could  neither  read  nor 
write,  11  per  cent  of  the  males  of  voting  age  were 
illiterate.  Bible  reading  is  neither  permitted  nor  ex¬ 
cluded  in  the  public  schools.  State  laws  relative  to 
private  and  parochial  schools  are  as  follows:  The 
basic  language  of  instruction  in  the  common  school 
branches,  in  all  the  schools  of  the  state,  public  and 
private,  shall  be  the  English  language  only;  no 
money  or  property  belonging  to  the  public  school 
fund  or  to  the  State  for  the  benefit  of  schools  or 
universities,  shall  ever  be  used  for  any  other  than 
for  the  resnective  purposes  to  which  it  belongs 
(XIV.  2). 

Recent  History. — During  the  World  War,  Ar¬ 
kansas  contributed  61,027  soldiers,  or  1.62  per  cent 
of  the  total  United  States  army.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  (1917)  the  First  Arkansas  Infantry  (15 
organizations)  was  mustered  into  service,  and  later 
in  August  the  Second  and  Third  Arkansas  In¬ 
fantry,  the  Arkansas  ammunition  train,  field  hospital, 
and  ambulance  companies  were  mustered  and  mo¬ 
bilized  at  Fort  Logan,  and  finally  transferred  to  Camp 
Beauregard,  Louisiana.  In  December,  the  Fourth 
Regiment  and  Engineers  Battalion  was  raised.  Camp 
Pike  one  of  the  army  cantonments  was  established 
near  Little  Rock  and  Eberts  Field  (aviation)  near 
Lonoke. 

Ecclesiastical  History. — For  Catholic  religious 
statistics  see  Little  Rock,  Diocese  of.  _ 

Recent  Legislation. — In  1905  a  drastic  anti-trust 
law  drove  the  insurance  companies  and  other  con¬ 
cerns  out  of  the  state,  but  it  was  later  amended 
and  the  companies  returned.  In  1912  came  Ar¬ 
kansas’  first  opportunity  to  exercise  the  initiative 
and  referendum,  provided  for  by  an  amendment  to 
the  constitution  in  1910.  Out  of  thirteen  amend¬ 
ments,  only  one  received  the  necessary  majority. 


ARMAGH 


57 


ARMENIA 


Later  the  Supreme  Court  held  that  only  three  could 
be  submitted  at  one  time.  Among  the  amendments 
which  passed  at  a  later  time  were  a  child  labor  law 
(1914)  and  a  publicity  act,  subsidizing  the  press 
through  public  advertising.  State-wide  prohibition 
became  effective  in  1915,  although  a  prohibition 
law  initiated  in  1912  had  been  rejected.  In  the 
same  year  a  drastic  inheritance  law  and  a  minimum 
wage  law  were  passed.  A  primary  election  law 
was  adopted  in  1916,  and  also  an  amendment  rais¬ 
ing  the  limit  of  the  school  tax  to  12  mills.  The 
proposed  new  constitution  formulated  in  the  con¬ 
stitutional  convention  of  1918,  failed  to  pass.  The 
year  1919  was  unique,  for  there  were  three  sessions 
of  the  Legislature  and  the  fourth  was  called  before 
the  year  was  out.  The  emergency  highway  legisla¬ 
tion  of  the  second  session  was  invalidated  by  the 
Supreme  Court  on  the  ground  that  the  provision 
requiring  the  publication  of  intention  to  apply  for 
special  acts  had  not  been  complied  with.  This 
deficiency  was  remedied  by  a  third  session.  In 
1919  the  Arkansas  Corporation  Commission  was 
created,  with  jurisdiction  over  public  utilities.  In 
the  same  year  the  State  ratified  the  prohibition 
amendment  (14  January)  and  the  suffrage  amend¬ 
ment  (28  July). 

Armagh,  Archdiocese  of  (Armacanensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  I-729d),  is  the  primatial  see  of  Ireland,  its 
archbishop  bearing  the  title  “Lord  Primate  of  all 
Ireland.”  The  present  incumbent,  His  Eminence 
Michael  Cardinal  Logue,  who  came  to  this  see  in 
1887,  is  the  first  Primate  of  Armagh  to  become  a 
member  of  the  Sacred  College.  On  23  May,  1920, 
the  beatification  of  Oliver  Plunket,  Primate  of 
Armagh  1669-81,  took  place  in  Rome,  and  religious 
celebrations  of  the  event  were  held  throughout 
Ireland.  On  6  October  following  the  relics  of  the 
blessed  martyr  were  translated  from  the  sarcophagus 
in  which  they  had  reposed,  to  a  beautiful  shrine 
prepared  for  them  in  Downside  Abbey.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  November  Cardinal  Logue  received  the  De¬ 
cree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites  dated  30 
June,  1920,  authorizing  the  translation  of  the  relic 
of  the  head  of  Blessed  Oliver  Plunket  from  the 
Dominican  Convent  to  the  Oliver  Plunket  Memorial 
Church,  St.  Peter’s,  Drogheda.  On  3  October,  1920, 
the  cardinal  laid  the  corner-stone  for  the  new 
church  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  in  Tully- 
saron,  this  diocese.  By  decree  of  the  Sacred  Con¬ 
gregation  of  the  Consistory  14  January,  1922,  Rt. 
Rev.  Patrick  O’Donnell,  Bishop  of  Raphoe,  was 
made  titular  Bishop  of  Attalia  and  coadjutor  to 
Cardinal  Logue,  with  right  of  succession. 

By  the  1911  census  the  total  population  of  this 
diocese  is  137,595  of  whom  127,729  are  Catholics. 
By  1921  statistics  there  are  66  parishes,  153  secular, 
and  21  regular  clergy,  144  churches,  13  convents  of 
nuns  with  124  religious,  3  monastic  houses  with  17 
religious.  The  religious  orders  of  the  diocese  in¬ 
clude  :  Male :  Franciscans,  Carmelites,  Jesuits, 
Christian  Brothers  of  Ireland  and  De  La  Salle 
Brothers.  Female:  Sisters  of  Loretto,  of  the  Pre¬ 
sentation,  and  Mercy.  The  charitable  institutions 
and  societies  include  an  asylum  for  infirm  priests, 
cripples’  house,  Total  Abstinence  Society,  4  Soci¬ 
eties  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  4  confraternities  of 
the  Holy  Family,  5  confraternities  of  the  Holy 
Rosary  and  associations  in  honor  of  the  Sacred 
Heart. 

Armenia  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-736a),  a  mountainous  dis¬ 
trict  of  western  Asia,  at  present  divided  between 
the  Turks  and  Russians,  excepting  the  Zanghezur 
district  which  has  not  been  occupied.  Before  the 
European  War  the  term  Armenia  was  indeterminate, 


being  sometimes  applied  to  the  territory  in  the 
Turkish  Empire  occupied  by  the  Armenians,  some¬ 
times  to  the  whole  country  in  which  the  Armenians 
were  the  dominant  race  element,  and  which  was 
partly  in  Russian  territory.  The  territory  as  con¬ 
stituted  by  the  Treaty  of  Sevres  and  as  delimited 
by  ex-President  Wilson  of  the  United  States,  has  an 
area  of  80,000  square  miles  and  contains  the  south¬ 
eastern  frontiers  of  the  Transcaucasian  division  of 
the  Russian  Empire,  besides  the  ethnically  Armenian 
regions  of  the  vilayets  of  Van,  Erzerum,  Bitlis,  and 
Trebizond  in  Asiatic  Turkey.  The  frontier  thus 
defined  begins  at  Treboli,  50  miles  west  of  Trebizard 
on  the  Black  Sea,  crosses  west  of  Erzinjan,  and  then 
curving  eastwards,  skirts  the  northern  slopes  of 
Armenian  Taurus,  south  of  Mush,  Bitlis,  and  Lake 
Van,  and  ends  on  the  Persian  frontier.  The  statis¬ 
tics  of  the  six  Armenian  provinces  of  Turkey  com¬ 
piled  in  1912  by  the  Armenian  Patriarchate  of  Con¬ 
stantinople  are  as  follows: 


Population 

Per  cent 

Turks  . 

666,000 

25.4 

Kurds . 

424,000 

16.3 

Mussulman  races . 

88,000 

3.4 

Armenians  . 

1,018,000 

38.9 

Nestorians,  etc . 

123,000 

4.8 

Greeks,  etc . 

42,000 

1.6 

Kizibashis . 

140,000 

5.3 

Zazas,  etc . 

77,000 

2.9 

Yezidis  . 

37,000 

1.4 

2,615,000 

100.0 

It  is  estimated  that  the  Armenians  once  numbered 
over  twenty  millions  and  the  steady  reduction  of 
the  population  in  modern  times  must  be  attributed 
almost  entirely  to  the  Turkish  persecution  in  one 
form  or  another.  During  the  war  and  as  a  result 
of  the  deportations  and  massacres  of  1915,  Lord 
Bryce  estimated  in  1916,  that  of  a  total  of  Armenian 
population  in  Turkey  of  about  1,800,000  before  the 
war,  600,000  were  massacred,  .600,000  were  deported, 
300,000  remained  in  Armenia,  and  300,000  survived 
in  Constantinople,  Smyrna,  and  other  parts  of  Tur¬ 
key  or  in  adjoining  territories  as  refugees.  Of  the 
600,000  who  were  stated  to  have  been  deported  to 
Mesopotamia  in  1915,  the  latest  estimate  received 
from  Aleppo  (Decemb  r,  1918),  puts  the  number 
of  survivors  at  only  90,000.  The  total  population 
of  United  Armenia  in  its  widest  extent  would  be 
about  8,000,000.  The  chief  towns  of  Russian  Ar¬ 
menia  are  Erivan  with  about  90,000  inhabitants, 
Alexandropol,  -  50,000 ;  Kars,  35,000.  The  Supreme 
Council  at  San  Remo  in  April,  1920,  decided  to 
internationalize  the  port  of  Batum  and  make  it 
a  common  outlet  for  Armenia,  Azerbaijan,  and 
Georgia. 

Education. — Measures  for  nationalization  were 
taken  after  the  separation  from  Russia  and  Ar¬ 
menian  became  the  official  language  of  the  schools. 
A  system  of  compulsory  education  was  established 
and  the  old  church  seminaries  and  technical  schools 
continue  their  work. 

Economic  Conditions. — The  first  railway  dates 
from  1900,  and  in  1920  the  mileage  was  370  miles. 
The  Turkish  system  of  land  tenure  did  not  recog¬ 
nize  the  right  of  the  Christian  Church  to  hold  land, 
and  consequently  the  Armenian  Church  has  often 
been  dispossessed  of  its  property,  which  in  any  case 
may  be  held  by  trustees.  Turkish  taxation  falls 
much  more  heavily  upon  the  Armenian  than  upon 
the  Mohammedan  population.  Apart  from  racial 


ARMENIA 


58 


ARMIDALE 


troubles  Armenia  has  suffered  in  common  with  all 
Turkish  provinces  from  the  stagnation  produced  by 
Turkish  misrule.  Schemes  of  development  have  not 
been  wanting,  but  nearly  all  suffered  shipwreck 
through  lack  of  security,  of  communication,  of 
capital,  and  of  any  adequate  economic  incentive. 
Commercially  the  Armenians  were  long  hampered 
by  the  decree  forbidding  them  to  travel  abroad, 
which  was  abrogated  only  in  1908.  While  this  wras 
in  operation,  the  Armenians  could  not  get  into 
direct  touch  with  foreign  supplies,  and  were  de¬ 
pendent  on  Constantinople  and  Aleppo  agents, 
who  granted  them  long  credits. 

History  (1909-1921). — The  rise  of  the  Young  Turk 
party,  concentrated  in  the  Committee  of  Union  and 
Progress,  with  its  assertion  of  liberty  and  toleration 
and  the  new  constitution  of  1908,  aroused  Armenian 
hopes.  However,  the  deposition  of  Abdul  Hamid 
in  1909  was  followed  by  the  massacre  of  Adana, 
for  which  a  pretext  was  found  in  the  pretensions 
to  complete  independence  of  a  small  section  of 
Armenians.  This  massacre  was  part  of  the  reac¬ 
tionary  revolution  projected  by  Abdul  Hamid  and 
resulting  in  his  fall.  But  the  extermination  of  the 
whole  Armenian  people  was  a  later  project,  at¬ 
tributable  to  the  government  of  the  Young  Turks. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  European  War,  the  Ar¬ 
menians  who  had  fought  for  the  Turkish  Govern¬ 
ment  in  the  Balkan  Wars  were  regarded  with  sus¬ 
picion  and  were  consequently  disarmed.  Then 
ensued,  in  1915,  massacres  on  a  larger  scale  than 
ever,  in  which  it  is  said  that  1,000,000  Armenians 
perished. 

On  the  eve  of  Turkey’s  entry  into  the  war,  the 
Young  Turks  employed  every  conceivable  means, 
persuasion,  cajolery,  intimidation,  and  the  promise 
of  a  large  autonomous  Armenia  to  induce  the  Ar¬ 
menian  party  leaders  to  prevail  on  the  Russian 
Armenians  to  rally  to  the  Turkish  flag  against 
Russia.  The  Armenians  obeyed  the  Turkish  orders 
for  mobilization,  but  soon  developed  in  large  num¬ 
bers.  The  massacres  and  deportations  began  soon 
after  the  collapse  of  the  Turkish  invasion  of  the 
Caucasus  and  North  Persia,  and  when  Turks  de¬ 
termined  to  deport  and  to  destroy  all  Armenians, 
the  persecuted  race  took  up  arms  in  self-defense. 
In  Shahin-Karahissar  they  held  out  for  three 
months  and  were  only  reduced  by  artillery  brought 
from  Erzerum.  In  Van  and  Jebal-Mousa  they  de¬ 
fended  themselves  against  heavy  odds  until  relieved 
by  the  Russians  and  Armenian  volunteers  in  the 
first  case,  and  rescued  by  the  French  and  British 
cruisers  in  the  second.  By  this  resistance  they 
forced  the  Turks  to  detach  large  numbers  of  their 
troops  and  in  some  cases,  artillery  and  machine 
guns  to  keep  the  Armenian  rebels  -in  check,  thus 
hindering  the  full  development  of  the  Turkish  mili¬ 
tary  power  during  the  war.  They  gave  enthusiastic 
support  to  the  Russian  cause,  they  organized  a 
volunteer  force  of  Armenians  which  was  blamed  by 
the  Turks  for  the  disaster  that  befell  them  at 
Sarikamish,  Azerbaijan,  and  Van;  they  contributed 
high  officials  to  the  Russian  army,  including  several 
generals,  and  they  suffered  their  land  to  become 
the  battleground  of  Asia  Minor.  Archbishop 
Sempad,  the  Gregorian  incumbent  of  Erzerum,  was 
murdered  by  brigands  in  the  service  of  the  Union 
and  Progress  Company.  The  Gregorian  Bishops  of 
Trebizond,  Caesarea,  Mush,  Bitlis,  and  Erzindjan, 
and  the  Catholic  Bishop  of  Seerth  were  also  mur¬ 
dered  by  the  order  of  the  Young  Turk  government. 

On  22  April  the  Diet  of  Transcaucasia  declared  its 
independence  of  Russia  under  the  title  of  the  Fed¬ 
eral  Republic  of  Transcaucasia,  comprising  Georgia, 
Armenia,  and  Azerbaijan  (Tartar).  It  had  from 


the  first  refused  to  recognize  the  Bolsheviki,  and 
had  formed  a  provisional  government  at  Tiflis  in 
February,  1918.  Each  party  was  to  hold  its  own 
territory,  but  the  republic  lasted  only  five  weeks, 
owing  to  the  divergent  political  tendencies.  On 
26  May,  1918,  the  Transcaucasian  Republic  was 
dissolved  and  Georgia  declared  its  independence, 
as  did  Armenia.  Its  de  facto  government  was  recog¬ 
nized  by  the  allies  in  January,  1920 ;  and  the  de  jure 
recognition  was  embodied  in  the  Treaty  of  Sevres, 
signed  in  August,  1920,  between  the  allied  powers 
and  Turkey,  to  which  Armenia  was  a  signatory. 

In  the  new  republic  there  was  no  president,  the 
presidential  functions  being  discharged  partly  by 
the  chamber  of  deputies  (80  members),  and  partly 
by  the  cabinet  of  ministers.  The  mandate  of  Ar¬ 
menia  was  offered  to  the  League  of  Nations  and 
refused  on  the  ground  that  it  was  not  the  object 
of  the  League  to  take  up  mandates.  It  was  offered 
to  the  United  States  and  refused  by  the  Senate, 
contrary  to  the  wishes  of  President  Wilson,  who 
was  asked  to  arbitrate  the  question  of  Armenian 
frontiers.  In  the  meantime  the  Nationalists  and 
the  Bolsheviki  made  a  concerted  attack  on  Ar¬ 
menia.  The  Russian  divisions  commenced  opera¬ 
tions  against  Armenia  in  their  base  at  Azerbaijan. 
The  seriousness  of  the  Polish  situation  caused  the 
withdrawal  of  these  troops  and  Armenia  took  ad¬ 
vantage  of  the  occasion  by  capturing  the  coal-fields 
of  Olti.  In  August  they  advanced  to  Julfa  on  the 
Persian  frontier  and  forced  the  Turks  to  retire  to 
the  Arax  River.  Ill-luck  befell  the  Armenians  after¬ 
wards  and  they  lost  Erivan,  their  capital,  to  the 
Turks.  On  11  November,  1920,  the  Armenian  min¬ 
istry  which  had  taken  part  in  the  treaty  of  Sevres 
was  replaced  by  an  extremist  government  which  had 
come  to  an  understanding  with  the  Soviet  govern¬ 
ment,  with  a  view  to  concluding  a  new  armistice 
with  the  Turks.  This  took  place,  the  terms  pro¬ 
posed  by  the  Turks  being  made  with  the  view  of 
keeping  Armenia  as  a  buffer  state  between  Turkey 
and  Russia.  The  Turks  demanded  that  Armenia 
renounce  the  treaty  of  Sevres  and  that  the  frontier 
between  Armenia  and  Turkey  should  be  fixed  by 
the  two  peoples  concerned.  As  yet  the  boundaries 
are  indeterminate.  First  reports  place  them  as  run¬ 
ning  along  the  Black  Sea  at  a  point  a  little  to  the 
west  of  Tireboli  through  Militkan,  west  of  Mush, 
south  to  Lake  Van  to  the  frontier  of  Azerbaijan. 
President  Wilson’s  award  did  not  include  the 
vilayets  of  Daiarbekr,  Sivas,  Kharput,  and  Adana. 

On  October,  1921,  a  treaty  was  signed  at  Kars, 
Armenia,  between  the  four  Bolshevized  republics, 
Armenia,  Azerbaijan,  Georgia,  and  Daghestan  on 
one  hand,  and  the  Turkish  Nationalist  government 
on  the  other,  giving  the  latter  about  one  half  of 
Caucasian  Armenia,  and  creating  a  small  autonomous 
state  on  Armenian  territonr  under  the  protection 
of  Azerbaijan,  to  be  known  as  Nakitchevan.  It  now 
appears  that  the  Turks  are  supporting  the  inten¬ 
tions  of  Russia  to  federalize  all  the  so-called  Cauca¬ 
sian  republics  in  Russia  into  a  Russian  state,  the 
political  center  being  at  Baku,  and  the  economic 
center  at  Tiflis.  The  independence  of  these  repub¬ 
lics  is  a  thing  of  the  past. 

Armenierstadt,  Diocese  of.  See  Gherla. 

Armenopolis,  Diocese  of.  See  Gherla. 

Armidale,  Diocese  of  (Armidalensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-740b),  in  New  South  Wales  (Australia)  is  under 
the  administration  of  its  third  bishop,  Rt.  Reverend 
Patrick  Joseph  O’Connor,  D.  D.,  who  has  filled  the 
see  since  1904.  Dr.  O’Connor  came  to  this  diocese 
in  1876  and  in  1882  was  appointed  dean  and  vicar 


ARRAS 


59 


ASIA 


general  of  the  diocese,  which  latter  position  he  filled 
until  his  appointment  as  bishop.  His  long  experi¬ 
ence  in  the  diocese  particularly  fitted  him  for  his 
administration,  and  during  his  incumbency  he  has 
seen  it  grow  from  a  mere  wilderness  to  a  flourishing 
diocese.  Numerous  schools,  churches,  and  convents 
have  been  added  to  the  diocese  and  a  beautiful 
cathedral  erected,  costing  £32,000,  all  of  which  was 
collected  in  three  years  through  the  efforts  of  the 
bishop.  At  the  solemn  opening  of  the  new  building 
he  was  able  to  announce  that  it  was  free  of  debt, 
and  in  1919,  on  the  occasion  of  the.  Golden  Jubilee 
of  the  diocese  the  cathedral  was  consecrated  by 
the  papal  delegate  Most  Rev.  B.  Cattaneo.  Another 
celebration  was  the  laying  of  the  foundation  stone 
of  a  diocesan  orphanage,  by  the  papal  delegate  and 
Archbishop  Kelly  of  Sydney,  and  £10,500  were  col¬ 
lected  toward  the  erection  of  the  institution,  which 
was  planned  to  cost  £17,000.  On  2  October,  1921, 
the  institution  with  a  remaining  debt  of  only  £4,000, 
was  solemnly  opened  by  the  papal  delegate,  who 
returned  to  complete  his  work,  and  before  the 
ceremonies  were  over  this  sum  and  £700  additional 
were  collected  by  Bishop  O’Connor.  The  various  re¬ 
ligious  orders  established  in  the  diocese  are :  Broth¬ 
ers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  Sisters  of  Mercy, 
Dominican  Sisters  and  Ursuline  Sisters.  The 
present  (1921)  statistics  show  19  parochial  districts, 
69  churches,  33  priests,  7  brothers,  210  nuns,  12 
secular  teachers,  5  boarding  schools  for  girls  and 
1  for  boys,  5  high  schools  with  471  children  at¬ 
tending,  28  primary  schools  with  3,639  children 
attending,  and  1  orphanage.  The  total  number  of 
children  attending  Catholic  schools  is  4,300  and 
the  total  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese,  33,000. 

Arras,  Diocese  of  (Atrebatum;  cf.  C.E.,  I-752d), 
comprises  the  Department  of  Pas-de-Calais  in 
France  and  is  suffragan  of  Cambrai.  Rt.  Rev. 
Alfred  Williez,  who  was  appointed  to  this  see  in 
1892,  d.  25  January,  1911,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Rt.  Rev.  Emile-Louis  Lobbedey  5  May,  1911,  d. 
24  December,  1916.  He  was  succeeded  by  the 
present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Eugene-Louis  Julien, 
born  in  the  Diocese  of  Rouen  1856,  ordained  1881, 
made  prelate  of  the  Holy  See  1916,  appointed  bishop 
22  May,  1917. 

During  the  World  War  the  region  suffered  cruelly 
and  the  cathedral,  rebuilt  1775-1833,  was  com¬ 
pletely  destroyed  by  the  German  bombardment 
and  fire  and  more  than  two  hundred  churches  were 
totally  ruined.  In  1912  the  cathedral  chapter  was 
granted  the  privilege  of  wearing  red  on  the  sleeves 
of  the  rochet.  By  latest  statistics  the  Catholic 
population  of  this  diocese  numbers  1,068,155,  there 
are  672  parishes  and  53  vicariates,  formerly  with 
state  subventions,  985  churches,  1073  priests,  1 
upper  seminary  with  about  100  students,  2  lower 
seminaries,  1  at  Bethune,  the  other  at  Boulogne 
sur  Mer,  9  secondary  schools  for  boys  with  103 
professors  and  1600  pupils,  10  boarding  schools  for 
girls  with  93  teachers  and  1400  pupils,  244  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  with  774  teachers  and  32,055  pupils, 
and  2  professional  schools  having  about  100  stu¬ 
dents.  Several  periodicals  are  published;  “La 
Croix  d’Arras,”  at  Arras,  “La  Croix  du  Pas  de 
Calais,”  at  Boulogne,  and  the  “Courrier  du  Pas  de 
Calais”  at  Arras.  Within  recent  years  the  diocese 
has  lost  .three  prominent  clergy,  by  the  deaths  of 
Rev.  Canon  Rambure,  vicar  general  and  a  pro¬ 
fessor  and  pro-rector  of  the  Catholic  faculty  of 
the  University  of  Lille,  and  author  of  a  number 
of  books;  Mgr.  Hervin,  protonotary  apostolic  and 
vicar  general;  and  Rev.  Canon  Decrouille,  author 
of  many  spiritual  books. 


-7c^Vin’  ^I0CESE  0F  (Artumensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
1-765),  of  the  Greek  Armenian  Rite,  comprises  the 

i  o^o  r(ailCaSlan  Prov^nces  Artvin  and  Kars.  Since 
1878  Russia  has  prevented  the  appointment  of  a 
bishop  of  Tiraspol,  to  which  this  territory  was 
united  by  Russia  in  that  year.  By  1920  statistics 
there  aie  12,000  Armenian  Catholics  in  the  diocese 
25  missionary  priests,  30  churches  or  chapels  and 
22  elementary  schools  with  900  children. 

Ascoli-Piceno,  Diocese  of  (Asculanensis  Piceni- 
ensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-773d),  in  Italy,  is  under  the 
immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See.  Rt.  Rev. 
Bartolommeo  Ortolani,  who  came  to  this  see  in 
1877,  d.  7  May,  1910,  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Apollonno  Maggio,  b. 
1859,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Lystra  31  January, 
1910,  and  named  administrator  apostolic  of  Ascoli- 
Piceno  12  March,  of  the  same  year,  transferred  to 
this  see  13  May  following. 

According  to  most  recent  statistics  (1922)  the 
population  of  this  diocese  numbers  230,000  and  is 
divided  into  166  parishes.  There  are  190  secular 
and  15  regular  clergy,  9  convents  of  men  for  the 
Capuchins,  Conventualists,  and  Minor  Observants, 
1  convent  of  men  under  papal  cloister  with  20 
monks,  and  2  Benedictine  monasteries  under  epis¬ 
copal  cloister.  Among  the  religious  orders  of  women 
are:  21  Sisters  of  the  Infant  Jesus  who  conduct 
a  convent  for  30  children;  25  Sisters,  Pious  Work¬ 
ers  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  charged  with  50 
children;  14  Dominican  Sisters;  13  Sisters  of  Maria 
Auxiliatrice  in  charge  of  130  children,  and  a  public 
dispensary;  5  Sisters  of  Charity  who  conduct  an 
orphanage  for  girls,  with  90  orphans;  6  Daughters 
of  Charity  in  charge  of  a  civil  hospital;  7  of  the 
same  congregation  in  charge  of  a  poorhouse,  and 
14  Sisters  Felatrice  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  in  charge 
of  an  orphanage  for  girl  war  orphans,  of  whom 
there  are  80  in  the  institution.  An  infant  asylum 
is  connected  with  it,  and  2  other  infant  asylums, 
an  orphanage  and  a  community  house,  complete 
the  list  of  charitable  institutions  in  the  diocese. 
Various  societies  of  a  religious  or  charitable  char¬ 
acter,  numbering  in  all  120,  are  organized  through¬ 
out  the  diocese. 

Ascoli-Satriano  and  Cerignola,  Diocese  of  (As¬ 
culanensis  Apulue  et  Cerignolensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-774a),  in  the  province  of  Foggia,  Italy,  is  suffragan 
of  Benevento.  Rt.  Rev.  Angelo  Struffolini,  who 
came  to  this  see  15  April,  1901,  was  transferred  to 
the  titular  see  of  Philippi  in  July,  1914.  His  suc¬ 
cessor  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Sodo,  b.  at  Naples,  1862, 
was  appointed  19  February,  1915.  On  9  December, 
1918,  he  was  named  administrator  Apostolic  of 
Troja.  In  1920  there  were  70,115  Catholics  in  this 
diocese,  12  parishes,  100  secular  and  8  regular  clergy, 
30  seminarians,  100  churches  or  chapels,  4  brothers 
and  50  sisters. 

Asia  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-777b). — Population. — The  total 
population  of  Afeia  is  about  800,000,000,  divided  ac¬ 
cording  to  latest  available  statistics  as  follows: 
Siberia,  10,377,900;  Chinese  Republic,  320,650,000: 
Korea,  17,284,207;  Japan,  55,961,140;  Indo-China, 
16,990,229;  Siam,  8,819,686;  British  India,  244,267,- 
542;  Afghanistan,  6,380,500;  Persia,  9,500,000; 
Turkish  Empire,  8,000,000;  Arabia,  5,500,000.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  Moslem  World  for  1914,  there  are 
12,278,800  Mohammedans  in  Asiatic  Turkey;  8,421,- 
000  in  China;  66,000,000  in  India  and  Burma; 
35,000.000  in  the  Malav  Archipelago.  The  “Jewish 
Year  Book”  for  1921  gives  the  following  number  of 
Jews  in  various  Asiatic  countries:  Aden,  3,747; 
Afghanistan  and  Turkestan,  18,316;  Dutch  East 


ASIA 


60 


ASIA 


Indies,  10,842;  Hong  Kong  and  Straits  Settlements, 
366,145;  India,  20,980;  Palestine,  85,000;  Persia, 
40,000;  Russia  in  Asia,  76,262;  Turkey  in  Asia, 
177,500.  Previous  years  give  59,235  Jews  in  Meso¬ 
potamia,  77,458  in  Asia  Minor,  130,000  in  Arabia, 
and  20,000  in  Bokhara.  The  Chinese  “Year  Book” 
enumerates  600  Jews  in  China. 

Political  Geography  and  Recent  History. — In 
the  following  paragraphs  are  briefly  given  note¬ 
worthy  historical  facts  of  recent  years  and  the 
present  status  of  each  Asiatic  country. 

Siberia,  formerly  part  of  the  Russian  Empire,  now 
under  the  Russian  Bolsheviks,  except  Vladivostok, 
where  Japanese  troops  remain  in  occupation.  After 
the  Russian  revolutionary  outbreak  in  1917,  various 
independent  “governments”  arose  in  Siberia,  a  con¬ 
stitutional  government  being  finally  established  at 
Omsk  in  1918,  under  the  presidency  of  Admiral 
Polchak.  This  was  recognized  by  the  Allied  and 
Associated  Powers,  but  was  attacked  by  Bolshevik 
forces  in  1919,  removed  to  Irkutsk,  and  was  over¬ 
thrown  in  1920,  Kolchak  being  executed. 

China:,  formerly  an  empire,  declared  a  republic 
in  1912  and  distracted  by  civil  war  since  1917.  She 
entered  the  war  in  1917  on  the  side  of  the  Entente, 
refused  to  sign  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  which  acceded 
Japanese  rights  in  Shantung,  and  concluded  a  sepa¬ 
rate  peace  with  Germany.  In  1920  a  severe  drought 
caused  the  complete  failure  of  the  harvest  in  a 
large  area,  resulting  in  famine  in  the  latter  months 
of  the  year  and  in  1921.  Hongkong  belongs  to 
Great  Britain,  Macao  to  Portugal,  and  Kwang  Chau 
Wau  to  France. 

Japan,  an  Empire,  including  Korea  and  Formosa, 
with  mandatory  over  Shantung.  This  disputed  ter¬ 
ritory  was  wrested  by  Japan  from  Germany  in 
1914,  and  according  to  a  treaty  with  China  in  1915 
was  to  be  restored  to  Chinese  sovereignty.  Failure 
to  do  this,  and  other  alleged  encroachments  of 
China’s  rights,  have  aroused  much  bitter  feeling 
in  China  towards  Japan.  The  race  question  has 
beeh  an  issue  between  the  United  States  and 
Japan.  Universal  suffrage  in  the  Empire  has  been 
seriously  debated,  with  no  definite  outcome  as  yet. 
The  budget  for  1921  included  enormous  sums  for 
naval  and  military  expenditure,  this  arousing  much 
unfavorable  comment  from  other  powers.  Japanese 
activities  in  the  war  were  mostly  local,  including 
intervention  in  Siberia  in  1918  and  the  seizure  of 
Shantung  in  1914. 

Siam,  an  independent  monarchy. 

French  Indo-China,  a  French  dependency,  com¬ 
prising  the  colony  of  Cochin  China,  the  protec¬ 
torates  of  Annam,  Cambodia,  Tonking,  and  Laos, 
and  the  territory  of  Kwang  Chau  Wau,  leased  from 
China.  She  contributed  money  and  supplies  as 
well  as  troops  to  France  during  the  war.  Recent 
judicial  and  legislative  reforms  and  educational 
progress  are  noteworthy. 

Nepal,  an  independent  kingdom  in  the  Himalayas. 

Bhutan,  an  independent  state  in  the  Himalayas. 

India  {Portuguese) ,  the  four  provinces  of  Goa, 
Damao,  Diu,  and  Timor. 

India  {French),  the  five  provinces  of  Pondicherry, 
Karikal,  Chandernagar,  Mahe,  and  Yanaon. 

India  {British),  an  empire  of  the  British  Crown, 
administered  by  a  governor-general.  The  Govern¬ 
ment  of  India  Act  of  1919  granted  the  natives  a 
greater  representation  in  the  government,  and 
greater  provincial  autonomy  was  forced  by  the  ap¬ 
pointment  of  five  new  provincial  governors  to  take 
office  in  December,  1920,  and  January,  1921.  India 
sent  troops  to  the  European  battlefronts  and  fought 
actively  in  the  Turkish  campaigns. 

Baluchistan,  a  country  comprising  British  and 


administered  territory  and  the  native  states  of 
Kalat  and  Las  Bela. 

Afghanistan,  an  hereditary  monarchy  with  foreign 
policy  under  control  of  the  British  Government  of 
India.  Relations  with  India  are  strained,  as  a  re¬ 
sult  of  the  war  between  the  countries  in  1919. 
Bolshevik  influences  are  feared  here  as  well  as  in 
Persia,  India,  and  China,  because  of  proximity  to 
Russian  Bolshevism. 

Persia,  a  monarchy,  whose  unstable  government 
made  necessary  the  intervention  of  Great  Britain 
and  Russia,  resulting  in  the  Anglo-Russian  treaty 
of  1907  according  to  w'hich  both  powers  agreed  to 
respect  the  integrity  and  independence  of  Persia, 
while  controlling  her  sources  of  revenue.  During 
the  war  German  influences  fomented  disorders  in 
Persia,  though  she  maintained 'neutrality  through¬ 
out.  British  and  Russian  troops  opposed  the 
Turkish  invasion  of  Persia  in  1918.  The  dissolution 
of  the  Russian  Empire  aroused  efforts  in  Persia 
towards  genuine  independence,  and  in  1918  she  de¬ 
clared  the  Anglo-Russian  treaty  null  and  void.  In 

1919  by  the  Treaty  of  Teheran,  Persia  accepted 
British  co-operation  in  the  administration  of  her 
government,  construction  of  her  railways,  revision 
of  her  tariff,  and  maintenance  of  order  by  a  force 
of  military  police.  In  1920  Bolshevist  forces  threat¬ 
ened  the  country. 

Arabia,  a  peninsula  in  great  part  desert  land  oc¬ 
cupied  by  Bedouin  tribes,  with  oases  and  coastal 
districts  populated  by  settled  peoples,  politically 
divided  as  follows:  On  the  west  coast,  the  kingdom 
of  Hejaz  (former  Turkish  principality,  which  at¬ 
tained  its  independence  during  the  war  [1916]  and 
where  are  situated  Mecca  and  Medina,  the  holy 
places  of  Islam),  the  principate  of  Asir  and  the 
imamate  of  Yemen;  in  the  south,  the  British  pro¬ 
tectorate  of  Aden  and  the  province  of  Hadramant, 
mostly  desert  waste ;  on  the  east  coast,  the  sultanate 
of  Oman,  the  maritime  district .  of  the  emirate  of 
Nejd  and  Hasa,  and  the  sultanate  of  Koweit;  in 
Central  Arabia,  the  emirate  of  Nejd  and  Hasa  and 
the  emirate  of  Jebel  Shammar;  the  emirate  of 
Kerak  is  Transjordania. 

Mesopotamia,  a  state  independent  of  Turkey 
since  1920,  under  mandate  of  Great  Britain. 

Palestine,  a  state  independent  of  Turkey  since 

1920  under  mandate  of  Great  Britain,  comprising 
the  districts  of  Jerusalem,  Jaffa,  Gaza,  Beersheba, 
Samaria,  Phoenicia,  and  Galilee. 

Syria,  a  state  independent  of  Turkey  since  1920, 
under  mandate  of  France. 

Armenia,  independent  state  comprising  the  vila¬ 
yets  of  Erzerum,  Trebizond,  Van  and  Bitlis,  with 
boundaries  to  be  determined  by  arbitration  between 
the  United  States  and  Turkey.  Armenian  massacres 
were  one  of  the  horrors  of  the  war. 

Kurdistan,  an  antonomous  state  since  1920. 

Smyrna,  chief  seaport  of  Asia  Minor,  with  some 
hinterland,  formerly  Turkish,  is  under  Greek  man¬ 
date  for  five  years,  when  the  inhabitants  will  decide 
by  plebiscite  whether  to  be  annexed  to  Greece  or 
to  remain  under  Turkish  sovereignty. 

Asia  Minor  or  Anatolia,  the  extreme  western 
peninsula  of  Asia,  belonging  to  Turkey. 

Straits  Settlements,  a  colony  of  the  British. Crown, 
comprising  Singapore,  Penang,  and  Malacca. 

Malay  States  comprise  Johore,  Kedah,  Perlis, 
Kelantan,  and  Trengganu,  and  the  Federated  Malay 
States  of  Perak,  Selangor,  Negri  Sembilan,  and 
Pahang — all  under  British  protection. 

Islands. — Cyprus,  Ceylon,  Bahrein  Islands,  British 
North  Borneo,  Sarawak  and  Brunei  in  Borneo, 
Perim,  Sokotra,  Kuria  Muria,  Andaman,  Nicobar, 
Laccadine,  and  Keeling  Islands,  belonging  to  Great 


ASIA  MINOR 


61 


ASSOCIATIONS 


Britain;  Dutch  East  Indies,  comprising  Java  and 
Madura,  Suratra,  Rian-Lingga  Archipelago,  Banca, 
Billiton,  Borneo,  Celebes,  Molucca  Islands,  Timor 
Archipelago,  Bali,  and  Lombok. 

Turkey  in  Asia,  before  the  war,  comprised  Asia 
Minor,  Syria,  Palestine,  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan, 
Armenia,  and  part  of  Arabia.  By  the  terms  of  the 
Treaty  of  Sevres  (10  August,  1920),  she  retains 
only  part  of  Asia  Minor,  Smyrna  having  been 
granted  to  Greece.  Certain  concessions  made  to 
her  by  a  revision  of  this  treaty  in  1921  are  con¬ 
tested  by  Greece  with  open  hostilities.  The  war 
resulted  disastrously  for  Turkey,  her  power  was 
greatly  diminished,  her  territorial  losses  very  great. 
Strong  German  influences  within  the  Turkish  Em¬ 
pire  had  led  her  to  enter  the  war  allied  with  Ger¬ 
many.  She  had  but  recently  emerged  from  the 
Balkan  Wars,  defeated,  when  she  was  precipitated 
into  the  world  conflict.  Her  geographical  position 
prevented  her  from  being  of  direct  assistance  to 
Germany  in  Europe,  though  she  defended  the  Dar¬ 
danelles  and  the  Russian  frontier.  Asia  was  the 
scene  of  constant  struggle,  chiefly  against  British 
forces,  drawn  in  large  numbers  from  India.  The 
seizure  of  Basra,  the  capture  of  Kut  by  General 
Townshend  (September,  1915),  its  subsequent  siege 
and  surrender  to  Turkish  forces  (April,  1916),  -its 
recapture  (February,  1917),  and  the  occupation  of 
Bagdad  (March,  1917),  by  British  troops  under 
General  Maude  were  important  events  in  the  Meso¬ 
potamian  campaign.  The  surrender  of  Gaza,  Joppa, 
and  finally  Jerusalem  (December,  1917),  were  vic¬ 
tories  for  British  forces  under  General  Allenby  in 
Palestine.  All  these  culminated  in  the  great  Allied 
offensive  of  the  fall  of  1918  when,  simultaneously 
Allied  troops  pressed  northward  through  Syria,  cap¬ 
turing  Haifa,  Damascus,  Tyre,  Sidon,  Beirut,  and 
finally  Aleppo  (26  October)  and  through  Meso¬ 
potamia,  arriving  victorious  in  Mosul  (3 November). 
Turkey  surrendered  unconditionally  to  the  Allies 
30  October,  1918.  In  Arabia  the  Turks  were  opposed 
by  the  Arabs  themselves  who  revolted  against 
Turkish  rule  and  with  the  aid  of  the  British,  notably 
Col.  Thos.  Lawrence,  routed  the  Turkish  forces 
after  severe  fighting  and  established  the  independent 
kingdom  of  Hejaz.  Armenia,  divided  in  its  alle¬ 
giance  to  Russian  and  Turkish  sovereignty,  was  the 
scene  of  hideous  massacre  by  the  Turks,  and  thank¬ 
less  fighting  in  the  cause  of  Russia.  The  new  re¬ 
public  was  born  out  of  bloodshed  and  oppression. 

Asia  Minor,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Asue 
Minoris),  with  residence  at  Smyrna,  is  entrusted  to 
the  Archbishop  of  Smyrna,  who  acts  as  adminis¬ 
trator.  For  civil  history  see  Anatolia. 

Assam,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (Assamensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  I-793d),  in  the  ecclesiastical  province  of 
Calcutta,  India,  was  served  by  the  Society  of  the 
Divine  Savior  up  to  9  July,  1915,  when  the  Ger¬ 
man  Fathers  were  repatriated.  The  Belgian  Jesuits 
of  Bengal  took  charge  on  22  June,  1915,  and  served 
until  the  appointment  of  the  Salesian  Fathers  in 
July,  1921.  The  Rev.  L.  Mathias  is  Superior 
Regular  of  the  mission.  By  1920  statistics  the  total 
population  of  this  territory  is  7,309,800,  of  whom 
5,738  are  Catholics  and  800  catechumens.  The  re¬ 
mainder  of  the  population  is  divided  among  seven¬ 
teen  different  sects.  There  are  51  regular  priests, 
50  churches  or  chapels,  10  principal  mission  stations 
and  88  sub-stations  and  2  orphanages.  A  press 
established  at  Shillong  publishes  textbooks  and 
controversial  pamphlets  in  the  Khasi  language. 

Assessors  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-799d),  in  ecclesiastical 
courts  are  clerics  associated  with  judges  in  the  trial 


of  causes  as  advisers,  but  destitute  of  jurisdiction, 
formerly  a  judge  might  select  laymen  for  this  post, 
but  the  Code  now  provides  that  they  are  to  be 
chosen  from  among  the  synodal  judges. 

Assiout,  mission  in  Egypt,  is  the  seat  of  a  Coptic 
bishop  and  is  under  the  care  of  the  Friars  Minor. 
Rev.  Vincenzo  Fracisini  of  this  order  has  been 
superior  of  the  mission  since  its  erection  in  1907 
I  he  territory  has  a  population  of  15,000. 

Assisi,  Diocese  of  (Assisiensis;  C.  E.,  I-801b) 
m  the  province  of  Perugia,  Italy,  is  directly  sub¬ 
ject  to  the  Holy  See.  The  present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev. 
Ambrogio  Luddi  of  the  Dominican  Order,  b.  at 
Raggioli,  1841,  was  appointed  to  this  see  27  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1905.  In  1921  there  were  30,152  Catholics  in 
the  diocese,  of  whom  4,227  are  in  the  city  of  Assisi 
there  are  35  parishes,  186  churches,  19  students  in 
the  diocesan  seminary,  and  72  at  the  pontifical 
seminary.  Among  the  religious  orders  of  men  there 
are  58  priests  and  36  lay  brothers,  besides  46  broth- 
ersJin)Tvai^ous  congregations;  18  convents  for  men, 
and  17  monasteries  for  women  with  236  nuns.  The 
various  institutions  include  1  college  with  215  stu¬ 
dents,  an  institute  for  the  deaf  and  blind,  107  recrea¬ 
tion  centers  and  27  Circles  of  St.  Francis,  for  the 
young.  A  new  laboratory  and  recreation  center  will 
be  opened  under  the  patronage  of  St.  Francis  in 
iMZZ. 

Associations,  Pious  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-5). -Under  the 
general  title  of  associations  of  the  faithful  the  Code 
treats  of  secular  third  orders,  confraternities  and 
pious  unions.  A  secular  third  order  is  a  body  of  lay 
persons  (occasionally  clerics  are  enrolled)  who,  aim¬ 
ing  at  Christian  perfection,  follow  a  rule  inspired 
by  the  spirit  of  a  religious  order  but  suited  to  their 
conditions  as  laics,  and  approved  for  them  by  the 
Holy  See.  Pious  unions  are  associations  of  the 
faithful  erected  to  promote  the  practice  of  works 
of  piety  or  charity;  pious  unions  are  called  sodali¬ 
ties  when  they  are  organically  constituted,  that  is 
when  they  are  constitutionally  required  to  have  a 
president  and  a  body  of  assistants  and  councilors ; 
while  a  sodality  erected  to  foster  public  wnrship  is 
known  as  a  confraternity.  There  are  certain  non- 
ecclesiastical  though  pious  associations  of  Catholics, 
such  as  the  Conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
and  various  temperance  organizations,  which  have 
been  commended  and  enriched  with  favors  by  the 
pope;  yet  as  they  have  been  called  into  existence 
and  are  governed  not  by  the  Church  but  by  the 
laity,  they  are  not  bound  by  the  canon  law  govern¬ 
ing  associations.  As  societies  they  are,  therefore, 
exempt  from  episcopal  jurisdiction;  however,  they 
come  under  the  vigilance  of  the  bishop  in  so  far 
as  it  is  his  duty  to  see  if  there  is  anything  in  his 
diocese  that  is  a  source  of  danger  to  the  faith  or 
morals  of  his  subjects;  this  duty  of  vigilance  entails 
the  rights  of  visitation  (cf.  Acta  Apost.  Sedis,  1921, 
pp.  135-44). 

The  Church  recognizes  as  ecclesiastical  only  such 
associations  as  have  been  erected  or  approved  by 
lawful  ecclesiastical  authority;  that  is,  by  the  pope 
or  the  local  ordinary,  except  where  by  Apostolic 
privilege  the  right  of  institution  is  reserved  to  oth¬ 
ers.  When  such  a  privilege  has  been  granted  the 
erection  of  the  association  would,  as  a  rule,  be 
invalid  without  the  written  consent  of  the  ordinary, 
for  the  consent  of  a  vicar  general  or  vicar  capitular 
does  not  suffice.  When  an  ordinary  consents  to 
the  erection  of  a  religious  house,  that  permission 
suffices  also  for  the  erection  in  that  house  or  in 
the  church  belonging  to  it  of  an  association  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  religious  order,  but  not  organically  con- 


ASSOCIATIONS 


62 


ASSUMPTION 


stituted;  such  associations,  for  instance,  as  the 
Holy  Name  Society  in  Dominican  churches,  and  the 
Bona  Mors  or  the  Blessed  Virgin’s  Sodality  in 
Jesuit  churches. 

Associations  must  adopt  congruous  titles,  and 
must  have  their  rules  examined  and  approved  by 
the  Holy  See/or  the  local  ordinary,  the  latter  having 
power  to  supervise  and  modify  statutes  that  have 
not  hitherto  received  papal  confirmation.  All  pious 
associations,  even  those  erected  by  the  Holy  See, 
are  ordinarily  under  the  jurisdiction  and  supervision 
of  the  local  ordinary;  but  in  case  of  those  erected 
in  virtue  of  an  Apostolic  privilege  by  exempt  re¬ 
ligious  in  their  churches,  the  ordinary  must  not 
interfere  in  matters  of  internal  discipline  or  spiritual 
direction.  As  a  rule  the  chaplain  and  moderator  of 
an  association  are  appointed  by  the  local  ordinary; 
but  when  associations  have  been  erected  by  exempt 
religious  in  their  own  churches  the  local  ordinary’s 
consent  is  needed  only  if  the  superior  wishes  to 
appoint  a  secular  priest  as  chaplain  and  moderator. 
During  their  term  of  office  they  may  bless  and  im¬ 
pose  the  association’s  habit,  insignia  or  scapulars. 
Not  infrequently  the  moderator  also  acts  as  chap¬ 
lain. 

When  various  pious  associations  assemble  offi¬ 
cially  with  their  crosses  or  banners  and  habits  or 
insignia,  the  order  of  precedence  is,  as  a  general 
rule,  third  orders,  archconfraternities,  confraterni¬ 
ties,  primary  pious  unions,  other  pious  unions;  but 
in  processions  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  the  Con¬ 
fraternity  of  the  Holy  Eucharist  precedes  the  arch¬ 
confraternities. 

As  a  rule  any  Catholic  may  validly  join  a  pious 
association,  and  if  he  does  he  shares  in  its  rights, 
privileges  and  spiritual  favors  until  he  is  lawfully 
expelled.  Non-Catholics  and  members  of  condemned 
societies  or  those  under  notorious  censure  and  in 
general  public  sinners  cannot  be  received  validly  as 
associates.  A  person  may  be  enrolled  in  several 
associations,  but  not  in  two-third  orders  except  in 
virtue  of  an  Apostolic  indult.  Those  who  are 
absent  may  not  be  enrolled  in  organically  consti¬ 
tuted  associations;  those  who  are  present  can  be 
enrolled  only  if  they  know  and  consent;  by  special 
permission  of  the  Holy  See,  however,  young  chil¬ 
dren  and  even  the  dead  may  be  enrolled  in  certain 
confraternities.  A  religious  may  join  any  pious 
association,  unless  his  superior  judges  that  its  regu¬ 
lations  do  not  harmonize  with  his  religious  rule  and 
constitutions;  but  those  who  are  bound  by  perpetual 
or  temporary  vows  cannot  become  members  of  third 
orders,  nor  can  they  retain  their  membership  after 
their  profession,  if  they  have  previously  been  en¬ 
rolled  ;  however,  if  such  persons  return  to  the  world 
lawfully,  freed  from  their  vows,  their  former  mem¬ 
bership  revives. 

If  a  person  has  been  received  into  an  association 
his  name  should  be  entered  on  the  roll,  and  more¬ 
over,  must  be  entered,  under  penalty  of  invalid 
membership,  if  the  association  has  been  erected  as 
a  moral  person.  No  payment,  direct  or  indirect,  for 
reception  must  be  exacted,  except  what  the  statutes 
authorize  or  is  expressly  allowed  by  the  ordinary  in 
favor  of  the  association  under  special  circumstances. 
No  lawful  member  may  be  expelled  unless  for  just 
cause  and  in  accordance  with  the  statutes.  Those 
who  have  joined  forbidden  societies  or  who  are 
under  a  notorious  censure  or  who  have  become 
public  sinners  must  be  expelled,  if  they  have  failed 
to  amend  their  ways  after  being  duly  warned;  they 
have,  however,  a  right  to  appeal  to  the  ordinary  against 
their  expulsion.  Local  ordinaries  and  religious 
superiors  have  power  to  dismiss  members  from  asso¬ 
ciations  erected  by  religious  in  virtue  of  an  Apos¬ 


tolic  indult  even  when  the  statutes  do  not  ex¬ 
pressly  recognize  this  power. 

Associations  legitimately  erected  being  thereby 
ecclesiastical  moral  personalities,  have  the  right  to 
hold  general  meetings,  pass  rules,  and  elect  officers 
and  administrators  of  their  property,  in  accordance 
with  their  statutes  and  canon  law.  Their  general 
meetings  should  be  presided  over  by  the  bishop 
or  his  delegate,  who,  though  he  has  no  power  of 
voting,  has  to  approve  or  reject  the  officers  elected. 
The  ordinary  or  his  delegate  should  be  notified  in 
time  about  extraordinary  general  meetings,  other¬ 
wise  he  may  forbid  them  or  annul  their  decrees. 
For  grave  reasons  the  ordinary  may  suppress  any 
association,  except  those  erected  by  the  Holy  See, 
but  the  members  have  always  the  right  of  appeal 
to  Rome  against  his  action.  A  legitimately  erected 
association  may,  unless  the  contrary  is  expressly 
stated  in  the  statutes  or  the  decree  of  erection, 
hold  and  administer  temporal  property,  subject  to 
the  authority  of  the  ordinary.  The  parish  priest 
in  whose  parish  it  is  established  has,  however,  no 
right  to  interefere  in  these  matters,  except  with  the 
bishop’s  authorization.  The  association  must  render 
each  year  an  account  of  its  administration  to  the 
ordinary.  It  may  receive  offerings  and  apply  them 
to  'its  pious  purposes,  but  it  must  not  solicit  alms, 
unless  its  statutes  so  provide  or  necessity  urges, 
and  then  only  with  the  consent  and  according  to 
the  directions  of  the  local  ordinary.  If  it  should 
be  necessary  to  make  collections  outside  of  the 
diocese,  the  written  consent  both  of  the  local  ordi¬ 
nary  and  of  the  bishop  of  the  other  place  are 
necessary. 

Vermeersch-Creusen,  Epitovie  juris  canonici,  686-99. 

Assumption,  Little  Sisters  of  the  (cf.  C.  E., 
I-5d),  founded  in  1864  in  Paris,  France,  by  Rev. 
Etienne  Pernet,  one  of  the  first  members  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Augustinians  of  the  Assump¬ 
tion.  Born  at  Vellaxon  (Haute  Saone),  23  July, 
1824,  Fr.  Pernet  made  his  vows  25  December,  1850, 
and  was  ordained  in  1858.  The  co-foundress  was 
Antoinette  Fage,  who,  as  Mother  Marie  de  Jesus 
in  1865,  became  the  head  of  the  little  community 
established  in  a  modest  flat,  rue  St.  Dominique. 
They  removed,  7  April,  1870,  to  the  Convent  of 
Grenelle,  which  became  and  is  now  the  mother- 
house  of  the  congregation.  In  that  year  the  com¬ 
munity  numbered  24  members.  They  followed  the 
Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  and  the  founder  gave  them  a 
constitution  according  to  their  work.  His  predomi¬ 
nant  idea  was  to  give  the  Sisters  an  intense  interior 
life  to  animate  their  activity — daily  Little  Office 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  choir,  two  half-hours  medi¬ 
tation,  two  spiritual  readings.  In  1875,  after  exami¬ 
nation  of  the  constitution,  Cardinal  Guibert  gave 
his  approbation  and  encouragement  to  the  work. 
The  Little  Sisters  nurse  the  sick  poor  in  their  own 
homes,  without  regard  to  creed  or  nationality,  ac¬ 
cepting  no  remuneration  of  any  kind.  In  addition 
to  caring  for  the  patient,  they  keep  the  house 
clean  and  in  order,  urepare  the  meals  for  the  family, 
dress  the  children  and  send  them  to  school.  This 
work  of  charity  gives  them  a  great  influence  in 
the  home,  enables  them  to  re-enforce  the  faith 
and  religious  knowledge  of  the  family,  to  bring 
souls  back  to  their  religious  duties,  to  prepare 
adults  for  baptism,  abjuration,  Confirmation,  and 
First  Communion;  they  also  arrange  for  the  legali¬ 
zation  by  the  Church  of  marriages  merely  civil. 

That  the  founder’s  ideal  of  “union  through  charity 
of  the  two  classes  of  society”  might  be  realized,  the 
nuns  are  assisted  in  their  work  by  Lady-Auxiliaries, 
called  “Lady-Servants  of  the  Poor,”  who  take  an 


ASSUMPTION  OF  THE  BLESSED  VIRGIN 


63 


ATHABASKA 


active  part  in  the  labors  among  the  poor.  This 
branch  of  the  work  received  the  approbation  of 
Pope  Leo  XIII,  with  special  indulgences,  in  March, 
1881.  Two  confraternities  also  help  the  Sisters. 
Once  a  month  the  Confraternity  of  Our  Lady  of  the 
Assumption  gathers  together  the  fathers  of  families, 
a  priest  presides,  and  addresses  are  made  by  promi¬ 
nent  laymen  who  co-operate  in  the  work  under 
the  title  of  “Decurion.”  In  January,  1921,  Pope 
®.ene^c^  -X-V  granted  them  special  indulgences, 
lhe  Confraternity  of  the  Daughters  of  St.  Monica 
gathers  the  mothers  of  families,  under  the  guidance 
of  a  priest.  Once  a  month  an  address  is  delivered 
by  one  of  the  “Lady-Servants.” 

A  candidate  for  the  religious  order  may  make 
her  first  probation  in  her  own  country.  Postulancy 
lasts  hom  six  to  nine  months,  then  follows  a 

n0Vj^a^e  ^wo  years>  after  which  profession  is 
made.  Perpetual  vows  are  taken  eight  years  after 
the  first  profession.  The  congregation  received 
the  Apostolic  Brief  from  Pope  Leo  XIII,  29  March, 
1881,  was  granted  the  Decree  of  Praise  in  April' 
1897,  and  final  approbation  in  July,  1901.  The 
process  of  the  beatification  of  the  co-foundress, 
Mother  Marie  de  Jesus  (Antoinette  Fage),  was 
begun  in  September,  1921,  the  postulators  of  the 
cause  being  Rev.  Esteban,  procurator  general  of 
the  Hermits  of  St.  Augustine,  and  Bishop  Roland- 
Gosselm,  Auxiliary  Bishop  of  Paris,  President  of 
the  Ecclesiastical  Tribunal  in  Paris.  Mother  Marie 
de  Jesus  was  bora  in  Paris,  7  November,  1824, 
and  made  her  perpetual  vows  in  1878,  ruling  the 
community  until  her  death  in  1883.  She  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  as  superior  general  by  Mother  Marie  du 
St.  Sacrament,  who  by  special  decree  of  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Religious,  21  June,  1921,  will  re¬ 
main  at  the  head  of  the  congregation  until  her 
death. 

The  congregation  has  spread  throughout  the 
world.  In  1880  foundations  were  made  in  England; 
in  1891,  in  Ireland  and  New  York;  in  1900  in 
Belgium;  in  1903,  in  Rome;  and  in  1909,  in  Buenos 
Aires.  In  1922  the  congregation  numbers  1000 
members  with  32  houses  in  France,  3  in  Italy 
(Rome,  Turin,  Milan),  3  in  Ireland  (Dublin,  Cork 
Kingstown),  5  in  England  (at  Bow,  Notting  Hill, 
and  Clapham  in  London,  at  Norwich,  and  at  Ches- 
tw*  f  Belgium  (Brussels,  Antwerp,  la  Louviere, 
Marchienne-au-Pont),  1  in  Argentina  (Buenos 
Aires),  and  2  in  New  York  City,  N.  Y.  On  11 
April,  1891,  Mother  Marie  du  Christ,  with  five 
other  Little  Sisters  of  the  Assumption,  sailed 
from  Havre  for  New  York.  They  were  welcomed 
by  Archbishop  Corrigan,  who  had  visited  the 
mother-house  in  1891  to  ask  for  a  foundation  in 
his  diocese.  They  started  their  work  in  a  small 
house  on  Second  Avenue  and  removed  in  1892  to 
Sj  larger  house  on  East  Fifteenth  Street,  and  again 
m  1919  to  another  house  on  the  same  street.  A 
second  branch  in  New  York  was  established  uptown 
at  130th  Street  in  1900,  and  transferred  in  1917  to 
Convent  Avenue  and  144th  Street.  The  assistance 
of  the  Lady-Auxiliaries  is  encouraging,  and  the 
work  yearly  receives  new  impetus.  Cardinal 
Dougherty,  Archbishop  of  Philadelphia,  visited  the 
mother-house  in  1920,  when  returning  from  Rome, 
desiring  to  have  a  foundation  made  by  the  Sisters 
in  his  own  city  This  new  branch  will  be  estab¬ 
lished  in  September,  1922. 


Assumption  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  Sisters  of 
the,  a  religious  congregation  of  nuns  with  mother- 
, in.  Nicolet,  P.  Q.,  Canada,  founded  in 
bt.-Gregoire  of  Nicolet,  8  September,  1853,  by  the 
parish  priest,  Fr.  Jean  Harper,  and  four  young 
5 


girls  of  his  parish :  Leocadie  Bourgeois  (Sceur  de 
lAssomption),  Julie  Heon  (Sceur  de  Jesus), 
Mathilde  Leduc  (Sceur  Sainte-Marie),  and  Hedwige 
Buisson  (Soeur  Samt-Joseph).  The  end  of  the  con¬ 
gregation  is  the  education  of  children.  At  present 
the  Sisters  have  66  houses,  of  which  13  are  in 
the  United  States  These  are  at :  Southbridge, 
Diocese  of  Springfield,  Mass,  (founded  1891)  15 
Sisters,  705  pupils;  Spencer,  Diocese  of  Springfield 
Mass.  (1892),  11  Sisters,  401  pupils;  Meriden® 
cese  of  Hartford,  Conn.  (1893),  8  Sisters,  282 
pupils,  Indian  Orchard,  Diocese  of  Springfield 
Mass.  (1895),  8  Sisters,  371  pupils;  Brockton,  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Boston,  Mass.  (1902),  10  Sisters,  384 
PuPjJs;  Greenville,  Diocese  of  Manchester,  N.  H 

rUr  l  ?lsteArTs>  T-?5?  Pupils;  Laconia,  Diocese 
of  Manchester  N.  H.  (1906),  19  Sisters,  686  pupils- 
Lowell,  Archdiocese  of  Boston,  Mass.  (1907)  22 
m  Barton,  Diocese  of  Burlington, 

Vt'  (1?°a^  6  Sl®ters>  170  Pupils;  Glens  Falls,  Dio- 
cese  of  Albany,  N.  Y.  (1908),  9  Sisters,  284  pupils; 
Southbndge,  Diocese  of  Springfield,  Mass.  (1910) 

11 1  Sisters  508  pupils;  Hudson  Falls,  Diocese  of 
Albany,  N.  Y.  (1916),  8  Sisters,  252  pupils;  Bristol, 
Diocese  of  Hartford,  Conn.  (1918),  8  Sisters,  312 
pupils,  a  total  of  142  Sisters  and  5710  pupils. 

Asti,  Diocese  of  (Astensis;  cf.  C.  E  II-18b) 
one  of  the  divisions  of  the  province  of  Alexandria,’ 
Italy,  is  suffragan  of  Turin.  Rt.  Rev.  Giacinto 
Arcaugeh,  who  came  to  this  see  1898,  d.  6  February, 
1908,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent 
7C*  uTa  Luigi  Spandre.  Bishop  Spandre,  b.  at 
Caselle-Tormese  1853,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Tiberiade  3  September,  1899,  and  made  auxiliary 
a°±*  Archbishop  of  Turin,  was  transferred  to 
Asti  12  June  1909.  In  1920  the  Catholic  population 
numbered  182,600;  there  are  180  parishes,  300  secu¬ 
lar  and  20  regular  clergy,  85  seminarians,  525 
churches  or  chapels,  5  brothers  and  60  sisters. 

Diocese  of  (Aturicensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
11-1 8d),  comprises  parts  of  the  provinces  of  Leon 
Zamora  and  Orense  in  Spain  and  is  suffragan  of 
Valladolid.  Rt.  Rev.  Juliano  de  Diego  y  Alcolea 
who  came  to  this  see  in  1904,  was  transferred  to 
Salamanca  18  July,  1913,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt. 

TcSo'  Anthonio,  Senso  Lazaro,  born  in  this  diocese 
1868,  appointed  bishop  18  July,  1913.  In  1920  there 
were  401,000  Catholics  in  the  diocese,  890  parishes 
950  priests,  890  churches,  630  chapels,  18  convents 
with  90  religious  and  350  sisters. 

Aterrado,  Diocese  of  (Aterradensis),  in  the 
State  of  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Mari- 

iWf-s  erected  8  July,  1918,  by  a  separation 
oi  the  Archdiocese  of  Marianna,  the  western  portion 
being  taken  to  form  the  new  diocese.  The  eastern 
limits  of  the  diocese  of  Aterrado  coincide  with  the 
eastern  boundary  lines  of  the  parishes  of  Formiga, 

R oi  to-Real,  Dores  de  Judaya  and  Abaede,  which 
now,  with  fourteen  other  parishes,  are  comprised 
m  this  diocese.  The  first  and  present  bishop  of  the 
diocese,  Rt.  Rev.  Emmanuel  Nunes  Codho,  b.  in 
the  diocese  of  Diamantina,  was  appointed  10  June, 
1920.  Up  to  the  present  time  (1922)  no  statistics 
have  been  published. 

Athabaska,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Athabas-  - 
kensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-33b),  in  Canada,  is  suffragan 
to  the  Archdiocese  of  Edmonton.  Since  1907  the 
\  icariate  has  undergone  considerable  changes  owing 
to  the  building  of  new  railways  which  have  opened 
up  the  country,  which  for  the  most  part  consists  of 
vast  prairies  or  farm  land,  the  chief  occupation  of 
the  people  being  cattle-raising  or  farming.  The 
greater  number  of  the  people  are  Protestant  or  of 


ATHENS 


64 


ATONEMENT 


no  religion  at  all,  but  the  number  of  Catholics  is 
growing  slowly  and  parishes  are  being  formed.  Most 
of  the  new  inhabitants  come  from  the  United  States 
and  Europe,  with  some  from  Asia.  The  Indians 
who  were  the  first  inhabitants  of  this  territory,  have 
been  entirely  banished  by  the  influx  of  white  men, 
but  the  Canadian  government  has  assigned  them 
reservations;  they  are  almost  all  Catholic,  and  the 
civil  authorities  respect  their  faith,  and  Catholic 
boarding  schools,  aided  by  the  government,  have 
been  established  and  have  an  attendance  of  200 
Indian  children.  The  Vicariate  is  at  present  (1921) 
under  the  administration  of  the  Rt.  Rev.  Emile 
Grouard,  O.M.I.,  D.D.,  who  was  consecrated  titular 
Bishop  of  Ibora  1  August,  1891. 

During  the  World  War  five  missionaries,  Oblates 
of  Mary  Immaculate,  responded  to  the  call  of  the 
French  Government,  two  of  whom  won  the  croix 
de  guerre,  and  numbers  of  the  men  of  this  territory 
entered  the  service,  many  of  them  giving  up  their 
lives. 

The  Grey  Nuns  of  Montreal  have  been  estab¬ 
lished  in  this  district  for  many  years  and  have  been 
followed  by  the  Sisters  of  Providence  who  conduct 
6  schools,  and  in  1920  by  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  who  have  opened  a  school  for  the  children 
of  French  Canadians.  There  are  now  28  priests 
(Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate),  32  churches  or 
chapels,  64  Canadian  religious,  8  schools  with  600 
pupils,  and  a  very  modest  hospital  which,  in  spite 
of  its  size,  has  rendered  very  great  service. 

Athens,  Archdiocese  of  (Athenarum;  cf.  C.  E., 
II-46c),  in  Greece,  is  under  the  immediate  jurisdic¬ 
tion  of  the  Holy  See,  Archbishop  Delenda  who  came 
to  this  see  in  1900,  d.  10  September,  1911,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Most  Rev. 
Louis  Petit,  Assumptionist.  Archbishop  Petit,  b.  in 
the  diocese  of  Annecy  1868,  entered  the  Order  of 
the  Assumptionists  1885,  superior  at  Toulouse  1894- 
95  and  at  Kadi-Keui,  1895;  founder  and  editor  of 
“Echos  d’Orient”  and  co-publisher  of  the  “Recueil 
des  inscrits  chretiens  du  Mont-Athos,”  and  the 
charts  of  the  Greek  monasteries.  In  1902  he  went 
to  Rome  and  engaged  in  research  work  in  the 
Propaganda  and  Vatican  Archives,  preparatory  to 
the  Council  of  Armenian  Catholics  held  in  1911, 
the  year  in  which  he  was  made  assistant  general  of 
his  order;  elected  Archbishop  4  March,  1912,  and 
named  apostolic  delegate  to  Greece.  He  was  made 
a  consultor  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Oriental 
Church  29  November,  1917.  He  contributed  a  num¬ 
ber  of  articles  to  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia.  By 
1920  statistics  there  are  over  20,000  Catholics  under 
the  archbishop’s  jurisdiction,  and  of  these  8,600  are 
in  the  diocese,  properly  speaking.  There  are  14 
secular  and  12  regular  priests,  14  brothers,  53 
religious,  16  churches  or  chapels,  1  seminary,  2  lyce- 
ums  under  the  care  of  religious,  4  boarding  schools 
and  a  clinic  directed  by  religious  and  4  elementary 
schools. 

Atonement,  Friars  of  the,  a  branch  of  the  Third 
Order  Regular  of  St.  Francis,  which  follows  closely 
the  Rule  of  the  Friars  Minor,  and  was  founded  in 
1899  by  the  Rev.  Paul  James  Francis,  S.  A.,  a  clergy¬ 
man  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  who  was  even  then  en¬ 
dowed  with  a  de  fide  grasp  of  Catholic  truth  and 
while  clinging  to  the  ecclesiastical  organization  in 
which  he  had  been  reared,  bore  fearless  witness  to 
the  Apostolic  See  of  Rome  as  the  de  jure  divino 
center  of  Catholic  unity  and  communion.  The 
Church  Unity  Octave  (q.v.),  propagated  by 
the  Society,  originated  in  1908  and  the  following 
year  won  the  approval  and  blessing  of  Pope  Pius  X. 
It  has  since  been  extended  by  a  Papal*  BUef  of 


Pope  Benedict  XV  to  the  Universal  Church.  The 
first-fruits  of  this  observance  was  the  submission 
and  corporate  reception  of  the  Society  of  the 
Atonement  itself,  30  October,  1909.  The  institute 
was  permitted  to  retain  its  name,  its  dominant 
characteristics  and  spirit,  and  to  continue  its  organ, 
“The  Lamp,”  as  a  Catholic  publication.  The  Father 
Founder  took  a  seven  months’  course  of  theology 
at  St.  Joseph’s  Seminary,  Yonkers,  New  York,  and 
was  ordained  priest  16  June,  1910.  The  Friars  of 
the  Atonement  are  the  first  congregation  of  what 
is  known  as  the  Society  of  the  Atonement,  the 
second  congregation  being  the  Sisters  of  the  Atone¬ 
ment,  who  are,  however,  a  separate  organization, 
and  the  third  congregation,  or  Tertiaries,  being  at 
the  same  time  members  of  the  Third  Order  of 
Saint  Francis.  These  three  form  the  institute 
known  as  the  Society  of  the  Atonement  ( Societas 
Adunationis )  and  so  designated  by  the  Holy  Father. 
At  the  time  of  their  reception  into  the  Catholic 
Church,  two  professed  friars,  five  professed  sisters, 
and  ten  tertiaries,  seventeen  persons  in  all,  were 
received  in  the  convent  chapel  by  the  present 
Bishop  of  Ogdensburg,  Monsignor  Conroy,  acting 
for  His  Eminence  Cardinal  Farley,  just  ten  years 
after  Father  Paul  came  to  Graymoor  to  make  his 
foundation.  Up  to  this  time  the  growth  of  the 
Society  had  been  extremely  slow  and  hazardous, 
nothing  but  a  powerful  faith  in  a  God-given  mis¬ 
sion  sustaining  it;  but  it  now  received  new  life  and 
grew  rapidly,  and  its  activities  along  with  it.  The 
members  of  the  Rosary  League  have  grown  from 
a  handful  to  100,000,  and  countless  petitions  are 
offered  in  the  novenas  to  Our  Lady  of  the  Atone¬ 
ment  which  begin  the  first  Saturday  of  each  month. 
The  Union-that-Nothing-be-Lost  (q.v.),  the  in¬ 
strument  through  which  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
dollars  have  been  dispensed  to  missionaries  and 
their  work  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  numbers  50,000 
members.  There  are  1,500  Tertiaries  of  the  Society: 
All  through  these  years  “The  Lamp”  has  been  the 
organ  of  the  society,  the  work  of  both  the  Friars 
and  the  Sisters  being  extended  and  developed 
through  its  instrumentality.  This  publication 
reached  a  circulation  of  over  150,000  in  1921.  It  is 
devoted  chiefly  to  the  reunion  of  the  “other  sheep” 
with  the  Apostolic  See,  and  to  missionary  work. 
The  Friars  of  the  Atonement  now  (1921)  number 
13  professed,  4  novices,  and  10  postulants,  with  36 
aspirants  studying  for  the  priesthood  in  Saint  John’s 
Atonement  College,  Graymoor,  N.  Y.  Three  ter¬ 
tiary  priests  also  share  the  community  life  of  the 
Friars.  The  president  of  St.  John’s  Atonement 
College  is  Very  Rev.  Paul  James  Francis,  S.A., 
Father  Minister,  and  Charles  H.  Schultz,  T.S.A., 
is  director  of  studies,  there  being  a  staff  of  10 
teachers,  including  1  friar-priest  and  2  tertiary 
priests.  The  college  includes  the  scholasticate  with 
3  philosophers,  the  academic  department  with  21 
students,  and  the  preparatory  department  with  10 
students.  There  are  3  tertiary  priests  and  6  tertiary 
brothers  resident,  engaged  in  teaching  or  in  other 
departments  of  the  Friars’  activities.  The  Friars 
of  the  Atonement  serve  St.  John  the  Baptist 
Church,  Graymoor,  ministering  to  the  rural  com¬ 
munity.  Besides  the  original  foundation  on  the 
Mount  of  the  Atonement,  there  is  one  other  at 
Hereford,  Texas,  St.  Anthony’s  Church,  being  served 
by  Father  Salvator,  S.  A. 

Atonement,  Our  Lady  of  the. — The  first  Church 
dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  under  this  title  is 
in  Baguio,  Province  of  Benguet,  Philippine  Islands, 
the  Rev.  Jose  De  Samber  pastor.  This  church  was 
thus  dedicated  in  1919,  having  been  erected  largely 


AUCH 


65 


AUGOUARD 


by  missionary  donations  contributed  through  the 
Society  of  the  Atonement.  This  also  is  the  title 
under  which  the  Mother  of  God  is  invoked  by  the 
numerous  members  of  the  Rosary  League  of  Our 
Lady  of  the  Atonement. 


Auch  (Auxitana;  cf.  C.  E.,  II— 67d) ;  Archdiocese 
of,  in  h  ranee,  is  under  the  administration  of  Most 
Rev.  Jean  Fran^ois-Ernest  Ricard.  Born  at  Sau- 
vensa  Diocese  of  Rodez,  27  February,  1852,  he 
made  his  studies  at  Rome,  became  secretary  to  the 
bishop  and  afterwards  vicar  general  of  the  Diocese 
of  Rodez,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Angouleme  18 
April,  1901,  consecrated  29  June,  and  promoted  to 
the  Archdiocese  of  Auch  15  April,  1907,  succeeding 
Archbishop  Enard,  who  died  13  March,  1907.  Arch¬ 
bishop  Enard  had  filled  the  see  for  only  one  year, 
having  come  to  it  in  1906  as  successor  to  Arch¬ 
bishop  Balai'n,  who  died  13  May,  1905. 

Until  1789  the  Archbishops  of  Auch  bore  the  title 
of  Primate  of  Novempopulanie  and  the  two 
Navarres.  The  archdiocese  was  re-established  in 
1822  and  includes  the  dioceses  of  Condom,  Lec- 
toure,  and.  Lombez.  The  ancient  Cathedral  of 
Ste-Mane  is  famous  for  its  fifteenth  century  win¬ 
dows  and  for  its  great  choir  with  113  stalls  of  beau- 
tifully  carved  wood,  which  is  a  true  masterpiece 
of  the  Renaissance. 

The  carving  was  done  under  the  direction  of  the 
cardinals  of  Clermont-Lodeve  and  de  Tournon 
(1515-1554).  Since  its  establishment  (879)  this  dio¬ 
cese  has  had  51  bishops  and  62  archbishops,  of 
whom  6  have  been  canonized  and  12  have  been 
cardinals. 

Within  recent  years  a  new  lower  seminary  has 
been  erected  in  the  diocese;  a  diocesan  Synod  was 
held  in  September,  1911,  and  in  August  and  Septem¬ 
ber  of  the  same  year  a  pilgrimage  went  from  the 
diocese  to  the  shrine  of  Our  Lady  of  Lourdes. 

By  present  (1921)  statistics  this  diocese  has  507 
parishes,  15  chapels,  3  Carmelite  monasteries  for 
women,  1  convent  for  men  and  25  for  women,  540 
secular  and  5  regular  clergy,  10  brothers,  250  sisters, 

2  seminaries,  110  seminarians,  3  colleges  for  boys 
with  30  teachers  and  300  pupils,  120  elementary 
schools  with  250  teachers  and  4,000  pupils.  Chari¬ 
table  work  is  carried  on  by  diocesan  missionaries 
numbering  8;  in  addition  to  this  there  are  1  home 
for  the  aged,  2  orphanages,  and  15  hospitals.  There 
are  three  organizations  established  among  the  clergy, 
the  Apostolic  Union  of  Secular  Priests,  the  Priests 
Adorers,  and  “Jesus  Hostie,”  as  also  a  committee 
for  the  defense  of  the  priesthood;  among  the  laity 
are  the  Society  of  Catholic  Youth,  Catholic  Diocesan 
Union,  Association  of  Christian  Men,  various  con¬ 
fraternities  and  associations  of  Catholic  works  of 
Our  Lady  of  Auch.  Various  periodicals  are  pub¬ 
lished:  “Semaine  Religieuse,”  “Croix  du  Gers,”  and 
“La  Jeune  Ganoque.” 


five  priests  as  chaplains  and  4,200  men  into  the 
service. 

Present,  (1?21)  statistics  the  total  Catholic 
population  of  the  diocese  is  approximately  46,500 
4™h0M  37!000  ”e  New  Zealanders,  5,000  Irish,  and 

q70i,^anOnS-ooThe''e-are  50  .Parishes,  22  missions, 
97  churches,  92  mission  stations,  16  convents  for 

women,  51  secular  and  22  regular  priests,  296  sisters 
Various  educational  institutions  are  conducted  bv 
the  Little  Brothers  of  Mary,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Re- 
hgious  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Sisters  of  Saint  Joseph, 
and  Sisters  of  the  Missions;  there  are  in  all:  1  col- 

oAo6  ioTu^iU  ^ith,12  teachers  and  attendance  of 
j  schools  with  attendance  of  260  boys 

and  330  girls,  and  36  elementary  schools  with  182 
teachers  and  4,100  pupils.  The  charitable  institu- 
\h are:  1  home  for  the  aged  poor  (under  the 
Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor),  2  orphanages,  and  1  hos¬ 
pital.  h  our  of  the  public  institutions  permit  the 
priests  of  the  diocese  to  minister  in  them  The 
Hibernian  Benefit  Society,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
Society,  and  the  Catholic  Federation  are  established 
among  the  laity,  and  a  Catholic  periodical,  “The 
Month,  is  published. 


Auditors  (Cf.  C.  E.,  11-70)  are  officials  frequently 
appointed  by  the  bishop  or  religious  superior  to 
assist  at  diocesan  and  religious  tribunals  either 
permanently  or  for  a  particular  case.  If  none  has 
been  named  a  presiding  judge  may  select  one, 
who  should  be  chosen  if  possible  from  among  the 
synodal  judges.  It  is  the  duty  of  an  auditor  to 
summon  witnesses  .and  to  receive  their  testimony 
he  draws  up  the  judicial  record  of  the  case,  but 
does  not  render  a  definitive  judgment.  With  the 
reorganization  of  the  Roman  Curia  in  1908  the 
auditors  of  the  Sacred  Rota  were  called  upon  to 
take  a  much  more  prominent  place  in  the  ecclesias¬ 
tical  judicial  system  than  they  had  done  in  recent 
times.  If  an  auditor  of  the  Rota  is  suspected  of 
bias  the  aggrieved  party  may  lodge  an  objection 
with  the  Apostolic  Signature;  but  an  objection  to 
any  other  auditor  is  to  be  brought  to  the  notice 
of  the  judge  who  is  hearing  the  suit. 


Auckland,  Diocese  of  (Aijcopolitana;  cf.  C.  E., 
II-68b),  in  New  Zealand,  is  under  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Henry  William  Cleary,  born  at 
Glenranny,  Wexford,  this  diocese,  15  January,  1859, 
appointed  bishop  9  June,  1910,  consecrated  21 
August.  He  succeeded  Rt.  Rev.  George  Michael 
Lenihan,  D.D.,  who  had  filled  the  see  from  1896 
until  his  death,  22  February,  1910. 

The  principal  events  in  this  diocese  in  recent 
years  have  been  the  opening  of  the  enlarged  and 
redecorated  Cathedral  of  St.  Patrick  in  Auckland, 
the  introduction  of  the  Religious  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  Jesus  into  the  diocese,  the  appointment 
of  a  coadjutor  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  James  M.  Liston, 
consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Olympias,  12  Decem¬ 
ber,  1920.  During  the  World  War  the  diocese  sent 


Augouard,  Philippe-Prosper,  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Upper  French  Congo,  b.  16  September,  1852,  in 
Poitiers;  d.  3  October,  1921,  in  Paris.  He  studied 
tor  the  priesthood  at  the  lower  seminary  at  Seez 
under  the  direction  of  Mgr.  de  Segur,  and  was  about 
to  finish  his  studies  when  the  Franco-Prussian  War 
broke  out.  He  joined  the  Papal  Zouaves,  then  re¬ 
constructed  as  an  independent  regiment  under 
Colonel  de  Charette.  The  war  over  he  entered  the 
Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  in  1877  left 
for  the  missions  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa.  In 
1881  he  opened  the  first  mission  station  of  St 
Augustin  and  two  years  later  penetrated  to  Stanley 
Pool.  The  following  year  Jules  Ferry,  French  Min- 
lster  of  Education,  gave  him  a  large  grant  for 
schools  for  the  Upper  Congo.  Pere  Augouard  as¬ 
sisted  the  French  explorers  by  every  means  in  his 
ppwer,  seconding  their  work  by  the  creation  of  hos¬ 
pitals  and  schools,  and  winning  their  respect  by  his 
initiative  and  enterprising  zeal. 

Appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Sinis  in  1890  he  be¬ 
came  vicar  apostolic  of  Upper  French  Congo 
(Ubanghi),  with  his  residence  at  Brazzaville  and  a 
wide. field  for  his  missionary  zeal.  In  recognition 
of  his  services  the  French  Government  in  1896 
made  him  a  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor, 
and  in  1913  an  officer,  while  Belgium  bestowed  upon 
him  the  Order  of  Leopold.  On  the  twenty-fifth 
anniversary  of  his  episcopate,  1915,  the  Holy  Father 
appointed  him  titular  Archbishop  of  Cassiope. 


AUGSBURG 


66 


AUGUSTINIANS 


Mgr.  Augouard’s  unfailing  charity  endeared  him  to 
the  simple  natives,  for  in  spite  of  his  many-sided 
activities  as  engineer,  administrator,  professor, 
physician,  geographer,  he  was  above  all  bishop  and 
apostle. 

Augsburg,  Diocese  of  (Augustan  Vindelicorum  ; 
cf.  C.  E.,  II-73b),  in  Bavaria,  Germany,  suffragan 
of  the  Archdiocese  of  Munich-Freising.  The  diocese 
is  divided  into  60  deaneries  and  has  871  parishes, 

35  parochial  curacies,  263  benefices,  235  chaplaincies, 
and  14  mission  stations.  There  are  about  1,300 
churches,  21  monasteries,  1  archabbey  and  2  abbeys 
for  men,  364  lay  brothers,  209  convents  for  women 
with  3,622  sisters.  In  1921  the  clergy  of  the  diocese 
numbered  1,534:  1,353  seculars  and  181  regulars. 
There  is  1  diocesan  seminary.  The  University 
(H ochschule)  has  a  theological  and  a  philosophical 
faculty  with  19  professors  and  178  students.  There 
are  also  in  the  diocese  23  Hohere  Schulen  (9  and  6 
years  classical  course),  which  are  state  and  non¬ 
sectarian  institutions,  with  587  teachers  and  5,860 
students,  21  for  girls,  of  which  1  is  a  government 
school,  the  others  are  conducted  by  Sisters  and  are 
denominational  for  resident  students;  6  agricultural 
winter  schools,  1  industrial  continuation  school.  The 
elementary  schools  are  state  and  denominational 
and  number  900,  with  2,500  teachers  and  about 
95,000  students. 

The  following  societies  exist  among  the  clergy: 
Association  of  Priests,  1,220  members;  Marian  Con¬ 
gregation  of  Priests,  500  members;  Unio  Apostolica, 
180  members;  association  of  lecturers  or  catechists, 
30  members;  association  for  the  support  of  sick 
priests,  1,050;  fire  insurance  association,  about  200. 
Prominent  among  the  numerous  religious,  political, 
and  social  organizations  of  the  laity  are:  107  Cath¬ 
olic  workingmen’s  associations  (6,956  members) ; 

36  Catholic  workingwomen’s  associations  (3,576 
members) ;  5  Catholic  merchants’  associations  (800 
members) ;  61  young  men’s  associations  (800  mem¬ 
bers)  ;  43  young  women’s  associations  (2,500  mem¬ 
bers);  66  journeymen’s  unions  (4,000  members); 
19  associations  for  women  servants  (1,200  members) ; 
10  associations  for  men  servants  _  (2,180  mem¬ 
bers)  ;  442  Catholic  mothers’  associations  (28,000 
members);  115  press  associations  (139  corporation 
members,  6,200  individual  members) ;  1  academ¬ 
ical  association  (105  members) ;  3  mission  associa¬ 
tions,  9  altar  societies,  150  Marian  congregations 
(5,000  members) ;  21  Caecilian  societies  (600  mem¬ 
bers)  ;  620  farmers’  associations  (17,000  members) ; 
Caritas  Association  (310  branches) ;  People’s  League 
(248  branches,  15,320  members).  Eight  periodicals 
are  published  in  the  diocese. 

The  following  important  events  have  taken  place 
in  the  diocese  since  1907:  Creation  of  an  auxiliary 
bishop  in  1907;  an  addition  was  built  to  the  semi¬ 
nary  in  1912,  and  a  theological  course  of  four  years 
was  introduced,  1912-1914;  a  home  for  poor  priests 
was  opened  at  Fiissen;  a  diocesan  synod  was  held 
in  1919  and  Catholic  Congresses  ( Katholikentage ) 
were  held  in  1910  and  1921. 

Throughout  the  war  the  clergy  did  all  in  their 
power  to  give  spiritual  aid  and  comfort  to  the 
soldiers  and  unselfishly  gave  their  services  in  be¬ 
half  of  their  country.  Eight  priests  were  wounded 
on  the  field  of  battle,  19  served  as  chaplains  in 
field  hospitals,  and  39  as  nurses.  In  1918,  161  of 
the  seminarians  were  in  the  army;  of  these  41  were 
killed,  3  were  missing,  and  4  were  taken  prisoners. 
One  hundred  and  nine  army  hospitals  and  some 
maintained  by  private  organizations  were  estab¬ 
lished  in  the  diocese,  which  were  regularly  attended 
to  by  the  clergy.  The  prisoners  were  cared  for 


spiritually  by  the  priests  of  the  respective  place 
and  also  by  some  of  the  priests  who  were  prisoners. 
The  troops  as  well  as  the  prisoners  and  the  wounded 
were  provided  with  good  literature.  The  collec¬ 
tions  for  charities  during  the  war  amounted  to 
3,000,000  marks.  The  Catholic  Press  Association  of 
Bavaria  alone  published,  from  1915-1918,  24,272 
books.  The  pastors  of  Augsburg  weekly  distributed 
2,400  copies  of  the  “Katholische  Kirchenzeitung”  of 
Augsburg,  and  the  Aurische  Presse  at  Donauworth 
likewise  distributed  fortnightly  3,000  copies  of  its 
splendid  periodical  “Raphael.” 

The  present  bishop  of  Augsburg  is  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Maximilian  de  Lingg,  b.  at  Nesselwang,  8  March, 
1842,  ordained  22  July,  1865,  was  professor  of  canon 
law  and  history  at  the  seminary  at  Bamberg,  elected 
bishop  of  Augsburg  18  March,  1902,  consecrated 
20  July  following.  He  was  made  a  prelate,  assistant 
to  the  pontifical  throne,  28  March,  1908. 

Augustinians  of  the  Assumption  (cf.  C.  E., 

I-104a). — This  congregation,  founded  in  1845,  at  the 
College  of  the  Assumption  at  Nimes,  has  increased 
its  work  during  recent  years  in  spite  of  the  religious 
persecution  rigorously  pursued  in  France  since  1900, 
and  the  general  destruction  accompanying  the 
World  War.  In  addition  to  the  four  apostolic 
schools,  called  alumniates,  established  in  Belgium, 
one  was  founded  in  Holland  during  the  war  for  the 
education  of  Dutch  children,  another  in  London  for 
English  subjects,  and  two  in  Chile.  The  war  having 
facilitated  the  return  of  religious  to  France,  the 
congregation  has  re-established  itself  there  as  far  as 
possible,  having  three  apostolic  schools,  welfare  cen¬ 
ters,  and  eight  houses  of  residence.  Since  1910 
three  foundations  have  been  made  in  the  Argentine, 
at  Buenos  Aires,  where  in  addition  to  preaching, 
15  religious  have  the  care  of  welfare  centers,  an 
association  for  Catholic  youth,  an  association  of 
young  girls  called  “Noelistes,”  and  social  fraterni¬ 
ties,  being  aided  in  their  work  by  the  Little  Sisters 
of  the  Assumption  who  have  two  houses  there. 
In  the  Orient  their  work  suffered  much  during  the 
war.  Expelled  by  the  Turks,  after  some  of  their 
number  had  been  imprisoned  for  two  months,  and 
re-entering  France  after  a  variegated  journey  across 
Russia,  Sweden,  and  England,  crossing  the  North 
Sea  and  the  English  Channel  in  spite  of  the  danger 
of  submarines,  150  religious  returned  to  the  Orient 
as  soon  as  the  war  was  over,  to  re-establish  their 
works  there  and  the  houses  more  or  less  impaired 
by  the  war.  Twenty  houses,  colleges,  and  schools 
have  been  reopened.  The  College  of  Philippopoli, 
in  Bulgaria,  in  its  new  buildings  in  the  center  of 
the,  city,  recognized  and  endowed  by  the  French 
Government  and  patronized  by  the  Bulgarian  Gov¬ 
ernment,  is  more  prosperous  than  ever.  The  bache¬ 
lor’s  degree  conferred  there  is  recognized  by  both 
the  French  and  Bulgarian  Governments,  French 
and  Bulgarian  being  the  two  official  languages  of 
the  college.  Bulgarian  ministers  and  officers  have 
graduated  there.  The  schools  at  Varne  and  Adri- 
anople  have  been  erected  into  colleges  since  the 
war. 

Fr.  A.  Vanhove,  formerly  superior  of  Notre  Dame 
de  France  at  Jerusalem,  was  named  superior  of 
the  missions  in  the  Orient  in  1918,  and  died  in 
January,  1919,  a  victim  of  the  catastrophe  of  the 
“Chaouia,”  which  foundered  in  the  Strait  of  Messina 
on  a  floating  mine.  Fr.  Michael  d’Hondt  and  three 
Oblates  of  the  Assumption  died  in  the  same  disaster. 
Fr.  Gervais  Quenard  succeeded  Fr.  Vanhove  as 
provincial.  At  Kadikoi  the  school  of  higher  Byzan¬ 
tine  studies,  the  office  of  the  review,  “Echos 
d’Orient,”  has  gained  new  vigor  under  the  direction 


AUGUSTINIANS 


67 


AUGUSTINIANS 


of  Fr.  S.  Salaville,  who  succeeded  Fr.  L.  Petit. 
Many  of  the  editors  of  “Echos  d’Orient”  have 
acquired  fame  in  the  scientific  world  by  their  col¬ 
laboration  in  different  Oriental  reviews  and  encyclo¬ 
pedias  and  by  their  works:  Fr.  J.  Pargoire  (d. 
1907)  wrote  “L’Eglise  byzantine  de  527  a  847,” 
“Recueil  des  inscriptions  chretiennes  du  Mont 
Athos,”  etc.  Fr.  J.  Thibout,  who  had  occasion  to 
decipher  valuable  manuscripts  in  the  Imperial  Li¬ 
brary  of  Petrograd,  wrote  “Monuments  de  la  nota¬ 
tion  ekphonetique  et  neumatique  de  FEglise  latine,” 
“Monuments  de  la  notation  ekphonetique  et 
hagiopohte  de  FEglise  grecque,”  etc.;  Fr.  R.  Louaru 
wrote  Memento  de  theologie  morale  a  l’usage  des 
missionaries,”  etc.;  Fr.  Jugu  wrote  “Nestorius  et  la 
controverse  nestorienne”  (collection:  “Bibliotheque 
de  theologie  historique”),  “Histoire  du  canon  de 
1  ancien  Testament  dans  FEglise  grecque  et  FEglise 
russe,”  “La  Priere  pour  l’unite  chretienne,”  etc. 
The  last  two  are,  with  Fr.  S.  Vailhe,  professors  at 
the  Oriental  Pontifical  Institute,  founded  by  Pone 
Benedict  XV.  *  p 

Another  Assumptionist  of  note  is  Mgr.  Petit, 
former  superior  of  the  school  of  higher  studies  at 
Kadikoi  and  former  director  of  the  “Echos 
d  Orient.”  He  was  named  by  Pius  X  in  1912  arch¬ 
bishop  and  delegate  apostolic  at  Athens,  being 
appointed  there  because  of  his  perfect  knowledge 
of  the  Greek  language  and  of  Oriental  affairs.  He 
published  with  Fr.  Pargoire  “Recueil  des  inscriptions 
chretiennes  du  Mont  Athos,”  and  “Chartres  de 
monasteres  grecs  (5  vols).  In  1908  he  engaged  in 
research  work  in  the  Propaganda  archives,  and 
was  theologian  and  consultor  of  the  Council  of 
Armenian  Catholics  in  1911.  His  principal  work 
is  the  continuation  of  the  famous  collection  of  the 
Councils  by  Mansi,  in  collaboration  with  Abbe 
Martin.  More  than  twenty  volumes  have  appeared 
and  supplements  have  been  added  to  complete  the 
first  volumes  of  Mansi.  The  documents  of  the 
Council  of  the  Vatican  will  comprise  five  volumes  * 
tw?  j  lve  aPPeared  accompanied  by  notes  and  pre¬ 
ceded  by  a  masterly  preface  in  Latin  by  Mgr.  Petit, 
who  ha-s  been  able  to  consult  the  secret  and  reserved 
aLc"IYes  °f  the  council  with  the  kindly  authorization 
ot  Pius  X.  This  collection  is  one  of  the  most 
important  literary  works  of  the  twentieth  century 
The  splendid  hostelry  of  Notre  Dame  de  France 
at  Jerusalem,  from  which  the  religious  were  ex- 
pelled  by  the  Turks  during  the  war,  was  not  in¬ 
jured  during  its  military  occupation  first  by  the 
1  urks  and  then  by  the  English,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  a  religious  who  because  of  his  German 
origin  found  favor  with  the  military  force.  The 
first  series  of  pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  Land  were 
resumed  after  the  war  in  1922.  On  this  occasion 
the  professors  of  Notre  Dame  de  France  at  Jeru¬ 
salem  re-edited  and  brought  up  to  date  “La  Pales¬ 
tine,  an  historical  guide,  both  devout  and  scientific, 
to  the  Holy  Places.  The  church  of  Notre  Dame 
de  France,  which  was  enriched  by  Pope  Leo  XIII 
with  the  indulgence  of  the  Tomb  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  was  made  by  Fr.  V.  de  P.  Bailly  the  center 
oi  the  .Society  of  the  Crusaders  of  Purgatory. 

Russia  became  a  field  of  activity  for  the  congre¬ 
gation  several  years  before  the  war,  due  to  the 
liberality  and  broadmindedness  of  'the  Russian  min¬ 
ister,  Stolypine.  The  religious  established  influen¬ 
tial  intellectual  centers  at  Petrograd,  Moscow,  and 
Udessa,  and  founded  a  review  in  the  Russian  lan- 
guage  to  make  Rome  better  known  to  the  Slavs. 

1  he  Russian  revolution  destroyed  these  works  and 
expelled  the  religious,  with  the  exception  of  one 
who  was  hunted  and  finally  imprisoned  by  the 
Bolsheviks.  The  Fathers  are  preparing  to  re-enter 


h°P.iQg  for  greater  religious  liberty  under 
the  Bolsheviks  than  under  the  former  Government. 

n  the  United  States  the  College  of  the  Assump¬ 
tion  founded  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  in  1903,  has 
developed  rapidly.  Teaching  is  bilingual.  The 
program  of  studies  includes  an  elective  course  in 
philosophy  and  such  obligatory  courses  as  are  es¬ 
sential  to  the  formation  of  a  thorough  and  general 
knowledge.  The  college  confers  degrees  upon  those 
who  successfully  pass  a  final  examination.  There 
are  accommodations  for  250  boarders,  and  many 
priests,  religious,  doctors  and  lawyers  are  among 
the  alumni..  The  Fathers  have  two  parishes  in 
JNIew  York,  in  one  of  which  the  prqvincial  Fr.  T. 

esse,  resides.  In  1916  a  foundation  was  made  in 
Quebec,  Canada,  where  the  novitiate  for  the  Amer¬ 
ican  province  was  erected  the  following  year.  The 
headquarters  for  Canada  of  the  Archconfraternity 
of  Prayer  and  Penance  in  honor  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
of  Jesus  is  at  the  convent  of  Jeanne  d’Arc,  Quebec 
and  for  the  United  States  at  the  Church  of  Our 
Lady  of  Hope,  New  York.  This  archconfraternity 
numbeis  more  than  300,000  members,  and  was 
established  in  the  United  States  by  Fr.  M.  Clement 
Staub. 

^  In  France  the  numerous  branches  of  work  of  the 
\Bonne  Presse”  are  under  the  hidden  but  real  in¬ 
fluence  of  the  religious.  Several  years  before  the 
war  a  third  daily  supplementary  page  on  doctrinal 
subjects  was  added  to  the  regular  two-page  journal, 
La  Croix  ;  there  are  treated  questions  concerning 
popular  theology,  apologetics,  philosophy,  social 
science,  and  spirituality.  The  number  of  interesting 
and  instructive  reviews  on  Rome,  Jerusalem,  Notre 
Dame,  and  the  Eucharist  was  increased.  The  diffi¬ 
culties  of  the  war  made  necessary  the  suppression 
of  some  of  these  reviews;  those  on  Rome  and  the 
Eucharist  have  been  revived.  The  review  “Le 
Noel  continues  to  spread  throughout  all  countries 
and  Rom  it  have  been  founded  three  other  reviews 
La  Maison,”  “L’Etoile  Noeliste,”  and  “L’echo  du 
Noel.  Le  Noel”  has  a  special  office  in  Buenos 
An  es,  with  a  Spanish  edition  under  the  direction 
of  a  religious  who  also  has  under  his  care  the  young 
men  and  women  of  South  America.  The  “Bonne 
Presse”  also  publishes  the  “Annuaire  pontifical 
catholique,  commenced  by  Mgr.  Battandier,  and 
continued  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Assumption.  An 
index  of  the  first  twenty  volumes  (1898-1917)  has 
just  been  published.  Two  important  reviews  of 
recent  date  are  also  published  by  the  “Bonne 
Presse”:  the  “Documentation  catholique”  and 
Pretre  et  Apotre.”  The  “Documentation  catho- 
“fluo  is  a  weekly,  founded  in  1919  by  the  fusion 
of  four  documentary  magazines  which  the  war  in¬ 
terrupted:  “Questions  actuelles,”  “La  Chronique 
de  la  Presse,”  “La  Revue  d’organization  et  de 
defense  rehgieuse,”  and  “L’ Action  catholique.”  It 
treats  of  religious,  social,  political,  literary,  his¬ 
torical,  juridical,  national,  and  international  sub¬ 
jects  giving  varied  information  derived  from 
periodicals  of  all  nations  and  every  language.  It 
constitutes  a  documentation  of  general  opinion, 
valuable  alike  in  fortifying  the  Catholic  mind  and 
developing  the  civic  information  of  the  elite  in 
grouping  in  one  magazine  all  the  authentic  texts 
oi  which  the  Catholic  has  need  who  desires  to 
participate  in  the  life  of  the  Church  and  the  State. 
Ihe  Pretre  et  Apotre,”  founded  during  the  war, 
was  originally  called  “Le  Pretre  aux  armees.”  It 
was  meant  to  sustain  the  religious  spirit  of  priests 
and  religious  in  the  army.  Since  the  end  of  the 
war  it  has  become  an  eminently  serious  and  doc¬ 
trinal  review  for  the  clergy,  a  bulletin  of  the  in¬ 
terior  life  and  of  the  apostolate,  giving  subjects 


AUSTRALIA 


68 


AUSTRALIA 


for  meditation  instruction,  and  spiritual  direction, 
extracts  of  sermons,  conferences,  pastorals,  and 
liturgy.  With  the  war  unfortunately  disappeared 
the  “Revue  Augustinienne,”  a  serious  doctrinal 
review,  founded  in  1902,  and  edited  by  a  group 
of  professors  eminent  at  the  University  of  Louvain 
and  universally  esteemed.  Outside  of  the  general 
questions  treated,  it  contributed  largely  to  the 
revival  of  Thomistic  philosophy. 

The  war  gave  an  opportunity  to  the  “Associa¬ 
tion  of  Our  Lady  of  Salvation,”  founded  in  1871  by 
Fr.  Picard,  second  superior  general,  and  continued 
by  his  successors,  to  show  its  fecundity.  During 
the  war  it  distributed  10,500  portable  altars  to  the 
armies,  brought  aid  to  ravaged  dioceses,  celebrated 
innumerable  Masses  for  dead  soldiers,  made  numer¬ 
ous  appeals  for  war  orphans,  continued  the  pil¬ 
grimages  to  Lourdes,  especially  that  of  1916,  when 
it  conducted  1200  children  to  the  grotto,  delegates 
of  more  than  800,000  little  ones  who  sent  up  a 
fervent  petition  to  the  Virgin  of  Massabielle  for 
the  victory  of  the  Allies.  A  Brief  of  Pope  Benedict 
XV  in  1919,  enriched  the  association  with  new 
indulgences. 

During  recent  years  the  congregation  has  lost 
many  of  its  eminent  members.  In  1912  Fr.  V.  de 
P.  Bailly  (q.v.),  died  at  Paris  at  the  age  of  eighty 
years.  His  brother,  Fr.  E.  Bailly  (q.v.)  third 
superior  general,  died  in  1917.  Fr.  Germer-Durant, 
a  learned  Orientalist  and  epigraphist,  officially 
charged  with  excavations  and  scientific  researches 
in  Palestine,  correspondent  of  the  “Societe  des 
Antiquaires”  of  France,  died  in  1917.  Since  the 
death  of  Fr.  Bailly  (1917),  the  congregation  has 
been  governed  by  Fr.  J.  Maubon,  vicar  general, 
formerly  superior  of  the  mission  of  the  Orient  and 
Chile.  A  new  superior  general  is  to  be  named  in 
1922. 

The  general  chapter  of  the  Congregation  held 
at  Rome  at  the  end  of  1921  has  reorganized  the 
congregation  in  conformity  with  the  new  Code  of 
Canon  Law.  The  provinces  constituted  are:  3  in 
France,  1  in  Belgium,  1  in  the  United  States,  1 
in  Chile,  each  with  its  own  novitiate  and  scholas- 
ticate  of  philosophy.  The  novitiate  lasts  one  year, 
and  the  course  of  philosophy  for  the  religious  is 
three  years.  There  are  at  present  700  religious  and  90 
houses.  The  congregation  has  under  its  direction, 
the  Oblates  of  the  Assumption,  who  have  boarding 
schools  in  France,  Belgium,  the  Orient,  and  Eng¬ 
land;  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Assumption,  who 
are  established  outside  of  France  in  different  cities 
of  Belgium,  England,  Italy,  Chile,  and  the  United 
States  where  they  have  foundations  in  New  York 
and  Philadelphia;  the  “Orantes,”  a  community  of 
contemplative  religious,  founded  by  Fr.  Picard  in 
1900,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Comtesse  d’Ursel, 
first  superior  general,  who  died  at  Paris  in  1921 ; 
and  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joan  of  Arc  (q.v.). 

Australia  (cf.  C.  E.,  II— 113d) ,  Commonwealth 
of,  is  a  self-governing  federal  state  under  the  British 
Crown,  comprising  six  states  and  two  territories. 
These,  with  their  population  according  to  the  1911 
census,  are:  New  South  Wales,  1,646,734;  Victoria, 
1,315,551;  Queensland,  605,813;  South  Australia, 
408,558;  West  Australia,  282,114;  Tasmania  (a  sep¬ 
arate  island),  191,211;  Northern  Territory  (trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  Commonwealth  of  South  Australia 
1  January,  1911),  3,310;  Federal  Territory  (trans¬ 
ferred  on  the  same  date  by  New  South  Wales), 
1,714;  total,  4,455,005.  The  estimated  total  popula¬ 
tion  of  the  Commonwealth  on  1  January,  1920,  was 
5,247,019.  An  area  of  28  square  miles  at  Jervis  Bay 
was  acquired  for  purposes  of  a  naval  college,  and 


the  right  to  construct  a  railway  from  the  capital 
thereto.  The  total  area  is  2,974,581  square  miles. 
Dependencies  of  Australia  are  Papua  and  Norfolk 
Island. 

Religious  Statistics. — The  ecclesiastical  divisions 
of  the  Australian  Commonwealth  in  1920  were  6 
archdioceses,  13  dioceses,  1  abbey  nullius,  3  vica¬ 
riates  apostolic,  and  1  prefecture  apostolic.  There 
is  thus  a  total  hierarchy  of  26  prelates  exercising 
episcopal  jurisdiction,  including  1  delegate  apostolic 
and  1  coadjutor  archbishop.  The  former  Diocese 
of  Port  Victoria  and  Palmerston  was  established  as 
the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  the  Northern  Territory 
in  1906.  The  Diocese  of  Wagga  Wagga  was  erected 
from  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Goulbourn  in  1917. 

The  number  of  Catholics  in  the  various  provinces 
in  1911  was  as  follows:  New  South  Wales,  402,313; 
Victoria,  278,465;  Queensland,  141,161;  South  Aus¬ 
tralia,  53,467;  West  Australia,  58,449;  Tasmania, 
29,576;  total,  963,431.  The  total  number  of  Jews 
was  17,287.  The  numerical  strength  of  the  principal 
religious  groups  in  the  different  states  in  1911  is 
given  in  the  table  on  the  following  page,  compiled 
from  the  Australian  Year  Book  for  1917. 

Economic  Conditions. — The  total  foreign  trade 
of  Australia  for  the  fiscal  year  1919  amounted  to 
$905,594,818;  that  with  the  United  States  to  $166,- 
215,240,  of  which  $125,672,693  represent  imports 
from  the  United  States  to  Australia  and  $40,542,277 
wTere  exports  from  Australia  to  the  United  States. 
The  countries  contributing  chiefly  to  Australia’s 
imports  are  the  United  Kingdom  and  other  British 
possessions,  the  United  States,  and  Japan.  The  cus¬ 
toms  tariff  Act  of  1920  gives  the  preference  to  goods 
to  and  from  the  United  Kingdom.  During  the 
war  the  wheat  crop  of  Australia  was  controlled 
by  Government  pools  in  the  different  states,  which 
guaranteed  the  farmer  a  price  and  made  advances. 
For  1919-1920  the  wheat  yield  was  placed  at  46,210,- 
380  bushels.  The  development  of  barley  culture 
of  late  years  has  been  very  large.  The  wool  clip 
which  passed  through  the  hands  of  dhe  Central 
’Wool  Committee  amounted  to  652,109,672  pounds, 
or  2,025,486  bales,  valued  at  $204,516,430.  All  this 
wool  went  to  the  Imperial  British  Government  at 
a  flat  rate  of  15*4  pence  a  pound.  The  imperial 
contract  ended  30  June,  1920.  The  total  number 
of  sheep  in  the  Australian  Commonwealth  in  1918 
was  84,965,012.  Plans  are  being  made  to  foster 
the  manufacture  of  woolen  goods.  Sydney  is  the 
chief  shipping  port  of  Australia,  and  in  spite  of 
war  difficulties  has  a  shipping  trade,  exceeded  by 
only  four  ports  in  the  United  Kingdom,  Liverpool, 
London,  the  Tyne,  and  Cardiff.  The  total  area  of 
the  port  consists  of  14,284  acres,  of  which  3,000 
acres  have  a  depth  of  35  to  160  feet.  A  Com¬ 
monwealth  Bureau  of  Commerce  and  Industry 
was  established  in  1919  to  organize  the  country’s 
resources  and  form  a  policy  for  the  expansion  of 
trade,  improvement  of  methods  and  establishment 
of  new  industries. 

The  chief  difficulty  with  the  Australian  railway 
system  has  been  with  the  varying  gauges  of  the 
states,  each  state  having  begun  its  own  system 
and  adopted  its  own  gauge  without  considering  the 
subsequent  necessity  of  linking  up  with  another 
line.  It  was  decided  in  1920  to  have  a  standard 
gauge  of  four  feet  eight  and  a  half  inches.  In 
1912  the  building  of’  the  trans-Australian  railway 
from  Port  Augusta  in  South  Australia  to  Kal- 
goorlie  in  Western  Australia  was  commenced  and 
was  opened  in  November,  1917,  the  length  being 
1,051  miles.  A  transcontinental  railway  from 
north  to  south,  over  1,000  miles  in  length,  is  also 
under  consideration.  The  mileage  of  the  govern- 


AUSTRALIA 


69 


AUSTRALIA 


ment  railways  is  22,647;  of  private  railways  open 
to  general  traffic,  1,125.  1 

Up  to  1918,  858,600,345  acres  representing  45.10 
pei  cent  of  the  total  area  of  the  Australian  Com¬ 
monwealth  were  either  unoccupied  or  occupied  by 
the  Crown  only  5.63  per  cent  had  been  actually 
alienated  (107,093,317  acres),  2.92  per  cent  (55,672,- 
5/8  acres)  were  in  course  of  alienation,  and  46.35 
per  cent  (S82,365,600  acres)  were  held  under  various 
forms  of  leases  and  licenses.  The  total  area  under 
crops  was  13,332,393  acres  and  the  total  value  of 
the  crops  was  about  $261,360,000.  The  total  mineral 
production  up  to  the  end  of  1918  was  $4,309,527  181. 

Government. — The  seat  of  the  government  is  pro¬ 
visionally  at  Melbourne,  but  eventually  will  be  at 
Yass-Canberra,  the  site  acquired  from  the  State 
of  New  South  Wales  in  1910.  Now  that  peace 
has  been  concluded,  the  Government  is  planning 
to  go  ahead  with  the  establishment  of  a  federal 
capital  The  Legislative  power  is  vested  in  a 
federal  Parliament,  consisting  of  the  King  repre¬ 
sented  by  a  governor-general,  a  Senate  (six  for 
each  of  the  original  six  states,  voting  as  one  elec¬ 
torate),  chosen  for  six  years,  and  a  House  of 
xvepiesentatives  consisting  if  possible  of  twice  as 
many  senators,  the  number  chosen  in  the  several 
states  being  in  proportion  to  the  respective  num- 

r.u  ^eir  Pe°Ple  as  shown  in  the  latest  statistics 
ol  the  Commonwealth,  but  not  less  than  five  for 
any  original  state.  The  Constitution  provides  for 
a  federal  Judicature,  for  an  inter-State  Commis- 
+i011  r*  4  r .  e  ,and  Commerce,  and  for  alteration  of 
the  Constitution.  A  high  court  of  seven  judges 


J‘“f.  Ijf:cn  established  with  original  as  well  as  ap¬ 
pellate  jurisdiction  In  1920  Mrs.  Cowan  was  the 
first  woman  elected  to  Parliament.  Tile  present 
governor-general  is  Henry  William  Baron  Forster 

inC1920mS  S'r  R°nald  Craufurd  Munro  Ferguson 

Present  Military  System.— In  September  iqin 
modifications  in  the  defensive  poh^re/pectmg 
both  the  army  and  navy  were  announced  in  Parlia- 
ment  The  army  is  to  be  organized  and  trained 
i°niJre  dlvlf.1°flal  basis  and  will  consist  of  two 
light-horse  divisions,  four  infantry  divisions,  and 
three  mixed  brigades,  with  the  necessary  extra- 
divisional  units.  In  time  of  peace  the  number  of 
soldiers  will  be  about  130,000.  The  restoration  of 
tne  Council  of  Defense  insures  continuity  of  policy 
and  the  co-ordination  of  the  requirements  on  sea 
air,  and  land;  control  and  administration  to  be 
exercised  by  the  military  and  naval  boards.  By  the 
reduction  of  the  naval  forces,  many  of  the  vessels 
oi  the  Koyal  Australian  Navy  pass  to  the  reserve. 

education  .  Throughout  the  states  primary  edu¬ 
cation  is  compulsory  and  free,  while  there  exists 
in  most  of  the  states  a  liberal  provision  of  scholar¬ 
ships  and  bursaries  to  the  higher  state  schools, 
secondary  schools,  and  universities.  Each  state  has 
its  university;  affiliated  to  those  of  New  South 
.f,  ^  Victoria  are  f°ur  colleges  in  connection 

™  lY  j-  9ath?llc’  Angbcan,  Presbyterian,  and 
Methodist  churches  respectively.  At  the  census  of 
1911,  according  to  the  Australian  Year  Book  for 
cc  0114  ^Y-Ver*v  10,000  children  between  the  ages 
of  five  and  fifteen  8,907  could  read  and  write.  Ac- 


Religious  denominations 

Church  of  England . . 
Roman  Catholic.... 

Presbyterian . 

Methodist  . 

Baptist . 

Congregational  . 

Lutheran . 

Salvation  Army . 

Total  population.. 


New  South 
Wales 


748,493 

382,740 

186,592 

153,512 

20,965 

23,008 

7,177 

7,533 


1,646,734 


Victoria 

1  Queens- 

i  land 

South 

Australia 

West 

Australia 

Tasmania 

Northern 

Territory 

Federal 

Territory 

Common¬ 

wealth 

462,388 

278,465 

240,515 

180,339 

31,867 

16,841 

11,906 

7,968 

219,614 

141,461 

78,048 

61,557 

14,080 

10,735 

24,843 

4,431 

119.385 

53,467 

23,709 

104,836 

22,799 

13,940 

27,794 

4,007 

112,975 

58,449 

27,569 

35,298 

4,931 

6,376 

2,561 

1,944 

91,255 

29,576 

16,295 

25,746 

4,898 

5,032 

202 

1,465 

678 

454 

153 

121 

15 

25 

25 

•  •••••• 

685 

634 

192 

121 

1 

1,755,743 

945,246 

573,073 

561,550 

99,555 

75,948 

74,508 

27,348 

1,314,551 

605,813 

408,558 

282,114 

191,211 

1 

3,310 

1,714 

4,455,005 

Stilish^-81™1™™  Catholic  Directory  for  1921  gives  the  following  summary 


of  Catholic  Ecclesiastical 


State  and  Ecclesiastical 

13 

73 

o 

o 

•-*-« 

73 

73 

'o 

O 

-  - - - 

Provinces 

73 

© 

73 

Q 

73 

03 

o 

m 

3 

*3 

o 

Secular 

Priests 

Regular 

Priests 

Religious 

Brothers 

cj 

3 

£ 

.a  to 

+=  c 

to  --H 
.2  rt 

8.S 
-5  a 

Colleges 

(Boys) 

m 

bC 

a 

■  -H 

T3  to 

"C 
03 .3 

P3  ■— ' 

Superior 

Day  School 

Primary 

Schools 

Charitable 

Institutions 

G 

,r*G 0 

C3  o 

ii 

S3 

oo 

Catholic 

Population 

State  of  New  South  Wales.. 

(Prov.  of  Sydney) 

State  of  Victoria . 

i  235 

155 

689 

521 

480 

283 

132 

59 

322 

109 

3,259 

1,571 

3 

16 

13 

69 

51 

101 

28 

409 

220 

44 

22 

65,119 

47,391 

400,859 

(Prov.  of  Melbourne) 

... 

286,433 

State  of  Tasmania . 

(Prov.  of  Tasmania) 

21 

72 

30 

2 

10 

169 

1 

3 

4 

27 

2 

3,596 

32,600 

State  of  South  Australia) .... 
(Prov.  of  South  Australia) 

45 

129 

61 

27 

32 

434 

7 

19 

54 

q 

7,539 

60,238 

State  of  West  Australia . 

(Prov.  of  Perth) 

58 

144 

64 

31 

53 

550 

! 

5  j 

36 

3 

72 

14 

11,219 

47,100 

State  of  Queensland . 

(Prov.  of  Brisbane) 

80 

| 

221 

118 

19 

59 

747 

6 

1 

35 

22 

88 

8 

20,564 

117,000 

Commonwealth  of  Australia. 
(Including  V.  A.  of  New 

632 

1,805 

1,026 

291 

601 

6,768 

3| 

41 

201 

177  | 

914 

108 

157,895 ; 

952,108 

Guinea) 

1 

1 

! 

1 

AUSTRALIA 


70 


AUSTRIA 


cording  to  the  same  source  92.29  per  cent  of  the 
children  of  school  age  (six  to  thirteen)  in  Victoria, 
could  read  and  write;  in  Queensland,  92.51  per 
cent;  in  West  Australia,  90.66  per  cent;  in  South 
Australia,  88.66  per  cent;  in  New  South  Wales,  89.59 
per  cent;  in  Tasmania,  89.59  per  cent.  The  total 
number  of  schools  in  Australia  is  8,992,  with  24,177 
teachers  and  764,980  pupils.  The  education  of 
children  in  the  sparsely  settled  districts  is  a  difficult 
problem,  and  attempts  are  being  made  to  solve  it 
by  means  of  provisional  schools,  traveling  schools, 
railway  camp  schools,  etc. 

In  spite  of  the  withdrawal  of  state  aid  from 
denominational  schools  in  1882,  Catholic  primary 
schools  have  grown.  In  1881  there  were  in  Victoria 
180  primary  schools  attended  by  20,337  children; 
in  1911  there  were  874  primary  schools  and  95,595 
children.  In  New  South  Wales  in  1888  there  wrere 
247  schools,  916  teachers,  27,172  scholars  on  roll, 
and  21,809  scholars  in  average  attendance;  in  1911 
there  were  401  schools,  2,034  teachers,  46,097  scholars 
on  roll,  and  38,657  scholars  in  average  attendance. 
According  to  official  returns  there  were  54,124  chil¬ 
dren  on  the  rolls  of  the  Catholic  schools  in  New 
South  Wales  in  the  December  quarter,  1916,  and 
7,677  on  the  roll  of  the  Catholic  schools  of  West 
Australia  in  the  last  school  week  of  1911  (latest 
Government  figures  available).  No  official  informa¬ 
tion  appears  in  the  census  or  reports  of  Tasmania, 
Queensland,  or  South  Australia.  The  Australasian 
Catholic  Directory  for  1921  gives  an  apparently 
conservative  estimate  of  157,895  children  attending 
Catholic  schools  throughout  the  Commonwealth. 

Australia  in  the  European  War  (1914-1918). — 
On  the  10th  of  August,  four  days  after  the  declara¬ 
tion  of  war  between  England  and  Germany,  all  the 
Australian  vessels  and  members  of  the  Australian 
navy  were  transferred  to  the  King’s  Naval  Forces 
for  the  period  of  the  war.  The  first  convoy  of 
20,000  troops  landed  in  Egypt  in  December  for 
the  defense  of  that  country  and  to  undergo  war 
training  in  the  vicinity  of  Cairo.  In  conjunction 
with  the  other  allied  troops  they  took  part  in  the 
campaigns  on  the  Gallipoli  Peninsula,  in  Egypt, 
in  France,  and  Belgium,  holding  many  dangerous 
positions,  notably  in  the  battle  of  the  Somme  and 
winning,  in  1918  at  Amiens  the  title  of  “the  saviours 
of  Amie'ns .”  The  cavalry  organized  as  the  “Anzac 
Mounted  Division”  formed  the  larger  portion  of 
the  Desert  Columns,  and  were  victorious  in  Syria 
and  Arabia. 

In  various  theaters  of  war  Australian  personnel 
was  engaged  on  special  duties,  or  on  lines  of  com¬ 
munication.  Medical  and  nursing  work  was  accom¬ 
plished  in  New  Guiana,  Mesopotamia,  India, 
Vladivostok,  and  Salonika.  The  number  of  casual¬ 
ties  in  the  war  announced  by  the  Defense  Depart¬ 
ment  was  232,324,  of  whom  43,475  died  from  wounds 
or  disease,  116,594  were  wounded  or  gassed,  and 
68,434  were  on  the  sick  list.  Only  3,627  were 
missing  or  taken  prisoners. 

In  1914,  upon  suggestion  of  the  Imperial  Govern¬ 
ment,  the  Commonwealth  also  dispatched  an  expe¬ 
ditionary  force  against  certain  German  possessions 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean  with  the  object  of  seizing  Ger¬ 
man  wireless  stations,  occupying  German  territory, 
and  arranging  for  temporary  administration.  In 
two  months  the  capture  of  the  whole  of  the  enemy’s 
possessions  was  affected  and  the  German  Pacific 
wireless  chain  was  broken.  By  the  terms  of  the 
Peace  Treaty,  the  former  German  islands  south  of 
the  equator  (except  the  Samoan  group)  are  now 
occupied  and  administered  by  Australia  under  a 
mandate. 

During  1915  the  battle-cruiser  Australia  joined 


the  Grand  Fleet  in  the  North  Sea.  The  most  thrill¬ 
ing  naval  exploit  was  the  capture  of  the  German 
cruiser  Emden  at  Cocos  Island.  As  the  Emden 
had  wrought  havoc  to  the  extent  of  21  British 
merchantmen  and  two  million  and  a  half  pounds, 
this  was  considered  a  signal  victory. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  the  Federal  War 
Precautions  Act  put  powers  in  the  hands  of  the 
Executive  Government  of  the  Commonwealth  as 
great  as  have  ever  been  possessed  previously  by 
British  administrators  in  any  British  possession. 
It  limited  state  authority,  and  enabled  the  Com¬ 
monwealth  to  take  any  action  necessary  to  the 
successful  prosecution  of  the  war,  even  to  the  extent 
of  fixing  prices,  declaring  moratoria,  and  estab¬ 
lishing  pools.  This  act  was  in  effect  for  two  years 
after  the  end  of  the  war,  and  was  even  used  by 
the  Premier  in  ending  a  strike  of  marine  engineers, 
and  deporting  Father  Jerger,  a  priest  of  German 
parentage,  who  had  been  accused  of  expressing 
disloyal  and  anti-recruiting  sentiments  in  his  ser¬ 
mons.  The  agitation  was  partly  sectarian  and 
partly  political,  but  it  was  felt  that  the  use  of 
executive  power  was  entirely  too  arbitrary.  In 
accordance  with  the  War  Gratuity  Act  (1920),  a 
bonus  payable  as  an  overseas  war  service  gratuity 
was  authorized  for  soldiers  and  sailors  who  served 
in  the  Great  War.  In  1917  at  the  Premiers’  Con¬ 
ference  at  Melbourne  it  was  agreed  that  the  states 
should  undertake  the  wrork  of  settling  on  the  land 
soldiers  or  sailors  and  war  workers  who  had  been 
abroad  but  that  the  Commonwealth  should  finance 
them  for  this  purpose.  Up  to  April,  1920,  15,509  sol¬ 
diers  had  been  settled.  Among  the  questions  that 
concern  the  status  of  Australia  is  the  agitation  for  a 
“White  Australia,”  with  the  purpose  of  shutting  out 
the  Japanese  or  others  of  the  yellow  race,  and 
reserving  Australia  only  for  those  of  white  blood. 

Austria  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-121a). — The  new  Republic 
of  Austria,  proclaimed  12  November,  1918,  consists 
broadly  of  the  former  Austrian  provinces  of  Upper 
Austria,  Lower  Austria,  Salzburg,  North  Tyrol, 
Styria,  Carinthia,  and  Vorarlberg,  and  German 
Western  Hungary,  and  is  bounded  on  the  south  by 
Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Jugoslavia;  on  the  east  by 
Hungary  and  Czechoslovakia;  and  on  the  north  by 
Czechoslovakia,  Bavaria,  and  Wurtemberg;  the 
western  boundaries  are  unchanged.  As  a  result  of 
the  dismemberment  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  Mon¬ 
archy,  the  larger  part  of  Austria’s  possessions  be¬ 
came  parts  of  the  Jugoslav  state,  the  Czechoslovak 
Republic,  Poland,  and  Italy.  With  her  only  sea- 
coast  taken  away  from  her  by  the  peace  treaty 
(1919),  she  is  now  an  inland  state  without  maritime 
boundary.  Vienna  has  been  separated  from  Lower 
Austria  and  becomes  a  separate  entity. 

Population. — The  area  and  population  (census 
taken  on  31  January,  1920),  of  Austria  are  shown 
as  follows: 


Provinces 

Area  in 
Miles 

Population 

Percent¬ 
age  of 
Popula¬ 
tion 

Density 

Per 

Square 

Mile 

Vienna . 

107 

1,841,326 

29.99 

17,209 

Lower  Austria. 

7,449 

1,458,269 

23.75 

196 

Upper  Austria. 

4,621 

858,795 

13.90 

186 

Salzburg . 

2,759 

214,200 

3.49 

78 

Styria . 

6,317 

957,509 

15.60 

152 

Carinthia . 

3,678 

369,401 

6.02 

100 

Tyrol  . 

4,782 

306,485 

4.99 

64 

Vorarlberg  .... 

1,003 

133,212 

2.17 

133 

Total . 

30,716 

6,139,197 

18,118 

AUSTRIA 


AUSTRIA 


71 


•  ^  es^ern  Hungary,  awarded  to  Austria 

in  19-0,  consists  of  1,684  square  miles  and  has  an 
estimated  population  of  345,082.  Compared  with 
the  corresponding  figures  for  1910,  the  census  of 
1920  shows  a  loss  of  227,209,  or  3.6  per  cent.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  the  number  of  Austrians  killed 
in  battle  was  160,000  to  180,000  and  the  total  loss 
due  directly  or  indirectly  to  the  war,  184,461.  A 
striking  disproportion  between  the  sexes  is  noted, 
the  1920  census  revealing  1,0S9  women  to  every 
1,000  men.  * 

The  principal  towns  are  Vienna,  with  a  population 
Graz,  157,032;  Linz,  93,473;  Innsbruck, 
o5,6o9;  Salzburg,  36,450.  In  1918  there  were  87,594 
births,  40,738  marriages,  168,378  deaths,  1,779  di¬ 
vorces. 

Religion.— Religious  liberty  is  one  of  the  funda¬ 
mental  laws  of  the  republic  and  the  principle  is 
embodied  in  the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain  (article  63). 
In  1920  there  were  5,979,667  Catholics  (94.17),  165  007 
Protestants  (2.60),  189,758  Jews  (2.99),  and  19,021 
others  (0.30).  Before  the  Great  War  there  were  53 
dioceses  in  Austria-Hungary;  in  the  Republic  at 
present  there  are  six;  the  Archdiocese  of  Vienna, 
with  the  suffragan  dioceses  of  St.  Polten  or  St. 
Hippolitus,  and  Linz ;  the  Archdiocese  of  Salzburg, 
with  suffragan  dioceses  of  Gurk,  and  Seckau  or 
Graz  (q.  v.).  The  diocese  of  Brixen  formerly  a 
s  ml  lagan  of  Salzburg,  has  been  made  an  exempt 
diocese,  and  retains  its  ecclesiastical  limits  notwith¬ 
standing  the  partition  of  its  territory  by  the  Treaty 
of  St.  Germain.  Catholic  organization  has  been 
strengthened  and  unified  in  its  fight  to  uphold  the 
indissolubility  of  marriage  and  to  combat  other 
morally  pernicious  legislation  urged  by  the  Socialist 
party,  as  well  as  in  its  opposition  to  the  proselytism 
of  Protestant  sects  who  would  take  advantage  of 
the  material  wants  of  the  people  to  upset  their 
spiritual  allegiance.  The  Christian  Socialist  (Catho¬ 
lic)  party  won  in  the  1920  elections,  and  for  the  first 
time  since  1871  Austria  has  a  Catholic  premier  in 
the  person  of  Doctor  Mayr,  Chancellor  of  the  Con¬ 
federation,  and  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs.  The 
Chairman  of  the  Christian  Socialist  party  is  Dr. 
Ignatz  Seipel,  a  Catholic  priest  and  a  powerful 
peisonality  in  the  politics  of  new  Austria.  Minister 
of  Public  Works  under  the  Emperor  Charles  and  a 
member  of  the  Assembly  since  its  establishment, 
he  is  the  only  member  of  the  old  monarchy  to  re¬ 
tain  his  influence. 

The  sufferings  of  religious  and  priests  in  Austria 
are  intense;  lack  of  sufficient  and  proper  food,  and 
of  clothing,  are  serious  hindrances  to  their  work 
of  Christian  education  and  charity.  The  Catholic 
organizations  of  Austria,  though  they  give  heroic 
service,  are  unable  to  meet  the  immense  demands, 
and  it  is  largely  owing  to  American  Catholic  gen¬ 
erosity,  expressed  in  the  establishment  of  Catholic 
Relief  for  Austria  and  the  Vienna  Catholic  Bureau, 
that  this  desolating  need  will  be  met. 

Government.— According  to  the  new  constitution 
adopted  in  1920,  Austria  is  transformed  into  a  con¬ 
federation  consisting  of  the  following  eight  States 
{Lander):  Lower  Austria  (subdivided  into  the 
pro'v ince  of  the  same  name  and  Vienna),  Upper 
Austria,  Styria,  Carinthia  (reunited  to  the  confed¬ 
eration  by  the  result  of  the  recent  plebiscite),  Salz¬ 
burg;  Tyrol,  Vorarlberg,  and  Burgenland  tthis  being 
the  Austrian  name  of  the  Western  Hungarian  coun¬ 
ties  awarded  to  Austria  by  the  peace  treaties). 
Each  state  has  its  own  legislature.  The  Federal 
Legislature  consists  of  two  chambers,  the  National 
Council,  elected  by  direct  proportional  suffrage,  and 
the  Federal  Council,  elected  by  the  Landtags  of 
each  State.  The  Federal  Council  has  a  limited 


veto  power  over  measures  enacted  by  the  National 
Council.  The  two  Chambers  together  form  the 
Tederal  Assembly,  which,  however,  meets  only  in 
two  emergencies— to  declare  war  and  to  elect  the 
Federal  President.  The  Federal  Assembly  met  on 
i  •  *920,  the  session  being  preceded  by 

lgh  Mass  for  the  first  time  since  pre-war  days. 
The  national  flag  consists  of  three  horizontal  stripes 
the  top  and  bottom  being  red,  and  the  center 
white  There  are  two  principal  political  parties, 
Socialists  (not  Bolshevist)  and  Christian  Socialist 
(Catholic). 

Education.— There  are  two  classes  of  elementary 
schools,  the  Volksschulen  and  Burger schulen,  of 
winch  the  former  teach  the  first  principles  of  re¬ 
ligion,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  natural  science 
history,  geography,  and  drawing,  and  the  latter 
carry  instruction  in  these  subjects  farther  and  add 
to  them  otheis  such  as  book-keeping,  geometry,  and 
in  certain  cases,  music  and  modern  languages.  ’  At¬ 
tendance  is  obligatory  from  the  ages  of  six  to’  four¬ 
teen,  or  in  some  provinces,  from  six  to  twelve  As 
regards  religious  teaching,  which  occupies  the  chief 
place  in  the  curriculum,  the  ecclesiastical  authorities 
oi  the  vai  lous  recognized  denominations  have  access 
to  the  schools  and  the  clergy  are  bound  to  give 
a  certain  modicum  of  religious  instruction  in  the 
v  olLsschulen  without  payment ;  but  if  remuneration 
becomes  due  it  is  drawn  from  public  funds.  As 
regards  the  language  question,  the  rule  is  that  the 
provincial  school  council  which  is  presided  over  by 
the  governor  of  the  province,  and  includes  educa¬ 
tional  experts,  clergy,  and  representatives  of  the 
local  Diet,  should  determine  what  language  or  lan¬ 
guages  aie  to  be  taught  in  any  school.  An  opportu¬ 
nity  is  always  afforded  to  learn  German. 

The  immediate  educational  authority  is  the  dis- 
trict  school  council,  representative  of  the  rate  payers 
and  the  parish.  Between  this  and  the  provincial 
school  council  is  another  body,  the  county  school 
council,  which,  besides  determining  questions  re¬ 
specting  the  building  and  staffing  of  schools,  regu¬ 
lates  the  affairs  of  private  elementary  schools  and 
kindergartens. 

In  1918  there  were  4,763  public  and  private  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  with  30,667  teachers  and  914,258 
pupils.  Secondary  education  is  carried  on  by  gym¬ 
nasia  and  realschulen,  public  or  private;  the  former 
furnish  a  classical  education;  the  latter  a  modern 
education.  In  1917-18  there  were  73  gymnasia  with 
20,955  pupils;  and  38  realschulen  with  14,632  pupils 
There  are  also  4,000  technical  institutes  in  which 
the  knowledge  of  different  trades  and  professions 
may  be  pursued,  and  technical  high  schools  for 
instruction  in  agriculture,  architecture,  chemistry, 
and  engineering.  The  political  changes  now  taking 
place  will  undoubtedly  be  followed  by  far-reaching 
alterations  in  this  school  system.  Socialism,  which 
in  the  elections  of  1919  conquered  48  per  cent  of 
the  voters,  sought  to  exploit  its  power  in  the  do¬ 
main  of  education.  Although  in  the  government  of 
the  State  the  Catholics  then  constituted  the  mi¬ 
nority,  their  vigilance  warded  off  the  worst  blows 
and  every  advance  of  the  adversary  met  clever 
counter  measures. 

Conditions  in  the  universities  are  very  serious 
at  present  (1921).  Many  professorial  chairs  are 
vacant,  their  holders  having  abandoned  them  be¬ 
cause  they  were  unable  to  live  on  their  salaries. 
Austrian  professors  and  men  of  science  are  emi¬ 
grating  to  Germany.  Four  universities  are  main¬ 
tained  by  the  State,  those  of  Vienna  with  310 
teachers  and  5,510  students,  Graz,  with  232  teachers 
and  1,142  students,  Innsbruck,  with  164  teachers 
and  982  students,  and  Salzburg.  Besides  there  are 


Austria 


12 


AUSTRIA 


37  training  colleges  for  teachers  with  736  lecturers 
and  5,043  students. 

Army. — After  the  break-up  of  the  Austrian  mon¬ 
archy  and  during  the  subsequent  confusion,  the 
Austrian  Government  set  up  a  defense  force  (V  olks- 
wehr),  which  in  August,  1920,  consisted  of  34,000 
men.  By  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain 
universal  compulsory  training  was  abolished  in 
Austria,  and  the  total  miltiary  force  limited  to 
30,000  men,  including  officers  and  depot  troops,  to  be 
organized  either  in  divisions  or  in  mixed  brigades, 
at  Austria’s  discretion.  All  officers  must  be  regu¬ 
lars,  and  those  serving  now  must  serve  to  the  age 
of  forty.  All  measures  of  mobilization  are  for¬ 
bidden.  The  number  of  gendarmes,  customs  offi¬ 
cers,  foresters,  and  members  of  the  police  force  must 
not  exceed  the  number  employed  in  a  similar 
capacity  in  1913.  Educational  and  sporting  clubs 
are  forbidden  to  occupy  themselves  with  military 
matters.  Within  two  months  of  the  final  ratifica¬ 
tion  of  the  treaty  the  air  force  of  Austria  was  to 
be  demolished.  With  the  abolition  of  Austria’s 
seacoast,  the  Austrian  navy  ceased  to  exist;  3  bat¬ 
tleships,  3  light  cruisers,  9  destroyers,  12  torpedo 
boats,  a  mine-layer,  and  6  Danube  monitors  were 
surrendered  to  the  allies.  Two  battleships  were 
brought  by  the  Italians  to  Venice,  while  the  ships 
at  Cattaro  were  handed  to  France. 

Justice. — The  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  and 
Court  of  Cassation  ( Oberste  Gerichts  und  Kassa - 
tionshof)  in  Vienna  is  the  highest  court  in  the 
land.  Besides  there  are  3  higher  provincial  courts 
( Oberlandesgerichte ),  17  provincial  and  district 
courts  ( Landes  und  Kreisgerichte) ,  and  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  these  the  jury  courts  ( Geschworenen - 
gerichte).  There  are  likewise  269  county  courts 
( Bezirksgerichte )  and  2  special  courts  for  com¬ 
mercial  affairs,  4  for  industry,  1  constitutional  court, 
1  administrative  court,  and  1  electoral  court. 

The  law  for  unemployment  insurance  bears  date 
24  March,  1920.  Under  the  Act  one-third  of  the 
cost  of  unemployment  insurance  is  to  be  borne  by 
the  State,  two-thirds  by  employers  and  workers. 
Benefits  under  the  scheme  are  not  to  be  granted 
for  more  than  twelve  weeks. 

Economic  Conditions. — According  to  the  census 
returns  of  31  January,  1921,  Austria  contains  3,084,- 
602  workers,  of  whom  33.3  per  cent  are  engaged  in 
industries;  31.9  per  cent  in  agriculture  and  forestry; 
12.1  per  cent  in  commerce  and  trade;  8.8  per  cent 
in  civil  service,  and  2.6  per  cent  in  professions.  In 
1919  the  total  acreage  sown  amounted  to  4,084,121 
acres.  Of  the  total  in  1919,  2,126,175  were  in  Lower 
Austria  and  929,988  acres  in  Upper  Austria.  The 
chief  products  were  (1920)  as  follows:  Wheat, 
374,032  acres,  yielding  149,515  metric  tons;  rye, 
688,687  acres,  yielding  251,410  tons;  oats,  658,740 
acres,  187,730  tons;  potatoes  (1918),  290,697  acres, 
584,996  tons;  turnips,  87,285  acres,  536,183  tons. 
The  number  of  animals  in  1918  were :  270,000 

horses,  858,000  cows,  223,000  oxen,  53,000  bulls, 
499,000  calves.  The  production  of  lignite  in  1920 
was  2,387,996  tons;  of  anthracite,  133,173  tons. 
There  were  11  anthracite  mines  worked  in  1920  and 
61  lignite  mines.  The  railway  statistics  of  Austria 
in  1919  were  as  follows:  State  lines  and  private 
companies  worked  by  the  state,  2,659  miles;  private 
lines  worked  by  the  owners,  1,222  miles;  state  lines 
worked  by  private  companies,  1.3  miles,  making  a 
total  of  3,882  miles. 

The  Austrian  standard  coin  is  the  krone,  coined 
in  denominations  of  100,  20,  and  10,  but  the  cur¬ 
rency  is  for  the  most  part  paper,  including  even 
20-heller  pieces.  The  Republic’s  share  of  the  old  debt 
of  Austria-Hungary  is  not  yet  definitely  fixed.  On 


30  September,  1920,  it  was  estimated  at  44,958,000 
kronen,  with  an  annual  interest  of  1,554,000  kronen. 
The  debt  of  the  new  republic  on  that  date 
amounted  to  14,904,000  kronen,  with  an  annual 
charge  of  731,000,000  kronen.  This  does  not  include 
foreign  credits  for  foods,  etc.,  which  is  estimated 
at  17,500,000  kronen.  The  desperate  financial  situa¬ 
tion  in  Austria  can  be  understood  in  the  rate  of 
exchange  of  the  Austrian  crown,  which  at  the  end 
of  the  year  1920  had  sunk  to  over  2,000  to  the 
pound  sterling.  The  present  value  of  the  Krone  is 
.04  of  the  American  dollar. 

Whether  Austria  as  created  by  the  Treaty  of  St. 
Germain  is  capable  of  existence  as  an  independent 
state  is  yet  to  be  proved.  Her  lack  of  means  to 
supply  her  economic  needs,  especially  coal,  rests 
upon  the  antagonism  existing  between  her  and  the 
new  states  which  formerly  made  up  the  monarchy, 
and  which  takes  concrete  shape  in  the  erection  of 
high  customs  barriers.  The  majority  of  factories 
in  the  realm  are  idle  because  high  customs  prevent 
the  arrival  of  raw  material  and  because  there  is 
no  coal.  The  real  difficulty  lies  in  the  violent 
racial  hatred  between  Czechs  and  Germans.  Europe 
and  America  can  do  much  for  the  rehabilitation  of 
Austria,  but  outside  of  this,  her  future  depends 
on  one  thing,  whether  the  Succession  States  (the 
new  States  formed  out  of  the  old  monarchy)  can 
be  induced  to  forego  their  hostility  sufficiently  to 
supply  her  with  coal,  foodstuffs  and  raw  material. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  this  small  state,  with 
an  area  of  barely  30,000  square  miles  and  about 
6,000,000  inhabitants,  has  to  pay  its  civil  service 
14,110,000  kronen  half-yearly,  that  its  expenditure 
in  cheapening  foodstuffs  amounts  to  10,400,000 
kronen,  and  that  the  losses  on  the  foreign  exchange 
and  interest  payment  of  debt  amount  to  23,520,000 
kronen,  it  can  be  understood  why  the  finance  com¬ 
mission  entrusted  with  the  economic  restoration  of 
Austria  is  justified  in  demanding,  first  and  foremost, 
the  reduction  of  the  personnel  of  the  civil  service, 
the  gradual  abolition  of  food  subsidies,  and  a  more 
rational  management  of  state-owned  industrial  con¬ 
cerns,  before  giving  credit  grants  for  consolidating 
the  new  Bank  of  Issue  and  stabilizing  the  currency. 
Great  Britain,  France,  Rumania,  and  Serbia  have 
accepted  a  delay  of  twenty  years  in  pressing  liens 
rising  from  the  priority  of  payment  of  reparations 
and  other  credits. 

History  (1908-1920). — In  1908  Austria  utilized  an 
alleged  Pan-Serb  conspiracy  as  a  pretext  for  an¬ 
nexing  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  The  annexation 
roused  the  deepest  indignation  in  Servia,  for  the 
population  in  those  two  provinces  was  mostly  Ser¬ 
vian.  It  drew  upon  Austria  the  hostility  of  Russia 
and  Servia,  and  gave  impetus  to  the  formation  of 
a  new  and  formidable  power  on  her  borders.  An 
Austro-Turkish  convention  was  later  concluded 
(1909),  in  which  Austria  renounced  the  rights  she 
had  acquired  in  respect  of  the  Sanjak  of  Novi 
Bazar  through  the  Berlin  treaty,  guaranteed  the 
free  exercise  of  religion  in  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina, 
and  the  payment  of  an  indemnity  as  an  equivalent 
for  vakiif  (Moslem  religious  property). 

On  28  June,  1914,  the  Archduke  Francis  Ferdi¬ 
nand,  nephew  of  the  aged  Emperor-King  Francis 
Joseph  and  heir  to  the  Hapsburg  crowns,  was  as¬ 
sassinated,  together  with  his  wife,  in  the  streets 
of  the  Bosnian  city  of  Serajevo  by  youthful  Serb 
conspirators.  The  outrage  caused  an  instantaneous 
outburst  of  indignation  throughout  Austria-Hun¬ 
gary,  especially  when  the  official  Austrian  investiga¬ 
tion  indicated  that  the  plot  was  hatched  with  the 
connivance  of  at  least  two  officials  of  Servia.  A 
week  after  the  Serajevo  assassination,  a  conference 


AUSTRIA 


73 


AUSTRIA 


of  German  and  Austrian  dignitaries  was  held  at 
Potsdam.  Provided  with  secret  assurances  of  Ger- 
many  s  unqualified  support,  Austria-Hungary  pre¬ 
sented  to  Servia,  on  23  July,  1914,  an  ultimatum, 
calling  upon  her  to  suppress  anti-Austrian  publica¬ 
tions  and  societies,  to  discharge  such  government 
employees  as  the  Austro-Hungarian  Government 
would  accuse  of  anti-Austrian  propaganda,  to  ex- 
clude  anti-Austrian  teachers  and  text-books  from 
the  Servian  schools,  and  to  accept  the  collabora¬ 
tion  in  Servia  of  representatives  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  Government  for  the  suppression  of  the 
subversive  movement,  and  to  signify  unconditional 
acceptance  of  these  and  the  other  Austro-Hungarian 
demands  within  forty-eight  hours. 

Russia,  France,  and  Great  Britain  endeavored  to 
obtain  from  Austria  an  extension  of  the  time  limit 
0  •  u e  ultimatum  in  order  that  the  whole  question 
might  be  submitted  to  general  international  co¬ 
operation,  but  Austria-Hungary  was  committed  and 
sharply  declined  the  request.  On  25  July  Servia 
replied  to  the  ultimatum,  promising  to  comply  with 
such  demands  as  did  not  seem  to  impair  her  inde¬ 
pendence  and  sovereignty,  and  offering  to  refer  all 
disputed  points  of  The  Hague  tribunal  or  to  a 
conference  of  the  Great  Powers.  The  Austrian 
Government  pronounced  the  reply  evasive  and  un¬ 
satisfactory,  broke  off  all  diplomatic  relations  with 
Servia,  and  started  the  mobilization  of  her  army. 
To  the  Russian  view  it  was  obvious  that  Austria- 
Hungary  was  planning  to  deprive  Servia  of  inde¬ 
pendence  and  to  annihilate  Russian  influence  in 
southeastern  Europe.  On  the  other  hand  the  Ger¬ 
man  Government  insisted  that  the  quarrel  was 
one  which  concerned  Austria-Hungary  and  Servia 
alone  and  opposed  the  repeated  efforts  of  Russian, 
British,  French,  and  even  Italian  diplomats  to 
refer  the  quarrel  to  an  international  Congress  or 
Hague  tribunal.  Unequivocally  Germany  declared 
that  if  Russia  should  come  to  the  assistance  of 
Servia,  she  would  support  Austria-Hungary  with 
all  the  armed  forces  at  her  command.  On  28  July, 
1914,  exactly  a  month  after  the  archduke’s  as¬ 
sassination,  Austria-Hungary  formally  declared  war 
against  Servia. 

Russia  immediately  began  to  mobilize  her  army 
and  when  she  refused  to  comply  with  Germany’s 
demand  to  demobilize,  war  was  declared  between 
the  two  countries.  Germany  then  declared  war  on 
France,  who  was  in  sympathy  with  Russia.  Thus 
within  a  week  of  the  declaration  of  hostilities  by 
Austria-Hungary  against  Servia,  four  Great  Powers 
were  in  a,  state  of  war — Germany  and  Austria-Hun¬ 
gary  against  Russia  and  France.  Belgium  was  in¬ 
vaded,  at  which  violation  of  neutrality  Great 
Britain  protested  and  was  soon  involved  in  the 
struggle.  On  6  August  Austria-Hungary  declared 
war  on  Russia.  On  the  following  day  Montenegro 
joined  Servia  against  Austria-Hungary.  On  13 
August  a  state  of  war  existed  between  Austria- 
Hungary  on  one  hand,  and  France  and  Great 
Britain  on  the  other. 

The  Great  War  originated  as  a  struggle  on  the 
part  of  Austria-Hungary  and  Germany  against  the 
‘‘Slavic  Peril,”  against  the  great  Slav  empire  of 
Russia  and  the  small  Slav  kingdoms  of  Servia  and 
Montenegro,  but  from  the  beginning  of  hostilities, 
Teutonic  defense  against  Russia  was  of  minor  inter¬ 
est  to  Germany  as  compared  with  the  attack  on 
Belgium  and  France.  Thus  Austria-Hungary  had 
to  bear  the  brunt  of  the  struggle  with  Russia.  As  a 
military  power  she  was  far  less  efficient  than  Ger¬ 
many.  She  was  a  hodge-podge  of  quarrelsome 
nationalities,  and  now  she  had  to  wage  war  on  the 
Bosnian  front  against  Servia  and  Montenegro,  to 


keep  a  reserve  force  at  Trieste  and  in  the  Trentino 
against  the  possible  intervention  of  Italy,  as  well  as 
to  del  end  Galicia.  Russia  was  slow  on  the  field 
^d  Austm-liungary  decided  that  the  best  method 
of  defending  Galicia  was  an  attack  on  Russian 
Poland  before  the  Russians  were  fully  mobilized. 

Accoixlirigly,  two  Austro-Hungarian  armies,  num¬ 
bering  300,000  men  each,  were  collected  in  Galicia 
eariy  in  August  1914;  and  on  1-2  September  the 
cntical  battle  of  Lemberg  was  fought.  Owing  to 
defective  Austrian  generalship  the  Russians  entered 
the  city  in  triumph,  giving  it  the  Slavic  name  of 
Lvov.  A  new  army  under  the  Archduke  Joseph 
berdinand  was  then  put  in  the  field  from  the 
Vistula  to  Lubm.  On  6-10  September  the  combined 
Austrian  armies  were  completely  routed.  At  this 
critical  moment  Field  Marshal  von  Hindenburg 
was  put  in  command  of  all  the  German  and  Austro- 
Hungarian  foices  in  the  East.  His  first  offensive 
however,  failed,  and  the  Austrian  army  was  forced 
back  to  Cracow,  19  October.  In  January,  1915,  an 
Austrian  counter-offensive  was  launched,  its  failure 
culminating  in  the  surrender  of  Premysl  to  the 
Russians,  22  March.  The  Servian  campaign  was 
also  unsuccessful.  In  May,  Italy  denounced  her 
treaty  of  alliance  (1882,  1912)  with  Austria,  and  the 
Italian  offensive  against  Austria  commenced.  The 
Austro-German  forces  under  Field  Marshal  von 
Mackensen  recovered  nearly  all  of  Galicia  1915 
successfully  invaded  Servia,  and  set  about  the  con¬ 
quest  of  Montenegro  and  Albania.  In  1916  the 
Austrian  offensive  against  Italy  was  definitely 
checked.  Owing  to  the  pressure  of  the  Allied 
blockade,  the  food  situation  became  alarming  and 
it  was  doubtful  if  the  country,  weakened  by  famine, 
would  be  able  to  withstand  concerted  pressure 
against  its  frontiers.  On  27  August,  1916,  Rumania 
declared  war  against  Austria-Hungary,  but  in  three 
months  was  completely  subjugated  by  the  Germans. 

The  Russian  monarchy  then  collapsed  (1917)  and 
the  Russian  troops  were  completely  routed,  freeing 
the  Austro-German  troops  for  another  Italian  drive. 
After  varying  successes,  on  24-25  October,  1918 
Italian  armies  smote  the  Austrians  in  the  Monte 
Grappe  region;  a  British  unit  attacked  along  the 
lower  Piave,  and  a  French  unit  took  Monte  Seise- 
m°b  The  Austrian  army  fled,  and  Austria-Hungary, 
macle  overtures  for  peace,  offering  unconditional  sur¬ 
render.  The  irretrievable  disaster  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  armies  led  swiftly  to  the  dissolution  of 
the  Dual  Monarchy.  The  government  at  Vienna 
resigned  and  the  empire  fast  disintegrated  into 
independent  states.  Czechoslovakia  and  Jugoslavia 
emerged  at  once.  The  German-Austrian  Republic 
was  proclaimed  on  12  November,  1918.  The  treaty 
of  peace  between  Austria  and  the  allied  and  asso¬ 
ciated  powers  was  signed  at  St.  Germain-en-Laye 
on  10  September,  1919. 

The  dissolution  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire 
lelt  the  small  German  nucleus  around  which  that 
gieat  congeries  of  states  had  been  built  up  during 
many  centuries  in  a  pitiful  condition.  The  breaking 
away  of  the  Polish,  Czechoslovak,  Jugoslav,  Hun¬ 
garian,  and  other  fragments  of  the  Hungarian  do¬ 
minions,  left  only  the  core  of  Austria  still  attached 
to  the  imperial  capital  and  that  core  was  essentially 
German  and  was  composed  of  the  two  historic 
provinces  of  Upper  and  Lower  Austria.  Over  such 
a  state  the  leading  Social  Democrats  of  Vienna 
established  their  authoritv  with  Dr.  Karl  Renner 
as  provisional  prime  minister.  By  forbidding  the 
union  of  Bohemia  with  the  German  Austrian  re¬ 
pub  he  the  allies  forced  that  country  to  join  the 
newly  formed  Czechoslovak  state.  The  small  Ger¬ 
man-speaking  district  of  Hungary  which  had  been 


AUTUN 


74 


AZORES 


given  to  Austria  by  the  Peace  Conference  was 
established  as  a  separate  province.  The  province  of 
Vorarlberg  desired  to  be  detached  from  Vienna, 
voted  for  union  with  Switzerland,  but  was  over¬ 
ruled  by  the  Supreme  Council  at  Paris,  which  de¬ 
sired  to  preserve  the  integrity  of  Austria,  as  estab¬ 
lished  by  the  treaty  of  St.  Germain.  To  Poland 
was  apportioned  the  Duchy  of  Teschen  in  Austrian 
Silesia,  and  part  of  Galicia,  including  Cracow  and 
Lemberg;  to  Ukraine  another  part  of  Galicia;  to 
Rumania,  the  extreme  southeastern  part  of  Aus¬ 
tria  (Bukowina),  with  Czernowitz,  and  Transylvania. 
Slavonia,  Croatia,  Dalmatia,  Carniola,  Bosnia, 
Herzegovina,  parts  of  Hungary  and  of  Dalmatia 
joined  Servia  to  form  Jugoslavia.  Trentino  was 
ceded  to  Italy.  By  the  treaty  of  Rapallo,  signed 
on  12  November,  1920,  Gorz,  Gradisca,  and  Trieste, 
all  of  Istria,  and  a  large  part  of  Carniola  passed  to 
Italy.  On  10  October,  1920,  the  plebiscite  in  Zone 
A,  the  Klagenfurt  district  of  Carinthia  resulted  in 
an  overwhelming  majority  in  favor  of  Austria.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain, 
if  that  zone  went  in  favor  of  Austria,  there  would 
be  no  vote  in  Zone  B,  which  would  automatically 
revert  to  Austria.  When  the  result  of  the  plebiscite 
was  known,  the  Jugoslav  troops  marched  into  the 
zone,  but  evacuated  in  a  month  by  the  orders  of 
the  Supreme  Council.  According  to  the  treaty  of 
peace  between  the  allied  and  associated  powers 
signed  at  Trianon,  4  June,  1920,  Western  Hungary 
goes  to  Austria,  much  to  the  opposition  of  the 
Hungarians.  In  May,  1921,  Salzburg  voted  for 
union  with  Germany,  but  there  is  doubt  as  to  its 
realization. 

Autun,  Diocese  of  (Augustodunensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
II-144a),  comprises  the  entire  Department  of  Saone- 
et-Loire  in  France,  and  is  suffragan  of  Lyons.  Rt. 
Rev.  Henri-Raymond  Villard  was  appointed  to  this 
see  13  July,  1906,  and  filled  it  until  his  death  8 
December,  1914.  Under  his  administration  the 
thousandth  anniversary  of  the  Abbey  of  Cluny  was 
celebrated  10-12  September,  1910,  as  well  as  the 
centenary  of  Louis  Veuillot,  at  Montmartre,  Novem¬ 
ber,  1913.  In  1914,  on  the  feast  of  the  Holy  Rosary, 
Bishop  Villard  made  a  vow  to  have  a  Mass  per¬ 
petually  celebrated  in  the  cathedral  every  day 
of  the  month  of  Maj^,  for  the  intention  of  France, 
and  particularly  for  the  soldiers  killed  during  the 
war.  Upon  the  death  of  Bishop  Villard  the  Rt. 
Rev.  Desire-Hyacinthe  Berthoin,  b.  at  Chatte, 
14  October,  1855,  was  appointed  to  succeed  him,  1 
June,  1915.  Bishop  Berthoin  died  24  February, 
1922,  and  the  see  is  now  vacant.  By  1920  statistics 
there  are  604,446  Catholics  in  this  diocese,  813 
priests,  65  first  class  parishes,  458  succursal  parishes, 
and  68  vicariates  with  salaries  formerly  paid  by 
the  state. 

Auxiliary  Bishop  (cf.  C.  E.,  11-145),  one  who  is 
appointed  as  coadjutor  to  a  residential  bishop  on 
account  of  age,  ill-health,  or  the  multiplicity  of 
matters  requiring  episcopal  attention,  yet  who  does 
not  enjoy  the  right  of  succession.  (See  Coadjutor 
Bishop.) 

Avellino,  Diocese  of  (Abellinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
II-149d),  in  the  province  of  Naples,  Italy,  is  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Benevento.  Bishop  Angelini,  who  came 
to  this  see  in  1896,  d.  4  February,  1908,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Giuseppe  Padula,  b.  1847, 
appointed  Bishop  of  Bovino  24  March,  1898,  trans¬ 
ferred  to  this  diocese  2  August,  1908.  In  1920  the 
diocese  counted  107,598  Catholics,  34  parishes,  160 
secular,  and  21  regular  clergy,  25  seminarians,  90 
churches  or  chapels,  18  brothers,  and  65  sisters. 


Aversa,  Diocese  of  (Aversanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
II-151d),  in  the  province  of  Caserta,  Italy,  is 
directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  The  present  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Settimio  Caracciolo  di  Torchiarolo,  b.  at 
Naples,  1862,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Ahfe  24 
March,  1898,  and  transferred  to  this  see  10  April, 
1911,  to  succeed  Bishop  Vento,  d.  29  September, 
1910.  In  1920  there  were  160,000  Catholics  in  this 
diocese,  55  parishes,  350  secular,  and  300  regular 
priests,  100  seminarians,  377  churches  or  chapels, 
and  20  sisters. 

Aviators — By  a  decree  of  24  March,  1920,  Our 
Lady  of  LorettO'  was  proclaimed  patroness  of 
aviators  by  the  Holy  See;  at  the  same  time  the 
Congregation  of  Rites  issued  a  special  formula  of 
blessing  for  flying  machines,  which  has  now  been 
inserted  in  the  Roman  Ritual.  The  choice  of  Our 
Lady  of  Loretto  as  special  protectress  of  aviators 
recalls  the  ancient  tradition  that  her  home  at 
Nazareth,  in  which  the  Incarnation  took  place,  was 
miraculously  carried  by  angels  through  the  air  in 
safety  to  Loretto  on  the  Italian  shore  of  the  Adri¬ 
atic,  where  it  is  still  held  in  veneration. 

Acta  Ap.  Sedis  (1920),  175. 

Avignon,  Archdiocese  of  (Avenionensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  II-159c),  comprises  the  Department  of  Vaucluse, 
France.  Its  present  archbishop,  Most  Rev.  Gaspar- 
Maire  Latty,  b.  in  Cagnes,  1844,  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Chalons  21  May,  1894,  and  promoted  to 
this  see  15  October,  1907.  By  1920  statistics  the 
total  Catholic  population  of  the  territory  numbers 
238,656,  of  whom  49,304  are  in  Avignon.  There  are 
29  first  class  parishes,  144  succursal  parishes,  69 
vicariates,  315  secular  priests,  1  higher  seminary, 
and  1  ecclesiastical  school. 

Avila,  Diocese  of  (Abulensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-160c), 
is  suffragan  of  Valladolid,  in  Spain.  Bishop  Beltran 
y  Asensio,  appointed  to  this  see  in  1898,  d.  3 
November,  1917,  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Enrique  Pla  y  Deniel,  b.  at  Barcelona,  1876,  ap¬ 
pointed  bishop  4  December,  1918.  The  Catholic 
population  of  the  diocese  numbers  254,000  by  1920 
statistics,  and  there  are  393  parishes,  418  priests, 
393  churches,  and  245  chapels,  37  convents,  127 
religious,  and  425  sisters. 

Ayacucho  (or  Guamanga),  Di&cese  of  (Ayacu- 
quensis  de  Huamanga;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-164a),  in  Peru, 
is  suffragan  of  Lima.  Rt.  Rev.  Fidelis  Olivas 
Escudero,  b.  at  Pomabamba,  1849,  appointed  bishop 
of  this  diocese  19  April,  1900,  now  fills  the  see. 
By  1920  statistics  there  are  254,000  Catholics  in  the 
diocese,  393  parishes,  418  priests,  393  churches,  245 
chapels,  37  convents,  127  religious,  and  425  sisters. 

Azores  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-168a). — The  census  of  1911 
gives  the  population  of  the  island  as  243,376,  a 
density  of  264  per  square  mile.  The  estimates  of 
the  population  of  each  island  vary  greatly,  but  the 
most  trustworthy  seem  to  be  as  follows: 


Island 

Area  per 
sq.  mile 

Population 

Density 
per  sq. 
mile 

Corvo  . 

7 

746 

106 

Flores  . 

57 

7,233 

127 

Fayal  . 

64 

20,461 

319 

Pico  . 

175 

21,966 

125 

Sao  Jorge  . 

40 

14,309 

357 

Graciosa  . 

17 

7,747 

455 

Sao  Miguel  . 

297 

116,619 

392 

Santa  Maria . 

42 

6,268 

149 

Terceira  . 

239 

48,029 

215 

AZORES 


7  o 


AZORES 


There  are  only  three  towns  with  a  population  of 
more  than  3,000;  Punta  Delgada  (Sao  Miguel) 

jJ?™*  }£000,\A?gra  (Terceira)  about  10,000;  and 
Horta  (Fayal)  about  6,000. 

Present  Conditions.— The  separation  of  Church 
and  State  effected  by  the  Republican  Government 
in  Portugal  applied  also  to  the  Azores,  which  are 
an  integral  part  of  the  republic.  For  ecclesiastical 
details  see  Angra,  Diocese  of;  Funchal,  Diocese 
of. 

The  chief  export  of  the  Azores  is  the  pineapple, 
which  forms  a  large  part  of  the  exports  of  Sao 
Miguel.  Next  in  importance  are  sugar,  tobacco, 
and  beans,  followed  by  maize  and  alcohol.  There 
is  but  one  line  of  steamers  plying  between  Lisbon 
and  the  Azores  with  a  fleet  not  exceeding  three 
ships.  While  there  are  seven  Portuguese  banks 
with  branches  or  agencies,  there  are  no  less  than 


thirty  American  banking  establishments,  besides 
five  English. 

In  recent  years  the  Azores  have  come  a  great 
deal  under  American  influence,  not  because  they 
are  on  the  natural  highway  from  Europe  to  Amer¬ 
ica,  but  because  a  great  number  of  emigrants  from 
the  Azores  to  the  United  States  return  home  in 
sympathy  with  American  ideas.  After  Portugal 
came  into  the  war  as  an  ally  of  the  Entente  Powers 
the  Azores  were  very  valuable  as  a  supply  depot 
and  coaling  station  for  the  Allied  fleets.  The  har¬ 
bor  of  Punta  Delgada  being  the  best  in  the  Central 
Atlantic  afforded  a  useful  rendezvous;  during  the 
year  1917-18  the  American  armies  made  great  use 
of  it,  and  the  aerodrome  they  established  near 
Punta  Delgada  was  able  to  do  good  service  in  the 
protection  of  trade.  During  the  war  Punta  Delgada 
was  once  bombarded  by  a  German  submarine. 


B 

Baalbek,  Diocese  of  Heliopolitana ;  cf.  C.  E.,  1919,  and  which  was  elected  on  the  basis  of  equal, 
II-177a)  in  Syria,  known  to  the  Greek  and  Latin  secret,  direct,  universal  suffrage,  with  proportionate 
writers  as  Heliopolis  It  is  the  see  of  a  Maronite  representation  of  all  males  and  females.  According 
Ld  a  MelchiiePbishoP;  and  for  the  Maromtes  is  to  this  Constitution  of  21  March,  1919,  the  Free 
an  archdiocese.  There  are  at  present  (1922)  40,000  State  of  Baden  is  a  Republic  and  a  component  part 
Catholics  belonging  to  this  Rite,  173  priests,  and  112  of  Germany  There  is  no  State  church,  but  religion 
churches  or  chapels,  presided  over  by  Most  Rev.  is  taught  in  the  schools.  The  initiate  e  and  ref eren- 
John  Mourad,  consecrated  12  June,  1892.  He  re-  dum  have  been  adopted.  There  is  only  one  Cham- 
sides  at  Aramoun-de-Kesrouan,  in  Lebanon.  ber,  elected  for  four  years,  which  nominates  the 

The  diocese  for  the  Greek-Melchite  Rite  is  ad-  President  of  the  Cabinet  (State  President).  The 
ministered  by  Rt.  Rev.  Agapios  Maalouf,  b.  at  Cabinet  consists  of  5  ministers  and  4  state-coun- 

Zahle  1846  appointed  bishop  29  March,  1896.  His  cilors.  .  ,  ,,  ,  . 

residence  is  at  Baalbek,  to  which  he  returned  in  Baden  has  2  universities  (Heidelberg  and  Frei- 
1918,  after  having  been  driven  from  his  diocese  by  burg),  1  commercial  high  school  (Mannheim), 
the  Turks.  There  are  8,450  Catholics  belonging  to  technical  high  school,  12  high  schools  for  girls,  12 
this  Rite,  9  parishes,  4  secular  priests  and  10  normal  schools,  and  several  technical  and  special 

rperilar  clere:v  10  churches,  and  3  schools.  Heliop-  schools.  .  .  .  _  . 

olis  is  a  titular  see  for  the  Latin  Rite.  For  Catholic  statistics  see  Freiburg,  Archdiocese 

,  OF. 

Babylon,  Patriarchate  of  (Babylonensis;  ct. 

C.  E.,  II-179a),  of  the  Chaldean  Rite,  has  its  seat  Bagamoyo,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Bagamoyen- 
at  Mossul  where  the  patriarch  resides.  The  present  eiSj  cf.  c.  E.,  II-202b),  in  East  Africa.  On  23 
patriarch,  His  Excellency  Emmanuel  Joseph  Thomas,  November,  1918,  Bagamoyo,  a  former  possession  of 
b  at  Alkosh  1852,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Seert  the  German  Empire,  surrendered  and  is  now  divided 
4  September,  1890,  and  promoted  to  the  Patriarchate  between  the  British  and  Belgians.  Owing  to  the 
of  Babylon  8  July,  1900.  In  1910  he  was  named  ravages  of  the  war  this  once  flourishing  Vicariate 
administrator  apostolic  of  Akra,  and  in  1920  he  Apostolic  suffered  untold  losses  and  was  threatened 
went  to  Paris  to  watch  over  the  interests  of  his  with  ruin.  Thirteen  priests,  15  brothers,  and  16 
people  at  the  Peace  Conference.  The  patriarch  has  nims  were  obliged  to  leave  the  mission.  Some  of 
a  patriarchal  vicar  at  Mossul,  one  at  Jerusalem,  them  died;  others,  owing  to  their  German  nation- 
and  one  at  Adana.  By  1920  statistics  there  are  aiity,  were  requested  to  leave  the  country;  two 
31,900  Chaldean  Catholics  in  this  patriarchate,  46  missions  were  entirely  laid  waste,  others  were  partly 
secular  and  39  regular  clergy,  27  churches  or  chapels,  demolished,  and  200  schools  were  partly  destroyed, 
and  17  schools.  It  was  impossible  to  replace  those  who  had  been 

/t)  TOT. .  r  t?  called  away,  and  as  the  revenues  decreased  con- 

Badajoz,  Diocese  of  (Pacensis,  cf.  U  b.  siderabl  it  was  difficult  to  continue  the  work. 

II-193d),  in  that  district  of  Spain  called  Cirntas  w;th  mych  ,abor  and  expense  the  rubber  industry 
Pacensis,  because  it  was  once  thought  to  be  tfte  had  bcen  established  and  was  beginning  to  thrive, 
Pax  Julia  or  Pax  Augusta  of  the  Romans  Rt-  Rev  too  was  ruined  by  the  war,  and  it  will  take 

Adolphe  Perez  y  Munoz,  appointed  to  this  see  of  labor  t0  re.e8tablish  it. 

18  July,  1913,  was  transferred  to  Cordova  11  July,  Th  population  now  (1922)  numbers  400,000  in- 
1920,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  habitan£s>Pof  whom  21_180  are  Catholics.  Prior  to 
Rt.  Rev.  Raymond  Perez  y  Rodriguez,  appointed  ^  ^  fhey  numbered  26,000.  There  are  14  prin- 
31  August  of  the  same  year.  According  to  1920  mission  gtationg(  u  churches  and  chapels,  20 

statistics  this  diocese  comprises  a  Catholic  popula-  u  ,  ;  ;  stations,  21  priests  of  the  Con- 

tion  of  648,000,  154  parishes,  14  archpriests,  376  *“°“tionyof  the  Ho!y  Gho’st>  5  brothers,  16  sisters, 

priests,  154  churches  251  chapels,  56  convents  with  8^8  belong  t0  the  congregation  of  Daughters  of 
153  religious,  and  520  sisters.  Mary;  365  native  catechists  who  instruct  the  adults 

Baden  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-194b),  Free  State  of,  for-  and  the  children  in  the  rural  schools.  In  each  mis* 
merly  a  grand  duchy,  now  a  republic  and  a  com-  sion  there  is  a  primary  school,  and  in  the  out  ying 
ponent  state  of  Germany;  bounded  by  Switzerland,  districts  there  are  a  number  of  rural  schools  situated 
Alsace,  the  Palatinate,  Hesse,  Bavaria,  and  Wurtem-  at  a  walking  distance  of  one  or  two  days  I  he 
berg,  covering  an  area  of  5,819  sq.  miles.  According  government  does  not  support  the  schools  nor  does 
toSthe  census  of  1  December,  1910,  the  popula-  it  care  for  the  sick.  The  difficult  work  of  clearing 
lion  numbered  2,142,833,  including  1,271,015  Cath-  the  land  is  being  carried  on..  Islamism  is  spread 
olics  821,236  Evangelicals,  7,821  Old  Catholics,  2,154  throughout  the  country  especially  along  the  coast 
I  utherans  1  765  Reformed,  2,209  of  various  Evan-  For  many  year  the  Church  Mission  Society  has 
gelical  beliefs  25  896  Jews,  4,833  others  of  various  been  active  in  the  vicariate.  The  University  Mis- 
relidous  ' nersuasions  sion  n0  lonSer  has  an^  K11881?,118’,  but.  conducts  sev- 

In  1919  the  population  was  1,051,405  males  and  eral  rural  schools.  A  small I p  ^spital  been 

1  157  098  females  the  density  being  379.5  per  sq.  opened  at  Bagamoyo  an  at  each  of  the  fmirteen 
mile’  The  principal  cities  are  Mannheim,  229,576;  missions  there  is  an  orphanage  and  a  clinic  with 
Karlsruhe  135  952-  Freiburg  87946;  Pforzheim,  medical  service,  and  several  workshops.  Nearly  all 
irooq.  Heidelherff  60  831-  Constance  30  119  the  brothers  have  left  and  the  work  has  progressed 

On  22 NovembS,  19^  the Grand  Duke  abdicated  slowly  in  consequence  The  firsthVicarapostffiic, 
and  the  provisional  government  proclaimed  Baden  Rt.  Rev  Franz  Xavier  V  g  ,  g  g 

a  republic.  The  new  Constitution  was  determined  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is  aTXlm 1 3  Decem- 

by  the  National  Assembly,  which  met  on  15  January,  vicariate.  He  was  born  at  Merlenheim,  3  De 

76 


BAGDAD 


77 


BAHAMA  ISLANDS 


ber,  1870,  elected  25  July,  1906,  consecrated  at 
Knechtseden  and  made  vicar  apostolic  of  Baga- 
moyo  6  December  following. 

Bagdad,  Archdiocese  of  (Babylonensis-Lati- 
norum,  Babylonensis-Syrorum;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-202b), 
is  a  metropolitan  see  for  both  the  Latin  and  the 
Syrian  Rites.  It  is  situated  in  Mesopotamia, 
Asiatic  Turkey,  and  for  the  Latin  Rite  comprises 
the  missions  of  Bagdad  or  Babylon,  Mardin  and 
Mossul.  The  Latin  see  is  directly  subject  to  the 
Holy  See  and  has  its  episcopal  residence  at  Mossul. 
Most  Rev.  Francis  Berre,  a  Dominican,  and  superior 
of  the  mission  at  Mossul,  was  appointed  Archbishop 
of  this  see  9  August,  1921.  Archbishop  Berre,  who 
has  been  in  the  Orient  for  over  thirty  years,  was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Turks  during  the  World  War 
and  saw  the  destruction  of  a  great  part  of  the  work 
which  he  had  accomplished.  In  1919  he  accom¬ 
panied  Cardinal  Dubois  on  a  trip  through  the 
Orient  and  rendered  such  great  service  by  his 
knowledge  of  Oriental  people  and  affairs  that  the 
French  Government  conferred  upon  him  the  Cross 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  Upon  his  return  to  Mossul 
he  began  rebuilding  the  ruins  left  by  the  war,  giv¬ 
ing  his  attention  particularly  to  the  schools  and 
Syro-Chaldaean  seminary,  which  had  played  such 
an  important  part  in  the  religious  progress  of  the 
territory,  and  he  was  occupied  in  this  work  when 
his  appointment  came.  By  1922  statistics  there  are 
in  all  about  60,000  Catholics  of  different  rites  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  this  see. 

For  the  Syrian  Rite  this  archdiocese  comprises 
Bagdad  and  Bassorah  and  (1920  statistics)  has  a 
population  of  1,300  Syrian  Catholics,  besides  55,000 
Jews,  2,000,000  Mussulmans,  and  600  Christians. 
There  are  5  priests,  2  churches,  and  a  few  Carmelite 
missionaries  of  the  Latin  Rite.  The  present  in¬ 
cumbent  is  Most  Rev.  Athanasius  George  Dallal, 
b.  in  Lebanon,  1877,  studied  at  the  College  (  of 
Propaganda  in  Rome,  ordained  1900,  and  appointed 
Archbishop  of  Bagdad  14  September,  1912,  succeed¬ 
ing  Archbishop  Noury,  who  had  retired. 

The  present  Visitor  Apostolic  and  Regent  of  the 
Apostolic  Delegation  of  Bagdad  for  Mesopotamia, 
Kurdistan,  and  Armenia  Minor  is  Mgr.  Adrian 
Smetz.  The  city  of  Bagdad,  called  at  the  time  of 
its  foundation  M edinet-es-Selam,  or  City  of  Peace, 
is  now  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Irak.  The 
Christians  number  about  13,500,  divided  as  follows: 
Chaldaeans,  9,000;  Armenians,  3,000,  of  whom  about 
1,200  are  Catholics;  Greeks,  100,  of  whom  40  are 
Catholics;  Syrian  Catholics,  600;  Latin,  800. 

The  Armenian  dioceses  of  the  delegation  were 
destroyed  during  the  war,  and  it  is  not  yet  known 
how  many  of  the  faithful  are  left.  All  that  remain 
of  the  Syrian  diocese  of  Gezireh  are  four  priests 
and  a  handful  of  Catholics.  Of  the  nine  Chaldsean 
dioceses,  Akra  had  ceased  to  exist  before  the  war; 
Gezireh  and  Seez  were  destroyed  during  it,  while 
Diarbekir  and  Mardin  are  reduced  to  their  re¬ 
spective  bishops,  a  few  priests  and  several  hundred 
Catholics. 

The  charitable  works  include  2  orphanages  for 
boys,  one  founded  and  maintained  by  the  pope 
in  the  house  of  the  Delegation,  with  50  inmates; 
the  other  in  Amarah  in  charge  of  the  Carmelite 
Fathers,  with  35  inmates;  3  orphanages  for  girls, 

1  in  Bagdad  under  the  Sisters  of  the  Presentation, 
inmates  70;  1  in  Basrah  under  the  same  sisters, 
inmates  25 ;  1  in  Mossul  in  charge  of  the  Dominican 
Fathers,  inmates  30.  There  are  35  students  in  the 
seminary  of  the  Chaldsean  Patriarchate.  The  ap¬ 
proximate  Catholic  population  of  the  Delegation  is 
55,000. 


Bagnorea,  Diocese  of  (Balneoregiensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  II-203b),  in  the  province  of  Rome,  Italy,  i3 
directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  After  the  promo¬ 
tion  of  Bishop  Rousset,  who  filled  this  see  from 
1906  until  14  September,  1909,  the  see  was  left 
vacant  until  the  appointment  of  Rt.  Rev.  Emilio 
Poletti,  28  August,  1912.  Bishop  Poletti  died  17 
December,  1918,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Giovanni  Battista-Lodovico  Antomelli,  O.F.  M.,  b! 
in  Mezzano,  1863,  appointed  titular  Bishop’  of 
Leptis  Magna  23  February,  1913,  and  vicar  apostolic 
of  Lybia,  and  transferred  to  this  see  10  March,  1919. 

During  the  World  War  the  diocesan  seminary 
was  used  as  a  shelter  for  refugees,  and  many  priests 
of  the  diocese  distinguished  themselves  at  the  front. 
The  1922  statistics  give  the  population  as  35,000, 
and  credit  the  diocese  with  28  parishes,  110 
churches,  50  secular  and  20  regular  clergy,  3  monas¬ 
teries  for  women,  3  convents  for  men  and  6  for 
women,  16  brothers,  100  religious  women,  1  semi¬ 
nary,  and  20  seminarians.  Among  the  institutions 
are  2  elementary  schools  with  8  teachers  and  80 
pupils,  all  other  schools  being  dependent  on  the 
State;  3  homes,  3  asylums,  and  2  hospitals.  An 
important  event  in  the  recent  progress  of  the 
diocese  was  the  founding  of  an  industrial  school 
for  dressmaking  and  tailoring  by  Rev.  Don  Enrico 
Bartoloni.  One  clerical  and  four  lay  societies  are 
organized,  and  a  Catholic  periodical  is  published  in 
the  diocese. 

Bahama  Islands  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-204b).— The  fol¬ 
lowing  are  the  principal  islands,  their  area  and 
their  population,  according  to  the  latest  available 
census : 


Area 
sq.  miles 

Population 

Males  Females 

Abaco  and  Cays . 

776 

2,234 

2,229 

Acklins  Island  . 

120 

725 

1,008 

Andros  Island  . 

1,600 

3,875 

3,670 

Berry  Islands  . 

14 

279 

208 

Biminis  . 

8*4 

224 

252 

Crooked  Island  . 

76 

596 

945 

Eleuthera  . 

164 

2,852 

8,681 

Exuma  and  Cays . 

100 

1,406 

2,059 

Grand  Bahama  . 

430 

784 

1.040 

Inagua  . 

560 

589 

754 

Long  Cay  . 

8 

140 

236 

Long  Island  . 

130 

1,765 

2,394 

Mayaguana  . 

96 

148 

210 

New  Providence  . 

85 

5,899 

7,655 

Ragged  Island  and  Cays 

5 

165 

188 

Rum  Cay  . 

29 

171 

259 

San  Salvador  . 

160 

2,090 

2,982 

Watlings  Island  . 

60 

261 

356 

24,213 

35,126 

Of  these  about  85%  are  colored.  The  estimated 
population  on  1  January,  1921,  was  56,385.  In  1919 
the  birthrate  was  34.4  and  the  deathrate  21.6. 

Economic  Situation. — In  1919  the  total  imports 
into  the  Bahamas  were  valued  at  $2,630,455,  81% 
of  which  came  from  the  United  States;  the  ex¬ 
ports,  valued  at  $1,864,096,  went  mostly  to  that 
country.  In  1920  there  were  255  grants  of  Crown 
land  made  during  the  year,  the  area  being  1,327 
acres.  Approximately  a  total  of  372,204  acres  in 
the  colony  have  been  sold  by  the  Crown  to  private 
persons,  and  242,795,000  remain  ungranted. 

Education.— In  1919  the  teaching  staff  employed 
by  the  Board  of  Education  consisted  of  50  principal 
teachers,  4  assistant  teachers,  4  pupil  teachers,  190 
monitors,  8  sewing  teachers,  4  students  in  training, 


BAHR-EL-GAZAL 


78 


BAILLY 


and  30  employed  in  aided  schools.  The  total  num¬ 
bers  receiving  primary  education  are  given  as  fol¬ 
lows  for  1920:  Board  schools,  5,858;  aided  private 
schools,  875;  Church  of  England,  1,031;  Catholic, 
461;  Baptist,  86;  private  schools,  383;  total,  8,694. 

Primary  education  is  compulsory  between  the 
ages  of  six  and  fourteen  years,  is  provided  by  the 
Government,  and  is  controlled  by  a  Board  of  Edu¬ 
cation,  consisting  of  twelve  members  appointed 
annually  by  the  governor.  The  board  receives  an 
annual  grant  from  the  legislature  of  £6,000,  out  of 
which  repairs  are  made  and  teachers’  salaries  are 
paid.  The  cost  of  education  is  enhanced  by  the 
breaking  up  of  the  population  into  many  small 
settlements,  long  distances  apart,  on  the  various 
islands,  themselves  separated  by  many  miles.  There 
is  still  no  state  provision  for  secondary  schools,  but 
private  organizations  connected  with  religious  bodies 
provide  higher  education,  as  follows :  Queen’s  Col¬ 
lege  and  Preparatory  School  (Wesleyan),  132 pupils; 
Nassau  Grammar  School  (Church  of  England),  18 
pupils;  St.  Hilda’s  High  School  (Church  of  Eng¬ 
land),  54  pupils;  St.  Francis  Xavier’s  Academy 
(Catholic),  50  pupils.  There  is  also  a  night  school 
with  22  pupils. 

Religion. — The  ecclesiastical  returns  in  the  Blue 
Book  of  the  Bahamas  give  the  number  of  churches 
and  chapels  as  follows:  Anglican,  88;  Wesleyan, 
38;  Bahamas  Baptist  Union,  9;  Native  Baptist 
Union,  46;  Baptist  Mission,  12;  Presbyterian,  1; 
Catholic,  3;  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion,  1. 
The  Bahamas  belong  ecclesiastically  to  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  New  York,  and  statistics  have  not  varied 
in  the  last  decade.  There  is  only  one  Benedictine 
Father  in  the  islands,  besides  the  Vicar  Forane 
(1921). 

Government  and  Recent  History.— The  Gover¬ 
nor  and  Commander-in-chief  is  assisted  by  an 
Executive  Council  of  9,  and  a  representative  assem¬ 
bly  of  29  members,  electors  being  required  to  have 
small  property  qualifications. 

A  contingent  was  raised  in  the  Bahamas  by  volun¬ 
tary  enlistments  for  service  at  the  European  front 
in  1915,  to  be  kept  up  at  a  strength  of  200  men, 
funds  for  the  purpose  to  be  provided  by  voluntary 
subscription  and  legislative  appropriations.  The 
first  draft  of  30  men  embarked  on  9  September, 
1915,  for  Jamaica,  en  route  to  England,  followed 
subsequently  in  November  of  the  same  year  and 
in  May,  1916,  by  drafts  of  105  and  65  respectively, 
making  a  total  of  200  for  the  Bahamas  unit  of  the 
British  West  Indies  Regiment.  Reinforcements  to 
the  extent  of  100%  per  annum  were  guaranteed,  the 
Government  bearing  the  whole  cost  of  transport, 
separation  allowances,  pensions,  gratuities  and  dis¬ 
ability  allowances.  The  contingent  was  composed 
almost  entirely  of  colored  men.  They  served  under 
Sir  Edmund  Allenby,  commander-in-chief  of  the 
forces  in  Egypt,  against  the  Turks,  and  also  did 
some  remarkable  work  in  France,  being  employed 
in  all  the  main  operations  that  took  place  after 
their  arrival,  including  the  battles  of  Somme,  Arras, 
Messines,  and  Ypres.  The  economic  effect  of  the 
war  on  the  colonies  was  shown  in  the  increasing 
demand  for  sisal  and  sponge,  the  two  principal 
commodities  of  the  Bahamas,  and  the  interruption 
of  regular  communication  between  the  United 
States  and  the  Bahamas. 

Bahr-el-Gazal,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (de 
Bahrel-Gazal),  in  Sudanese  Africa.  The  vast  terri¬ 
tory  comprised  under  this  name  belonged  to  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Sudan  until  30  May,  1913, 
when  it  was  divided  into  two  parts,  the  first  remain¬ 
ing  a  vicariate  under  the  name  of  Khartum,  while 


the  other  half  was  made  a  prefecture  apostolic.  On 
13  June,  1917,  this  latter  was  made  a  vicariate, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  10°  latitude,  on  the  east 
by  the  Anglo-Ethiopian  frontier,  on  the  west  by 
the  Anglo-Belgian  frontier,  and  on  the  south  by  the 
White  Nile  and  Lake  Albert.  It  is  entrusted  to  the 
Sons  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Verona,  the  present 
and  first  vicar  apostolic  being  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio 
Stoppani,  titular  Bishop  of  Stratonic.  No  statistics 
have  as  yet  been  issued. 

Bailly,  Emmanuel,  superior  general  of  the 
Augustinians  of  the  Assumption,  b.  in  Paris,  4 
August,  1842;  d.  there  23  November,  1917.  He  was 
the  son  of  M.  Bailly,  founder  of  the  Conferences 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  a  participator  in  all 
the  works  of  the  Church  in  France  that  sprang  up 
between  1820-40.  Emmanuel  entered  the  Society 
of  the  Augustinians  of  the  Assumption  at  Nimes 
in  1861,  seven  months  after  his  brother  Vincent 
de  Paul  (q.v.),  was  professed  two  years  later,  and 
in  1865  was  ordained.  He  was  successively  superior 
of  the  College  at  Nimes,  master  of  novices,  procu¬ 
rator  general  and  vicar  general,  succeeding  M. 
Picard  as  superior  general  in  1903.  The  following 
year  Pere  Bailly  was  made  a  member  of  the  per¬ 
manent  committee  of  international  Eucharistic 
Congresses,  and  director  general  of  the  Association 
de  Notre  Dame  de  Salut,  and  of  the  National  Pil¬ 
grimage  to  Lourdes.  In  1915  he  became  consultor 
of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Seminaries  and 
Studies.  Gifted  with  an  enlightened  mind,  great 
eloquence  and  a  very  ardent  spirit  of  faith,  he 
spent  himself  unstintedly  for  the  prosperity  of  his 
order,  the  good  of  the  Church  and  the  glory  of  his 
country.  During  his  generalate  he  made  several 
visits  to  missions  of  the  Assumption  in  England, 
in  North  and  South  America,  and  in  the  Orient. 
The  destruction  of  the  latter  and  the  mobilization 
of  many  of  his  religious  during  the  World  War 
was  a  cause  of  intense  grief  to  his  apostolic  soul 
and  did  much  to  hasten  his  end.  To  sweetness  of 
character  he  united  solidity  of  principle,  and  at  a 
particularly  difficult  time  directed  his  congregation 
with  wisdom  and  zeal. 

Bailly,  Vincent  de  Paul,  editor  and  publicist, 
b.  at  Berteaucourt-les-Thennes,  Somme,  2  Decem¬ 
ber,  1832;  d.  in  Paris,  2  December,  1912.  He  was 
the  son  of  Emmanuel-Joseph  Bailly,  founder  and 
first  president  of  the  Conferences  of  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul,  and  was  born  into  an  atmosphere  of  love 
for  souls  and  ardor  for  charitable  works.  Educated 
at  first  by  private  teachers  under  the  enlightened 
direction  of  his  father,  he  later  attended  the  Lycee 
Louis  le  Grand,  where  in  1850  he  received  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science.  In  1852  he  entered 
the  bureau  of  telegraphy  in  Paris,  and  was  trans¬ 
ferred  to  Nimes,  where  he  lived  at  the  college 
of  the  Assumptionists  and  taught  mathematics  in 
his  leisure  hours.  Pere  d’Alyon,  founder  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Augustinians  of  the  Assump¬ 
tion,  was  a  close  friend  of  his  family.  Returning 
to  the  central  bureau  three  years  later  he  became 
the  private  telegrapher  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon 
III,  and  was  entrusted  with  many  important  mis¬ 
sions,  private  and  diplomatic.  As  an  aid  to  his 
international  correspondence  he  studied  law,  and 
a  brilliant  future  in  the  ministry  seemed  to  open 
up  before  him,  but  he  had  other  ambitions.  On 
20  October,  1860,  he  entered  the  Congregation 
of  the  Assumption,  and  received  the  habit  from  Pere 
d’Alyon.  His  brother  Emmanuel  (q.v.)  followed 
him  into  the  Congregation  seven  months  later.  After 
his  ordination  in  1863,  he  was  made  director  of 
the  College  at  Nimes,  a  post  he  held  until  1867, 


BAKER 


79 


BALTIMORE 


when  he  went  to  Rome  as  chaplain  with  the  Volun¬ 
teers  from  Nimes  who  rallied  to  the  defense  of  the 
Holy  Father,  and  were  formed  into  a  company 
under  Captain  Wyart,  later  Dom  Sebastian,  Abbot 
General  of  the  Reformed  Cistercians.  On  his  return 
in  1869,  Pere  Bailly  was  attached  to  the  Paris  house 
of  the  Congregation,  which  later  became  the  center 
of  so  many  activities  then  in  their  infancy,  and 
where  he  worked  under  Pere  Picard.  In  1870  Pere 
Bailly  served  as  chaplain  with  the  troops  during 
the  siege  of  Metz,  and  did  untold  good  among 
the  soldiers  in  the  field  and  in  the  hospitals. 

In  the  great  work  of  Christian  reconstruction 
undertaken  with  rare  vision,  by  the  Fathers  of 
the  Assumption  in  France,  Pere  Bailly  was  one 
of  the  leading  spirits.  He  became  secretary  gen¬ 
eral  of  the  Union  des  associations  ouvrieres  catho- 
liques,  a  union  resulting  from  l’Association  de  Notre 
Dame  de  Sault,  founded  by  the  Assumptionist 
Fathers;  director  of  the  national  pilgrimages  to  the 
Holy  Land  begun  in  1883  and  ended  for  him  in 
1910;  editor  of  “La  Pelerin,  founder  of  “La  Croix," 
and  editor  or  collaborator  in  the  multiple  publica¬ 
tions  of  the  Maison  de  la  Bonne  Presse,  nearly 
all  due  to  his  creative  genius  and  devouring  zeal 
in  spreading  the  kingdom  of  Christ.  His  principal 
work,  “La  Croix,"  to  which  he  contributed  under 
the  pseudonym  “le*  Moine,"  became  the  most  pow¬ 
erful  organ  of  Catholic  opinion  in  France.  Original, 
alert,  vigorous,  purely  Catholic  and  the  organ  of  no 
political  party,  it  made  a  bold  and  courageous  fight 
against  Free  Masonry  and  anti-clericalism,  and  the 
nefarious  laws  promulgated  by  a  Government  which 
was  completely  under  their  control.  When,  in 
1900,  by  order  of  Leo  XIII,  the  Congregation  re¬ 
signed  the  publication  into  secular  hands,  Pere 
Bailly  submitted  unquestioningly  to  the  sacrifice 
demanded  of  him  in  the  cause  of  peace.  The  years 
of  exile  (1900-06),  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Con¬ 
gregation  from  France,  were  spent  in  Rome,  in 
Belgium,  in  founding  the  English  houses  of  the 
Congregation,  in  visiting  the  missions  in  the  Orient 
and  in  giving  retreats.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he 
lived  in  an  apartment  in  the  Rue  Goethe,  and 
devoted  much  of  his  time  to  his  literary  work. 
In  1912  in  spite  of  severe  illness,  he  attended  the 
general  chapter  of  the  congregation  in  Luxemburg, 
dying  a  few  months  later  in  Paris.  He  received  the 
last  sacraments  from  his  brother  Pere  Emmanuel, 
his  superior  general.  It  is  to  Pere  Bailly’s  intense 
spiritual  life  that  we  have  to  look  for  the  explana¬ 
tion  of  his  prodigious  achievements  for  the  glory 
of  God  and  the  defence  of  the  Faith.  His  spirit  of 
faith  truly  moved  mountains  and  his  name,  coupled 
with  that  of  Louis  Veuillot,  sums  up  Catholic  jour¬ 
nalism  in  France  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

Baker,  Elizabeth  Anstice,  convert  and  writer, 
b.  in  London,  1849;  d.  there  16  October,  1914.  She 
was  the  fourth  daughter  of  the  Hon.  John  Baker, 
and  sister  of  Sir  Richard  Baker,  K.C.M.G.,  K.  C. 
In  her  youth  her  family  moved  temporarily  to 
one  of  England’s  distant  colonies,  where  she  doubt¬ 
less  imbibed  the  independence  of  thought  and 
breadth  of  view  that  in  all  her  intellectual  wander¬ 
ings  saved  her  from  mental  servility  to  the  many 
systems  of  philosophy  and  thought  current  at  that 
time.  She  was  received  into  the  Church  in  Paris 
by  Pere  Etienne,  O.P.  The  story  of  her  early 
life,  her  restless  search  for  truth  and  her  conversion 
are  told  in  “A  Modern  Pilgrim’s  Progress,’’  pub¬ 
lished  in  1906,  with  introduction  by  Father  Henry 
Sebastian  Bowden  (q.v.).  It  reveals  considerable 
intellectual  power,  a  clear  forcible  style,  and  at 

times  great  depths  of  feeling  and  has  been  a  power 
6  " 


for  good.  A  later  edition  has  a  preface  by  Mgr. 
Benson  (q.v.).  Pope  Leo  XIII  conferred  on  its 
author  the  cross  Pro  Ecclesia  et  Pontifice.  Miss 
Baker  was  on  the  Committee  of  the  Catholic 
Truth  Society,  the  Catholic  Women’s  League, 
Catholic  Girls  Protection  and  other  societies,  and 
her  home  in  South  Kensington  was  a  center  of 
constant  occupations  and  interests  for  helping 
others. 

Baker  City,  Diocese  of  (Bakeriensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
11-21 3d  )j  in  the  State  of  Oregon,  United  States, 
comprises  an  area  of  68,000  sq.  miles.  The  first 
bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Charles  J.  O’Reilly,  D.  D.,  who 
came  to  the  see  in  1903,  was  transferred  to  Lincoln 
20  March,  1918,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present 
incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  F.  McGrath,  D.D. 
Bishop  McGrath  was  born  at  Aglish,  diocese  of 
Waterford,  Ireland,  3  March,  1871,  ordained  a  priest 
at  Montreal,  21  December,  1895,  made  curate  at 
St.  Patrick’s  Church,  Tacoma,  1907,  and  appointed 
bishop  21  December,  1918,  consecrated  25  March 
of  the  following  year.  During  the  World  War  one 
priest  of  this  diocese  served  as  a  chaplain  and 
eleven  of  the  men  who  entered  the  army  gave  up 
their  lives. 

By  present  (1921)  statistics  the  total  Catholic 
population  of  the  diocese  numbers  7,300,  of  whom 
1,300  are  English,  2,000  German,  1,700  Irish,  400 
Portuguese,  500  Italians,  700  French,  250  Spanish, 
150  Belgian,  and  300  of  other  nationalities.  There 
are  19  parishes,  39  missions,  53  churches,  17  secular 
and  10  regular  clergy,  12  convents  for  women,  101 
sisters,  3  seminarians,  7  academies,  with  69  teachers 
and  an  attendance  of  329  boys  and  628  girls,  and 
1  normal  school  with  3  teachers  and  20  pupils.  The 
various  religious  orders  established  in  the  diocese 
are  Capuchins,  Franciscans,  and  Jesuits;  Sisters  of 
the  Third  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary. 

Balearic  Islands  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-221d).— On  1 
January,  1920,  the  area  of  the  Balearic  Islands  was 
1,935  square  miles,  and  the  population  331,195  (171.1 
per  square  mile).  The  islands  form  a  separate 
military  district  of  Spain  and  have  a  strong  fortress 
at  Mahon,  also  a  new  wireless  station.  For  religious 
statistics  see  Majorca  and  Iviza,  Diocese  of; 
Minorca,  Diocese  of. 

Ballarat,  Diocese  of  (Ballaratensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
Il-223a),  in  Australia,  suffragan  of  Melbourne.  Rt. 
Rev.  Joseph  Higgins,  translated  to  this  see  in  1905, 
died  16  September,  1915,  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Daniel  Foley,  con¬ 
secrated  24  August,  1916.  According  to  the  1911 
census  this  diocese  comprises  a  Catholic  population 
of  61,369.  The  religious  orders  established  here  at 
the  present  time  (1922)  are:  men,  Congregation  of 
the  Most  Holy  Redeemer  and  the  Christian 
Brothers;  women,  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary,  founded  from  Ireland,  Sisters  of  Our  Lady 
of  Mercy,  Brigidine  Sisters,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
Sisters  of  the  Good  Samaritan,  Sisters  of  the  Pre¬ 
sentation,  and  Sisters  of  St.  John  of  God.  The  1921 
statistics  credit  this  diocese  with  166  churches,  64 
secular  and  7  regular  clergy,  17  brothers,  221  nuns, 

2  boarding  schools  for  boys  and  10  for  girls,  12 
secondary  day  schools,  59  primaiy  schools,  1  home 
for  the  aged,  2  orphans’  homes,  and  5,211  children 
receiving  Catholic  education. 

Baltimore,  Archdiocese  of  (Baltimorensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  II-228a),  comprises  6,399  sq.  miles  of  terri¬ 
tory  in  Maryland  and  64  sq.  miles  in  the  Dis¬ 
trict  of  Columbia. 

On  24  March,  1921,  His  Eminence  James  Cardinal 


BALTIMORE 


80 


BAMBERG 


Gibbons,  Archbishop  of  Baltimore  from  1877,  and 
the  nation’s  most  prominent  churchman  and  citizen, 
died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Michael  J. 
Curley,  former  Bishop  of  St.  Augustine,  installed 
30  November,  1921.  In  October,  1911,  the  diocese 
celebrated,  with  great  pomp  and  ceremony,  the 
golden  jubilee  of  the  cardinal’s  priesthood  and  the 
silver  jubilee  of  his  accession  to  the  cardinalate, 
the  celebration  lasting  one  week.  On  29  October, 
1918,  the  golden  jubilee  of  his  elevation  to  ‘the 
episcopate  was  celebrated  quietly  at  St.  Mary’s 
Seminary,  and  on  20  February,  1919,  a  public  cele¬ 
bration  was  held  at  the  Franciscan  Monastery, 
Brookland,  Washington,  D.  C. 

On  10  September,  1919,  His  Eminence  Desire 
Cardinal  Mercier,  Archbishop  of  Malines,  Belgium, 
visited  the  Diocese  of  Baltimore  and  spent  several 
days  at  the  cardinal’s  residence. 

On  23  September,  1920,  the  corner-stone  of  the 
Shrine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  chapel  at  the 
Catholic  University  was  laid.  The  first  yearly  meet¬ 
ing  of  the  Hierarchy  of  the  United  States,  which 
has  been  inaugurated  in  recent  years,  was  held  in 
February,  1919. 

Besides  the  cardinal  many  other  prominent  clergy¬ 
men  of  the  diocese  of  Baltimore  have  died  within 
the  last  few  years,  among  them  Rev.  Dr.  Dennis  J. 
Stafford  (d.  30  January,  1908),  pastor  of  St.  Patrick’s, 
Washington,  and  a  noted  Shakespearean  student 
and  lecturer;  Rt.  Rev.  Charles  Warren  Currier, 
D.  D.  (d.  23  September,  1918),  missionary  bishop, 
lecturer  and  writer;  Rt.  Rev.  Alfred  A.  Curtis,  D. D. 
(d.  11  July,  1908),  noted  convert  to  the  Church;  Rt. 
Rev.  Mgr.  Dennis  J.  Flynn,  D. D.  (d.  7  July,  1911), 
president  of  Mt.  St.  Mary’s  College,  Emmitsburg, 
Md.;  Rev.  Francis  N.  McKenna,  S.S.  (d.  22  May, 
1917),  president  of  St.  Charles  College,  Catonsville, 
Md.;  Mgr.  W.  H.  Ketcham  (d.  14  November,  1921), 
director  Bureau  of  Catholic  Indian  Missions,  Wash¬ 
ington.  Among  the  prominent  laymen  of  the  diocese 
deceased  within  recent  years  are :  Mr.  Edgar  Gans  (d. 
20  September,  1914),  prominent  lawyer;  Mr.  Michael 
Jenkins  (d.  7  September,  1915),  trustee  of  Catholic 
University;  Mr.  Charles  J.  Bonaparte,  (d.  28  June, 
1921),  former  United  States  Attorney  General,  Sec¬ 
retary  of  the  Navy,  and  trustee  of  the  Catholic 
University;  Hon.  Edward  Douglass  White  (d.  19 
May,  1921),  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  United  States.  During  the  World  War 
twelve  of  the  diocesan  clergy  served  as  chaplains, 
and  276  young  men  gave  up  their  lives. 

The  total  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is 
276,200  and  includes  the  following  races:  negro 
(15,280),  German  (25,572),  Italian  (16,800),  Lithu¬ 
anian  (8,000),  Polish  (19,679),  Czechoslavak  (7,000). 
Since  1907,  23  new  parishes  have  been  established 
and  at  the  present  time  there  are  in  all:  parishes, 
151;  churches,  227;  missions,  76;  monasteries  for 
men,  3;  convents  for  women,  9,  with  total  number 
of  sisters  503;  secular  priests,  290;  regular  clergy, 
325;  lay  brothers,  108;  nuns  and  sisters,  1,512; 
seminaries,  17,  with  940  seminarians;  universities,  3, 
with  300  professors  and  a  total  attendance  of  2,962; 
colleges  for  men,  9,  with  155  teachers  and  an  at¬ 
tendance  of  2,033;  colleges  for  women,  3,  with  117 
teachers  and  an  attendance  of  825;  academies,  14, 
with  195  teachers  and  an  attendance  of:  boys  579, 
girls  1,302;  normal  schools,  3,  with  47  teachers  and 
an  attendance  of  344;  training  schools,  2,  with  19 
teachers  and  an  attendance  of  84;  elementary 
schools,  97,  with  755  teachers  and  an  attendance  of 
31,802;  industrial  schools,  4,  with  59  teachers  and 
an  attendance  of  1,151. 

Missionary  work  is  carried  on  by  the  Mission 
Helpers  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and  among  the  institu¬ 


tions  of  the  diocese  are:  2  homes  for  aged  poor, 
2  for  self-supporting  girls,  and  1  for  boys;  12  infant 
and  orphan  asylums  with  1,418  children;  8  hospitals 
for  the  sick,  1  for  the  insane;  3  Houses  of  the 
Good  Shepherd;  2  settlement  houses  under  the 
auspices  of  the  National  Catholic  Welfare  Council, 
and  4  day  nurseries.  The  industrial  schools,  orphan 
asylums,  hospitals  and  houses  of  the  Good  Shepherd 
receive  aid  from  state  and  city  for  subjects  officially 
committed.  Such  public  institutions  as  the  Walter 
Reed  Government  Hospital,  Washington  Asylum, 
Soldiers’  Home,  and  St.  Elizabeth’s  for  the  Insane, 
in  Washington,  Bay  View  Hospital  in  Baltimore, 
Maryland  Sanatoria,  and  Eudowood  and  Sabillas- 
villo,  Md.,  admit  the  ministry  of  priests  of  the 
diocese.  The  various  organizations  among  the 
clergy  are :  the  Clerical  Benevolent  Association  and 
the  Association  of  Prayers  for  Deceased  Priests. 
Among  the  laity  the  usual  religious  fraternal  and 
parish  organizations  and  societies  are  conducted. 
The  “Baltimore  Review”  is  the  diocesan  official 
weekly. 

Bamako,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (de  Bamako), 
in  French  Sudan,  Northern  Africa.  By  a  Decree 
of  2  July  1921  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the  Sahara 
Desert  was  divided  into  two  vicariates  one  of  which 
is  Bamako.  It  comprises  the  territory  in  the  north¬ 
ern  part  of  the  old  vicariate  extending  from  the 
5°  West,  to  a  lake  south  of  the  River  Niger  in 
the  city  of  Timbuctoo,  and  from  here,  to  the  boun¬ 
dary  line  of  the  three  civil  departments  of 
Bandiagara,  Dedugu  and  Bobodiulasso.  All  terri¬ 
tory  west  of  this  line  is  included  in  this  vicariate, 
entrusted  to  the  White  Fathers.  Rt.  Rev.  Emile 
Fernand  Sauvant,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Utica, 
8  July,  1921,  was  appointed  first  vicar  apostolic. 
Statistics  have  not  yet  been  published  for  this 
vicariate,  but  in  1920  the  old  vicariate,  of  which  this 
territory  formed  a  part,  had  a  total  population  of 
4,000,000,  of  whom  1000  were  European  Catholics, 
900  Catholic  negroes  and  4000  catechumens.  The 
mission  comprised  43  missionary  priests,  72  catechists, 
13  churches  or  chapels,  10  schools,  7  orphanages,  3 
leper  settlements,  2  hospitals,  and  19  Missionary 
Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Africa. 

Bamberg,  Archdiocese  of  (Bambergensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  II-242d),  in  Bavaria.  Of  the  many  Catholic 
conventions  successively  held  within  the  archdiocese 
since  1919  of  special  note  is  that  of  Nuremberg  in 
1921,  attended  by  45,000  faithful,  and  that  of  Bam¬ 
berg  in  the  same  year,  at  which  25,000  were  present. 
During  the  World  War  sixty-five  priests  cared  for 
the  soldiers  at  the  front  or  in  the  hospitals,  and  the 
Catholic  laity  strove  in  every  way  to  relieve  the 
existing  misery  and  suffering.  Among  the  recently 
deceased  clergy  of  note  are:  Rev.  Francis  Xavier 
Scheidler,  dean  of  the  metropolitan  chapter,  Pro- 
thonotary  of  the  Roman  Curia,  died  1911;  Franz 
von  Keller,  provost  of  the  Chapter;  Archbishop 
Friedrich  Philipp  von  Abert  (d.  25  May,  1912). 
The  present  incumbent  is  the  Most  Rev.  Johannes 
Jacobus  Hauck,  b.  at  Miltenberg  22  December,  1861, 
ordained  3  August,  1884,  appointed  to  the  see  of 
Bamberg  18  June,  1912,  and  consecrated  25  July  fol¬ 
lowing.  He  received  the  pallium  11  January,  1913. 
The  auxiliary  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Adam  Senger, 
titular  bishop  of  Comana. 

The  archdiocese  contains  465,000  Catholics.  There 
are  225  parishes,  625  churches,  129  chaplaincies,  60 
benifices,  57  curacies,  11  monasteries  for  men  and 
5  for  women,  97  convents  for  women,  93  lay 
brothers,  478  secular  clergy,  48  regular  clergy,  and 
2  seminaries.  There  is  a  university  with  12  pro¬ 
fessors  (53  students),  1  hochschule  for  boys  with 


BANGUELO 


81 


BANSKA-BYSTRICA 


2  teachers  (76  students),  27  hohere  schulen  (9  and 
6  year  classical  and  scientific  curriculum)  with  309 
teachers  (2,800  boy  students,  1,200  girl  students), 
1,070  elementary  schools  with  2,008  teachers,  7  in¬ 
dustrial  schools  with  78  teachers  (680  students).  All 
the  schools  are  supported  by  the  Government.  The 
following  charitable  institutions  exist  in  the  arch¬ 
diocese:  5  homes  for  journeymen  and  working 
girls,  2  asylums,  13  hospitals,  2  refuges,  65  day 
nurseries.  The  ministry  of  priests  is  permitted  in 
all  public  institutions.  The  following  associations 
have  been  formed  by  the  clergy:  Unio  Apostolica, 
Fcedus  Ottomanum  (Ottoman  League),  Association 
for  Priestly  Perserverance.  The  associations  among 
the  laity  are:  Association  of  Workingmen  and  Me¬ 
chanics,  Association  of  Workingwomen,  Young 
Men’s  Club,  the  Marian  Congregation  for  young 
men  and  women.  Two  Catholic  periodicals  are 
published  in  the  archdiocese. 

Banguelo,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (de  Banguelo; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XVI-79d),  in  Central  Africa.  This 
vicariate  was  erected  23  January,  1918,  by  a  division 
of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Nyassa,  and  is  bounded 
by  the  boundary  line  of  the  waters  between  Lun- 
angua  and  Zambezi,  and  the  13°  latitude.  Its  limits 
are  the  same  as  those  of  Nyssa.  It  is  entrusted  to 
the  White  Fathers,  the  present  and  first  vicar 
apostolic  being  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Larue  of  this  con¬ 
gregation,  titular  Bishop  of  Thuburbo.  The  re¬ 
markable  progress  of  religion  in  this  territory  from 
the  time  of  the  erection  of  the  vicariate  is  best 
shown  by  the  following  statistics  published  in  1917: 


Neophytes . . 

Catechumens 

Baptisms  . 

Confessions . 

Communions 
Christian  families. 
Chapels . 


1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

7,202 

9,152 

11,642 

14,955 

16,387 

14,597 

18,350 

22,192 

2,926 

4,660 

4,512 

4,881 

60,434 

76,758 

100,334 

108,099 

83,853 

128,685 

182,926 

204,286 

1,215 

1,808 

2,076 

3,291 

22 

48 

73 

109 

It  is  probable  that  the  World  War  retarded  in 
some  measure  the  work  of  the  missionaries,  but 
the  1921  records  show  an  encouraging  increase  in 
conversions,  there  being  now  6,000  Catholics  out  of 
a  total  population  of  600,000,  32,000  catechumens, 
24  priests,  6  brothers,  7  White  Sisters,  and  214 
catechists. 

Banjaluka,  Diocese  of  (Banjalucensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  II-252b),  in  Bosnia.  The  predecessor  of  the 
present  bishop,  Joseph  Garric,  the  first  elected  to 
the  see,  was  Bishop  Marianus  Markovic,  Apostolic 
Administrator.  He  died  20  June,  1912,  after  a  life 
of  eminent  virtue.  Both  clergy  and  laity  bore  the 
hardships  of  the  World  War  with  great  fortitude, 
and  unselfishly  attended  the  wants  of  the  needy, 
the  Trappists  and  Franciscans  proving  in  this  work 
especially  deserving  of  praise. 

The  Catholics  of  the  diocese  number  102,000,  of 
whom  90,000  are  Croatians  and  the  balance  Ger¬ 
mans,  Poles,  Czechs,  and  a  few  Hungarians.  There 
are  28  secular  and  50  regular  priests  and  97  lay 
brothers,  45  parishes  with  50  churches,  1  abbey  for 
men  with  2-  affiliated  houses,  3  convents  for  men 
and  5  for  women,  1  seminary,  3  high  schools,  12 
normal  schools  with  36  teachers  and  a  total  of  1,895 
students  of  both  sexes,  2  orphan  asylums,  one  for 
boys  kept  by  the  Trappists,  and  the  other  for  girls 
in  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood  in 
Nazareth  and  supported  by  voluntary  contributions. 
For  the  clergy  there  is  a  mutual  benefit  association 
of  artificers  and  workmen.  A  periodical  diocesan 
bulletin  is  issued,  also  a  publication  for  Catholic 


y  °uth  inteiested  in  art.  At  one  time  a  Catholic 
weekly  was  published  for  one  year,  but  lack  of 
financial  support  forced  its  abandonment. 

Banns  of  Marriage  (cf.  C.  E,  II-256c)  .-Before 
a  marriage  takes  place  it  must  be  announced  or 
in  other  words  the  banns  must  be  published’  on 
three  successive  Sundays  or  other  feasts  of  obliga¬ 
tion  during  Mass  or  any  other  service  at  which 
theie  is  a  large  attendance.  Fhe  local  ordinary  is 
now  authorized  to  substitute  for  this  usual  method 
of  publication  the  affixing  of  the  names  of  the 
parties  on  the  doors  of  the  parochial  or  other 
church  for  the  space  of  eight  days,  which  must  in¬ 
clude  two  days  of  precept.  If  either  or  both  of  the 
parties,  after  reaching  the  age  of  puberty  (12  years 
for  girls,  and  14  years  for  boys),  have  resided  for 
six  months  elsewhere  than  in  the  parish  of  the 
priest,  who  has  the  right  of  assisting  at  the  mar- 
iiage,  the  parish  priest  is  to  notify  the  ordinary 
who  may  require  the  publication  of  the  banns  in 
that  place  or  may  prescribe  other  steps  for  ascer¬ 
taining  the  status  of  the  parties.  Even  when  the 
period  of  residence  was  less  than  six  months,  if  it  is 
suspected  that  an  impediment  was  contracted,  the 
parish  priest  is  to  refer  the  matter  to  the  ordinary, 
who  must  not  allow  the  marriage  till  the  suspicion 
is  removed.  If  a  Catholic  is  to  be  married  to  a 
non-Catholic  the  banns  must  not  be  published,  how¬ 
ever,  the  ordinary  may  allow  it  to  be  done  if  he 
deems  it  advisable,  though  in  such  a  case  the  re¬ 
ligion  of  a  non-Catholic  must  not  be  mentioned. 
A  local  ordinary  may  dispense  his  own  subjects 
from  the  publication  of  the  banns  for  a  legitimate 
cause,  even  when  it  would  have  to  be  made  in 
another  diocese.  Where  several  ordinaries  have 
jurisdiction,  the  dispensation  is  granted  by  the  one 
in  whose  diocese  the  marriage  is  to  take  place ;  but 
either  of  them  can  grant  it  if  the  marriage  is  to 
be  celebrated  outside  of  their  dioceses. 

In  case  of  doubt  about  the  existence  of  any  im¬ 
pediment,  the  parish  priest  should  investigate  the 
matter,  examining  under  oath  at  least  two  trust¬ 
worthy  witnesses,  and,  if  necessary,  the  parties 
themselves;  he  is  to  proceed  with  the  publication, 
but  if  the  doubt  is  not  eventually  dispelled  he  must 
not  assist  at  the  marriage  without  consulting  the 
ordinary.  Should  an  undoubted  impediment  be  dis¬ 
covered,  then  if  it  is  occult  he  must  continue  the 
publication  and  refer  the  case  to  the  local  ordinary 
or  the  sacred  penitentiary  without  revealing  the 
names  of  the  parties;  if  the  impediment  is  public 
and  has  been  discovered  before  beginning  the  pub¬ 
lication,  the  banns  must  not  be  proclaimed  until  the 
impediment  has  been  removed,  even  if  the  pastor 
knows  that  a  dispensation  for  the  internal  forum 
only  has  been  granted;  if  the  discovery  was  made 
after  the  first  or  the  second  proclamation  the  parish 
priest  is  to  continue  the  publication,  and  refer  the 
matter  to  the  ordinary. 

If  the  investigation  of  the  parties’  freedom  to 
marry  or  the  proclamation  of  the  banns  has  been 
made  by  a  priest  other  than  the  one  who  is  to 
assist  at  the  marriage,  the  latter  should  not  officiate 
until  the  investigations  have  been  completed  and, 
as  a  rule,  until  three  days  have  elapsed  from  the 
last  publication  of  the  banns;  on  the  other  hand, 
if  the  marriage  does  not  take  place  within  six 
months,  the  publication  must  ordinarily  be  re¬ 
peated. 

Code,  can.  1022-32;  Ayrinhac,  Marriage  Legislation  (New 
York,  1919),  n.  42  sqq. ;  O’Donnell  in  lr.  Eccl.  Rec.,  XV,  56; 
XVI,  49. 

Banska-Bystrica  (or  Neusohl),  Diocese  of 
(Neosoliensis  ;  cf.  C.  E.,  X-774c) ,  in  Czechoslovakia, 
suffragan  of  Esztergom.  The  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 


BAPTISM 


82 


BAPTISM 


Marien  Blalia,  born  in  Hradok  Loptorski,  Slovakia,  ministered.  An  abortive  foetus,  no  matter  when 
in  1869,  served  as  director  of  the  St.  Adalbert  born,  is  to  be  baptized  absolutely  if  it  is  certainly 
Society,  and  a  delegate  from  Czechoslovakia  to  the  alive,  or  conditionally  if  life  is  doubtful.  A  de- 
Peace  Conference  in  1919,  named  an  honorary  formed  foetus  must  always  be  baptized  at  least 
chamberlain  the  same  year  and  appointed  bishop  conditionally;  if  in  doubt  whether  there  is  one 
16  December,  1920,  to  succeed  Rt.  Itev.  Wolfgang  human  being  or  more,  one  is  to  be  baptized  ab- 
Radnai,  appointed  11  July,  1914,  retired  and  pro-  solutely,  the  others  conditionally, 
moted  to  the  titular  see  of  Axum  16  December,  Ceremonies. — A  different  ceremony  is  used  in 

1920.  The  diocese  comprises  a  Catholic  population  baptizing  according  as  the  recipient  is  an  infant 
of  223,779;  71,629  Lutherans,  193  Calvinists,  6560  or  an  adult;  but  the  local  ordinary  may  for  a  grave 
Jews;  the  1920  statistics  credit  it  with  111  parishes,  reason  allow  the  ceremonies  of  infant  baptism  to 
43  second-class  parishes  and  vicariates,  and  171  be  used  in  baptizing  adults.  A  child  is  to  be  bap- 
secular  priests.  tized  according  to  its  parents,  Rite,  but  if  the 

parents  are  of  different  Rites  the  ceremony  must 
Baptism  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-269a ).— Minister.  A  per-  be  according  to  the  father’s  Rite,  unless  there  is  a 
son  must  be  baptized  solemnly  in  his  own  parish  special  law  in  certain  cases:  American,  Syrian,  and 
and  by  his  own  parish  priest  or  by  another  priest  Coptic  Uniats  follow  the  general  lawr;  among 
with  his  or  the  ordinary’s  permission,  if  this  can  Ruthenian  Uniats,  boys  are  baptized  in  the  father’s, 
be  done  easily  and  without  delay;  otherwise  the  girls  in  the  mother’s  Rite,  unless  their  father  is  a 
baptism  may  be  administered  by  any  pastor  in  Ruthenian  cleric;  among  Italo-Greeks  living  in  the  * 
whose  parish  the  person  happens  to  be.  Conse-  West  if  the  father  is  Greek  and  the  mother  Latin, 
quently  a  child  whose  parents  belong  to  parish  A  either  Rite  may  be  used.  If  only  one  of  the  parents 
should  be  baptized  there,  even  if  it  were  born  and  is  a  Catholic,  the  ceremony  should  be  according  to 
remained  some  time  in  parish  B.  Deacons  are  his  or  her  Rite.  If  this  canon  is  violated,  the  per- 
extraordinary  ministers  of  solemn  baptism;  they  son  nevertheless  belongs  to  the  Rite  in  which  he 
may  not  exercise  their  power  without  leave  of  the  should  have  been  baptized. 

local  ordinary  or  the  parish  priest,  which  should  be  If  a  person  is  in  danger  of  death  he  may  receive 
granted  if  there  are  good  reasons,  and  this  permis-  private  baptism.  If  this  is  administered  by  one  who 
sion  may  be  presumed  in  case  of  necessity.  Parish  is  neither  a  priest  nor  a  deacon,  he  is  to  use  only 
priests  are  ordered  to  see  that  the  faithful,  espe-  the  rites  which  are  required  for  the  validity  of  the 
eially  midwives,  physicians  and  surgeons,  know  how  sacrament.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  minister  is  a 
to  baptize  in  case  of  necessity.  When  private  bap-  priest  or  deacon  and  there  is  time,  he  must  add  the 
tism  is  conferred,  there  should  be  one  or  two  wit-  ceremonies  which  should  follow  the  actual  baptism, 
nesses  if  possible,  so  that  the  fact  of  baptism  can  If  the  subject  is  not  in  danger  of  death,  the  ordinary 
be  established  if  occasion  .for  this  should  arise.  An  cannot  permit  private  baptism,  except  when  an 
important  change  has  been  made  by  the  Code  which  adult  heretic  is  to  be  baptized  conditionally ;  with 
declare  that  the  minister  of  baptism  now  contracts  this  exception,  too,  all  ceremonies  that  have  been 
a  spiritual  relationship  only  with  the  person  bap-  omitted  for  any  reason  in  conferring  baptism  must 
tized;  formerly  he  became  related  to  the  parents  be  supplied  in  church  as  soon  as  possible.  When 
also.  The  question  of  baptizing  adults,  by  which  baptism  is  repeated  conditionally— excepting  the 
in  speaking  of  baptism  is  meant  those  who  have  case  of  an  adult  heretic,  as  mentioned  above— cere- 
attained  the  use  of  reason,  should  be  referred  to  monies  previously  omitted  must  be  supplied;  but 
the  local  ordinary,  that  if  he  so  desires  the  sacra-  if  they  were  not  omitted  in  the  first  instance  the 
ment  may  be  administered  by  him  or  his  delegate  minister  is  free  to  use  or  omit  them  in  the  condi- 
in  a  more  solemn  manner.  It  is  recommended  that  tipnal  baptism.  If  the  parents  do  not  wish  to  give 
priests  who  baptize  adults  and  the  adults  them-  the  child  a  really  Christian  name  the  priest  must 
selves  should,  if  they  are  enjoying  good  health,  add  a  saint’s  name  and  record  both  in  the  bap- 
be  fasting;  moreover,  the  newly  baptized  adult  is  tismal  register. 

under  an  obligation  to  assist  immediately  after  Sponsors. — There  should  always  be  a  sponsor  at 

baptism  at  Mass  and  to  receive  Holy  Communion,  private  baptism  if  it  can  be  easily  arranged;  if  none 
unless  grave  and  urgent  reasons  prevent  him.  was  present  then,  there  should  be  one  later  when 

Subject.— As  a  rule  Catholics  may  baptize  only  the  ceremonies  are  supplied.  In  the  latter  case  the 
infants,  one  of  whose  parents  is  a  Catholic,  unless  person  acting  as  sponsor  does  not  contract  a  spir- 
in  case  of  necessity.  However,  infants  of  infidels,  itual  relationship.  In  repeating  baptism  condi- 
and  ordinarily  those  of  two  heretical  or  schismatical  tionally,  the  sponsor  who  acted  at  the  first  baptism, 
parents,  or  of  two  Catholic  parents  who  have  apos-  if  possible,  be  employed  again;  this,  it  may  be 
tatized  or  fallen  into  heresy  or  schism,  can  be  noted,  is  the  only  case  in  which  a  sponsor  is  needed 
lawfully  baptized  if  arrangements  are  made  for  at  conditional  baptism.  When  baptism  is  repeated 
their  Catholic  education,  and  if  the  parents  or  conditionally,  neither  the  sponsor  who  acted  at  the 
guardians,  or  at  least  one  of  them,  consent,  or  if  first  baptism  nor  he  who  acts  at  the  second  con- 
the  child  has  no  father,  mother,  grandparent  or  tracts  spiritual  relationship,  unless  the  same  person 
guardian  living,  or  if  these  have  lost  their  rights  was  employed  in  both  cases.  The  conditions  re- 
over  him  or  are  absolutely  unable  to  exercise  them,  quisite  for  acting  validly  or  licitly  as  sponsor  have 
Adults  are  not  to  be  baptized  except  with  their  been  made  stricter  by  the  Code.  For  validity  a 
knowledge  and  consent  and  after  proper  instruction ;  sponsor:  (a)  must  be  baptized,  have  attained  the 
but  if  they  are  in  danger  of  death  and  there  is  not  use  of  reason,  and  intend  to  assume  the  obligation; 
time  to  instruct  them  in  the  principal  mysteries,  (b)  must  not  belong  to  any  heretical  or  schismatical 
they  may  be  baptized  provided  they  give  signs  of  sect,  nor  be  excommunicated  by  a  condemnatory  or 
assent  and  promise  seriously  to  observe  the  com-  declaratory  sentence,  nor  be  legally  infamous  or 
mandments.  If  they  are  unable  to  request  baptism,  debarred  from  acts,  nor  be  a  deposed  or  degraded 
but  either  formerly  or  in  their  present  condition  cleric;  (c)  must  be  neither  the  parent  nor  the 
probably  manifested  the  intention  of  receiving  it,  spouse  of  the  person  to  be  baptized;  (d)  must  be 
they  should  be  baptized  conditionally;  should  they  nominated  to  act  by  the  person  to  be  baptized  or 
recover  and  a  doubt  concerning  the  validity  of  the  his  parents  or  guardians,  or,  lacking  these,  by  the 
baptism  remain,  conditional  baptism  is  to  be  ad-  minister;  (e)  must  personally  or  by  proxy  hold  or 


BAPTISTS 


83 


BARCELONA 


touch  the  subject  physically  at  the  moment  of  bap¬ 
tism  or  immediately  take  him  from  the  sacred  font 
or  from  the  minister’s  hands. 

To  act  licitly  as  sponsor,  one:  a()  must  have 
reached  his  fourteenth  year,  though  for  a  just  cause 
the  minister  may  allow  a  younger  person  to  stand; 
(b)  must  not  be  excommunicated  nor  be  debarred 
from  legal  acts  nor  be  legally  infamous  on  account 
of  a  notorious  offense,  even  if  no  judicial  sentence 
has  been  pronounced,  nor  be  interdicted  or  other¬ 
wise  publicly  known  as  a  criminal,  nor  be  infamous 
by  act;  (c)  must  know  the  rudiments  of  the  Faith; 

(d)  must  not  be  a  novice  or  a  professed  member 
of  a  religious  institute  in  which  the  members  make 
vows,  perpetual  or  temporary,  to  be  renewed  after 
a  fixed  time,  unless  in  case  of  necessity  and  with 
the  express  permission  of  at  least  the  local  superior; 

(e)  finally  must  have  the  express  permission  of  his 
ordinary,  if  he  is  a  cleric  in  sacred  orders.  In  case 
of  doubt  whether  one  can  be  admitted  validly  or 
licitly  the  parish  priest  must  consult  his  ordinary 
if  there  is  time.  A  sponsor  contracts  spiritual  rela¬ 
tionship  with  the  person  baptized,  but  not  as  for¬ 
merly  with  the  parents  also. 

Time  and  Place. — The  faithful  are  under  a  grave 
obligation  to  have  their  infants  baptized  as  soon  as 
possible.  In  case  of  necessity,  private  baptism  may 
be  administered  at  any  time  and  in  any  place. 
Solemn  baptism  also  may  be  administered  on  any 
day,  but  it  is  recommended  that,  following  the 
ancient  custom  of  the  Church,  the  baptism  of 
adults,  if  it  can  be  conveniently  arranged,  should 
take  place  on  the  vigil  of  Easter  or  Pentecost,  espe¬ 
cially  in  metropolitan  and  cathedral  churches.  The 
proper  place  for  .administering  solemn  baptism  is 
in  the  baptistery  of  a  church  or  public  oratory; 
and  every  parish  church  must  have  its  baptismal 
font,  any  statute,  privilege,  or  custom  to  the  con¬ 
trary  being  now  revoked  and  reprobated,  though 
this  has  been  decreed  without  prejudice  to  the 
vested  rights  of  other  churches.  For  the  con¬ 
venience  of  the  faithful  the  local  ordinary  may 
allow  or  even  order  a  baptismal  font  in  any  other 
church  or  public  oratory  within  the  parish  limits. 
If  the  person  to  be  baptized  cannot,  without  grave 
inconvenience  or  danger,  come  to  or  be  brought  to 
the  parish  church  or  to  another  possessing  a  bap¬ 
tismal  font,  the  parish  priest  ought  to  administer 
solemn  baptism  in  the  nearest  church  or  public 
oratory  within  the  parish  limits,  even  if  it  has  no 
baptismal  font.  Solemn  baptism  is  not  allowed  in 
private  houses  except:  (a)  when  the  person  to  be 
baptized  is  the  child  or  the  grandchild  of  the 
supreme  ruler  of  the  people  or  of  one  who  has  the 
right  of  succession  to  the  throne ;  in  this  case,  how¬ 
ever,  the  privilege  is  to  be  asked  for  on  the  occasion 
of  each  baptism;  or  (b)  when  the  local  ordinary 
believes  that  there  is  a  just  and  reasonable  cause 
for  allowing  it  in  an  extraordinary  case.  In  both 
of  these  instances  the  baptism  is  to  be  conferred 
in  a  domestic  chapel  or  other  becoming  place. 

Code,  737-79;  O’Donnell  in  Irish  Eccl.  Rec.,  X,  441  sqq. 

Baptists  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-278b). — A  iqore  vigorous 
effort  to  promote  general  Baptist  interests,  a  desire 
for  greater  unity  among  themselves  and  with  other 
denominations,  and  a  tendency  toward  radicalism  in 
the  interpretation  of  the  Bible  and  toward  less  ex¬ 
clusive  religious  practice  have  marked  the  history 
of  the  denomination  since  1907. 

History. — The  creation  in  1907  of  the  Northern 
Baptist  Convention,  corresponding  in  character  to 
the  older  Southern  Baptist  Convention  and  British 
Baptist  Union,  gave  the  Northern  Baptists  a  central 
body  in  charge  of  certain  specific  tasks.  It  chooses 


the  boards  and  superintends  the  work  of  the  various 
societies;  it  also  controls  the  general  funds  for  mis¬ 
sionary  enterprise.  In  1911  it  took  over  some  of 
the  activities  of  the  Freewill  Baptists,  who  in  1919 
completed  their  union  with  the  Northern  Baptists 
and  ceased  to  exist  as  a  denomination. 

The  Baptists  organized  in  1905  the  Baptist  World 
Alliance,  which  by  its  quinquennial  meetings  pro¬ 
motes  a  spirit  of  fellowship  and  co-operation;  in 
1911  they  joined  the  Federal  Council  of  the 
Churches  of  Christ  in  America,  and  in  1920  sent 
delegates  to  the  preliminary  meeting  of  the  World 
Conference  on  Faith  and  Order  held  at  Geneva  in 
Switzerland. 

In  their  treatment  of  theological  and  Biblical 
questions,  many  Baptist  scholars  have  in  recent 
years  departed  from  the  traditional  attitude  of 
their  Church  and  adopted  advanced  and  radical 
opinions.  A.mong  the  individual  churches  invita¬ 
tions  to  ministers  of  other  denominations  to  occupy 
Baptist  pulpits  tend  to  become  more  frequent  and 
the  practice  of  admitting  to  the  Eucharist  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  any  Christian  denomination  (open  com¬ 
munion)  is  also  spreading  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States. 

Statistics. — According  to  the  “American  Baptist 
Year-Book”  (1921),  there  were  at  the  time  of  its 
publication  8,965,995  Baptists  in  the  world,  with 
69,326  churches  and  48,812  ministers.  They  were 
distributed  as  follows  on  the  different  continents: 
America,  8,020,715;  Europe,  633,128;  Asia,  252,892; 
Australasia,  30,888;  Africa,  28,372.  The  great  ma¬ 
jority  of  the  Baptists  of  the  world  is  found  in  the 
United  States,  7,804,449;  Canada  has  138,882;  Cen¬ 
tral  America,  including  the  Canal  Zone,  1,531; 
Mexico,  3,834;  South  America,  21,376;  the  West 
Indies,  50,643.  The  figures  given  for  1921  by  Dr.  H. 
K.  Carroll  in  his  annual  table  of  religious  denomina¬ 
tions  in  the  United  States  are  below  those  published 
in  the  “American  Baptist  Year-Book.”  They  are 
for  the  United  States:  Baptists  (fifteen  bodies), 
7,207,578;  churches,  58,933;  ministers,  47,983. 

Newman,  A  History  of  the  Baptist  Churches  in  the  United 
States,  6th  ed.  (New  York,  1915);  American  Baptist  Year- 
Book  (American  Baptist  Publication  Society,  Philadelphia, 

192D-  N.  A.  Weber. 

Barat,  Madeleine-Sophie.  See  Madeleine- 
Sophie  Barat,  Blessed. 

Barbastro,  Diocese  of  (Barbastrensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
II-285d),  in  the  province  of  Huesca,  Spain,  suffragan 
of  Sargossa.  Since  1895  this  diocese  has  been  gov¬ 
erned  by  an  apostolic  administrator,  who  at  present 
(1922)  is  Rt.  Rev.  Monsignor  Jimenez  y  Perez, 
titular  Bishop  of  Anthedon.  The  1921  statistics 
give  the  Catholic  population  as  54,540  and  credit 
the  diocese  with  199  parishes  and  46  annexes,  di¬ 
rected  by  10  archpriests,  190  secular  priests,  199 
churches,  254  chapels,  3  convents  of  men  with  80 
religious,  8  convents  of  women  with  96  Sisters,  and 
180  Catholic  schools.  An  official  diocesan  bulletin 
is  published. 

Barcelona,  Diocese  of  (Barcinonensis  ;  cf.  C. 
E.,  II-288d),  in  Spain,  suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese 
of  Tarragona.  This  see  was  filled  by  His  Eminence 
Salvadore  Cardinal  Cassanas  y  Pages,  transferred 
from  the  titular  see  of  Cerama,  19  April,  1901,  until 
his  death  27  October,  1908.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Rt.  Rev.  Juan  Jose  Laguarda  y  Fenollera,  promoted 
from  the  diocese  of  Jaen  29  April,  1919,  died  3 
December,  1913.  His  successor  was  appointed  28 
May,  1914,  in  the  person  of  Rt.  Rev.  Henri  Reig 
y  Casanova  who  filled  the  see  until  his  promotion 
to  Valencia,  22  April,  1920.  The  present  incumbent 
Rt.  Rev.  Raimundo  Guillamet  y  Coma,  b.  at  San 
Esteban  de  Olet,  23  March,  1856,  ordained  21 


BARI 


84 


BASILIANS 


December,  1878,  elected  Bishop  of  Leon,  29  April, 
1909,  consecrated  at  Olot,  10  October  following, 
transferred  to  Cordova,  18  July,  1913,  enthroned  29 
November  following,  published  25  May,  1914,  and 
transferred  to  Barcelona  at  the  Consistory  of  22 
April,  1920.  In  1907  a  diocesan  council  of  Catholic 
corporations  and  works  was  established,  and  on  20 
January  a  monster  mass-meeting  took  place  in  the 
Arena  to  protest  against  the  Law  of  Associations. 
On  14  May,  1909,  the  diocesan  pilgrimage  to  Rome 
was  inaugurated.  During  the  tragic  week  of  the 
Revolution,  23-30  July,  mobs  took  possession  of  the 
capital  and  the  principal  manufacturing  centers  of 
the  Province,  setting  fire  to  12  parish  churches, 
30  chapels  and  convents,  educational  and  charitable 
institutions  and  other  important  diocesan  estab¬ 
lishments.  In  May,  1910,  festivities  were  held  to 
solemnize  the  canonization  of  St.  Jose  Criol  of 
Barcelona.  In  1911  a  diocesan  council  was  held, 
and  during  the  following  years  Barcelona  was  the 
meeting  place  of  the  third  national  Congress  of 
Sacred  Music,  1912,  Congress  of  Christian  Art,  1913, 
Liturgical  Congress  at  Montserrat,  1918,  and  Marian 
Congress,  1919.  In  1918  the  seventh  century  of 
the  apparition  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy  at  Barcelona 
was  celebrated.  The  following  year  a  diocesan 
s3mod  was  convoked  by  the  bishop,  and  in  1921 
the  bishop  issued  a  pastoral  letter  prohibiting  the 
Catholic  associations  from  holding  theatricals, 
cinematograph  productions,  balls  or  worldly  assem¬ 
blies  of  any  kind  for  the  purpose  of  raising  funds: 
this  letter  merited  the  unanimous  approbation  of 
the  Spanish  press.  Since  1907  the  diocese  has  lost 
several  prominent  members  by  the  deaths  of  Rev. 
Juan  Gatell  y  Domenech,  since  1882  pastor  of  the 
Church  of  St.  Ann  of  Barcelona,  Rev.  Jaime 
Almera,  dean  of  the  Cathedral  Basilica,  Rev.  Dr. 
Sarda  y  Salvany,  native  of  Sabadell,  professor  of 
Latin  and  Humanities  in  the  Seminary  of  Barce¬ 
lona,  and  the  Marquis  of  Pascual,  eminent  pro¬ 
moter,  founder  and  first  president  of  the  Accion 
Catolica  of  the  diocese.  The  diocese  comprises  264 
parishes,  291  churches,  522  chapels  and  shrines,  1 
monastery  for  men  (27  priests),  30  monasteries 
for  women,  1  abbey  for  men  (50  priests),  23  con¬ 
vents  for  men  (1050  professed  religious),  and  265 
convents  for  women  (5079  Sisters). 

Bari,  Archdiocese  of  (Barensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
II-295d),  in  the  province  of  Puglie  in  Southern 
Italy.  Rt.  Rev.  Giulio  Vaccaro,  b.  in  Naples,  1851, 
appointed  Bishop  of  Trivento,  4  June,  1891,  pro¬ 
moted  to  Ancyra  and  made  coadjutor  to  the  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Trani,  30  November,  1896,  was  transferred 
to  Bari,  24  March,  1898,  and  now  (1922)  fills  the 
see.  He  was  made  an  assistant  at  the  pontifical 
throne  30  May,  1916,  and  from  August,  1917,  to 
March,  1918,  acted  as  apostolic  administrator  oi 
Conversano.  This  diocese  comprises  a  Catholic 
population  of  300,400,  and  by  1921  statistics  counts 
33  parishes,  260  secular  and  30  regular  clergy,  100 
students  in  the  upper  and  lower  seminaries,  261 
churches  or  chapels,  10  Brothers,  and  200  Sisters. 

Barquisimeto,  Diocese  of.  See  Carabobo. 

Barra  do  Rio  Grande,  Diocese  of  (Barren sis), 
in  the  State  of  Rio  Grande,  Brazil,  suffragan  of 
San  Salvador  de  Bahia.  This  diocese  was  erected 
20  October,  1913,  by  a  division  of  the  diocese  of 
San  Salvador  de  Bahia,  taking  nineteen  parishes  of 
that  diocese.  The  episcopal  residence  is  at  Barra 
do  Rio  Grande,  and  the  cathedral  is  dedicated  to 
St.  Francis.  The  first  bishop  appointed  was  Rt. 
Rev.  Augusto  Alvaro  da  Silva,  who  now  (1922)  fills 
the  see;  b.  at  Recife,  diocese  of  Olinda,  Portugal, 


1876,  ordained  1899,  appointed  first  Bishop  of  Flo- 
resta  12  May,  1911,  and  transferred  to  Barra  25 
June,  1915.  No  statistics  are  published  for  this 
diocese. 

Basilians,  Ruthenian  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-323d). — On 
the  eve  of  the  World  War  the  Basilians  of  the  re¬ 
form  of  Debromil  numbered  234,  of  whom  there 
were  88  hieromonachs  in  16  large  or  small  mon¬ 
asteries.  Twenty-seven,  one  of  whom  was  the 
metropolitan,  Andrew  Szeptyckyj,  were  carried  into 
captivity  in  Russia.  In  1918  the  congregation 
suffered  even  more,  owing  to  the  violent  conquest 
of  Eastern  Galicia  by  the  Poles.  Up  to  the  mo¬ 
ment  of  their  retreat  the  Russians  occupied  the 
two  monasteries  of  Mychajlivka  and  Ulaskivce. 
The  Poles  destroyed  the  library  of  the  monastery 
of  Krechiv  and,  so  that  it  could  not  be  afterwards 
restored,  carried  to  Warsaw  all  the  typographical 
material  of  the  monastery  of  Zovkva,  the  literary 
activity  of  which  was  considerable.  Nevertheless, 
their  works  have  been  reorganized,  and  in  1921  the 
congregation  numbered  206  members,  of  whom  94 
are  hieromonachs.  A  new  field  has  been  opened 
for  their  activities  since  the  Sacred  Congregation 
of  the  Eastern  Church  confided  to  their  care  the 
reform  of  the  Ruthenian  monasteries  of  Ruthenia, 
south  of  the  Carpathians,  an  autonomous  province 
of  Czechoslovakia.  On  4  October,  1920,  the  protoh 
egumenos,  Platonides  Peter  Filas,  was  replaced  by 
Anastasius  Alexander  Kalys.  The  Ruthenian  Basil¬ 
ians  to-day  have  the  direction  of  the  metropolitan 
seminary  of  Leopol  and  the  Ruthenian  college  at 
Rome,  three  missions  in  Brazil  (Prudentopolis, 
Itayopolis,  and  Curityba),  three  in  Canada  (Win¬ 
nipeg  in  Manitoba,  Edmonton  and  Mundare  in 
Alberta).  A  novitiate  is  to  be  opened  in  Montreal. 

The  constitutions  were  definitely  approved  by 
decree  of  Propaganda,  2,7  July,  1909,  and  were  not 
subject  to  any  change  due  to  the  recent  revision 
of  the  Code  of  Canon  Law,  the  prescriptions  of 
which  do  not  concern  the  Eastern  Church.  The 
Order  admits  subjects  of  any  rite,  but  all  belong  to 
the  Byzantine-Slavonic  Rite  from  the  time  of  their 
profession.  The  lay  brothers  must  have  a  knowl¬ 
edge  of  some  manual  art  or  be  apt  in  the  various 
duties  necessary  within  the  monasteries.  The  postu- 
lantship  lasts  six  months  and  the  novitiate  one  year 
and  six  weeks,  after  which  simple  vows  are  taken, 
lasting  three  years,  and  then  solemn  profession  is 
made.  In  addition  to  the  usual  vows  the  members 
take  two  particular  simple  vows,  one  of  fidelity  to 
the  Apostolic  See  at  Rome  and  the  other  not  to 
seek  monastic  or  other  dignities.  As  long  as  there 
is  a  sufficient  number  of  monks  in  each  monastery 
Divine  Office  is  sung.  The  monastic  habit  consists 
of  a  closed  tunic  with  woolen  girdle  and  over  this 
a  habit  of  special  form  with  monastic  cloak  or 
mandyas.  The  abstinences  traditional  among  orien¬ 
tal  monks  have  been  mitigated  according  to  the 
spirit  of  the  Eastern  Church.  The  cloister  in  regard 
to  women  is  very  strict.  All  must  be-  occupied 
either  in  some  function  of  the  priestly  ministry, 
aside  ‘from  the  usual  parochial  duties,  or  in  some 
manual  art. 

The  Order  is  governed  by  an  archimandrite, 
elected  for  ten  years  and  approved  by  the  Holy 
See;  he  is  assisted  by  three  consultors.  At  the 
head  of  each  province  is  a  protohegumenos  elected 
for  five  years  by  the  archimandrite  and  his  council. 
Until  the  Order  numbers  at  least  two  provinces,  the 
protohegumenos  of  the  one  province  actually  exist¬ 
ing  has  all  the  authority  of  an  archimandrite.  The 
Constitutions  provide  for  general,  provincial,  and 
simple  claustral  chapters.  The  local  hegumenoi  are 


Basleltjgano 


85 


BASUTOLAND 


nominated  by  the  protohegumenos  of  each  province 
assisted  by  his  council.  The  studies  particularly 
cared  for  are:  Ukranian,  Slavonic,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
a  sufficient  knowledge  of  German  and  Polish;  two 
years  of  philosophy  and  four  of  theology.  The 
instruction  of  youth  is  one  of  the  principal  works 
of  the  Order. 

About  1895  the  Basilians  undertook  the  reform 
of  the  Basilian  Sisters.  These  now  number  twelve 
houses,  where  they  have  established  normal  schools 
for  teachers,  colleges  for  young  girls,  boarding 
schools,  or  orphanages.  One  of  their  houses,  com¬ 
prising  a  novitiate,  orphanage,  and  printing  press, 
is  in  the  United  States  at  Philadelphia.  In  addition 
to  the  reform  of  the  Basilian  Sisters  properly  so 
called,  the  Basilians  aided  in  the  foundation  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Servants  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
(Slujebnitsy  Presviatyia  Bogoroditsy) ,  whose  chief 
works  are  elementary  schools  and  orphanages,  and 
who  have  about  eighty  houses  in  Galicia  and  many 
in  the  new  world.  More  recent  than  these  are  three 
other  congregations:  The  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph 
(Iosefitky),  Sisters  of  St.  Josaphat  (Iosafatky),  and 
the  Myrophores  (Mironositsy). 

In  their  way  of  life  and  the  works  to  which  they 
are  devoted,  the  Basilians  resemble  more  the  clerks 
regular  of  the  West  than  monks.  To  satisfy  mon¬ 
astic  aspirations  of  a  more  contemplative  tendency, 
the  metropolitan,  Andrew  Szeptyckyj,  instituted 
earlier  in  the  twentieth  century  the  Order  of 
Studites,  the  name  of  which  indicates  the  tradition 
to  which  they  are  attached.  The  provisory  con¬ 
stitutions  were  promulgated  26  October,  1905, 
approved  by  the  bishop  of  the  province  of  Halyc- 
Leopol,  30  December,  1906,  and  are  now  being 
examined  by  the  Holy  See.  One  monastery  estab¬ 
lished  first  at  Sknilov,  near  Leopol,  was  ruined  by 
the  war  and  has  been  temporarily  transferred  to 
Uniov.  The  hegumenos  is  Clement  Szetyckyj, 
brother  of  the  metropolitan,  and  he  has  under  him 
forty  religious. 


Basle-Lugano,  Diocese  of  (Basileenensis  et 
Luganensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-338d),  the  largest  diocese 
in  Switzerland,  is  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See. 
These  two  dioceses  are  joined  by  an  external  union 
only,  the  Bishop  of  Basle  having  no  spiritual  juris¬ 
diction  over  the  diocese  of  Lugano,  which  is  gov¬ 
erned  by  an  administrator  Apostolic.  This  see  is 
now  (1922)  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Johannes  Stammler, 
bora  in  Bremgarten  1840,  ordained  1863,  made  a 
papal  chamberlain  1891,  dean  of  the  new  deanery 
1899,  appointed  4  July,  1906,  and  made  an  assistant 
at  the  pontifical  throne  14  July,  1913.  In  June, 
1920,  Bishop  Stammler  celebrated  his  eightieth 
birthday  and  received  the  official  felicitations  of 
the  president  of  the  Swiss  Confederation  and  the 
Federal  Council,  who  praised  the  zeal  and  activity 
of  his  administration.  However,  he  is  not  yet 
officially  recognized  by  the  Government  of  Berne, 
which  for  the  last  forty  years  has  recognized  instead 
the  Schmismatic  bishop,  who  has  about  500 
adherents.  On  23  September,  1912,  a  motion  was 
made  in  the  Grand  Council  to  obtain  recognition, 
but  it  was  rejected  in  May,  1913,  and  again,  after 
another  attempt,  the  following  November,  when 
an  adverse  decision  was  reached  by  a  vote  of  138 
against  30.  However,  the  increasingly  friendly  atti¬ 
tude  of  the  Government  gives  hope  of  future 
recognition;  in  January,  1918,  when  the  Diocesan 
Council  decided  to  raise  the  salary  of  the  bishop 
to  20,000  francs,  the  Executive  Council  of  Berne 
promised  to  assist  by  the  payment  of  1865  francs, 
this  decision  being  subject  to  ratification  by  th« 
Grand  Council. 


4  he  present  diocese  of  Basle  (excluding  Lugano) 
embraces  the  cantons  of  Solothurn,  Lucerne,  Berne 
ci?'  Aargau,  Thurgau,  Basle-Land,  Basle-Stadt,  and 
bchanhausen,  and  in  1920  contained  543,941  Cath- 
and  1,1 14,409  non-Catholics.  The  majority 
of  the  people  speak  German,  although  there  is  a 
large  proportion  of  French-speaking  people  in  the 
Canton  of  Berne.  The  diocese  is  div,ded  into  29 
deaneries,  29  rural  chapters,  406  parishes,  and  157 
chaplaincies,  and  counts  about  660  secular  and  85 
regular  clergy  The  religious  orders  established 
here  include .  Capuchins  with  7  houses,  74  priests 
25  clerics  and  27  lay  brothers ;  the  Hermit  Brothers 
of  Lutheme,  who  have  become  hospital  nurses  in 
the  bamtormm  Franziskusheim ;  the  Benedictines 
of  Mariastein,  who  have  only  5  priests,  the  rest 
having  gone  to  Bregenz  in  Austria;  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Cross  of  Menzengen,  and  Sisters  of  Baldegg, 
Cham  and  Ingenbohl  (284),  who  conduct  institutes 
lor  girls  and  a  great  number  of  elementary  schools. 

I  he  Diocese  of  Lugano. — This  diocese  is  under 
the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Aurelio  Bacciarini 
born  m  the  diocese  1873,  ordained  1897,  rector  of 
the  Lower  Seminary  of  Pollegio  1903,  entered  the 
congregation  of  the  Servites  of  Charity  at  Como 
m.  1909,  rector  of  the  new  parish  of  St.  Joseph  in 
Rome  1912,  made  superior  general  of  his  order  in 
191o,  and  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Daulia  and 
administrator  Apostolic  of  Lugano  12  January,  1917. 
He  is  still  superior  general,  and  was  named  an 
assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  26  August,  1921, 
and  two  days  later  celebrated  the  silver  jubilee  of 
his  priesthood.  On  this  occasion  a  public  Mass 
was  sung  which  was  attended  by  the  papal  nuncio, 
Mgr.  Maglione,  many  bishops  and  prelates,  official 
representatives  of  the  Government  and  25,000  of 
the  faithful.  An  address,  signed  by  100,000  of  the 
people  ol  Tessin,  and  a  purse  of  65,000  francs  were 
presented  to  the  bishop ;  the  latter  he  devoted  to 
the  seminary  and  the  invalid  clergy.  The  diocese 
°r  com.Prises  .the  canton  of  Tessin,  an  area 

tcnnnA  s<?'  m^es’  with  a  Catholic  population  of 
160,000,  who  use  Italian  as  the  common  language. 
By  1920  statistics  there  are  252  parishes,  of  which 
54  are  of  the  Ambrosian  Rite ;  4  collegiate  churches 
with  chapters,  besides  the  Cathedral  at  Lugano, 
which  also  has  a  chapter;  1  upper  seminary,  1 
lower  seminary  of  the  Ambrosian  Rite,  at  Pollegio, 
150  seminarians;  796  churches  or  public  chapels, 
400  clergy,  and  numerous  communities  of  religious. 
The  episcopal  residence  is  at  Lugano  and  an  epis- 
chateau  is  also  maintained  at  Balerna.  Upon 
the  death  of  the  administrator  the  cathedral  chapter 
elects  a  vicar  capitular  to  administer  the  diocese 
until  the  appointment  of  a  new  administrator  by 
the  Holy  See. 


Basse  Terre,  Diocese  of.  See  Guadeloupe. 


Basutoland,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Basuto-Lan- 
DEfrsis;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-346a),  in  South  Africa.  It  is 
a  British  Protectorate  and  is  administered  by  native 
chiefs  under  a  British  resident  commissioner,  offi¬ 
cially  appointed  by  the  Crown,  assisted  by  a  regular 
parliament  of  chiefs  and  some  other  members,  also 
appointed  by  the  Crown.  The  National  Assembly, 
or  “Pisto,”  which  formerly  met  once  a  year,  is  now 
only  an  extraordinary  meeting  convoked  on  special 
occasions,  i.  e.,  on  a  visit  of  the  High  Commissioner 
for  South  Africa.  This  territory,  formerly  a  pre¬ 
fecture  Apostolic,  was  raised  to  a  vicariate  18 
February,  1909,  and  the  Rev.  Father  Cenez,  then 
prefect  apostolic,  was  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Nicopolis  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Basutoland,  25 
January,  1909.  In  1908  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Cross  of  Menzingen,  Switzerland,  came  to  the  conn- 


BATAVIA 


86 


BATTANDIER 


try  to  assist  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family,  already 
established  there.  The  work  of  conversion  has  been 
ably  carried  on  by  eighteen  missionary  priests,  and 
although  more  workers  are  required  and  despite 
the  difficulty  of  obtaining  funds,  the  record  of  con¬ 
versions  is  very  encouraging.  Particularly  impor¬ 
tant  was  the  conversion  of  Griffith,  high  chief  of 
the  Basutos,  in  1912,  and  of  three  lesser  chiefs— 
Soko  (1916),  Maama  (1921),  and  Peete  (1921).  In 
1910  one  of  the  missionaries,  Rev.  Father  Lebihan, 
discovered  a  beautiful  waterfall  which  flows  over 
a  precipice  650  feet  high,  and  which  now  bears  his 
name.  Father  Lebihan  died  in  1916.  Rev.  J.  J. 
Gerard,  one  of  the  founders  of  this  mission,  died 
here  in  1914,  and  the  natives  have  erected  a  monu¬ 
ment  to  his  memory,  bearing  the  inscription  “To 
the  beloved  missionary  of  the  Basutos.” 

The  entire  population  of  this  territory  comprises 
543,078  natives  (Basutos),  1,241  colored  people,  and 
1,603  whites;  of  these  31,698  are  baptized  and  11,229 
catechumens.  Only  5  whites,  besides  the  mis¬ 
sionaries  and  Sisters,  are  Catholic.  According  to 
1922  statistics  the  mission  has  .30  churches,  15  mis¬ 
sions  and  42  mission  stations,  2  convents  of  men, 
18  missionary  priests  (Oblates  of  Mary  Immacu¬ 
late),  5  Brothers  of  the  Oblates  of  Mary  and  8 
Marist  Brothers,  54  white  and  35  native  Sisters, 

2  training  schools  with  188  teachers  and  6,716  pupils, 

2  industrial  schools  with  7  teachers  and  attendance 
of  202.  The  priests  are  permitted  to  minister  in 
the  public  hospital,  leper  settlement  and  jail,  and 
all  the  schools  are  aided  by  government  grants.  The 
League  of  the  Sacred  Heart  is  organized  among  the 
laity. 

Batavia,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Batavle;  cf. 
C.  E.,  II-346c),  comprises  the  Island  of  Java  and 
the  small  islands  of  the  Sunda  group,  a  total  of 
87,222  sq.  miles.  The  Island  of  Sumatra,  formerly 
a  part  of  this  vicariate,  was  separated  from  it  in 
June,  1910,  and  a  decree  of  19  November,  1919, 
took  the  Island  of  Celebes  and  raised  it  to  a  pre¬ 
fecture  apostolic.  The  present  vicar  (1922)  is  Rt. 
Rev.  Edmond  Luypen,  titular  Bishop  of  Oropus,  a 
member  of  the  Jesuit  Order,  to  whose  care  this 
territory  is  entrusted.  Born  in  the  diocese  of  Breda 
in  1855,  he  was  ordained  in  1879,  and  appointed 
bishop  and  vicar  apostolic  21  May,  1898.  The  1920 
statistics  credit  this  territory  with  30,500  European, 
13,650  native  and  185  Oriental  Catholics.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  statistics  for  the  year  1921  show  the  recent 
progress  of  this  mission:  schools  of  mixed  religions, 
18,  with  6000  Catholic  pupils  (3104  boys  and  2896 
girls) ;  non-Catholic  pupils,  3104  boys  and  2296 
girls;  purely  Catholic  schools,  23,  with  731  boys 
and  741  girls;  total  religious  teachers  235,  lay 
teachers  188;  these  schools  are  conducted  by  the 
Jesuit  Fathers,  Brothers  of  St.  Aloysius  of  Gonzaga, 
Franciscan  Sisters,  Ursuline  Sisters,  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  Society,  and  the  Sodality  of  St.  Francis 
Xavier.  The  vicariate,  comprising  34,075  Catholics, 
is  served  by  54  priests.  During  the  year  there  were : 
baptisms  of  legitimate  children'  1492,  illegitimate 
children  637,  first  communions  1479,  confirmations 
412,  Catechumens  10,052,  general  communions  415,- 
998,  Easter  communions  11,697,  122  conversions  of 
heretics,  403  conversions  of  infidels,  226  marriages 
of  Catholics,  157  mixed  marriages,  and  318  receiv¬ 
ing  the  last  sacraments.  There  are  35  public  chapels 
and  19  chapels  in  religious  houses,  and  a  number  of 
Catholic  libraries,  public  lecture  bureaux,  musical 
societies,  charitable  works  and  periodicals  are  estab¬ 
lished. 

Bathurst,  Diocese  of  (Bathurstensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-349b),  in  New  South  Wales,  Australia,  is  suffragan 


of  Sydney.  Rt.  Rev.  John  Dunn,  who  came  to  this 
see  as  its  third  bishop,  8  September,  1901,  died  22 
August,  1919,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present 
incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Michael  O’Farrell,  consecrated 
30  November,  1920.  The  religious  orders  who  con¬ 
duct  the  educational  and  charitable  institutions  of 
the  diocese  are:  the  Vincentian  Fathers,  Brothers 
of  St.  Patrick,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Sisters  of  St.  Brigid, 
and  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph.  St.  Stanislaus  College, 
one  of  the  foremost  institutions  of  learning  in  Aus¬ 
tralia,  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Vincentian 
Fathers.  The  Sisters  of  Mercy  conduct  an  orphan¬ 
age  at  Bathurst  with  65  orphans.  The  diocese  now 
(1921)  comprises  17  parochial  districts,  93  churches, 
29  secular  and  7  regular  clergy,  9  religious  brothers, 
231  nuns,  3  training  colleges,  3  novitiates,  1  college, 

9  boarding  schools  for  girls,  13  secondary  day 
schools,  35  primary  schools,  and  1  orphanage.  The 
total  number  of  children  receiving  Catholic  educa¬ 
tion  in  these  schools  is  4,573,  the  total  Catholic 
population  about  26,000. 

Battandier,  Albert,  priest  and  scholar,  b  at  St. 
Felicien,  Ardeche,  11  April,  1850;  d.  there  25  May, 
1921.  His  father  was  notary  and  later  mayor  of  the 
neighboring  canton  of  Satellien,  and  sent  his  son 
to*  the  Jesuit  College  of  Mongre,  near  Lyons.  After 
finishing  his  studies  he  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate, 
but  owing  to  ill  health  was  obliged  to  leave.  In 
1871  he  entered  the  Seminary  of  Viviers,  was  or¬ 
dained  four  years  later,  and  continued  his  ecclesias¬ 
tical  studies  at  the  French  seminary  in  Rome,  where 
he  was  a  brilliant  student  and  won  his  degree  in 
theology  and  canon  law  (1879).  At  this  time  he 
attracted  the  attention  of  Cardinal  Pitra,  recently 
made  suburbucarian  bishop  of  Frascati,  who  ap¬ 
pointed  him  his  secretary  and  later  his  vicar  general. 
He  continued  in  the  same  position  when,  in  1884, 
the  cardinal  became  Bishop  of  Porto  and  sub¬ 
dean  of  the  Sacred  College.  In  this  formative  stage 
of  his  career  he  was  guided  and  taught  by  Cardinal 
Pitra,  who  gave  with  the  affection  of  a  father  all 
the  benefit  of  his  ripe  experience  and  scholarship. 
Pere  Battandier  always  found  in  him  an  example 
of  highest  virtue,  and  never  wavered  in  his  loyalty, 
even  at  the  cost  of  his  own  advancement.  He 
profited  so  well  by  his  training  that  in  1881  he  was 
made  honorary  chamberlain  and  consultor  of  the 
Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars,  being  recog¬ 
nized  as  a  specialist  in  the  complex  questions  con¬ 
cerning  the  laws  of  religious  communities.  A  real 
authority  in  Rome,  he  was  consulted  by  many  epis¬ 
copal  chancelleries  in  matters  of  church  legislation, 
and  his  “Guide  canonique  pour  les  constitutions 
des  sceurs  a  voeux  simples”  went  through  many 
editions.  In  1882  he  became  a  prothonotary  Apos¬ 
tolic.  When  Cardinal  Pitra  died  in  1889  he  left 
his  library  and  chapel  to  his  vicar  general. 

In  1898  Mgr.  Battandier  was  appointed  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  special  commission  for  the  approbation 
of  new  institutes,  established  in  1890.  The  follow¬ 
ing  year  the  publication  “Analecta  juris  pontificii” 
was  suspended  after  forty  years  by  the  liquidation 
of  the  Societe  generale  de  librairie  catholique.  Mgr. 
Battandier  acquired  it,  published  two  volumes,  and 
then  resigned  it  to  the  Augustinians  of  the  Assump¬ 
tion,  with  whom  he  was  actively  associated  as  a 
collaborator  in  their  many  literary  works.  He  con¬ 
tributed  to  many  literary  and  scientific  reviews  in 
Rome  and  was  a  resident  member  of  the  Societa 
per  gli  Studii  Biblici  (1897). 

It  was  at  this  time  that  he  conceived,  edited  and 
published  at  the  Maison  de  Bonne  Presse,  with  the 
encouragement  and  co-operation  of  Pere  Vincent 
de  Paul  Bailly,  the  work  that  has  made  him  famous, 


j 


BAUNARD 


87 


BAVARIA 


the  “Annual' re  pontifical  Catholique,”  an  invaluable 
work,  compiled  with-  precision,  exactitude  and 
probity,  and  requiring  long  and  patient  research. 
It  is  a  veritable  encyclopedia  of  Roman  and 
ecclesiastical  knowledge,  a  mine  of  instructive  and 
practical  information  made  possible  by  Mgr.  Bat- 
tandier’s  undisputed  competence  in  ecclesiastical 
affairs,  intellectual  power  and  great  capacity  for 
work.  With  all  the  resources  of  Rome  at  his  dis¬ 
posal  he  contributed  to  it  original  articles  on  little 
known  points  which  contain  information  obtainable 
nowhere  else.  His  aim  in  its  foundation  was  to 
initiate  the  faithful  into  the  life  of  the  Church, 
to  make  it  known  in  its  entirety  and  its  details,  and 
to  establish  a  bond  between  all  Catholics  and  the 
Holy  See.  It  is  universally  praised  and  was  blessed 
by  all  the  Sovereign  Pontiffs  every  year  from  its 
first  appearance  in  1898  to  the  present  issue. 

In  1906  Mgr.  Battandier  was  made  consultor  of 
the  Congregation  for  Latin  and  Oriental  Rites,  and 
after  the  reform  of  the  Roman  Curia  was  consultor 
of  the  Congregation  of  Religious,  which  replaces 
that  of  Bishops  and  Regulars.  After  his  mother’s 
death,  in  1907,  he  returned  to  France,  where  he  built 
himself  a  home  near  his  birthplace.  The  Bishop  of 
Viviers  made  him  canon  of  his  cathedral,  and  he 
continued  his  many  activities  until  his  death, 
amongst  them  the  revision  of  his  “Guide  canonique 
des  instituts  religieux”  to  accord  with  the  new 
code  of  canon  law. 

Baunard,  Louis  Pierre  Andre,  ecclesiastical 
writer,  b.  in  Bellegarde,  Diocese  of  Orleans,  France, 
24  August,  1828;  d.  in  Gruson  9  November,  1919. 
Of  humble  origin  he  was  brought  up  in  the  fear 
and  love  of  God,  and  in  his  poems  has  left  many 
beautiful  tributes  to  the  moral  worth  and  self- 
sacrifice  of  his  parents.  He  was  one  of  five  chil¬ 
dren,  was  educated  in  Orleans,  and  ordained  priest 
5  June,  1852.  He  taught  in  the  preparatory  semi¬ 
nary  and  in  the  Christian  Doctrine  classes  estab¬ 
lished  by  Mgr.  Dupanloup  throughout  his  diocese 
until  1860,  when  he  studied  for  his  doctorate  in 
letters.  The  following  year  he  won  that  in  theology 
and  was  made  vicar  at  the  cathedral.  Successively 
chaplain  of  the  Ecole  normale  and  professor  in 
the  Catholic  University  in  Lille,  he  became  superior 
of  St.  Joseph’s  College  in  1881,  returning  to  the 
university  as  rector  seven  years  later.  In  1908  he 
resigned  and  retired  to  his  house  at  Gruson,  where 
he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  long  life  in  literary 
pursuits,  and  the  society  of  his  chosen  friends, 
retaining  his  influence  in  the  educational  world 
until  the  end. 

Mgr.  Baunard  was  made  a  prelate  of  the  Holy 
See  in  1884  and  prothonotary  Apostolic  in  1908. 
His  writings,  mirror  of  his  supernatural  outlook, 
clear  principles  and  just  and  sympathetic  apprecia¬ 
tion  of  the  spiritual  and  intellectual  needs  of  his 
day  are  many,  valuable,  and  varied,  including 
“Vingt  aimees  de  rectorat,”  “Un  siecle  de  l’Eglise 
de  France  (1800-1900),”  “Le  Doute  et  ses  victimes,” 
“La  Foi  et  sec  victoires,”  “Le  college  chretien,” 
“l’Evangile  du  pauvre,”  “Le  Livre  de  la  premiere 
Communion  et  da  la  perseverance,”  “Autour  de 
l’histoire,”  “Reliques  d’histoire,”  “Le  Vieillard,” 
“Saints  et  Saintes  de  Dieu,”  “L’Apotre  St.  Jean,” 
“St.  Ambroise,”  “La  Bse  Madeleine-Sophie  Barat,” 
“La  Yen.  Louise  de  Marillac,”  “Ernest  Lelievre  et 
les  fondations,  des  Petites-Sceurs  des  Pauvres,”  “Le 
Cardinal  Pie,  eveque  de  Poitiers,”  “Mme.  Duchesne,” 
“Le  general  de  Sonis,”  “Frederic  Ozanam,”  “Le 
Cardinal  Lavigerie,”  “Les  deux  Freres:  Philibert 
Vrau  et  Camille  Feron-Vrau,”  and  a  volume  of 
poems,  “Pretre,”  He  was  an  able  leader  in  the 


combat  against  godless  education  and  the  separa¬ 
tion  of  religion  and  learning. 

Bavaria  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-353c).,  formerly  a  kingdom, 
now  a  republican  State  under  the  new  German 
government,  has  an  area  of  30,562  square  miles  and 
a  population  of  7,150,146  (1919).  This  includes  the 
Bciyanan  PalatmatB  (2,372  sq.  miles)  with  a,  popu- 
lation  of  937,085;  also  the  territory  of  the  Free 
State  of  Coburg,  which  voted  to  unite  with  Bavaria 
on  30  November,  1919.  On  11  March,  1920,  the 
Bavarian  Diet  adopted  the  Bill  for  union  by  unani¬ 
mous  consent,  thus  adding  to  its  area  a  total  of 
216  square  miles  and  a  population  of  about  75,000. 
The  largest  cities  with  their  respective  populations 
are:  Munich,  630,724;  Nuremberg,  352,679;  Augs¬ 
burg,  154,567;  Wurzburg,  86,581.  The  latest  avail¬ 
able  statistics  are  those  of  1  December,  1910,  when 
there  were  in  Bavaria  4,862,233  Catholics  (76%  of 
the  population);  1,942,385  (21%)  largely  of  the 
Lutheran  and  Calvinist  confessions,  and  55,065  Jews, 
living  chiefly  in  Munich,  Nuremberg,  and  Fiirth. 
Besides  the  above  there  were  included  5,816  Old 
Catholics,  3,017  Mennonites,  164  Anglicans,  1,611 
Greek  Catholics  and  Russian  Orthodox,  1,139  Irv- 
ingites,  1,183  Methodists,  5,841  Free  Christians,  1,649 
other  Christians.  Bavaria  maintains  diplomatic  re¬ 
lations  with  the  Holy  See,  an  apostolic  nuncio  being 
stationed  at  Munich  and  an  envoy  and  minister 
plenipotentiary  at  Rome.  For  further  Catholic 
statistics  see  Munich,  Archdiocese  of;  Bamberg, 
Archdiocese  of. 

Economic  Conditions.— Bavaria  is  essentially  an 
agricultural  State,  and  at  least  3,000,000  of  the  in¬ 
habitants  are  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits. 
Catering  to  the  tourist  trade  was  the  most’  im¬ 
portant  source  of  revenue  to  the  people  before 
the  war,  and  the  lack  of  tourists,  together  with  the 
depression  of  the  beer  industry,  has  made  the 
economic  situation  rather  serious.  Of  the  total 
land  area  in  Bavaria  nearly  one-half  is  under  cul¬ 
tivation,  one-sixth  under  grass,  and  one-third  under 
forests.  In  1919  the  state  forests  netted  the  gov¬ 
ernment  half  a  billion  marks.  The  chief  crops  in 
1919  were  wheat,  659,982  acres,  yield  266,822  metric 
tons;  rye,  1,135,622  acres,  441,130  metric  tons;  oats, 
1,076,082  acres,  581,142  tons;  potatoes,  690,347  acres, 
1,619,141  tons.  The  vines,  covering  an  acreage  of 
43,782  acres  in  1919,  yielded  10,014,290  gallons  of 
wine;  18,405  acres  under  hops  yielded  450  metric 
tons.  These  figures  are  _  slightly  below  the  1913 
figures,  but  there  is  an  increase  in  production  in 
recent  years.  In  1913  the  output  of  coal  was  1,895,- 
715  tons;  iron  ore,  450,074  tons;  pig  iron,  195,606 
tons;  sulphuric  acid,  163,343  tons;  in  1918  the  out¬ 
put  of  coal  was  2,438,391  tons;  iron  ore,  436,961 
tons;  pig  iron,  172,906  tons;  sulphuric  acid,  126,927 
tons.  The  railway  lines  cover  about  5,900  miles. 

Education. — Education  is  compulsory  between  six 
and  sixteen.  The  latest  census  gives  7,534  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  (public  and  private)  with  19,564 
teachers,  and  1,091,884  pupils.  The  year’s  expendi¬ 
ture  on  public  schools  was  given  as  $3,167,653. 
The  schools  cost  about  $15,000,000. 

Government  and  Recent  History. — On  12  De¬ 
cember,  1912,  Luitpold,  regent  for  the  insane  Otto, 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Ludwig,  who,  yielding 
to  popular  demand,  was  proclaimed  king  as  Ludwig 
III,  on  5  November,  1913.  In  1916,  after  forty 
years  of  confinement,  the  insane  Otto  died.  The 
royal  family  of  Bavaria  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  Great  World  War.  The  Crown  Prince  Rup- 
precht  was  in  full  command  of  the  German  forces 
on  the  Somme;  Prince  Leopole  participated  in  the 
Polish  campaign,  and  was  among  the  first  to  march 


BAYARD 


88 


BEATIFICATION 


into  Warsaw;  Prince  Henry  was  killed  on  the 
western  front  in  November,  1916;  and  Prince  Ferdi¬ 
nand  was  decorated  by  Kaiser  Wilhelm  with  the 
Red  Cross  Medal  of  the  first  class.  The  feeling 
among  the  masses  of  the  people,  however,  was  very 
strongly  anti-war.  According  to  the  different  press 
reports,  repeated  mutinies  broke  out  in  the  Bavarian 
regiments,  the  Royal  Guard  even  refusing  obedience. 
The  Bavarian  press  carried  on  a  continual  propa¬ 
ganda  against  the  Kaiser  in  the  last  months  of  the 
struggle.  The  pro-war  policy  of  the  Socialist  party 
forced  the  working  people  of  Bavaria  to  resign  in 
great  numbers  and  to  join  the  Independent  Socialist 
party.  As  early  as  October,  1917,  northern  Bavaria, 
hitherto  solid  for  the  old  party,  went  over  to  the 
Independents. 

At  the  overthrow  of  the  German  imperial  mon¬ 
archy  the  Bavarian  dynasty  was  deposed  22  Novem¬ 
ber,  1918,  and  Bavaria  was  proclaimed  a  republic. 
It  is  truly  very  significant  that  the  first  dynasty 
to  fall  at  the  beginning  of  the  revolution  was  that 
of  Bavaria,  the  oldest  dynasty  in  Europe.  ^  A  cab¬ 
inet  under  the  leadership  of  Kurt  Eisner,  a  Socialist, 
took  control  of  the  government.  He  was  assassi¬ 
nated  in  February,  1918,  and  for  a  time  there  was 
a  struggle  between  the  more  moderate  groups  and 
the  extremists  of  the  Left,  who  sympathized  with 
the  Bolsheviki.  By  May,  1919,  the  moderate  party 
had  returned  to  power.  In  1920  there  was  a  move¬ 
ment  in  Salzburg,  Tyrol,  and  parts  of  Upper  Aus¬ 
tria,  which  had  for  its  aim  the  establishment  of  a 
kingdom  with  Bavaria,  under  the  Bavarian  Prince 
Ruprecht. 

Legislation. — The  Constitution  of  14  August, 
1919,  establishes  the  Free  State  of  Bavaria,  and 
places  the  supreme  power  in  the  people.  The  Diet 
consists  of  one  Chamber,  elected  for  four  years  on 
the  basis  of  one  member  for  every  40,000  inhabi¬ 
tants;  at  present  there  are  183  members.  The 
present  Chamber  continues  until  30  June,  1922.  The 
suffrage  is  universal,  equal,  direct,  secret,  and  pro¬ 
portional.  All  citizens  over  twenty-three  years  of 
age  have  the  vote.  The  supreme  power  is  exercised 
by  the  Ministry  as  a  whole,  and  all  privileges  of 
birth  and  caste  are  abolished.  The  Church  is  sep¬ 
arate  from  the  State,  all  religious  associations  having 
equal  rights  and  equal  freedom  in  their  activities. 
The  various  parties  in  the  Bavarian  Constitutent 
Assembly  were  Bavarian  People’s  Party,  the  Ma¬ 
jority  Socialists,  the  German  Democrats,  the 
Peasants’  Union,  the  National  Liberals,  the  Inde¬ 
pendent  Socialists,  and  members  from  Coburg 
(three).  The  debt  on  1  January,  1919,  was  2,559,- 
687,077  marks,  of  which  1,951,425,700  marks  were 
railway  debt. 

Bayard,  Pierre  Du  Terrail,  Chevalier,  an  heroic 
French  knight,  called  “le‘  chevalier  sans  peur  et  sans 
reproche”  (the  knight  without  fear  and  without 
reproach) ;  b.  at  Castle  Bayard,  near  Grenoble,  in 
1475;  d.  30  April,  1524.  He  was  remarkable  for  his 
modesty,  piety,  magnanimity,  and  his  various  ac¬ 
complishments.  He  served  under  Charles  VIII  in 
his  expedition  against  Naples  in  1494,  and  distin¬ 
guished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Tornova.  After 
the  accession  of  Louis  XII  of  France,  Bayard  per¬ 
formed  several  remarkable  exploits  in  war  against 
the  Spaniards  and  English.  In  the  service  of 
Francis  I  he  took  Prosper  Colonna  prisoner,  and 
gained  a  victory  at  Marignano  in  1515.  He  de¬ 
fended  Mezieres  with  success  against  the  invading 
army  of  Emperor  Charles  V  (1522),  and  for  this 
important  service  was  saluted  as  the  saviour  of  his 
country.  He  was  killed  in  battle  at  the  river  Sesia, 
expiring  as  he  kissed  the  cross  on  the  hilt  of  his 


sword.  He  won  the  reputation  of  having  been  the 

model  of  nearly  every  virtue. 

Champier,  La  Vie  et  les  Gestes  de  Bayard  (1525);  Simms, 
Life  of  Chevalier  Bayard  (New  York,  1847). 

Bayeux,  Diocese  of  (Baiocensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
II-358b),  in  the  department  of  Calvados,  France, 
with  the  united  title  of  Lisieux,  suffragan  of  Rouen. 
This  diocese  is  at  present  (1922)  under  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas-Paul-Henri  Lemonnier, 
b.  in  Etretat,  1853,  ordained  1877,  appointed  13 
July,  1906.  On  9  August,  1919,  Bishop  Lemonnier 
was  named  commander  of  the  Order  of  Leopold  by 
the  Belgian  king.  During  the  World  War  260 
priests  and  75  seminarians  of  this  diocese  were 
mobilized,  and  of  this  number  17  priests  and  16 
seminarians  died,  1  priest  was  decorated  with  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  1  priest  and  1  seminarian  with 
the  medaille  militaire,  32  priests  and  9  seminarians 
with  the  croix  de  guerre.  According  to  the  latest 
statistics  the  population  of  this  diocese  numbers 
396,300,  divided  among  38  deaneries  and  716 
parishes.  The  principal  educational  institutions  in¬ 
clude  an  upper  and  lower  seminary  and  a  college. 

Bayonne,  Diocese  of  (Baionensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
II-360c),  comprising  the  department  of  Basses- 
Pyrenees,  France,  suffragan  of  Auch.  Since  22  June, 
1909,  this  diocese  has  also  borne  the  united  titles  of 
Lescar  and  Oloron.  The  see  is  now  (1922)  filled  by 
Rt.  Rev.  Francois-Xavier-Marie  Gieure,  b.  in  Cas- 
tels,  1851,  ordained  1874,  superior  of  the  upper 
seminary  of  Aire,  1895,  appointed  bishop  21  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1906.  During  the  World  War  560  oriests  and 
seminarians  were  mobilized  from  this  diocese  and 
of  these  50  gave  up  their  lives,  6  were  decorated 
with  the  Legion  of  Honor,  3  with  the  medaille 
militaire,  and  75  with  the  croix  de  guerre. 

From  20-22  September,  1921,  a  diocesan  synod 
was  held  here  in  the  synodal  hall  of  the  new  theo¬ 
logical  seminary.  The  principal  educational  insti¬ 
tutions  of  the  diocese  are:  The  upper  seminary 
of  Bayonne,  the  lower  seminaries  of  Balloc  and 
Nay,  the  colleges  of  St.  Louis  de  Gonzague  at  Bay¬ 
onne,  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  at  Pau,  of 
Moncade_at  Orthez,  and  colleges  of  St.  Francis  at 
Mauleon,~Hasparren,  Pontacq  and  Oloron.  In  1921 
the  population  of  this  territory  was  counted  at 
433,320,  divided  among  40  deaneries  and  507  parishes. 

Bearne,  David,  editor  and  author,  b.  at  Castle 
Donington,  England,  28  February,  1856;  d.  at 
Wimbledon  College,  25  February,  1920.  In  1877 
he  was  received  into  the  Church,  and  ten  years 
later  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus.  After  his  ordi¬ 
nation,  31  July,  1896,  he  served  the  Bournemouth 
mission  for  four  years,  then  spent  a  year  at 
Roehampton,  whence  he  moved  to  Wimbledon. 
Appointed  assistant  to  Father  Gretton,  editor  of 
the  “Sacred  Heart  Messenger,”  on  the  latter’s  re¬ 
tirement  Father  Bearne  took  sole  charge  of  the 
magazine,  retaining  the  editorship  until  his  death. 
However,  he  is  best  known  as  a  write  of  fiction, 
his  series  of  boys’  stories  being  popular  in  his  own 
country  and  in  America.  Despite  a  few  peculiarities 
of  style,  they  were  received  with  almost  universal 
praise  by  the  critics.  Among  them  are  “Ridingdale 
Stories,”  “The  Golden  Stair,”  “Stories  from  the 
Bright  Ages,”  “The  Ridingdale  Boys,”  “Paying  the 
Price,”  “Lance  and  His  Friends.”  He  produced  in 
all  thirty  volumes,  as  well  as  contributions  to  his 
magazine,  and  some  occasional  verse.  The  latter 
is  inferior  to  his  prose  but  he  had  a  gift  of  melody 
peculiarly  his  own.  He  was  also  a  valuable  preacher 
and  giver  of  retreats. 

Beatification  and  Canonization  (cf.  C.  E., 
II-367b). — Formerly  it  was  permissible  to  call  ser- 


BEATIFICATION 


89 


BEIRUT 


vants  of  God  Venerable  as  soon  as  their  processes 
of  beatification  were  introduced  before  the  Congre¬ 
gation  of  Rites,  now  the  title  is  to  be  given  only 
after  the  publication  of  the  papal  decree  declaring 
that  they  have  practiced  virtue  in  a  heroic  degree 
or  that  the  fact  of  their  martyrdom  has  been  es¬ 
tablished.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  title 
“Venerable”  never  authorizes  public  veneration.  To 
establish  reputation  for  sanctity,  the  fact  of  martyr¬ 
dom,  and  the  working  of  miracles  through  the  in¬ 
tercession  of  the  servant  of  God,  at  least  eight 
witnesses  are  required.  In  ancient  causes,  in  which 
there  are  now  no  eye-witnesses  or  persons  who  have 
heard  the  testimony  of  such  witnesses,  the  practice 
of  virtue  and  the  fact  of  martyrdom  can  be  estab¬ 
lished  by  hearsay  evidence,  public  tradition  and 
contemporary  documents  or  monuments  recognized 
as  authentic;  but  the  miracles  must  always  be 
proved  by  eye-witnesses.  In  establishing  the  sanc¬ 
tity  or  martyrdom  of  a  religious  not  more  than  one 
half  of  those  whose  testimony  is  accepted  may  be 
members  of  his  order. 

After  a  cause  has  been  introduced  and  the  re- 
missorial  letters  (C.  E.,  11-368,  n.  10)  received,  the 
tribunal  of  investigation  must  begin  its  sessions 
within  three  months,  and  complete  its  work  within 
two  years  from  the  date  of  reception  of  the  letters; 
formerly  only  eighteen  months  were  allowed.  When 
the  results  of  the  inquiry  have  been  sent  to  the 
Holy  See  a  discussion  concerning  the  validity  of 
the  information  and  the  Apostolic  processes  takes 
place  in  the  presence  of  the  cardinal  prefect  and 
three  other  cardinals  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites 
selected  by  the  pope,  and  of  the  cardinal  relator, 
the  secretary,  the  prothonotary  Apostolic,  the  gen¬ 
eral  promoter  of  the  Faith,  and  the  subpromoter, 
and  a  decision  is  rendered  by  the  cardinals  just 
mentioned.  In  the  third  or  general  meeting,  to 
discuss  the  degree  of  virtue  practiced  by  a  con¬ 
fessor  or  the  fact  and  cause  of  his  martyrdom 
(C.  E.,  1.  c.,  n.  16),  the  consultors,  prelates,  and 
cardinals  have  only  a  consultive  vote,  the  decision 
being  reserved  to  the  Pope. 

Miracles. — As  in  establishing  the  practice  of 
virtue  in  an  heroic  degree  three  formal  meetings 
for  discussion  are  held,  so  there  are  the  ante- 
preparatory,  the  preparatory,  and  the  general  meet¬ 
ings  for  the  proof  of  miracles  wrought  through  the 
intercession  of  the  venerable. 

In  the  ante-preparatory  meeting  two  specialists, 
physicians  or  surgeons,  who  have  been  selected  by 
the  cardinal  relator  after  consulting  the  general 
promoter  of  the  Faith,  report  whether  a  cure  has 
been  wrought,  and  whether  the  fact  can  be  ex¬ 
plained  by  natural  causes;  the  postulator  of  the 
cause,  who  formerly  was  allowed  to  name  one  of 
the  experts,  must  not  be  informed  now  who  the 
experts  are,  and  ordinarily  they  should  not  be 
known  as  such  to  one  another.  If  the  two  experts 
consulted  in  the  ante-preparatory  meeting  have  up¬ 
held  the  miracles,  only  one  expert  is  called  in  the 
preparatory  discussion;  if,  however,  they  did  not 
agree,  the  opinion  of  two  new  experts  must  be 
obtained.  The  cardinals  may,  however,  always  in¬ 
crease  the  number  of  experts,  and  the  advocate 
of  the  cause  may  call  another  in  replying.  As  in 
deciding  the  fact  of  martyrdom  and  the  heroic 
practice  of  virtue,  so  here  the  decision  in  the 
general  meeting  regarding  the  miracles  rests  with 
the  Pope  alone.  When  the  decree  approving  of 
the  miracles  has  been  issued,  a  discussion  as  to 
whether  or  not  it  is  safe  to  proceed  with  the  beatifi¬ 
cation  is  held  in  presence  of  the  Pope,  who,  after 
hearing  the  opinions  of  the  consultors  and  cardinals, 
renders  the  decision. 


Canonization  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-369b).— Though  only 
two  miracles  wrought  through  the  intercession  of  a 
blessed  after  formal  beatification  are  required  for 
canonization,  three  are  necessary  when  the  beatifi¬ 
cation  has  been  merely  equivalent  or  virtual,  that 
is  in  cases  where  the  Holy  See  has  approved  of  the 
honor  paid  to  holy  servants  of  God  since  at  least 
^ar  1540  (C.  E.,  l..c.,  n.  6).  In  conclusion,  it 
should  be  noted  that  no  writings  relating  to  the 
causes  of  beatification  or  canonization  of  servants 
of  God  may  be  published  without  leave  of  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  Rites.  Code,  can.  1999-2141. 

Beauvais,  Diocese  of  (Bellovacum;  cf.  C.  E., 
II-377d),  in  the  department  of  Oise,  France,  with 
the  united  titles  of  Noyon  and  Senlis,  suffragan  of 
Reims.  Bishop  Donais,  appointed  to  this  see  14 
December,  1899,  d.  28  February,  1915,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev. 
Eugene-Stanislas  Le  Senne,  b.  in  St.  Pierre, 
Quiberon,  1866,  ordained  1890,  appointed  1  June, 
1915.  During  the  World  War  140  priests  and 
seminarians  were  mobilized  from  this  diocese,  of 
whom  7  priests  and  12  seminarians  died,  3  were 
decorated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor,  and  10  with 
the  croix  de  guerre.  A  portion  of  the  diocese  was 
occupied  by  the  enemy  and  Roye  was  entirely  de¬ 
stroyed. 

The  population  of  this  diocese  numbers  411,000, 
divided  among  36  deaneries  and  600  parishes,  and 
the  1920  statistics  credit  it  with  540  secular  and  16 
regular  clergy.  The  educational  institutions  include 
the  lower  seminary  at  Beauvais,  the  secondary 
school  of  Our  Lady  at  Pont-Sainte-Maxence,  the 
College  of  St.  Vincent  at  Senlis,  the  College  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  at  Beauvais,  and  the  international 
agricultural  institution,  also  at  Beauvais. 

Beaven,  Thomas  D.  See  Springfield,  Dio¬ 
cese  of. 

Bed j an,  Paul.  See  Mission,  Congregation  of 
the. 


Beirut,  Maronite  Archdiocese  of  (Berytensis 
Maronitarum;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-392b),  in  Phoenicia. 
On  1  September,  1920,  France  proclaimed  the  region 
of  Mount  Lebanon  a  Christian  State,  independent 
of  the  rest  of  Syria,  with  the  capital  at  Beirut.  The 
proclamation  was  the  result  of  the  joint  efforts  in 
Paris  of  the  patriarch  and  the  present  Archbishop 
Ignatius  Mobarak  of  Beirut.  A  Maronite  cleric 
assisted  by  prelates  of  other  communities  drafted 
the  constitution. 

There  are  five  parishes  within  the  city  and  95 
without,  with  a  total  of  110  churches  and  a  ministry 
of  150  secular  and  50  regular  priests.  There  are  18 
monasteries,  1  seminary  with  25  seminarians,  1  col¬ 
lege  for  men  in  Beirut  with  20  teachers  and  300 
students,  60  elementary  schools  with  120  teachers 
and  2,000  pupils  of  both  sexes.  The  Catholic  in¬ 
stitutions  are  supported  by  the  government.  Con¬ 
ferences  for  the  clergy  are  held  bi-monthly,  and  a 
monthly  magazine  is  published  for  them.  For  the 
laity  there  is  a  Sodality  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary 
with  a  large  membership  of  both  sexes.  There  are 
many  dailies  and  periodicals  which  have  proved 
zealous  defenders  of  the  Faith.  During  the  World 
War  about  a  third  of  the  Maronites  died  of  a 
famine  brought  about  by  the  Turks. 

Archbishop  Joseph  Debs  (1879-1907),  was  a  man 
of  great  energy,  his  zeal  being  attested  by  many 
handsome  churches  within  Beirut,  among  which  is 
the  present  cathedral,  a  college  for  men,  numerous 
pious  works  existing  even  to  this  day,  together  with 
a  large  number  of  liturgical  and  historical  works. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Archbishop  Peter  Chelbi 


BEJA 


90 


BELGIAN  BUREAU 


(1908-1917),  a  man  of  unusual  talent  and  learning, 
who  during  the  war  died  in  exile. 

Beja,  Diocese  of  (Biensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-393d), 
in  Portugal,  suffragan  of  Evora.  Beja  is  the  site 
of  the  old  Roman  city,  Pax  Julia,  and  was  a 
splendid  diocese  until  the  Moorish  invasion,  which 
extinguished  Christianity  there.  The  diocese  was 
restored  in  1770.  Since  that  time  there  were  many 
long  vacancies  of  bishops,  during  which  religious 
life  was  not  fervent.  There  is  no  chapter  at  Beja. 

Following  the  revolution  of  1910  and  the  procla¬ 
mation  of  a  republic,  the  Bishop  of  Beja,  Rt.  Rev. 
Sebastiao  Leite  de  Vasconcellos,  was  obliged  to 
leave  the  diocese,  the  seminary  was  closed,  and  all 
religious  orders  were  expelled.  Bishop  Leite  de 
Vasconcellos,  born  at  Oporto,  was  ordained  15 
November,  1874,  appointed  Bishop  of  Beja  19 
December,  1907,  but  forced  by  decree  of  the  re¬ 
public,  18  April,  1911,  to  leave  his  diocese,  he  lived 
at  Lourdes,  and  since  November,  1912,  in  Rome, 
where  he  resides  at  the  Latin-American  College. 
On  15  December,  1919,  he  was  promoted  titular 
Archbishop  of  Damietta,  assistant  at  papal  throne, 
named  a  Knight  of  the  Order  of  St.  George  26 
August,  1918. 

Since  the  expulsion  of  the  bishop  the  diocese  has 
passed  through  a  tempestuous  and  desperate  period, 
being  administered  by  the  Archdiocese  of  Evora. 
On  16  December,  1920,  Rt.  Rev.  Jose  do  Patrocinio 
Dias  was  elected  bishop,  consecrated  in  the  cathe¬ 
dral  at  Guardia  3  June,  1921,  and  entered  Beja 
November  of  the  same  year. 

There  are  116  parishes  in  the  diocese  with  72 
secular  priests  and  10  seminarians,  who  go  for  their 
studies  to  the  archdiocesan  seminary  at  Evora.  The 
lack  of  vocations,  combined  with  other  losses,  have 
made  the  shortage  of  priests  in  the  diocese  serious. 
The  hospitals,  asylums,  refuges,  and  schools  are 
without  any  religious  jurisdiction. 

During  the  revolution  many  priests  were  put  in 
prison,  banished,  and  persecuted,  while  many 
emigrated,  all  of  which  caused  in  the  diocese  a 
most  deplorable  condition.  There  is  a  commission 
organized  in  the  diocese  to  give  religious  instruc¬ 
tion.  The  present  bishop,  Mgr.  Dias,  was  in  France 
from  the  time  of  the  entrance  of  the  Portuguese 
Expeditionary  Forces  until  the  end  of  the  war,  as 
chaplain  of  15th  Regiment  of  Infantry,  and  chief 
chaplain  of  the  Corps,  he  was  cited  at  various 
times  in  the  army  orders  and  decorated  with  a 
medal  ( medal  comenda  da  ordem  militar )  for  dis¬ 
tinguished  service  in  the  field,  crus  de  guerra  (2d 
class),  and  also  fourragere  da  Torre  e  Espada.  Rev. 
Antonio  dos  Aujos,  secretary  to  the  bishop,  was 
also  chaplain  wTith  the  Portuguese  Expeditionary 
Corps  in  France,  served  in  various  advances,  men¬ 
tioned  twice  in  army  orders,  decorated  with  crus  de 
guerra  (4th  class),  crus  de  Christi  (with  palm),  and 
fourragere  da  Torre  e  Espada.  No  other  priests 
of  the  diocese  were  absent  during  the  war. 

Belem  do  Para,  Archdiocese  of  (Belemensis  do 
Para;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-394c),  in  the  State  of  Para, 
Brazil,  South  America.  This  see  is  now  (1922)  filled 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Santin-Maria  da  Silva  Coutinho,  b.  in 
Areias,  1868,  ordained  1891,  appointed  Bishop  of  St. 
Louis  de  Maranhao,  9  September,  1906,  and  pro¬ 
moted  6  December  of  the  same  year.  By  a  decree 
of  29  October,  1920,  a  portion  of  the  territory  of 
the  archdiocese  was  taken  to  be  joined  to  the  prela- 
ture  nullius  of  Concepcion.  By  1920  statistics  this 
diocese  comprises  a  Catholic  population  of  480,000, 
2,000  Protestants,  almost  100,000  uncivilized  natives, 
50  parishes,  10  filial  churches,  62  secular  and  25 
regular  clergy,  30  Brothers,  and  2  colleges, 


Belgian  Bureau  (with  headquarters  at  429-31 
West  47th  Street,  New  York),  organized  to  foster  the 
spiritual  and  temporal  welfare  of  the  Belgians  in 
America,  was  founded  in  September,  1913,  at  the 
joint  request  of  the  Belgian  Government  and  the 
bishops  of  Belgium  with  the  hearty  approval  of  His 
Eminence  Cardinal  Farley.  The  principal  work  of 
the  new  institution  was  to  be  the  care  and  pro¬ 
tection  of  the  Immigrant.  The  Belgian  Govern¬ 
ment  had  repeatedly  been  advised  by  Mr.  Pierre 
Mali,  the  Belgian  consul-general  at  New  York,  of 
the  unhappy  conditions  among  immigrants  land¬ 
ing  in  the  United  States,  and  the  Belgian  bishops 
had  often  heard  from  bishops  and  priests  in  Amer¬ 
ica  of  the  same  unfortunate  situation.  An  existing 
society,  the  Belgian  Benevolence  Society  of  New 
York,  had  made  several  unavailing  efforts  to  remedy 
the  sad  state  of  affairs,  and  the  conclusion  was 
reached  that  only  a  priest  would  be  able  to  handle 
the  proposition  satisfactory.  After  several  consulta¬ 
tions  between  Mr.  Mali,  Bishop  Gabriels,  Father 
Notebaert  of  Rochester  and  others,  at  the  sugges¬ 
tion  of  Monsignor  De  Becker,  the  Rector  of  the 
American  College  of  Louvain  who  happened  to  be 
in  New  York,  it  was  decided  to  ask  Father  Stille- 
mans  then  pastor  of  the  Sacred  Heart  Church  of 
El  Reno,  Oklahoma,  to  take  up  the  new  work. 
With  the  consent  of  Bishop  Meerschaert,  Rev.  J.  F. 
Stillemans  came  to  New  York  where  he  was  heartily 
welcomed  by  Cardinal  Farley,  Monsignor  Mooney, 
Monsignor  Edwards,  and  other  authorities  of  the 
archdiocese.  The  Belgian  Bishops  promise  to  sup¬ 
ply  whatever  assistants  might  eventually  be  needed, 
and  so  in  July,  1914,  Rev.  O.  A.  Nys  came  from 
Belgium,  and  in  1919  the  Belgian  bishops  sent  a 
second  assistant  in  the  person  of  Rev.  C.  C. 
Roosens. 

In  a  general  way  the  immigration  work  may  be 
considered  as  threefold:  assistance  to  the  immi¬ 
grants  whilst  passing  through  the  immigration  in¬ 
spection;  protection  en  route,  especially  for  girls 
and  children;  and  care  as  to  proper  location  and 
assistance  for  those  who  arrive  without  definite 
destination.  To  accomplish  this  means  work  at  the 
piers,  the  railroad  stations  and  Ellis  Island,  besides 
the  work  at  the  office,  and  correspondence.  The 
Belgian  Bureau  has  also  a  few  rooms  where  tem¬ 
porary  shelter  is  given. 

There  is  close  communication  between  the  im¬ 
migration  authorities  and  the  bureau.  Often  the 
Government  calls  upon  the  Belgian  Bureau  for 
special  cases,  or  brings  people  to  it.  On  the  other 
hand  the  Belgians  in  the  United  States  most  fre¬ 
quently  advise  the  Bureau  of  the  expected  arrival 
of  relatives  and  friends,  while  the  directories  and 
ordos  of  the  Belgian  dioceses  instruct  the  priests  in 
Belgium  to  notify  the  Bureau  of  the  departure  of 
their  parishioners.  The  steamship  agents  in  Bel¬ 
gium  also  do  this  quite  often.  In  not  a  few  cases 
prospective  immigrants  or  people  who  think  of 
coming  to  these  shores  write  to  the  Bureau  for 
information  of  different  kind. 

Immigration  from  Belgium  is  not  large  as  com¬ 
pared  with  that  from  several  other  countries,  and 
owing  to  the  war  its  numbers  have  varied  consid¬ 
erably.  If  the  Government  could  see  its  way  to 
greater  liberality  in  the  rights  granted  immigration 
workers  and  if  the  Bureau’s  resources  were  more 
ample,  it  could  undoubtedly  reach  every  Belgian 
immigrant.  As  it  is,  it  assists,  several  thousands 
each  year,  and  fortunately  practically  all  those  who 
encounter  unusual  difficulties  or  stand  in  need  of 
special  protection. 

The  follow-up  work  in  New  York  itself  is  ren¬ 
dered  very  difficult  by  the  vastness  of  the  city 


Belgium 


91 


BELGIUM 


and  the  consequent  fact  that  it  is  so  easy  to  lose 
track  of  people.  Special  care  is  devoted  and  very 
successfully  to  young  girls  by  the  Belgian  Sisters  of 
St:  John  Berchmans  Convent.  Outside  of  New 
York,  the  Bureau  can  do  follow-up  work  only  as 
far  as  it  is  able  to  enlist  the  co-operation  of  priests 
or  laymen,  for  it  lacks  the  necessary  means  to  set 
up  an  adequate  organization. 

Besides  the  Immigration  Department,  the  Bel¬ 
gian  Bureau  operates  an  Employment  Bureau  and 
an  Information  Office,  the  last  named  constituting 
a  very  important  activity.  Thousands  of  Belgians, 
in  America  as  well  as  in  Belgium,  avail  themselves 
of  this  means  to  obtain  correct  and  safe  information 
and  guidance.  The  Charity  Department  of  the 
Belgian  Bureau  relieves  the  sick  and  destitute  and 
is  made  especially  effective,  thanks  through  the 
untiring  zeal  of  the  Belgian  Sisters  of  St.  John 
Berchmans  Convent.  The  Belgian  Bureau  is  further¬ 
more  a  center  of  social  work  comprising  conferences, 
lectures,  social  gatherings,  classes  and  other  means 
of  education,  Americanization  and  general  welfare. 

During  the  war  the  Belgian  Bureau  rendered  great 
services  as  headquarters  of  the  Belgian  Relief  Fund 
and  numerous  other  committees,  and  also  took  care 
of  the  Belgian  Refugees  who  came  to  America. 
The  resources  of  the  Belgian  Bureau  consist  of  the 
subsidy  granted  by  the  Belgian  Government  and 
the  one  allowed  by  the  Belgian  Bishops,  besides 
donations  by  private  persons  or  societies.  No  fees 
or  compensations  of  any  kind,  not  even  for  board  or 
lodging,  are  accepted  from  the  immigrants. 

J.  F.  Stillemans. 


Belgium  (cf.  C.  E.  II-395b).— The  area  of  the 
kingdom  is  11,373  square  miles,  excluding  the  dis¬ 
tricts  of  Eupen  and  Malmedy,  which  come  under 
Belgian  sovereignty  as  a  result  of  the  Treaty  of 
Versailles  (1919).  The  population,  estimated  on 
31  December,  1919,  was  7,577,027,  or  652  persons  to 
the  square  mile.  The  excess  of  females  over  males 
was  77,787.  Of  the  population  in  1910, 2,833,334  spoke 
French  only,  3,220,662  Flemish  only,  31,415  German 
only,  and  52,457  spoke  all  three  languages.  In 
1919  there  were  57,758  emigrants  and  50,043  immi¬ 
grants.  The  largest  cities,  with  the  population  in 
1919,  are:  Brussels  and  suburbs,  658,268;  Antwerp, 
322,857 ;  Liege,  166,697 ;  Ghent,  165,655 ;  Malines, 
59,869;  Bruges,  53,489;  Ostend,  45,973;  Verviers, 
44,118;  Louvain,  40,069. 

Religion. — In  1921  Belgium  raised  its  Ministry 
to  the  Holy  See  to  the  rank  of  embassy  and  ap¬ 
pointed  as  ambassador  one  of  its  most  distinguished 
diplomats,  Baron  Beyens,  dean  of  the  Belgian  Dip¬ 
lomatic  Corps.  The  retiring  Minister,  Comte 
D’Ursel,  received  the  Grand  Cross  of  the  Order  of 
St.  Gregory  the  Great  from  Pope  Benedict  XV. 
Belgium  has  a  Catholic  premier  (1921)  in  the  per¬ 
son  of  Baron  Carton  de  Wiart,  the  acknowledged 
leader  of  the  Younger  Right  Catholic  Democrats, 
former  Minister  of  Justice,  and  for  years  a  promi¬ 
nent  figure  in  Catholic  campaigns  in  Belgium.  The 
language  question,  involving  the  predominance  of 
the  French  or  Flemish  language  has  long  been  a 
disturbing  element  both  from  a  religious  and  a 
political  standpoint.  A  letter  of  Pope  Benedict  XV. 
(1921)  warned  the  clergy  of  the  possible  loss  of 
their  priestly  dignity  and  the  fruit  of  their  ministry, 
by  indulging  in  acrimonious  controversies,  verbal 
or  written,  on  the  subject.  Religious  statistics  re¬ 
veal  21  Protestant  pastors  and  15  Jewish  rabbis  or 
ministers.  For  Catholic  statistics  see  Malines, 
Archdiocese  of;  Bruges,  Diocese  of;  Ghent,  Dio¬ 
cese  of;  Liege,  Diocese  of;  Namur,  Diocese  of; 
Tournat,  Diocese  of. 


Economic  Conditions. — Of  all  the  warring  coun¬ 
tries  in  Europe,  none  have  returned  to  their  pre-war 
activities  in  a  measure  comparable  with  Belgium. 
When  the  armistice  was  signed,  the  country  found 
itself  with  one-third  of  its  factories  ruined ;  in 
transportation  essentials,  1,250  miles  of  railroads 
1,800  bridges,  and  400  miles  of  canals  had  been  de¬ 
stroyed,  60,000  railroad  cars  and  2,500  locomotives 
taken  by  the  Germans,  and  the  telegraph  and  tele¬ 
phone  systems  ruined.  Progress  toward  reconstruc¬ 
tion  has  been  phenomenal  in  the  past  two  years, 
for  all  the  pre-war  industries,  with  the  exception 
of  the  steel  plants,  have  practically  attained  the 
production  of  former  years.  Practically  all  the 
trains  in  the  country  are  now  running  on  pre-war 
schedule  and  the  bridges  and  roadbeds  have  been 
re-constructed.  The  total  length  of  railways  in  1919 
was:  State  lines,  2,759  miles,  private  lines,  184 
miles;  light,  rail  ways,  1,706  miles;  total,  4,649  miles. 
It  is  now  proposed  to  electrify  the  railway  system 
of  the  country.  The  length  of  navigable  waterways 
in  1919  was  1,231  miles;  the  length  of  the  roads, 
state  roads,  5,187  miles;  provincial  roads,  964  miles; 
concreted  roads,  26  miles;  total  length,  6,177  miles. 

Agricultural  activity  commenced  immediately 
after  the  armistice  was  signed,  with  the  result  that 
crops  produced  in  1919  fully  equalled  those  in  1913, 
the  best  sugar  crop  showing  an  excess  of  4,000,000 
pounds.  As  evidence  of  the  intensity  with  which 
the  Belgians  applied  themselves  to  work,  it  is  in¬ 
teresting  to  note  that  on  the  termination  of  the 
war  there  were  upward  of  800,000  persons  receiving 
chomage  (unemployment  wage)  while  at  present, 
the  number  has  been  reduced  to  less  than  200,000. 
Much  of  this  remarkable  progress  is  due  to  the 
activity  of  the  Recuperation  Committee,  which  has 
succeeded  in  recovering  most  of  the  machinery 
taken  away  by  the  Germans.  In  each  province 
there  is  an  official  Agricultural  Commission,  dele¬ 
gates  from  which,  together  with  specialists,  form  a 
supreme  council  of  agriculture. 

Of  the  total  area  in  1920,  2,945,104  hectares, 
1,340,415  are  under  cultivation,  519,781  under  forest, 
107,977  fallow  or  uncultivated,  the  rest,  roads, 
marshes,  rivers.  Figures  for  1919  show  298,508  farms, 
of  which  approximately  28  per  cent  were  cultivated 
by  their  owners.  The  devastated  region,  amounting 
to  but  250,000  acres,  lies  mainly  in  west  Flanders; 
and  of  this  25,000  acres  were  cultivated  in  1920. 

The  chief  crops  for  1919  were  wheat,  oats,  rye, 
potatoes,  barley,  beets,  and  tobacco.  In  1919  there 
were  755  quarries,  with  14,909  workmen,  turning  out 
products  worth  58,504,450  francs;  the  number  of 
coal  mines  in  the  same  year  was  121,  number  of 
workers,  139,674;  the  coal  production  in  1920  was 
22,413,530  tons  of  coal,  2,922,000  tons  of  briquettes, 
1,800,000  tons  of  coke.  In  1919,  250,570  metric  tons 
of  pig  iron  were  produced  in  13  furnaces,  as  against 
2,484,690  tons  in  19  furnaces  in  1913.  An  offi¬ 
cial  investigation  revealed  that  Belgian  industry 
was  then  employing  76  per  cent  of  its  1913  work¬ 
ers,  labor  in  coal  mining  and  transportation  showing 
an  excess.  The  principal  foreign  commerce  of 
Belgium  is  with  Argentina,  Belgian  Congo,  France, 
Germany,  Great  Britain,  Netherlands,  and  the 
United  States.  Imports  from  Great  Britain  in  1919 
showed  a  value  of  $155,933,000;  from  the  United 
States,  $122,017,444;  France,  $103,207,222 ;  Argentina, 
$23,319,333.  Exports  to  Germany,  customs  union, 
$70,520,222;  France,  $62,018,778;  Netherlands,  $49,- 
551,889.  The  public  debt  in  1914  amounted  to 
4,890,000,000  francs;  in  1919  to  19,533,434,900  francs. 

Education. — Many  have  been  the  dissensions  in 
recent  years  regarding  education  in  Belgium.  In 
1914  school  education  was  made  compulsory  for 


BELGIUM 


92 


BELGIUM 


all  children  under  fourteen,  and  in  1919  the  Bel¬ 
gian  government  enacted  a  law  giving  the  same 
subsidies  to  private  religious  schools  as  to  public 
schools,  provided  the  former  conformed  with  the 
minimum  standards  laid  down  by  the  state  for 
the  latter.  In  Belgium,  primary  schools,  of  which 
there  must  be  one  in  every  commune,  are  adminis¬ 
tered  by  the  authorities  of  the  commune,  the  cen¬ 
tral  Government  contributing  to  their  support  by 
subsidies  and  laying  down  certain  requirements. 
Religious  instruction,  established  by  law  of  1895, 
continues,  and  parents  who  do  not  wish  their  chil¬ 
dren  to  take  the  religious  courses  may  have  them 
exempted.  Of  the  public  schools  there  sue  (31 
December,  1920),  23  royal  athenaeums  and  colleges 
with  1,364  pupils,  8  private  colleges  with  1,462 
pupils,  97  middle  class  schools  with  25  male  pupils, 
and  48  with  13,638  female  pupils.  For  elementary 
education  there  are  7,959  primary  schools  with 
960  819  pupils,  3,366  infant  schools  with  205,418 
pupils,  and  4,193  adult  schools  with  174,044  pupils. 
Of  normal  schools  there  are  24  for  training  sec¬ 
ondary  teachers  and  75  for  training  elementary 
teachers.  Of  the  four  universities,  Ghent  and  Liege 
are  State  institutions,  Brussels  and  Louvain  free. 
In  1919-20  Brussels  had  1,644  students;  Ghent,  1,006; 
Liege,  2,656;  and  Louvain,  2,783.  Attached  to  the 
universities  are  various  special  technical  schools, 
with  3,034  students  in  1919-20.  There  were  also  6 
commercial  high  schools;  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts  at  Antwerp,  a  poly  technical  school  at 
Mons,  an  agricultural  institute  at  Gembloux,  and 
four  royal  conservatories  at  Brussels,  Liege,  Ghent, 
and  Antwerp. 

When  the  war  broke  out,  a  Bill  had  been  in¬ 
troduced  into  the  Chambers  to  change  the  State 
University  of  Ghent  in  the  heart  of  Flanders,  from 
a  French  to  a  Flemish  school.  The  German  in¬ 
vaders,  regardless  of  the  laws  of  the  land,  made 
the  change  without  any  more  ado,  and  created  a 
peculiarly  awkward  situation,  for  all  those  who 
taught  and  studied  in  the  university  are  now  looked 
upon  as  traitors.  The  agitation  for  the  use  of 
the  Flemish  tongue  in  the  university  continues  to 
the  extent  that  the  Chambers  are  undecided  whether 
to  establish  a  Flemish  university,  or  to  convert  the 
present  University  of  Ghent  into  a  Flemish  insti¬ 
tution,  or  merely  to  institute  Flemish  courses  there. 

The  school  question  continues  to  play  an  im¬ 
portant  part  in  the  religious  and  political  life  of 
the  country,  and  Catholics  are  compelled  to  wage 
a  continuous  war  for  the  freedom  of  their  educa¬ 
tional  establishments,  against  Liberal  and  Socialist 
encroachments.  Illegality  in  the  system  of  the 
Minister  of  Instruction,  M.  Destree,  Free  Mason, 
recently  resigned,  is  in  some  measure  due  to  Catho¬ 
lic  negligence  in  not  giving  religious  instruction  in 
schools  where,  by  law,  it  is  compulsory.  M.  Destree 
endeavored  to  supply  in  its  stead,  instruction  in 
civic  ethics,  claiming  this  as  an  interpretation,  not 
an  abrogation,  of  the  law.  Since  the  armistice, 
however,  many  Socialists  seem  inclined  to  settle  the 
school  question  in  a  fairer  way,  realizing  the  tenacity 
of  Catholic  Belgium  in  maintaining  its  rights,  and 
their  recognition,  public  opinion  gives  to  the  justice 
of  its  claims. 

Government. — The  changes  in  Belgium’s  constitu¬ 
tion  agitated  for  before  the  European  war,  are  now 
materializing.  In  1919  a  drastic  reform  Bill  was 
passed,  giving  one  vote  and  one  only  to  every 
Belgian  over  21  years  of  age.  In  1920  a  Bill  grant¬ 
ing  unrestricted  suffrage  to  women  was  defeated, 
but  later  the  Chamber  voted  to  amend  the  Con¬ 
stitution  so  that  any  future  Parliament  by  two- 
thirds  majority  could  extend  the  suffrage  without 


constitutional  revision.  On  8  February,  an  eight- 
hour  day  law  was  enacted,  and  in  November  a 
bonus  was  granted  to  every  Belgian  soldier  re¬ 
gardless  of  rank.  In  the  latest  provincial  election 
of  senators,  the  returns  were  as  follows :  336  Catho¬ 
lics,  132  Liberals,  206  Socialists,  and  seven  others. 
The  Catholics  have  an  absolute  majority  in  five 
provinces,  and  are  strongest  numerically  in  two 
others.  The  Socialists  have  an  absolute  majority 
in  only  2  provinces.  The  newest  Cabinet  of  Bel¬ 
gium  is  composed  of  5  Catholics  and  5  Liberals. 
The  returns  to  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  the 
latest  election  reveal  the  composition  of  the  Cham¬ 
ber  as  80  Catholics,  52  Socialists,  28  Liberals.  In 
1921  the  first  woman  was  elected  to  the  Belgian 
Parliament. 

History  (1911-1921).— As  early  as  1911  Belgium 
had  feared  for  her  neutrality.  Though  this  neu¬ 
trality  was  guaranteed  by  the  Great  Powers  under 
the  Treaty  of  London,  19  April,  1829,  the  country 
felt  that  in  view  of  the  alarming  Moroccan  situa¬ 
tion  she  could  not  afford  to  omit  any  precautions 
against  its  violation.  Accordingly  the  defenses  of 
Liege  and  Namur  were  strengthened,  and  guns 
were  brought  from  Antwerp. 

At  the  very  first  news  of  the  ominous  Austrian 
ultimatum  to  Servia  in  July,  1914,  she  felt  more 
keenly  the  danger  to  which  she  might  be  exposed. 
On  29  July,  she  placed  her  army  “upon  a  strength¬ 
ened  war  footing,”  but  did  not  order  complete 
mobilization  until  two  days  later,  when  war  ap¬ 
peared  inevitable.  On  2  August,  1914,  German 
troops  occupied  Luxemburg,  and  on  the  same  day 
the  German  Government  presented  an  ultimatum 
to  Belgium,  demanding  within  twelve  hours  the 
permission  to  move  German  troops  across  that 
country  into  France,  promising,  if  permission  were 
accorded,  to  guarantee  Belgian  independence  and 
integrity  and  to  pay  an  indemnity,  and  threatening 
that,  if  any  resistance  were  encountered,  Germany 
would  treat  Belgium  as  an  enemy  and  that  “the 
decision  of  arms”  would  determine  the  subsequent 
relations  between  the  two  powers. 

The  Belgian  Government  characterized  the  ulti¬ 
matum  as  a  gross  violation  of  international  law 
and  refused  the  request.  On  4  August,  1914,  when 
the  German  troops  had  actually  crossed  the  Belgian 
border,  she  appealed  for  the  assistance  of  the  Pow¬ 
ers  that  had  guaranteed  her  neutrality.  Sir  Edward 
Grey,  the  British  foreign  secretary,  dispatched  an 
ultimatum  to  Germany,  requiring  assurance  by  mid¬ 
night  that  Germany  would  respect  Belgian  neu¬ 
trality.  Germany  refused  on  the  ground  of  “military 
necessity.” 

The  resistance  of  the  Belgians  was  a  surprise  to 
the  German  military  authorities.  From  the  German 
frontier,  opposite  Aix-la-Chapelle  to  the  gap  of  the 
Oise  on  the  Franco-Belgian  frontier,  it  would  have 
been  but  a  six  day  march  for  an  unresisted  army. 
The  outraged  Belgians  unanimously  and  heroically 
determined  to  resist.  Liege  happened  to  be  in  the 
path  of  the  German  soldiers,  and  against  Liege  a 
detachment  was  sent  under-  General  von  Emmich, 
but  so  anxious  were  the  Germans  not  to  lose  any 
time  that  von  Emmich  recklessly  sacrificed  his  men 
in  order  to  carry  the  city  by  assault.  Assault  fail¬ 
ing,  von  Emmich  brought  up  giant  42-centimeter 
howitzers  which  speedily  demolished  some  forts  en¬ 
circling  the  city,  and  enabled  the  Germans  to  enter 
the  town.  Eight  days  later,  all  the  forts  were 
silenced. 

After  the  fall  of  Liege,  the  German  cavalry  swept 
over  the  neighboring  country  and  German  armies 
penetrated  Belgium.  The  Belgians  fell  back  to 
Louvain  and  there  on  19  August,  made  their  last 


BELGIUM 


BELLEVILLE 


stand.  Louvain  was  burned  and  its  famous  library 
reduced  to  ashes.  Towards  the  northwest,  in  the 
direction  of  Antwerp  and  Malines,  the  valiant 
Belgian  army  retreated,  pressed  by  a  German  force. 
General  von  Kluck  entered  Brussels  on  20  August 
and  then  moved  south  towards  Mons  and  Mau- 
beuge.  In  the  meantime  the  armies  of  General  von 
Hausen  and  Duke  Albert  of  Wurttemberg  were 
moving  westward  through  the  hilly  country  of 
the  Ardennes  in  southeastern  Belgium.  Between 
these  forces,  was  a  small  detachment  of  Belgians, 
pursued  up  the  Meuse  to  Namur  by  the  troops 
of  General  von  Biilow.  On  22  August,  Namur  fell 
to  the  Germans.  The  Belgian  resistance  gave  the 
French  time  to  mobilize  their  forces  behind  the 
Franco-Belgian  front. 

By  this  time  the  Franco-British  forces  were  on 
hand  to  render  assistance,  and  on  21  August  man¬ 
aged  to  take  a  defensive  position  north  of  Maubeuge 
on  a  line  from  Conde,  in  France,  to  Mons  in 
Belgium.  An  offensive  was  attempted  in  south¬ 
eastern  Belgium  but  it  broke  down  completely,  and 
the  French  were  soon  in  precipitate  retreat.  The 
British,  too,  were  unable  to  withstand  the  German 
onslaughts  and  unwilling  to  be  outflanked  or  over¬ 
whelmed,  General  French,  the  British  commander, 
began  his  sensational  retreat  from  Mons  on  23 
August.  Most  of  Belgium  was  conquered  and  the 
road  to  France  lay  clear  to  the  Germans.  Only  a 
tiny  strip  in  the  southwestern  corner  extending  from 
Nieuport  to  Ypres  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
Belgians.  The  Belgian  government  was  exiled  to 
Havre,  in  France,  and  the  Belgian  people  were  ruled 
by  a  German  military  governor  at  Brussels. 

.  The  violation  of  Belgian  neutrality  aroused  the 
civilized  world  and  brought  Great  Britain  into  the 
war.  The  dismantling  of  her  great  industries,  the 
war  levies  demanded  from  them  (3,000,000  francs 
from  the  town  of  Wavre  alone),  embittered  the  Bel¬ 
gians  against  the  conquerors.  The  burning  of 
Louvain,  including  the  famous  Catholic  university 
and  church  of  St.  Peter,  which  was  justified,  as  a 
revenge  for  a  concerted  attack  on  the  German 
troops,”  shocked  the  world  by  its  vandalism.  For 
the  horrors  of  war,  inflicted  on  countless  women 
and  children,  the  Germans  offered  the  pleas  of 
military  necessity”  and  “war  is  war.”  The  Belgian 
found  a  courageous  and  able  advocate  in  Cardinal 
Mercier,  Archbishop  of  Malines  and  primate  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  Belgium,  who  protested  the 
German  conquest  and  appealed  for  aid  to  the 
Vatican  and  foreign  Powers.  Especially  notable  was 
the  organization  of  relief  under  American  auspices. 

In  1916  the  devastated  country  was  subject  to 
another  calamity,  namely  the  deportation  of  some 
hundred  thousand  Belgians  to  work  in  German  fac¬ 
tories  and  thus  husband  the  supply  of  military 
power  in  Germany.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Belgium 
had  already  been  requisitioned  and  used  in  the 
production  of  munitions  of  war  and  its  railways 
were  working  overtime  in  the  transportation  of 
troops  from  one  frontier  to  another.  The  fortune 
of  war  now  changed,  and  on  28  September,  1918, 
King  Albert  and  his  Belgians,  aided  by  a  French 
tinny  under  General  Degoutte  and  the  British  army 
pi  General  Plumer,  struck  out  between  Dixmude 
and  Ypres  and  while  the  Belgians  got  close  to 
Roulers,  the  British  recovered  Passchendaele.  In 
Flanders,  14  October,  the  group  of  Franco-Belgian- 
pntish  armies  renewed  their  attacks  on  a  vast  front 
rom  Dixmude  to  the  Lys.  Albert’s  army  continued 
ts  victorious  march;  Ostend  and  Bruges  were  re¬ 
entered,  then  Zeebrugge;  the  suburbs  of  Ghent  and 
he  Dutch  frontier  were  reached;  the  Lys  was 
rossed.  On  21  October,  the  British  assailed  the 


Germans  east  ^  of  Denain  and  captured  Valenciennes 
on  2  Novemoer,  and  Landrecies  two  days  later. 
Maubeuge  fell  on  9  November,  and  on  11  Novem- 
ber,  the  last  days  of  fighting,  the  British  gained 
Mons,  the  scene  of  their  defeat  and  retreat  in 
August,  1914. 

The  war  was  formally  ended  by  the  Treaty  of 
.fc&cg,  signed  at  Versailles  between  Germany  and 
the  Allied  Powers  in  1919.  This  abrogated  all 
former  treaties  between  Belgium  and  the  Allies 
especially  the  famous  Treaty  of  London,  15  Novem¬ 
ber,  1831.  By  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  Belgium  ac- 
Quired  the  Prussian  districts  of  Malmedy  (813  square 
kilometers)  and  Eupen  (180  square  kilometers), 
i  he  terms  .of  the  treaty  gave  the  inhabitants  the 
nght  to  express  their  wish  to  remain  united  with 
Germany,  but  only  a  small  minority  of  the  popula¬ 
tion  expressed  such  a  wish,  and  accordingly  on  12 
January,  1920,  Belgian  sovereignty  was  proclaimed 
over  these  regions.  In  March  of  the  same  year, 
Belgium  and  the  Netherlands  ratified  the  treaty  for 
the  settlement  of  the  boundary  and  waterway  ques¬ 
tions,  especially  as  regards  the  Scheldt.  In  May, 
1921,  the  Treaty  of  Trianon  signed  by  Belgium,  put 
an  end  to  the  state  of  war  existing  between  Hun¬ 
gary  and  Belgium.  On  12  June,  1921,  Belgium  dis¬ 
placed  Germany  as  protector  of  the  Duchy  of 
Luxemburg.  All  customs  formalities  between  Bel¬ 
gium  and  the  Duchy  were  abolished;  all  Luxem¬ 
burg  money  was  to  be  replaced  by  Belgian  money, 
with  the  exception  of  bills  less  than  10  francs,  to 
a  total  of  25,000,000  francs.  The  mandate  for  the 
north-western  part  of  the  ex-German  colony  of 
East  Africa  was  given  to  Belgium.  A  report  of  the 
Hoover  Relief  Committee,  formed  to  aid  the  in¬ 
habitants  of  the  devastated  regions  showed  that 
between  Septemebr,  1914,  and  September,  1920, 
$1,300,000,000  has  been  expended  for  food  and 
clothing;  help  had  been  given  to  10,000,000  people; 
and  the  administrative  cost  was  only  .42  of  1  per 
cent  of  the  funds  handled. 

Belgrade  and  Smederevo,  Archdiocese  of  (Bello- 
gradensis  et  Semenpriensis  ;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-407b), 
in  Servia,  directly  dependent  on  the  Holy  See! 
This  see  is  sometimes  listed  as  a  titular,  sometimes 
as  a  residential  see,  but  the  Curia  always  regards 
it  as  titular  for  the  Greek  Rite.  At  present  (1922) 
Rt.  Rev.  Dominic  Premus,  auxiliary  to  the  arch¬ 
bishop  of  Zagrab,  bears  the  title.  However,  the 
Concordat  with  Servia  of  24  June,  1914,  erected 
the  diocese  into  a  residential  metropolitan  see, 
which  as  yet  is  not  filled  by  any  archbishop. 

Prevented  by  the  old  Austro-Hungarian  Mon¬ 
archy,  which  held  a  protectorate  over  all  the  Catho¬ 
lics  in  Servia,  Belgrade  has  never  had  a  church  for 
her  Catholic  population.  However,  an  ever  in¬ 
creasing  body  of  Catholic  Jugoslavs,  is  working  to 
raise  funds  for  the  erection  of  a  church  here.  The 
Holy  Father  has  given  his  approval  to  the  enter¬ 
prise  and  it  is  significant  that  the  Crown  Prince 
Regent  Alexander  has  replied  to  greetings  sent  by 
the  Society,  wishing  them  continued  success. 

Bellarmine,  Robert,  Venerable  (cf.  C.  E., 
II-411c). — His  cause  was  again  introduced  by  a  de¬ 
cree  dated  22  December,  1920. 

Belleville,  Diocese  of  (Bellevillensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
II-414d),  in  southern  Illinois,  suffragan  of  Chi¬ 
cago.  At  the  time  of  its  erection,  1887,  had  a 
Catholic  population  of  50,000  and  now  (1921)  num¬ 
bers  72,000,  divided  as  follows:  Americans,  60,000; 
Italians,  5,000;  Poles,  3,000;  Lithuanians  and 
Slovaks,  4,000.  The  diocese  includes  135  parishes, 
135  churches,  35  missions,  1  convent  for  men,  86  for 
women,  130  secular  priests,  2  regular,  4  lay  brothers, 


BELLEY 


94 


BELMONT  ABBEY  COLLEGE 


459  nuns,  30  ecclesiastical  students,  2  high  schools 
with  4  teachers  1  for  boys  with  attendance  ol  58, 
and  1  for  girls  with  an  attendance  of  28,  2  academies 
for  girls  with  10  teachers  and  105  students,  2  tiain- 
ing  schools  with  4  teachers  and  22  students,  74 
elementary  schools  with  4,000  teachers  and  10,650 
students.  Missionary  work  in  the  diocese  ^  con¬ 
ducted  by  the  Diocesan  Mission  Society  and  the 
Holy  Childhood  Association.  There  are  2  homes, 

1  orphan  asylum,  8  hospitals  and  a  National  Catho¬ 
lic  Community  House.  The  St.  Clair  County  Jail, 
St.  Clair  County  Farm,  State  Hospital  at  Anna, 
and  Southern  State  Penitentiary  admit  the  priests 
of  the  diocese  to  minister  to  them.  The  various 
organizations  of  the  diocese  are:  the  Priests  Purga¬ 
torial  Society,  Priests’  Eucharistic  League,  Clergy¬ 
men’s  Aid  Society,  St.  Francis  de  Sales  Educational 
Aid  Society,  the  People’s  Eucharistic  League, 
National  Council  of  Catholic  Men,  Catholic 
Women’s  League,  Catholic  Junior  League  ihe 
« Messenger”  and  the  “Schoolmate”  are  published 
in  the  diocese.  On  2  July,  1913,  Bishop  Janssen 
first  bishop  of  the  diocese  died,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Henry  Althoff,  D.  D.,  who  was  conse¬ 
crated  24  February,  1914.  Within  recent  years  the 
diocese  also  lost  its  vicar  general,  Rev.  H.  J. 

H  (fr^A  "January,  1912,  the  Cathedral  of  Belleville 
was  destroyed  by  fire  and  in  October,  1913,  a  new 
cathedral  was  completed.  In  1919  the  National 
Catholic  Community  House  of  East  St.  Louis  was 
opened,  and  on  1  December,  1920,  the  fourth  dio¬ 
cesan  synod  was  held.  During  the  World  War  the 
diocese  sent  three  chaplains  and  an  organized  Dio¬ 
cesan  War  Council  took  an  active  part  in  all 
patriotic  work. 

Belley,  Diocese  of  (Bellicium;  cf.  C.E.,II-415c), 
coextensive  with  the  civil  department  of  Am  in 
France,  and  suffragan  of  Besangon.  Rt.  Rev. 
cois- Auguste  Labeuche,  who  came  to  this  see  13 
July,  1906,  d.  18  March,  1910,  and  was  succeeded 
by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Adolphe  Mamer, 
b.  at  Foug,  1851,  ordained  1875,  appointed  bishop 
13  April,  1910,  and  consecrated  at  Autun,  11  June, 
following.  During  the  World  War  251  priests  and 

51  seminarians  were  mobilized  from  this  diocese,  of 
this  number  14  priests  and  20  seminarians  were 
killed  or  wounded,  8  were  decorated  with  the 
Legion  d’honneur,  10  with  Medaille  Militaire,  3 
with  Medaille  des  epidemies,  4  received  foreign 
decorations,  and  165  received  the  Croix  de  Guerre 
or  other  citations.  By  latest  statistics  the  Catholic 
population  of  the  diocese  numbers  342,482,  and  is 
divided  into  442  parishes.  The  diocese  comprises 
442  churches,  1  Trappist  abbey,  553  secular  and 
30  regular  clergy,  8  convents  of  women,  1  seminary, 

52  seminarians,  3  secondary  schools  for  boys  with 
50  teachers  and  300  students,  12  secondary  schools 
for  girls  with  48  teachers  and  400  students,  and  15 
elementary  schools  with  30  teachers  and  500  pupils. 
Ten  diocesan  missionaries  conduct  charitable  works 
and  various  institutions,  including  25  hospitals,  2 
lunatic  asylums,  and  10  centers  for  monthly  retreats 
for  the  clergy  are  established.  An  association  lor 
deceased  clergv,  an  association  for  the  fathers  of 
families,  and  the  “Societe  d’emulation  scientifique, 
litteraire,  historique,”  are  organized;  the  Journal  de 
l’Ain,”  and  “Croix  de  l’Ain”  are  published  here. 

Bells  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-418d). — To  summon  the  faith¬ 
ful  to  Mass  and  other  services,  every  church  should 
have  a  bell  -that  has  been  consecrated  or  at  least 
blessed.  If  the  bell  is  the  property  of  exempt  re¬ 
ligious  it  may  be  blessed  by  a  higher  superior;  other 
bells  may  be  blessed  by  local  ordinaries;  in  either 


case  the  power  to  bless  may  be  delegated  to  any 
priest.  The  consecration  of  a  church  bell  is,  how¬ 
ever,  reserved  to  the  bishop.  The  bells  are  under 
the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities.  They  should  not  be  used  for  purely 
secular  purposes  except  in  case  of  necessity  or  by 
leave  of  the  ordinary  or  in  accordance  with  a  lawful 
custom  or  with  conditions  laid  down  by  the  donors 
of  the  bells. 


Belluno-Feltre,  Diocese  of  (Bellunensis  et 
Feltrensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-424b),  in  Venitia,  Italy, 
suffragan  of  Venice.  Rt.  Rev.  Giusseppe  Foschiam, 
who  came  to  this  see  3  July,  1910,  d.  5  October, 
1913  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent, 
Rt.  Rev.  Giosue  Cattarossi,  b.  at  Cornale,  1863,  ap¬ 
pointed  Bishop  of  Albenga,  11  April,  1911,  and  trans¬ 
ferred  to  this  see  21  November,  1913.  The  diocese 
comprises  a  Catholic  population  of  187,650,  the 
1922  statistics  credit  it  with  95  parishes,  470  churches, 
165  secular  and  72  regular  clergy,  3  convents  of 
men  and  20  of  women,  142  sisters,  2  seminaries,  46 
seminarians,  2  secondary  schools  for  boys  with 
250  students,  and  3  for  girls  with  400  students. 
All  public  schools,  both  elementary  and  secondary, 
are  dependent  upon  the  State,  as  well  as  all  the 
charitable  institutions.  During  the  World  War  the 
clergy  and  laity  of  this  diocese  took  an  active  part 
in  all  patriotic  and  charitable  works.  A  mutual 
aid  society  is  organized  among  the  clergy,  and 
Catholic  organizations  among  the  laity  are  formed; 
a  Catholic  periodical,  “Amico  del  Popolo,  is  pub¬ 
lished  here. 

Belmont  Abbey,  a  Benedictine  foundation  estab¬ 
lished  at  Belmont,  near  Hereford,  England,  in  1859, 
under  the  invocation  of  St.  Michael,  as  a  central 
novitiate  house  of  studies  for  the  English  congre¬ 
gation.  The  priory  church  was  the  pro-cathedral 
of  the  Diocese  of  Newport,  the  bishop  and  canons 
of  which  were  chosen  from  the  English  Benedictines. 
When,  in  1916,  that  diocese  became  the  Archdiocese 
of  Cardiff,  the  church  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
a  cathedral.  The  archdiocese  was  to  have  two 
metropolitan  chapters,  a  regular  chapter  at  Bel¬ 
mont  and  a  secular  chapter  at  Cardiff,  but  on  the 
petition  of  the  Abbot  President  of  the  English 
Congregation,  who  intimated  his  willingness  to  re¬ 
linquish  the  privilege  of  the  cathedral  and  the 
cathedral  chapter  at  Belmont,  the  Holy  See  an¬ 
nounced  that  the  Belmont  chapter  should  be  dis¬ 
solved  and  the  priory  raised  to  the  rank  of  an 
abbey  After  the  publication  of  the  Apostolic 
Letter  in  1920  effecting  this,  the  Belmont  com¬ 
munity  elected  as  first  Abbot  of  Belmont  Dom 
Aelred  Kindersley,  formerly  prior.  The  election 
took  place  30  June,  and  immediately  afterwards 
the  newly  elected  abbot  was  escorted  to  the  abbey 
church,  where  he  was  enthroned  by  the  Abbot 
President,  Dom  Cuthbert  Butler,  Abbot  of  Down¬ 
side.  On  15  July,  1920,  the  solemn  blessing  of 
the  new  abbot  took  place  in  Belmont  Abbey 
Church,  when  Cardinal  Bourne  performed  the  cere¬ 
mony,  assisted  by  the  abbots  of  the  English  con¬ 
gregation  with  a  large  attendance  of  bishops  and 
prelates  of  the  Benedictine  Order.  The  Abbey  has 
a  community  of  22  religious,  of  whom  12  are 
priests,  4  clerics,  5  novices,  and  1  postulant. 

Belmont  Abbey  College — Belmont,  North  Caro¬ 
lina,  formerly  known  as  St.  Mary’s  College,  is  one 
of  the  oldest  Catholic  institutions  of  higher  learning 
in  the  Southern  Atlantic  States,  and  was  founded 
by  the  Fathers  of  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict  in  1878 
and  chartered  with  full  collegiate  powers  on  1  April, 
1886.  The  faculty  numbering  14,  is  composed  ex- 


BENADIR 


BENEDICT  XV 


95 


nil  1 1  members  of  the  Order  of  St.  Benedict. 
I  he  college  possesses  a  library  of  7,000  volumes,  a 
m  1907UiPPCd  laboratory,  and  a  gymnasium,  erected 

Connected  with  the  college  is  an  academy  which 
embraces  the  usual  high  school  course  and  a  com¬ 
mercial  school.  A  seminary  in  which  members  of 
the  Order  of  St.  Benedict  and  students  for  the 
\  icaiiate  of  North  Carolina  receive  their  training, 
is  also  connected  with  the  college  and  numbers 
twenty  students. 

In  recent  years  ten  scholarships  have  been  founded 
m  Belmont  Abbey  College,  for  the  education  of 
young  men  for  the  priesthood.  The  Rt.  Rev. 
Leo  Haid,  O.S.  B.,  D.  D.,  is  president  of  the  col¬ 
lege,  where  in  1920-21  100  students  were  registered. 
(For  Abbey  Nullius,  see  North  Carolina.) 


Benadir,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
11-426(0,  comprises  the  territory  of  Italian  Somali¬ 
land  in  East  Africa,  and  is  entrusted  to  the  Dis¬ 
eased  Trinitarians.  Rev.  Guglielmo  di  San  Felice, 
second  prefect  apostolic  of  this  territory,  named 
toward  the  end  of  1906,  was  forced  to  retire  the 
following  year  because  of  ill-health.  His  successor, 
the  present  prefect  apostolic,  Rev.  Alessandro  de 
Santi,  went  to  his  prefecture  12  February,  1908. 
In  1920  there  were  6  regular  clergy  (Trinitarians), 
in  this  territory,  5  Brothers,  4  resident  parishes,  one 
of  which  was  vacant,  1  hospital  at  Gelit  and  several 
others  are  about  to  be  established. 

Benedict  XV  (Giacomo  della  Chiesa),  Pope,  b. 
21  November,  1854;  d.  21  January,  1922.  He  was 
the  second  son  of  Giuseppe  Marchese  della  Chiesa, 
of  Genoese  nobility,  and  Giovanna  Migliorati  of 
Venice.  Belonging  to  his  family  on  his  mother’s 
side  was  Innocent  VII,  Roman  pontiff  1404-1406. 
After  preparatory  studies  he  entered  the  university 
in  his  native  city,  receiving  there  his  doctorate  in 
both  civil  and  canon  law  in  1873.  His  father  de¬ 
sired  that  he  should  become  a  lawyer,  but  Giacomo 
wished  to  dedicate  himself  to  the  priesthood. 
Accordingly  he  went  to  the  Collegio  Capranica  in 
Rome  for  his  ecclesiastical  studies,  and  completed 
them  at  the  Academy  of  Ecclesiastical  Nobles.  He 
was  ordained  priest  21  December,  1878.  Appointed 
secretary  to  Mgr.  Rampolla  in  the  Sacred  Con¬ 
gregation  of  Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  he 
followed  him  to  Madrid  when  Rampolla  was  apos¬ 
tolic  nuncio  there,  and  returned  when  his  distin¬ 
guished  chief  was  made  cardinal  and  Secretary  of 
State  by  Leo  XIII  in  1887.  He  remained  at  that 
post  after  the  death  of  Leo  XIII,  and  for  the  first 
four  years  of  the  pontificate  ^  of  Pius  X.  During 
that  time  he  had  advanced  through  successive 
grades  until  he  reached  that  of  Substitute.  When 
Cardinal  Swampa  died,  in  1907,  Mgr.  della  Chiesa 
was  chosen  as  his  successor  in  the  See  of  Bologna, 
and  was  consecrated  by  Pius  X  himself  in  the  Sis- 
tine  Chapel.  On  25  May,  1914,  he  was  made  cardi¬ 
nal  and  on  3  September  of  that  year  was  elected 
to  succeed  Pius  X.  He  took  the  name  of  Benedict 
-XV. 

His  pontificate  lasted  for  seven  years,  four 
months,  and  nineteen  days;  all  of  them  synchronous 
with  the  years  of  the  most  tragic  crisis  in  the 
world’s  history,  the  World  War.  His  first  encyclical. 
Ad  Beatissimi  Apostolorum  Principis,”  was  issued 
at  the  beginning  of  the  titanic  struggle;  his  second, 
‘Pacem  Dei  Munus  Pulcherrimum,”  coincided  with 
the  meeting  of  the  plenipotentiaries  in  their  en¬ 
deavor  to  reconstruct  the  map  of  Europe  and  give 
peace  to  the  world.  Between  these  two  major  utter¬ 
ances  of  the  pope,  there  are  three  others,  those  of 
22  January,  1915,  the  great  Appeal  of  28  July  of 


‘  year>  addressed  to  the  belligerents  and 
i  j  •  ca-deis,  and,  on  1  August,  1917,  the  offer  made 
u  as  mediator  for  a  general  peace.  In 

a  l  of  these  documents,  however,  it  must  be  noted  he 
cited  no  one  to  his  tribunal.  To  have  done  so  would 
not  only  not  have  been  conducive  to  peace,  but 
would  have  aroused  jealousy  on  all  sides  and  would 
also  have  exposed  the  Church  itself  to  the  most 
serious  perturbations.  Nevertheless,  he  regarded 
himself  as  obligated  to  condemn  all  violations  of 
international  justice  and  morality,  no  matter  by 
whom  they  were  committed,  meantime  lavishing  his 
bounties  on  all  the  victims  of  the  war,  by  securing 
through  diplomatic  channels  the  exchange  of 
wounded  soldiers,  the  liberation  of  civilian  prisoners, 
the  hospitalization  of  the  wounded,  the  repatria¬ 
tion  of  prisoners  whose  families  needed  their  help,  etc. 
His  message  of  1  August,  1917,  was  a  plea  for’ the 
application  of  Articles  3,  4,  5,  and  6  of  the  Hague 
Conference  of  1907,  and  sketched  in  large  lines  the 
oiganization  established  in  1919  and  known  as  the 
League  of  INations,  such  as,  for  instance,  general 
and  proportional  disarmament,  obligatory  arbitra¬ 
tion,  freedom  of  the  seas,  reciprocal  cancellation  of 
the  general  indebtedness,  total  evacuation  of  Bel¬ 
gium  and  France,  and  other  countries  and  colonies, 

'  ^  ^  rectification  of  frontiers,  in  keeping  with 

the  just  aspirations  of  the  various  peoples  and  the 
general  good  of  human  society.  All  this  was  done 
before  it  became  evident  that  the  victory  was  to 
be  with  the  Allies,  so  that  a  proposition  of  such  a 
at  such  a  moment  should,  dispel  forever 
the  calumny  that  the  document  was  inspired  by 
Germany.  Unfortunately,  this  appeal  of  the  pope 
was  not  treated  with  even  the  common  courtesy 
of  an  acknowledgment  by  the  Entente,  their  pur¬ 
pose  being  to  pointedly  ignore  him  and  to  exclude 
all  Sovereign  Pontiffs  from  any  share  in  European 
diplomacy.  In  his  Encyclical  of  1917,  “Pacem,” 
the  pope  almost  replies  to  their  silence  and  reminds 
J~ipl0IPats  in  a  league  founded  on  the  basis 
of  Christianity  there  can  be  no  better  instrument 
employed- than  the  Church,  not  only  for  the  eternal 
interest  of  man,  but  for  his  material  prosperity. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  pope  is  now  the  center 
of  the  diplomatic  world,  for  whereas  the  nations 
had  very  few  representatives  accredited  to  the 
Holy  See,  prior  to  the  war,  now  that  it  is  over, 
almost  all  the  nations  of  the  world  are  represented 
there.  Italy  has  welcomed  in  Monte  Citorio  the 
admission  of  a  hundred  Catholic  legislators  to  check 
the  danger  of  the  rising  tide  of  Socialism.  The 
ceremonial  code  has  been  modified  to  facilitate  the 
reception  of  European  kings  and  princes  at  the 
Vatican.  France,  in  particular,  has  been  mollified 
by  the  canonization  of  Joan  of  Arc  and  Miirgaret 
Mary,  and  by  the  assurance  as  far  as  possible  of 
the  pope’s  interest  in  the  Orient.  Russia’s  crash 
possibly  opens  the  way  to  a  union  of  Eastern  and 
Western  Christianity,  and  perhaps  the  elevation  of 
St.  Ephrem,  the  Syrian,  to  the  rank  of  Doctor  of 
the  Lniversal  Church  is  a  move  in  the  same  direc¬ 
tion.  Ireland  has  rejoiced  in  the  canonization  of 
Oliver  Plunket,  the  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  and 
his  associate  heroes. 

During  his  pontificate  the  New  Code  of  Canon 
Law  was  draughted.  Modernism  was  again  con¬ 
demned  and  the  new  term  of  Integralism  was  for¬ 
bidden,  while  on  the  other  hand  the  traditional 
position  against  minimizing  was  maintained  in 
Biblical  controversies  and  in  the  teaching  of  the 
philosophy  and  theology  of  St.  Thomas.  Benedict 
XV  m  the  few  brief  years  of  his  pontificate  estab¬ 
lished  in  out-of-the-way  places  in  the  world  9  pre¬ 
fectures  apostolic,  28  vicariates  apostolic,  25  new 


BENEDICTINE 


BENEDICTINE 


96 


bishoprics,  8  archbishoprics,  and  2  apostolic  delega¬ 
tions.1^  In  charitable  works,  individual  or_ associate, 
the  spirit  of  his  predecessors,  Pius  X  and  Leo  ALII, 
was  continually  insisted  upon,  namely,  the  necessity 
of  basing  them  on  the  supernatural,  an  element 
that  is  lacking  in  most  of  the  humanitarian  schemes 
of  the  day.  His  own  charities  were  so  lavish  and 
so  regardless  of  race,  color,  or  creed,  that  a  most 
marvelous  recognition  of  it  was  publicly  made  m 
a  quarter  where  it  could  never  have  been  expected. 
In  Constantinople,  the  heart  of  Mohammedanism 
a  magnificent  bronze  statue  of  the  pope  m  full 
canonicals  was  erected  even  before  his  death  the 
expense  of  which  was  borne  exclusively  by  lurks 
schismatics,  and  Jews.  When  Benedict  X\  bieathed 
his  last,  immediately  from -all  quarters  of  the  globe 
came  diplomatic  messages  of  condolence,  not  only 
the  great  nations  of  Europe,  but  Luxembuig,  B 
garia,  Monaco,  Finland,  Denmark,  Norway,  An¬ 
dorra,  Japan,  Nicaragua,  Czechoslovakia,  and 
others.  Most  affectionate  of  all  was  the  one  from 
Dail  Eireann:  “Kindly  receive  the  expression  of 
the  profound  grief  of  the  Irish  people  on  the  death 
of  the  great  Pontiff  who  has  shown  to  us  such  devo¬ 
tion  and  paternal  affection.”  The  message  from 
Egypt  says:  “In  the  name  of  the  Mussulmans  of 
Egypt  the  Committee  at  Paris  presents  to  the  whole 
of  Christendom  its  sincerest  condoience  for  the 
distressing  loss  of  His  Holiness  Pope  Benedict  J  , 
who  was  the  apostolic  soul  of  the  worlds  peace. 
His  statue  erected  at  Constantinople,  the  capital  of 
Islam  affords  us  the  consolation  of  having  always 
before  our  eyes  his  loving  soul,  the  memory  of 
his  efforts  for  the  peace  of  the  world,  his  profound 
respect  for  justice  and  mans  right  to  liberty.  All 
of  this  will  form  an  everlasting  page  m  the  history 

of  the  world. 


Benedictine  Order  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-443a),  an  order 
which  comprises  fifteen  congregations  of  monks 
living  under  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  each  with  an 
abbot  president  and  all  under  an  abbot  piimate. 
The  International  Benedictine  College  of  St.  Anselm 
in  Rome  is  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See 
and  is  the  residence  of  the  abbot  primate,  who, 
however,  during  the  World  War  (1915-19),  retired 
to  Einsiedeln,  and  St.  Anselm  became  a  military 
hospital  under  American  auspices.  The  college  was 
reopened  in  1919  and  is  now  crowded  to  capacity 
with  81  students,  24  professors,  and  15  lay  brothers. 
The  present  abbot  primate  is  Dom  Fidelis  de 

Stotzingen  of  the  Beuronese  Congregation,  born 

1871,  ordained  1897,  Abbot  of  Maria  Laach  in  1901, 
coadjutor  in  1913  of  Abbot  Primate  Hildebrand 
de  Hemptinne,  whom  he  succeeded  at  the  latter  s 
death  in  1913.  He  is  also  procurator  of  the  Creek 
Pontifical  College  of  St.  Athanasius  Pope  Bene¬ 
dict  XV  was  Protector  of  the  whole  Benedictine 

0ra)r’  The  Cassinese  Congregation,  formerly  that 
of  St.  Justina  of  Padua,  erected  by  Gregory  XII  m 
1408,  consists  of  fourteen  abbeys:  Monte  Cassmo, 
St.  Paul-without-the-Walls,  Trimta  di  Cava, 
Modena,  Florence,  Perugia,  Sienna,  Assisi,  Cesena, 
Catania,  Palermo,  Monreale,  Farfa,  and  Pontida. 
The  first  three  are  abbeys  nullius.  Ihe  abbot 
president  is  Dom  Gregory  Diamare,  elected  m  1909, 
re-elected  in  1915.  New  Constitutions  for  the  con¬ 
gregation  were  approved  in  1915.  St.  Justina  oi 
Padua,  which  was  despoiled  and  its  monks  dis¬ 
persed  in  1787,  was  restored  and  erected  into  an 
abbey  in  1919  under  the  Cassinese  Congregation 

of  Primitive  Observance. 

(2)  The  English  Congregation,  restored  in  1607 
after  its  suppression  by  Henry  VIII,  numbers  five 


abbeys:  Downside,  Ampleforth,  Woolhampton, 

Fort  Augustus,  and  Belmont.  In  1920  the  first 
foundation  of  the  English  Congregation  in  America 
was  made  at  Portsmouth,  R.  I.,  under  Dom  Leonard 
Sargent.  The  status  of  this  foundation  is  still 
undefined.  At  Gorey  (Ireland)  is  a  school  (Mt. 

St.  Benedict’s)  established  by  Rev.  Francis  Sweet- 
man,  a  monk  of  Downside.  In  1916  the  episcopal 
see  of  Newport,  of  which  Belmont  was  the  pro¬ 
cathedral,  was  translated  to  Cardiff,  with  a  metro¬ 
politan  cathedral  chapter  erected  in  1920.  Belmont, 
having  renounced  its  privileges  as  cathedral  priory, 
was  erected  into  an  abbey  by  papal  deciee  of  1J  0. 

In  recognition  of  this  renunciation  and  past  services 
of  the  order,  the  decree  provides  that  so  as  far 
as  circumstances  permit  “there  shall  always^  be  a 
Benedictine  among  the  bishops  of  England,  lne 
Anglican  Benedictines  of  Caldey  came  under  Catho¬ 
lic  obedience  in  1913,  but  whereas  they  observe  the 
Benedictine  Rule  they  have  not  yet  joined  the 
Benedictine  Congregation.  The  abbot  president  of 
the  English  Congregation  is  Dom  Oswald  omith. 
Abbot  of  Ampleforth  since  1900,  appointed  abbot 

president  in  April,  1921.  A  , 

(3)  The  Hungarian  Congregation,  affiliated  to 
the  Cassinese,  comprises  the  four  abbeys  of  Bakony- 
bel  Tihany,  Domolk,  and  Zalavar,  and  the  six  resi¬ 
dences  of  Komaron,  Koszeg,  Gy  or,  Papa,  Sopron, 
and  Esztergom,  which  are  dependent  on  the  Arch- 
abbey  Nullius  of  Monte  Pannoma  (Martmsberg). 
The  abbot  president  and  arch-abbot  of  Monte  Ran- 
nonia  is  Dom  Remigius  Bardos,  appointed  m  1920. 

(4)  The  Swiss  Congregation  established  in  lt>U2, 
under  the  patronage  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
comprises  five  abbeys:  Einsiedeln,  Gnes,  Disentis, 
Engelberg,  and  Bregenz.  The  abbot  president  is 
Dom  Thomas  Bossart,  Abbot  of  Einsiedeln  since 

19(5)  The  Bavarian  Congregation  erected  in  1684, 
under  the  patronage  of  the  Holy  Angels,  numbers 
ten  abbeys  and  two  priories.  The  abbeys  with  date 
of  abbatial  title  are:  Metten  (1840),  Augsburg 
(1834),  Ottobeuren  (1834),  Scheyern  (1842),  Welten- 
burg  (1913),  St.  Boniface  (1835)  at  Munich, 
Schaftlarn  (1866),  Ettal  (1900),  Plankstetten  (1917). 
Niederalteich  (1918).  The  priories  are  Andechs, 
dependent  on  the  Abbey  of  Munich,  and  the  Priory 
of  Sts.  Corbinian  and  Theodore  at  Munich  founded 
in  1903,  canonically  erected  in  1904  and  dependent 
on  the  Abbey  of  Scheyern.  The  Abbey  of  Nieder¬ 
alteich,  founded  in  731,  ceased  to  exist  in  1803,  and 
was  restored  in  1918.  The  Abbey  °f  Ottobeuren, 
formerly  united  to  the  Abbey  of  Augsburg,  in  1918 
was  re-established  as  a  monastery  sui  juris.  Ihe 
abbot  president  of  the  Bavarian  Congregation  is 
Dom  Placid  Glogger,  Abbot  of  Augsburg  since  1915. 

(6)  The  Brazilian  Congregation,  founded  m  lost, 
ceased  to  exist  in  1889,  and  was  restored  by  monks 
of  the  Beuronese  Congregation  m  1895.  It  consists 
of  six  abbeys  and  the  Priory  of  Trinidad,  founded 
1912  and  canonically  erected  m  1915.  The  abbeys, 
with  date  of  restoration,  are:  Rio  de  Janeiro  (1903), 
Bahia  (1889),  Olinda  (1895),  Parahyba  (1903),  Sao 
Paulo  (1900),  Quixada  (founded  1900).  United  to 
the  Abbey  Nullius  of  Our  Lady  of  Montserrat  at 
Rio  de  Janeiro  is  the  territory  of  Rio  Branco  an¬ 
nexed  in  1909.  The  arch-abbot  and  President  of 
the  congregation  is  Joseph  Faria,  elected  m  W-U. 
The  Abbey  of  Parahyba  was  united  to  the  Abbey 

of  Olinda  in  1906.  .  ...  ,  ,  . 

(7)  The  Gallican  Congregation,  established  m 

1837,  since  the  expulsion  of  its  religious  from 
France  has  houses  in  England,  Spam,  Italy,  Belgium, 
Holland,  Mexico,  Argentina,  and  Canada.  It  num- 
bers  nine  abbeys,  the  Conventual  Priory  of  Our 


BENEDICTINE 


97 


BENEDICTINE 


Lady  of  Victory  at  Paris,  founded  in  1893  and 
canonically  erected  in  1900,  and  five  cells.  The 
abbeys,  with  their  present  place  of  residence,  are* 
Solesmes  (Quarr  Abbey,  Isle  of  Wight,  England), 
Liguge  (Chevetogne,  Belgium),  Marseilles  (Chiari, 
Italy),  Silos,  Fontanelle  (Conques  in  Ardennes,  Bel¬ 
gium),  Farnborough,  St.  Maurice  of  Clairvaux  in 
Luxemburg  (erected  in  1909,  succeeding  to  the 
rights  and  privileges  of  the  Abbey  of  St.  Maurus 
at  Glanefuil),  Wisque  (Oosterhout,  Holland),  Ker- 
gonan  (Ciney-Linciaux,  Belgium).  The  cells  are: 
Cogullada  in  Saragossa,  Spain,  dependent  on  the 
Abbey  of  Liguge;  San  Rafael  in  Mexico,  Madrid, 
and  Buenos  Aires,  dependent  on  the  Abbey  of 
Silos;  and  St.  Benedict  of  the  Lake  in  Sherbrooke, 
Canada,  dependent  on  the  Abbey  of  Fontanelle. 
In  1921  Dom  Paul  Delatte  resigned  as  Abbot  of 
Quarr  Abbey  and  Superior  General  of  the  Gallican 
Congregation,  and  was  succeeded  by  Dom  Germain 
Gozien,  hitherto  prior  of  Quarr  Abbey. 

(8)  The  American-Cassinese  Congregation, 
erected  by  Pius  IX  in  1855,  under  the  title  of  the 
Holy  Guardian  Angels,  comprises  eleven  abbeys: 
St.  Vincent’s  (Beatty,  Penn.),  St.  John  (College- 
ville,  Minn.),  St.  Benedict’s  (Atchison,  Kan.),  St. 
Mary’s  (Newark,  N.  J.),  Maryhelp  (Belmont,  N. 
C.),  St.  Bernard’s  (Cullman  Co.,  Ala.),  St.  Pro¬ 
copius’s  (Lisle,  Ill.),  St.  Leo’s  (Pasco  Co.,  Fla.), 
St.  Bede’s  (Peru,  Ill.),  St.  Peter’s  (Muenster,  Sask.), 
St.  Martin’s  (Lacey,  Wash.).  St.  Peter’s  was  es¬ 
tablished  under  the  name  of  Cluny  in  Illinois  in 
1892,  and  in  1903  was  translated  to  Canada  and 
erected  into  an  abbey  in  1911  and  abbey  nullius  in 
1921.  Maryhelp  is  an  abbey  nullius  erected  in 
1910.  St.  Bede’s  was  erected  into  an  abbey  in  1910 
and  St.  Martin’s  in  1914.  The  abbot  president  is 
Dom  Ernest  Helmstetter,  Abbot  of  Newark  since 
1910.  Abbot  visitors  are  Dom  Bernard  Menges, 
Abbot  of  St.  Bernard’s,  and  Dom  Vincent  Huber, 
Abbot  of  St.  Bede’s. 

(9)  The  Congregation  of  Beuron  established  by 
Pius  IX  in  1868,  comprises  seven  abbeys  and  three 
priories.  The  abbeys  are :  Beuron,  Prague,  Seckau, 
Maria-Laach,  Gerleve,  Cucujaes,  and  Neresheim. 
The  priories  are:  Mount  Sion,  Jerusalem  (founded 
1906);  Kempen  (founded  1908),  dependent  on 
Beuron;  and  Gruessau,  dependent  on  Prague.  The 
Abbey  of  Sts.  Ulrich  and  Afra  at  Neresheim  was 
restored  in  1920.  At  the  death  of  Dom  Maurus 
(1900),  Dom  Placid  (d.  1908)  succeeded  him  as 
Arch-abbot  of  Beuron.  His  successor,  Dom  Ilde- 
fonse  Schober,  resigned  in  1918,  and  Dom  Raphael 
Walzer  was  elected  arch-abbot.  The  Holy  See  has 
delegated  Dom  Raphael  Molitor,  Abbot  of  Ger¬ 
leve,  to  govern  the  Beuronese  Congregation.  In 
1920  Maredsous  and  Louvain  were  separated  from 
Beuron  and  with  St.  Andre  formed  into  the  Belgian 
congregation.  In  1922  the  community  of  Erding- 
ton  Abbey  (q.v.)  was  disbanded. 

(10)  The  Swiss-American  Congregation,  founded 
in  1870,  numbers  six  abbeys  and  the  Priory  of 
St.  Michael  at  Cottonwood,  Idaho  (1908),  de¬ 
pendent  on  Conception  Abbey.  The  abbeys,  with 
date  of  erection,  are:  St.  Meinrad’s,  St.  Meinrad, 
Ind.  (1870),  Conception  Abbey,  Conception,  Mo. 
(1881),  New  Subiaco,  Spielerville,  Ark.  (1891),  St. 
Joseph’s,  Covington,  La.  (1903),  St.  Mary’s,  Rich- 
ardton,  N.  D.  (1903),  St.  Benedict’s,  Mount  Angel, 
Ore.  (1904).  The  abbot  president,  Dom  Frowin 
Conrad,  Abbot  of  Conception  Abbey  since  1881,  has 
two  assistants:"  Dom  Athanasius  Schmitt,  Abbot 
of  St,  Meinrad,  and  Dom  Ignatius  Conrad,  Abbot 
of  New  Subiaco. 

('ll)  The  Cassinese  Congregation  of  Primitive 
Observance,  founded  in  1851  and  erected  in  1872,  is 


made  up  of  five  provinces.  The  superior  general  is 
Dom  Benedict  Gariador,  elected  in  1920.  He  is 
assisted  by  Dom  Claudius  Barnaba  (Italian  and 
English  provinces),  Dom  Vincent  Coosemans  (Bel¬ 
gian  province),  Dom  Fulbert  Glories  (French 
province),  Dom  Isidore  Fernandez  (Spanish 
province).  The  pro-procurator  general  is  Dom 
Gerard  lornarole,  who  resides  at  St.  Ambrose. 

(a)  The  Italian  province  comprises  the  proto- 
ccenoby  of  St.  Scholastica  and  the  hermitage  of  the 

i  *  ,9rotto  at  Subiaco,  which  is  an  abbey  nullius 
*  l  j  e^s  Genoa>  Finalpia,  Parma,  Praglia,  on 
which  depend  the  house  at  Daila  and  the  monastery 
cit  \  6mc0,  tlio  Abb0y  Nullius  of  IVIonto  \  0rg1nG 
the  monastery  of  St.  Onofrio  (Sicciole,  Istria),  the 
house  ol  St.  Ambrose  at  Rome,  and  the  Abbey 
of  St.  Justina  of  Padua,  restored  in  1919  and  ad¬ 
ministered  by  Praglia.  The  abbot  visitor  is  Dom 
Isidore  Sain,  Abbot  of  Praglia. 

(b)  The  English  province  comprises  the  Abbey 
of  St.  Augustine  at  Ramsgate,  with  Dom  Thomas 
Bergh  as  abbot  visitor. 

(c)  The  Belgian  province  comprises  the  Abbeys 
of  Affligem,  Termonde,  Steenbrugge,  and  Merkel- 
beek,  the  house  of  Siegburg  dependent  on  Merkel- 
beek,  Priory  of  Cornelemiinster,  and  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of  Northern  Transvaal.  The  Abbot  Gen¬ 
eral  Dom  Benedict  Gariador  is  visitor  of  this 
province. 

(d)  The  French  province  comprises  the  Abbeys 
of  Pierre-qui-Vire,  Buckfast,  Oklahoma,  with  a  de¬ 
pendent  priory  in  California,  Belloc  with  some  of 
its  community  in  Spain  at  Lazcano,  Encalcat 
(Dourgne),  and  Kerbeneat,  and  the  priories  of  Nino- 
Dios  (Argentina),  and  Jerusalem.  The  abbot  visitor 
is  Dom  Maurus  Etcheverry. 

(e)  The  Spanish  province  comprises  the  Abbeys 
of  Montserrat,  Vilvaneira,  and  Samos,  the  Abbey 
Nullius  of  New  Norcia,  the  Priories  of  Podio 
(Pueyo),  St.  Clodio,  Manila  (Philippines),  De 
Miraculo  (Solsona),  the  house  of  Los  Cabos  de¬ 
pendent  on  Samos,  the  monastery  of  Lorenzana, 
and  the  monastery  of  Puente-Alto  (Chilo)  founded 
from  Samos  in  1915  and  dependent  on  it.  The  abbot 
visitor  is  Dom  Joseph  Alvarez,  Abbot  of  Samos. 

(12)  The  Austrian  Congregation  of  the  Immacu¬ 
late  Conception,  erected  in  1889,  numbers  ten  ab¬ 
beys:  Kremsmiinster,  Brevnau-Braunau  including 
the  arch-ccenoby  of  Brevnau  and  the  monastery  of 
Braunau,  Saint  Lambert  in  Styria,  Gottweig,  Ad- 
mont,  Melk,  St.  Paul  in  Carinthia,  Seitenstetten, 
Altenburg,  and  Vienna.  The  abbot  president  is 
Dom  Adalbert  Dungel,  Abbot  of  Gottweig,  elected 
in  1889. 

(13)  The  Austrian  Congregation  of  St.  Joseph, 
erected  in  1889,  comprises  the  Priory  of  Innsbruck 
and  six  abbeys:  Salzburg,  Michaelbeuern,  Fiecht, 
Lambach,  Rajhrad,  and  Marienberg.  The  abbot 
president  is  Dom  Willibald  Hauthaler,  Abbot  of 
Salzburg,  elected  in  1901.  The  abbot  visitors  are 
Dom  Leo  Treuinfels,  Abbot  of  Marienberg,  and 
Dom  Ccelestin  Baumgartner,  Abbot  of  Lambach. 

(14)  The  Congregation  of  St.  Ottilien,  estab¬ 
lished  in  1904,  has  the  special  work  of  foreign  mis¬ 
sions.  It  comprises:  the  Arch-abbey  of  St.  Ottilien 
(erected  1902;  arch-abbev,  1914);  the  Abbeys  of 
Schweiklberg  (1914),  Muensterschwarzach  (1914), 
and  Seoul  (1913);  the  Priory  of  St.  Ludwig  at 
Wipfeld,  Bavaria,  dependent  on  Muensterschwar¬ 
zach;  the  houses  at  Dillingen,  Munich,  and  Passau; 
the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Dar-es-Salaam;  and  the 
Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Lindi.  The  superior  gen¬ 
eral  is  Dom  Norbert  Weber,  Arch-abbot,  of  St. 
Ottilien,  elected  in  1902. 

(15)  The  Belgian  Congregation  was  erected  by 


BENEDICTINE 


BENEDICTINE 


98 


rmnl  decree  of  20  February,  1920,  under  the  title 
of  the  Annunciation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  It  com¬ 
prises  the  Abbeys  of  Maredsous  and  Louvam 
separated  from  the  Congregation  of  Beuion,  the 
Abbey  of  St.  Andrew  near  Bruges,  separated  from 
the  Brazilian  Congregation,  and  the  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of  Katanga.  The  abbot  president  is 
Dorn  Robert  de  Kerchove,  Abbot  of  Louvain.  Dur- 


The  following  table  shows  the  increase  of  the 
Benedictine  Order  in  the  last  forty  years  m  the 
number  of  members  and  monastenes. 


Year 

i 

C/3 

o3  tn 

C  o> 

o-e 

Priests 

Clerics 

Lay 

Brothers 

1880  . 

107 

1,870 

210 

570 

1 RQ4  . 

119 

2,418 

478 

y52 

1RQR  . 

128 

2,628 

669 

1,202 

1 Q05  . 

155 

3,076 

676 

1,435 

1Q10  . 

156 

3,410 

689 

1,624 

1920 . 

159 

3,844 

712 

1,676 

Increase  . 

52 

1,974 

502 

1,106 

xn 

<D 

ZJ 

O 

Jz; 


w 

3 

O 

*3) 

'5 

£ 


115 

464 

449 

753 

734 

806 

691 


2,765 

4,308 

4,948 

5,940 

6,457 

7,038 

4,273 


abandoned  after  the  war. 

Present  Work  of  the  Order.— The  Benedictines 

continue  to  direct  their  activities  to  parochial,  mis- 

important  ^literary  Tork^is  ^thatTf  'the 'Pontifical  ~Th7^ic7of  the  Order  for  the  year  1920  ar 
Commission  for  the  revision  and  correction  of  the  as  follows. 

Vulgate,  instituted  by  Pius  X  and  reor^mzed  in  - 
1914  by  Motu  Poprio  of  Benedict  XV.  The  head- 
Quarters  of  this  Commission  is  at  the  palace  of 
St.  Callistus  in  Transtevere.  The  president  is  Dorn 
Aidan  Gasquet  and  the  vice-president  is  Dom  - - 

Ambrogio  Amelli.  .  Cassinese 

All  of  the  Congregations  have  parochial  or  mis-  English  ... 
sionar/dtie^  as'mfy  be  judged  by  the  following 
table,  giving  the  diocesan,  incorporated,  ami  non^  Bav 


Congregation 


SI 

5  xn 
G  0) 

*2  (D 
-4— ' 


CO 

<D 

•  fH 

& 


o 

u 

(D 

O 


CO 

o 

zj 

> 

O 

525 


cn 

s-. 

a> 

A 

.  -V-1 

>>  O 

c3  ^ 


CO 

3 

O 

*3) 


;  - x”  ,  '  ,  ,  i  utt vanan  . . .  •  ■  •  i 

incorporated  parishes,  and  the  mission  under ^t he  Brazilian  . |  J 


14 

5 

11 

5 

12 


care  of  Benedictines’,  with  the  mmto  of  fihal  ;  || 

churches,  public  oratories,  secular  priests,  extern  Beuronese 
clerics,  and  souls  in  each . 


Congregation 


^  CO 
cd  a> 


w.a 
2  '3 


T3 

cO 

£  co 
O  a) 

Sh  CO 

8-5 


<D 

c3 

o 

Souls 

a 

u 

xn 

CD 

Aclmin- 

o 

o  zn 

xn 

xn 

<D 

istered 

ZZ 

i  xn 

£ 

O 

•  i—4 

C Q 
xn 

5-< 

.2  3 

.2  'S 

H  xn 

CO  -+-1 

3  <D 

r<  03 

S  2 

to 

O 

a 

0) 

rnX. u 

Swiss-American  . 

Cassinese  of  Prim.  Obs. . 
Immaculate  Conception.. 

St.  Joseph  . 

St.  Ottilien  . 

Belgian  . 

Coll,  of  St.  Anselm . 


Total 


11 

7 

34 

11 

7 

8 
4 
1 

159 


89 

6 

10 

44 

4 

270 

28 

25 

14 

9 

175 

49 

14 

,  i  .  . 

•  •  • 

243 

24 

11 

88 

11 

168 

16 

24 

197 

27 

82 

19 

8 

32 

11 

270 

39 

52 

118 

25 

529 

175 

63 

191 

12 

266 

43 

26 

277 

41 

239 

37 

42 

132 

12 

549 

152 

136 

241 

58 

549 

28 

16 

5 

•  •  • 

171 

23 

7 

91 

10 

121 

21 

35 

188 

80 

'122 

52 

21 

57 

16 

1 

... 

... 

1 

5,844 

|  712 

490 

1,676 

316 

153 

346 

238 

377 

432 

152 

504 

970 

653 

462 

1,136 

598 

302 

445 

268 

2 


Cassinese  . 

English  . 

Hungarian  .... 
Swiss  ......... 

Bavarian  . 

Brazilian  . 

Gallican  ....... 

American - 
Cassinese  .... 

Beuronese  ..... 

Swiss-American 
Cassinese  of 
Prim.  Obs... 
Immaculate 
Conception  . . 

St.  Joseph . 

St.  Ottilien - 

Belgian  . 


75 

’is 


37 


Total 


130 


4 

1 

6 

40  ! 

141 

9 

52 

39 

•  •  • 

2 

2 

.  .  . 

. . . 

25 

.  .  . 

21 

34 

.  .  . 

.  .  . 

23 

2 

11 

1 

.  .  . 

.  .  . 

2 

13 

19 

35  1 

.  .  . 

.  .  . 

4 

1 

10 

5 

•  •  • 

.  .  . 

.  .  • 

1 

. . . 

... 

1 

•  •  • 

•  •  • 

80 

99 

74 

10 

•  •  • 

•  .  • 

2 

2 

•  •  • 

11 

1 

42 

41 

21 

25 

2 

.  .  . 

*  *  * 

15 

3 

9 

21 

30 

78 

43 

192 

13 

57 

153 

•  •  • 

29 

2 

.  .  • 

15 

11 

.  .  . 

.  .  . 

4 

... 

•  .  • 

.  .  • 

.  .  . 

9 

... 

... 

7 

7 

466 

219 

40 

261 

339 

|  227 

59 

Recent  REduLATioNS. — The  Benedictine  Order  is 
177,267  affected  by  the  recent  codification  of  Canon  Law 
“Hi!  as  follows  (Canons  501,  574,  and  964) :  According 
30,542  to  Canon  501  superiors  are  strictly  forbidden  to  in- 
86,870  terfere  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  Holy  Umce. 
24  ’ An  abbot  primate  and  the  superior  of  a  monastic 
congregation  do  not  enjoy  all  the  powers  and  juris- 
166,126  diction  conferred  by  common  law  on  highei  su- 
periors;  their  power  and  jurisdiction  is  as  set  forth 
in  their  own  constitutions  and  in  special  decrees  of 
106,745  the  jjoly  See.  [However,  the  moderator  of  a  mon- 
4Q8  937  astic  congregation  with  his  council  or  chapter  of 
75’, 323  at  least  four  religious  is  competent  to  dismiss  pro- 
I3,ooo  fessed  religious.  The  supreme  moderator  of  a 
10,000  monastic  congregation  is  the  judge  of  appeal  from 
To22  072  decisions  rendered  by  local  abbots.]  Canon  574 


,  . _ 1  provides  that  at  the  end  of  the  novitiate  there  must 

TV,a  Renames  have  charge  of  the  Greek  Fon-  be  a  profession  with  temporary  vows  for  three  years 

.■7  1  Cnlleve  of  St  Athanasius,  33  seminaries,  47  at  least  before  perpetual  profession.  According  t 
tifical  Cohege  ol  St  Atnanas  asj  j  pr0.  Canon  g64  ;n  the  matter  of  the  ordination  of  re- 

colleges,  l  commercial  c  11  |o'o]g  oblates,  and  20  lieious,  a  regular  abbot  de  regivune,  even  if  he  has 

school^  with^aii^lumnfomb^S^distributed^  among 

-  sion,  and  provided  the  abbot  himself  is  a  priest 


the  congregations  as  follows 


Congregations 


o 

o 

A 

G 

HI 


a 

2 

3 


Congregations 


o 

o 

m 


c 

a 

3 


Cassinese  . 

English  . 

Hungarian  . 

Swiss  . 

Bavarian  . 

Braziliai  . . 

Amer  i  can  -  Cassi¬ 
nese  . . 

Beuronese  . 

Swiss-American 


6  ! 
8 
7 
11 
19 

9 

21 

3 

10 


605 

864 

2,559 

2,112 

3,066 

1,357 

3,551 

49 

790 


32  !  2,959 


and  has  legitimately  received  the  abbatial  blessing. 
Outside  these  limits,  any  ordination  conferred  by 
the  abbot  is  null  and  void,  any  privilege  to  the 
contrary  being  revoked,  unless  the  abbot  ordinary 
has  received  episcopal  consecration. 

Distinguished  Benedictines. — Among  Benedic- 
1.454  tines  of  note  living  at  the  present  time  are:  Aldan 

.  . ,  »  Gasquet  (b.  1846),  former  Abbot  President  of  the 

°‘"llen  .  |  5  I  PS  English  Congregation,  created  cardinal  1914.  Ray- 

S  College'::::  l  j  “  nufnd  Netshammer  (b,  1862),  monk  of  Emsmdeto 

,  7*9  !  of  the  Swiss  Congregation,  Archbishop  of  Bukarest 

Total  .  162  | 19,608  1905.  Anselm  Pecci  (b.  1868),  of  the  Cassinese  Con- 


Cassinese  of  Prim. 

Obs . 

Immaculate  Con-  | 

ception  . I 

St.  Joseph  .  12 


BENEDICTINE 


99 


BENEDICTINE 


gregation,  Bishop  of  Tricarico  1903,  Archbishop  of 
Acerenza  and  Matera,  1907.  Beda  Cardinale  (b. 
1S69),  of  the  Cassinese  Congregation  of  Primitive 
Observance,  Abbot  of  Praglia  1905,  Bishop  of  Civita¬ 
vecchia  and  Corneto  1907,  titular  Archbishop  of 
Laodicea  and  delegate  Apostolic  of  Perugia  1910. 
Romanus  Bilsborrow  (b.  1862),  of  the  English  Con¬ 
gregation,  Bishop  of  Port  Louis  1911,  Archbishop  of 
Cardiff  1916,  resigned  1920,  titular  Archbishop  of 
Cius,  now  at  Douai  Abbey.  Maurus  Caruana  (b. 
1867),  of  the  English  Congregation,  Archbishop  of 
Malta  1915.  Gregorio  Grasso  (b.  1869),  of  the 
Cassinese  Congregation  of  Primitive  Observance, 
Abbot  of  Praglia  1907,  Abbot  of  Monte  Vergine 
1908,  Archbishop  of  Salerno  1915.  Leo  Haid  (b. 
1849),  of  the  American  Cassinese  Congregation, 
Abbot  of  Belmont  1885,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  North 
Carolina  1887,  and  titular  Bishop  of  Messene  1888. 
Medard  Kohl  (b.  1859),  of  the  Hungarian  Congre¬ 
gation,  titular  Bishop  of  Samosata  and  Auxiliary 
of  Esztergom  1900.  Leo  de  Mergel  (b.  1847),  of  the 
Bavarian  Congregation,  Abbot  of  Metten  1898, 
Bishop  of  Eichstiitt  1905.  Gerard  van  Caloen  (b. 
1S53),  of  the  Brazilian  Congregation,  Abbot  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro  1905,  titular  Bishop  of  Phocsea  1906, 
Archabbot  of  the  Brazilian  Congregation  1908,  re¬ 
signed  1915,  now  at  the  Abbey  of  St.  Andrew, 
Bruges.  Thomas  Spreiter  (b.  1865),  of  the  Ottilien 
Congregation,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Dar-es-Salaam  and 
titular  Bishop  of  Thaense  1906.  Vincent  Wehrle 
(b.  1855),  of  the  Swiss-American  Congregation, 
Abbot  of  Richardton  1903,  Bishop  of  Bismarck  1910. 
Hemy  Gregory  Thompson  (b.  1871),  of  the  Cas¬ 
sinese  Congregation  of  Primitive  Observance,  Bishop 
of  Gibraltar  1910.  Boniface  Sauer  (b.  1877),  of  the 
Ottilien  Congregation,  Abbot  of  Seoul  1915,  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Ouen-San  1920,  and  titular  Bishop  of 
Appiaria  192 1 .  Fidelis  de  Stotzingen,  Abbot  Primate 
of  the  Order  (see  above).  Maurus  Maria  Serafini 
(b.  1859),  Abbot  of  Parma  1896,  Abbot  General  of 
the  Cassinese  Congregation  of  Primitive  Observance 
1900-20,  Consultor  of  the  Sacred  Congregations  of 
the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  for  Eastern  Affairs, 
and  Rites,  and  Secretary  of  the  Sacred  Congrega¬ 
tion  of  Religious.  David  Oswald  Hunter-Blair  (b. 
1853),  of  the  English  Congregation,  author,  Abbot 
of  Fort  Augustus  1913,  resigned  1917,  titular  Abbot 
of  Abingdon.  The  abbots  nullius  are  as  follows: 
Gregory  Diamare,  of  Monte  Cassino;  Ildephonse 
Schuster,  of  St.  Paul-without-the-Walls;  Remigius 
Bardos,  of  Monte  Pannonia;  Placide  Nicolini,  of 
Trinita  di  Cava;  Ramirus  Marcone,  of  Monte  Ver¬ 
gine;  Anselm  Catalan,  of  New  Norcia;  Thomas 
Bossart,  of  Einsiedeln;  Peter  Eggerath,  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro;  Leo  Haid,  of  Belmont;  Laurence  Salvi,  of 
Subiaco;  Michael  Ott,  of  Muenster.  The  abbots 
presidents  are  given  under  each  congregation.  The 
prefects  apostolic  are:  John  de  Hemptinne,  of 
Katanga;  Ildephonse  Lanslots,  of  Transvaal;  Willi- 
brord  Lay,  of  Lindi. 

Among  noted  Benedictines  deceased  since  the 
year  1906  are:  Stefano  Gerbino  di  Cannitello  (b. 
1834;  d.  1907),  of  Monte  Cassino,  Bishop  of  Trapani 
1895.  Benedict  Pascuttini  (b.  1819;  d.  1907),  monk 
of  Praglia.  Wm.  Benedict  Scarisbrick  (b.  1828; 
d.  1908>,  of  the  English  Congregation,  Bishop  of 
Port  Louis  18/1,  resigned  1888,  titular  Archbishop 
of  Cyzicus.  Silvano  de  Steffano  (b.  1835;  d.  1908), 
of  the  Cassinese  Congregation  of  Primitive  Obser¬ 
vance,  Abbot  of  TrinitA  di  Cava  1902.  Benedict 
Bellandi  (b.  1835)  d.  190S),  of  the  Cassinese  Con¬ 
gregation,  Abbot  of  Florence.  Frangois  Chamard 
(b.  1828;  d.  190S),  of  the  Gallican  Congregation, 
author,  Prior  of  Liguge.  Dominic  IJoenigl  (d.  1908), 
ol  the  Austrian  Congregation,  Abbot  of  Seiten- 


Athanasius  Logerot  (b.  1840; 
a.  1J08),  of  the  Gallican  Congregation,  Prior  of 
Kergonan.  Dominic  Machado  (b.  1824;  d.  1908) 
of  the  Beuronese  Congregation,  named’  Abbot  of 
Bahia  in  1896  at  the  restoration  of  the  Brazilian 
Congregation,  _  Superior  General  of  the  Brazilian 
Congregation  m  1900,  and  Abbot  of  Rio  de  Janeiro 
1903.  Benedict  Sauter  (b.  1835;  d.  1908),  of  the 
Beuronese  Congregation,  Abbot  of  Emmaiis 
(Prague).  Placid  Wolter  (b.  1828;  d.  1908),  of  the 
Beuronese  Congregation,  Abbot  of  Maredsous  1878 
Archabbot  of  Beuron  and  Abbot  President  of  the 
Congregation  1890.  Boniface  Marie  Krug  (b.  1838* 
d  1909)  of  the  Cassinese  Congregation.  Prior  of 
Monte  Cassino  1874,  Abbot  of  Cesena  1888,  Abbot 
President  of  the  Cassinese  Congregation  1895,  Arch- 
Monte  Cassino  1897.  Alexander  Karl 
fci.  1909),  of  the  Austrian  Congregation  of  the 
immaculate  Conception,  Abbot  of  Melk  1875-1909. 
Remigio  Guido  Barbieri  (b.  1836;  d.  1910),  of  the 
Cassinese  Congregation,  Abbot  of  Perugia  1897 
titular  Bishop  of  Theodosiopolis  1901,  and  Vicar 
j  of  Gibraltar.  Hippolyte  Feher  (b.  1842; 

d.  1910),  Abbot  President  of  the  Hungarian  Con¬ 
gregation  and  Archabbot  Nullius  of  Monte  Pan- 
noma  1892  honorary  member  of  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  doctor  of  theology  at  Budapest,  vice- 
president  of  the  Council  of  Public  Instruction,  and 
royal  councilor.  Ildephonse  Bertran  (b.  1827;  d. 
1911),  of  the  Cassinese  Congregation  of  Primitive 
Observance  vicar  general  and  prior  of  the  Abbey 
Nullius  of  New  Norcia.  Joseph  Bourigaud  (b.  1821; 
d.  1911),  of  the  Gallican  Congregation,  Abbot  of 
Liguge  1876,  resigned  1906.  Bede  Coppert  (b.  1882; 
d.  1911),  of  the  Brazilian  Congregation,  zealous 
vorker  in  the  territory  of  Rio  Branco.  Acharius 
Demuynch  (b.  1878;  d.  1911),  of  the  Brazilian  Con¬ 
gregation,  vicar  general  of  the  prelature  nullius  of 
Montserrat  (Rio  de  Janeiro).  Peter  August  O’Neill 
(b.  1841 ,  d.  1911),  of  the  English  Congregation, 
Bishop  of  Port  Louis  1896,  resigned  and  transferred 
to  the  titular  Bishopric  of  Isionda  1909.  Pedro 
Rueda  (b.  1844;  d.  1911),  of  the  Cassinese  Congre¬ 
gation  of  Primitive  Observance,  Abbot  of  Samos 
1893.  Vittore-Maria  Corvaia  (b.  1845;  d.  1913),  of 
the  Cassinese  Congregation  of  Primitive  Observance, 
coadjutoi  of  tliG  Abbot  Nullius  of  ]VIoiit6  Vcrgmo 
1879,  Abbot  Nullius  1884,  resigned  1908,  titular 
Bishop  of  Tripoli  1909.  Hildebrand  de  Hemptinne 
y?*  1849;  d.  1913),  of  the  Congregation  of  Beuron, 
Abbot  of  Maredsous  1890,  Abbot  Primate  of  the 
Benedictine  Order  1893-1913.  Albert  Noel  (b.  1830; 
d.  1913),  of  the  Gallican  Congregation,  librarian  of 
Solesmes  and  Clairvaux.  Fulgence  Torres  (b.  1861; 
d.  1914),  of  the  Cassinese  Congregation  of  Primitive 
Observance,  Administrator  Apostolic  of  New  Norcia 
1901,  elected  abbot  1902,  titular  Bishop  of  Dory- 
Iseum  1910,  administrator  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  Kimberley.  Leoni  Allodi  (b.  1841;  d.  1914),  of 
the  Cassinese  Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regu¬ 
lars,  titular  Abbot  of  Subiaco  1910,  author  of  mon¬ 
astic  works,  distinguished  Hellenist.  Francois 
Bucliot  (b.  1835;  d.  1913),  of  the  Gallican  Congre¬ 
gation,  master  of  lay  brothers  at  Silos.  Gilbert 
Dolan  (b.  1853;  d.  1914),  monk  of  Downside,  ac¬ 
tively  connected  with  the  cause  of  the  English 
martyrs,  with  the  Catholic  Record  and  Catholic 
Truth  Societies,  author  of  historical,  archaeological, 
and  architectural  articles.  Marius  Ferotin  (b.  1855; 
d.  1914),  monk  of  Farnborough,  liturgical  and  his¬ 
torical  writer.  Piiul  Vannier  (d.  1914),  of  the 
Gallican  Congregation,  Prior  of  St.  Benedict  of  the 
Lake,  Sherbrooke,  Canada.  Benedetto  Bonazzi  (b. 
1840;  d.  1915),  of  the  Cassinese  Congregation, 
Abbot  of  Trinita  di  Cava  1894,  Bishop  of  Benevento 


BENEDICTINE 


BENEDICTINE 


100 


1902.  John  Cuthbert  Hedley  (b.  1837;  d.  1915), 
monk  of  Ampleforth,  titular  Bishop  of  Csesaropolis 
and  auxiliary  Bishop  of  Menevia  1873,  Bishop  of 
Newport  1881,  editor  of  the  Dublin  Review 
author  and  distinguished  preacher.  Anselm  Caplet 
(b.  1836;  d.  1916),  of  the  Cassinese  Congregation, 
dean  of  Monte  Cassino,  compiler  of  the  Index,  poet. 
Mathieu  Couturier  (b.  1863;  d.  1916),  of  the  Gal- 
lican  Congregation,  sub-prior,  and  master  of  novices 
at  Liguge  and  Chevetogne.  Lucien  Fromage  (b. 
1846-  d  1916),  monk  of  Solesmes,  contmuator  of 
Gueranger’s  “L’Annee  Liturgique.”  Joseph  Rabory 
(b.  1843;  d.  1916),  monk  of  Solesmes,  became  a 
secular  priest  at  Tours,  re-entered  Benedictine  life 
in  Spain,  author  of  religious  works.  Omer  Graux 
(b  1858;  d.  1917),  of  the  Gallican  Congregation, 
Prior  of  Wisque  (Oosterhout).  Ildephonse  Guepin 
(b  1836;  d.  1917),  of  the  Gallican  Congregation, 
author,  Abbot  of  Silos  1880,  collaborator  with  Dorn 
Couturier  in  the  drawing  up  of  the  new  constitu¬ 
tions  of  the  Gallican  Congregation,  approved  by 
Rome.  Jules-Marie  Mellet  (b.  1846;  d.  1917),  monk 
of  Solesmes,  architect  of  numerous  churches,  and 
the  Abbey  of  Solesmes.  Edmond  Schmidt  (b.  1843; 
d.  1916),  monk  of  Metten,  author  of  several  works 
on  the  Benedictine  rule.  Domenico  Serafini  (b. 
1852;  d.  1918),  Abbot  General  of  the  Cassinese 
Congregation  of  Primitive  Observance,  ordained 
1877,  master  of  novices  1882,  then  prior  of  Subiaco 
1891,  procurator  general  of  the  Congregation  at 
Rome  1892,  and  consultor  of  the  Congregation  of 
Bishops  and  Regulars  (until  1908),  and  the  Con¬ 
gregation  of  the  Holy  Office,  abbot  general  1896, 
Archbishop  of  Spoleto  1900,  Apostolic  delegate  to 
Mexico  1905,  titular  Bishop  of  Seleucia  Plena  1912, 
consultor  of  the  Propaganda  and  assessor  of  the 
Holy  Office  1911,  created  cardinal  1914.  Alphonse 
Ettinger  (b.  1867;  d.  1918),  of  the  Cassinese  Con¬ 
gregation,  Abbot  of  Trinita  di  Cava  1910.  Tiburtius 
Hajdu  (b.  1858;  d.  1918),  of  the  Hungarian  Con¬ 
gregation,  Archabbot  Nullius  of  Monte  Pannonia 
1910.  Giovanni  del  Papa  (b.  1850;  d.  1918),  of  the 
Cassinese  Congregation,  Abbot  of  St.  Paul-without- 
the-Walls  1904.  Antoine  du  Bourg  (b.  1838;  d. 
1918),  of  the  Gallican  Congregation,  prior  of  Our 
Lady  of  Victory  at  Paris,  author.  Paul  Denis  (d. 
1918),  of  the  Gallican  Congregation,  author  of 
several  works  on  the  Congregation  of  St.  Maur. 
Jerome  Hunt  (b.  1844;  d.  1918),  missionary  among 
the  Sioux  Indians  of  North  Dakota,  translator  of 
the  Bible  into  Sioux.  Paulin  Joumier  (b.  1854; 
d.  1918),  of  the  Gallican  Congregation,  Prior  of 
Kergonan.  Auguste  de  Meyer  (d.  1918),  of  the 
Cassinese  Congregation  of  Primitive  Observance, 
Abbot  of  Affligem.  Paul  Picard  (b.  1848;  d.  1918), 
of  the  Gallican  Congregation,  ordained  priest  in 
Rouen  1872,  professed  Benedictine  1904,  prior  of 
the  Abbey  of  St.  Wandrille  (Fontanelle).  Do- 
menico-Gaspare  Lancia  di  Brolo  (b.  1825;  d.  1919), 
of  the  Cassinese  Congregation,  titular  Bishop  of 
Philadelphia  and  auxiliary  of  Palermo  1878,  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Monreale  1884,  died  at  the  venerable  age 
of  ninety-four,  after  an  episcopate  of  thirty-five 
years.  Norbert  Birt  (b.  1861;  d.  1919),  monk  of 
Downside,'  author  of  historical  works,  member  of 
the  committee  of  the  Catholic  Truth  Society  and 
the  Council  of  the  Catholic  Record  Society. 
Gregory  Danner  (b.  1861;  d.  1919),  Abbot  President 
of  the  Bavarian  Congregation  and  Abbot  of  Munich 
1904.  Bruno  Destree  (d.  1919),  monk  of  Maredsous, 
artist  and  writer.  Bruno  Doerfler  (b.  1866;  d.  1919), 
of  the  American  Cassinese  Congregation,  rector  of 
the  University  of  St.  John  in  Minnesota  1899,  prior 
of  Muenster  1906,  and  first  abbot  1911,  vicar  gen¬ 
eral  of  the  diocese  of  Prince  Albert  1912.  Hugo 


Gaisser  (b.  1853;  d.  1919),  of  the  Beuronese  Con¬ 
gregation,  prior  of  St.  Andrew,  at  Bruges,  1912, 
retired  to  Ettal  in  1916,  author  of  numerous  litur¬ 
gical  works.  Wolfgang  Steinkogler  (d.  1919),  of 
the  American  Cassinese  Congregation,  prior  of  St. 
Martin’s  at  Lacey  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
college  of  this  monastery.  Jean  Besse  (b.  1861; 
d  1920),  of  the  Gallican  Congregation,  founder  of 
the  “Bulletin  de  St.  Martin,”  the  “Revue  Mabillon 
“La  Vie  et  Les  Arts  Liturgiques,”  and  director  of 
“L’Univers”  during  the  war,  author  of  numerous 
works,  among  them  “Le  Moine  Benedicts  ”  “Les 
Moines  d’Orient,”  “Le  Monachisne  Afncam,  Les 
Moines  de  l’ancienne  France”  (crowned  by  the 
French  Academy).  Augustin  Gatard  (b.  1861;  d. 
1920),  of  the  Gallican  Congregation,  active  in  the 
restoration  of  plain  chant,  formed  several  Gregorian 
schools,  author  of  a  manual  on  Gregorian  chant,  of 
“La  Musique  Gregorienne,”  and  several  articles  on 
theology  and  canon  law,  collaborator  in  the  “Dic- 
tionnaire  d’archeologie  et  de  liturgie  and  other 
works.  James  Christopher  Gauthey  (b.  1833;  d. 
1920),  of  the  Gallican  Congregation,  of  great  learn¬ 
ing  and  sanctity,  Abbot  of  Marseilles  1876,  exiled 
at  Chiari.  Peter  Nugent  (b.  1859;  d.  1920),  or¬ 
dained  priest  in  Baltimore  1882,  professed  Benedic¬ 
tine  at  Erdington  1902,  monk  at  Beuron,  chaplain 
of  English  and  American  prisoners  and  of  the 
Indian  troops  during  the  recent  war.  Hugh  Sprin¬ 
ger  (b.  1872;  d.  1920),  of  the  Austrian  Congrega¬ 
tion,  Abbot  of  Seitenstetten.  .  . 

Nuns.— It  is  difficult  to  give  complete  statistics 
for  the  Benedictine  nuns  as  most  of  them  are  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  individual  bishops,  and,  unlike 
the  monks,  are  not  formed  into  congregations. 
There  are  thirteen  monasteries  under  the  jurisdic¬ 
tion  of  Benedictine  abbots.  These,  with  the  abbeys 
upon  which  they  are  dependent,  are  as  follows: 
Amelia  (St.  Paul-without-the-Walls),  Bertholdstem 
(Beuron),  Casino  (Monte  Cassino),  Eibmgen 
(Beuron),  Einsiedeln  (Einsiedeln),  Fahr  (Emsie- 
deln),  Fort  Augustus  (Fort  Augustus),  Habsthal 
(Muri-Gries),  Maredret  (under  the  Abbot  Primate), 
Sarnen  (Engelberg),  Stanbrook  (under  the  Abbot 
President  of  the  English  Congregation),  Sao  Paulo 
(Sao  Paulo). 

Certain  monasteries  may  be  grouped  together  ac¬ 
cording  to  their  work  or  foundation.  Those  devoted 
to  the  perpetual  adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
are:  Amandola,  Catania,  Milan,  Ronco  di  Ghiffa, 
Sortino  (Italy) ;  Arechavaleta,  Guernika,  Onate, 
Port-Bon  (Spain) ;  Atherstone,  Colwich  (England) ; 
Bayena,  Csen,  Craon,  Othmarsheim,  Pans  (two 
monasteries) ;  Rosheim,  Rouen  (France) ;  Clyde, 
Sturgis  (United  States) ;  Driebergen,  Huistenbosch, 
Princenhage,  Oldenzaal,  Tegelen  (Holland) ;  En- 
denich,  Hamikolt,  Herstelle,  Johannisberg,  Kempen, 
Koln-Raderberg,  Kreitz,  Osnabriick,  Trier,  Varen- 
sell,  Vinnenberg  (Germany);  Glattburg  (Switzer¬ 
land)  ;  Houpertingen,  Moignelee,  Oyghem  les  Des- 
selghem  (Belgium);  Peppingen  (Luxemburg); 
Lemberg,  Warsaw  (Poland) ;  St.  Nicholas  de 
Port  (religious  driven  into  exile).  The  Benedictine 
Nuns  of  Our  Lady  of  Calvary,  founded  in  1618  by 
Mother  Antonio  of  St.  Scholastica,  are  under  the 
immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See  and  have 
houses  at  Angers,  Jerusalem,  La  Capelle  Marival, 
Landernau,  Machecoul,  Orleans,  Poiters,  and  Ven- 
dome  (see  Calvary,  Congregation  of  Our  Lady  of). 
The  Benedictine  Nuns  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary 
have  five  monasteries :  Erbalunga,  J ouarre,  La 
Rochette,  Pradines,  and  St.  Jean  d’Angely.  The 
Sisters  engaged  in  foreign  missions  are  established 
at:  Albay  and  Manila,  in  the  Philippines;  Dar-es- 
Salaam  and  Transvaal,  in  Africa;  Olinda  and  Soro- 


BENEDICTINE 


101 


BENEFICE 


caba,  in  Brazil;  Endje,  in  Bulgaria;  Schellenberg,  ~ — 

Tut  zing,  and  Wcssobrunn,  in  Bavaria. 

Other  Benedictine  monasteries  of  nuns  under  epis¬ 
copal  jurisdiction  may  be  grouped  geographically  as 
follows: 

America. — Allegheny,  Erie,  St.  Mary’s,  Pittsburgh  ,  T  , - r-— - 

(Penn.);  St.  Antonio,  St.  Benedict,  Covington  IStmlia  M  " 

(La.);  Atchison  (Kan.);  Bristow  (Va.) ;  Chicago  Austria  . "  ' . 

(2  convents),  Nauvoo  (Ill.);  Cottonwood  (Idaho);  ?elgiuin 


Covington  (Ky.) ;  Crookston,  Duluth,  St.  Joseph  gZi y”: 
(Minn.) ;  Cullman  (Ala.) ;  Elizabeth,  Newark  (N.  Switzerland 

J.);  Ferdinand  (Ind.) ;  Guthrie,  Sacred  Heart  fein  . . 

(Okla.) ;  Mount  Angel  (Ore.);  Ridgely  (Md.);  Italy  ...V 

Shoal  Creek  (Ark.) ;  Sioux  City  (Iowa) ;  Yankton  Poland  _ 

(S.  D.). 

British  Isles,  Malta,  and  Australia. — Bicester,  East 


Total 


Monas¬ 

teries 

Professed 

Nuns 

Lay 

Sisters 

Oblates 

Novices 

Religious  j 

1 

10 

256 

104 

42 

39 

441 

1 

13 

8 

2 

23 

2 

54 

40 

2 

8 

104 

8 

161 

83 

3 

31 

278 

14 

636 

160 

19 

125 

940 

4 

124 

89 

2 

38 

253 

4 

169 

14 

25 

208 

28 

494 

122 

1 

48 

645 

1 

48 

13 

3 

2 

66 

104 

950 

620 

59 

209 

1,838 

4 

52 

37 

... 

26 

115 

288 

8,220 

2,079 

259 

1,121 

11,679 

Cowes,  Ryde,  Ventnor  (Isle  of  Wight) ;  Ypres  (Ire-  f  li°an  Bcnedictin?  nuns  of  St.  Bride,  Mil- 

land);  Notabile,  Victoriosa  (Malta);  Rydalmere  L  I9n  Vnd’  retCyf1Ved  ^  the  Catholic  Church 
(Australia).  1913  and  made  their  solemn  profession  in  1914. 

Austria. — Gurk,  Salzburg.  1  hey  removed  to  Talacre  Abbey  in  1920. 

Mfn1fosirKolneri?gh“m°nt’  L™’  ecStTcaltnefic^s  *?.  C°de  “ 

France.  Argentan,  Chautelle,  Chemille,  Dourgne,  erected  or  constituted  in  perpetuity J  by  competent 
Flavigny  sur  Moselle  Lisieux  Mantes  Pans,  ecclesiastical  authority  and  consistingof  a  sabred 

PIGcrmo««  -Chiemsee^  EiSltt^Fulda  Tettef'  and  “l®  light  *°  reCeive  the  revenues  arising 

weis  m  V‘  ^memsee’  ^lcHstatt,  iulda,  letten-  from  an  endowment  annexed  to  that  office  This 

thfr'S^r01^’  Maria-Rickenb“h’  Mekh-  ^^^ca^entity^tself^or^of  ^definite°  and 'obligatory 

Spain. — Alba  do  Tonnes,  Barcelona,  Burgos,  Cala-  and8,  volunterv  offePrl  Pelf 

tayud,  Compostella,  Corella  Cuenca,  Cuntis  Estella,  the  faiihful  which  accrue  to  the  rector  oT  the 
Gciona,  Jaca,  La  Guardia,  Leon,  Lumbier,  IVIadrid,  benefice  or  of  the  so  puller)  foclc,  -,i  •  ,i 

Malaga,  Metaro  Moral,  Oviedo,  Palacios  de  Benal  Ssof 

Vallfermoso  Vega  d|Ula’  Serelna  T°  ed°’  T°rt°leS’  cholr  distributions,  excepting  a  third  part  of  the 
HoMmd—  Oosterhout  ^ same,  lf  tl\e.  entire  income  of  the  benefice  consists 
7 ,7  Arto  A1  r  a  -1  A  A  •  of  choir  dlstnbutions.  Benefices  are  divided  by 

Ai?nh^Piptnn  ’t9Ape  °’  ,4quiAlaY  woZ°’  ArPino>  the  Code  into:  (a)  consistorial,  those  usually  con- 
scoli-Piceno  (-  convents),  Assisi  (2  convents),  ferred  in  the  consistory,  and  non-consistorial *  the 

Aversa,  Ban  Bastia,  Bergamo,  Bevagna,  Boville  canons  in  the  Code  apply  only  to  the  latter  except 
ftrWrln’  Buggiano  alto,  Camerino,  Castel-  where  the,  contrary  is  apparent;  (b)  secular  or  re- 

r^^enlfip,entm0,r-Cas^lrp-f^  „S*  bgious,  according  as  they  are  bestowed  exclusively 

!  C  p  k  ?mgo1/’  Cltta  dlf  pastello,  on  secular  or  religious  clerics;  (c)  double  (residen- 
Cometo  Tarquima,  Fabriano  (2  convents),  Fano,  tial)  or  single  (non-residential),  according  to  the 
eimo,  Ferraia,  Fiume,  Fossano  Fossato  di  Vico,  benefice  entails  the  obligation  of  residence  or  not* 
Lapo,  Lesina,  Lucca  (2  convents),  Massafra,  Maz-  (d)  manual  (temporary;  removable)  or  perpetual 
zaia  del  Vallo  (2  convents),  Modica,  Montecatim,  (irremovable),  according  as  they  are  conferred  re- 

Mont^^Cnwt^^nSp^q^M11^-  S*  Mm/anS’  Vocably  or  Perpetually;  (e)  curata  or  non-curata, 
J”?*®  A/r  Giusto,  Monte  S.  Martino,  Monte  S.  according  as  they  entail  the  cure  of  souls  or  not. 

Stl  nilllf  p16’  Montughi,  Naples,  Norcia,  Koto,  The  law  does  not  consider  as  benefices:  (a)  parish 

Piipon^ot  pbciPaS°,pP?  erm° -d 7  com®nt®),  ^rug-a’  vicarships  not  erected  permanently;  (b)'  lay  chap- 
lacenza  Pistoja,  Potenza,  Piceua,  Prato,  Reggio,  knncies,  that  is  those  not  erected  by  competent 

S’n?aeTb?’  |an  Bel;ede«°  dei  Marsl>  ecclesiastical  authority;  (c)  coadjutorships  with  or 
Sun  Wn  ’I  vU  -  ’•  San  Martin0)  San Servermo,  without  future  succession;  (d)  personal  pensions; 
^an  Seveio,  S.  \  ittoiia  m  Mattenano  Sant  Elpidio  (e)  temporary  commenda,  that  is  the  concession 
al  mare,  Sassoferrato,  Sebemco,  Senigallia,  Sorrento,  Gf  the  revenues  from  a  church  or  monastery  made 
't0*  Taghacozzo’  .Terranuova  Brae-  to  a  person  with  the  proviso  that  on  his  death  the 
v  y1’  T°dl>  Tmu,  Treja,  Trevi,  Trieste,  Uibama,  revenues  are  to  revert  to  the  church  or  monastery. 

\  eglia,  Veroli,  Zara.  .  Parishes  are  usually  benefices  and  are  always  in- 

Polared.— Lemberg  Pi-zraysi,  Stamatki,  Vilna.  eluded  under  that  term  in  the  Code. 

The  following  table  gives  the  total  number  of  Benefices  may  be  united  or  transferred,  or  divided, 
monasteries  of  nuns  and  the  number  of  religious:  or  dismembered,  or  converted,  or  suppressed.  The 

union  is  (a)  extinctive  when  a  new  or  a  single 
benefice  is  formed  from  two  or  more  suppressed 
benefices,  or  if  one  or  more  are  united  to  another 
in  such  a  way  that  the  former  cease  to  be;  (b) 
ceque  principalis,  when  the  united  benefices  remain 
as  they  are,  neither  being  subject  to  the  other; 

(c)  minus  principalis,  when  both  benefices  continue 
but  one  is  subject  to  the  other.  A  benefice  is 
(a)  transferred  when  its  seat  is  changed  from  one 
place  to  another;  (b)  divided,  when  two  or  more 


Monas¬ 

teries 

Professed 

Nuns 

Lay 

Sisters 

Oblates 

Novices 

Religious 

Under  Abbatial  jurisdiction 

13 

367 

161 

6 

77 

611 

Perpetual  Adoration  of  the 

Blessed  Sacrament  . 

44 

1,153 

484 

111 

159 

1,907 

Benedictine  Nuns  of  Our 

Lady  of  Calvary . 

8 

119 

65 

6 

190 

Benedictine  Nuns  of  the 

Sacred  Heart  of  Mary.. 

5 

102 

75 

11 

34 

222 

Foreign  Missions  . 

10 

306 

72 

378 

America  . 

28 

3,216 

4 

240 

3,460 

BENEFICE 


BENSON 


102 


benefice  or  pious  cause  or  ecclesiastical  institute; 

(d)  converted,  when  it  is  changed  from  one  kind 
of  benefice  to  another;  (e)  suppressed,  when  it  is 
entirely  extinguished.  The  extinctive  union  of 
benefices,  their  suppression,  their  dismemberment  in 
which  property  belonging  to  the  benefice  is  taken 
away  without  a  new  benefice  being  erected,  the 
union  of  a  religious  with  a  secular  benefice  or  of  a 
secular  with  a  religious  benefice  (Eque  or  minus 
principaliter,  and  the  transferring,  dividing,  or  dis¬ 
membering  of  a  religious  benefice,  the  conversion 
of  a  benefice  curatum  into  one  without  cure  of 
souls,  or  of  a  religious  into  a  secular  benefice,  or 
of  a  ’secular  into  a  religious  benefice,  are  reserved 

to  the  Holy  See.  . 

A  local  ordinary,  but  not  a  vicar  capitular  or  vicar 
general,  unless  delegated,  can  unit e  (Eque  or  minus 
principaliter  any  parish  church  with  anothei,  or 
with  a  benefice  not  entailing  the  cure  of  souls, 
when  the  welfare  of  the  Church  demands  it  or 
would  be  greatly  promoted  by  it.  Such  a  union 
must,  however,  be  perpetual.  For  the  same  reasons 
the  bishop  can  transfer  a  secular  parochial  benefice 
from  one  place  to  another  within  the  parish.  Other 
benefices  he  may  not  transfer  unless  the  church  in 
which  they  were  established  has  fallen  into  ruin 
and  cannot  be  restored ;  in  that  case  they  are  to  be 
transferred  with  their  privileges  and  their  obliga¬ 
tions  to  the  mother  church  or  to  other  churches 
in  the  same  place  or  vicinity,  and  altars  or  chapels 
are  to  be  erected  there  under  the  same  titles  if 
possible.  Finally,  ordinaries  can  divide  up  a  parish 
even  against  the  wish  of  its  rector  and  without  the 
consent  of  the  faithful,  and  erect  a  perpetual 
vicariate  or  a  new  parish,  or  they  may  dismember 
a  parish.  This,  however,  can  be  done  only  when 
it  is  too  difficult  for  the  parishoners  to  go  to  the 
parish  church  or  when  the  number  of  the  parish- 
oners  is  so  great  that  their  spiritual  welfare  cannot 
be  properly  provided  for  even  by  increasing  the 
number  of  vicar  co-operators.  This  new  vicariate 
or  parish  must  be  financially  provided  for,  if  neces¬ 
sary,  from  the  funds  of  the  mother  church,  pro¬ 
vided  the  funds  are  sufficient  for  that;  in  the  latter 
case  the  filial  church  must  pay  honor  or  homage 
to  the  mother  church  in  the  manner  prescribed  by 
the  ordinary,  but  it  is  entitled  to  its  own  baptismal 
font.  Parties  interested  may  always  appeal  to  the 
Holy  See  against  the  ordinary’s  decree,  but  mean¬ 
while  the  decree  goes  into  effect.  Ordinaries  may 
not  burden  a  benefice  with  a  perpetual  tax  or  pen- 
sion  or  with  one  lasting  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
pensioner,  but  for  a  just  cause  they  can,  when 
conferring  the  benefice,  encumber  it  with  a  pension 
for  the  lifetime  of  the  beneficiary,  provided  that 
the  latter  has  still  a  suitable  portion  remaining. 
However,  parochial  benefices  may  not  be  encum¬ 
bered  unless  in  the  interest  of  the  rector  or  vicar 
of  the  same  parish  when  he  is  leaving  his  post,  and 
even  then  the  possession  must  not  exceed  one-third 
of  the  revenues  of  the  parish  after  deducting  all 
expenses  and  all  uncertain  income. 

Two  benefices,  both  of  which  afford  a  decent 
living  to  an  incumbent,  or  which  together  impose 
obligations  that  one  beneficiary  cannot  carry  out 
personally,  are  incompatible,  and  so  may  not  be 
accepted  and  held  simultaneously.  If  a  cleric  hold¬ 
ing  a  benefice  can  show  that  he  has  held  it  in  good 
faith  peacefully  for  three  years,  he  enjoys  a  pre¬ 
scriptive  right  to  it,  even  if  by  chance  his  title  was 
at  first  invalid,  provided  there  was  no  simony  in 
the  case.  If  a  beneficiary  fails,  without  a  valid 
excuse,  to  carry  out  his  obligation  of  reciting  the 
canonical  hours,  he  is  to  lose  a  part  of  his  revenue 
proportionate  to  the  extent  of  his  omission  and 


must  bestow  it  on  the  church  fabric,  or  the  diocesan 
seminary,  or  the  poor.  The  law  does  not  decide 
what  a  proportionate  part  for  one  day’s  omission 
would  amount  to,  but  Lehmkuhl  considers  that 
between  16%  and  30%  of  the  daily  income  would 
be  a  fair  estimate.  (See  Collation.) 

Code,  can.  1409-88. 

Benevento,  Archdiocese  of  (Beneventana;  cf. 

C.  E.,  II-477c),  in  the  province  of  Naples,  Southern 
Italy.  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop  Bonazzi,  appointed  to  this 
see  9  June,  1902,  died  23  April,  1915,  and  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  His  Eminence 
Cardinal  Ascalesi.  Born  at  Casalnuovo,  1872,  he 
entered  the  Order  of  Missionaries  of  the  Precious 
Blood,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Muro-Lucano,  29 
April,  1909,  transferred  to  Santa  Agata  dei  Goti 
19  June,  1911,  and  promoted  9  December,  1915, 
being  made  a  cardinal-priest  4  December  of  the 
following  year.  The  1920  statistics  credit  this  terri¬ 
tory  with  590,500  Catholics,  138  parishes,  805  secular 
and  69  regular  clergy,  80  seminarians,  463  churches 
or  chapels,  40  Brothers,  and  129  Sisters. 

Bengweolo,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See  Ban- 
GUELO. 

Beni  (or  El  Beni),  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (de 
Beni),  in  Bolivia,  South  America.  This  vicariate, 
comprising  the  territory  of  Beni,  and  the  districts 
of  Colonias,  Caupolican  and  Yuracares,  was  erected 
1  December,  1917,  and  entrusted  to  the  Friars 
Minor.  It  is  at  present  (1922)  under  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  its  first  vicar  apostolic,  Rt.  Rev.  Ray¬ 
mond  Calvo,  titular  Bishop  of  Cotenna,  appointed 
1  August,  1919.  By  latest  statistics  the  vicariate 
comprises  60,000  Catholics,  11  parishes,  30  churches 
and  chapels,  4  missions,  36  mission  stations,  3 
secular  and  14  regular  clergy.  A  number  oi  societies 
are  organized,  the  most  active  of  which  is  the 
League  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  established 
in  four  of  five  parishes  and  counting  about  300 
members. 

Benin,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the  Coast  of 
(Or.®  Benini;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-480a),  includes  an  ex¬ 
tensive  negro  country  in  Western  Africa,  with  resi¬ 
dence  at  Lagos.  It  covers  96,250  sq.  miles  and  has 
a  total  population  (1922)  of  2,000,000,  of  whom 
12,909  are  Catholic  and  3163  catechumens.  It  is 
entrusted  to  the  African  Missionaries  of  Lyons,  the 
present  vicar  apostolic  being  Rt.  Rev.  Ferdinand 
Terrien,  titular  Bishop  of  Gordos,  appointed  1 
March,  1912.  There  are  now.  30  missionary  priests 
laboring  in  this  territory,  27  European  religious, 
and  31  native  catechists;  111  churches  or  chapels 
have  been  established,  13  principal  stations,  111 
secondary  stations,  and  66  schools  with  4756  pupils. 

Benson,  Robert  Hugh,  preacher  and  writer,  b. 
18  November,  1871,  at  Wellington  College,  England; 
d.  19  October,  1914,  at  Salford,  England.  He  was 
the  son  of  Edward  Benson,  Archbishop  of  Canter¬ 
bury,  and  Mary  Sedgwick.  After  his  private  school 
days  at  Clevedon  he  went  to  Eton,  and  having 
failed  in  his  examinations  for  the  Indian  Civil 
Service  completed  his  classical  course  at  Cambridge 
(1893).  The  following  year  he  took  orders  in  the 
Anglican  Church,  and  after  serving  parishes  in  East, 
London  and  Kemsing  joined  the  Anglican  Com¬ 
munity  of  the  Resurrection  at  Mirsfield. 

In  1903,  Roman  claims  becoming  more  and  more 
insistent,  he  made  his  submission  and  was  received 
into  the  Church  by  Father  Reginald  Buckler  at 
the  Dominican  Priory  at  Woodchester,  probably  the 
first  son  of  an  Anglican  archbishop  to  become  a 
Catholic  since  Tobie  Mathew,  son  of  the  Archbishop 


BERGAMO 


103 


BERLIN 


of  \  ork,  did  so  in  1606.  Shortly  afterwards  lie  went 
to  live  in  Rome  to  study  for  the  priesthood,  and 
was  ordained  there  in  June,  1904,  by  Archbishop 
Seton,  titular  of  Heliopolis. 

Father  Benson’s  distinguished  origin  was  swiftly 
forgotten  in  his  own  originality  and  achievements. 
Stationed  for  several  years  after  his  ordination  at 
Cambridge,  where  he  became  a  power  amongst  the 
undergraduates,  in  1908  he  obtained  permission  from 
the  archbishop  to  retire  from  pastoral  work  in  order 
to  devote  his  time  to  preaching  and  writing.  From 
that  time  until  his  death  six  years  later,  his  life 
was  one  of  unceasing  activity  in  which  all  his  rare 
gifts  of  soul  and  mind  were  lavishly  spent  in  the 
service  of  the  Church.  His  success  in  the  pulpits 
of  Rome  and  the  United  States,  as  well  as  in  those 
of  his  own  country,  was  tremendous.  His  spiritual 
insight,  his  utter  sincerity,  his  burning  zeal  and  his 
fascinating  eloquence  drew  crowds  to  his  sermons 
and  made  many  converts.  He  preached  Lenten 
sermons  in  Rome  in  1909,  1911,  and  1913,  and  the 
alternate  years  in  the  United  States. 

He  was  not  less  successful  with  his  writings,  which 
he  produced  with  amazing  fecundity,  and  which  in¬ 
clude  novels,  historical  and  sentimental,  devotional 
books,  controversial  works,  poetry,  and  plays.  They 
were  all  written  with  an  avowed  purpose,  are  marked 
by  charm  of  style,  subtle  psychology,  originality, 
and  appealing  mysticism,  many  of  his  novels  being 
the  history  of  a  soul’s  complete  surrender  to  God. 
Amongst  them  are  the  “Light  Invisible”  (1903), 
written  while  still  an  Anglican;  “By  What  Author¬ 
ity”  (1904),  “Come  Rack,  Come  Rope”  (1912),  “The 
King’s  Achievement,”  “Lord  of  the  World,”  “The 
Sentimentalists,”  “The  Conventionalists,”  “The  Nec¬ 
romancers,”  “A  Winnowing,”  “Non-Catholic  Denom¬ 
inations,”  “The-  Dawn  of  All,”  “Christ  in  the 
Church,”  “The  Coward,”  “The  Confessions  of  a 
Convert”  (1913),  “An  Average  Man”  (1913),  “Para¬ 
doxes  of  Catholicism,”  “The  Friendship  of  Christ,” 
“Initiation”  (1914),  and  the  posthumous  “Loneli¬ 
ness?” 

Mgr.  Benson  was  buried  in  the  garden  of  his 
home,  Hare  Street  House,  Buntingford,  which  he 
bequeathed  to  the  Archbishop  of  Westminster;  it 
is  used  as  a  rest  house  for  the  clergy. 

Bergamo,  Diocese  of  (Bergomensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
II-489c),  in  Lombardy,  Northern  Italy,  suffragan 
of  Milan.  Bishop  Radini-Tadeschi,  appointed  to 
this  see  13  January,  1905,  d.  22  August,  1914,  and 
was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev. 
Luigi  Marelli,  b.  in  Miland,  1858,  appointed  Bishop 
of  Bobbio,  16  December,  1907,  and  transferred  15 
December,  1914.  In  1920,  8-12  August,  the  sixth 
national  eucharistic  congress  of  Italy  was  held  in 
this  diocese,  presided  over  by  Bishop  Bartolomasi 
of  Trieste.  Bergamo  to-day  (1922)  is  particularly 
noted  for  its  Catholic  social  works;  it  comprises 
a  Catholic  population  of  500,000,  371  parishes,  1,163 
secular  and  59  regular  clergy,  400  seminarians,  478 
religious,  84  Brothers,  and  512  churches  or  chapels. 

Berlin  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-493b),  capital  of  the  German 
Republic  and  of  the  Free  State  of  Prussia.  It  is 
situated  in  the  heart  of  the  Mark  of  Brandenburg, 
on  both  sides  of  the  Spree  above  its  entrance  into 
the  Havel.  The  city  covers  an  area  of  24M>  sq. 
miles  and  had  (8  October,  1919)  1,902,500  inhabi¬ 
tants,  not  including  the  population  of  the  suburbs, 
which  numbered  1,901,500  inhabitants.  Since  1 
October,  1920,  the  city  of  Berlin  and  the  suburbs 
form  one  city  under  the  name  of  “Great  Berlin,” 
with  3,804,000  inhabitants.  Of  the  inhabitants  of 
Great  Berlin  462,229  are  Catholics,  about  3,067,000 


are  Protestants,  224,200  Jews,  and  50,000  belong  to 
other  creeds. 

Statistics. — Ecclesiastically  Berlin  belongs  to  the 
Delegation  of  the  Mark  of  Brandenburg,  which  is 
under  a  delegate  of  the  Prince-Bishop  of  Breslau; 
the  delegate  is  the  Provost  of  St.  Hedwig’s  in  Ber¬ 
lin.  The  city  of  Great  Berlin  is  divided  for  the 
cure  of  souls  into  42  districts,  composed  of  32 
parishes  and  10  vicariates  or  curateships,  of  which 
21  belong  to  the  Archipresbyterate  of  Berlin 
(Middle  Great  Berlin),  12  to  the  Archipresbyterate 
of  Charlottenburg  (Great  Berlin  West),  and  9  to 
the  Archipresbyterate  of  Menkolln  (Great  Berlin 
East).  Whilst  in  1907  Berlin  had  only  30  Catholic 
churches  and  private  chapels  where  public  church 
services  were  held,  the  number  of  churches  has 
now  (1921)  increased  to  62  churches  and  25  private 
chapels  (mostly  in  religious  houses). 

To  the  principal  churches  the  following  have 
been  added:  Church  of  the  Holy  Rosary  in  Stegliz, 
a  southwest  suburb  (1900)  ;  Corpus  Christi  Church 
(1904);  St.  Boniface  (1907);  St.  Peter  (1908);  St. 
Joseph  (1909).  The  parishes  are  for  the  most  part 
large  ones,  with  large  numbers  of  parishioners,  for 
example:  St.  Hedwig  (28,000);  Corpus  Christi 
(13,000);  Holy  Family  (10,000);  Sacred  Heart  (20,- 
500);  St.  Joseph  (18,000);  St.  Matthew  (22,000); 
St.  Michel  (22,000);  St.  Pane  (20,000);  St.  Pius 
(24,000);  St.  Sebastian  (18,000);  Sacred  Heart, 
Charlottenburg  (31,000);  Holy  Rosary,  Steglitz 
(13,000);  St.  Louis,  Wilmersdorf  (32,000);  St.  Clara, 
Menholln  (26,000) ;  St.  Mauritius,  Lichtenberg 
(21,000),  etc. 

In  1921  the  Catholic  clergy  consisted  of  37  clergy 
of  higher  rank  (the  provost,  36  parish  priests),  83 
assistants,  25  priests  in  other  positions,  30  living  in 
communities,  a  total  of  175  priests. 

Schools. — There  is  no  public  Catholic  higher 
school  for  boys  in  Berlin,  but  there  is  a  private 
higher  school  for  boys  with  about  130  pupils.  There 
are  7  higher  Catholic  schools  for  girls,  two  of  which 
train  teachers.  All  these  schools,  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  two,  are  conducted  by  nuns.  There  are 
about  40  Catholic  schools  for  primary  instruction 
( Gemeindeschuleri) . 

Orders,  Congregations,  and  Charitable  Institu¬ 
tions. — The  male  orders  in  Berlin  are:  Dominicans 
(2  houses  with  12  priests  and  7  brothers) ;  Jesuits 
(2  houses  with  11  priests  and  1  brother) ;  Salva- 
torians  (1  house  with  5  priests) ;  Franciscans  (1 
house  with  2  priests) ;  Poor  Brothers  of  St.  Francis 
(1  house  with  16  brothers  who  conduct  an  orphan 
asylum  for  boys);  Brothers  of  St.  Alexis  (1  house 
with  14  brothers  who  conduct  a  sanatorium  for  the 
mentally  deranged). 

There  are  in  Great  Berlin  (1921)  15  female  orders 
and  congregations,  viz.:  the  Sisters  of  St.  Charles 
Borromeo,  the  Dominicans,  the  Franciscans,  the 
Grey  Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth,  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph,  the  Carmelites  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Catherine,  the  Servants  of  Mary,  the 
Sisters  of  the  Divine  Saviour,  the  Sisters  of  Our 
Lady,  the  Nuns  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Vincent,  and  the  Ursulines,  in  all  63  houses, 
of  whom  the  Sisters  of  St.  Charles,  the  Grey  Sisters 
of  St.  Elizabeth,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent,  the  Sis¬ 
ters  of  Maty,  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans  have 
charge  of  hospitals  and  institutions  of  visiting  nurses 
for  the  poor  and  sick,  kindergartens  and  day  nur¬ 
series;  the  Nuns  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph,  and  the  Grey  Sisters  conduct  rescues 
and  asylums  for  girls,  the  Carmelites,  orphanages 
and  kindergartens,  while  the  Franciscans,  the  Sis¬ 
ters  of  Our  Lady,  and  the  Ursulines  are  occupied 
in  school  work  and  conduct  boarding  houses  and 


BERMUDA 


104 


BERMUDA 


boarding  schools  where  housekeeping  is  taught. 

There  are  8  large  hospitals  in  Berlin  in  charge  of 
Catholic  sisters,  18  institutions  for  visiting  the  sick 
and  poor;  6  boarding  houses  for  old  people  con¬ 
ducted  by  nuns.  In  charge  of  nuns  are  25  kinder¬ 
gartens  for  children  under  six  years,  and  20  for 
school  children,  3  nurseries,  9  orphanages  for  children 
under  6  years,  and  10  for  school  children,  14  houses 
for  girls  in  employment,  and  out  of  employment; 

2  houses  of  retreat.  .  . 

Associations— There  is  much  activity  among  the 
Catholic  societies  in  Berlin.  In  1921,  there  were 
4  societies  furthering  the  interests  of  the  foreign 
missions ;  40  societies  of  Christian  ]\4otheis,  with 
about  17,000  members.  About  70  Sodalities  of 
Mary  for  men,  women,  young  men,  girls,  and  chil¬ 
dren;  32  associations  for  Catholic  young  men. 
Among  the  local  charitable  associations  there  are: 
the  Catholic  charity  organization  of  Berlin  and 
suburbs,  and  association  of  all  the  Catholic  benevo^- 
lent  institutions,  endowments  and  societies;  Soci¬ 
eties  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  including  33  confer¬ 
ences  for  men,  and  43  conferences  for  women;  the 
St.  Hedwig’s  women’s  association;  the  society  for 
the  protection  of  girls;  4  societies  for  the  care  of 
lying-in  women ;  the  Catholic  burial  association ; 
the  society  for  the  care  of  the  .Catholic  deaf  and 
dund)  of  Berlin.  The  most  important  associations 
in  connection  with  the  various  callings  are:  the 
Catholic  Journeymen’s  Association,  having  a  large 
building  of  its  own;  the  Master  Workmen’s  Union; 
35  Catholic  Workmen’s  Unions;  38  unions  for 
Catholic  working  women,  married  and  unmanned; 

9  groups  of  the  Catholic  Business  Men’s  Society; 

3  associations  of  Catholic  male  and  female  teach¬ 
ers,  12  associations  of  Catholic  students;  2  Philister 
societies.  Among  the  political  associations  should 
be  named:  the  People’s  Union  ( Patholische  V olks- 
verein) ;  the  Windthorst  Union,  and  the  Center 
party  proper,  with  about  45  organized  groups. 
Besides  these  there  are  singing  and  church  choir 
societies;  Catholic  social  societies,  societies  for  col¬ 
lecting  funds  for  church  buildings  (especially  for 
the  St.  Boniface  Association) ;  Catholic  societies 
for  sport  ( Deutsche  Jugendkrajt) . 

The  most  important  of  the  Catholic  newspapers 
are:  “The  Germania”  and  the  “Markische  Zeitung.” 

Since  this  article  went  into  type  word  has  been 
received  of  the  erection  of  a  see  at  Berlin  and 
the  appointment  of  a  bishop  in  the  person  of  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Kaas. 

Bermuda  Islands,  a  group  of  small  islands  in 
the  West  Atlantic,  a  colony  of  Great  Britain,  about 
580  miles  from  Cape  Hatteras,  N.  C.,  and  677  miles 
from  New  York,  belonging  to  the  West  Indies, 
but  detached  from  the  other  groups,  situated  be¬ 
tween  (about)  latitude  32°  14'  and  32°  25'  North, 
and  longitude  64°  38'  and  64°  52'  West.  They  lie 
Southwest  and  Northeast,  based  on  the  edge  of  a 
coral  bank  and  occupy  a  space  of  only  about  18 
miles  by  6,  though  said  to  be  300-360  in  number. 
They  are  separated  from  one  another  by  very  nar¬ 
row  channels  and  are  mostly  rocky  islets,  only  six 
being  of  any  considerable  size  or  importance.  These 
are  Bermuda,  Somerset,  Ireland,  St.  George,  St. 
David,  and  Boaz.  The  total  area  is  19.3  square 
miles.  They  are  difficult  of  access,  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  hidden  coral  reefs  which  extend 
about  ten  miles  under  water.  The  highest  point 
is  260  feet.  The  climate  is  delightful,  the  highest 
temperature  in  August,  1919,  was  90°,  the  lowest, 
46°  in  February;  the  mean  temperature  was  70. 
There  are  no  extremes  of  temperature,  and  malaria 
is  unknown,  which  makes  the  islands  a  popular 


holiday  resort  for  Americans.  The  civil  population 
on  31  December,  1919,  numbered  21,869,  including 
7,441  whites. 

Economic  Status. — Of  the  12,360  acres,  4,000  are 
under  cultivation.  Food  supplies  are  imported 
chiefly  from  Canada  and  the  United  States,  and 
nearly  all  the  export  produce  of  Bermuda  goes  to 
the  United  States.  The  chief  development  in 
recent  years  has  been  in  the  potato  crop,  which  has 
increased  by  nearly  thirty  per  cent  since  1915.  The 
Bermuda  onion  is  another  important  crop.  The 
registered  shipping  in  1918  consisted  of  7  steam 
vessels  of  2,189  tons  and  16  sailing  vessels  of  3,336 
tons.  In  1919  the  total  tonnage  of  vessels  entered 
and  cleared  was  1,258,188  tons,  of  which  632,212 
were  British. 

The  principal  exports  are  potatoes,  onions,  lily 
bulbs,  and  vegetables;  in  1919  all  the  exports 
amounted  to  £208,708;  the  imports  to  £792,683.  Ber¬ 
muda  is  an  important  naval  base  for  the  English 
fleet,  with  a  dockyard,  coaling  stations,  etc.,  and 
during  the  great  European  War  the  American  navy 
maintained  a  depot,  largely  used  by  submarine- 
chasers,  mine-sweepers,  and  other  craft  on  their 
trans-Atlantic  journeys.  A  telegraph  cable  connects 
the  islands  with  Nova  Scotia,  Halifax,  also  Turk’s 
Island  and  Jamacia.  The  revenue  for  the  year 
from  all  sources  totalled  £119,091  and  the  expendi¬ 
ture,  £90,684.  Customs  duties  provide  the  bulk  of 
the  revenue,  there  being  no  direct  taxation  for 
colonial  revenue.  A  loan  of  £40,000,  raised  in  1893 
for  the  improvement  of  the  channels  leading  to 
Hamilton  Harbor,  falls  due  in  1924.  The  nominal 
value  of  the  sinking  fund  on  31  December,  1919, 
was  £39,674.  There  is  no  other  public  debt.  Com¬ 
munications  within  the  islands  are  maintained  by 
boat  and  horse-drawn  vehicles,  the  use  of  motor 
vehicles  being  prohibited  by  law. 

Government. — The  laws  of  the  colony  are  enacted 
by  a  Legislature  consisting  of  the  Governor,  the 
Legislative  Council,  and  the  House  of  Assembly. 
The  Governor  is  assisted  by  an  Executive  Council 
of  four  official  and  three  unofficial  members.  The 
Legislative  Council  consists  of  nine  members,  three 
of  whom  are  official  and  six  unofficial.  The  House 
of  Assembly  consists  of  thirty-six  members,  four 
of  whom  are  elected  by  each  of  the  nine  parishes. 
There  are  about  1,413  electors,  the  electoral  qualifi¬ 
cations  being  the  possession  of  freehold  property  of 
not  less  than  £60  in  value.  A  member  of  the  As¬ 
sembly  must  have  freehold  property  rated  at  £240. 

Education. — There  are  no  government  schools  in 
Bermuda,  but  education  is  compulsory  and  Govern¬ 
ment  assistance  is  given  by  the  payment  of  grants 
and,  where  necessary,  school  fees.  The  aided  schools 
must  reach  a  certain  standard  of  efficiency  and 
submit  to  Government  inspection.  In  1919,  30 
aided  primary  schools,  with  2,576  pupils,  received 
Government  grants,  £2,853  yearly.  There  are  3 
garrison  schools  and  2  naval  schools,  about  17 
other  primary  schools,  and  4  secondary  schools, 
having  no  Government  grant.  Cambridge  local 
examinations  are  held  in  Bermuda.  A  Government 
scholarship  is  provided  to  enable  youths  educated 
in  Bermuda  to  go  abroad  to  prepare  themselves 
for  a  Rhodes  scholarship. 

History. — According  to  the  Spanish  navigator  and 
historian,  Ferdinand  d’Oviedo,  who  visited  these 
islands  in  1515,  they  were  discovered  at  an  earlier 
date  by  Juan  de  Bermudez,  who  was  shipwrecked 
on  a  voyage  from  Spain  to  Cuba  with  a  cargo 
of  hogs.  The  exact  date  of  the  discovery  is  not 
known,  but  a  map,  contained  in  the  first  edition 
of  the  “Legatio  Babylonica”  of  Peter  Martyr,  pub¬ 
lished  in  1511,  shows  the  Island  “La  Barmuda”  in 


BERRY 


105 


BESANCON 


appioximately  correct  position.  No  aborigines  were 
forma  on  the  islands  by  the  early  voyagers,  and 
the  Spaniards  took  no  steps  to  found  a  settlement. 

i  *  j?  entirely  uninhabited  until  1609, 
when  Admiral  Sir  George  Sommers’  ship,  the  “Sea 
Venture,  while  on  a  voyage  with  a  fleet  of  eight 
other  vessels  conveying  a  party  of  colonists  to  the 
new  plantations  then  being  formed  in  Virginia  was 
wrecked  on  a  coral  reef.  The  beauty  and  fertility 
of  the  islands  induced  the  Virginia  Company  to 
seek  extension  of  their  Charter,  so  as  to  include 
tne  islands  within  their  dominion,  and  this  ex- 
tensmn  was  readily  granted  in  1612  by  James  I, 
but  shortly  afterward  the  Virginia  Company  sold 
the  islands  for  £2,000  to  a  new  body  of  adventurers 
called  The  Governor  and  Company  of  the  City 
of  London  for  the  Plantation  of  Somers’  Islands.’’ 

Alter  twenty-five  years  of  prosperity  the  original 
shareholders  died,  or  disposed  of  their  holdings 
the  government  was  neglected,  and  the  settlers  be¬ 
came  subject  to  many  grievances  and  abuses.  An 
appeal  to  the  Crown  for  redress  in  1679  resulted 
m  the  passing  of  the  colony  to  the  Crown  in  1684 
the  colony  passed  through  the  same  social,  political* 
and  ecclesiastical  struggles  which  beset  England  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  Its  population  included 
many  elements  and  many  faiths;  and  each  sect 
and  political  faction  had  its  dissensions  and  feuds 
Catholics  were  excluded  as  early  as  1615.  Secessions 
liom  the  Established  Church  took  place  early  in 
the  colony  s  history,  and  although  freedom  of  wor¬ 
ship  was  demanded,  this  did  not  prevent  the  Inde¬ 
pendents  and  others  from  persecuting  their  weaker 
brethren,  particularly  the  Quakers,  whose  attempt 
the  slaves  met  with  disapproval.  In 
1646  William  Sayle  of  Bermuda  founded  a  utopian 
plantation  in  which  “every  man  might  enjoy  his 
own  opinion  or  religion  without  control  or  ques¬ 
tion.  In  1650  Parliament  declared  Bermuda  to 
e  m  a  state  of  rebellion.  At  this  time  persecu¬ 
tions  took  place  for  witchcraft.  During  the  Amer- 
ican  Revolution  the  inhabitants  of  the  island  sym¬ 
pathized  with  the  colonies,  but  were  forbidden  to 
trade  with  them.  However,  from  Bermuda  came  to 
Ceorge  Washington  at  the  most  critical  period  of 
the  Revolution  one  hundred  pounds  of  gunpowder. 
During  the  Civil  War  the  islands  were  the  head¬ 
quarters  of  the  blockade-runners  and  prosperity 
reigned.  In  1901  Bermuda  was  one  of  the  places 
chosen  by  England  for  the  exiled  Boers.  In  1867 
it  was  deemed  just  to  exonerate  from  liability  to 
assessment  for  the  Church  of  England  all  persons 
who  contributed  toward  the  maintenance  of  other 
churches.  Grants  by  the  government  to  the  Church 

hcye  now  cease(L  During  the  Great 
World  War,  the  Bermuda  Volunteer  Rifle  Corps 
served  in  France  with  the  Lincoln  Regiment,  and 
out  of  125  in  the  original  contingent,  only  22  re¬ 
mained  to  return. .  Another  proud  record  was  made 
by  the  Royal  Garrison  Artillery  (colored)  who  num¬ 
bered  250.  In  all,  between  560  and  600  Bermudians 
served  overseas  in  the  war;  of  these,  379  were  with 
the  Bermuda  contingents.  Pensions  to  disabled 
men  and  widows  and  dependents  are  paid  by  the 
Colony  on  the  scale  adopted  in  the  United  King¬ 
dom.  & 

Ecclesiastically  Bermuda  is  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Halifax,  a  priest  from  that 
diocese  being  stationed  at  Hamilton  where  the 
bisters  of  Charity  (mother-house,  Halifax),  conduct 
a  school. 


Berry,  John,  founder  of  “Father  Berry’s  Homes  ” 
d.  September,  1921,  at  Measham,  England.  Edu¬ 
cated  at  Ushaw,  in  1884  he  was  ordained  and  ap- 


pointed  curate  at  St.  Patrick’s,  Liverpool  He 
was  afterwards  rector  of  the  Church  of  St.  Philip 

ListitutfiWofCvvl!vhattiaCh!;d  the  LiverP°°<  Catholic 
institute  of  which  he  became  principal.  Father 

Berrys  great  work  was  the  establishing  and  o" 

gamzing,  in  Liverpool,  of  the  homes  for  orphaned 

and  destitute  boys,  which  bear  his  name  By  the 

request  of  his  bishop  in  1892  he  took  ’over  the 

work  begun  by  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 

Rerrv’s  »h{?  Care  flou"shed  until  “Father 

hf  X  Somes”  became  one  of  the  foremost  Catho- 
hc  charities  of  the  kind  in  England.  They  were 
under  his  personal  direction  for  five  years,  during 
which  time  he  cared  for  over  three  thousand  boys 
for  whom  he  had  raised  the  sum  of  nearly  ten 
thousand  pounds.  Ill-health  compelled  his  retire¬ 
ment,  but  he  continued  to  find  a  vent  for  his  activ- 
ity  in  writing  articles  and  reviews  on  social 
religious,  and  other  topics. 

PI0CESE  0F  (Brictinoriensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
II  522d),  m  the  province  of  Forli,  Northern  Italy, 
suffragan  of  Ravenna,  has  the  perpetual  adminis¬ 
tration  of  the  diocese  of  Polenta  (Polentensis).  It 
is  at  present  under  the  administration  of  Rt  Rev 
Fredenco  Pollom,  b  in  Ricco,  1841,  appointed  28 
November  1898.  The  1920  statistics  credit  the 
diocese  with  32,300  Catholics,  63  parishes,  100  secu- 
lar  priests  and  1  regular  priest,  26  seminarians,  1 
Brother,  65  Sisters,  and  93  churches  or  chapels. 

Besangon,  Archdiocese  of  (Bisuntinensis;  cf. 
f  41-525b),  coextensive  with  the  departments 
ot  Eoubs,  Haute-Saone  and  the  territory  of  Belfort 
in  France.  Most  Rev.  Frangois-Leon  Gauthey,  pro- 
moted  to  this  see  20  January,  1910,  filled  it  until 
his  death,  25  July,  1918.  Just  one  month  before 
his  death  the  Archbishop  visited  Haute  Alsace,  re¬ 
conquered  from  the  Germans,  where  he  adminis¬ 
tered  confirmation,  this  territory  having  been 
deprived  of  the  sacrament  since  1914.  Archbishop 
Gauthey  was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent, 
Most  Rev.  Louis  Humbrecht,  b.  in  Gueberschwir, 
1853,  ordained  1877,  appointed  Bishop  of  Poiters 
1  September,  1911,  promoted  14  September,  1918 
On  9  August ,1919,  Archbishop  Humbrecht  was 
made  commander  of  the  Order  of  the  Crown  by 
the  King  of  the  Belgians,  in  recognition  of  his 
kindness  toward  the  Belgian  refugees,  particularly 
m  the  diocese  of  Poitiers. 

During  the  World  War  423  priests  were  mobilized 
^  11S.  diocese  and  30  of  this  number  as  well 
as  40  seminarians  gave  up  their  lives,  12  were  deco- 
rated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor,  10  with  the 
meaaille ' mihtaire,  160  with  the  cvoix  de  guerre  and 
250  received  other  citations.  In  thanksgiving  for 
the  victory  of  the  Marne,  which  saved  the  central 
and  I  ranche-Comte  sections  of  France  from  in¬ 
vasions,  Archbishop  Gauthey  made  a  vow  to  erect 
a  basilica  dedicated  to  the  Sacred  Heart,  on  a 
hill  adjoining  the  city  of  Besangon.  On  8  March, 
1912,  the  church  of  Sts.  Ferreol  and  Ferjeux  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  minor  basilica,  and  26  May 
following  it  was  made  a  collegiate  church  ad  hon. 

In  1920  the  population  of  Doubs  numbered  299,935, 
of  whom  57,978  were  in  Besangon;  that  of  Haute- 
Saone  257,606 ;  and  that  of  the  territory  of  Belford, 
88,047.  The  latest  statistics  collected  in  1908,  credit 
the  diocese  with  1,224  priests,  7  first  class  and  351 
second  class  parishes,  816  succursal  parishes,  80 
deaneries,  51 .  professors,  105  dignitaries,  chaplains 
and  priests  without  special  duties,  10  diocesan  mis- 
sionaries,  41  priests  having  degrees  in  theology  and 
philosophy,  40  priests  at  the  university,  and  70 
missionary  priests,  originally  of  this  diocese.  The 
principal  educational  institutions  (1922)  include  a 


BESSE 


106 


BHUTAN 


seminary,  9  schools  of  higher  education  for  boys 
and  7  for  girls. 

Besse,  Jean-Martial-Leon,  monastic  historian, 
b.  31  October,  1861,  at  St.  Angel,  Correze,  France, 
d.  26  July,  1920,  at  Chevetogne,  Namur,  Belgium. 

In  1881  he  entered  the  Benedictine  Order  at  Soles- 
mes,  in  1885  was  sent  to  the  Abbey  of  Liguge, 
Vienna,  and  in  the  following  year  was  ordained 
From  1889  to  1894  he  was  master  of  novices  and 
sub-prior  at  Liguge,  whence  he  went  ,  in  the  same 
capacity  with  the  group  of  religious  sent  to  restore 
the  ancient  Abbey  of  St.  Wandrille  de  Fontenelle 
in  the  diocese  of  Rouen.  In  1895  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  history  and  director  of  an  Apostolic 
school  at  the  monastery  in  Silos,  Spain.  Two  years 
later  he  returned  to  Liguge  and  in  1899  was  once 
more  appointed  master  of  novices.  In  1902  he 
removed  with  his  fellow-monks  to  the  new  Abbey 
of  Liguge,  Chevetogne,  in  the  diocese  of  Namur, 
Belgium,  where  he  became  librarian. 

Dom  Besse  was  the  founder  of  the  “Bulletin  de 
Saint  Martin”  (1892),  of  the  “Revue  Mabillon” 
(1905),  and  of  “La  vie  et  les  arts  liturgiques”  (1912). 
During  the  World  War  he  took  over  the  direction 
of  the  newspaper,  “l’Univers,”  then  published  week¬ 
ly.  He  was  well  known  for  his  Royalist  sympathies 
which  were  the  inspiration  of  his  book,  “L’Eglise  et 
la  Monarchic, ”  and  for  his  social  service  activities. 
He  was  the  valued  friend  of  many  of  the  striking 
personalities  of  his  day,  amongst  them  Joris  Karl 
Huysmans. 

The  literary  work  of  Dom  Besse  includes  Le 
moine  benedictin,”  “Les  moines  d’Orient,”  “Le 
monarchisme  africain,”  “Les  etudes  ecclesiastiques 
d’apres  la  methode  de  Mabillon,”  “Le  Cardinal  Pie,” 
“Saint  Wandrille,”  under  the  pseudonym  “Leon  de 
Cheyssac,”  “Page  d’histoire  politique,  le  Ralliement ,  ’ 
“Les  moines  de  l’ancienne  France,”  crowned  by  the 
French  Academy ;  seven  volumes  of  a^  re-edition  of 
Beaunier’s  “Recueil  des  archeveches,  eveches,  abbayes 
et  prieures  de  l’ancienne  France.” 

Best,  Kenelm  Digby,  author  and  poet,  b.  1835, 
d.  14  September,  1914,  in  London,  England.  He 
was  the-  son  of  John  Richard  Digby  Best  of  Bot- 
leigh  Grange,  Hants,  and  the  descendant  of  a 
distinguished  literary  family.  In  this  versatile  poet, 
priest  and  man  of  letters  were  united  many  of  the 
qualities  of  the  two  brilliant  kinsmen  whose  name 
he  bore,  Kenelm  Digby,  poet,  novelist,  philosopher 
and  theologian,  and  Sir  Kenelm  Digby,  hero  of 
the  naval  battle  of  Scanderoon,  statesman,  political 
philosopher,  and  man  of  fashion.  His  grandfather, 
Henry  Digby  Best,  precursor  of  Newman  and  Faber, 
became  a  Catholic  in  1789. 

Father  Best  was  educated  by  the  Benedictines  at 
Ampleforth,  amongst  his  fellow  students  being  the 
late  Bishop  Hedley.  For  some  time  afterwards  he 
studied  at  St.  Edmund’s  College,  Ware,  and  entering 
the  Oratorian  novitiate  as  sub-deacon,  was  ordained 
in  1858.  His  long  life  was  interwoven  with  the 
history  of  the  London  Oratory,  which  he  joined 
during  the  period  of  its  translation  to  the  old  Ora¬ 
tory  at  Brompton,  when  many  of  the  illustrious 
men  of  its  early  days  were  still  alive.  Some  of  his 
notable  contemporaries  were  Father  Charles  Bow¬ 
den,  Father  Philip  Morris,  and  Father  Philpin. 
A  preacher  of  much  charm,  he  united  virility  of 
thought  with  the  exuberant  and  tender  imagination 
of  the  poet.  His  writings  include,  “A  Priest’s 
Poems,”  “The  Victories  of  Rome,”  “A  May  Chap¬ 
let,”  “The  Catholic  Doctrine  of  Hell,”  “Rosa  Mys- 
tica,”  translations  of  Carthusian  works,  many 
pamphlets,  one  of  the  most  notable  of  which  is  on 


Socialism;  and  his  final  work  “The  Mystery  of 
Faith,”  published  only  a  week  before  his  death. 

Betafo,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See  Antsirabe. 

Betharramites.  See  Sacred  Heart  of  Jestjs, 
Priests  of  the. 

Betrothal  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-537c). — The  conditions 
laid  down  in  the  decree  “Ne  Temere”  for  a  valid 
betrothal  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-542)  are  extended  in  the 
code  to  unilateral  promises  of  marriage.  However, 
a  valid  betrothal  no  longer  gives  rises  to  any  matri¬ 
monial  impediment,  nor  can  it  form  the  basis  for 
an  action  to  compel  one  to  marry,  though  an  action 
will  lie  for  compensation  for  losses  actually  sus¬ 
tained. 

Code,  can.  1017;  Ayrinhac,  Marriage  Legislation  (New  York, 
1919),  n.  19-27;  O’Donnell  in  Irish  Eccl.  Rec.,  XI,  456  sqq. 

Bettiah  and  Nepal,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of. 
See  Patna,  Diocese  of. 

Bexhill  Library. — Realizing  the  great  work  done 
for  the  Faith  by  the  distribution  of  the  Catholic 
Truth  Society  pamphlets,  an  English  Catholic  lay¬ 
man  organized  at  his  own  expense  a  free  lending 
library  of  Catholic  books  in  connection  with  St. 
Mary  Magdalene’s  Church,  Bexhill-on-Sea,  Sussex, 
in  1912.  Increased  requests  for  books  from  readers 
residing  elsewhere  led  to  the  development  of  a 
postal  distributing  scheme  in  1916.  Two  years  later 
a  new  library  was  erected,  which  in  1921  has  over 
20,000  volumes.  The  books,  mostly  by  Catholic 
authors,  are  of  every  character,  from  fiction  and 
science  to  Scripture  and  theology.  About  30,000 
works  were  sent  out  last  year  to  borrowers  in 
every  part  of  the  world.  The  books  are  loaned 
not  merely  to  individuals,  but  also  to  reading 
circles,  sodalities,  and  institutes.  The  unique  fea¬ 
ture  about  the  library  is  that  anyone  may  borrow 
the  volumes  without  giving  a  reference;  he  pays 
nothing  but  the  postage;  he  may  retain  the  books 
as  long  as  he  needs  them,  and  the  matter  of  return¬ 
ing  them  is  left  entirely  to  his  sense  of  honor  and 
justice. 

Bhutan,  independent  state,  lying  in  the  eastern 
Himalayas,  between  26°  45'  and  28°  North  latitude, 
and  between  89°  and  92°  East  longitude,  bordered 
on  the  north  and  east  by  Tibet,  on  the  west  by 
the  Tibetan  district  of  Chumbi  and  Sikkim,  and 
on  the  south  by  British  India.  The  area  is  about 
20,000  square  miles,  and  its  population,  consisting 
of  Buddhists  and  Hindus,  has  been  estimated  at 
300,000.  The  country  formerly  belonged  to  a  tribe 
called  Tek-pa,  but  was  wrested  from  them  by  some 
Thibetan  soldiers  about  the  middle  of  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century.  British  relations  with  Bhutan  com¬ 
menced  in  1772,  when  the  Bhotias  invaded  the 
principality  of  Cooch  Behar  and  British  aid  was 
invoked  by  that  state.  After  a  number  of  raids 
by  the  Bhutanese  into  Assa  at  different  periods, 
an  envoy  was  sent  into  Bhutan,  who  was  grossly 
insulted  and  compelled  to  sign  a  treaty  surrendering 
the  duars  (submontane  tracts  with  passes  leading  to 
the  hills)  to  Bhutan.  On  his  return  the  treaty  was 
disavowed  and  the  duars  annexed.  This  was  fol¬ 
lowed  by  the  treaty  of  1865  by  which  the  State’s 
relations  with  the  Government  of  India  were  satis¬ 
factorily  regulated.  The  State  formerly  received 
an  allowance  of  half  a  lakh  a  year  from  the  British 
Government,  in  consideration  of  the  cession  in  1865 
of  some  areas  on  its  border.  This  allowance  was 
doubled  by  a  new  treaty  concluded  in  January,  1910, 
by  which  the  Bhutanese  Government  agreed  to  be 
guided  by  the  advice  of  the  British  Government 
in  its  external  relations,  while  the  British  agreed 


BIBLE 


107 


BINATION 


not  to  interfere  with  the  internal  administration  of 
the  Bhutanese  state. 

At  the  head  of  the  Government  there  are  nomi¬ 
nally  two  supreme  authorities,  the  Dharma  Raja, 
known  as  Shapting  Renipoehe,  the  spiritual  head, 
and  the  Deb  or  Depa  Raja,  the  temporal  ruler.  The 
Dharma  Raja  is  regarded  as  a  very  high  incarna¬ 
tion  of  Buddha,  far  higher  than  the  ordinary  incar¬ 
nations  in  Tibet,  of  which  there  are  several  hundreds. 
On  the  death  of  a  Dharma  a  year  or  two  is  allowed 
to  elapse  and  his  reincarnation  then  takes  place, 
always  in  the  Choje,  or  royal  family  of  Bhutan. 
In  1907  the  Deb  Raja  resigned  his  position  and  the 
Tongsa  Penlop,  Sir  Ugven  Wangchuk,  was  elected 
as  the  first  hereditary  Maharaja  of  Bhutan. 

The  chief  fortresses  or  castles  are:  Punakha,  the 
winter  capital,  a  place  of  great  natural  strength; 
Tasichozong,  the  summer  capital,  Paro,  Angdupho- 
rang,  Tongsa,  Taka,  Biagha.  Though  the  people 
are  nominally  Buddhists,  their  religious  exercises 
consist  chiefly  in  the  propitiation  of  evil  spirits 
and  the  recitation  of  sentences  from  the  Tibetan 
scriptures.  Tasichozong,  the  chief  monastery  in 
Bhutan,  contains  300  priests.  The  military  force 
consists  of  local  levies  under  the  control  of  the 
different  chiefs.  They  are  of  little  military  value. 
The  chief  productions  are  rice,  Indian  corn,  millet, 
lac,  wax,  different  kinds  of  cloth,  ponies,  chowries, 
and  silk.  Muzzle-loading  guns  and  swords  of  high 
tempered  steel  are  manufactured. 


1920  as  given  in  the  report  for  1921,  were  3,825  401 

its  work- jt  has  d,str,b: 

Durmg  the  war  the  Society  circulated  Scriptures 
among  all  the  belligerent  forces  in  the  cantonments 
in  prison  camps,  in  hospitals,  in  the  trenches-wher- 
ever  there  was  a  soldier  or  a  worker  that  was  in 
need.  Its  distribution  to  American  soldiers  going 
over  to  Europe  and  to  those  of  other  nationalities 

;L?„UT£fi7r«vhed,  a  t0tal  of  6'818.301  volumes.  Of 
these,  1,887,758  volumes  were  distributed  in  Europe 
to  the  belligerent  forces  of  other  countries.  It  may 
be  recorded  here  that  the  war  distribution  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  and  of  other 
European  Bible  Societies,  and  the  American  Bible 
Society,  and  including  the  Scriptures  prepared  by 
Gathohc  and  Jewish  sources,  reached  an  astonish- 

Europea  °f  20,000,000  on  a11  the  battlefields  of 

2LHisi0ry  -of  the  American  Bible  Society 
j  j  div  ,  v  The  American  Bible  Society •  One  Nun 
died  and  Fifth  Annual  Report  (New  York,  1921). 

Bida,  (Bida  Colonia),  a  city  and  colony  of 
Gaesarea  Mauntamae,  mentioned  by  Ptolemy.  It 
was  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  and  is  now  a  Latin 

FnrM1”  wi’  titie  by  Rt.  Rev.  Francis 

ofcXe0meWaSSer’  auxillary  t0  the  Archbishop 


Bible  Societies  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-544b).— In  its  an¬ 
nual  statement  for  the  year  1921  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society  reports  5128  auxiliaries, 
branches  and  associations  in  England  and  Wales, 
with  4750  auxiliaries  and  branches  outside  of  the 
British  Isles,  mainly  in  the  British  dominions  and 
colonies,  making  a  total  of  9878.  It  has  made 
53S  translations  of  the  Scriptures,  160  of  these 
being  the  work  of  twentieth-century  scholars.  In 
the  year  covered  by  the  last  report  8,655,781  books 
were  .issued,  bringing  the  total  number  since  the 
organization  of  the  Society  up  to  319,470,000  vol¬ 
umes.  The  expenditures  for  the  year  were  £18,919,- 
374  ($91,759,000). 

The  National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland  extends 
its  operations  far  beyond  the  confines  of  that  coun¬ 
try.  In  1920  it  was  working  also  in  Belgium,  Czecho¬ 
slovakia,  France,  Germany,  Hungary,  Iceland,  Italy, 
Jugoslavia,  Portugal,  Africa,  China,  India,  Japan, 
Korea,  and  the  British  Dominions.  The  funds  ex¬ 
pended  by  this  organization  in  1920  amounted  to 
£32,380  ($157,000). 

The  American  Bible  Society  has  changed  its  pro¬ 
gram  largely  in  relation  to  its  work  in  this  coun¬ 
try,  and  it  now  carries  on  its  distribution  in  the 
United  States  through  nine  home  agencies  cover¬ 
ing  every  part  of  the  United  States,  and  150  auxil¬ 
iary  societies.  It  has  twelve  foreign  agencies,  six 
covering  Latin-America  with  headquarters  at  Porto 
Rico,  Mexico  City,  Cristobal,  for  the  Caribbean 
and  Upper  Andes  agencies,  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and 
Buenos  Aires,  two  in  the  Near  East  with  head¬ 
quarters  at  Constantinople  and  Cairo,  and  four 
in  the  Far  East  wfith  headquarters  at  Manila, 
Bangkok,  Shanghai,  and  Tokio. 

The  Society  has  no  established  agency  in  Europe, 
but  maintains  correspondents  in  every  European 
country  into  which  the  modern  map  of  Europe  is 
divided.  In  these  countries  it  either  co-operates 
with  the  National  Bible  Societies  or  lends  assist¬ 
ance  to  local  churches  in  their  inner  mission  and 
other  activities.  All  told,  the  copies  of  the  Bible, 
or  parts  of  the  Bible,  distributed  by  the  American 
Bible  Society  for  the  year  ending  31  December, 


•  IlI?CESE  0F  (Bugellensis;  cf.  C.  E., 

nf  ile  £rov"  Novara>  Italy,  suffragan 

of  Verceili.  Bishop  Serafino,  appointed  to  this  see 
2  December,  1912,  was  transferred  22  March  1917 
and  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev’ 

ST  Gangliano,  b.  in  Pormo,  1872,  appointed 
titulai  Bishop  of  Eucarpia,  9  September,  1911,  and 
transferred  22  March,  1917.  Upon  his  transfer  from 
this  see,  Bishop  Serafind  left  10,000  lire  to  be 
used  for  a  new  church  at  Oropa.  A  decree  of  12 
June,  1918,  accorded  to  the  cathedral  chancery  of 
Oropa  the  privilege  of  joining  to  the  cathedral 
title  that  of  Our  Lady  of  Oropa,  a  celebrated 
sanctuary  of  the  Blessed  Virgin.  The  1920  statis¬ 
tics  credit  this  diocese  with  156,000  Catholics  114 
parishes,  265  secular  and  29  regular  clergy  40 
seminarians,  and  270  churches  or  chapels. 

Bigamy  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-563c). — Bigamists,  in  the 
original  sense  of  the  term,  namely,  individuals  who 
have  contracted  two  or  more  valid  marriages  suc- 
cessively,  are  in  canon  law  irregular  ex  defectu, 
wmcii  means  that  they  may  not  receive  or  exercise 
any  ecclesiastical  orders  or  dignities.  The  irregu¬ 
larity  is  incurred  even  if  the  marriage  has  only 
been  ratified.  Interpretative  bigamy,  which  was  a 
legal  fiction,  has  now  disappeared  from  canon  law. 
Persons  who,  while  they  are  bound  by  the  bonds 
of  matrimony,  attempt  to  marry  again  or  even  to 
contract  a  so-called  civil  marriage  become  ipso  facto, 
infamous  on  account  of  crime;  if  they  continue 
their  illicit  union  despite  the  warning  of  the  ordi¬ 
nary,  they  are  to  be  excommunicated  or  placed 
under  personal  interdict,  according  to  the  gravity  of 
their  offense.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  crime 
which  is  here  in  question  is  an  attempted  second 
marriage,  not  concubinage  or  adulterous  relations. 

Bination  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-568c). — Three  Masses  may 
be  said  by  all  priests  on  Christmas  Day  and  on  the 
feast  of  All  Souls.  On  other  days  a  priest  may 
celebrate  only  once,  except  by  Apostolic  indult  or 
by  leave  of  the  local  ordinary,  when,  owing  to  a 
lack  of  priests,  a  notable  number  of  the  faithful 
could  not  otherwise  hear  Mass  on  a  day  of  obliga¬ 
tion;  the  ordinary  cannot,  however,  allow  any  priest 
to  celebrate  more  than  two  Masses  on  the  same  day. 

In  certain  missionary  countries  the  Holy  See  has 


BIRMINGHAM 


108 


BISHOP 


authorized  ordinaries  to  permit  their  priests  for  a 
just  cause  to  accept  a  stipend  for  a  second  Mass 
when  they  binate.  Ordinarily,  however,  when  a 
Mass  has  been  said  to  fulfil  an  obligation  in  justice 
e.  g.  in  return  for  a  stipend,  or  when  the  Mass  was 
offered  for  the  parishioners,  a  priest  is  forbidden 
to  receive  a  stipend  for  a  second  Mass,  though  he 
may  be  paid  something  for  a  reason  not  intrinsically 
connected  with  the  celebration  of  the  Mass,  for  in¬ 
stance,  to  recompense  him  for  his  traveling  expenses. 

Code,  806:  Irish  Eccl.  Rec.  (1920),  XVI,  58. 

Birmingham,  Archdiocese  of  (Birminghamia, 
Birminghamiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-578c). — By  the 
Apostolic  Letter  of  28  October,  1911,  reconstituting 
the  hierarchy  of  England  and  Wales,  Birmingham 
was  raised  to  archiepiscopal  rank,  with  the  suffragan 
sees  of  Clifton,  Newport,  Plymouth,  Shrewbury,  and 
Menevia  in  Wales.  The  dioceses  of  Newport  and 
Menevia  have  since  been  constituted  a  separate 
province.  In  1921  Archbishop  Ilsley,  who  had  suc¬ 
ceeded  Bishop  Ullathorne,  retired,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  auxiliary,  Archbishop  McIntyre. 

The  general  population  of  the  diocese  (census 
of  1911)  was  3,114,470,  the  estimated  Catholic  popu¬ 
lation,  115,000.  There  are  166  public  churches,  43 
private  and  convent  chapels,  67  convents.  The 
secular  clergy  number  199,  regulars  223.  There  are 
119  public  elementary  schools,  4  secondary  schools, 
26  convent  schools,  with  an  attendance  in  the 
public  elementary  schools  of  27,128,  in  the  other 
schools  of  11,460.  Among  the  societies  organized 
among  the  laity  of  the  diocese  are  the  Catholic 
Cripples’  Union,  the  Union  of  Catholic  Mothers,  the 
Catholic  Young  Men’s  Society,  and  the  Catholic 
Women’s  League. 

St.  Mary’s  College,  Oscott,  the  diocesan  seminary, 
held  the  fifty-seventh  annual  meeting  of  the  Os- 
cotian  Society  on  13  July,  1920.  On  12  March  of 
this  year  the  New  Franciscan  House  of  Studies 
known  as  Grosseteste  House  was  opened  at  Oxford, 
the  Salesian  Fathers  having  taken  over  the  house 
at  Cowley. 

In  recent  years  the  diocese  of  Birmingham  has 
lost  through  death  many  of  its  prominent  church¬ 
men,  among  them:  the  Rev.  Henry  Ignatius  Ryder 
(d.  1907),  and  his  brother,  Rev.  Charles  Edward 
Ryder  (d.  1912),  pastor  of  Smethwick  and  founder 
of  its  church;  Rev.  John  J.  Ilopwood  (1913),  for 
eighteen  years  professor  at  Oscott;  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr. 
Victor  J.  Schobel,  D.  D.  (d.  1915),  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Oulton  (1873-86),  lecturer  on  phi¬ 
losophy  and  moral  philosophy  at  Oscott  (1886-96) 
and  later  chaplain  at  Oulton  Abbey;  Very  Rev. 
John  Canon  Caswell  (d.  1917),  professor  at  Oscott 
(1879-83),  vice  president  of  St.  Wilfrid’s  College 
(1883-85),  vice  president  of  Oscott  (1885-89),  ap¬ 
pointed  canon  of  Birmingham  (1906)  and  editor  the 
diocesan  “Ordo”;  James  B.  Canon  Keating  (d. 
1920),  ordained  in  1877  and  transferred  to  the  staff 
of  St.  Wilfrid’s  College  in  1884,  later  appointed 
pastor  of  St.  Patrick’s,  Walsall,  and  Sacred  Heart 
Church,  Hanley,  appointed  rector  of  St.  Austin’s, 
Stafford,  in  1889,  and  nominated  Canon  of  the 
Birmingham  Chapter  in  1911.  Served  on  Stafford 
School  Board  and  Board  of  Guardians. 

Birt,  Henry  Norbert,  ecclesiastical  historian,  b. 
1861  at  Valparaiso,  d.  at  London,  21  August,  1919. 
He  was  a  fourth  son  of  Hugh  Birt,  M.  D.,  and  on 
the  maternal  side  was  the  great-grandson  of  John 
Keogh  of  Mount  Jerome,  County  Dublin,  the  leader 
of  the  Catholic  Constitutional  party  working  for 
emancipation.  Educated  first  at  St.  Augustine’s, 
Ramsgate,  and  later  at  University  College  School, 
in  1880  he  entered  the  Benedictine  Order  at  Down¬ 


side  Abbey.  In  1889  he  was  ordained  and  for  some 
years  taught  the  school  and  did  parochial  work 
in  the  parish  of  St.  Ogsberg,  Coventry.  Later  he 
acted  as  socius  and  secretary  to  the  then  Abbot 
Gasquet.  During  the  South  African  War  he  was 
acting  chaplain  to  the  forces,  and  during  the  World 
War  performed  the  same  service  for  the  forces  in 
England,  chiefly  at  the  hospital  at  Netley.  He  was 
demobilized  only  a  few  weeks  before  his  death. 

Dom  Birt’s  best  known  literary  work  is  his  “Eliza¬ 
bethan  Religious  Settlement”;  others  of  value  are 
“History  of  Downside  School,”  “Lingard’s  History 
Abridged,”  “Benedictine  Pioneers  in  Australia,”  the 
“Obit  Book  of  the  English  Benedictines,”  and  many 
reviews  and  articles  in  leading  periodicals.  A  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Committee  of  the  Catholic  Truth  Society, 
he  took  a  prominent  part  in  its  work,  not  only  by 
his  controversial  and  historical  pamphlets,  but  by 
his  personal  attendance  at  meetings  where  his  sound 
advice  was  greatly  valued.  He  was  also  a  member 
of  the  Council  of  the  Catholic  Record  Society. 

Birth  Control.  See  Population. 

Bisarchio,  Diocese  of.  See  Ozieri. 

Bishop  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-581b). — Before  a  person  can 
be  made  bishop  now  he  must  have  been  in  priestly 
orders  at  least  five  years,  whereas  under  the  Triden¬ 
tine  regime  it  was  sufficient  for  him  to  have  been 
six  months  in  Holy  Orders.  The  examination  of 
persons  called  to  the  episcopate  is  now  conducted 
by  the  Consistorial  Congregation.  A  bishop  elect 
must  receive  canonical  institution  from  the  Holy 
See,  but  before  being  instituted  he  must  make  a 
profession  of  faith  and  swear  fidelity  to  the  pope 
in  presence  of  the  Holy  Father  or  of  his  delegate; 
under  the  Tridentine  legislation  he  had  to  make 
the  profession  of  faith  in  the  first  provincial  synod 
held  after  his  election.  On  being  promoted  to  the 
episcopacy,  a  priest  even  if  he  is  a  cardinal,  must 
receive  consecration  within  three  months  after  re¬ 
ceiving  the  Apostolic  letters,  unless  he  is  legiti¬ 
mately  prevented,  and  he  must  go  to  his  diocese 
within  four  months. 

A  bishop  now  takes  canonical  possession  of  his 
see  by  showing  his  Apostolic  letters  to  the  cathe¬ 
dral  chapter  in  presence  of  the  capitular  secretary 
or  of  the  diocesan  chancellor.  In  virtue  of  the 
law  of  residence  a  bishop  must  not  be  absent  from 
his  diocese  for  more  than  three  months,  not  neces¬ 
sarily  continuous,  the  time  spent  on  his  canonical 
visits  to  Rome  is  not  to  be  counted  in  this,  though 
it  must  not  come  immediately  after  his  vacation 
period  (see  Visit  ad  limina).  He  must  be  in  the 
cathedral  during  Advent  and  Lent  and  on  Christmas 
Day,  Pentecost,  Corpus  Christi,  and  Easter  Sunday, 
unless  he  is  excused  for  a  grave  and  urgent  reason. 
If  he  is  unlawfully  absent  from  the  diocese  for  more 
than  six  months  the  Holy  See  must  be  notified  by 
his  metropolitan. 

Among  the  privileges  granted  to  bishops,  whether 
residential  or  titular,  are  the  right  of  saying  Mass 
at  sea;  of  allowing  others  to  say  Mass  in  their 
presence  on  a  portable  altar;  of  enjoying  daily  a 
personally  privileged  altar;  of  following  their  own 
calendar  in  all  churches  and  oratories;  of  visiting 
their  domestic  chapels,  when  a  visit  to  a  public 
church  is  prescribed  for  gaining  an  indulgence;  of 
giving  the  episcopal  blessing  everywhere;  however, 
in  Rome  it  may  be  imparted  only  in  churches, 
pious  places,  or  at  assemblies  of  the  faithful;  of 
selecting  for  themselves  and  their  household  a 
confessor,  who,  if  he  lacks  it,  is  granted  jurisdiction 
by  the  law  and  who  can  absolve  them  from  all  sins 
and  censures,  except  censures  reserved  very  spe¬ 
cially  to  the  Holy  See  or  those  imposed  for  vio- 


BISHOP 


BISHOP 


109 


Iating  the  secrecy  of  the  Holy  Office ;  of  preaching 
everywhere,  with  at  least  the  presumed  leave  of 
the  local  ordinary;  of  celebrating  Mass  on  Holy 
Thursday  or  three  Masses  on  Christmas  Night  or 
of  allowing  another  to  do  so  in  their  presence, 
provided  they  are  not  obliged  to  celebrate  in  the 
cathedral;  of  blessing  rosaries,  crucifixes,  medals, 
statues,  approved  scapulars  and  of  clothing  with 
the  scapulars  without  the  necessity  of  enrolment, 
and  of  granting  the  usual  indulgences;  of  erecting 
Stations  of  the  Cross  in  churches  and  all  oratories 
as  'veil  as  pious  places,  with  the  usual  indulgences, 
and  of  annexing  the  Way  of  the  Cross  indulgences 
to  crucifixes  for  those  who  are  legitimately  pre¬ 
vented  from  visiting  the  Stations. 

Many  faculties  which  were  enjoyed  formerly  by 
bishops  only  in  virtue  of  special  indults  are  now 
granted  to  them  by  law.  Thus  they  can  appoint 
examiners  and  parish  priests  consultors  with  the 
consent  of  the  cathedral  chapter  when  a  vacancy 
occurs  in  the  interval  between  synods;  they  can 
give  the  papal  blessing  with  a  plenary  indulgence 
tvyice  a  year  and  also  in  articulo  mortis;  they  may 
within  limits  authorize  the  alienation  of  ecclesias¬ 
tical  property;  they  may  allow  a  priest  to  binate 
or  to  say  Mass  outside  of  a  church;  they  may  con¬ 
fer  major  orders  for  a  serious  reason  on  any  Sunday 
or  holiday  of  obligation.  As  the  ordinary  power 
of  bishops  has  thus  been  greatly  extended  (see 
(Dispensation)  Pope  Benedict  XV,  in  order  to  in¬ 
troduce  greater  uniformity  throughout  the  Church, 
withdrew  the  faculties  commonly  granted  to  bishops 
for  a  period  of  three,  five,  ten,  or  twenty-five  years, 
for  the  external  forum,  except  in  regions  subject 
to  the  Congregation  of  Propaganda,  where  they  are 
to  continue  in  force  for  the  present. 

Religious  who  become  bishops  are  subject  to  the 
pope  alone,  and  not  to  the  superiors  of  their  order; 
if  they  have  been  solemnly  professed,  they  can 
nevertheless  use  and  administer  temporal  goods  and 
acquire  property  for  their  territories;  they  may 
reside  in  any  house  of  their  order,  but  have  neither 
active  nor  passive  voice  in  the  affairs  of  the  order. 

Coadjutor  Bishops. — A  coadjutor  is  usually 
granted  to  a  bishop  personally  with  the  right  of 
succession  (without  this  right  he  is  termed  an 
auxiliary  bishop),  but  sometimes  he  is  granted  to 
a  see.  If  the  bishop  is  entirely  incapacitated  the 
coadjutor  has  all  his  rights  and  duties,  unless  limited 
by  the  letters  of  appointment;  otherwise  he  has  only 
what  the  bishop  allows  him.  The  bishop  should  not 
habitually  delegate  to  another  what  the  coadjutor 
can  and  is  willing  to  do,  and  the  latter  must,  if 
requested  by  the  bishop,  carry  out  the  episcopal 
duties,  unless  justly  prevented  from  doing  so.  A 
coadjutor  granted  to  a  see  may  exercise  all  exclu¬ 
sively  episcopal  powers  within  his  territory,  except 
the  conferring  of  sacred  ordination;  in  other  mat¬ 
ters  he  may  act  only  as  far  as  the  Holy  See  or  the 
bishop  authorizes  him.  Coadjutors  enter  into  their 
office  canonically  by  showing  their  Apostolic  letters 
to  the  bishop;  if  they  have  the  right  of  succession 
or  have  been  granted  to  a  see  they  must  exhibit 
the  letters  to  the  chapter  also;  if  the  bishop  should 
be  incapable  of  eliciting  a  human  act  the  letters 
need  be  shown  only  to  the  chapter.  No  coadjutor 
should  absent  himself  from  the  diocese,  except 
during  his  vacation,  for  more  than  a  short  time 
without  the  bishop’s  leave.  On  the  bishop’s  death, 
the  coadjutor  with  right  of  succession  immediately 
becomes  the  diocesan  ordinary  provided  he  has 
taken  canonical  possession;  a  coadjutor  granted  to 
a  see  retains  his  office  during  a  vacancy,  but  an 
auxiliary’s  office  would  terminate  on  the  bishop’s 
death,  unless  his  letters  provide  otherwise. 


t  ?ELimr°^i  0FTT^SH0PS:-By  a  decree  dated  25 
ulv,  1916,  the  Holy  See  inaugurated  a  new  method 
of  selecting  bishops  for  the  United  States,  as  the 
previous  system  often  resulted  in  a  long  delay  in 
filling  vacancies  and  did  not  secure  the  secrecy  that 
was  desn-ed  (c  C.  E„  11-584;  Eccl.  Rev.,  LXI, 
ZZD-61).  1  he  following  is  an  outline  of  the  new 

procedure.  About  the  beginning  of  Lent  every 
second  year  starting  from  1917  each  bishop  is  to 
send  to  his  archbishop  the  names  of  one  or  two 
pei  sons  whom  he  believes  from  long-continued 
peisonal  intercourse  to  be  suitable  for  the  episcopal 
office.  He  may  name  persons  who  do  not  belong 
to  his  diocese  or  even  province.  To  aid  the  bishops 
and  the  archbishops  on  their  selection  they  are  first 
to  ask  their  diocesan  consultors  and  permanent 
rectors  individually  and  under  the  strictest  obliga¬ 
tion  of  secrecy  to  suggest  a  worthy  candidate  to 
them.  When  the  archbishop  has  received  the  names 
he  adds  his  own  choice  and  then  having  compiled 
an  alphabetical  list  of  the  candidates  proposed  he 
sends  it  to  each  of  his  suffragans,  so  that  they  can 
discreetly  inquire  about  the  nominees.  No  bishop 
may  allow  any  one  except  the  archbishop  to  know 
what  persons  are  on  his  list.  After  Easter  the 
bishops  of  the  province  meet  privately  and  discuss 
the  merits  of  the  priests  who  have  been  listed, 
paying  particular  attention  to  their  age,  administra¬ 
tive  ability,  learning,  virtue,  and  loyalty  to  the 
Holy  See.  When  having  eliminated  those  who  are 
opposed  unanimously,  they  vote  on  the  remaining 
candidates  in  alphabetical  order.  Each  bishop  has 
three  ballots,  different  in  color,  white  being  favor¬ 
able,  black  unfavorable,  and  another  color  indicating 
that  the  bishop  does  not  vote.  There  are  two  bal¬ 
lot  boxes,  one  for  the  ballots  indicating  the  vote 
cast,  the  other  for  the  two  remaining  ballots. 
The  archbishop  votes  first  and  secrecy  is  observed 
by  all.  The  archbishop  and  a  bishop  acting  as  sec¬ 
retary  then  count  the  ballots  in  presence  of  the 
others  and  the  result  is  noted  in  writing.  The 
bishop  should,  if  possible  indicate  for  what  kind 
of  a  diocese,  e.  g.,  large  or  small,  organized  or  new, 
the  candidate  would  be  best  fitted.  A  record  of 
the  proceedings  including  the  balloting  must  be 
drawn  up  by  the  secretary  and  after  being  read 
aloud  by  the  archbishop  must  be  signed  by  all.  A 
copy  similarly  signed  is  sent  to  the  Consistorial 
Congregation,  through  the  Apostolic  delegate,  while 
the  original  is  kept  in  the  ^archiepiscopal  archives 
for  a  year,  after  which  it  must  be  destroyed.  The 
decree  invited  the  bishops  to  communicate  with  the 
Holy  See  between  these  biennial  meetings  if  they 
think  it  advisable  to  give  any  further  information 
about  candidates.  Needless  to  say  all  this  pro¬ 
cedure  is  merely  to  assist  the  Holy  See,  which 
remains  free  to  select  any  person  to  fill  a  vacancy, 
even  one  whose  name  was  not  on  the  list. 

The  new  system  proved  successful  and  has  since 
been  introduced  with  minor  variations  into  other 
countries.  It  was  established  for  Canada  and  New¬ 
foundland  in  1919,  the  voting  taking  place  every 
second  year  from  1920.  The  bishops  there  need 
not  consult  anyone  about  suitable  candidates;  in 
their  choice  they  must  mention  the  age,  birthplace, 
residence,  and  office  of  the  candidates.  The  bishops 
of  the  provinces  of  Kingston  and  Toronto  vote 
together,  under  the  direction  of  the  senior  arch¬ 
bishop,  so,  too  do,  those  of  the  provinces  of  Saint 
Boniface,  Regina,  and  Winnipeg,  under  the  presi¬ 
dency  of  the- archbishop  of  Winnipeg;  and  finally 
the  bishops  of  the  provinces  of  Edmonton  and 
Vancouver,  under  the  senior  archbishop.  The  rec¬ 
ords  are  forwarded  to  the  Consistorial  Congregation 
by  the  Apostolic  delegate. 


BISHOP 


110 


BISMARCK 


In  Scotland,  all  the  bishops  meet  every  third 
year  beginning  with  1921,  after  consulting  their 
canons  individually  and  forwarding  their  list  of 
names  to  the  Archbishop  of  Edinburgh,  or  if  that 
see  is  vacant,  to  the  Archbishop  of  Glasgow,  the 
presiding  officer  forwarding  the  record  to  the  Holy 
See.  In  Poland,  too,  the  meeting  is  triennial  and 
national,  not  provincial,  and  is  presided  over  by 
the  senior  metropolitan;  while  in  Mexico  ana 
Brazil  it  is  provincial  and  is  held  every  three  to 
five  years  beginning  with  1922,  but  these  last  three 
countries  the  bishops  need  not  seek  ad\  ice  f i  om 
their  clergy. 

Dress.— In  answer  to  certain  queries  regarding 
episcopal  dress  the  Congregation  of  Rites  leplied  on 
26  November,  1919,  that  bishops  may  not  have  a 
red  tuft  on  their  birettas;  that  they  must  not 
wear  silken  capes  or  cassocks  unless  they  are  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  pontifical  household,  that  in  Rome  their 
soutanes  mantelletas,  mozzetas,  and  birettas  must 
be  purple,  elsewhere  in  penitential  seasons  or  at 
funerals  these  may  be  black,  except  the  biretta 
and  skull-cap;  that  they  may  never  use  the  stole 
mitre,  and  pastoral  staff  together  with  their  prelatial 
habit,  as  had  been  customary  in  some  places  at 
confirmations  or  in  processions,  that  they  may  not 
wear  mitres  of  silver  cloth,  which  are  papal,  nor 
damask  mitres  with  red  flaps,  which  are  used  by 
cardinals  or  prothonotaries  Apostolic  ad  instar. 

Codex  juris  canonici,  329-55;  Vermeersch-Creusen .Epitome, 
314-30;  Acta  Ap.  Sedis  (1920),  177  sqq.  Rome,  XX  (1916). 
229-31,  gives  an  English  version  of  the  decree  on  the  procedure 
for  proposing  suitable  candidates  for  bishoprics  in  the  United 

States.  _ 

Bishop,  Edmund,  liturgiologist,  b.  at  Totnes  17 
May,  1846;  d.  at  Barnstaple  19  February,  1917.  His 
early  schooling  was  received  at  Ashburton  and 
Exeter,  and  he  was  afterwards  sent  to  a  Catholic 
school  ’in  Belgium.  While  still  very  young  he  began 
his  career  as  secretary  to  Thomas  Carlyle.  In  1864 
he  entered  the  Education  Department  of  the  Rnvy 
Council  Office  and  was  employed  there  for  twenty 
years.  In  1867  he  was  received  into  the  Church. 
While  in  the  department  the  easy  office  hours  gave 
him  leisure  for  study;  he  read  assiduously,  copied 
documents  at  the  British  Museum,  and,  being 
gifted  with  a  phenomenal  memory  and  an  extiaor- 
dinary  power  of  acquisition,  laid  the  foundations 
of  his  wide  and  varied  learning.  At  this  time  he 
transcribed,  analyzed,  and  annotated  the  great  Gol- 
lecta  Britannica,  with  copies  of  three  hundred  papal 
letters  dating  from  the  fifth  to  the  eleventh  century. 
Failing  the  means  of  publishing  the  collection  in 
England,  he  presented  it  to  the  Monumenta  Ger¬ 
manise.  .  .  , 

In  1885  Mr.  Bishop  resigned  his  position  and  the 
following  year  entered  the  Benedictine  Order  at 
Downside.  He  remained  there  as  a  postulant  for 
three  years,  but  his  fragile  physique  prevented  him 
from  taking  the  monastic  habit.  From  1892  to 
1901  he  lived  and  worked  with  his  friend  Dom, 
now  Cardinal,  Gasquet,  with  whom  he  was  joint 
author  of  “Edward  VI  and  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  (1890).,,  Gasquet’s  “Henry  III  and  the 
Church”  was  dedicated  to  Bishop  in  words  that 
testify  to  his  worth  and  the  quality  of  his  friend¬ 
ship.  In  1902  he  retired  to  Barnstaple,  where  he 
lived  until  his  death ;  by  his  own  wish  he  was 
buried  at  Downside  in  the  monks’  cemetery. 

In  proportion  to  his  knowledge,  Mr.  Bishop  pro¬ 
duced  very  little  under  his  own  name.  Much  of 
his  work  lies  hidden  in  that  of  others,  for  with  self- 
effacement  he  gave  unstintedly  of  his  learning  to 
all  who  appealed  for  inspiration  and  guidance. 
“The  Genius  of  the  Roman  Rite”  (1899)  showed 
his  unrivaled  powers  as  historian  and  liturgiologist, 


while  probably  no  individual  book  published  by 
an  English  scholar  has  made  so  valuable  a  con¬ 
tribution  to  the  science  of  liturgiology  as  the 
“Liturgica  Historica,”  Bishop’s  collected  essays  on 
western  historical  and  liturgical  subjects,  in  prepara¬ 
tion  before  his  death  and  published  in  1918.  He 
contributed  numerous  papers  to  the  “Journal  of 
Theological  Studies”  and  other  periodicals. 


Bismarck,  Diocese  of  (Bismarkiensis;  cf.,  C.  E., 
XVI-lOd) . — The  Diocese  of  Bismarck  comprises  the 
following  counties:  Adams,  Billings,  Bowman, 
Burke,  Burleigh,  Divide,  Dunn,  Emmons,  Golden 
Valley,  Grant,  Hettinger,  McKenzie,  McLean,  Mer¬ 
cer,  Morton,  Mountrail,  Oliver,  Renville,  Sioux, 
Slope,  Stark,  Ward,  and  Williams  in  the  State  of 
North  Dakota.  This  list  is  slightly  different  from 
that  published  in  1914,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
some  counties  have  been  divided.  The  area,  of  the 
diocese  is  35,998  square  miles.  In  1920  Bismarck 
had  6,797  inhabitants.  By  count  of  31  December, 
1920,  the  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  was 
37,343.  The  diocese  contains  about  25,000  German¬ 
speaking  people,  mostly  from  Russia  and  Hungary; 
1,900  Bohemians,  coming  mostly  from  Russia;  180 
French  Canadians;  330  Poles;  at  least  1,800  Indians; 
and  about  1,300  Ruthenians  of  the  Oriental  Rite, 
not  included  in  the  Catholic  population.  These 
Ruthenians  are  centered  chiefly  in  the  missions  of 
Wilton  and  Ukraina-Gorham.  By  a  decree  of  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Eastern  Church  (30 
May,  1921),  Rev.  Father  Theodore  Roessler,  and 
another  priest  of  the  diocese,  were  authorized  to 
follow  the  Ruthenian  Rite  whenever  expedient, 
being  exacted  to  first  obtain  jurisdiction  over  these 
faithful,  from  the  Ruthenian  Administrator  for  the 
United  States.  By  the  same  decree,  the  Ruthenians 
scattered  among  the  Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite 
are  permitted  to  attach  themselves  to  this  rite, 
and  have  its  priests  assist  at  their  marriages  and 
exercise  among  them  all  parochial  functions.  Cath¬ 
olics  born  in  America  of  Ruthenian  parents,  who  do 
not  know  the  Ruthenian  Rite  or  Ruthenian  lan¬ 
guage,  but  who  speak  English  and  are  considered 
American  citizens,  may  receive  their  definite  trans¬ 
fer  to  the  Latin  Rite;  however,  every  individual 
case  shall  be  referred  by  the  bishop  to  the  Sacred 
Congregation,  and  shall  have  attached  to  the  re¬ 
quest  for  the  transfer  the  consent  of  the  Ruthenian 
Ordinary  of  the  United  States. 

There  are  29  canonically  erected  parishes,  28 
missions  with  resident  priests  among  whites;  among 
Indians,  2 ;  mission  churches  without  resident  priests 
among  whites,  85;  among  Indians,  8.  St.  Mary’s 
Benedictine  Abbey  at  Richardton  has  in  addition 
to  -its  abbot,  31  priests,  16  professed  clerics,  14  lay- 
brothers.  Some  of  its  priests  are  working  in  other 
dioceses.  In  connection  with  the  Abbey,  is  St. 
Mary’s  College  with  70  students.  Other  orders 
of  men  in  the  diocese  are  the  Canons  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  and  the  Fathers  of  the  Precious  Blood; 
total  number  of  regulars,  36;  seculars,  43.  There 
are  two  convents  of  women  with  novitiates,  that 
of  the  Ursulines  at  Kenmare,  and  that  of  the 
Benedictines  at  Garrison;  total  number  of  religious 
women,  211. 

There  are  13  elementary  parochial  schools,  and 
1  industrial  school  for  Indians,  while  the  Govern¬ 
ment  industrial  school  is  partly  in  care  of  the 
Sisters;  the  school  attendance,  including  Indians, 
3,167.  There  are  four  hospitals.  Besides  the  above 
mentioned  Government  Industrial  School,  the  State 
Prison,  the  State  Reform  School  and  the  Govern¬ 
ment  Indian  School  at  Bismarck  all  admit  the 
ministry  of  priests. 


BLESSED  SACRAMENT 


BLOIS 


111 


The  Knights  of  Columbus  and  the  Catholic  For¬ 
esters  are  organized  in  the  diocese,  as  also  some 
local  societies  among  German  and  Bohemian  speak- 
mg  people.  1  he  Priests’  Eucharistic  League  is  the 
only  society  organized  among  priests. 

In  the  territory  which  constitutes  the  present 
diocese  of  Bismarck  there  were  in  1893  two  resi¬ 
dent  priests  among  the  whites  and  two  among  the 
Indians,  some  missions  being  attended  by  priests 
residing  in  what  is  now  the  Diocese  of  Fargo, 
the  first  German-speaking  immigrants  reached  the 
region  in  1889,  the  largest  immigration  taking  place 
k^ween  1896  and  1910.  It  ceased  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  \\  orld  War,  but  is  once  more  on  the  in¬ 
crease.  The  diocese  is  still  under  the  administra¬ 
tion  of  Rt.  Rev.  Vincent  Wehrle,  O.S.B.,  the  first 
bishop. 

Blessed  Sacrament,  Fathers  of  the  (cf.  C.  E., 
AIV-lllaL  The  following  houses  of  the  congrega- 
/Vnio\ '  ®  repen^  j?een  opened,  Brno,  Czechoslovakia 
S^ebec’  Canada  (1915);  Chicago,  Ill.,  U.  S. 
Uyi81;  Duren,  near  Cologne,  Germany  (1920); 
Todi,  Italy  (1920).  The  novitiate  in  North  America 
I®  a^  Quebec,  Canada.  The  present  superior  is 
Very  Rev.  Eugene  Couet,  who  succeeded  Very  Rev 
Loins  Estevenon  in  1912.  Recently  deceased  is 
Rev.  Arthur  Letellier,  one  of  the  pioneer  priests  of 
the  congregation,  who  died  in  Montreal  in  1921 
The  congregation  at  present  (1921)  numbers  about 
500  priests,  scholastics,  and  lay  brothers. 

Blessed  Sacrament,  Servants  of  the  Most  (cf. 

.iT' ’’  ,  XIII-731d). — The  congregation  has  its 
mother-house  at  Angers,  France,  a  house  in  Paris 
and  one  in  Binche,  Belgium.  In  Canada  there  are 
two  houses:  at  Chicoutimi,  established  1903  with 
a  community  (1921)  of  8  professed  Sisters  and  16 
novices;  and  Quebec,  opened  December,  1920,  with 
a  community  of  12  professed  Sisters.  Two  houses 
have  been  opened  in  South  America :  at  Rio 
Janeiro  in  1912,  and  Sao  Paulo  in  1920. 


Blessed  Sacrament,  Sisters  of  the  (cf.  C.  E 
II-599b) .  The  congregation  received  the  final  ap¬ 
probation  of  the  Holy  See  in  May,  1913.  The 
present  superior  general  is  Mother  Katherine 
Drexe!  foundress  of  the  congregation.  Since  1907 
tne  following  new  foundations  have  been  made  • 
Philadelphia,  Pa.;  St.  Mark’s,  New  York-  St 
Anne  s,  Cincinnati,  Ohio;  St.  Cyprian’s,  Columbus,’ 
Omo;  St.  Monicas,  Chicago,  Ill.;  St.  Augustine’s, 
Winnebago,  Neb.;  Our  Lady  of  Lourdes,  Atlanta 
ua.,  St.  Josephs,  Boston,  Mass,  (settlement  and 
social  work) ;  St.  Elizabeth’s,  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  St. 
r  rancis  Xavier’s,  New  Orleans,  La.  (high  school 
and  normal  school  for  colored  youth);  St.  Peter 
Claver  s,  Macon,  Ga.;  St.  Catherine’s,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.;  Our  Mother  of  Sorrows,  Biloxi,  Miss.;  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  Beaumont,  Texas;  St.  John  the 
Baptists,  Montgomery,  Ala.;  Corpus  Christi  School, 
New  Orleans,  La.;  St.  Edward’s,  New  Iberia;  Teka- 
wdha  House,  Washington,  D.C.  The  sisters  num- 

umj  3’  a,nd,  have  imder  their  care  about  5,000 
children  of  the  colored  and  Indian  races.  They 
conduct  2  boarding  schools  for  colored  children  3 
oarding  schools  for  Indians,  and  19  parochial 
schools  for  colored  children,,  having  in  all  23 
foundations. 

Blessing  (Cf  C.  E,  II-599d)  .-All  cardinals  from 
tne  time  of  their  promotion  to  the  consistory  and 
all  bishops  from  the  time  they  receive  official  notice 
ol  their  canonical  provision  have  power  to  bless 
evoiywhere,  with  the  mere  sign  of  the  Cross,  cruci- 
xes  medals,  rosaries,  statues,  scapulars  approved 
by  the  Holy  See,  thereby  granting  all  the  usual 


Apostolic  indulgences.  They  may  also  with  a  simrlp 
blessing  erect  stations  of  the  Cross  with  the  rmSal 
indulgences  m  all  churches,  oratories,  even  private 

?  pious-  Places»  and  may  annex  the  Way 

of  the  Ci  oss  privilege  to  crucifixes  with  the  usual 
indulgences  in  favor  of  those  who  by  reason  of 
health  or  other  just  cause  are  unable  to  visit  the 
Stations.  According  to  a  reply  of  the  Sacred  Pen  i 

l«oWh°P  HannVf  San  "So, 

18  July,  1919  bishops  may  not  habitually  delegate 
this  power  ,  of  blessing  and  indulgencing  rosaries 
etc.,  to  their  priests.  On  15  May,  1914,  the  Holy 

B^CHdieCla£Gd  E^leStS  who  had  facnlties  from 
the  Holy  See  to  bless  and  indulgence  different 

religious  articles  with  the  sign  of  the  Cross  could 

impart  all  these  blessings  and  annex  all  the  indul- 

°ne  Slg,n  °f  tIie  Cross,  except  in  the 
case  of  the  scapular  medal,  which  required  five 

itPrepresen?s!mg^  COrrespondinS  to  the  scapulars 

A  reserved  blessing,  if  given  by  a  priest  without 
due  permission,  is  illicit  but  valid,  unless  the  Holy 
bee  m  reserving  it  decreed  otherwise  (can.  1147) 
lough  blessings  are  intended  primarily  for  Catho- 

\hl’  rb7  hf.fveP-  t0  catechumens,  and,  unless 
Church  forbids  it,  to  non-Catholics  also  in 
order  that  they  may  obtain  the  grace  of  faith  or  of 
faith  and  bodily  health.  On  8  March,  1919,  the 
Congregation  of  Rites  declared  that  catchumens 
lay  receive  also  the  public  sacramentals  such  as 
the  imposition  of  ashes  and  the  presentation  of 
candles  and  palms. 

Where  vestments  and  other  things  to  be  used  in 
divine  worship  require  a  blessing  before  use  it  can 
be  given  by.  (a)  cardinals  and  bishops;  (b)  local 
ordinaries,  who  are  not  bishops,  and  parish  priests 
for  churches  and  oratories  in  their  territories; 

ir?/1!’  churches;  (d)  religious  superiors 

and  priests  of  their  order  delegated  by  them,  for 
their  churches  and  oratories  and  for  the  churches 
ot  nuns  with  solemn  vows  subject  to  them.  Local 
ordinaries  can  delegate  their  power  to  any  priest 
Apostolic  Blessing  (cf.  C.  E.,  11-602)  .-The  papal 
blessing  with  a  plenary  indulgence  annexed  can  be 
given  according  to  the  prescribed  formula  by  any 
bishop  in  his  own  diocese  twice  in  the  year,  namely 
on  Easter  Sunday  and  on  any  other  solemn  feast 
chosen  by  him  even  if  he  himself  only  assists  at 
the  solemn  Mass.  Abbots  or  prelates  nullius 
vicars  Apostolic,  and  prefects  Apostolic,  even  when 
not  bishops,  can  give  it  in  their  territories  on  only 
one  of  the  more  solemn  feasts  each  year.  Regulars 
who  are  privileged  to  bestow  the  blessing  must  use 
the  prescribed  formula;  they  may  not  exercise  the 
privilege  except  in  their  own  churches  or  in  those 
of  nuns  or  tertiaries  lawfully  aggregated  to  their 
order;  they  are  not  allowed,  however,  to  impart  it 
on  the  same  day  and  in  the  same  place  as  the 
bishop  Now  all  priests  who  are  assisting  the  sick 
not  only  may,  but  must  grant  them  the  Apostolic 
blessing  with  a  plenary  indulgence  for  the  moment 
of  death  according  to  the  formula.  This  indul- 
genced  blessing  could  be  given  formerly  only  by 
priests  who  were  specially  authorized. 

Blois,  Diocese  of  (Blesensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-602b), 
coextensive  with  the  civil  department  of  Loire-et- 
Cher,  and  a  suffragan  of  Paris,  Rt.  Rev.  Alfred-Jules 
Melisson,  b.  in  Parigne-l’Eveque,  1842,  has  filled 
this  see  since  10  October,  1907.  During  the  World 
War  140  piiests  and  30  seminarians  were  mobilized 
from  this  diocese,  and  of  this  number  12  priests 
and  8  seminarians  died,.  35  received  the  croix  de 
guerre,  1  the^  medaille  militaire,  and  a  number  were 
given  the  medaille  des  epidemies  and  other  decora- 


BLUEFIELDS 


BLUE  LAWS 


112 

,  in  Anril  1013  the  dignity  should  kiss  his  wife,  and  no  wife  should  kiss  her 

tions  By  a  decree  of  10  , \pnh  191c ^  the  *ig  y  hugband  on  Sunday,  “the  party  at  fault  being 

of  a  dean  was  added  to  the  cathedral  cnapie y  misued  at  the  discretion  of  the  magistrates, 
a  Brief  of  30  July,  1921,  an  ^?ciat!°v '  J!  forme|  P  The  laws  against  persons  differing  in  religion  from 

the  devotion  of  the  Three  Hail  Ma  y  tbe  C0i0nists  were  fully  as  severe  as  Peters  repre- 

at  Blois,  m  connection  with  the  chapel  o  Both  in  New  Haven  and  Hartford  the  Massa- 

Lady  of  the  Three  Hail  Marys.  The  society  has  sente,  wmm  £ew  *  thege  were 

the  right  to  form  branch  associations  in  other  chusettstewz priSTs£Sl  abide  in  the  Dominion,  he 
places,  and  special  pnvdeges  accorded  to  a^  ban?shed  and  suffer  death  on  his  return. 

ciated  pnests,  especially  Priests  may  be  seized  by  anyone  without  a  warrant, 

fraternities  in  their  .  own  parishes  The  official  W  DnXstated  in  the  exact  terms  of  the 

organ  of  the  society  is  the  Propagateur  des  Tro  s  w*ag  true  of  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts 

Ave  Maria.”  ...  ,.  -,i  071  9oi  as  well  as  New  Haven,  but  it  was  also  true  of 

The  1920  statistics  credit  this  diocese  with  271  231  as  wen  abj What  .g  really 

Catholics,  27  first  class  parishes,  294  succur  a  pt  ,rUe  -n  b-g  statement  that  the  penal  laws  of  the 

ishes,  and  37  vicariates,  formerly  supported  y  Ngw  Haven  Colony  “consist  of  a  vast  multitude, 

state.  and  were  properly  denominated  Blue  Laws,  i.  e., 

Bluefields,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  ^“Tgua"  cimmuSiolrconfiscrtion,  ^ Shipping,  cutting  off 

S^teNr,^edd1,^M  ml,  by  a  td” ConS 

division  of  the  ancient  d'oeese  of  N  icarag- ua  a  Colonies  were  much  more  humane  than  the  laws  of 
comprises  the  Provinces  of  Bluehelds  Cab  ^  England  at  the  time.  The  number  of  crimes  punish- 

a  Dios,  Prmzapolcka  Siguia,  Rio  Grande,  ana  tne  b  death  am6unted  to  more  than  one  hundred 
islands  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean  belonging  to  N  injw[and  while  in,  the  New  Haven  and  Connecticut 
ragua.  So  far  (1922),  no  statistics  have  been  pub-  exceeded  fifteen.  Theft  was 

fished.  The  present,  and  first  „a^° ^  tituki  never  a  capital  offense  in  any  part  of  Connecticut, 

Rev.  Augustin  Joseph  Bernaus  y  terra.,  titu  a  .q  England  a  theft  Gf  property  of  the  value 

Bishop  of  Milopotamos,  appointed  -8  May,  191  .  ^  twelve  pence  was  punishable  by  death  from  the 

Blue  Laws.-Connecticut  is  the  State ;  which  gave  punishable  by  death,  which  gave  rise 

rise  to  the  term  Blue  Laws.  The  phrase  ^P^nts  common  saying,  “One  might  as  well  be 

a  collection  of  severe  laws  hanged  for  a  sheep  Is  for  a  lamb.” 

duct  and  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  w  While  Peters  gave  notoriety  to  the  name  Blue 

are  supposed  to  have  been  in  force  among  t  «  ^  he  did  not  invent  it;  neither  was  the  name 

early  colonists  of  New  Haven  and  Connecticut  ^  “  ^°£e“use  th ’  were  «bloody  laws>» 
By  extension  the  words  are  used  to  characterize  any  g  probably  because  they  were  printed  with 

strict  or  rigid  regulations,  espec.ally  in  regard  to  ?Cpap«GThe  Session  laws  of  Con- 

Sunday.  t>i11q  t  ■ntpw  Haven  necticut  have  always  been  in  pamphlets  with  blue 

The  notoriety  of  the  Blue  Laws i  ol iNew  Haven  c  so  wfaen  first  applied  the  name  did  not 

was  first  occasioned  by  the  work  01  Kev.  oamuei  present  evil  significance. 

Peters,  an  Episcopal  clergyman  and  a  ^  hTfimiimr  The  New  Haven  code  of  laws,  printed  in  1655, 
who  lived  in  Hebron,  Co™.,  before  the  begmnmg  entire,y  from  th/codes  of  Massa- 

of  the  Revolutionary  Wax, ^  which  work  ^  P^b  chusetts  and  Connecticut  but  each  offence  was  for¬ 
ced  in  England  m .1781  as  A  Genera ^  H  t  y  tified  with  marginal  references  to  Scripture  passages, 
of  Connecticut.  Tvhile  it  pretended  to  De  a  n  dpsrrintion  of  blasphemy  and  the  crimes 

tory  it  was  really  a  bitter  satire,  and  of against  chastity  is  minute  t,  a  painful  degree,  as 
whatever.  It  was  evidently  written  to  grati  y  designed  that  no  one  could  positively  mis- 

spite  or  revenge  of  the  authoi ’against  the  Colony  ^ty  of  the  offenses.  W  crime  of 

of  Connecticut,  the  religion  and  politics  of  whic  h  ,  .  described  and  punished:  “If  any 

hated.  Peters  hadmadehimselfso  ^XTniza-  shall  in  distempered  passion,  or  otherwise,  sinfully 
his  neighbors  and  the  Sons  of  Liberty,  an  organ  _  ^  wound  or  maim  another,  such  person  shall 

tion  of  young  men  m  Connecticut  opposed  to  t  ^  punished  by  fine,  with  some  valuable  recom- 

Stamp  Act,  by  his  °ffens(!,'0? on^tsag°”hT  he  was  pense  to  the  party;  and  shall  pay  for  the  cure,  with 
patriotic  efforts  of  the  Colonists,  that  n  time  etc.  and  where  the  case  requires  it 

treated  by  them  in  a  very  rough  manner  court  of  magistrates  are  to  duly  consider  the 

obliged  to  flee  from  the  country  His  animosity  God  “s  ft  is  revealed.  Exod.  21 :18  to  the 

was  particularly  directed  against  New  Haven,  p  24  T9  20”  This  is  really  better  and  more 

ably  because  at  that  time  Benedict  Arnold  resided  28  Lev  24.1V ,  2lh  in  «  1S  ;  of  Connecticut, 

there,  and  was  either  at  the  head  or  was  one  of  punishment  of  the 

the  chief  leaders  of  the  Sons  of  liberty.  lhe  wn  cn  u  a  ,.emedv  of  the  injured  per- 

laws  made  by  this  independent  Dominion,”  he  says,  accused  1 exp™nsi?e  suit. 

“and  dominated  Slue  Laws  by  the  nmghbormg  P  >  h  ^  ^  that  time  a  famii;ar 

colonies,  were  never  suffered  to  be  printed.  T  his  hment  Jn  a„  the  colonies.  New  Haven 

statement  is  not  true.  The  laws  of  A'ew  ila  the  other  countries;  but 

were  printed  as  soon  as  possible  but  before  being  was  °nceB  made  it  peculiar.  The 

printed  they  were  duly  published.  Peters  cites  a  reads  as  follows:  “Stripes  or  whipping  is  a 

samples  forty-five  laws,  as  representing  a  sma  p  tion  fit  and  proper  in  some  cases,  where  the 

of  the  Blue  Laws.  Some  of  these  are  practically  Xnse  S ^accompaffied1 ^with  chMish  or  brutal  folly, 
true  and  others  partly  true,  but  stated  m  such  a  wfth  rude  filthiness,  or  with  stubborn  insolency,  with 

f <  5 «  otb" 

ldlCtt°tlbf:!h' .or^P^'s -^But  o^tha^no^ 

waSreeqTally  fooli'sh,  H  P^dtaTthat  nolusband  pence  was  laid  on  anyone  “taking  tobacco  in  an  un- 


BLUE  LAWS 


BLUE  LAWS 


113 


covered  place  or  on  training  days.”  The  law  against 
aking  tobacco  was  in  force  in  Connecticut  after 
the  union  of  the  three  colonies;  and  strict  provision 
was  made  against  games  of  chance  and  all  sports 

nf  Kf  rKCqmiJ,ng  skl11  or  !uck*  In  1650  "the  game 
of  shuffle  board  was  especially  prohibited,  and  any 

§ame.  'Yas  forbidden.  Of  course  such 
ndefimte  descriptions  of  offences  made  it  possible 

iL*™CS  f°r  co,urt  t0  do  Sreat  injustice.  In 
ganies  altogether  unlawful”  were  defined  as 

tL,..  tjbleS.’  and  ai^  otker  game  wherein 

that  great  and  solemn  ordinance  of  a  lot  is  ex¬ 
pressly  and  directly  abused  and  profaned.”  The 
early  settlers  considered  that  the  casting  of  lots 

°nl,y  f°r  divine  PurPoses,  and 
that  to  use  it  for  frivolous  amusement  or  purpose 

of  gain  was  forbidden  by  the  word  of  God.  Some- 

rfJ10WCVeVhe  Gcneral  Court  itself  provided 
T1}1S  was  usually  where  the  lottery 
?  as  held  for  the  encouragement  of  religion  or 
•  fn, 1  Prohibition  of  games  was 

fnv  U(?G  ¥  mrds>  ^uorts,  kayle,  loggats,  "or 

a: Ku ot  ue  unlawful  games  or  sport.”  Of  course 
neither  baseball  nor  lawn  tennis  was  then  invented 
or  known  and  so  escaped  reproof. 

But  the  people  finally  began  to  see  the  folly  of 
such  legislation.  "Common  sense  eventually  as¬ 
serted  its  supremacy  in  such  matters,”  says  Judge 
Sam“er^  m  fbe  case  of  State  vs.  Miller,  68  Conn. 

And  legislation  has  ceased  to  stigmatize  inno¬ 
cent  amusements  as  criminal,  and  legislative  dis¬ 
cretion  is  no  longer  invoked  to  define  those  pious 

uses  that  may  be  potent  to  extract  its  inherent  vice 
from  gambling.” 

The  chief  fault  that  has  been  found  with  the 
Blue  Laws  is  the  severity  of  Sunday  regulations, 
a  fault  has  not  yet  been  wholly  remedied,  but 
the  laws  of  Connecticut,  although  giving  the  title 
“Vi6  to  such  acts,  were  no  more  severe 

than  those  of  other  New  England  States.  Even  to 
the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  laws 
in  force  on  this  subject  were  as  strict  as  they 
were  in  the  Puritanic  times.  Every  one  was  re¬ 
quired  to  attend  public  worship  on  Sunday,  unless 

Preu-e,nJted  a  very  grave  cause,  and  was  not  only 
forbidden  to  transact  upon  that  day  any  manner  of 
secular  business  on  land  or  water,  but  was  also 
denied  all  recreation,  all  traveling,  except  from 
necessity  or  charity;  and  even  the  privilege  of 
leaving  his  house,  "Unless  to  attend  upon  the  public 
worship  of  God,  or  some  work  of  necessity  or 
mercy.  These  provisions  were  sternly  enforced  in 
tne  earlier  days,  and  many  attempts  were  made 
to  avoid  their  manifest  inconvenience.  A  story  is 
told  of  three  men  who  had  a  pressing  occasion  to 
drive  from  Saybrook  to  Hartford  on  a  Sunday. 
Constables  were  always  on  the  watch  for  travelers 
and  these  men  knew  they  could  not  make  the 
jouiney  in  the  usual  way  without  being  arrested* 
so  whenever  they  approached  a  village  one  of  the 
men  lay  down  in  the  carriage,  covered  by  a  blanket, 
as  it  very  sick,  and  another  went  forward  making 
anxmus  inquiries  where  he  could  dispose  of  a  man 
suffering  from  an  attack  of  small-pox,  pointing  at 
the  same  time  to  his  companions  in  the  carriage, 
l  he  inhabitants,  fearing  that  their  town  would  be 
burdened  by  the  care  of  a  case  of  small-pox,  drove 
the  three  travelers  to  the  next  town.  There  the 
same  ruse  was  enacted,  and  in  this  w^ay  the  men 
arrived  in  Hartford  without  being  taken  for  viola¬ 
tion  of  the  Sunday  law.  This  story  may  not  be 
historically  true,  but  it  illustrates  how  the  inhabi¬ 
tants  sometimes  broke  their  own  rigid  law  with 
impunity. 

By  these  early  statutes  work  and  pleasure  and 


business  were  forbidden  only  between  the  hours  of 
sunrise  and  sunset.  It  was  not  until  1882  that  trav¬ 
eling  on  Sunday  was  allowed;  but  for  many  years 

Tn  ioM  Portl°n  of  the  statute  was  not  observed. 
In  1883  the  owners  of  vehicles  were  permitted  to 
use  them  on  Sunday  Still  any  contract  made  on 
Sunday  was  void,  and  if  anybody  paid  money  on 
account  of  such  contract,  he  could  not  recover  it  in 
case  of  breach.  This  last  injustice  was  cured  by  an 
act  passed  in  1889  providing  that  "no  person  who 
receives  a  valuable  consideration  for  a  contract 
express  or  implied,  made  on  Sunday,  shall  defend* 
any  action  upon  such  contract,  on  the  ground  that 
it  was  so  made,  until  he  restores  such  consideration  ” 
Like  the  laws  against  innocent  games  of  chance 
the  laws  against  Sunday  amusements  have  been  so 
changed  in  recent  years  as  to  give  little  cause  for 
cnticism.  They  are  not  yet  as  liberal  as  they  should 
be,  and  as  they  are  in  some  jurisdictions;  but 
common  sense  has  begun  to  assert  itself  in  regard 

*he  Su£day  ln  Con?ecticuti  although  when,  in 
1889,  an  effort  was  made  to  ameliorate  the  statute, 
the  hours  of  Sunday  were  lengthened  and  the  fine 
for  violation  increased.  Previous  to  that  time  no 
business  could  be  legally  done  between  sunrise  and 
sunset,  under  a  fine  of  four  dollars.  In  1889  Sun- 
day  was  made  to  extend  from  12  o’clock  Saturday 
night  to  12  o  clock  Sunday  night,  and  the  penalty 
for  violating  the  law  was  raised  to  fifty  dollars 
lhe  practice  known  as  putting  to  the  torture,  an 
old  and  frequent  custom  in  European  countries 
was  mistakenly  included  among  the  Blue  Laws  of 
Connecticut,  for  the  custom,  while  common  in  New 
\ork,  was  never  adopted  in  any  part  of  Con¬ 
necticut.  Burglary  was  punished  by  branding  a 
rule  copied  from  Massachusetts.  In  New  Haven 
the  letter  B  was  burned  on  the  hand,  in  Hartford, 
on  the  forehead. 

The  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  was  regulated  by 
law,  but  the  laws  on  this  subject  were  not  rigid. 

A  reasonable  license  fee  was  provided  for;  but  no 
man  was  allowed  to  sell  strong  drink  to  an  Indian 
under  severe  penalties.  In  New  Haven  any  man 
might  sell  beer  or  ale  at  a  penny  a  quart  or 
cheaper,  without  a  license.  Persons  were  forbidden 
the  privilege  of  convening  at  the  tavern  on  the 
evening  next  before  and  next  after  the  Lord’s  day 
or  any  public  fasting  day.  Taverners  were  forbidden 
to  allow  persons  to  sit  drinking  or  tippling  for  the 
space  of  more  than  half  an  hour  at  a  time;  and  it 
was  made  the  duty  of  the  constable  to  enter  the 
tavern,  by  force  if  necessary,  and  see  that  the  laws 
were  not  violated. 

The  adoption  of  the  18th  Amendment  to  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  furnishes  a  ground 
for  the  making  and  enforcing  of  laws  which  may 
well  be  set  in  this  class.  The  Volstead  Act,  fixing 
the  content  of  one  half  of  one  per  cent  of  alcohol 
in  any  liquid  to  characterize  it  as  an  intoxicating 
beverage,  makes  the  law  a  very  rigorous  one 
While  the  ratio  was  proper  for  purposes  of  excise’ 
lor  which  it  was  intended  in  the  first  place,  it  seems 
unreasonable  for  the  purpose  of  characterizing  a 
liquid  as  intoxicating.  Indeed  there  is  nothing  in 
the  ancient  codes  of  New  England  so  severe  or 
more  in  the  nature  of  a  Blue  Law.  And  the  pun¬ 
ishments  provided  are  much  greater  than  in  the 
case  of  crimes  which  are  evil  in  themselves.  A  fine 
of  not  more  than  $200.00,  or  imprisonment  of  not 
*P°re  ^"an  thirty  days  or  both,  is  imposed  for  the 
first  offense  of  selling,  keeping,  or  offering  liquor 
lor  sale,  or  manufacturing  with  intent  to  sell;  for 
the  second  offense  the  fine  may  be  $1,000,  or  im- 
prisonment  for  six  months  or  both;  and  for  the 
third  offense,  a  $2,000  fine,  or  imprisonment  of 


BLUE  LAWS 


114 


BOHEMIA 


two  years  or  both  such  fine  and  imprisonment 
may  be  imposed.  These  penalties  are  much  greater 
than  those  provided  for  many  crimes  and  misde¬ 
meanors  which  are  mala  in  se.  (See  Connecticut 

StThe  laws  of  the  Commonwealth  of  England,  under 
the  Presbyterians  and  Independents  were  of  the 
same  character  as  those  of  New  ’  , 

generally  more  rigorous  and  severe.  Hu 
scribes  them  in  his  '‘History  of  England,  as  f 
lows:  “The  gloomy  enthusiasm  which  P^evaile 
among  the  Parliamentary  party  is  surely  the  most 
curious  spectacle  presented  in  any  history ;  and  t 
most  instructive  as  well  as  entertaining  to  a  philo 
sonhical  mind.  All  recreations  were  m  a  manner 
suspended  by  the  rigid  severity  of  the  Presbyterians 
and  Independents.  Horse  races  and  cock  matches 
were  prohibited  as  the  greatest  enormities.  Eh 
bear-baiting  was  esteemed  heathenish  and  unchris¬ 
tian*  the  sport  of  it,  not  the  inhumanity,  gave  of¬ 
fense.  Though  the  English  nation  be  naturally 
candid  and  sincere,  hypocrisy  prevailed  among  them 
bevond  any  example  in  ancient  or  modem  times. 

It  is  possible,  and  indeed  probable,  that  th^e  was 
much  hypocrisy  among  the  Puritans  of  New  En^ 
land;  but  a  law  in  the  Connecticut  code  prepared 
by  Roger  Ludlow,  and  adopted  m  1646,  seems  ^  to 
show  a  high  sense  of  humanity.  It  was  this.  It 
is  ordered  by  this  Court  and  authority  thereof  that 
no  man  shall  exercise  any  tyranny  or  cruelty 
towards  any  brute  creatures  which  are  usually  kept 

f°  The6  settlers  of  New  England,  being  nearly  all 
Presbyterians  and  Independents,  which  latter  a 
called  Congregationalists  m  America,  were  ot  couise 
given  to  the  same  fanatical  religious  views sand  go ^ - 
lined  themselves  by  a. rigor  similar  to  that  found 
nmnnp'  their  co-religiomsts  m  England.  The  peise 

cution  of  the  Quakers,  and  other  ^ 8 
themselves  was  common  to  all  the  New  itngiana 
Colonies*  and  their  hatred  of  the  Catholic  Religion 
was  nothing  less  than  a  mania.  But  if  we  consider 
the  persecution  of  James  Naylor,  the  mad  Quaker 
of  Bristol,  the  cruelty  of  the  English  seems  much 
greater  than  that  of  the  Colonists;  and  if  the  phras 
Blue  Laws  means,  as  Peters  says,  bloody  laws, 

then  it  is  more  applicable  to  01(^fE^kl}  iaia 
to  New,  and  although  the  use  of  the  teim  is- 
chiefly  confined  to  Connecticut,  a  fair  investigation 
of  th J facts  of  history  shows  that  it  is  less  applicable 
there  than  to  other  parts  of  New  England. 

As  to  religious  persecutions,  there  was  no  plac 
in  North  America  except  the  Catholic  Colony  o 
Maryland,  where  they  were  not  at  least  as  rigorous 
as  in  Connecticut.  Indeed  they  were  a  feature  of 
the  Protestantism  of  the  time.  Phdhmore,  m  his 
‘‘ReHn  of  George  III,”  cited  by  Mr.  Trumbull  in 
hH  work  on  the^Blue  Laws,  says :  “To  exercise  the 
rieht  of  private  judgment,  so  far  as  to  quit  the 
Church  of  Rome,  which  had  governed  Christendom 
for  centuries,  was  the  duty  ofeverr  Chnstianbut 
to  exercise  it  so  far  as  to  differ  with  the  Articles, 
put  out  one  hundred  years  before  by  a  church  that 
did  not  pretend  to  be  infallible  and  te^rs Jdiat 
laid  no  claim  to  inspiration,  was  a  crime  to  b 
punished,  in  some  instances  by  the  stake,  in  all 
others  by  confiscations,  by  the  lash  and  shears  o 
the  hangman,  and  by  the  pestilential  dungeo  , 
within  the  walls  of  which  was  death. 

Genera,  Statutes  of  Connect ^Conn  %*i.  «<&■ 

necticut  (New  York  1877)  ■  , ^Tmoston  M95)T T.S”, 
and  Civil  History  of  Connect _c  (  iota').-  Hinman,  Blue 
Blue  Laws,  True  and  False  (Hartford,  1870) ,  )  ^  ’  Con- 

Laws  of  New  Haven,  etc.  (Hartford,  1838), .  «fBER> 
necticut  Historical  Collect, one  (New  Haven  18J?V 


Bobbio,  Abbey  and  Diocese  of  (Bijbiensis;  cf.  C. 
E.  II-605b),  in  the  province  of  Pavia,  in  N°rthelJ1 
Italy  suffragan  of  Genoa.  Rt.  Rev.  Luigi  Marelli, 
appointed  to  this  see  16  December,  1907,  was  trans¬ 
ferred,  15  December,  1914,  and  the  present  incum¬ 
bent,  Rt.  Rev.  Pietro  Calchi-Novati,  was  appointed 
to  succeed  him  21  December  of  the  same  yeai. 
According  to  1921  statistics  this  diocese  comprises 
a  Catholic  population  of  30,100,  and  has  55  parishes, 
80  secular  priests,  16  sisters,  25  seminarians,  and  105 
churches  or  chapels 


Bogota,  Santa  Fe  de,  Archdiocese  of  (Bogoten- 
sis;  cf.  C.  E,  11-6126),  in  Colombia,  South  America. 
This  archdiocese  is  the  pnmatial  see  of  Colombia 
and  is  at  present  (1922)  under  the  administration 
of  Most  Rev.  Bernard  Herrera-Restrepo,  b.  m 
the  city  of  Bogota,  11  September,  1844  appointed 
Bishop^of  Medellin  27  March,  1855,  and  promoted 
4  June,  1891.  He  is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary,  Rt. 
Rev.  Leonidas  Medina,  titular  Bishop  of  Ca- 
machus.  In  1914  a  national  Eucharistic  Congress 
was  held  here  (8-14  September)  and  met  with  great 
success.  Bv  the  1921  statistics  the  diocese  com¬ 
prises  600,000  Catholics,  besides  20,000  Indian  in¬ 
fidels,  120  secular  and  70  regular  clergy,  and  210 
churches  or  chapels. 


Bohemia  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-612d),  formerly  a  crown- 
land  and  titular  kingdom  of.  Austria,  but  after  the 
downfall  of  the  dual  monarchy  a  member  of  the 
new  Czechoslovakia  (q.v.),  bounded  on  the  north 
by  Saxony  and  Silesia,  on  the  east  by  Moravia 
and  Lower  and  Upper  Austria.  The  area  is  20  057 
so  miles  and  the  population,  according  to  the  latest 
census,  that  of  1910,.  6,769  548  (  337  to  the  sq t  mile) 

In  1913  it  was  estimated  at  6,860,029.  Ihe  mu 
census  gives  for  Bohemia  about  4,242,000  Czechs 
to  2,468,000  Germans,  or  63  per  cent  Czechs  to  37 

per  cent  Germans.  .  in.A  ,v  „ 

Rewgion.— According  to  the  census  of  1910  there 

were  6,475,935  Catholics,  117,832  Evangelists,  85,826 
Jews,  and  30,005  of  other  faiths.  r.^TA. 

For  further  religious  statistics  see  Czechoslovakia  , 
Prague,  Archdiocese  of;  Litomerice,  Diocese 
of;  Budejovice,  Diocese  of;  Hradec  Kralove,  Dio- 

CESE  OF# 

Education.— The  language  question  has  always 
been  involved  in  the  establishment  and  mainte¬ 
nance  of  schools.  The  German  Schulverem  was 
the  first  in  the  field  and  had  the  wealth  of  the 
Germans  behind  it.  In  1880  the  Czechs  I-°unde 
the  Matice  Skolska  (Mother  of  Schools),  which 
provided  schools  as  soon  as  there  were  enough 
Czech  children  to  need  them,  and  forced  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  to  take  over  its  schools  when  the  number 
of  children  entitled  them  to  state  support.  In  the 
German  area  of  north  Bohemia  there  are,  according 
to  the  latest  statistics,  108  schools  educating  10,000 
Czech  children.  The  Matice  is  said  to  have  founded 
56  primary  schools  in  Bohemia  and  14  m  Moravia, 
in  addition  to  61  creches.  #  In  the  Czech  quarter  of 
Vienna  an  educational  society,  the  UmonKomen- 
sky”  made  great  efforts  to  maintain  Czech  classes 
and  private  schools,  as  all  the  public  schools  were 
German,  even  in  places  of  large  Czech  majorities. 
In  1914  there  were  3,359  Czech  elementary  schools 
in  Bohemia  as  against  2,334  German  schools.  The 
Czech  national  movement  devoted  particulai  atten¬ 
tion  to  educational  problems,  and  long  before  the 
war,  Bohemia  possessed  a-  complete  network  ot 
schools  and  colleges,  leading  up  to  the  famous 
Caroline  University  in  Prague,  and  the  percentage 
of  illiteracy  was  as  low  among  the  Czechs  as  among 
their  German  neighbors.  Ihe  latest  statistics  (19-0) 
194  middle  schools  of  Bohemia,  of  which  72 


BOHEMIAN 


115 


BOIS-LE-DUC 


arc  retained  by  the  Germans;  also  22  industrial 
schools,  9  of  which  are  German. 

REctjNT  History  (1909-1920).— The  year  1909  was 
marked  by  an  acute  racial  struggle,  accentuated  by 
liea\y  delicits  in  the  Bohemian  budgets  and  unem¬ 
ployment.  Measures  for  the  free  use  of  Czech 
and  lor  the  division  of  the  country  into  20  adminis¬ 
trative  and  judicial  districts,  of  which  10  were  to 
be  Czech,  6  German,  and  4  mixed,  were  submitted 
to  the  Diet,  but  no  settlement  was  made.  In 
January,  1911,  Count  Francis  Thun  took  office  as 
governor  at  the  emperor's  request,  but  all  com- 
pi  omise  1  ailed,  and  as  a  result  the  governor 
appointed,  on  26  July,  1913,  an  Imperial  Adminis¬ 
trative  Commission  and  dissolved  the  Diet.  With 
the  outbreak  of  the  Great  War  Bohemia  found  itself 
subjected  to  a  political  reign  of  terror,  which  was 
supported  by  military  and  police  espionage  and 
censorship.  To  the  last  man,  the  Czechs  were 
keenly  opposed  to  war  with  their  Slavonic  kinsmen 
on  the  Eastern  and  Southern  fronts,  and  with  the 
Western  democracies,  which  represented  their  po¬ 
litical  ideal.  On  the  Russian  front  Czech  regi¬ 
ments,  like  the  Jugoslav  regiments  on  the  Balkan 
front,  again  and  again  surrendered,  either  en  masse 
or  in  part,  without  firing  a  shot,  to  an  “enemy” 
whom  they  regarded  as  a  deliverer.  They  even 
formed  whole  regiments  a.M  then  brigades  to  fight 
on  the  Entente  side. 

For  the  Czech  expedition  to  Siberia  see  Czecho¬ 
slovakia. 

The  paris  Peace  Conference  in  1919  decided  to 
giv  e  Czechoslovakia  a  strategic  frontier  on  the 
northwest,  instead  of  an  ethnographic  frontier.  The 
line  of  the  Giant  Mountains  is  the  natural  geo- 
graphic  border  between  Saxony  and  Czechoslovakia, 
and  it  has  the  advantage  from  the  Bohemian  point 
of  view  of  being  a  defensible  border;  the  disad- 
Yantage  is  that  a  solid  mass  of  Germans  live  on 
the  south  side  of  the  mountains  in  the  territory 
that  has  come  to  be  known  as  “German  Bohemia.” 


Bohemian  Brethren  (Moravian  Brethren,  or 
Unitas  Fratrum;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-616a).— In  addition 
to  the  general  body  in  the  United  States,  which 
owed  its  organization  to  the  first  immigration  of 
Schwenkf elders  in  1734,  there  are  two  other  separate 
organizations.  The  first  is  known  as  the  Evangelical 
Lnion  of  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren  in 
North  America.  Their  origin  is  traced  to  the  im¬ 
migration  of  some  members  of  the  European  Union 
to  the  bnited  States  after  the  revolutionary  dis¬ 
orders  of  1848.  The  members  from  eastern  Moravia 
settled  in  Texas.  In  1864  the  first  congregation  was 
formed,  others  were  formed  later,  and  in  1903  the 
first  assembly  of  delegates  from  all  the  congrega¬ 
tions  met.  In  1904  a  constitution  was  adopted  and 
a  state  charter  obtained.  In  1921  this  organization 
reported  23  churches,  all  in  Texas,  44  ministers, 
and  1,714  members. 

The  second  body  is  listed  in  the  United  States 
reports  as  the  “Independent  Bohemian  and  Mora- 
"\ian  Brethren  Churches.”  This  is  a  loose  union 
of  three  congregations  in  Iowa  which,  while  claim¬ 
ing  the  same  origin  as  the  two  other  bodies  of 
Moravian  Brethren,  are  not  ecclesiastically  con¬ 
nected  with  either.  In  educational  and  missionary 
work  they  are  affiliated  with  the  Central  West 
(Bohemian)  Presbytery  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  Tnited  States  of  America.  In  1916  they  re¬ 
ported  320  members  and  14  officers  and  teachers. 

The  Moravian  church  is  a  member  of  the  Federal 
Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in  America.  It 
is  also  taking  part  in  the  preparations  for  the  World 
Conference  on  Faith  and  Order. 


J^abn  America,  West  Indies,  Mexico,  Central 

ind19?nU  r’r  n-nenca  tho  Amcrioan  Moravians  had, 
n  commilmcant,8  and  11,812  enrolled 

in  schools.  I  he  general  missionary  work  of  the 
Moravians  is  carried  on  jointly  in  18  fields  by 
t  le  American  and  European  branches,  and  it  is 
reported  that  the  proportion  of  missionaries  to 
members  is  about  1  to  60,  the  usual  Protestant 
proportion  being  1  to  about  5,000. 

the  Moravians  reported  in  the  United 
fetates  136  churches,  183  ministers,  and  28,000  mem¬ 
bers,  and  in  1922  31,767  members.  In  1917  the 
enrolment  in  the  14  missionary  provinces  of  the 
church  was  109,000,  and  its  grand  total  in  all  coun¬ 
tries  was  156,000,  besides  70,000  members  of  the 
state  churches  of  Europe. 

Hutton ,  History  of  the  Moravian  Church  (London  1909V 

&sks  i&sn  arni  1919,;  /r: w  “ & 

N.  A.  Weber 

^ocese  ?f  (Boianensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
li-b22cU,  m  the  province  of  Campobasso,  Southern 
Italy  suffragan  >  of  Benevento.  Rt.  Rev.  Felice 
Gianfehce,  appointed  to  this  see  1897,  died  9  June, 
1J16,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent, 
Kt.  Rey.  Alberto  Romita,  b.  in  Cegli  del  Campo 
880,  appointed  22  March,  1917.  The  diocese  com- 

?noiGS  ?  pat.ho]l?  Population  of  90,300,  and  by  the 
1921  statistics  is  credited  with  40  parishes  175 
secular  and  19  regular  clergy,  30  seminarians,  20 
Brothers,  10  Sisters,  and  134  churches  or  chapels. 

TTBCoon  Diocese  of  (Xylopolitiana;  cf.  C.  E., 
II-623d),  comprises  the  State  of  Idaho,  U.  S  A 
I  he  first  bishop  of  the  diocese,  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph 

.  ° .a §P?inie(*  uP°n  the  erection  of  the  see 
in  1893,  died  2o  August,  1917.  During  his  adminis¬ 
tration,  and  that  of  his  successor,  the  present  in- 
cumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Daniel  M.  Gorman  (conse¬ 
crated  1  May,  1918),  the  progress  of  this  diocese 
has  been  very  rapid.  Many  new  churches  and 
cnapels  have  been  erected  and  schools  and  institu¬ 
tions  opened;  St.  John’s  Cathedral  at  Boise  was 
completed  and  dedicated  30  May,  1921;  hospitals 
have  been  opened  at  Nampa,  Pocatello;  high 
schools  at  Moscow  and  Pocatello;  new  parishes  at 
Twin  Fulls,  Buhl,  Caldwell,  Hailey,  Kellogg,  Mul- 
lan,  Thorncreek  and  Pocatello,  as  well  as  many 
new  missions  and  grade  schools. 

The  diocese  now  comprises  43  parishes,  91 
churches  (as  against  54  in  1907),  48  missions  115 
mission  stations,  41  secular  and  21  regular  clergy 
(as  against  31  priests  in  1907),  1  monastery  for 
men  with  7  religious,  213  religious  women,  7  lay 
brothers,  and  25  seminarians.  A  few  years  ago 
there  were  no  high  schools,  while  now  there  are  6, 
witli  20  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  23  boys  and 
197  girls,  and  5  academies  with  60  teachers  and  427 
girl  students.  Among  the  charitable  institutions 
are  4  Indian  missions,  2  homes,  6  hospitals,  and  1 
settlement  house.  There  are  3  organizations  formed 
among  the  clergy,  3  among  lay  men,  and  6  among 
lay  women.  A  Catholic  monthly  is  circulated  in 
about  12  of  the  parishes. 

i  tv6  World  War  Idaho  sent  a  quota  of 

1,000  Catholic  men,  and  one  of  the  most  prominent 
of  these,  Lt.  John  M.  Regan,  was  killed  at  Fismes 
m  ^  r  Argonne.  One  of  the  nurses  from  this  dio- 
cese  held  an  important  position  among  the  nurses 
of  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces.  The  total 
Catholic  population  of  this  territory,  which  num- 
beis  about  19,000,  is  composed  of  Americans, 
Belgians,  Dutch,  Basques,  Mexicans,  Swiss,  Irish, 
Germans,  Poles,  Croatians  and  Bohemians. 


Bois-le-Duc,  Diocese  of  (Buscoducensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  II-625b),  in  Holland,  also  known  as  s’Herto- 


BOISSARIE 


116 


BOLIVIA 


genboscli,  suffragan  of  Utrecht.  Rt.  Rev.  Willia 
Van  de  Ven,  appointed  to  this  see  1892,  died  24 
December,  1919,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  coadjutor, 
Rt.  Rev.  Arnold  Francis  Diepen,  born  in  the  city 
of  Bois-le-Duc,  1860,  ordained  1884,  appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  Danaba,  11  February,  1915.  Out 
of  a  total  population  (1921)  of  478,960  this  diocese 
has  403,400  Catholics,  and  counts  600  secular  and 
387  regular  clergy,  255  parishes,  18  deaneries,  465 
churches  or  chapels,  28  religious  orders  of  men  and 
28  of  women. 

Boissarie,  Gustave,  physician,  president  of  the 
Bureau  des  Constatations  at  Lourdes,  b..  at  Sarlat, 
France,  1  August,  1836;  d.  there  28  June,  1917. 
He  was  the  son  of  Dr.  Lucien  Boissarie  and  at¬ 
tained  distinction  in  his  preparatory  studies  m 
Paris,  his  professors,  men  like  Jobert  de  Lamballe 
and  Velpeau,  predicting  for  him  a  brilliant  career. 
His  success  as  corresponding  member  of  several 
medical  societies,  notably  the  Society  of  Surgery, 
confirmed  this  prognostication,  but  in  spite  of  their 
efforts  to  retain  him  in  Paris,  he  returned  to  his 
own  neighborhood,  where  he  took  over  his  fathers 
practice,  married  and  had  five  sons,  all  of  whom 
became  men  of  distinction  in  their  various  careeis. 

In  the  late  eighties  he  became  interested  in  the 
work  of  the  Bureau  des  Constatations  in  Lourdes, 
and  visited  the  town  frequently  to  take  part  in  its 
investigations.  On  the  death  of  the  first  president 
of  the  bureau  in  1891,  Doctor  Boissarie  was  ap¬ 
pointed  to  succeed  him,  and  held  the  post  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life.  He  developed  the  work  con¬ 
siderably,  attracting  to  the  investigations  medical 
experts  from  all  countries,  not  a  few  of  whom  had 
to  acknowledge  the  failure  of  any  natural  explana¬ 
tion  for  the  cures  they  had  witnessed.  A  man  of 
firm  faith,  he  was  equally  firm  in  his  conviction 
that  true  miracles  should  be  able  to  stand  the  most 
rigorous  application  of  scientific  tests,  and  he  was 
often  the  last  in  a  reunion  of  physicians  to  recog¬ 
nize  the  evidence  of  certain  extraordinary  cures. 
Doctor  Boissarie  proved  the  bad  faith  of  Zola,  who 
in  his  book  “Lourdes”  altered  facts  so  as  to  make 
the  cures  appear  temporary  and  unreal.  Two  years 
later  he  brought  to  Paris  three  of  those  thus  mis¬ 
described,  and  at  a  public  meeting  at  the  Luxem¬ 
bourg  gave  ocular  demonstration  of  Zola’s  fabrica¬ 
tion.  It  is  estimated  that  7,778  medical  men  took 
part  in  the  investigation  during  the  twenty-three 
years  of  Doctor  Boissarie’s  term  of  office. 

In  1881  he  was  made  a  Knight  of  St.  Gregory, 
and  in  1890  a  Commander  of  the  same  order.  In 
1910  Pius  X  accorded  him  an  audience  during 
which  he  said,  “I  appreciate,  my  son,  all  the  good 
you  have  done  at  Lourdes;  I  thank  you  and  bless 
you.”  In  1907  Doctor  Boissarie  published  his  “His- 
toire  Medicale  de  Lourdes,”  a  work  of  great  value 
and  scrupulous  impartiality. 

Bolivia  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-627b). — The  present  limits 
of  Bolivia  run  from  north  to  south  between  10°  20' 
N.  and  22°  50'  S.,  and  from  east  to  west  between 
57°  47'  40"  to  about  72°.  However,  according  to  the 
Bolivian  claims,  asserted  in  1916,  the  limits  should 
be  stated  as  follows:  Longitude,  57°  29'  40"  west 
and  69°  33'  35"  west;  on  east  side,  latitude  90°  34 
54"  S.  to  25°  13'  S.;  and  on  west  side,  latitude  10° 
56'  40"  S.  to  25°  00'  5"  S.  The  republic  covers  an 
area  of  514,155  sq.  miles  (1,233,972  kilometers),  and 
ranks  as  fifth  in  size  among  the  South  American 
countries.  In  1915  the  estimated  population  was 
2,889,970,  or  a  little  more  than  six  to  the  sq.  mile. 
Of  this  486  were  reported  as  Mestizos  and  920,864 
as  Indians.  Besides  these  there  were  3,945  negroes. 
The  largest  cities  with  their  estimated  populations 


(1918)  are  as  follows:  La  Paz  (the  actual  seat  of 
the  government),  107,252;  Cochabamba,  31,104; 
Potosi,  29,785;  Sucre  (the  capital),  29,686;  .Tarija, 
11,644;  Oruro,  31,360;  Santa  Cruz,  25,807;  Trinidad, 

6,096.  .  . 

Religion. — By  Article  2  of  the  Constitution  of 
Bolivia,  the  Roman  Catholic  is  the  recognized  re¬ 
ligion  of  Bolivia.  The  public  practice  of  other 
religions,  which  was  formerly  forbidden,  is  now 
permitted.  For  the  support  of  the  Church  the 
State  pays  121,108  bolivianos  ($48,500),  23,820 
bolivianos  ($9,500)  being  devoted  to  the  propaga¬ 
tion  of  the  Faith  among  the  Indians.  The  legal 
status  of  marriage,  as  summed  up  in  Article  99  of 
the  Civil  Code  of  Bolivia,  was  changed  by  the  law 
of  March,  1912,  which  states  that  all  marriages  in 
the  republic  must  be  celebrated  by  the  civil 
authorities.  Bolivia  has  an  Envoy  Extraordinary 
and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  accredited  to  the 
Holy  See,  while  a  papal  internuncio  resides  at 
Sucre. 

For  religious  statistics  see  La  Plata,  Archdiocese 
of;  Cochabamba,  Diocese  of;  La  Paz,  Diocese  of; 
Santa  Cruz,  Diocese  of. 

Economic  Condition. — Bolivia  produces  one- 
quarter  of  the  total  tin  output  of  the  world,  rank¬ 
ing  next  to  the  Malay  peninsula  in  the  production 
of  this  metal.  The  present  demand  and  high  prices 
have  caused  a  favorable  expansion  in  tin  exploita¬ 
tion.  Next  in  importance  is  rubber,  the  annual 
export  value  being  $5,000,000.  Petroleum  is  now 
being  exploited.  The  foreign  trade  in  1918  was: 
imports,  $13,601,092;  exports,  $71,219,012;  to  the 
United  States  went  exports  worth  $29,636,799;  to 
Great  Britain,  $35,500,841,  exports  to  Chile  and 
France  ranking  next.  The  imports  come  chiefly 
from  the  United  States  ($4,411,372)  and  Chile 
($3,151,465).  It  is  estimated  that  4,940,000  acres  are 
under  cultivation,  but  agriculture  is  in  a  backward 
condition.  The  public  lands  have  an  area  of  245,000 
square  miles,  of  which  104,000  square  miles  are  re¬ 
served  for  special  colonization.  The  monetary  unit 
is  the  boliviano,  of  a  par  value  in  American  cur¬ 
rency  of  $.3003.  The  revenue  of  Bolivia  is  derived 
mainly  from  customs  duties,  spirit  duties,  tin,  silver, 
gold,  wolfram,  antimony,  rubber  export,  patents 
and  stamps.  From  1  January,  1912,  onwards, .  a  tax 
of  3  per  cent  has  been  imposed  on  the  liquidated 
profits  of  all  mineral  enterprises,  the  gross  value  of 
whose  production  and  exportation  exceeds  $40,000 
yearly.  The  public  debt  on  30  June,  1919,  amounted 
to  68,869,161  bolivianos,  of  which  38,933,525  were 
external  debt.  The  law  of  15  December,  1915,  pro¬ 
vides  for  a  permanent  armed  force  of  3,577  men. 

Communications. — In  1918  the  total  length  of 
railway  lines  was  1,354  miles,  including  the  new 
line  opened  in  July,  1917,  from  Oruro  to  Cocha¬ 
bamba.  There  are  354  miles  under  construction. 
Under  the  Bolivian-Chilian  treaty  of  24  October, 
1904,  the  Arica-La  Paz  line,  271  miles  in  length,  of 
which  143  miles  are  in  Bolivia,  was  built  from  La 
Paz  via  Lluta  to  Corocoro.  The  Bdivian  section 
was  handed  to  the  government  of  Bolivia  on  3  May, 
1913.  On  12  May,  1920,  the  Bolivian  Congress 
granted  to  an  Argentine  firm  a  contract  for  the 
construction  of  the  railway  from  La  Quiacaca  in 
Argentine  to  Turpiza  in  Bolivia,  which  makes  pos¬ 
sible  easier  communication  between  Buenos  Aires 
and  La  Paz,  and  will  greatly  strengthen  commercial 
relations  between  the  two  countries.  _ 

Government. — The  republic  is  divided  into  eight 
departments,  La  Paz,  Cochabamba,  Potosi,  Santa 
Cruz,  Chuquisaca,  Tarija,  Oruro,  El  Beni,  and 
three  national  territories,  Noroeste,  Gran  Chaco, 
and  Oriente,  72  provinces  and  681  cantons.  The 


BOLOGNA 


117 


BOLSHEVISM 


r«lnt  uas  a /.c^lnet  consisting  of  six  ministers; 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies  consists  of  70  deputies. 

„  if]  teri;itories  are  governed  by  three  officials 
called  delegados  nacionales. 

Education  .—Primary  education,  which  is  free  and 
compulsory,  is  under  the  care  of  municipalities  and 
the  state.  In  1918  there  were  450  elementary 
schools  with  3,960  teachers  and  58,400  pupils.  For 
secondary  education  there  were  21  colleges,  5 
c  erical  institutions,  5  private  lyceums  with  180 
teachers  and  2,598  pupils;  for  higher  education 
there  were  19  institutions  and  2  universities  (at 
bn  ere  and  La  Paz),  also  a  National  Conservatory 

fn  !Qi7PaT  Tmo  war  coIIeSe  for  officers^  founded 
in  1917.  In  1918  the  State  spent  3,020,672  bolivianos 

lor  educational  purposes.  The  National  School  of 

Commerce  at  La  Paz,  founded  in  1910,  is  a  step 

oflooys the  commercial  traininS  of  girls  as  well  as 

Recent  History.— The  boundary  disputes  of 
Bolivia  with  Brazil  and  Chile  were  settled  by 
treaties  in  November,  1913,  and  Octover,  1914.  The 
depute  about  the  Arica  territory  remains  to  be 
sctUed.  1  he  controversy  is  actually  between  Chile 
and  mu,  but  Bolivia  claimed  possession-of  a  port 
m  this  province,  a  claim  which  Peru  protested,  the 
trouble  culminating  in  1919  in  the  attack  by  a  mob 
on  the  Peruvian  legation.  The  United  States  in¬ 
tervened  as  peacemaker  and  the  Brazilian  Govern- 
ment  offered  to  arbitrate.  During  the  European 
VVar  Bolivia  joined  the  allies  by  severing  all  rela- 
taons  with  Germany  and  was  one  of  the  signatories 
to  the  Treaty  of  Versailles. 

During  July,  1920,  there  was  a  revolution  in 
Bolivia.  By  a  coup  d’etat  the  President,  Senor  G. 
bueria,  leader  of  the  Liberal  party,  was  driven  from 
power  with  his  government,  and  several  Republican 
leadeis,  with  Senor  Saavedra  at  their  head,  seized 
control  of  the  capital  and  of  the  country.  Senor 
•  Saavedra  became  Provisional  President  ‘  and  de¬ 
clared  that  he  was  in  favor  of  obtaining  a  Pacific 
port  for  Bolivia,  but  only  through  an  amicable 
agreement  with  both  Chile  and  Peru.  He  was 
finally  elected  President  for  the  term  1921-1925. 


Bologna,  Archdiocese  of  (Bononiensis;  cf.  C. 
£'*1  “*§??)  *  m  the  Province  of  the  same  name,  in 
Italy  I  his  see  was  filled  by  the  late  Pope  Benedict 
AV,  from  16  December,  1907,  until  his  election  to 
the  papacy.  He  was  succeeded  by  His  Eminence 
Giorgio  Cardinal  Gusmini,  b.  at  Gazzaniga,  1855, 
ordained  1878,  appointed  Bishop  of  Foligno,  15 
“P,  »  promoted  to  Bologna,  8  September, 

1914,  died  24  August,  1921.  The  Pope  appointed 
his  successor  upon  the  feast  of  the  patron  qf  the 
archdiocese,  St.  Petronius,  4  October,  1921,  in  the 
person  of  Mgr.  Nasalli  Rocca,  his  private  chap¬ 
lain.  Born  in  Piacenza  in  1872,  Archbishop  Rocca 
spent  the  early  years  of  his  ministry  in  Rome  at  the 
Accademia  dei  Nobili  Ecclesiastici  and  as  canon  of 
the  Patriarchal  Basilica  of  St.  Maria  Maggiore  and 
°n  25.  January,  1907,  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Gubbio,  where  he  served  until  he  was  called  to 
the  pontifical  court.  By  a  decree  of  the  Consistory, 
3  January,  1917,  the  limits  of  the  diocese  were 
somewhat  changed,  and  on  15  February  of  the 
same  year,  important  indulgences  were  granted  to 
the  church  of  St.  Benedict.  By  1921  statistics  the 
diocese  counts  185,400  Catholics  and  comprises  392 
parishes,  640  secular  and  65  regular  clergy  640 
seminarians,  24  brothers,  287  Sisters,  1,175  churches 
or  chapels. 

Bolshevism — -The  term  derived  from  the  Rus¬ 
sian  word  Bolshinstvo,  meaning  majority ;  it  is  used 


me mCSw»dnh  th°  cxfrcmc  Communist  move- 
' 'A'  ;0*?  WIIS  °n§>nated  in  1903  as  a  result  of 

cm  mrt^r(Trrcd  ln  the  Kussilin  Social  Demo¬ 
at  iweuCf0n.ventloP  of, its  delegates  held 

thp  V’1?  At  that  tlme  the  dissension  between 
the  two  opposing  factions  was  mainly  confined  to 

croun°of  °J  itaC\1CS  avnd  .organization,  the  outvoted 
°  •  egate®  having  assumed  the  name  of 

a  lensheviki  meaning  those  adhering  to  the  mi- 

P  Br?th  fac7tlons>  however,  even  in  those  days, 
l£ed  SOCl0}  revolution  as  their  fundamental 

H,Y?Ar,B+ei?aUiSe  jf  ■Ru?slas  backward  economic- con- 
tion,  the  leaders  of  Bolshevism  realized  that  an 
immediate  attempt  to  put  the  Communist  program 
into  effect  would  inevitably  result  in  a  failure 

Bo UhfUl*S-  TrWn  Tactics’”  1905)-  Therefore,  the 
Bofsheviki,  in  full  agreement  with  the  other  So- 

ciahst  groups,  strove  to  achieve  what  was  termed 
le  complete  liberation  of  the  working  classes” 
through  a  political  revolution;  i.  e.,  the  overthrow 
of  the  imperial  regime  in  Russia. 

In  1905  the  first  practical  endeavor  was  made  to 
npp  y  ommumst  tactics  to  the  revolutionary 
movement  which  broke  out  in  Russia  partly  be¬ 
cause  of  the  unfortunate  developments  of  the 
Kusso-Japanese  War.  In  the  fall  of  1905  the  revo- 
dements  in  Petrograd  and  Moscow, 
guided  by  Trotzky  (Bronstem),  Parvus  (Helfandt) 
and  a,  number  of  other  aliens  and  professional 
revolutionists  set  up  the  first  Soviet  (q.  v )  in 
Petrograd,  challenging  the  imperial  Government 
and  attempting  its  overthrow.  Since  then  Bol¬ 
shevism  has  become  the  living  expression  of  “class 
wai,  in  accord  with  the  principles  outlined  by  the 
stepfather  of  Communism,  Karl  Marx,  in  his  “Com- 
mumst  Manifesto”  (1847).  Thus,  despite  the  fact 
that  the  leaders  of  Bolshevism  were  cognizant  of 
the  impossibility  of  achieving  an  immediate  radical 
change  in  the  social  structure  of  Russia,  the  prac¬ 
tical  workings  of  Bolshevism  were  mainly  directed 
toward  the  .abolition  of  private  property,  with  the 
ultimate  aim  of  establishing  the  so-called  “dictator¬ 
ship  of  the  proletariat.”  The  defeat  of  the  first 
revolutionary  outbreak  in  Russia  drove  Bolshevism 
underground,  its  activities  having  been  limited  pri¬ 
marily  to  revolutionary  progapanda  among  the 
working  class  in  Western  Europe.  In  this  connec¬ 
tion  the  extreme  factions  of  German  Social  Democ¬ 
racy  and  French  Revolutionary  Syndicalism,  led 
by  Georges  Sorel  and  Lagardelle,  came  to  the  assis¬ 
tance  of  Bolshevism,  paving  the  way  for  a  revolu¬ 
tionary  Internationale,  which  later  became  known 

-uj  Thl^d  Internationale,”  the  inhibition  of 
which  dates  back  to  the  time  of  the  convocation 
ol  the  Zimmerwald  Conference  in  1916.  The  lead¬ 
ing  spirits  of  this  Conference,  summoned  in  the 
°/«  ,1  World  War,  were  Lenin  (Oulianov), 
Kadek  (Sobelsohn),  Rakovsky,  Ganetzky  (Fursten- 
and  Martov  (Zederbaum).  It  was  there  that 
the  first  plan  was  formulated  to  convert  the  World 
War  into  a  world  revolution. 

Although  in  the  final  draft  on  the  Manifesto, 
addressed  to  the  laboring  classes,  the  Zimmerwald 
Conference  omitted  the  appeal  for  “direct  action” 
and  mutiny;  nevertheless,  one  of  its  theses  urged 
the  proletariat  to  devote  its  entire  energy  to  “the 
sacred  aims  of  Socialism,  for  the  liberation  of  op¬ 
pressed  peoples  and  enslaved  classes  by  means  of 
an  uncompromising  proletarian  class  war.”  This 
practically  meant  a  victory  for  the  left  wing  ele¬ 
ments  at  the  Conference,  whose  motto  was  thus 
formulated  by  Radek:  “The  struggle  for  peace 
simultaneously  must  assume  the  shape  of  a  revolu¬ 
tionary  struggle  against  capitalism.”  This  pro¬ 
gram  of  world  revolution  was  further  elucidated 


BOLSHEVISM 


118 


BOLSHEVISM 


by  the  International  Socialist  Commission  at  Berne. 
The  Bolshevist  proclamation  of  1  May,  1916,  con¬ 
tained  a  direct  appeal  to  “the  conquest  of  political 
power  and  abolition  of  private  property  by  tlie 
working  class”  as  the  only  guaranty  for  immediate 
peace  without  annexation.”  The  economic  disturb¬ 
ances  caused  by  the  World  War  and  the  general 
discontent  resulting  therefrom  largely  contributed 
to  the  impetus  of  Bolshevist  propaganda  both  m 

Western  Europe  and  Russia. 

The  Central  Powers,  threatened  with  the  growing 
military  preparedness  of  Russia,  decided  to  use 
Bolshevism  as  a  weapon  for  the  destruction  of  the 
Russian  military  apparatus  On  the  other  hand 
international  German-J  ewish  finance,  whic  i 
decades  in  the  past  proved  hostile  to  imperial 
Russia,  threw  its  influence  onto  the  scale  of  the 
Central  Powers,  contributing  its  financial  support 
to  the  organization  plans  of  the  German  military 
staff  for  spreading  revolutionary  propaganda  m  the 
rear  of  the  Russian  army.  The  task  of  the  Bol- 
sheviki  was  greatly  facilitated  by  the  outbreak  in 
Russia  of  the  March  Revolution  of  1917.  With 
the  formation  of  the  so-called  Provisional  Govern¬ 
ment,  headed  by  weak  and  incompetent  politicians 
(Kerensky,  Miliukov,  and  Prince  Lvoff),  a  revolu¬ 
tionary  apparatus  was  set  up  by  the  extreme  revo¬ 
lutionary  factions,  namely,  Bolsheviks,  Mensheviks, 
and  Social  Revolutionists.  It  became  known  as 
the  Petrograd  Soviet  of  Workers  and  Soldiers 
Deputies.  While  the  Provisional  Government  was 
engaged  in  the  ruin  of  Russia’s  political  structure, 
the  Petrograd  Soviet,  and  later  the  Soviets  in  other 
Russian  cities,  undertook  the  violent  destruction 
of  social  and  economic  foundations  of  the  Russian 
State.  Although  in  the  beginning  the  Bolsheviki 
were  in  a  minority  in  Soviet  organizations,  yet 
because  their  program  was  the  most  radical  their 
influence  grew  stronger  with  each  succeeding 
blunder  made  by  the  Provisional  Government. 
Appeals  for  “bread  and  peace,”  launched  by  Bol¬ 
shevist  and  Socialist  agitators,  met  with  consider¬ 
able  success  among  the  masses  of  the  Russian  peo¬ 
ple  who  were  tired  of  the  war  and  believed  that 
with  peace  economic  conditions  would  improve 

^Th^dissolution  of  the  Russian  front  proceeded 
with  ever  increasing  velocity,  and  by  the  fall  ot 
1917  the  resistance  of  the  Russian  army  had  prac¬ 
tically  ceased.  Tens  of  thousands  of  deserting  Rus¬ 
sian  soldiers  moving  eastward  abandoned  their 
trenches,  seizing  the  lands  of  the  nobility  ana  ol 
the  wealthier  peasants.  With  the  complete  inability 
of  the  Provisional  Government  to  cope  with  the 
grave  situation,  Bolshevist  tactics  grew  daily  more 
arrogant.  While  the  first  July  uprising  of  the  Com¬ 
munists,  staged  by  Lenin  and  Trotzky,  was  quelled 
by  Cossack  troops  brought  from  the  front,  still 
Bolshevism  continued  to  be  an  impending  danger. 
The  military  authorities,  having  arrested  the  Bol¬ 
shevist  leaders,  including  those  above  mentioned, 
were  thereupon,  by  the  personal  interference  ot 
Kerensky,  compelled  to  release  them,  hor  a  lew 
months  Bolshevist  headquarters  were  removed  to 
Finland,  whence  destructive  propaganda  was 
directed’.  In  the  meantime  economic  disintegration 
continued  unhampered,  food  conditions  in  the  large 
cities  becoming  more  acute.  On  28  October,  1917, 
Kerensky’s  government  was  overthrown  and  a 
Soviet  dictatorship  was  established.  Soon  after¬ 
wards  similar  revolutions  occurred  in  Moscow  and 
in  other  Russian  cities.  Almost  simultaneously 
the  Soviet  Government  began  to  put  into  effect 
its  program  of  “nationalization”  of  industries,  banks, 
and  private  property  in  general.  Red  terror  against 


the  wealth-owning  classes  and  land-owning  peasants 
came  as  a  natural  result  of  the  principle  of  class 
war  which  was  proclaimed  as  the  basic  credo  ol 
triumphant  Communism.  Wholesale  executions, 
drastic  persecution  of  the  Christian  Church  m  ah 
its  denominations,  forced  labor  imposed  upon  the 
so-called  bourgeoisie ,  were  the  accompanying  fea¬ 
tures  of  Bolshevist  rule.  At  the  same  time  the 
motto  of  Karl  Max,  “Expropriate  the  expropria¬ 
tors,”  was  applied  to  the  industrial  life  of  Russia. 
The  industrial  management  of  olden  times  was 
forcibly  replaced  by  the  so-called  local  Workers 
Councils,”  which  took  charge  of  the  factories,  mills, 
and  mines.  The  consequences  of  this  measure  were 
alarming.  In  the  course  of  six  months  production 
had  almost  ceased.  In  some  branches  of  industry 
the  decrease  reached  a  level  of  90%.  Because  ot 
the  complete  stoppage  of  coal  digging  railways  were 
left  without  fuel  and  the  whole  transportation  sys¬ 
tem  became  hopelessly  wrecked. 

The  effects  of  civil  war  contributed  to  the  general 
economic  and  social  disaster.  Organized  and  ele¬ 
mental  revolts  against  Soviet  rule  threw  Russia  into 
a  continuous  civil  strife,  which  has  not  ceased  up 
to  the  present  time.  Vast  territories,  formerly  be¬ 
longing  to  the  Russian  Empire,  were  broken  up 
and  independent  states  formed  with  the  specific 
object  of  evading  Bolshevist  rule.  Aside  from  that 
the  Brest-Litovsk  treaty,  concluded  between  the 
Bolsheviki  and  the  Central  Powers,  was  a  deliberate 
scheme  for  the  further  dismemberment  of  the 
Russian  Empire.  The  result  of  these  combined 
factors  was  famine,  degradation,  and  an  appalling 
spread  of  virulent  epidemics.  As  far  back  as  m 
1918  Trotzky  and  other  Bolshevist  leaders  were 
forced  to  admit  that  gradual  starvation  was  the 
fate  of  millions  of  Russian  citizens,  doomed  to 
misery  and  destitution.  It  also  became  apparent 
that  the  workers’  management  of  industries  could 
not  succeed  and  that  production  would  cease  en¬ 
tirely.  Lenin  soon  publicly  announced  that  tne 
Bolsheviki  would  have  to  “take  a  step  backward 
because  of  the  impossibility  of  keeping  up  the 
processes  of  production  without  the  active  assis¬ 
tance  of  experts  and  skilled  labor.  The  year  1919 
was  the  period  of  hunting  for  experts  to  whom  in¬ 
dustry  could  be  entrusted,  i  hese  endeavors,  how¬ 
ever,  completely  failed  for  Red  terror  and  starvation 
had  demoralized  the  nation’s  brains.  In  addition, 
the  continuous  struggle  against  the  White,  armies 
and  the  rebellious  peasants  opposing  Soviet  rule 
made  it  impossible  to  effect  the  least  improvement 
in  industrial  and  economic  conditions.  The  burden 
of  Red  militarism  and  the  building  up  of  a  huge 
Red  army  consumed  all  the  energy  of  the  Soviet 
leaders.  Instead  of  the  promised  peace,  uninter¬ 
rupted  warfare  was  inflicted  upon  Russia.  Military 
operations  against  Poland  terminated  in _  1920  in 
a  humiliating  peace  concluded  at  Riga.  Vast  ter¬ 
ritories  were  ceded  to  Poland,  the  boundaries  of 
Russia  having  been  restricted  to  those  of  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century.  .  .  ,  .  0  .  ,  •  _ 

The  growing  dissatisfaction  with  the  Soviet  regime 
was  taken  as  an  excuse  for  increasing  the  authority 
of  the  so-called  “Extraordinary  Commission  for 
Combating  Counter-Revolution,  Speculation,  and 
Sabotage,”  familiarly  known  as  the  Cheka,  this 
Russian  Extraordinary  Commission,  with  its  local 
ramifications  ( Goubcheka ),  became  a  notorious  ma¬ 
chine  of  oppression  and  its  actual  power  is  greater 
than  the  power  of  the  Council  of  the  Peoples 
Commissars,  combined  with  the  Central  Executive 
Soviet  at  Moscow.  The  Cheka  is  a  kind  of  revolu¬ 
tionary  tribunal  which  carries  on  its  mam  activities 
through  an  elaborate  system  of  secret  agents  and 


bolshevism 


119 


BOMBAY 


sp!es-  ^nder  tjle.  rule  of  this  peculiar  institution 
nobody  feels  safe  in  Russia  and  the  slightest  protest 
against  the  Soviet  regime  results  in  appearing  be- 
loie  the  tribunal  of  the  Cheka  and  thereafter  dis¬ 
appearing  from  the  stage  of  life.  By  the  year  1922 
tne  Russian  famine  had  assumed  such  proportions 
hat  the  attention  of  the  entire  civilized  world  was 
attracted  to  this  disaster.  The  United  States, 
through  the  American  Relief  Administration,  the 
International  Red  Cross,  and  the  League  of  Nations 
nave  taken  active  part  in  endeavoring  to  arrest  the 
spread  of  the  famine  area.  By  January,  1922,  ac- 
co?din®  Soviet  statements,  not  less  than  twenty 
nnllion  Russians  were  classed  as  in  “a  starving 
condition.”  6 

With  regard  to  Soviet  foreign  policy,  its  funda¬ 
mental  aim  is  the  promotion  of  revolutionary 
propaganda,  both  in  the  West  and  East.  In  this 
task  the  Soviet  Government  is  assisted  by  the  or- 
g:a.iiizat.iori  known  as  the  “Third  Internationale,” 
tne  official  birth  of  which  was  in  December,  1918 
when  the  first  International  Communist  Congress 
wils„®limIlloned  in  Retrograd,  under  the  presidency 
of  Zinoviev  (Apfelbaum).  This  Congress  was  at¬ 
tended  by  representatives  of  Communist  organiza¬ 
tions  in  the  United  States,  England,  China,  Austria, 
Holland,  Germany,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  Finland,  Tur¬ 
kestan,  Persia,  India,  Corea,  and  France.  In  all 
of  these  countries  the  activities  of  the  Bolsheviki 
are  carried  on  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Execu- 
tive  Committee  of  the  Third  Internationale.  Every 
Bolshevist  or  Communist  organization  desiring  to 
join  the  Third  Internationale  must  obey  the 
twenty-one  terms  of  admittance”  laid  down  by 
Lenm.  Iron  discipline  is  imposed  upon  the  ad¬ 
herents  to  this  international  revolutionary  organi¬ 
zation.  Much  attention  is  devoted  by  the  Third 
Internationale  to  the  formation  of  the  Red  units 
within  the  ranks  of  the  respective  armies  and 
navies,  as  well  as  to  the  systematic  Communist 
propaganda  among  the  laboring  classes.  The  chief 
feature,  however,  of  Soviet  foreign  policy  is  the  so- 
called  scheme  of  the  “Red  East,”  which  is  prac¬ 
tically  an  attempt  to  combine  the  different  rebellious 
currents  in  Asia  into  one  gigantic  stream  which  is 
designed  to  flood  Europe  with  its  “capitalistic” 
structure.  The  success  of  Red  propaganda  has  proved 
a  real  menace  to  Western  civilization,  and  its  danger 
should  not  be  underestimated  and  cannot  be  exag¬ 
gerated.  While  in  1921  and  1922  the  Bolsheviki,  m 
•  u-fa£e  °.f  the  disastrous  economic  conditions 
within  Russia  proper,  were  compelled  to  grant  minor 
concessions  to  the  Russian  people  in  the  way  of 
partially  restoring  the  freedom  of  petty  trade,  which 
hitherto  was  considered  as  a  crime  against  the 
Communist  State  (speculation),  nevertheless  con¬ 
ditions  in  Russia  by  the  early  part  of  1922  had 
become  worse  than  ever.  At  the  same  time  obsten- 
sible  changes  in  Soviet  policies  and  the  avowed 
desire  of  the  Bolsheviki  to  take  part  in  interna¬ 
tional  conferences  are  in  no  way  indicative  of  a 
sincere  intention  to  abandon  their  program  of  world 
revolution.  In  January,  1922,  the  Third  Inter¬ 
nationale  issued  a  manifesto  to  the  workers  of  the 
world  in  which  it  is  frankly  declared  that  the  peace¬ 
ful  overtures  of  the  Soviets  to  the  Western  World 
are  but  a  tactical  necessity  caused  by  the  intolerable 
internal  situation  in  Russia.  The  new  tactics  are 
described  as  “a  truce”  with  the  capitalist  world : 

A  truce,  thus  runs  the  document,  “is  a  long  way 
off  from  peace.  Peace  with  capitalists  is  impossible 
for  the  workers.  Peace  will  only  be  possible  when 
the  heavy  means  at  the  disposal  of  the  proletariat 
shall  drag  down  the  idol  of  gold  of  the  middle  class, 
when  the  modern  Baal  shall  be  destroyed  and  the 


in f  the  °f  modern  times  shaI1  be  buried 

Bolshevism  (New  York  ^  llmf .a,,d  Russia's  Revolt  Against 
Urns, a  (London  1920>-  ’m»»9p»/  '’“J'  Cond“'°">  in  Soviet 
shevik  RussZ “tondi  1920)  •  Bm™  ?"“/*'  »*""**  “<*• 
turn  (New  York  1920)-  T»i  m  77  1  ir’  f?claLl*™  vs.  Civiliza - 
(Boston,  1921);  Spargo,’  bS’svVZ  <N 

kov.  Bolshevism.  (LYL  lilt  mint  i  mini  .  1 1  LIU- 


Alexinsky  Economic  Russia  in  10:0  (New  York’  lOwN 
Gompeks  and  Walling,  Out  of  Their  Own  Mouths  (New  York 
19^1);  Calling,  Sovietism .  (New  York  19201 
in  the  Shadows  ("New  Vnrl  io<m\  t  %  ,vv  tLLS>  Russia 

&7-  yi Sis;  Yot 

Oer^ToSjiCc^ 

Memorandum  on  Certain  Atnprfu  nf  it*  6  iu  -J 
ment  (Washington  DC  iqiqy .e  °f •  Bolshev}st  Move - 

(London, Blls^T^S^dng^rl 

u-  *■ Senate’ 6stl  c°°‘™ 
Boris  Brasol. 

Bom  Jesus  do  Gurgueia,  Prelature  Nullius  of. 
bee  Bom  Jesus  do  Piauhy. 

JGtSUS  ?°  P!auhy’  Prelature  Nullius  of 

In  18Q?°TJESYTTTn  the  DJ°Sese  of  Piauhy  in  Brazil. 
In  1892  Leo  XIII  conceded  all  the  rights  to  erect 

new  dioceses  in  Brazil.  On  8  June,  1920,  Pope 

5^ f  1C,LX,V  exfrcised  these  rights  for  the  good  of 
e  faithful  and  separated  the  provinces  of  San 
Raymundo  Monneto,  Bom  Jesus  do  Gurgueia, 
a°aguaA  Corrente,  and  St.  Filomena,  from  the 
Diocese  of  Piauhy  and  erected  the  prelature  of 
Bom  Jesus  do  Piauhy,  which  will  later  be  erected 
mto  a  diocese  It  is  dependent  on  the  Archdiocese 
of  Belem  do  Para.  The  seat  of  this  prelature  will 
Jesus  do  Gurgueia  and  the  head  prelate 
if  Li  ested  )vlth  episcopal  jurisdiction;  at  present 
it  only  comprises  five  parishes,  but  it  promises  to 
grow  rapidly,  as  the  territory  of  Brazil  offers  ma- 
tenal  for  some  of  the  largest  dioceses  of  the  Church. 


Bombay  Arciimogese  of  (Bombayensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  II.-644b),  comprises  the  Island  of  Bombay, 
India  with  several  outlying  churches  in  the  Island 
ot  balsette,  a  large  portion  of  the  Bombay  Presi- 

di^ricts  of  Kathiawar,  Cutch, 
bind,  and  British  Beluchistan. 

In  1720,  on  political  grounds,  the  Portuguese 
c  ergy  vvere  expelled  by  the  Government  and  the 
Vicar  of  the  Great  Mogul  was  invited  to  take 
chaige  of  the  Catholics.  In  1786  endeavors  were 
made  to  restore  the  jurisdiction  of  Goa  and  after 
some  conflict  the  churches  were  divided  in  1794 
between  the  Archbishop  of  Goa  ( Padroado )  and 
the  vicar  apostolic  (Propaganda),  thus  introducing 
two  jurisdictions  With  the  First  Provincial  Coun¬ 
cil  m  1898  the  Island  of  Salsette  and  the  coast 
country  as  far  as  the  Nerbudda  were  placed  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Damaun  (Pad- 
roado),  who  also  received  personal  jurisdiction  in 
Bombay  Island  over  all  subjects  of  Padroado  of 
Goan  or  Portuguese  origin. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  World  War  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Bombay  and  the  suffragan  Diocese  of 
Roona  were  depleted  by  over  seventy  men  and  is 
at  present  working  with  about  fifty  where  before 
there  were  120,  and  many  of  these  are  men  lent  by 
other  mission  countries,  and  will  eventually  have 
to  be  returned.  During  the  War  Rev.  Alban 
-loodiei,  b.  J.,  was  sent  from  England  to  save  the 
colleges  in  case  the  German  Fathers  should  be  ex¬ 
pelled,  and  later,  upon  the  death  of  Archbishop 


BORDEAUX 


BONAPARTE 


120 


Jurgens  in  1916,  he  was  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Bombay,  and  consecrated  on  22  December,  1919 
At  the  present  time  (1921)  the  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  under  the  archbishop  is  about  24,000,  of  which 
about  9,000  are  in  Bombay  Island;  3,000  m  kalsette; 
2,000  in  Gujerat,  Kathiawar,  and  CutclU  aTd  ° 
in  Sind.  The  Archdiocese  is  served  by  139  f  athers, 
12  scholastics,  and  81  lay  brothers  of  the  Society  < ol 
Jesus,  and  33  secular  priests  attending  24  churches 
and  25  chapels,  besides  sisters  of  the  Orders  ot 
Jesus  and  Mary,  and  the  Daughters  of  the  Cross, 
engaged  in  educational  and  charitable  woik. 

Among  the  institutions  of  the  diocese  are  the 
University  College  in  Bombay  Island  which  has 
had  a  rapid  growth  and  now  has  1,177  students, 
and  St.  Xavier’s  High  School,  with  1,033  students. 
There  is  no  diocesan  seminary,  the  secular  clergy 
being  trained  at  the  Papal  Seminary  at  Kandy  in 
Ceylon  and  at  Mangalore.  With  the  building  of 
St.  Ignatius  Church  in  Bombay  one  more  fine  build¬ 
ing  was  added  to  the  many  beautiful  structures  ot 

the  archdiocese.  ......  .  ,  * 

The  Examiner  Press,  which  is  the  property  of 
the  archbishop,  now  publishes  “The  Examiner,,  the 
“Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart  for  India,  the 
“  Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart  in  Konkani,  and 
a  number  of  books  in  the  vernacular  according  to 

need. 


Bonaparte,  Charles  Joseph,  lawyer  and  states¬ 
man,  b.  in  Baltimore  9  June,  1851,  d.  m  Bella 
Vista,  Maryland,  28  June,  1921.  He  was  the  son 
of  Jerome  Napoleon  Bonaparte  and  Susan  May 
Williams  and  grandson  of  Jerome  Bonaparte, 
brother  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I.  Educated 
at  Harvard  he  was  graduated  from  the  law  school 
in  1874  and  devoted  the  early  years  of  his  career 
to  the  practice  of  his  profession.  In  1904  he  be¬ 
came  a  legal  adviser  of  the  Board  of  Indian  Com¬ 
missioners  and  trustee  of  the  Catholic  University. 
Always  a  staunch  republican,  m  1905  President 
Roosevelt  appointed  him  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
and  later  (1906)  attorney  general  a  post  he  held 
until  1909,  when  he  returned  to  his  law  practice. 

Mr.  Bonaparte  was  an  indefatigable  writer  and 
speaker,  and  was  active  and  prominent  m  the  Civil 
Service  Reform  League  and  allied  organizations. 
His  real  work  was  a  fearless,  uncompromising  and 
untiring  battle  for  higher  standards  of  public  life. 
His  own  spotless  life  and  character,  his  disinterested¬ 
ness  and  skillful  logic  made  him  unsurpassed  in 
his  ability  to  bring  home  to  men  the  price  they 
were  paying  in  moral  degradation  for  what  they 
were  getting  out  of  corrupt  politics. 

Bonn,  University  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  n-673d).— -In 
1848  an  agricultural  academy  was  founded  at  Pap- 
pelsdorf  and  was  leased  by  the  university  with  all 
its  appurtenances.  It  is  under  the  direct  control  ot 
the  Minister  of  Agriculture,  and  like  the  university 
has  the  right  of  autonomy ;  since  1920  it  is  called 
the  College  of  Agriculture  (H ochschule) ,  and  is 
administered  by  a  rector,  who  is  elected  annually. 
It  is  connected  with  the  university  inasmuch  as 
the  students  are  matriculated  in  the  faculty  of 
philosophy  and  thereby  become  full  members  of 
the  university.  The  college  has  its  own  right  ot 
promotion.  It  is  divided  into  three  depaitments, 
each  one  of  which  has  its  dean,  e.g.,  Political 
Economy,  Surveying,  and  Agricultural  Sciences, 
Pure  and  Applied  Sciences.  The  faculty  consists 
of  professors  in  ordinary,  honorary  docents  and 
private  docents  ( privcit  dozenten).  During  the  sum¬ 
mer  term  of  1921  the  entire  student  body  numbered 
963,  of  whom  20  were  women.  The  Catholic  theo¬ 
logical  faculty  during  the  winter  term  1921-22  num¬ 


bered  12  professors  in  ordinary  (dogma,  apologetics, 
moral  theology  exegesis  (New  and  Old  testament), 
Church  history,  canon  law,  pastoral  theology,  Ctiris- 
tian  art,  and  Christian  social  science) .  There  are  two 
professors  emeritus,  1  honorary  professor,  and  4  privat 
dozenten  with  the  title  of  extraordinary.  The  heads 
of  the  chief  faculties  are  also  directors  of  the  chief 
theological  seminaries,  having  a  combined  budget 
and  in  part  a  special  budget.  The  professors  ot 
this  faculty  are  nominated  and  appointed  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  professors  of  the  othei  facul¬ 
ties,  but  before  the  final  confirmation  of  such 
appointments  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne  must  be 
consulted  and  has  the  right  to  veto  such  appoint¬ 
ments  because  of  serious  objections  to  the  ortho¬ 
doxy,  or  the  past  conduct  of  the  nominee.  Before 
beginning  his  activities  the  newly  named  candidate 
solemnly  takes  the  oath  “Praferio  fidei  catholicse 
in  the  university  chapel,  and  notification  of  this  is 
sent  to  the  archbishop  as  well  as  to  the  Govern¬ 
ment.  Before  going  to  press  the  semi-annual  regis- 
tor  is  sent  to  the  archbishop  for  his  approval,  &frd 
the  faculty  is  bound  to  accept  any  changes  which 
he  suggests  regarding  purely  theological  matters, 
and  if  possible  to  act  upon  them.  The  majority  of 
the  theological  students  live  in  boarding  houses, 
to  meet  which  need  two  diocesan  hospices  have 
been  established  at  Bonn  (Albertinum  and 
Leoninum),  but  these  students  do  not  receive  Holy 
Orders  here.  The  entire  theological  course  covers 
11-12  semesters;  of  these  9  are  spent  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Bonn,  the  remainder  at .  the  diocesan 
seminary  at  Bonn,  where  the  candidates  receive 
minor  orders.  The  first  four  semesters  are  taken 
up  with  the  study  of  philosophy,  for  the  most  part 
under  the  direction  of  Catholic  professors  of  the 
philosophical  faculty;  a  few  are  granted  permission 
to  spend  several  semesters  at  other  universities, 
e.g.,  Munster,  Innsbruck,  Rome,  and  Freiburg. 
During  the  summer  term  of  1921  the  Catholic 
theological  students  numbered  5060,  of  whom  129 
were  foreigners  and  510  were  women.  The  uni¬ 
versity  has  its  own  library,  which  is  also  the  library 
of  the  province.  At  the  present  time  (1921)  it 
contains  about  500,000  bound  volumes.  A  change 
in  the  constitution  of  the  university  is  in  progress. 


Book  of  Common  Prayer  (cf.  C.  E.,  IL^d). 

After  years  of  agitation  a  joint  commission  of 
the  two  Houses  of  Convocation,  in  1915,  recom¬ 
mended  a-  revision  of  the  Prayer  Book,  the  changes 
to  consist  in  a  rearrangement  of  the  Psalms  and 
permission  to  omit  the  “maledictory  verses,  m  a 
revision  of  the  calendar ;  and  alterations  in  the 
Ornaments  rubric,  the  daily  office  and  the  litany. 
The  question  of  revising  the  Athanasian  Creed,  or 
of  changing  the  directions  as  to  its  use,  is  also 
being  agitated.  In  1916  the  lower  House  of  Convo- 
cation  postponed  further  action  and  nothing  definite 
has  as  yet  (1922)  been  done.  The  entire  question 
of  revision  is  in  reality  due  to  the  struggle  between 
the  Ritualists  and  their  opponents.  The  former 
desire  revision  along  “Catholic”  lines,  while  the 
latter  desire  changes,  especially  in  the  Ornaments 
rubric,  that  will  make  impossible  the  practices  and 

tendencies  of  the  Ritualists. 

Brightman,  The  English  Rite  (London,  1915) ;  Wace,  Some 
Questions  of  the  Day  C London,  1912) ;  Beechinc '.  Prayer  Book 
Revision  in  Nineteenth  Centiiry,  LXIX,  (1911),  282,  1,1.14, 
Manning,  Book  of  Common  Prayer  in  Hibbert  Journal,  VIII 

(1909-10),  612.  _  0 

Gerald  Shaughnessy.  . 


Bordeaux,  Archdiocese  of  (Burdigalensis;  cf.  C. 
E.  IK682b),  in  the  department  of  Gironde,  France. 
It  has  as  suffragans  the  dioceses  of  Agen,  Angouleme, 
La  Rochelle,  Lu$on,  Perigueux  and  Poitiers.  His 


borgo 


121 


BORSI 


Eminence  Cardinal  Lccot,  who  was  appointed  to 

im  1fi90,  dled  19  December,  1908,  and  was  sue- 
.byA  tl]Q.  present  incumbent,  His  Eminence 

lorn  And/oU’  aPP°mted  this  see  2  January, 
1909.  Born  at  Seysses,  1849,  ordained  1874,  he  was 

5lsh^i  °u- MarseilIes>  18  April,  1901,  which 

nlnJ I  ifi  n  Untl  hlS  P™inotlon>  being  created  car¬ 
dinal  16  December,  1907.  He  is  assisted  by  an 

Risd/mw-.f  Th'  Rev\  J?n?oM,artil1.  Adam>  titular 
shop  of  Thmuis.  In  1918  the  third  centenary  of 

the  Ursuhnes  was  solemnly  celebrated  at  Bordeaux 

and  on  o  February  of  the  same  year  Benedict  XV 

gi  anted  a  special  plenary  indulgence  to  all  churches 

and  chapels  of  the  order.  According  to  1921  sta- 

ZltlCS  otiJ10Cese.  co,unts  823,925  Catholics,  of 
^vhom  261  6/8  are  in  the  city  of  Bordeaux,  where 

J-J  23  Pansbes-  .B  comprises  in  all  79  par¬ 
ishes,  431  succursal  parishes,  153  vicarages,  and  938 
priGsts* 


Borgo  San  Donnino,  Diocese  of  (Burgi  Sancti 
Domnini;  cf.  C.  E  II-686a),  in  the  province  of 
Parma,  Central  Italy,  directly  dependent  on  the 
Holy  bee.  Rt.  Rev.  Leonida  Mapelli,  appointed  to 
this  see  4  October,  1907,  d.  23  February,  1915,  and 
vas  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev 
John  Fabbrucn  b.  in  Cancelli,  1861,  ordained  1885,’ 
appointed  to  this  see,  6  August,  1915.  The  1921 
statistics  credit  the  diocese  with  58,000  Catholics, 
54  parishes,  100  secular  and  10  regular  priests  64 
seminarians,  14  Brothers,  50  Sisters,  and  78  churches 
or  chapels. 

Borgo  San  Sepolcro,  Diocese  of  (Burgi  Sancti 
bEPULCHRi,  or  Biturgensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-686b)  in 
the  province  of  Arezzo,  Central  Italy,  suffragan  of 
Florence.  Rt.  Rev.  Raffaele  Sandrelli,  appointed  to 
tins  see  11  June,  1892,  was  retired  and  succeeded 
by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Pompeo  Ghezzi, 
b  at  Gorgonzola,  1870,  appointed  27  November, 
iyil.  By  1921  statistics  this  diocese  has  a  Catholic 
population  of  60,500,  and  comprises  135  parishes,  190 
secular  and  20  regular  priests,  30  seminarians,  11 
rothers,  <0  Sisters,  and  280  churches  or  chapels. 

Borneo,  British  or  Northern,  and  Labuan 
Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (Bornaci  Anglici; 

•'  ?  II-687a),  is  entrusted  to  the  For- 

MQW^fp°nS  pf,  Mili  HiU.  The  present  prefect 
(192~)  is  Rev.  Edmund  Dunn  of  this  order.  Out  of 

?n^taQonoPUnaVi0ni  °f  700 ’?00  there  are  in  this  terri¬ 
tory  3,000  Catholics  and  500  catechumens.  The 

work  of  the  mission  is  carried  on  by  22  priests,  2 

Brothers,  7  catchists,  and  20  Franciscan  tertiaries* 

it  now  counts  22  churches  or  chapels,  10  stations, 

with  children.  Idren  and  2  orPhana8es 


s.ibsidavtefrnmtl!5  !is,ters;  6  schooIs-  "'hich  receive  a 
ubsidy  from  the  state,  are  conducted,  caring  for  the 

educatron  of  429  children;  3  homes  and  5  orphanages 

mfssfon°  /iwvi'f/'f'  ?m,ce  *i'e  fo>»«lation  of  the 
mission  (190o)  it  has  lost  only  one  of  its  nriests 

Rev.  Honoratus  J.  van  der  Voort,  d.  1918,  while 

caring  for  the  sick  at  Dajak,  during  an  epidemic. 

P™™*101,111’  /  ““®?n  f,n  Denmark,  entrusted  by 
Pi  opaganda,  to  the  Dutch  Dominicans  in  1915  pre¬ 
sided  over  by  Rev.  John  Melen,  superior  This 
imssion  comprises  the  Danish  island  of  Bornholm 
in  the  Baltic  Sea  near  the  southern  coast  of  Sweden 
and  forms  a  small  part  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  Denmark  and  the  Island,  subject  to  the  juris- 
diction  of  Rt.  Rev  Johannes  von  Ruch,  residing 
at  Copenhagen.  With  the  exception  of  some  im- 
M1fSnlS-and.C0?Ve,?S  the  P0PuDtion  of  Bornholm 

to Tp  MVentir^  Pr°ute^ant-,  They  belonS  mostly 
to  the  National  Danish  Church,  but  there  are  more 

than  sixteen  other  sects  scattered  throughout  the 

•®Ia iqf.  +Pef£re,r%  establishment  of  this  mission 

n  1915  the  Catholics  had  to  be  satisfied  with  what 

nflrrvm  Lld  C0U  1  be  given  them  hy  the  Priests 

i  Copenhagen,  who  made  occasional  visits  to  the 

sland  Upon  its  establishment  as  a  separate  mis- 
sion  the  Dominicans  of  the  Dutch  Province  estab¬ 
lish^  two  stations,  one  at  Ronne,  the  capital  of 
the  island,  and  the  other  at  Aakirkeby,  a  small 
effy  in  the  center  of  the  island.  The  former  is 
used  aS  the  mission  center  for  the  Danes,  the  latter 
tor  the  Poles. 

Each  year  about  250  Poles  are  found  in  this 
territory  from  the  beginning  of  spring  until  the 
nd  of  the  harvest,  where  they  earn  their  living 
working  the  farms,  their  assistance  being  greatly 
appreciated  by  the  Danes,  who  suffer  from  a 
scarci  y  o  labor.  The  station  at  Aakirkeby  is 
Kdepd,0r  ar,Dutuh  Dominican,  who  speaks 

nnnLP  l  h  ?nd  Damsh’  and  he  numerous 
opportunities  for  giving  instruction  to  Protestants 

as  well  as  Catholics  The  station  at  Ronne  is  in 
charge  of  another  Dominican  whose  whole  work 
is  the  convers^n  of  Protestants,  and  who  is  assisted 
by  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood  of  the 
German  Congregation,  whose  mother-house  and 
novitiate  are  in  Holland.  There  are  ten  of  these 
Sisters  who  give  their  lives  to  the  care  of  the  sick 
fu  6  ^eachmg  °f  young  Danish  girls.  Among 
the  fifty  pupils  who  attend  their  elementary  schools 
there  is  not  one  Catholic. 


Borneo,  Dutch  or  Southern,  Vicariate  Apostolic 

n ll Dollanmci ;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-687a),  comprises 
all  the  Dutch  province  of  Borneo.  It  was  erected 
into  a  vicariate  from  the  prefecture  apostolic  of  the 
same  name,  13  March,  1912,  remaining  under  the 
care  of  the  Dutch  Capuchins,  to  whom  it  was  en¬ 
trusted  upon  its  foundation,  1905.  Rt.  Rev.  John 
Bos,  who  was  appointed  first  prefect  apostolic  of 

tu  ieiTimJy  WJS  Promoted  to  vicar  apostolic,  14 
March  1918  and  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Capi- 
tolias,  four  days  later.  p 

A  comparison  of  the  1906  statistics  of  this  ter¬ 
ritory,  with  those  published  in  1922  shows  the  rapid 

?n°£reASZhich  has  been  made  here-  There  are  now 
VeT  Catholics  as  against  396  in  1906;  21  priests  and 
18  brothers  where  there  were  only  8  priests  and  4 
brothers;  24  churches  and  18  stations  where  for¬ 
merly  there  were  3  chapels  and  2  stations.  The 
Franciscan  Sisters  of  Veghel  are  established  in  the 


Borsi,  Giosue,  soldier,  poet  and  journalist,  b.  in 
1QeA  orn’  DMy,  10  June,  1888,  d.  10  November, 
1915;  son  of  Averado  Borsi  and  Verdiano  Fabbri 
From  his  earliest  years  Borsi  manifested  literary 
ability  A  poem  written  to  his  mother  at  the  age 
of  thirteen  has  been  termed  a  classic.  At  fifteen 
and  seventeen  he  published  volumes  of  poetry 
while  at  twenty  he  was  recognized  as  a  foremost 
COri]miei?tat?r  ,on  Dante.  At  twenty-two  he  suc¬ 
ceeded  his  father  as  editor  of  “II  Nuova  Giomale” 
ot  Florence. 

Borsi  had  been  raised  in  an  irreligious  atmosphere 
as  his  father  was  the  owner  of  a  chain  of  anti¬ 
clerical  newspapers,  but  he  had  been  baptized  and 
received  his  first  Communion  at  the  age  of  fourteen 
iu  Reference  to  his  mother’s  wishes.  He  studied  at 
the  University-  of  Leghorn,  where  he  received  his 
degree  m  law,  for  which  he  had  no  particular  in¬ 
terest,  so  he  left  the  university  to  become  a  jour¬ 
nalist.  Three  deaths  in  his  family,  that  of  father, 
sister,  and  a  brother,  blasted  his  hopes  of  earthly 
happiness,  and  in  visiting  the  cemetery  where  they 
were  puned  he  became  acquainted  with  the  local 
Franciscans,  at  whose  suggestion  he  commenced  to 


BOSA 


122 


BOSNIA 


study  religious  works.  In  the  interest  of  his  new®- 
paper  he  became  acquainted  with  Rev.  Guido 
Ahani  P.  M.,  director  of  the  Florentine  Observa¬ 
tory,  who  satisfied  his  religious  difficulties  and 
received  him  back  into  the  Church. 

On  18  July,  1914,  Borsi  received  Holy  Communion 
for  the  second  time,  and  on  29  April,  19^» 
confirmed  by  Cardinal  Maffi,  Archbishop  of  Pisa, 
and  on  4  May  following  he  began  writing  his 
“Spiritual  Soliloquies,”  which  are  regarded  by  ^me 
critics  as  a  twentieth-century  version  of  the s  Con¬ 
fessions”  of  St.  Augustine,  and  in  the  opinion  ot 
Cardinal  Maffi  will  stand  with  them  as  amongst  the 
greatest  ascetical  literature  produced  by  the  Church. 

Enlisting  at  once  when  Italy  entered  the  war,  in 
October  1915,  Borsi  was  sent  to  the  Isonzo  front, 
where  he  fell,  mortally  wounded,  10  November, 
while  leading  his  platoon  to  attack.  After  his  death 
his  Colloquies,  which  are  fifty-four  in  number,  tie 
last  eighteen  having  been  written  at  the  front,  were 
published,  and  translated  by  ftev  pasquale  Maltese 
under  the  title  of  “Soldier’s  Confidences  with  God. 

A  series  of  letters  to  his  fiancee,  entitled  Confes¬ 
sions  to  Julia,”  are  in  course  of  publication.  I  he 
influence  of  the  spiritual  writings  of  this  young 
Italian,  turned  from  a  dissipated  darling  of  the 
salons  of  Florence  and  Rome  into  an  apostle  of 
Catholicism,  is  a  palpable  force  among  the  young 
men  in  Italy  to-day,  whose  fruits  cannot  yet  be 

reckoned. 

Bosa,  Diocese  of  (Bosanensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-689b), 
in  the  province  of  Cagliari,  Sardinia,  suffragan  of 
the  Archdiocese  of  Sassari.  Rt.  Rev.  John  Baptist 
Yinati,  appointed  to  this  see  19  January,  1906,  was 
promoted  to  the  titular  see  of  Mocessos,  1916,  and 
his  successor,  Rt.  Rev.  Angelico  Zanetti,  G.I.M^, 
now  (1922)  fills  this  see,  having  been  appointed  lb 
December,  1915.  In  1921  this  diocese  had  a  Catho¬ 
lic  population  of  30,200  and  comprised  20  parishes 
55  secular  priests,  7  seminarians,  and  104  churches  or 
chapels.  The  church  of  our  Lady  of  the  Snows  at 
Cuglieri,  constructed  at  the  beginning  of  the  four¬ 
teenth  century,  was  erected  into  a  minor  basilica,  9 
September,  1919. 

Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-694a),  for¬ 
merly  provinces  in  the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire, 
now  included  in  Jugoslavia.  The  census  of  1910 
gave  the  area  and  population  as  follows: _ 


Economic  Conditions. — The  land  question  in 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  is  a  very  complicated  one. 
Of  ?nulk  or  freehold  proper,  there  is  very  little  m 
Bosnia.  The  greater  part  of  the  cultivated  land  is 
Tnirie,  which  is  a  leasehold  tenure,  paying  tithe  to 
the  State  as  reserved  rent.  Midk  can  be  disposed 
of  freely,  mirie  only  with  the  consent  of  the  State. 
The  remaining  categories  include  vakuf  or  Mahom- 
medan  religious  foundations,  mevcit ,  or  waste  and 
forest  lands,  and  matruke  (roads,  etc.),  the  last  two 
being  state  property.  The  result  of  the  Turkish 
conquest  has  been  the  creation  of  an  exclusive 
Mohammedan  landlord  class,  the  conquerors  culti¬ 
vating  very  little  themselves,  the  bulk  of  the  land 
being  worked  by  the  original  Christian  owners 
( kmets ).  The  peasant  always  enjoyed  the  right  of 
pre-emption  should  the  landlord  be  willing  to  sell, 
but  until  recently  the  terms  on  which  he  was 
obliged  to  raise  the  purchase  money  were  so  onerous 


UUllgUU  to  1  aiou  ^  - _ -  /. 

that  he  was  usually  ruined  in  the  process  of 

T-  iri11  law  came  into 


District 

08 

<D 

H 

Population 

Population 
Per  Square 
Mile 

Serajevo  . 

3,245 

288,061 

88 

Tuzla  . 

3,443 

425,496 

123 

Banjaluka  . 

3,481 

403,817 

116 

Bihac  . 

2,163 

229,071 

106 

Travnik  . 

3,905 

284,561 

72 

Mostar  . 

3,531 

267,038 

75 

Total . 

19,768 

1 1,898,044 

The  population  of  the  principal  towns  was  as 
follows:  Serajevo,  51,919;  Tuzla,  11,333;  Banjaluka, 
14,800;  Bihac,  6,201;  Travmk,  6,647;  Mostar, l1.^92' 
The  census  of  1910  showed  an  increase  of  282,425  in 
the  population  of  Bosnia  since  1895;  of  47,527  in 
the  population  of  Herzegovina.  The  estimated 
population  in  1920  was  1,931,802,  and  the  area,  20,709 
square  miles.  •  There  are  about  35,000  Albanians  m 
the  southeast,  and  10,000  German  and  Tyrolese 
colonists;  the  rest  of  the  population  belongs  to  the 
South  Slavonic  peoples. 


acquiring  property.  In  1911,  a 
force  to  enable  him  to  borrow  from  the  State  the 
whole  sum  required,  but  since  this  law  contained 
no  provisions  for  compulsory  sale,  the  process  of 
redemption  was  slow.  However,  between  18/9  and 
1900  about  26,000  kmets  became  freeholders  the 
largest  number  of  purchasers  in  one  year  being 
1,539  in  1909,  at  which  date  some  80,000  kmets  still 
remained.  Between  December,  1911,  and  the  end 
of  July,  1912,  4,248  redemption  loans  amounting  in 
the  aggregate  to  £333,000  had  been  sanctioned,  the 
money  being  derived  from  a  preliminary  advance  of 
£416,000  provided  by  two  financial  groups  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  Landesbank  and  the  Agrarbank. 

In  1910,  the  agricultural  population  of  Bosma-Her- 
zegovina  was  1,668.887,  or  about  88  per  cent  of  the 
whole.  There  were  31,416  free  peasants  who  were 
also  kmets,  151,598  landlords  ( agas ,  begs)  and  free 
peasants,  79,677  cultivators  of  land  not  their  own 
( Janets')  • 

Education. — According  to  a  Jugoslav  authority 
there  were  in  1916,  458  elementary  schools,  giving 
a  proportion  of  one  school  to  4,000  inhabitants. 
Education  in  the  state  schools  is  free.  Secondary- 
education  is  mainly  dependent  on  2  gymnasia  at 
Serajevo  and  Mostar,  and  upon  a  realschule  m 
Banjaluka.  There  are  also  a  technical  intermediate 
school,  an  institute  for  training  teachers  and  a  mili¬ 
tary  academy.  It  is  one  of  the  grievances  of  the 
Jugoslav  party  that  owing  to  practical  exigencies,  a 
knowledge  of  German  is  compulsory  in  secondary 

education.  „  .  ,.  r 

Government. — Two  years  after  the  annexation  oi 

Bosnia-Herzegovina  to  Austria,  a  constitution  was 
granted  to  the  provinces  by  imperial  decree.  Ine 
elective  machinery  was  good,  as  \Vas  shown  by  the 
orderly  conduct  at  elections,  but  the  legislative 
power  conferred  was  too  limited  to  give  any  real 
satisfaction  and  consequently  became  the  subject  oi 
immediate  protest  and  agitation.  All  the  Bills  car¬ 
ried  in  the  local  legislature  required  confirmation  m 
the  Parliaments  of  Austria  and  Hungary  and  ap¬ 
proval  by  the  Austro-Hungarian  Common  Ministry 
before  they  came  up  for  royal  assent.  After  the  in¬ 
clusion  of  the  provinces  in  Jugoslavia,  the  pro¬ 
vincial  governments  continued  with  the  existing 
laws.  According  to  the  new  constitution  of  Jugo¬ 
slavia,  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  form  an  autonomous 
province  with  a  Diet  of  its  own.  It  is  to  be  divided 
into  departments  within  its  present  limits  and  until 
this  is  enacted  by  law,  the  circuits  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  constitute  departments.  4  he  union  o 
these  departments  is  to  be  carried  out  by  the  de¬ 
cision  of  the  Departmental  Skupshtmas  (Legisla¬ 
ture)  of  the  departments  concerned  by  a  majority 


BOSTON 


BOTUCATU 


123 


of  two-thirds  of  the  votes  cast.  Single  communes 
or  districts  can  be  separated  from  one  department 
and  annexed  to  another  department  within  the 
limit  of  the  present  boundaries  of  Bosnia  and  Her¬ 
zegovina,  if  their  autonomous  representatives  con¬ 
sent  to  this  by  a  decision  of  three-fifths  of  the  votes 
and  the  consent  of  the  National  Legislature  is  given. 

Religion.— The  census  of  1910  gives  the  following 

825,418  (43.49%);  Moslems, 
s .  (32y25%)  i  Roman  Catholics,  434,061 
L  mats,  8,136  (.43%);  Jews,  11,868 

(.52%);  Evangelicals,  6,342  (.33%).  The  Christians 
in  Bosnia  are  largely  Orthodox,  in  Herzegovina, 
Catholic  and  Orthodox  mixed.  The  Mohammedans 
torm  the  majority  m  Serajevo  and  Tuzla.  The 
Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite  exceed  the  other  two 
denominations  in  Mostar  and  Travnik.  At  the  time 
ol  the  annexation  to  Austria  in  1908,  the  Sultan’s 
spiritual  sovereignty  -was  recognized  by  permission 
to  continue  the  mention  of  his  name  in  public 
prayer.  For  Catholic  statistics,  see  Serajevo,  Arch¬ 
diocese  of;  Banjaluka,  Diocese  of;  Mostar  and 

lvlARKANA- 1  REBIN  JE,  DlOCESES  OF 

History  the  Congress  of  Berlin, 

the  Great  Powers  had  acquiesced  in  the  occupation 
o  these  provinces  by  Austria,  as  a  necessarv  police 
measure,  but  Austria  saw  in  their  possession  security 
against  the  development  of  Servia  into  a  powerful 
state,  and  on  7  October,  1908,  Baron  Aehrenthal, 
without  any  previous  authority  from  the  signatories 
°!  *he  Treatyof  Berlin,  announced  the  annexation 
of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  to  the  Austro-Hungarian 
umpire.  1  he  annexation  was  not  unconnected  with 
the  Turkish  revolution  of  24  July,  1908,  which 
pi  omised  to  introduce  constitutional  government 
among  various  nationalities  under  Turkish  rule,  and 
roused  in  Austria  the  fear  that  the  return  of  these 
provinces  might  be  demanded  of  her.  On  20  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1910,  a  constitution  was  given  to  the  an¬ 
nexed  provinces.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Great 
European  War,  Austria  took  repressive  measures 
against  the  inhabitants  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
e\  en  to  the  extent  of  wholesale  massacres  of  the 
Servian  population.  About  8,000  are  stated  to  have 
died  at  Doboj  m  Bosnia,  where  a  camp  had  been 
ormed  m  December,  1915.  Desertions  to  the  enemy 
from  Bosnian  regiments  were  frequent  and  were 
often  due  t<?  concerted  action.  The  first  Bosnian 
regiment  twice  passed  en  bloc  to  the  enemy,  and 
'vas  twice  reconstituted.  Finally  it  went  over  to 
the  Russians  at  Jassy,  with  its  Mohammedan  Serv 
colonel.  Between  November,  1915,  and  July  1917 
volunteers  were  enrolled  to  the  number  of  46  581 
of  whom  the  largest  proportion  was  furnished  by 
Bosma-Herzegovma.  The  corps  saw  much  service 
an^;  suffere<a  heavily  in  proportion  to  its  numbers. 

The  movement  for  the  union  of  Bosnia  and  Her- 
zegoyma,  with  the  other  Slavic  countries  took 
definite  form  at  a  general  convention  called  by  the 
National  Jugosla vie  Council  on  16  August,  1918  at 
Laibach  m  the  province  of  Kraina,  in  which  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina  took  part.  It  was  furthered  by 
/v  a(Ltlon  tae  National  Council  of  Agram 
(Zagreb),  which  voted  the  union  of  all  the  Slav 
states  with  Seiwia,  and  on  November,  1918,  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina  became  incorporated  with  the 
Kingdom  of  Greater  Servia. 


Boston,  Archdiocese  of  (Bostoniensis;  cf.  C.  E. 
II-/03b),  celebrated  its  centennial  in  October,  1908’ 
and  in  1911  its  archbishop,  Most  Rev.  William 
Henry  O  Connell,  was  created  a  cardinal.  The 
Catholic  Missionary  Congress  met  in  Boston  in 
1913,  and  in  April,  1919,  the  sixth  Diocesan  Synod 
was  held  here.  The  division  of  the  New  York- 


Maryland  Province  of  I  he  Society  of  Jesus  was 
dofint  cly  begun  on  8  December,  1921,  with  the 

Weston  "near ’ll  7  a  ,n'u  Jesuit  S(,holasticate  at 
Weston  near  Boston,  to  be  called  Weston  Colleee 

served5  a?  "  W  Wah'  tliir-ty  priests  of  the  diocese’ 
Ef  »s  wmy  chaphuns.  Rt.  Rev.  John 

JanuarvDimn  ATullary  Blsh°P  ?f  Boston,  died  7 
Josenh  r  in8  T  PreS°nt  au?lhary  is  Rt,  Rov. 

MTt&25lSlJTl9S9.COnSeCrated  titUlar  BlSh0p  of 

At  the  present  time  the  Diocese  of  Boston  com- 

Sonf  Itf  lqUaue  mi!eS>  has  259  Pushes,  37  mis¬ 
sions,  296  churches,  1  monastery  for  men  and  2 

for  women,  14  convents  for  men  and  100  for  women 
657  secuEr  priests  and  157  regular,  139  lay  brothers,’ 
1,732  nuns,  3  seminarians  with  184  seminarians,  1 
college  for  men  with  35  teachers  and  an  attendance 
of  755,  1  college  for  women  with  7  teachers  and 
an  attendance  of  72,  37  high  schools  with  276  teach¬ 
ers  and  attendance  of  3,452  (boys,  233;  girls,  1,155), 
3  normal  schools  with  42  teachers  and  an  attendance 
of  H3,  4  training  schools  with  74  teachers  and  an 
attendance  of  236,  129  elementary  schools  with  1  664 
teachers  and  attendance  of  70,842,  5  industrial 
schools  with  84  teachers  and  attendance  of  545. 
Missionary  work  is  carried  on  through  the  Society 

*°Wthe  Propagation  of  the  Faith  and  the  Holy 
Childhood.  J 

The  various  institutions  established  in  the  diocese 
are:  9  homes  with  826  inmates,  10  asylums  with 
818  inmates,  6  hospitals  caring  for  5,317  patients 
in  the  year  and  22,724  out-patients,  4  diocesan  and 
^5  parochial  settlement  houses  and  5  day  nurseries 
caring  for  1,550  children  a  year.  All  the  public 
institutions  permit  the  priests  of  the  diocese  to 
minister  m  them  and  the  Boston  School  for  the 
Deaf  in  Randolph  is  aided  by  the  State.  Among 
the  clergy  the  societies  established  are:  Clergy 
Inmd  Society  and  the  Eucharistic  League;  among 
the  laity:  Holy  Name  Society,  League  of  Catholic 
.~a<^1€;s  Catholic  Benevolent  Association, 
Catholic  Daughters  of  America,  Knights  of  Colum- 
bus.  Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians,  Massachusetts 
Catholic  Order  of  Foresters,  St.  Jean  Bapiste 
dAmenque;  Catholic  Fraternal  League,  Guilds  of 
St.  Luke,  St.  Apolloma,  Infant  Saviour,  St.  Vincent 
cie  Paul  Society,  Cecelian  Guild,  Daughters  of  Isa- 
befla,,^  Catholic  Total  Abstinence  Union.  ‘The 
Pilot”  is  the  diocesan  publication.  During  1920 
1,196  converts  were  made  throughout  the  diocese! 

Bostra  (or  Bousra)  and  Hauran,  Archdiocese  of 
(Bostrensis  et  Auranensis;  cf.  C.  E  II-707d) 
of  the  Greek  Melchite  Rite  in  Syria.  This  see  was 
vacant  for  almost  thirty  years  until  the  appoint¬ 
ee^  of™6  present  metropolitan,  Most  Rev.  Nich- 
olas  Cadi,  10  February,  1889.  The  diocese  is  under 
the  Patriarchate  of  Antioch,  the  archbishop  residing 
at  Damascus;  he  returned  to  his  see  in  1918  after 
having  been  banished  by  the  Turks.  By  1921  sta- 
tistics  there  are  9,990  Catholics  of  the  Greek 
Melchite  Rite  in  this  territory,  1,500  Schismatic 
Greeks,  17  secular  priests  and  1  regular,  9  churches 
and  13  schools  for  boys  and  girls.  The  see  is  titular 
for  the  Latin  Rite.  There  are  no  Catholics  of  this 
RRe  m  Hauran,  but  about  1,000  reside  in  Ageloun 
and  Salte,  cities  which,  although  in  the  territory  of 
Hauran,  are  dependent  on  the  Patriarchate  of  Jeru¬ 
salem. 

*"U’.  Diocese  of  (Botucatuensis  ;  cf.  C.  E., 
KvI— 34c),  in  the  State  of  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil,  was 
erected  on  7  June,  1908,  through  a  division  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Sao  Paulo.  It  includes  a  portion  of 
the  Atlantic  coast  called  Ponta  de  Guarani,  extend¬ 
ing  irom  the  rivers  Una  do  Prolado  and  Riberiao  do 


BOURGES 


BRANDENBURG 


124 

.  ..  •  ,  i  a.  Ttqhim  Bowden,  Henry  Sebastian,  oratorian  and  writer, 

Rruibe,  as  fur  as  the :  point  where  ^ ;  ‘Were  b.  in  London,  England,  16  February,  1836;  d.  in 
Guassu  and  Fiete  unite ,  tnese  Dounuane  t  nnrlnn  26  Sentember  1920.  He  was  the  son  of 

already  established  for  the  Archdiocese  Captain  Henry  Bowden  of  the  Scots  Guards,  a 

Paulo.  From  here  the  boundaries  of  the  new  dio-  Captain  nenryBown  ^  gt>  M  »s  Church, 

cese  follow  the  line  passing  the  river  P1?  ®  Ghislehurst  In  1848  he  entered  Eton,  but  on  ac- 

mouth  Of  the  Parana  aadftomta jpom ^totiie  CUtf  ^  ^reconversion  he  was  not  allowed 

limits  of  the  States  of  ^f  Guarahm  Included  also  to  finish  his  studies  there.  Shortly  afterwards,  in 
far  as  the  promontory  of Srigo,  1852,  he  himself  entered  the  Church,  and  was  one 

t^^PrOn,1^0^ober  ^O^Rt  Revlucius^utunes  Dublin ,  foiLdedlby* the\hen  Soltov^ewmZ!%tlc 

ssrvss 

f  FSaHiS-— 

school  with  10  teachers  a  d  .  0f  the  Oratorians,  acting  also  for  several  years  as 

Bourges,  Archdiocese  of  (Bituricensis;  cf.  cengor  for  tjie  Diocese  of  Westminster.  His  work 

II-720b),  coextensive  with  the  departments  of  Cher  -n  connection  with  the  Oratory  Middle  School  for 
and  Indre,  France  This  see  was  filled  by  the  ,g  wag  Qne  of  hig  greatest  successes,  as  were  his 
present  Cardinal  Dubois,  from  30  November  1909,  co^ferences  for  ladies  held  in  St.  Wilfrid’s  Hall, 
until  his  transfer  to  Rouen,  13  March,  191  o.  He  jj-g  guidance  was  much  sought  by  those  seeking 
was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Most  Rev.  Emission  into  the  Church  and  the  number  of  his 
Martin-Jerome  Izart,  b.  at  Estagel,  1851  appointed  ™yertg  wag  very  great. 

Bishop  of  Pamiers,  31  May,  1907,  promoted  9  May,  pather  Bowden’s  literary  work  includes  “The 

1916.  During  the  World  War,  274  priests  of  this  peli Kjon  Qf  Shakespeare,”  “The  Witness  of  the 

diocese,  and  39  seminarians  were  mobilized,  and  g  -  ^  „  «Quide  to  the  London  Oratory,”  “Dante,” 
of  this  number  17  priests  and  8  seminarians  died,  fac’eg  to  Hettinger’s  “Natural  Religion,”  and 
6  were  decorated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor,  3 1  won  <<Reveaied  Religion,”  the  translations  of  which  he 
the  military  medal,  56  the  croix  de guerre,  7  the  edited  “Miniature  Lives  of  the  Saints,”  a  house- 
medaille  des  epidemics,  and  5  received  foreign  deco-  ^ord  for  over  forty  years  amongst  English 

rations.  speaking  Catholics,  “Mementoes  of  the  English 

In  1919,  from  5-8  September,  the  fifth  centenary  ^artyrg  an(j  Confessors,”  and  a  new  edition  of 
of  the  crowning  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Sacred  Heart  gjegged  Thomas  More’s  “Crumbs  of  Comfort.” 
at  Issoudun  was  celebrated.  The  ceremonies  were  j^her  Bowden’s  preaching  was  characterized  by 

attended  by  eight  archbishops  and  bishops  and  certain  tenderness  joined  to  downrightness  of  fact 

25,000  pilgrims  and  important  indulgences  were  ^  grea. t  earnestness  of  manner.  A  book  embody- 
granted  by  the  Pope.  •  hig  spiritual  teaching,  edited  by  the  Fathers  of 

By  the  latest  statistics  (19H)  the  population  of  ^  London  Oratory,  has  been  recently  published 
the  diocese  numbers  337,810  for  the  department  of  and  gives  evidence  of  his  deep  piety  and 

Cher,  and  287,673  for  Indre ;  there  are  65  "jXj  shrewdness. 

the  State. 

Bova,  Diocese  of  (Bovinensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I1-/2*13'’  da  Cunha,  who  came  to  this  see  22  June,  1899,  died  in 
situated  in  the  civil  province  of  Reggio,  m  Calabria,  .j  13  May  He  was  succeeded  by  the  present 

Italy,  suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Reggio  Gala-  incumbent  Rt.  Rev.  Manoel  Vieira  de  Mattos,  b. 
bria.  Bishop  Pugliatti,  appointed  to  this  see,  19  p  de  R  a  tggi  appointed  titular  Arch- 
April,  1900,  d.  18  November,  1914,  and  was  sue-  big,  of  Mitylene  22  June,  1899,  and  auxiliary  to 
ceeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Paolo  libera,  appointed  27  Patriarch  of  Lisbon,  promoted  1  October,  1914. 
May,  1915.  Born  in  Godiasco,  1871,  he  was  made  The  cengug  of  188i  showed  719,286  Catholics  in 
a  secretary  of  the  Apostolic  Camera  m  1910,  rector  ^  territory>  divided  among  689  parishes. 

appoTnted  aUrnifrator  Apos-  BraganSa  Diocese  of  (Brigatiensis)  in  rtie  dvU 

tolic  of  Mileto,  14  February,  1919.  The  1921  sta-  province  of  Trf-°^°n‘no •  “'Jj' 

at 24  000Uandtc?eStt it°wHri4UpSe?3  vlraiS  JulyP  1885,’ 1  26  August,  1912,  and  was  succeeded 

2334  fC'^or  chapEetr  C‘ergy’  30  T^dde,  a^l^Octobet  1915.  The  latest 

Boyino,  Diocese  of  (Bovinensis;  cf.  C  E,  gathoHra,  didded  among *334  firat°clMs  parishes  and 
II-724c),  in  the  civil  province  of  Foggia,  faouthern  23Q  succursal  parishes;  it  counts  583  churches,  581 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Benevento.  Bishop  Padula,  ap-  bUc  and  115r  private  chapels. 

pointed  to  this  see,  24  March,  1898,  was  transferred  *  ,  .  n  p  n  >7oo^\  FooUciuoUnQliv 

to  Avellino,  2  August,  1908.  He  was  succeeded  Brandenburg  (cf.  C.E.,  II-738d).  Ecclesiastically 

by  the  present  incumbent  Rt.  Rev.  Uberto  Maria  the  former  Mark  of  Brandenburg,  with  the  city  of 
Fiodo,  b.  in  Naples,  1861,  made  an  honorary  cham-  Berlin  and  the  greater  part  the 

berlain,  1895,  prelate  of  the  Holy  See,  1904,  ap-  Pomerania,  forms  the  Apostolic  Delegature  for  the 
pointed  9  December,  1910,  consecrated,  22  January  Mark  Brandenburg  and  Pomerania  which  is* id- 
1911.  The  1921  statistics  credit  this  diocese  with  ministered  by  the  Prince-Bishop  of  Breslau  as  Apos- 
30,000  Catholics,  10  parishes,  60  secular  priests,  68  tolic  Delegate,  indirectly  t^°u^h.^e  Pe“1h?^  ^  * 
churches  or  chapels,  17  Sisters,  and  10  seminarians.  Hedwig  s  m  Berlin,  as  delegate  of  the  prmce-bishop. 


brann 


125 


brazil 


According  to  the  census  of  1920  the  number  of 
Catholics  was  538  927.  The  delegature  is  divided 
into  7  archipresbyterates  with  74  parishes  41 
Jh“;  182  chmcheS  and  chapels,  ^addition  to 
the  delegate  and  the  secretary  of  the  delegation 
lere  are  2/2  priests  of  whom  74  are  pastors"  143 

!  and  have11  ntaiSS1StantS’  • whiIe  55  live  in  communities 
and  run  e  other  appointments.  The  following  re- 

w?thUli  °r<^CIf  W  foundations:  Dominicans  2 
th  11  priests  and  7  lay  brothers;  Society  of  the 

withn9  with  6  Priests/  Francfscans  1 

brn!l  2  prif  tS-;  Jefmts  2>  with  12  priests  and  1  lay 
brother  Alexians  1  with  20  brothers;  Poor  Brothers 

0f^IuF;ancis  l>  Wlth  15  Brothers. 

VV  ith  few  exceptions  the  religious  orders  of  women 
devote  themselves  to  the  education  of  the  young 
and  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  poor.  They7 have 

sLlrs^f  S?nrire?re  nnting  the  follo'™g  orders: 
oisteis  ot  St.  Charles  Borromeo  (7  houses)  •  Dom¬ 
inicans  of  St.  Catherine  of  Siena  (15  houses)  •  Fran¬ 
ciscans  (6  houses) ;  Grey  Nuns  of  St.  Elizabeth  (24 
houses);  Sisters  of  St.  Hedwig  (1  house)*  Sisters 

HeSt  J(6ePho,(2  ^OUS!S)i  Carn}elltes  of  the  Sacred 
-Heart  (6  houses);  Sisters  of  St.  Catherine  (3 

ouses);  Servants  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
(3  houses) ;  Sisters  °f  Mary  (16  houses);  Religious 
of  the  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (2  houses)  -  Sis 
ters  of  Our  Lady  (2  houses);  Sistem  of  the  Divine 
Saviour  (2  houses) ;  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd 
(2  houses);  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  (2 
houses);  Ursulmes  (2  houses).  K 

The  following  Catholic  schools  exist  in  the  de- 
legature :  2  private  high  schools  for  boys,  6  for 
gn  ls,  4  of  which  are  conducted  by  nuns,  36  primary 
schools  in  Berlin,  52  outside  of  Berlin.  In  nom 
Catholic  schools  catechism  is  taught  to  the  children 
by  priests  and  secular  teachers;  classes  in  religious 
instruction  are  also  held  in  churches,  chapels  and 
private  houses  Religious  orders  of  women  conduct 
32  infant  asylums,  and  11  schools  for  domestic 
economy  and  manual  training. 

Almost  all  of  the  charitable  institutions  are  in 
h  relflg,lous  communities  of  women.  There 
are  16  hospitals  and  sanatoria,  10  homes  for  con¬ 
valescents,  1  insane  asylum,  1  maternity  home  42 
nurses  homes  10  homes  for  invalids,  32  juvenile 
homes,  14  creches,  4  homes  for  men,  4  refuges  and 

wfdlIfS  houses  f2r  V°men,  28  orphan  asylums,  6 
homes  for  waywTard  girls,  14  homes  for  girls  seeking 
employment,  several  institutions  for  the  instruction 
of  first  communicants.  In  many  cases  several  of 
these  institutions  form  one  establishment  and  are 
under  the  same  management. 

The  Catholics  are  well  organized  in  the  delega¬ 
te  re/  prominent  among  the  300  associations  being 
the  following:  Association  of  the  Holy  Family  (30)  • 
Associations  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo  (50)  *  St 
^S1«S  Sodahty  and  Young  Men’s  Association 
(3o) ,  Sodalities  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  (25)  The 
following  charitable  political  and  social  organiza? 

frw?^  T  th-e  del?g?ture:  Caritas  Verband 
(Charitable  Association)  for  Berlin,  Spandau  and 

other  centers;  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  with 
90  conferences;  about  70  Catholic  labor  unions*  10 
journey  mens  unions  (Gesellenvereine) ;  8  Masters’ 
Unions;  5  Associations  of  teachers;  12  Students’ 
Associations;  2 1  National  Bureaus  (Volksbureaus) ; 
the  National  Union  for  Catholic  Germany-  the 
;  Wlndthorst  League,  Civic  Associations  and  Choral 


DeKwareCaan°dn il? ^  M“y’s  College,  Wilmington, 
Vn.-i  n*!’  „  SL-  Francis  Xavier’s  College  New 

,lt  Hls  geological  studies  were  followed 

ame  year,  and  was  appointed  vice-president  nnrl 

kg0efeSwhich  theol°gy  at  Seton  Hall  Col- 

tge,  which  offices  he  continued  to  hold  for  twn 

.ts  k 

Dr  tw.*  At  urgent  request  of  Bishop  Whelan 
Dr.  Brann  was  loaned  to  him  by  Cardinal  McClos- 

fey’ act  a.s  director  of  the  seminary  at  Wheeling 
West  Virginia,  during  the  bishop’s  absence  at  the 

New  York  S'Ts  h  ^  ^  -Bla?n  burned  to 
i  .  orJc  111  lo'O,  he  was  appointed  pastor  at  TTnrt 

Washington  where  he  built  St.  Elizabeth’s  Church 

For  nineteen  years  he  devoted  his  priestly  labors 

to  the  people  of  St.  Elizabeth’s,  and  during  that 

time  he  found  ample  opportunity  for  study  and 

he  acquired  fame  as  a  lecturer,  preacher  and  writer 

Numerous  articles  appeared  from  his  pen  during 

those  years  m  various  reviews  and  magazines  He 

published  many  books  and  small  pamphlets  among 

them  two  metaphysical  works:  ‘'Curious  Cues 

tions’  and  “Truth  and  Error.”  “The  Age  of  Un 

reason  was  a  reply  to  Col.  Robert  Ingersoll  in  188o" 

the  Sou?”  theL  Po^;;;The  Immortality  of 
T .?  ”Oul,  ,  Purgatory,  Martin  Luther  ”  “The 

4t°H-^rChblSfh0.PK  H.ughes”  “Waifs  and  Strays” 
The  History  of  the  American  College  in  Rome” 

and  a  pamphlet  on  “Christian  Education”  are 
among  the  best  known  of  his  works. 

toJnofaStarAvnSVPr’  ?ra?Tn  WaS  aPP°inted  pas- 
tor  of  St.  Agnes  Church,  New  York  City.  For 

thirty-two  years,  until  the  day  of  his  death  he 

spent  his  best  efforts,  with  distinction  and  success 

u?onl^e  and -  temporal  interests  of  his 

people,  and  for  the  welfare  of  the  Catholic  Church 
In  January,  1910,  on  the  Feast  of  St.  Agnes,  he  was 
created  domestic  prelate  by  His  Holiness  Pope 

k  U?  ? June,  1912,  Monsignor  Brann  cele¬ 
brated  the  Golden  Jubilee  of  his  ordination  to  the 
priesthood  Monsignor  Brann  was  gifted  with  extra? 
ordinary  talents;  and  with  undaunted  courage  he 
made  use  of  these  talents,  as  a  preacher,  professor 
writer,  controversialist,  in  the  defense  of  truth  and 
the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Church. 


Brann,  Henry  A.,  priest  and  scholar  was  b 
15  August  1837  in  Parkstown,  County  West  Meath’ 
treland;  d.  m  New  York,  28  December,  1921.  He 
.ame  to  America  in  1849,  and  received  his  elemen- 


Brazil,  United  States  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-745d).— 
The  area  of  the  Republic  of  Brazil  is  3,275  510 
square  miles.  According  to  the  census  of  1920  the 
population  was  30  645  296  (9.3  per  square  mile). 

\SJW  ie  Janeiro  with  a  population 

040 ion57’p73  inu1920;o?!°  Paulo>  504>3°0;  Bahia, 
348,130,  Pernambuco,  216,484;  Belem,  275,167. 

imne  nu^fer  immigrants  between  1820  and 
1919  was  3,5/6,275.  Between  1908  and  1919  there 
were  1,015,873  lmimgrants,  of  whom  386,696  were 

C??tmgUeSein2ioo73J  SPamards>  145,709  Italians,  36.246 
Geimans,  10,498  French.  In  1919  there  were  5  701 

immigrants.  In  the  southern  states  of  Brazil  there 
are  prosperous  German,  Russian,  and  Italian  col¬ 
onies.  1  he  colonies  maintained  by  Brazil  are  nine¬ 
teen;  on  31  December,  1918,  they  had  a  population 


BRAZIL 


126 


BRAZIL 


of  37,535  including  372  Germans,  12,209  Brazilians, 
and  22,154  of  other  nationalities.  In  1920  Brazil  was 
much  concerned  over  the  question  of  immigration 
and  as  the  settlement  of  the  country  was  not  pro¬ 
ceeding  rapidly  enough,  measures  were  taken  ior 
facilitating  the  entry  of  Jews  from  Ukraine  in 
November  and  settling  them  on  public  lands. 

Religion.— The  latest  religious  statistics  (191/), 
Eive  24  373  579  Catholics  and  70,268  Protestants. 
There  are  about  8,280  churches  and  4,005  clergy. 
The  entire  republic  is  divided  into  twelve  Metro¬ 
politan  sees;  Sao  Salvador  do  Bahia  (diocese  1552, 
archdiocese  1676) ;  suffragans,  Barra  do  Rio  Grande 
(1913),  Caetite  (1913),  Uheos  (1913)  ;  Belem  do 
Para  (diocese  1719,  archdiocese  1906),  suffiagans, 
Sao  Louis  do  Maranhao,  1676,  Amazonas  or  Manaos, 
Piauhy  (1902);  Cuyaba  (diocese  1826,  archdiocese 
1910)  suffragans,  Sao  Luis  de  Caceres  (1910), 
Corumba  (1910) ;  Diamantina  (diocese  1854  arch¬ 
diocese  1917),  suffragans,  Arassuahy  (1913),  Montes- 
claros  (1910);  Fortaleza  or  Ceara  (diocese  18o4 
archdiocese  1915),  suffragans,  Crato  (1914),  Sorbal 
(1915);  Marianna  (diocese  1745,  archdiocese  1906), 
suffragans,  Aterrado  (1918),  Goyaz  (1826),  Porto 
Nacional  (1915),  Pouso  Alegre  (1900)  Uberaba 
(1907) •  Maceio  (erected  1900  as  diocese  ot  Alagoas, 
name  changed  1917,  archdiocese  1920),  suffiagans, 
Aracaju  (1909),  Penedo  (1916)  ;  Olmda  and  Recife 
(diocese  1676,  archdiocese  1910),  suffragans,  Garan- 
huns  (1918),  Nazareth  (1918),  Pesqueira  (erected 
1910  as  diocese  of  Floresta,  name  changed  1918) , 
Parahyba  (diocese  1892,  archdiocese  1914),  suffra¬ 
gans,  Cajazeiras  (1914)  Natal  (1909) ;  Porto -  Alegre 
(Diocese  of  Sao  Pedro  do  Rio  Grande  do  Sul  1848, 
archdiocese  under  present  name  1910)  suffragans, 
Santa  Catharina  or  Flonanopolis  (1918),  Pelotas 
(1910),  Santa  Maria  (1910),  Uruguayana  (1910), 
Sao  Sebastiao  do  Rio  de  Janeiro  (diocese  167  , 
archdiocese  1892),  suffragans  Spmto  Santo  (1895), 
Nictheroy  or  Petropolis  (1893) ;  Sao  Paulo  (diocese 
1745,  archdiocese  1908),  suffragans,  Botucatu  (1908), 
Campinas  (1908),  Curityba-  do  Parana  (1892),  Sao 
Carlos  do  Pinhal  (1908),  Ribeirao  Preto  (1908), 
Taubate  (1908);  three  prefectures  apostolic :  Rio 
Negro  (1910),  Solimoes  Supenore  (1910),  lelie 
(1910)*  five  prelatures  nullius:  Acre  and  Purus 
(1919),’  Bom  Jesus  de  Piauhy  (1920),  Conceigao 
or  Santa  Conceigao  do  Araguaya  (1911),  Registro 
do  Araguaya  (1914),  Santarem  (1903).  The 
Brazilian  legation  to  the  Holy  See  was  elevated 
to  the  rank  of  an  ambassy  m  1919.  Brazil  is  an 
apostolic  nunciature  of  the  second  class,  the  nuncio 
residing  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  For  Catholic  statistics 

see  articles  on  subjects  listed  above. 

Education. — Education  is  free,  but  not  compu  - 
sory  except  in  several  municipalities  m  Sao  Paulo, 
which  insist  on  compulsory  education  (e.  g.  Ribeirao 
Preto).  It  is  under  the  supervision  of  the  Govern¬ 
ment  primary  education  being  controlled  by  the 
States  and  municipalities.  In  order  to  make  indus¬ 
trial  education  more  general,  the  Federal  Govern¬ 
ment  under  some  circumstances,  aids  a  state, 
municipal  or  private  school  which  meets  require¬ 
ments,  and  also  aids  schools  in  agricultural  colonies, 
148  such  schools  being  assisted  in  the  State  of  kanta 
Catharina  and  96  in  the  State  of  Parana.  The 
Federal  government  maintains  a  secondary  school, 
the  Collegio  Pedro  II,  in  Rio  de  Janeiro,  which  is 
the  standard  for  state  and  private  secondary  insti¬ 
tutions  desiring  government  recognition.  Higher 
education  is  given  mainly  in  separate  professional 
schools  rather  than  in  universities,  but  on  7  Septem¬ 
ber  1920  the  Federal  Government  consolidated 
into  a  university  the  faculties  of  medicine  and  law 


and  the  polytechnic  school  hitherto  maintained  as 
separate  institutions  in  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

There  are  faculties  of  law  at  Recife,  Sao  Paulo, 
Ceara,  Goyaz,  Para,  Bahia,  Bello  Horizonte,  and 
Porto  Alegre;  faculties  of  medicine  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  Sao  Paulo,  Curityba,  Bahia,  and  Porto 
Alegre ;  colleges  of  pharmacy  at  Ouro  Preto,  Belem, 
Juiz  de  Fora,  Porto  Alegre,  and  Sao  Paulo;  schools 
of  odontology  at  Bello  Horizonte,  Porto  Alegre, 
and  also  attached  to  the  colleges  of  medicine  and 
pharmacy ;  engineering  colleges  at  Ouro  Preto, 
Bahia,  Recife,  Porto  Alegre,  and  Sao  Paulo,  and 
since  1916,  a  school  of  Economics  and  Politics  in 
Rio  de  Janeiro.  According  to  the  latest  available 
statistics,  there  are  in  the  various  states  12,744 
primary  schools  with  700,120  pupils  and  20,590  teach¬ 
ers.  Of  the  total  number  85  were  federal,  6,985  were 
state  government  schools,  and  2,647  municipal 
schools.  There  were  327  secondary  schools  with 
30,258  pupils  and  151  professional  schools  with 
19,294  pupils.  The  National  Library  in  Rio  con¬ 
tains  more  than  400,000  books  and  manuscripts. 

Economics.— For  1920-21  the  estimated  coffee 
crop  was  7,143,000  bags.  About  half  of  the  world’s 
supply  of  India  rubber  comes  from  Brazil,  the  prin¬ 
cipal  rubber  growing  districts  being  Ceara,  Manaos, 
and  Para.  In  1917,  the  rubber  crop  was  41,500  tons, 
the  cotton  crop,  75,000  tons  (119,500  tons  in  1919). 
The  yield  of  cocoa  in  1918  was  60,000  tons;  the 
average  annual  tobacco  crop  is  50,000,000  kilos;  the 
yield  of  sugar,  300,000  tons  (399,600  in  1919-20). 
Up  to  1916  rice  was  largely  imported  but  now  is  so 
extensively  grown,  that  there  were  nearly  30,000  tons 
exported  during  1919.  There  were  in  1918,  202  cot¬ 
ton  factories  with  1,500,722  spindles  and  78,186  work¬ 
men;  and  in  1919,  36  woolen  factories  and  1,400 
looms.  Altogether  there  are  (1920)  11,335  factories 
in  Brazil,  with  a  capital  of  665,676,000  milreis  and 
151,841  employees. 

The  forest  area  of  Brazil  has  been  estimated  at 
1,500,000  sq.  miles,  and  in  1919  woods  to  the  value 
of  $3,500,000  were  exported.  Expressed  in  terms 
of  United  States  currency,  adopting  the  rate  of 
$1.00  to  3,816  milreis,  the  trade  of  Brazil  for  two 
years  was  _  x  . 

Imports  Exports  I  otal 

1918  .  $247,351,151  $284,275,068  $531,626,219 

1919  .  346,907,226  566,467,038  913,374,264 

Statistics  show  that  41.39  per  cent  of  the  exports 

went  to  the  United  States;  21.28  per  cent  to  France; 
7.24  per  cent  to  the  United  Kingdom.  The  import 
trade  by  percentages  was :  48  per  cent  _  from  the 
United  States;  16.15  per  cent  from  the  United  King¬ 
dom;  3.97  per  cent  from  Portugal. 

The  recurring  famines  of  northeastern  Brazil  have 
called  the  attention  of  the  government  to  the  neces¬ 
sity  of  conserving  and  utilizing  the  water  supply 
of  the  country  by  means  of  great  dams  and  reser¬ 
voirs  in  order  to  reclaim  by  irrigation  the  arid  lands 
in  that  section  of  the  country.  Brazil  possessed 
on  31  March,  1919,  railways  open  for  traffic  of  a 
total  length  of  18,708  miles;  of  these  9,445  miles 
were  the  property  of  the  Union. 

The  consolidated  foreign  debt  of  Brazil  on  31 
December,  1919,  amounted  to  £116,281,960  and 
322,249,500  francs;  and  the  total  currency  was  1,749,- 
974,000  milreis.  In  July,  1912,  a  Bill  was  introduced 
into  the  Senate,  making  it  necessary  for  the  States  to 
obtain  Federal  authorization  before  contracting  any 
loans.  _ 

Government. — Brazil  is  a  federal  republic  of  20 
states,  1  federal  district,  and  a  national  territory. 
The  site  for  the  Federal  capital  has  been  selected  in 
the  State  of  Goyaz,  on  a  table-land  between  Pyre- 


BREBEUF 


127 


BRESCIA 


nopolis,  Santa  Luzia,  and  Formosa.  In  1912  there 
were  in  Brazil  1,233  municipalities,  705  townships, 
528  villages,  and  3,629  districts. 

A  new  Civil  Code  came  into  force  on  1  January, 
1917.  Among  the  most  important  subjects  covered 
by  the  code  are  those  referring  to  legal  capacity; 
the  registration  of  births  and  marriages,  and  deaths; 
juristic  persons  and  organizations;  domicile;  real 
and  personal  property;  homestead  (a  new  institu¬ 
tion  in  Brazilian  Jaw) ;  legal  acts;  domestic  rela¬ 
tions;  copyright;  mortgages,  contracts,  wills  and  the 
administration  of  estates.  The  decree  of  banish¬ 
ment  against  the  ex-imperial  family  was  repealed 
on  6  August,  1920. 

The  last  five  presidents  of  Brazil  include  Affonso 
Penna,  elected  in  1906;  Hermes  da  Wonesca,  1910; 
Wenceslao  Braz,  1914;  Rodrigues  Alves,  1918; 
Epitacio  Sessoa,  1919. 

Recent  History. — Brazil’s  foreign  policy  in  re¬ 
cent  years  has  been  marked  by  a  tendency  towards 
free  relations  with  her  neighbors.  A  protocol  signed 
with  Peru  arranged  for  the  organization  of  a  com¬ 
mission  to  survey  the  frontier,  in  accordance  with 
the  treaty  of  demarcation  of  8  September,  1909. 
On  7  May,  1913,  a  convention  between  Brazil  and 
Uruguay  on  the  river  San  Miguel  was  signed  be¬ 
tween  the  two  republics.  Uruguay  recognized  the 
Brazilian  navigation  rights  on  the  river,  which  had 
heretofore  been  exclusively  Uruguayan.  On  25  May, 
1915,  the  A.  B.  C.  treaty  of  peace  between  the 
three  strongest  powers  of  South  America,  Argentina, 
Brazil,  and  Chile,  was  signed  in  Buenos  Aires.  This 
provided  for  five  years  of  peace  among  the  three 
nations,  during  which  time  each  was  pledged  not 
to  make  war  against  either  of  the  others  until  the 
causes  of  conflict  had  been  investigated  and  re¬ 
ported  upon  by  an  important  commission.  In  1917 
during  the  World  War  the  Brazilian  government 
warned  Germany  that  it  would  hold  her  responsible 
for  any  damage  to  Brazilian  ships.  In  April  the 
Parana  was  sunk  by  a  German  submarine  without 
warning  or  any  subsequent  assistance  to  the  crew. 
In  May  the  Brazilian  vessel  Tijuca  was  sunk  off  the 
coast  of  Brittany,  and  immediately  the  neutrality 
proclamation  was  revoked.  The  German  vessels  in 
Brazilian  ports  were  seized.  The  Treaty  of  Peace 
between  Germany  and  Brazil  was  ratified  by  the 
President  of  Brazil  on  11  November,  1919,  Congress 
having  approved  of  the  same. 


?mn17°  anoU?r,e"i?rhaven'  22'159-  The  “nstia  of 
1910  gt\\°  2°7,930  1  rotestants,  21,074  Catholics,  1,217 
other  Christians,  1,251  Jews,  and  14,243  others.  The 
highest  power  of  the  state  is  exercised  by  the 
House  ot  Burgesses  consisting  of  120  members 
elected  on  a  democratic  basis  by  all  citizens  of  the 
state.  I  he  Burgerschajt  elects  the  Senate  of  four¬ 
teen  members  as  the  executive  body.  Two  Burger- 
meister  chosen  from  the  members  of  the  Senate 
preside  over  the  deliberations  of  that  body.  Bremen 
contains  two  Amtgerichte  and  a  Landgericht,  whence 
appeals  lie  to  the  Hanseatische  Oberlandesgencht 
at  Hamburg. 


Brebeuf,  Jean  de  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-751b). — The  cause 
of  his  beatification  was  introduced  at  Rome,  9 
August,  1916. 


Breda,  Diocese  of  (Bredana;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-752b), 
suffragan  of  Utrecht,  Holland.  Rt.  Rev.  Petrus 
Hopmans  was  elected  bishop  of  the  see  in  1914, 
upon  the  death  of  the  former  bishop  Petrus  Leitjen, 
d.  17  May,  1914.  The  diocese  includes:  107  par¬ 
ishes,  113  churches,  7  monasteries  for  men  and  7 
for  women,  7  abbeys  for  men  and  7  for  women,  26 
convents  for  men  and  87  for  women,  270  secular 
priests  and  180  regulars,  550  lay  brothers,  2  semi¬ 
naries  with  210  students,  9  normal  schools,  100  ele¬ 
mentary  schools,  7  secondary  schools,  22  missionary 
organizations  of  various  kinds,  28  asylums  and 
orphanages.  The  schools  are  supported  by  the 
Government,  and  there  are  several  Catholic  period¬ 
icals  published  in  the  diocese. 


Brentwood,  Diocese  of  (Brentwoodensis),  in 
the  province  of  Westminster,  England,  was  erected 
2?  March,  191?>  by  a  division  of  the  Archdiocese 
of  Westminster,  and  comprises  the  county  of  Essex. 
The  first  bishop  appointed  to  this  see  was  Rt.  Rev. 
Bernard  Nicholas  Ward  (q.v.),  consecrated  titular 
Bishop  of  Lydda  and  made  administrator  apos¬ 
tolic  of  the  new  diocese  10  April,  1917,  being 
translated  to  this  diocese  20  July  following.  Bishop 
Ward  died  21  January,  1920,  and  the  present  incum¬ 
bent,  Rt.  Rev.  Authur  Doubleday,  was  appointed 
to  succeed  him,  and  consecrated  23  June,  1920.  The 
Church  of  the  Sacred  Heart  and  St.  Helen,  erected 
1836-61  and  consecrated  15  June,  1869,  was  made  the 
cathedral  church  of  the  diocese. 

The  following  religious  orders  are  established  in 
the ,  diocese;  Men:  Cistercians  and  Franciscans 
(Friars  Minor);  Women:  Canonesses  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  Carmelites  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Dames 
Bernardines,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Franciscan 
Missionaries  of  Mary,  Immaculate  Conception  Sis¬ 
ters,  Poor  Clares,  Poor  Handmaids  of  Jesus  Christ, 
Poor  Sisters  of  Nazareth,  Sainte-Union,  Sisters  of 
Chanty,  Irish  Sisters  of  Charity,  Sisters  of  Mercy, 
of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  and 
Ursulme  Sisters.  By  the  1921  census  the  total  popu¬ 
lation  of  the  diocese  is  1,468,341,  and  of  these  about 
41,616  are  Catholics.  By  1921  statistics  there  are 
69  secular  and  28  regular  priests,  3  convents  of  men 
and  32  of  women,  41  churches,  40  parishes,  10 
stations,  25  public  elementary  schools  receiving 
Government  grants  and  2  without  grants,  3  sec- 
ondaiy  schools  for  boys  and  14  for  girls.  There 
are  in  all  6,428  children  in  elementary  schools  and 
407  in  other  schools.  There  are  14  charitable  insti¬ 
tutions,  consisting  of  hospitals,  residential  institu¬ 
tions  for  poor  children,  orphanages,  homes,  refuges 
and  poor  law,  industrial  and  reformatory  schools; 
1,028  children  are  cared  for  in  these  institutions.  A 
diocesan  periodical,  “The  Warrior,”  is  published  as 
well  as  several  parish  magazines.  During  the  World 
War  7  priests  of  the  diocese  served  as  chaplains, 
one  of  whom  died  in  the  service. 


Bremen  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-756c),  formerly  a  republic, 
composed  of  the  state  and  free  city  of  Bremen, 
now  a  free  state  of  Germany,  with  a  constitution 
adopted  on  15  May,  1920.  The  area  is  99  square 
miles;  the  population,  according  to  the  census  of 
1919  was  311,266.  The  largest  cities  are  Bremen, 
9 


Brescia,  Diocese  of  (Brixiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
II-760a),  in  Lombardy,  Northern  Italy,  suffragan 
of  Milan.  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop  Corna  Pellegrini,  who 
came  to  this  see,  1  December,  1883,  d.  21  May,  1913, 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt. 
Rev.  Giacinto  Gaggia,  b.  in  this  diocese,  1847,  made 
prelate  of  the  holy  see  1907,  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Hadrumetum,  29  April,  1909,  and  auxiliary 
to  the  Bishop  of  Brescia,  succeeding  28  October, 
1913.  He  is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary,  Bishop  Bon- 
giorni,  titular  of  Sasima.  According  to  the  1922 
statistics  the  diocese  comprises:  388  parishes,  900 
churches,  22  monasteries  for  men,  181  monasteries 
for  women,  897  secular  priests,  195  regulars,  and 
2,153  Sisters.  Among  the  educational  institutions 
are  a  philosophical  and  a  theological  seminary,  which 
together  have  380  students,  the  college  of  Cesare 
Arici  for  boys,  conducted  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers, 


BRESLAU 


128 


BRIDGETINNES 


several  secondary  schools  for  girls,  a  boarding  house 
for  boys  and  four  for  girls,  who  attend  the  public 
schools,  the  first  conducted  by  priests,  the  latter  by 
the  Sisters.  Besides  these  the  various  religious  con¬ 
duct  schools  for  day  pupils  which  are  well  attended. 
A  mutual  aid  society,  St.  Carlo  society,  and  a  co¬ 
operative  association  are  established  among  the 
clergy,  and  various  circles  of  good  works  are  formed 
among  the  men  and  women  of  almost  every  parish. 
Hospitals,  homes,  and  orphanages,  although  under 
municipal  administration,  are  conducted  by  the  Sis¬ 
ters.  A  number  of  weekly,  fortnightly,  and  monthly 
periodicals,  are  published  in  the  diocese. 

Breslau,  Prince-Bishopric  of  (Vratislaviensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  II-761a),  is  dependent  directly  on  the 
Holy  See.  This  immense  diocese  is  divided  into 
three  parts  each  with  distinct  administration : 
(1)  the  province  of  Prussian  Silesia  (part  of  district 
of  Oppeln  has  been  ceded  to  Poland),  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  districts  attached  to  dioceses 
of  Prague  and  Olmutz  in  Czechoslovakia,  counting 
(1918)  over  2,566,000  Catholics;  (2)  the  Principality 
of  Teschen  and  the  part  of  the  Principality  of 
Neisse,  which  was  formerly  Austrian  Silesia.  The 
district  of  Neisse  lying  in  Austria  was  included  in 
Czechoslovakia  and  Teschen  was  divided  by  Treaty 
of  Versailles  between  Czechoslovakia  and  Poland. 
The  Catholics  number  362,000  (1918) ;  (3)  city  of 
Berlin  and  the  two  provinces  of  Brandenburg  and 
Pomerania,  excepting  two  districts  which  are  at¬ 
tached  to  the  diocese  of  Posen  (Poland),  and  con¬ 
tain  443,000  Catholics.  This  territory  is  adminis¬ 
tered  by  a  delegate  who  is  always  the  provost  of 
St.  Hedwig’s  in  Berlin. 

The  seat  of  the  diocese  is  the  city  of  Breslau, 
on  the  River  Oder  in  the  Prussian  Province  of 
Silesia.  The  present  bishop  is  Adolph  Cardinal 
Bertram,  b.  at  Hildesheim  14  March,  1859,  student 
at  Hildesheim,  Wurzburg,  Innsbruck,  and  Rome, 
ordained  at  Hildesheim  31  July,  1881,  elected  Bishop 
of  Hildesheim  26  April,  1906,  transferred  to  Breslau 
27  May,  1914,  succeeding  Cardinal  Kopp  deceased, 
named  member  of  Prussian  House  of  Lords  in 
January,  1916,  created  cardinal  in  petto  4  Decem¬ 
ber,  1916,  and  received  the  hat  with  title  to  St. 
Agnes-Outside-the- Walls,  of  which  he  took  posses¬ 
sion  21  December  following.  His  predecessor, 
George  Cardinal  Kopp,  Prince-Bishop  of  Breslau, 
who  had  struggled  long  to  safeguard  and  preserve 
peace  between  Church  and  State,  died  4  March, 
1914.  Mgr.  Valentine  Wolciuh,  chancellor  of  Bres¬ 
lau,  was  elected  titular  Bishop  of  Danaba  and 
auxiliary  of  the  diocese  8  March,  1920. 

Among  the  clergy  recently  deceased  are  the  fol¬ 
lowing  of  note:  Auxiliary  Bishop  Charles  Augustin, 
b.  in  Diocese  of  Breslau  1  November,  1847,  elected 
titular  Bishop  of  Diocesaraea  and  auxiliary  of  the 
diocese  10  March,  1910,  and  d.  26  September,  1916; 
Prelate  Adolph  Franz,  eminent  in  letters  and 
prominent  in  administration  of  the  diocese;  Prelate 
Hugo  Laemmer,  professor  at  the  University  of 
Breslau  and  author  of  many  books;  two  laymen, 
Councillors  Dittrich  of  Breslau  and  Horn  of  Neisse, 
who  assisted  most  commendably  in  the  temporal 
affairs  of  the  diocese,  died  recently. 

During  the  World  War  many  of  the  clergy  were 
in  the  army  administering  to  the  spiritual  needs 
of  the  soldiers,  while  those  left  at  home  sent  com¬ 
forts  and  necessities  to  the  fighting  men  and 
attended  to  the  welfare  of  their  families  and  the 
wounded  in  the  hospitals.  The  laity  gave  them¬ 
selves  and  their  fortunes  to  the  cause  espoused. 
On  21  October,  1921,  that  part  of  Upper  Silesia 
assigned  to  the  Republic  of  Poland  was  placed 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Breslau. 


Including  the  district  governed  by  delegation, 
the  diocese  contains  over  3,700,000  Catholics,  mostly 
of  German  descent,  with  a  small  minority  of  Poles. 
There  are  actually  employed  in  the  diocese  1660 
secular  and  170  regular  priests,  assisted  by  a  total 
of  339  lay  brothers.  There  are  11  monasteries  for 
men  and  8  for  women,  1  abbey  for  men,  20  con¬ 
vents  for  men  and  687  for  women,  3  universities, 
6  colleges  for  men  and  10  for  women,  and  19  normal 
schools.  The  prince-bishopric  is  divided  into  com- 
misariates  and  archipresbyterates,  in  which  there 
are  1052  cures  of  various  kinds  (parishes,  curacies, 
and  stations).  Besides  the  theological  faculty  of 
the  University  of  Breslau,  the  diocese  possesses  as 
episcopal  institutions  for  the  training  of  the  clergy 
5  preparatory  seminaries  for  boys,  1  home  (recently 
much  enlarged),  for  theological  students  attending 
the  University  of  Breslau,  and  2  seminaries  with 
50  seminarians. 

The  statistics  of  the  houses  of  religious  orders  in 
the  diocese  are:  Benedictines,  2  houses;  Domin¬ 
icans,  1;  Franciscans,  10;  Jesuits,  4;  Piarists,  1; 
Brothers  of  Mercy,  10;  Order  of  St.  Camillus  of 
Lellis,  2;  Redemptorists,  3;  Society  of  the  Divine 
Word,  2;  Alexian  Brothers,  1;  Poor  Brothers  of  St. 
Francis,  2;  Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth,  6;  Magdalen 
Sisters,  1;  Ursulines,  7;  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shep¬ 
herd,  5;  Sisters  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  from  the 
mother-house  at  Trebnitz,  226,  from  the  mother- 
house  at  Trier,  5;  Servants  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Jesus,  3;  Sisters  of  the  Poor  Handmaids  of  Christ, 
3;  Sister  Servants  of  Mary,  85;  German  Dominican 
Sisters  of  St.  Catherine  of  Sienna,  16;  Grey  Sisters 
of  St.  Elizabeth,  223;  Sisters  of  St.  Hedwig,  25; 
Sisters  of  Mary,  69;  Poor  School  Sisters  of  Notre 
Dame,  23;  Vincentian  Sisters,  7;  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  1;  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  2.  In  the  above 
mentioned  monastic  houses  for  men  there  are  509 
religious,  in  those  for  women  7547  religious.  The 
government  partly  supports  the  Catholic  schools. 
There  are  2  associations  for  the  clergy  and  a  great 
many  for  the  laity.  Among  the  periodicals  pubr 
lished  are  4  Catholic  weeklies  of  note.  Since  this 
article  went  into  type  word  has  been  received  of 
the  erection  of  a  see  at  Berlin  and  the  appointment 
of  a  bishop  in  the  person  of  Rev.  Dr.  Kaas. 

Bressanone  (or  Brixen),  Diocese  of  (Brixi- 
nensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-793d),  formerly  a  Prince- 
Bishopric  of  Austria,  embracing  the  greater  part 
of  Northern  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg,  suffragan  of 
Salzburg  but  now  the  diocese  is  directly  dependent 
on  the  Holy  See.  Part  of  the  diocese,  including 
the  episcopal  see,  was  ceded  by  Austria  to 
Italy  as  a  result  of  the  treaty  of  St  .-Germain. 
By  a  decree  of  27  April,  1915,  the  parochial  church 
of  Montichiari  was  erected  into  an  abbatial  church, 
with  a  mitred  abbot  as  pastor.  Rt.  Rev.  Francis 
Egger,  appointed  to  this  see  6  November,  1912,  filled 
it  until  his  death,  17  May,  1918.  After  a  vacancy 
of  three  years  he  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  John 
Rafill  b.  at  Roppen,  Austria,  1858,  ordained  1883, 
made  an  honorary  chamberlain  6  April,  1910,  ap¬ 
pointed  28  April,  1921,  consecrated  19  June  follow¬ 
ing.  He  is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary  at  present  (1922), 
Rt.  Rev.  Sigismond  Waitz,  titular  Bishop  of  Cibyrra 
and  administrator  of  Vorarlberg.  The  population 
of  this  diocese  is  almost  entirely  Catholic,  the  1920 
statistics  counting  only  150  Protestants  against 
470,876  Catholics.  These  latter  are  divided  among 
28  deaneries,  398  parishes,  72  fillial  parishes,  287 
vicariates,  and  71  secondary  parishes,  cared  for  by 
926  secular  and  657  regular  clergy. 

Bridgetinnes  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-785d). — This  order, 
founded  by  St.  Bridget  of  Sweden  at  Vadstena  in 


BRINDISI 


129 


BRITISH  COLUMBIA 


io4(>,  spread  to  Denmark,  Norway,  Finland,  Russia, 
I  oland  North  and  South  Germany,  the  Nether¬ 
lands,  England,  France,  and  Italy.  France  had  five 
foundations:  Lille,  Douai,  Arras,  Valenciennes,  and 
Armentieres.  In  Italy  the  first  house,  Porta  Para¬ 
de8  or  Gate  of  Paradise,  dates  from  1394-  the 
second  at  Genoa  from  1426;  on  the  death  of  the 
donor,  in  1428,  the  house  in  which  St.  Bridget  lived 
in  Rome  passed  to  the  order  and  became  its  hos- 
pme.  In  Bavaria  the  foundation  at  Altomunster 
stnl  lemains;  this  monastery  was  plundered  and 

w.^'a^fiQoeSt‘'°?CL^ce  durin«  the  Thirty  Years 
War  (1632  and  1616),  its  members  fled  before 

loreign  t  roops  in  1703,  and  when  suppressed  in  1803 
no  purchaser  being  found  for  their  cloister  the' 
nuns  were  permitted  to  remain  but  not  to  profess 
new  subjects;  after  many  years  the  few  survivors 
nad  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  the  restitution  of 
their  house,  when  on  8  October,  1844,  the  order 
was  reinstated.  The  monastery  of  Reval  in  Russia 
was  burnt  by  schismatics  in  1575.  Vadstena,  as  a 
labile,  notwithstanding  the  covetousness  of  Gusta- 
^us  \  asa,  remained  untouched  for  seventy  years 
Ihe  nuns  after  suffering  much  persecution  were 
favored  and  sustained  by  his  Catholic  son,  John 

A1Ii  but  his  younger  son  coming  to 

the  throne  as  Charles  IX,  a  determined  Protestant, 
the  nuns  were  expelled.  The  last  abbess  and  her 
eleven  daughters  in  December,  1595,  landed  at 
Danzig,  and  found  an  asylum  in  Poland. 

In  Poland  most  of  the  double  monasteries  sur¬ 
vived  until  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 
when  with  other  religious  houses  thev  were  sup¬ 
pressed  by  the  Russian  Government.  "The  last  of 

the  iSo  TnUn^  d!ed  ,m  her  monastery  at  Grodno 
in  1908.  in  England  the  celebrated  Bridgettine 
monastery  of  Syon  Abbey  (q.v.)  is  the  only  pre- 
Rel  ormation  house  to  come  down  to  the  present 
day  in  unbroken  continuity.  Venerable  Marina  de 
Escobar,  foundress  of  the  Bridgettines  of  the  Recol- 
lection  at  \  alladolid,  had  applied  for  admission  to 
the  Carmelite  Order,  but  St.  Teresa  told  her  that 
she  knew  by  revelation  that  her  place  was  not  there, 
that  God  would  use  her  to  bring  the  Bridgettine 
Order  into  Spam.  There,  are  twelve  Bridgettine 
monasteries  now  in  existence:  Syon  Abbey  at 
Chudleigh  in  Devonshire,  Altomunster  in  Bavaria, 
l  den  and  Weert  in  Holland,  the  Monastero  S. 
Birgitta,  founded  at  Rome  in  1911,  five  Spanish 
houses  of  the  Bridgettines  of  the  Recollection  (Val¬ 
ladolid,  v  ittoria,  Lasarte,  Parades  de  Nava,  and 
Ascoytia)  and  two  in  Mexico. 

t?  B TTn^^ARCHI!I0CESE  0F  (Brudusinensis;  cf.  C. 

77',  ii-78^d),  in  the  province  of  Lecce,  Italy,  with 
the  perpetual  administration  of  the  diocese  of 
Ustum  Archbishop  Morando,  appointed  to  this 
see  5  January ,1906,  died  20  August,  1909,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Tommaso  Valeri,  O.  F.  M. 
b.  at  Santa  Fiora,  1865,  appointed  22  April  1910* 
consecrated  5  June  following.  In  July,  1919,’ Arch- 
bishop  V  alen  was  made  a  grand  officer  of  the  Order 
ol  Saints  Maurice  and  Lazarus  in  recognition  of 

inorPatriotlC-  work  dunng  the  World  War.  By  the 
1920  statistics  this  territory  counts  110,907  Cath¬ 
olics,  19  parishes,  170  secular  and  15  regular  clergy 
25  seminarians,  22  Brothers,  81  Sisters,  and  89 
churches  or  chapels. 

FBiTSllon?\  Archdiocese  of  (Brisbanensis;  cf.  C. 
thl  A4“'89b)’  < comprises  about  200,000  sq.  miles  in 
the  Colony  of  Queensland,  Australia.  The  second 
bishop  and  first  archbishop  of  this  see,  Most  Rev. 

£  isS  ^'T%WTh°  was  aPP°mted  to  the  diocese 
hv  lfn  ’  dled^  January>  1917.  He  was  succeeded 
b>  the  present  incumbent,  Most  Rev.  James  Duhig, 


consecrated  Bishop  of  Rockhampton  10  December 

coad'i u! or °l o  Tl  m  A.rchbishoP  of  Amida  and 

,! imo  th°  Ar chbish op  of  Brisbane  26  Feb- 

January,9 191  ^succeeded  to  tnc  see  of  Brisbane  13 

nl  Th.e  religious  orders  engaged  in  educational  and 
charitable  work  in  this  diocese  are:  Jesuit  Fathers 
Redemptorist  Fathers,  Christian  Brothers,  Sisters  of 
Mercy,  Sisters  of  Perpetual  Adoration,  Good  Samar- 

1staiJ  ^lst|rs’  SlsA?rs  of  St  Joseph,  Religious  of  the 
Sacied  Heart,  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  Ursulme  Sisters,  Sisters  of  Charity,  and  Sis- 
ers  of  Nazareth.  Primary  and  secondary  schools 
conducted  by  the  Sisters  are  inspected  annually  by 
officers  of  the  state  education  department/  St 
Vincents  Orphanage,  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of 
Mercy  receives  ten  pence  a  day  from  the  govern¬ 
ment  for  the  support  of  each  child  sent  to  the 
institution. 

The  total  population  of  this  territory  is  approxi- 
mately  30°, 00°  (1922),  and  of  these  70,000  are  Cath- 

ulht  dl°ofe  comprises  52  parochial  districts, 
140  chuiches,  81  secular  and  6  regular  clergy,  46 
religious  brothers,  510  nuns,  7  male  and  95  female 
lay  teachers  employed  in  Catholic  schools,  3  board¬ 
ing  schools  for  boys  and  20  for  girls,  15  high  schools, 
52  primary  schools,  14,031  children  attending  Cath¬ 
olic  schools,  1  technical  school,  1  orphanage,  1 
asylum,  1  hostel  for  girls,  and  2  hospitals. 


British  Columbia  (cf.  C.  E.,  II-791b).-The  area 
of  the  province  is  355,855  sq.  miles,  of  which  353,416 

are  *SS»d>.^d  2,439  water.  The  population  in  1911 
was  392,480;  an  estimate  in  1920  gives  it  as  650,000. 

he  largest  cities  with  their  respective  populations 
are:  Victoria,  38,775;  N.  Vancouver,  10,584;  S.  Van¬ 
couver  Municipality,  32,182;  Nanaimo,  7,800;  New 
Westminster,  14,400 ;  Vancouver  City,  116,700;  Point 
Grey  Municipality,  13,654;  Comox-Atlin,  7,100.  The 
iigiiios  for  the  total  population  of  the  province  in- 
elude  25,694  Indians.  In  1911  there  were  19  56S 
Chinese. 

Education.— Education  in  British  Columbia  is  in 
charge  of  a  Minister  of  Education,  Deputy  Minister 
superintendent  and  a  Council  of  Public  Instruction 
composed  of  the  Minister  and  the  other  members 
of  the  Executive  Council.  All  education  is  free  and 
compulsory  for  six  months  in  the  year  between  the 
ages  of  seven  and  fourteen.  There  is  no  religious 
instruction,  though  the  highest  morality  is  incul- 
cated.  For  educational  purposes  the  province  is 
divided  into  municipal  and  rural  school  districts, 
and  the  schools  are  of  three  classes,  viz.,  munici¬ 
pality  schools,  rural  schools,  and  assisted  schools, 
r  or  secondary  education  there  are  the  superior 
schools  and  high  schools.  Higher  education  is  ob¬ 
tained  in  the  University  of  British  Columbia,  opened 
a^  Vancouver  with  an  endowment  of  two 
million  acres  of  Crownlands.  In  1920  the  provincial 
legislature  authorized  the  establishment  of  colleges 
in  affiliation  with  the  university.  At  present  there 
are  1,530  students  and  64  members  of  the  faculty 
In  1919  there  were  65,928  children  enrolled  in  the 
elementary  grades,  5,806  in  the  secondary  grades, 
2,332  teachers  in  the  publicly  controlled  schools,  of 
whom  197  taught  in  the  45  high  schools.  In  the 
same  year  the  expenditure  was  as  follows:  provincial 
government,  $1,791,154;  cities,  municipalities,  rural 
and  assisted  schools,  $2,437,566;  total,  $4,228,720.  In 
1919  the  Children’s  Protection  Act  freed  the  chil¬ 
dren  in  an  institution  from  obligation  to  attend  a 
religious  service  of  different  faith. 

Religion.— The  growth  of  the  Church  in  British 
Columbia  while  slow  has  been  continuous.  Re¬ 
cently,  however,  hostile  influences  threatened  to 


BRIXEN 


130 


BROOKLYN 


impede  its  progress.  The  provincial  law  exempts 
from  general  taxation  “every  building  set  apart  and 
in  actual  use  for  the  service  of  God,”  but  in  1911 
the  province  adopted  the  single  tax  law  on  land 
alone.  The  town  authorities  decided  that  the  sites 
of  churches  were  no  more  exempt  than  other  sites. 
Subsequently  several  Catholic  churches  in  Victoria 
were  sold  for  non-payment  of  taxes.  The  combined 
pressure  of  all  the  religious  bodies  of  British 
Columbia,  with  the  exception  of  the  Baptists,  was 
not  sufficient  to  make  the  Government  take  action. 
In  1919  the  sale  of  the  cathedral  of  Victoria  was 
threatened,  and  the  bishop  obtained  a  court  injunc¬ 
tion  restraining  the  city  of  Victoria  from  further 
action.  The  latter  won  the  case  in  the  lower  court 
but  lost  it  in  the  higher  court.  An  appeal  to  the 
Supreme  Tribunal  of  Land  resulted  in  a  decision 
of  the  Privy  Council  sustaining  that  of  the  higher 
court. 

For  Catholic  statistics  see  Vancouver,  Arch¬ 
diocese  of,*  Victoria,  Diocese  of;  Yukon,  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of. 

Economic  Status. — The  total  value  of  the  min¬ 
eral  production  of  the  province  in  1920  was  $38,- 
044,915.  In  1919  gold  brought  $3,457,406;  copper, 
$7,915,324;  lead,  $1,526,855;  silver,  $4,126,556. 

In  1919  the  province  produced  lumber  worth  $70,- 
285,094;  fish  to  the  value  of  $15,216,397;  agricultural 
produce  valued  at  $65,384,556.  The  area  of  timberland 
is  over  100,000,000  acres,  containing,  roughly  speak¬ 
ing,  400,000  million  feet  of  merchantable  timber.  The 
coal  supply  is  estimated  at  75  billion  tons,  of  which 
23,000  millions  are  in  the  seams  known  and 
measured.  In  1919  Vancouver  Island  and  parts  of 
the  mainland  yielded  coal  to  the  value  of  $11,- 
337,705.  The  statistics  for  1918  give  1786  industrial 
establishments,  capital,  $244,697,000 ;  employees,  48,- 
779;  wages  and  salaries,  $51,051,000;  value  of  prod¬ 
ucts,  $207,678,000.  The  trade  of  the  Province  in 
1919  showed  imports  valued  at  $63,694,697,  and 
exports  at  $77,247,666.  The  railway  mileage  of  the 
province  in  1917  was  3,885.  Steps  are  being  taken 
to  establish  direct  shipping  communications  with 
the  Canadian  Atlantic  ports,  via  the  Panama  Canal. 
The  balance  sheets  of  the  province  showed  that  on 
31  March,  1919,  the  liabilities  totaled  $52,288,067, 
assets  $59,642,124. 

Government. — The  provincial  government  is  ad¬ 
ministered  by  a  Lieutenant  Governor,  appointed 
and  paid  ($9,000  per  annum)  by  Ottawa,  and  a 
Legislative  Assembly  of  forty-seven  members,  on 
the  system  of  executive  administration  known  as 
“responsible  government.”  The  Assembly  is  elected 
for  four  years,  every  adult,  male  or  female,  having 
resided  six  months  in  the  province,  duly  registered, 
being  entitled  to  vote.  In  1918  the  vote  was  granted 
to  women.  In  1920  it  was  decided  that  the  consent 
of  the  court  must  be  obtained  to  the  adoption  of 
an  unmarried  minor.  On  20  October,  1920,  a  tem¬ 
perance  plebiscite  gave  the  voters  the  choice  of 
prohibition  or  of  government  control  of  liquor 
traffic;  the  latter  won. 

Brixen,  Diocese  of.  See  Bressanone. 

Brno  (German,  Brunn),  Diocese  of  (Brunsis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  III-lld),  suffragan  of  Olmutz,  in  Moravia, 
which  was  formerly  in  Austria,  but  is  now  part  of 
Czechoslovakia.  This  see  was  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Paul  de  Huyn  from  14  May,  1904,  until  his  promo¬ 
tion  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Prague,  4  October,  1916. 
He  was  succeeded  by  the  present  (1922)  incumbent, 
Rt.  Rev.  Norbert  John  Nepomucene  Klein,  b.  in 
Moravia  1866,  appointed  7  December,  1916,  con¬ 
secrated  28  January  following.  In  1919  the  popu¬ 


lation  of  this  diocese  Comprised  1,086,025  Catholics, 
31,007  Protestants,  21,410  Jews,  and  511  of  other 
denominations.  The  diocese  counted  40  deaneries, 
441  parishes,  809  secular,  and  141  regular  clergy, 
and  502  religious. 

Brooklyn,  Diocese  of  (Brooklyniensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  II-798b). — Bishop  McDonnell  celebrated  the 
silver  jubilee  of  his  appointment  to  the  see  in  April, 
1917,  when  the  accomplishments  of  his  administra¬ 
tion  were  visible  in  every  section  of  the  diocese. 
More  than  a  hundred  new  churches  and  chapels 
had  been  added  to  the  list,  with  61  new  parish 
schools.  Brooklyn  College  was  opened  by  the 
Jesuit  Fathers,  15  September,  1908;  St.  Joseph’s  Col¬ 
lege  for  Women  by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  2 
October,  1916;  and  the  Cathedral  College,  for  the 
preparatory  seminary  in  the  fall  of  1914.  The  per¬ 
manent  building  was  erected  in  the  following  year 
mainly  through  a  munificent  gift  from  Mr.  George 
Duval.  A  summer  villa  for  the  seminarians  was 
located  at  Water  Mills  and  the  system  of  keeping 
them  together  during  their  entire  course  was  suc¬ 
cessfully  inaugurated.  A  diocesan  organ,  the  “Tab¬ 
let,”  was  begun  4  April,  1908,  and  communities  of 
the  Passionist  Fathers  and  the  Brothers  of  Mary 
and  the  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart  were  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  diocese.  As  auxiliary  bishop,  the 
Rt.  Rev.  George  W.  Mundelein  was  consecrated 
titular  Bishop  of  Loryma,  12  September,  1909,  and 
ministered  as  such  until  his  promotion  to  the  arch¬ 
bishopric  of  Chicago,  9  December,  1915.  A  second 
auxiliary,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  Edmund  Molloy, 
was  consecrated  titular  of  Loria  on  3  October, 

1920.  Bishop  McDonnell  died  on  8  August, 

1921,  and  Bishop  Molloy  was  immediately  named 
administrator  of  the  diocese  and  transferred  in 
succession  as  the  third  bishop  of  the  see,  21  Novem¬ 
ber,  1921.  He  was  born  at  Nashua,  New  Hampshire, 
4  September,  1885.  His  collegiate  course  was  made 
at  St.  Anselm’s  College,  Nashua,  and  St.  Francis’, 
Brooklyn,  after  which  he  was  sent  to  the  American 
College,  Rome,  where  he  was  ordained  in  1908. 
Returning  to  Brooklyn,  he  served  as  an  assistant 
in  St.  John’s  Chapel  parish,  as  secretary  to  Bishop 
Mundelein,  and  as  director  of  the  preparatory  semi¬ 
nary  and  St.  Joseph’s  College  for  Women  before 
he  was  appointed  auxiliary  bishop.  In  the  first 
few  months  of  his  administration  he  established 
six  new  parishes,  admitted  to  the  diocese  a  founda¬ 
tion  of  the  Religious  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Cenacle 
and  blessed  (27  April,  1922),  the  Church  of  St. 
Peter  Claver  for  the  first  Brooklyn  congregation 
of  colored  Catholics. 

When  the  first  Catholic  parish  in  Brooklyn  was 
organized  on  7  January,  1882,  it  was  found  there 
were  then  only  70  persons  who  could  be  relied 
on  to  give  it  material  support.  The  immense  dio¬ 
cese  that  followed  from  this  beginning  began  its 
second  century  with  the  following  statistical  evi¬ 
dences  of  the  splendid  progress  made  in  the  inter¬ 
vening  hundred  years:  bishop  1;  diocesan  priests 
465 ;  priests  of  religious  orders  122,  _  total  587 ; 
churches  with  resident  priests  238;  missions  with 
churches  23,  total  261 ;  seminary  for  diocesan  clergy 

I,  students  86;  preparatory  seminary  1,  students 
324;  colleges  for  boys  3,  students  2250;  academies 
for  bojrs  5,  pupils  217;  academies  for  young  ladies 

II,  pupils  1424;  commercial  high  school  1,  pupils 
380;  high  school  1,  pupils  190;  parishes  with  paro¬ 
chial  schools  120,  pupils  72,398;  orphan  asylums 
10,  orphans  3718;  infant  asylum  1,  infants  cared 
for  700;  industrial  schools  for  girls  2,  girls  356; 
House  of  Good  Shepherd  1,  inmates  340;  total 
young  people  under  Catholic  care  78,082;  hospitals 


BROWNSVILLE 


BUDEJOVICE 


131 


10;  homes  for  aged  poor  4,  inmates  740:  Catholic 
population  821,337.  . 

Dui  ing  the  \\  orld  W ar  Brooklyn  served 
as  an  important  naval  base,  and  within  the  dioc¬ 
esan  limits  two  important  camps  were  located 
Camp  Upton  at  Yaphank,  and  Camp  Mills  at 
Carden  City,  Long  Island.  The  latter  was  used  as 
the  aviation  center  for  this  section  of  the  country 
and  the  army  supply  station  was  also  located  within 
tins  territory.  These  various  activities  afforded 
added  opportunities  for  the  zeal  of  the  bishop  and 

c  jgy,  took  an  active  part  in  all  patriotic 

endeavors. 

Brownsville,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See  Corpus 
Christi,  Diocese  of. 


Bruges,  Diocese  of  (Brugensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-5b) 
suffragan  of  Malines,  contains  the  province  of  West 
I  landers  in  Belgium.  The  territory  of  the  diocese 
was  occupied  by  the  Germans  from  1914-1918  and 
the  section  near  the  French  border  was  the  scene 
of  severe  and  continued  fighting. 

Ihe  episcopal  seat  is  the  city  of  Bruges,  and  the 
present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Gustave- Joseph  Waf- 
felaert,  born  at  Rolleghem  in  the  Diocese  of  Bruges 
27  August,  1847,  priest  in  June,  1870,  elected  28 
June,  1895,  consecrated  at  Bruges  25  July  foliow- 

Lng'+  P1?,10  A,u,gust>.  1920>  Bishop'  Waffelaert  cele¬ 
brated  the  golden  jubilee  of  his  priesthood  and 
his  silver  Jubilee  as  bishop  in  the  presence  of 
Cardinal  Mercier,  four  Belgian  bishops,  three 
mitered  abbots,  two  ministers  of  State,  and  civil  and 
military  authorities.  After  the  ceremony  in  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Saviour  the  cardinal  placed  the 
pallium  a  reward  of  the  Supreme  Pontiff’s,  on  the 
venerable  bishop.  On  this  occasion  he  was  also 
named  an  officer  of  the  Order  of  Leopold  by  the 
King  of  the  Belgians. 

The  diocese  of  Bruges,  like  the  rest  of  Belgium 
was  overrun  by  German  soldiers  and  officials,  but 
a  small  portion  of  the  diocese  remained  unviolated 
k  iu  ^,nem3r>  the  only  spot  in  Belgium  not  taken 
by  the  German  armies.  This  line  from  Nieuport  to 
Dixmude  to  Ypres  to  the  French  border  was  never 
passed,  and  throughout  the  war  was  the  scene  of 
terrific  fighting,  the  three  towns  mentioned,  with 
their  churches,  colleges,  and  convents,  were  de¬ 
stroyed,  but  the  little  Belgian  army,  later  reinforced 
by  British  and  French  troops,  remained  on  the  Yser 
an£  fought  on  Flanders  fields  until  the  armistice. 

ihe  diocese  is  divided  into  15  deaneries  36 
parishes  and  293  sub-parishes,  301  of  which  are 
partially  supported  by  the  State.  Of  the  845  732 
inhabitants  /64,8/9  are  Catholics.  The  diocesan 
seminary  at  Bruges  has  more  than  a  hundred  stu¬ 
dents  advanced  from  the  preparatory  seminary  at 
Roulers.  For  _  the  purpose  of  general  education 
there  is  an  episcopal  college  at  Bruges,  and  seven 
other  colleges  at  large  centers  of  the  dioceses.  The 
colleges  at  Ypres,  Dixmunde,  and  Nieuport,  which 
were  directly  on  the  fighting  lines  where  the  Ger¬ 
man  ad\  ance  was  halted,  have  been  discontinued 
1  or  technical  education  there  is  the  Institute  Saint- 
Leon  at  Bruges,  and  four  other  normal  schools 
throughout  the  diocese.  Many  religious  orders,  both 
male  and  female,  have  houses  in  the  diocese,  besides 
hospitals  anc  asylums  for  the  aged  and  poor. 

Briinn,  Diocese  of.  See  Brno. 

Brunswick  (Braunschweig;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-19a) 
formerly  a  duchy  in  the  mountainous  central  part 
oi  .Northern  Germany,  now  a  republic.  Territorially 
the  state  is  not  a  unit,  but  is  parcelled  into  three 
large  and  six  smaller  sections.  Both  in  extent  of 
territory  and  in  population  it  ranked  tenth  among 


Stat°S  °f  *¥  German  Umpire.  The 

whom  m°  enuIlmyted  494'339  inhabitants,  of 

and  1  7W  It T T  Luthmns,  25,888  were  Catholics, 
and  l,/o7  weie  Jews.  Ihe  area  is  1,418  sq.  miles 

and  according  to  the  census  of  8  October  1919  the 
population  was  480,599  (338  inhabitants  to  the  sq 
mde)  i  he  government  of  Brunswick  was  a  con¬ 
stitutional  monarchy  hereditary  in  the  male  line  of 

be?  ?9°18Seth°i  £r— k-Luneburg.  On  8  Novem- 
b<  l  ,  1918,  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  was  deposed  and 

the  duchy  proclaimed  a  republic.  The  government 
was  taken  over  by  the  Council  of  People’s  Com¬ 
missioners.  The  present  Constitution  bears  the  date 

A7!  Femoniy’  1919,  a?d  the  Present  Diet,  elected  17 
mi  y  nu2?’  consists  of  GO  men,  elected  for  four  years, 
le  Cabinet  consists  of  6  members.  See  Germany. 

WE“  <?/'  C.  E  III-21b). -During  the  World 
V\  ar  the  city  of  Brussels  was  under  German 
dominion.  On  19  August,  1914,  the  burgomaster 
posted  a  warning  to  the  effect  that  the  German 
army  was  at  the  walls  of  the  city.  The  Govern¬ 
ment  found  it  necessary  to  remove  its  offices  to 
Antwerp,  and  the  Civic  Guard  of  the  city  dis¬ 
banded.  On  20  August  the  German  army  arrived 

I  or  three  days  the  soldiers  passed  in  thousands  to 
the  scene  of  battle ;  a  small  force  remained  in  the 
dty,  installed  itself  in  the  barracks  and  in  the 
supeib  Palace  of  Justice,  whose  halls  were  turned 
mto  barrack  rooms  and  guard  houses.  The  citv 
was  asked  for  £8,000,000  as  its  “war  contribution”  • 
the  inhabitants  were  forced  to  give  up  their  fire¬ 
arms,  and  all  Belgian  newspapers  were  suppressed 
During  this  period  the  Germans  had  definite  plans 
to  make  Brussels  the  center  of  Flanders,  one  of 
the  two  subdivisions  of  Belgium.  The  German 
occupation  of  the  city  ceased  in  October,  1918 
when  the  great  allied  advance  was  in  progress.  In 
19^0  was  held  the  International  Financial  Con¬ 
ference,  to  which  nearly  all  the  nations  sent  a 
representative  to  discuss  the  world’s  monetary  prob¬ 
lems  and  German  indemnities. 

•  Beligious  Life.— In  1921  there  were  49  parishes 
m  the  city  and  suburbs,  and  in  the  city  proper 
71  priests.  The  religious  houses  of  women  num¬ 
bered  about  95. 

TT?o?n°Vi?e  (Bohemian,  Budweis;  cf.  C.  E. 

II  34d),  Diocese  of  (Bofiemo-Budiviensis) _ Bv 

the  provismns  of  the  papal  Bull  of  20  September, 
^^thecivU  districts  of  Budweis,  Tabor,  Prachen 
and  KJattau  were  separated  from  the  Archdiocese 
of  Prague  and  erected  into  the  new  Diocese  of 
Budweis  (Czech,  Budejovice). 

Upon  the  death  of  the  former  bishop,  Joseph  A. 
Hulka  (16  December,  1907-10  February,  1920),  the 
alt  airs  of  the  diocese  were  administered  by  Joseph 
Brenner  in  the  capacity  of  vicar  capitular.  He  was 
relieved  by  Simon  Barta,  formerly  professor  of 
Chnstian  Doctrine  m  the  Bohemian  gymnasium  at 
Budweis  who,  on  16  December,  1920,  was  officially 
appointed  the  new  bishop  of  the  diocese.  In  1913 
a  lourth  diocesan  synod  was  held. 

.  A?c?J’ding  to  the  organization  of  1857  the  diocese 
is  divided  mto  the  vicariate  general  of  Budejovice, 
on  which  depend  the  archdeaconry  of  Krumau  •  the 
provostship  of  Neuhaus;  5  deaneries:  Budejovice 
Domazhce,  RIatory  Pisck,  and  Tabor;  and  8  arch^ 
ipresbyterates:  Budejovice  Klattau,  Krummau, 
Neuhaus,  Taus,  and  \\  mterberg,  with  4  vicariates 
each,  making  a  total  of  34  vicariates.  The  total  pop- 
the  diocese  (1920)  is  1,135,147,  of  which 
are  Catholics,  consisting  of  800  000  Bo¬ 
hemians  and  300,000  Germans.  The  balance  of  the 
population  is  as  follows:  1.790  members  of  the  Augs¬ 
burg  Evangelical  Church;  2,590  members  of  the  Hel- 


BUDWEIS 


132 


BUFFALO 


vetic  Evangelical  Church;  10,009  Jews;  and  830  of 
no  religious  persuasion.  The  largest  parish  is  Bude- 
jovice.  The  total  parishes  number  431  with  630 
churches,  10  monasteries  for  men,  1  abbey,  2  con¬ 
vents  for  men,  1  college  for  boys  with  84  students, 
13  public  ayslums  with  Catholic  sisters  in  attend¬ 
ance,  9  orphan  asylums,  and  1  home  for  the  deaf, 
which  is  in  a  small  wray  aided  by  the  support  of 
the  Government.  Public  schools  are  established  in 
which  the  Catholic  religion  is  taught. 

The  clergy  number  816  secular  and  130  regular 
priests,  assisted  by  a  total  of  30  lay  brothers.  The 
regular  priests  are  divided  as  follows :  57  Cistercians 
from  Hohenfurth  with  3  professed  clerics,  10 
Brothers  of  the  Most  Holy  Sacrament  of  the  Altar 
with  9  lay  brothers,  15  Premonstratensians,  8 
Knights  of  Malta,  2  Minorites,  5  Reformed  Fran¬ 
ciscans  with  3  lay  brothers,  3  Calced  and  4  Discalced 
Augustinians  with  3  lay  brothers,  7  Servites  with 
3  lay  brothers,  4  Capuchins  with  3  lay  brothers, 
and  2  Piarists.  The  cathedral  chapter  consists  of 
a  provost,  a  dean,  a  custos,  and  14  capitulary  canons 
to  which  are  added  5  honorary  canons;  the  con¬ 
sistory  has  12  members.  The  seminary  at  Bude- 
jovice  has  6  professors  and  18  students,  with  1 
in  the  Bohemian  College  at  Rome. 

In  the  diocese  there  are  9  orders  of  women  with 
560  sisters  and  a  total  of  56  houses,  including  50 
convents  and  4  monasteries.  The  orders  are  divided 
as  follows:  285  Poor  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame, 
149  Sisters  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  79  Sisters  of 
the  Most  Blessed  Sacrament  of  the  Altar,  8  Sisters 
of  the  Holy  Cross,  6  Servites,  8  Carmelites,  23 
Franciscans,  2  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul. 

The  following  clergy  of  note  are  recently  de¬ 
ceased:  Mgr.  Anthony  Skocdopole,  d.  16  January, 
1919,  at  the  age  of  ninety  years,  the  author  of  a 
catechism  and  of  various  scientific  works,  and  editor 
of  the  popular  weeklies  “Anezka,”  “Ludmila,”  and 
“Vaclar”;  Mgr.  John  Sweda,  dean  emeritus  of 
Prachen,  d.  7  January,  1921,  the  editor  of  books 
of  hymns  and  canticles. 

Various  associations  exist  for  both  clergy  and 
laity.  There  are  two  Catholic  publications,  one 
semi-weekly  and  one  weekly.  During  the  World 
War  the  Catholics,  both  clergy  and  laity,  assisted 
in  every  way  to  relieve  the  suffering  among  the 
soldiers  and  civilians. 

Budweis,  Diocese  of.  See  Budejovice. 

Buenos  Aires,  Archdiocese  of  (Bonaerensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  III-37a),  or  Santisima  Trinidad,  in  the  Ar¬ 
gentine  Republic,  South  America.  This  see  is  now 
(1922)  filled  by  Most  Rev.  Mariano  Antonio  Espi¬ 
nosa,  b.  in  Buenos  Aires  1844,  ordained  1868,  ap¬ 
pointed  titular  Bishop  of  Tiberiopolis  1893,  trans¬ 
ferred  to  La  Plata  1898,  and  promoted  24  August, 
1900.  Archbishop  Espinosa  was  made  an  assistant  at 
the  pontifical  throne  15  January,  1907.  In  recent 
years  several  of  the  churches  of  the  archdiocese  have 
been  erected  into  minor  basilicas :  the  Church  of  the 
Rosary,  23  August,  1909;  that  of  St.  Joseph,  15 
January,  1912;  that  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  25 
November,  1916;  the  Church  of  Our  Lad}7-  of  Mercy, 
wrhere  are  preserved  the  trophies  and  colors  of 
Argentina  before  it  became  independent,  and  the 
Church  of  St.  Ursula,  8  January,  1919.  In  1910  a 
Catholic  university  was  founded  here  by  the  bishops 
of  Argentina,  and  on  23  December,  1915,  the  semi¬ 
nary  was  authorized  to  confer  degrees  in  philosophy 
and  theology.  The  archdiocese  has  jurisdiction  over 
the  ancient  prefecture  of  Southern  Patagonia,  de¬ 
tached  from  the  Chilean  territory  at,  the  time  of 
the  erection  of  the  vicariate  apostolic  of  Magal- 
lanes,  4  October,  1916,  and  divided  into  four  vica¬ 


riates  foraine.  In  1916,  on  9  July,  the  centenary 
of  the  independence  of  the  republic  was  celebrated 
with  impressive  ceremonies.  A  National  Eucharistic 
Congress  was  held  whch  closed  on  the  twenty-third 
of  the  month,  with  the  distribution  of  Holy  Com¬ 
munion  to  5,000  men  and  a  parade  of  200,000. 

The  1920  statistics  count  1,679,763  Catholics  for 
this  territory,  27  parishes  in  the  federal  capital,  11 
mission  centers  in  other  districts,  and  127  churches 
or  chapels. 

Buffalo,  Diocese  of  (Buffalensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-37c),  in  New  York,  has  grown  rapidly  in  recent 
years  during  the  incumbency  of  Bishop  Colton  and 
his  successors,  Bishops  Dougherty  and  Turner. 
Bishop  Colton’s  administration  (1903-1915)  was  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  the  building  of  the  beautiful  marble 
cathedral  designed  by  Aristides  Leonori  of  Rome. 
The  corner-stone  was  laid  9  June,  1912,  by  Cardinal 
Farley,  and  was  completed  before  Bishop  Colton’s 
death,  9  May,  1915,  his  funeral  being  the  first  public 
service  held  in  the  new  cathedral.  The  famous 
carillon  of  bells  purchased  in  France  by  Bishop 
Timon  were  transferred  from  the  old  cathedral  to 
the  new  building. 

His  Eminence  Dennis  Cardinal  Dougherty,  then 
Bishop  of  Jaro,  P.  I.,  was  transferred  to  Buffalo  to 
succeed  Bishop  Colton,  6  December,  1915,  and  filled 
the  see  until  his  transfer  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
Philadelphia,  1  May,  1918.  He  was  succeeded  .by 
the  sixth  and  present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  William 
Turner,  born  at  Kilmallock,  Diocese  of  Limerick, 

8  April,  1871,  made  his  studies  at  the  American 
College  at  Rome,  ordained  13  August,  1893,  having 
received  his  degree  of  Doctor  of  Theology  shortly 
before  that,  completed  his  studies  in  the  Catholic 
Institute  of  Paris,  and  in  1894  was  made  professor 
of  philosophy  at  the  Seminary  of  St.  Paul,  and  in 
1906  came  in  the  same  capacity  to  the  Catholic 
University  in  Washington.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Buffalo  10  March,  1919,  and  consecrated 
30  March  at  the  Franciscan  Monastery,  Mount  St. 
Sepulchre,  Brookland,  Washington,  by  His  Emi¬ 
nence  Cardinal  Gibbons. 

During  the  World  War  the  bishop  and  priests  of 
the  diocese  were  leaders  in  all  patriotic  endeavors; 
thirteen  of  the  secular  priests  served  as  chaplains 
with  the  American  army  and  one  with  the  Polish 
army,  and  the  Franciscans,  Vincentians,  and  Pas- 
sionists  were  also  represented  in  the  service.  The. 
percentage  of  Catholic  youth  was  very  high  and 
student  army  training  camps  were  organized  in  the 
three  colleges,  thus  enrolling  more  than  a  thousand 
student  soldiers.  The  army  posts  at  Fort  Porter, 
Buffalo,  and  Fort  Niagara  were  attended  by  priests 
of  the  diocese. 

During  recent  years  a  number  of  prominent  clergy 
of  this  diocese  have  died:  Rt.  Rev.  F.  Butler,  O. F. 
M.,  President  of  St.  Bonaventure’s  college  and 
seminary,  d.  25  July,  1911;  Rt.  Rev.  Michael  Con¬ 
nery,  M.R.,  vicar  general  and  administrator,  d.  7 
August,  1912;  Rt.  Rev.  James  A.  Lanigan,  M.R., 
vicar  general  and  administrator,  d.  20  August,  1912; 
Rev.  John  Pitass,  pioneer  Polish  priest  in  Buffalo, 
d.  11  December,  1913;  Rev.  Christopher  O’Byrne, 
pastor  of  St.  Nicholas  Church,  d.  5  October,  1919; 
Rev.  Daniel  Walsh,  pastor  of  the  Nativity  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  d.  21  February,  1920.  By 
present  (1921)  statistics  the  Catholic  population  of 
the  diocese  comprises  about  100,000  Poles,  60,000 
Irish,  50,000  Germans,  40,000  Italians,  3,000  Hun¬ 
garians,  1,500  Syrians,  and  a  few  hundreds  of  other 
nationalities. 

There  are  345  secular  priests  and  127  regulars, 
15  brothers,  205  churches  with  resident  pastors,  33 


BUILDINGS 


BUKAREST 


133 


missions  with  churches,  and  4  stations.  Among  tho 
educational  institutions  are:  1  university  with  an 
attendance  of  380,  3  colleges  for  men  with  an  at¬ 
tendance  of  1,331,  1  college  for  women,  4  high 
schools  with  an  attendance  of  1,335,  12  academies 
with  an  attendance  of  2,520,  and  1  training  school 
with  an  attendance  of  174.  There  are  7  homes  for 
women  and  working  girls,  5  orphan  asylums,  2 
foundling  asylums,  1  school  for  deaf  mutes,  2 
refuges  for  girls,  3  homes  for  the  aged,  2  settlement 
houses,  2  day  nurseries,  and  7  hospitals  with  ac¬ 
commodations  for  about  1,000  patients. 

The  Clerical  Mutual  Benefit  Society  and  the 
Eucharistic  League  are  established  for  the  clergy 
and  among  the  laity  are  the  Holy  Name  Society,’ 
Knights  of  Columbus,  Knights  of  St.  John,  National 
Council  of  men  and  women,  Federation  of  Catholic 
W  omen,  and  various  parish  societies. 

T  ie  Catholic  Lnion  and  Times”  is  the  official 
oigan  ot  the  diocese  and  is  published  every  Thurs¬ 
day. 

Buildings,  Ecclesiastical  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-41a)  — 
The  Church  Fabric  (cf.  C.  E.,  Ill— 44 ;  V-744)  __ 
Except  m  case  of  privilege  or  legitimate  custom, 
the  bishop  and  cathedral  chapter,  the  collegiate 
chapter,  and  the  rector  are  the  administrators  of 
the  temporal  property  destined  for  the  repairs  and 
decorations  and  service  expenses  of  the  cathedral, 
collegiate  church,  and  other  churches  respectively. 
In  some  places  certain  other  persons,  lay  or  clerical 
are  co-opted  to  assist  in  the  administration;  in  such 
a  case  they  with  the  administrator  or  his  delegate 
as  president  constitute  the  church  fabric  council. 

1  he  members  of  the  council,  unless  otherwise  legally 
Wanted,  are  named  by  the  bishop  or  his  delegate 
and  they  may  be  removed  by  him  for  grave  cause. 
As  the  council  is  intended  solely  for  the  administra- 
ti°n  ot  the  temporal  property,  it  must  in  no  way 
meddle  m  what  belongs  to  the  spiritual  office,  for 
instance:  the  time  and  manner  of  ringing  the  bells, 
keeping  order  in  the  church  or  cemetery,  the  man¬ 
ner  of  making  collections,  announcements,  the  ar¬ 
rangement  of  the  altar,  the  location  of  the  organ, 
seats,  offering  boxes,  the  acceptance  or  refusal  of 
'  sacred  lurniture,  or  the  compilation  or  custody  of 

archives*1,  d°CUments  belonSing  to  the  parochial 

Defilement  and  Reconciliation. — The  sanctity 
of  a  church  is  violated  (C.  E.,  III-43c)  only  by  the 
following  acts,  which  must  be  certain,  notorious,  and 
must  have  been  performed  in  the  church:  (a)  the 
crime  of  homicide;  (b)  the  wilful  and  culpable 
spilling  of  a  considerable  quantity  of  blood;  (c)  the 
use  of  the  church  for  impious  or  sordid  purposes; 
(d)  buiial  of  an  infidel  or  of  a  person  excom¬ 
municated  by  a  declaratory  or  condemnatory  sen- 
}fnce:  contigllous  cementry  is  not  affected  by 

iV?o^efiTerment  of  a  cburcb  and  vice  versa  (can. 
1172).  If  the  defilement  takes  place  before  the 
Eanon  of  Mass  which  is  being  said,  or  after  the 
Communion,  the  Mass  is  to  be  stopped;  otherwise 
the  celebrant  is  to  continue  to  the  end  of  the  Com¬ 
munion.  A  church  which  has  been  blessed  may  be 
reconciled  by  its  rector  or  by  any  priest  with  his 
consent,  at  least  presumed ;  but  if  it  has  been  con¬ 
secrated  it  is  the  duty  of  the  ordinary  or,  in  case 
^of  exempt  religious,  of  a  higher  superior,  to  secure 
the  reconciliation;  the  rector  may  reconcile  it  only 
in  grave  and  urgent  necessity,  when  it  is  impos¬ 
sible  to  reach  the  ordinary,  who  in  this  case  must 
be  notified  later.  In  reconciling  a  blessed  church 
ordinary  holy  water  may  be  used;  but  in  case  of  a 
consecrated  church  the  water  must  be  blessed  for 
the  purpose  according  to  the  liturgical  laws;  this 


blessing  may  be  imparted,  contrary  to  the  former 
practice,  not  only  by  bishops  but  by  the  priest  who 
is  reconciling  the  church. 

If  a  church  can  no  longer  be  used  for  Divine 
service  and  cannot  be  restored,  it  may  be  put  to 
profane  but  not  sordid  use  by  the  local  ordinary 
who  must  thereupon  transfer  its  revenue  and 
parochial  title,  if  it  be  a  parish  church,  to  another 
church. 


Bukarest  (Rumanian,  Bucuresti),  Archdiocese 
of  (Bucarestiensis;  cf.  C.  E„  III-45b).— The  pres¬ 
ent  archbishop  is  Raymund  Netzhammer,  O.iS.B 
born  at  Erzingen,  Baden,  19  January,  1862-  pro- 
fessed  m  the  Benedictine  monastery  at  Einsiedeln 
in  1881,  ordained  1886,  honorary  Canon  of  Bukarest 
superior  of  the  seminary  and  rector  of  the  Grecian 

7nniege  at  Rome>  elected  archbishop  16  September, 
1J05,  consecrated  at  Rome  in  the  monastery  of  St 
Anslem  5  November,  1905,  enthroned  17  Decem¬ 
ber,  190o,  Grand  official  of  the  Order  of  the  Ru¬ 
manian  Crown  1  January,  1912. 

The  suffering  resulting  from  the  World  War  was 
extreme.  The  Catholic  schools  were  destroyed 
among  them  those  of  the  Hungarians,  which  still 
remain  in  ruins,  many  inhabitants  were  compelled 
to  seek  refuge  elsewhere;  priests  were  sent  into 
exile,  and  five  who  were  forced  to  flee  have  not 
yet  effected  a  safe  return.  Among  the  recently 
deceased  of  note  is  Fr.  Joseph  D’Ester,  director 
of  the  English  Ladies,  and  for  thirty  years  a 
zealous  laborer  in  the  archdiocese  (b.  1847;  d.  1921). 
The  Italian  Catholics  erected  their  own  national 
chapel  m  the  center  of  Bukarest  in  1914,  and  dedi¬ 
cated  it  to  the  Infant  Saviour. 

The  Catholic  population  of  the  archdiocese  is 
about  70,000,  with  the  greater  percentage  Austrian 
and  the  rest  either  Hungarian,  Italian,  Polish, 
brench  or  German.  The  archdiocesan  year-book 
for  1914  gives  the  cathedral  chapter  as  composed  of 
2  canonnes  with  existing  vacancies,  and  5  resident 
and  3  non-resident  honorary  canons.  The  secular 
priests  number  33,  and  regular  priests  3— Passionist, 
Benedictine,  Lazarist.  There  are  24  parishes  with 
23  parish  churches  and  13  affiliated  churches;  an 
archiepiscopal  seminary  at  Bukarest;  a  college  gym¬ 
nasium  for  boys  with  19  professors  and  300  students  ; 

2  aichiepiscopal  schools  for  boys  at  Bukarest  with 
a  total  of  18  Christian  Brothers  as  teachers,  19 
lay  teachers,  and  1,123  students,  of  whom  about 
500  are  Catholics;  1  archiepiscopal  school  for  boys 
at  Craiova  with  226  students  and  8  teachers  of 
whom  2  are  priests  and  4  are  Christian  Brothers; 
boarding  school  for  boys  attached  to  the  archiepis¬ 
copal  school  -with  100  pupils;  2  elementary  schools 

Bukarest  with  455  pupils;  and  10  elementary 
schools  elsewhere  with  846  pupils.  The  English 
Ladies,  numbering  254,  have  2  convents  in  Bukarest 
and  1  each  in  Braila,  Craiova,  and  Turn-Severin 
with  a  boarding  school  for  girls  attached  to  each 
foundation,  totaling  1,366  pupils;  they  also  con- 
duct  an  orphanage  with  20  children.  The  Dames 
de  Sion  have  1  foundation  in  Bukarest  with  47  sis¬ 
ters,  and  boarding  school  attached  with  318  pupils 
The  Sisters  of  Mercy  have  1  foundation  in  Bukarest 
with  6  sisters,  who  have  in  charge  an  attached  hos¬ 
pital.  Among  the  clergy  there  is  an  organization 
for  the  care  of  infirm  or  aged  priests,  and  also  a 
society  of  perpetual  adoration.  The  Marian  Con¬ 
gregation  for  the  young  and  adult  of  both  sexes, 
an  organization  of  Christian  Mothers,  and  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis  are  established  among  the 
laity.  A  daily  Catholic  publication  called  “Albina” 
is  issued.  The  Government  does  not  contribute  to 
the  support  of  the  Catholic  institutions. 


BULGARIA 


134 


BULGARIA 


Bulgaria  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-46a). — The  frequent 
changes  in  the  boundaries  of  Bulgaria  make  it 
difficult  to  determine  the  general  population  with 
any  degree  of  accuracy.  By  the  terms  of  the  treaty 
of  Neuilly  the  present  boundaries  of  Bulgaria  again 
approach  those  of  1910,  when  the  official  Bulgarian 
census  gave  the  population  as  4,337,513.  The  esti- 
mated  area  (1920)  is  42,000  square  miles,  and  the 
estimated  population  5,000,000.  The  census  of  1910 
gave  the  following  figures:  Bulgarians,  3,203,810; 
Turks,  488,010;  Rumanians,  75,7/3;  Greeks,  63,487; 
Gipsies,  98,004;  other  races,  61,690.  Of  the  new 
population,  added  in  1913  after  the  treaty  of 
Bukarest,  227,598  were  Bulgarians,  75,337  Pomaks 
(Bulgarian  Mohammedans),  275,498  Turks,  and  58,- 
709  Greeks,  total  637,142;  but  as  about  273,000  m 
the  Dobrudja  passed  to  Rumania,  the  total  gain  is 
about  364,000.  According  to  the  Peace  Treaty  of 
Neuilly,  signed  on  27  November,  1919,  Bulgaria 
cedes  'Thrace  to  Greece,  and  the  Strumitza  line 
and  a  strip  of  territory  on  the  northwest  frontier 
to  Servia.  Bulgaria  is  deprived  of  her  TSgean 
littoral,  but  an  efficient  economic  outlet  to  the  sea 
is  provided  for  her  in  the  treaty. 

Economic  Conditions— The  total  area  of  Bul¬ 
garia  is  approximately  22,239,000  acres,  6,894,090 
acres  or  31  per  cent  of  which  are  cultivated  and 
4,892,580  acres  or  22  per  cent  uncultivated,  the  re¬ 
mainder  being  forest  land.  The  chief  products  are 
fruit  (109,945  acres),  wheat  (2,080,000  acres),  maize 
(1,376,900  acres).  The  new  Land  Law  of  Bulgaria 
allows  to  each  person  only  what  he  can  work  with 
his  hands,  or  about  30  hectares,  thus  keeping  Bul¬ 
garia  the  nation  of  small  proprietors  that  it  has  been. 
The  Labor  Law  of  20  September,  1920,  forces  every 
man  and  woman  between  the  ages  of  twenty  and 
fifty  to  work  a  certain  length  of  time  for  the  State; 
thus  the  time  formerly  given  to  military  service, 
which  is  now  forbidden  by  the  Treaty  of  Peace, 
will  be  turned  to  useful  labor.  Every  Bulgarian 
youth  of  twenty  years  of  age  must  give  the  state 
12  months  of  labor;  every  girl  of  sixteen  years  of 
age  6  months  of  labor.  The  income  tax  of  Bulgaria 
is  particularly  unfortunate,  with  its  drastic  impost 
on  large  incomes  and  practical  exemption  of  the 
great  agrarian  element  from  the  operation  of  the 
law.  It  deprives  the  State  of  a  much  needed  in¬ 
come  from  the  peasants  and  by  its  unequal  tax 
on  profitable  large-scale  business  it  is  driving  foreign 
capital  from  the  country. 

Coal  production  in  1919  was  18,141  tons,  valued 
at  43,450  1.  There  are  388  state-encouraged  indus¬ 
trial  institutions.  .  . 

Education. — Elementary  education  is  obligatory 
and  free  for  all  children  between  the  ages  <pf  seven 
and  fourteen.  The  following  are  the  statistics  of 
various  classes  of  state  schools  in  Bulgaria  for 
1918-19: 


Instructors 

Attendance 

Schools 

Num¬ 

ber 

Male 

- — 1 

Female 

1 

Male 

Female 

Elementary  .... 

3,592 

4,172 

5,896 

271,205 

203,037 

Progymnasia  . . . 

354 

765 

1,623 

50,950 

23,571 

Incomplete 
Gymnasia  .... 

37 

233 

337 

11,835 

8,698 

Complete  . 

46 

820 

407 

19,431 

12,460 

Normal  Schools. 

437 

1,828 

2,367 

82,216 

44,729 

Professional  .... 

78 

551 

156 

7,551 

4,231 

There  are  besides  three  superior  training  colleges 
with  19  instructors  and  an  attendance  of  98  males 


and  93  females.  There  are  also  1,199  private  schools 
with  1,671  male  and  276  female  instructors  and 
35,948  male  and  28,702  females.  Private  schools 
are  supported  by  religious  communities,  societies, 
and  by  missionaries. 

Religion. — According  to  the  census  of  1910  the 
population  numbered  4,035,575,  divided  according 
to  religion  into  3,643,951  Greek  Orthodox,  32,130 
Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite  and  Uniat  Greeks, 
12,270  Gregorian  Armenians,  40,070  Jews,  602,101 
Moslems,  and  6,252  Protestants.  Of  the  new  popu¬ 
lation  added  by  the  Treaty  of  Bukarest,  286,307 
were  Orthodox  (227,598  Bulgarians  and  58,709 
Greeks),  and  350,595  Moslems  (75,337  Pomaks  and 
275,498  Turks).  In  the  part  of  the  Dobrudja  ceded 
to  Rumania  by  the  same  treaty  there  were  about 
90,000  Moslems  and  100,000  Orthodox. 

The  Bulgarian  exarch  at  Constantinople  was 
transferred  to  Sofia  after  the  Second  Balkan  War 
in  1913.  The  last  exarch,  Monsignor  Joseph,  died 
at  Sofia  in  1915  and  has  not  had  a  successor.  It 
is  possible  that  another  may  not  be  appointed. 
The  Greek  Orthodox  Church  of  Bulgaria  is  divided 
into  twenty-two  dioceses.  For  Catholic  statistics 
see  Nicopolis,  Diocese  of;  Sofia  and  Philippopolis, 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

Recent  History. — On  5  October,  1908,  Prince 
Ferdinand  of  Saxe-Coburg-Kohary  was  proclaimed 
the  Tsar  of  the  Bulgarians.  With  her  political 
ambitions  thus  aroused,  Bulgaria  desired  to  win 
back  the  territories  acquired  by  the  Peace  of  San 
Stefano.  This,  together  with  the  continued  Turkish 
misrule  in  Macedonia,  the  political  aggrandizement 
of  Austria,  and  the  territorial  ambitions  of  the 
Slavs,  led  to  the  union  of  Servia,  Greece,  Bulgaria, 
and  Montenegro  in  the  Balkan  League  against 
Turkey.  In  1912  they  demanded  autonomy  for 
Macedonia  under  European  governors,  the  conse¬ 
quence  of  which  demand  was  war.  In  the  hos¬ 
tilities  with  the  Turks  Montenegro  was  victorious, 
but  was  long  baffled  by  the  resistance  of  Scutari, 
which  eventually  fell  to  her  on  23  April,  1913;  the 
Servians  captured  Prishtina,  Kumanovo,  Skoplye, 
Prisrend,  and  Monastir,  Alessio  and  Durazzo; 
Greece  overran  Thessaly  and  Epirus,  _  and  took 
Salonica,  Ohio,  and  other  islands;  Bulgaria  beat  the 
Turks  at  Kirk  Kilisseh  and  Luleh  Burgas.  Adrian- 
ople  fell  to  the  Bulgars  in  1913.  By  the  treaty  of 
London,  Turkey  ceded  Crete  to  Greece  and  gave 
up  all  territory  west  of  a  line  drawn  from  Enos 
to  Midia.  Of  this  Bulgaria  demanded  the  chief 
share  in  virtue  of  a  secret  treaty  with  Servia  in 
1912.  Servia,  derprived  by  the  allies  of  Albania, 
demanded  a  new  apportionment,  which  Bulgaria 
refused.  A  second  Balkan  War  ensued,  Servia, 
Montenegro,  Greece,  Turkey,  and  Rumania  against 
Bulgaria.  A  simultaneous  invasion  of  Bulgaria  en¬ 
sued.  Adrianople  was  re-occupied  by  the  Turks. 
Closed  in  from  every  side  the  king  of  Bulgaria 
sued  for  peace.  By  the  treaty  of  Bukarest  (1913) 
Bulgaria  surrendered  her  claims  to  western  Mace¬ 
donia  and  ceded  Dobrudja  to  Rumania,  but  re¬ 
tained  a  strip  of  Macedonia  and  western  Thrace, 
Turkey  holding  Adrianople.  The  Turco-Bulgarian 
treaty  of  Constantinople  (1913)  delimited  the  new 
frontier  in  Thrace.  The  rest  of  the  territory  con¬ 
quered  from  Turkey  was  divided  between  Greece 
and  Servia. 

By  these  two  Balkan  wars  Turkey  lost  four-fifths 
of  her  European  territory;  Rumania,  Bulgaria, 
Servia,  Albania,  and  Greece  emerged  with  greater 
territory,  but  with  a  hatred  for  one  another  of 
indescribable  bitterness.  Bulgaria  was  reconciled 
with  Turkey  and  Austria,  and  when  the  Great 
European  War  came  she  was  naturally  on  their 


BURGOS 


135 


BURIAL 


side.  In  September,  1914,  she  signed  a  secret  con- 
■\ention  with  Austria-Hungary  providing  for  a  joint 
attack  upon  Servia  and  for  the  territorial  rewards 
to  Bulgaria.  In  October,  1914,  she  declared  war 
upon  Servia.  Ihe  next  day  Great  Britain  declared 
war  against  her,  and  France,  Russia,  and  Italy  fol¬ 
lowed  suit.  Servia  was  overwhelmed  by  the  Bul- 
garian.  armies.  In  January,  1916,  they  crossed  into 
Albania  from  Southern  Servia  and  occupied  El 
Bassan.  In  the  spring  of  1918,  while  the  Austro- 
German  troops  were  making  their  supreme  effort 
in  the  west,  the  allies  took  advantage  of  the  thin 
Bulgarian  line  in  Macedonia,  and,  reinforced  by 
Greeks,  began  on  14  September  their  great 
offensive  against  Bulgaria.  They  had  taken  Prilip, 
Babuna  Pass,  Ishtib,  and  Strumitza,  when  Bulgaria 
suddenly  sued  for  peace.  On  4  October,  1918,  King 
Ferdinand  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son.  By  the 
treaty  signed  at  Neuilly  near  Paris,  27  November, 
1919,  Bulgaria  lost  most  of  the  territories  which 
she  had  appropriated  in  the  Balkan  Wars  and  all 
her  conquests  in  the  Great  War.  Dobrudja  went 
to  Rumania;  the  greater  part  of  Macedonia  to 
Servia;  and  the  Thracian  coast  to  -the  allies.  On 
22  September,  1920,  Bulgaria’s  great  national  poet 
and  novelist,  Ivan  Vazoff,  died  at  the  age  of 
seventy-one.  Two  of  his  books,  the  novels  “Pod 
Igoto”  (Under  the  Yoke)  and  “Virgin  Soil”  have 
been  translated  into  English. 

Burgos,  Archdiocese  of  (Burgensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-65d),  in  Spain.  It  is  at  present  (1922)  under 
the  administration  of  His  Eminence  Cardinal  Ben- 
lloch  y  Vivo,  who  succeeded  Archbishop  Cadena, 
d.  6  June,  1918.  Born  in  Valencia  1864,  ordained 
1888,  he  was  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Greater 
Hermopohs  16  December,  1901,  transferred  to  Urgel 
6  December,  1906,  and  promoted  to  Burgos  7 
January,  1919.  On  30  April  following  the  Pope 
entrusted  the  new  archbishop  with  the  task  of 
founding  a  seminary  for  foreign  missions,  an  enter¬ 
prise  which  was  first  started  by  Father  Gerard 
Villota.  On  7  March,  1921,  the  archbishop  was 
created  a  cardinal-priest,  receiving  the  hat  in  Rome 
16  June  following.  By  1920  statistics  this  territory 
has  a  Catholic  population  of  324,685,  divided  among 
1295  parishes,  supervised  by  47  archpriests  and  1125 
priests.  There  are  in  the  diocese  1295  churches,  800 
chapels,  66  convents  with  425  religious,  and  175 
Sisters. 

In  July,  1921,  the  old  city  of  Burgos  celebrated 
the  seven  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  foundation 
of  its  famous  cathedral,  the  finest  example  of 
Spanish  ogival  art.  Its  cornerstone  was  laid  20 
Ju'y,  1221,  by  King  St.  Ferdinand,  who  also  founded 
the  Cathedral  of  Toledo.  To  the  many  treasures 
pi  eserved  here,  a  relic  of  its  founder,  who  is  buried 

thg  cathedral  of  Seville,  and  the  remains  of  the 
Cid,  Spam  s  great  hero,  were  added  on  the  occasion 
of  the  celebration,  which  lasted  for  fifteen  days. 
Ihe  transfer  of  the  relic  of  San  Fernando  was  a 
great  religious  and  patriotic  event;  infantry  and 
cavalry  troops  garrisoned  in  the  city  took  part  in 
the  procession,  and  the  cardinal  pontificated,  accom¬ 
panied  by  the  Apostolic  Nuncio,  many  Spanish 
bishops,  the  Archbishop  of  Valencia  and  numerous 
prelates.  The  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  and 
the  Civil  and  Military  Governors  took  part  in  the 
name  of  the  Government,  and  the  populace  entered 
into  the  festivities  with  enthusiasm.  In  the  after¬ 
noon  the  royal  family  arrived  from  Santander  to 
attend  the  pontifical  Mass,  celebrated  the  follow¬ 
ing  morning  by  Mgr.  Tedeschini,  the  papal  nuncio, 
who  also  read  the  papal  Brief  granting  the  title 
and  privileges  of  a  basilica  to  the  cathedral.  The 
king  himself,  surrounded  by  his  royal  escort,  led 


the  processm11  attendmg  the  transfer  of  the  remains 
of  the  Cid,  and  it  may  really  be  said  that  all  Spain, 
irrespective  of  class  or  creed,  took  part  in  the  cele¬ 
brations,  even  the  newspapers  least  favorably  in¬ 
clined  toward  the  Church  publishing  special  editions 

BuriabCnn1^  (cf  C.  E.,  III-7l).-EccIesias- 
tical  bunal  consists  in  bringing  a  corpse  to  the 
church  and  after  the  funeral  service  has  been 
held  there  interring  the  body  in  a  place  blessed 
and  tawfully  appointed  as  a  resting-place  for  the 
dead.  Nobody  may  be  buried  in  churches,  even 
basement  or  lower  churches,  except  popes,  royal 
personages  or  cardinals,  or  residential  bishops,  or 
abbots  or  prelates  nullius,  who  may  be  interred  in 
their  own  churches.  The  Catholic  Church  has  a 
right  to  have  its  own  cemeteries.  If  this  right  is 
violated  and  the  majority  of  those  who  are  being 
mterred  in  a  cemetery  are  Catholics,  local  ordinaries 
should  see  that  the  public  cemeteries  are  blessed, 

°rja^i  ea^  a  Pa^  is  reserved  for  Catholics 
and  blessed.  Where  this  cannot  be  done  each  grave 
must  be  blessed  as  often  as  there  is  a  burial.  The 
canonical  regulations  concerning  the  interdiction, 
violation,  and  reconciliation  of  churches  apply  also' 
to  cemeteries. 

Every  parish  should  have  its  own  cemetery  unless 
the  ordinary  allows  one  in  common  for  two  or  more 
parishes.  He  may  allow  moral  personalities  and 
private  families  to  have  their  own  places  of  in¬ 
terment  away  from  the  general  cemetery.  The 
faithful  may  erect  private  burial-places  of  vaults 
for  themselves  and  their  families  in  parochial  ceme¬ 
teries,  with  the  written  consent  of  the  ordinary  or 
his  delegate,  or  in  the  private  cemetery  of  an 
association,  with  the  written  leave  of  its  superior. 
These  private  burial-places  may  be  alienated  with 
the  consent  of  the  ordinary  or  superior.  The  graves 
of  priests  and  clerics  should,  if  possible,  be  separate 
from  those  of  the  laity  and  should  be  located  in 
a  more,  respectable  place ;  furthermore,  if  it  can  be 
conveniently  done,  the  graves  of  priests  should  be 
apart  from  those  of  the  inferior  clergy.  The  ceme¬ 
tery,  should  be  enclosed  and  carefully  guarded,  and 
the  proper  authorities  should  see  that  no  epitaphs, 
inscriptions,  or  decorations  unworthy  of  our  religion 
are  allowed  therein.  If  possible  there  should  be, 
in  addition  to  the  cemetery  that  has  been  blessed’ 
an  enclosed  protected  place  for  the  interment  of 
those  who  have  not  been  allowed  Christian  burial. 

permitted,  especially  in  case  of 
sudden  death,  until  after  a  lapse  of  time  sufficient 
to  remove  all  doubt  as  to  the  reality  of  the  party’s 
death,  and  no  remains  that  have  received  definitive 
Christian  burial  may  be  exhumed  without  the  ordi¬ 
nary  s  consent,  which  must  never  be  granted  if 
the  body  cannot  undoubtedly  be  distinguished  from 
the  other  corpses. 

When  a  Catholic  dies  his  remains  should  always 
be  brought  to  church  for  the  prescribed  funeral 
services,  unless  there  is  a  serious  reason  for  omitting 
them;  any  practice  contrary  to  this  is  expressly 
reprobated.  The  services  are  to  be  held  in  the 
parish  church  of  the  deceased;  if  he  belonged  to 
several  parishes  they  are  to  be  held  in  whichever 
of  the  parishes  he  died  in.  If  the  person  died  out¬ 
side  of  his  parish,  his  remains  should  be  brought 
to  his  own  parish  church,  if  it  is  within  walking 
distance  and  if  this  can  be  done  conveniently ; 
otherwise  the  services  should  be  held  in  the  church 
of  the  parish  where  he  died.  It  devolves  upon  the 
ordinary  to  judge  if  it  would  be  really  incon¬ 
venient,  and  if  the  parishes  belong  to  different 
dioceses  it  is  the  ordinary  of  the  place  where 
the  death  occurred  who  decides.  The  family,  the 
heirs,  or  other  interested  parties  may  always  bring 


BURIAL 


136 


BURIAL 


the  body  to  the  church  or  burial-place,  even  when 
it  is  inconvenient,  provided  they  pay  the  expenses. 
If  a  cardinal  dies  in  Rome  the  funeral  services  are 
to  be  held  in  a  church  selected  by  the  pope;  if  he 
dies  outside  of  Rome,  they  should  be  held  in  one 
of  the  more  important  churches  of  the  place  where 
he  died,  unless  he  gave  other  directions.  The  re¬ 
mains  of  a  deceased  residential  bishop,  even  if  he 
is  a  cardinal,  or  of  an  abbot  or  prelate  nullius, 
should  be  brought  to  his  cathedral,  abbatial  or 
prelatial  church,  if  this  can  be  arranged  conven¬ 
iently;  otherwise  they  are  to  be  taken  to  one  of 
the  chief  churches  in  the  place  where  the  death 
occurred,  unless  the  deceased  chose  another  church. 
The  body  of  a  residential  beneficiary  is  to  be 
brought  to  the  church  in  which  he  held  his  benefice, 
unless  he  selected  another.  The  remains  of  pro¬ 
fessed  religious  and  novices  are  to  be  brought  to 
the  church  or  oratory  of  their  house,  or  at  least 
to  one  belonging  to  their  order,  but  a  novice  has 
the  right  of  selecting  another  church ;  the  right  of 
removing  the  body  rests  with  the  religious  superior. 
If  the  death  occurs  in  a  place  from  which  it  would 
not  be  convenient  to  transport  the  body  to  the 
residence  or  a  house  of  the  order,  the  corpse  should 
be  buried  from  the  parish  church  of  the  place  where 
the  religious  died;  though  again,  a  novice  may 
choose  another  church,  and  a  superior  may  bring 
the  body  home  provided  he  bears  the  expense. 
What  is  here  said  of  novices  also  applies  to  ser¬ 
vants  who  were  living  permanently  in  a  religious 
house  at  the  time  of  their  death.  If  a  person  dies 
in  a  religious  house  or  college  where  he  has  been 
residing  as  guest  or  for  purposes  of  health  or  educa¬ 
tion,  or  in  an  hospital,  the  service  should  be  held 
in  his  parish  church;  seminarians,  however,  are 
not  under  the  parish  priest’s  jurisdiction. 

Any  person  is  free  to  select  his  funeral  church 
or  cemetery,  if  the  canons  do  npt  expressly  deprive 
him  of  this  right;  a  wife  or  child  who  has  reached 
the  age  of  puberty  may  make  this  choice  even  con¬ 
trary  to  a  husband’s  or  a  father’s  desire;  but  pro¬ 
fessed  religious  who  are  not  bishops  and  children 
below  the  age  of  puberty  have  not  this  power  of 
selection.  In  order,  however,  for  the  selection  to 
be  made  validly,  one  must  choose  the  parish  church, 
or  a  church  of  a  regular  order  (now,  however,  the 
church  of  nuns  professed  with  solemn  vows,  unless 
in  the  case  of  females  residing  within  the  clausura 
as  servants  or  for  purposes  of  education  or  health 
or  as  boarders),  or  in  case  of  a  patron,  the  church 
of  which  he  enjoys  the  patronage,  or  any  other 
church  authorized  to  hold  funeral  services.  Reli¬ 
gious  and  secular  clergy  are  expressly  forbidden  to 
induce  anyone  to  swear  or  to  promise  to  select 
their  church  for  his  funeral  services  or  their  ceme¬ 
teries  for  his  burial-place,  or  to  bind  himself  not 
to  change  his  selection  if  he  has  already  made  a 
choice;  if  this  injunction  is  violated  the  selection 
is  void.  If  anyone  desires  to  be  buried  in  a  ceme- 
tary  other  than  that  of  his  parish,  his  wish  should 
be  carried  out  if  the  administrator  of  the  cemetery 
in  question  raises  no  objection;  should  one  desire 
to  be  buried  in  the  cemetery  of  a  religious  order, 
this  may  be  done  if  the  religious  superior  consents. 
A  deceased  person  who  has  a  family  burial-ground 
should  be  buried  in  it  if  possible,  if  he  has  not 
selected  any  place;  a  widow  in  a  similar  case  is 
to  be  buried  with  her  husband,  or  if  she  has  had 
more  than  one,  with  the  last;  if  there  are  several 
family  burial-places,  the  decedent’s  family  or  heirs 
are  to  decide  in  which  of  them  the  interment  is 
to  take  place. 

The  parish  priest  of  the  deceased  not  merely  has 
the  right,  but  is  bound,  except  in  case  of  great 


necessity,  to  bring  the  corpse  to  the  parish  church 
and  perform  the  funeral  services  there,  in  case  the 
deceased  belonged  to  the  parish  in  which  he  died. 
If  he  did  not  die  in  his  parish  and  his  remains  can 
be  transported  conveniently,  his  parish  priest  should, 
after  notifying  the  priest  of  the  place  of  the  death, 
bring  the  body  to  his  own  church  for  the  funeral 
services.  If  the  funeral  church  belongs  to  regulars 
or  is  not  under  the  parish  priest’s  jurisdiction  the 
latter  should  bring  the  body  thither,  preceded  by 
the  cross  of  the  church  where  the  ceremony  is  to 
be  held;  but  the  rector  of  the  funeral  church  is  to 
officiate.  If,  however,  the  church  is  not  exempt 
from  his  jurisdiction  the  right  of  officiating  belongs 
to  the  parish  priest  of  the  district  where  the  church 
is  situated,  provided  the  deceased  was  one  of  his 
flock.  If  a  nun  or  novice  dies  in  a  convent  her 
remains  are  to  be  carried  by  the  sisters  as  far  as 
the  enclosure;  then  if  the  nuns  are  not  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  parish  priest,  the  chaplain  accom¬ 
panies  the  body  to  the  convent  chapel  or  oratory, 
where  he  officiates;  if  the  nuns  are  under  the  juris¬ 
diction  of  the  parish  priest,  the  latter  holds  the 
services  as  usual.  If  a  nun  dies  outside  her  con¬ 
vent  the  ordinary  regulations  are  followed.  When 
the  corpse  is  sent  to  a  place  which  is  not  in  the 
parish  of  the  deceased,  and  no  funeral  church  has 
been  selected,  the  funeral  service,  if  any,  are  to  be 
held  in  the  cathedral  of  that  place,  or,  if  there  is 
no  cathedral  there,  _  in  the  church  of  the  parish 
where  the  cemetery  is  situated,  unless  local  custom 
or  the  diocesan  statutes  provide  otherwise. 

The  priest  who  performs  the  funeral  services 
not  only  may  but  must,  except  in  case  of  grave 
necessity,  either  personally  or  by  a  delegate  priest, 
accompany  the  remains  to  the  place  of  burial.  The 
priest  accompanying  the  body  to  the  church  or 
burial-ground  may  freely  pass  through  another 
parish  or  diocese  with  his  stole  and  upraised  cross 
without  the  permission  of  the  parish  priest  or  the 
ordinary.  If  the  remains  are  to  be  buried  in  a 
cemetery  to  which  they  cannot  be  earned  con¬ 
veniently,  the  parish  priest  or  rector  of  the  funeral 
church  has  no  right  to  accompany  them  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  city  or  district.  A  parish  priest 
may  not,  except  for  a  reason  approved  by  the  ordi¬ 
nary,  exclude  secular  clergy,  or  religious,  or  mem¬ 
bers  of  a  pious  sodality  invited  by  the  family  or 
heirs  from  attending  a  funeral  service  and  burial; 
but  the  clergy  of  the  church  of  the  family  or  heirs 
of  the  deceased  should  be  invited  in  preference  to 
any  others.  Notoriously  anti-Catholic  societies  or 
their  insignia  must  never  be  tolerated  at  Catholic 
funerals.  It  is  to  be  remembered,  moreover,  that 
clerics  are  forbidden  to  carry  the  coffin  of  a  layman. 

After  the  burial  the  minister  should  enter  in  the 
register  of  the  dead  the  name  and  age  of  the  de¬ 
ceased,  the  names  of  his  parents  or  spouse,  the  date 
of  his  death,  the  sacraments  administered,  the 
name  of  the  minister,  and  the  place  and  date  of 
burial. 

Burial  Fees. — Local  ordinaries  should  draw  up 
for  their  territories  a  schedule  of  funeral  taxes  or 
alms  if  none  already  exist;  this  is  to  be  done  after 
consulting  the  cathedral  chapter,  and,  if  it  seems 
good,  the  diocesan  vicars  forane  and  the  parish 
priests  of  the  episcopal  city,  and  allowing  for 
lawful  local  customs  and  the  varying  conditions 
of  persons  and  places.  The  taxation  should,  how¬ 
ever,  be  moderate  so  as  to  prevent  disputes  and 
remove  occasions  of  scandal.  It  is  strictly  for¬ 
bidden  for  anyone  to  demand  for  funeral  services, 
burials,  or  anniversary  services  more  than  the 
amount  fixed  in  the  diocesan  schedule.  The  poor 
must  have  their  funeral  services  and  a  decent  burial 


BURKE 


137 


BURMA 


according  to  the  liturgy  and  diocesan  statutes  en¬ 
tirely  gratis.  It  is  the  general  law  that  when  the 
services  are  not  held  iu  the  parish  church  of  the 
deceased,  his  parish  priest  should  receive  a  parochial 
stipend,  except  when  the  corpse  cannot  conveniently 
be  brought  to  that  church.  If,  when  the  decadent 
has  several  parish  churches  to  which  his  body 
might  easily  be  brought,  the  funeral  services  are 
held  elsewhere,  the  stipend  is  to  be  divided  among 
all  his  parish  priests.  The  parochial  stipend  is  to 
be  taken  only  from  the  money  allowed  by  the 
cfiocesan  schedule  of  funeral  and  burial  taxes.  The 
payment  of  the  parochial  stipend  becomes  due  if, 
for  any  reason  the  first  solemn  funeral  service  not 
having  been  held  at  once,  takes  place  within  a 
month  from  the  day  of  burial,  even  if  on  the  same 
day  there  were  other  minor  public  services.  The 
amount  of  the  parochial  stipend  is  to  be  fixed  by 
the  diocesan  schedule;  if  the  parish  church  and  the 
funeral  church  are  in  different  dioceses  the  amount 
fixed  for  the  diocese  of  the  funeral  church  is  the 
lawful  toll. 

Only  those  persons  who  have  been  baptized 
may  receive  Christian  burial,  but  catechumens  who 
without  any  fault  on  their  part  die  without  the 
sacrament  are  to  be  considered  as  if  they  had  been 
baptized.  The  following  classes  are  excluded  from 
ecclesiastical  burial  unless  before  dying  they  have 
given  some  sign  of  repentance:  (a)  notorious  apos¬ 
tates  _  from  Christianity,  or  open  members  of  a 
heretical  or  schismatic  sect,  or  of  the  Freemasons 
or  any  similar  society;  (b)  those  who  have  been 
excommunicated  or  interdicted  by  a  condemnatory 
or  declaratory  sentence;  (c)  those  who  knowingly 
and  deliberately  committed  suicide;  (d)  those  who 
have  been  killed  in  a  duel  or  who  die  from  a 
wound  inflicted  in  a  duel;  (e)  those  who  have 
ordered  their  bodies  to  be  cremated;  (f)  other 
public  and  notorious  sinners.  If  it  is  suspected 
that  a  deceased  person  come  under  any  of  these 
classes,  the  ordinary  should  be  consulted  if  time 
permits;  should  the  doubt  still  remain  the  person 
is  to  receive  ecclesiastical  burial,  steps  being  taken 
to  avoid  scandal.  No  funeral  Mass,  not  even  an 
anniversary,  or  other  public  funeral  services  may 
be  celebrated  for  a  person  who  has  been  excluded 
from  ecclesiastical  burial.  If  the  corpse  of  an 
excommunicate  'vitandus  has,  contrary  to  the 
canons,  been  buried  in  sacred  ground,  it  should  be 
exhumed  with  the  ordinary’s  leave  and  buried  in 
the  unblessed  section  of  the  cemetery  if  this  can 
be  done  without  grave  inconvenience. 


Burke,  Thomas  A.  See  Albany,  Diocese  of. 

Burlington,  Diocese  of  (Burlingtoniensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  Ill— Sib) ,  comprising  the  whole  State  of  Ver¬ 
mont,  U.  S.,  has  made  very  marked  progress  in 
recent  years,  the  Catholic  population  having  grown 
from  75,953  in  1908  to  about  90,000  at  the  present 
time  (1921). 

The  second  bishop  of  the  diocese,  Rt.  Rev.  John 
Stephen  Michaud,  after  a  long  illness  died  22  De¬ 
cember,  1908,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present 
bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  John  Rice,  D.  D.  He  was 
born  in  Leicester,  Mass.,  6  December,  1871,  studied 
in  Leicester  Academy,  Holy  Cross  College  and  the 
Seminary  of  Montreal,  ordained  29  September,  1894, 
continued  his  studies  in  the  College  of  Propaganda, 
Gregorian  University  and  University  of  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas  in  Rome,  returned  to  America  and  later 
became  professor  of  Philosophy  at  St.  John’s  Semi¬ 
nary,  Brighton,  Mass.,  being  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Burlington  14  April,  1910. 

During  the  World  War  Bishop  Rice  was  an 
ardent  supporter  of  all  war  work  and  under  his 


duection  Vermont  went  far  beyond  its  quota  in 

i  ?nlg  Golumbus  War  Camp  Fund,  and 

the  hist  Knights  of  Columbus  soldiers’  building 
mi  th<L  United  States  was  erected  in  this  diocese, 
the  Revs.  Ihomas  E.  McMahon,  Arthur  J.  Le 
V  eer,  and  George  L’Ecuyer  served  overseas  as  chap- 
lams  with  the  American  Army. 

The  religious  communities  now  represented  in 
the  diocese  are:  the  Fathers  of  St.  Edmund 
Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel,  Sisters  of  Charity  of 
Providence,  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  of  the  Seven 
Dolors,  of  the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame,  of 
the  Presentation,  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  of 
the  Assumption,  Hospital  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph 
and  the  Daughters  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Maty.  By  present  statistics  there  are  69  parishes, 
27  missions,  96  churches,  94  secular  and  12  regular 
clergy,  30  mission  stations,  454  women  in  religious 
communities,  21  ecclesiastical  students,  3  academies 
for  boys  and  6  for  girls,  21  parish  schools  with 
8,459  pupils,  2  orphanage  schools  with  300  pupils, 
2  colleges  for  boys  with  an  attendance  of  160,  250 
orphans  in  the  diocesan  asylum,  2  hospitals  and  2 
homes  for  the  aged;  there  are  in  all  8,900  children 
under  Catholic  care.  The  Priests’  Eucharistic 
League  is  established  among  the  clergy,  and  10 
different  societies  among  the  laity. 

Burma  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-82b). — In  1919  Burma  was 
excluded  from  the  Government  of  India  Act,  for 
the  reasons  that  her  people  were  in  a  different 
stage  of  political  development  and  that  the  desire 
for  elective  institutions  had  not  yet  risen.  A 
promise,  however,  was  given  in  the  Montagu- 
Chelmsford  report  (see  India)  that  Burma  should 
have  an  opportunity  of  participating  in  the  reforms 
as  far  as  they  were  applicable  to  her  circumstances. 
It  was  felt  that  Burma  could  not  be  contented  to 
remain  in  a  condition  of  tutelage  while  other  prov¬ 
inces  were  obtaining  a  larger  measure  of  inde¬ 
pendence.  Accordingly  the  demands  of  Burma  for 
a  separate  legislature  and  a  cabinet  responsible 
thereto  were  discussed  in  1921.  Except  in  imperial 
matters  such  as  army,  navy,  foreign  relations,  etc., 
the  entire  separation  of  the  country  from  the  Indian 
Empire  was  insisted  upon,  as  the  Burmese  have 
always  been  averse  to  having  Indians  placed  in 
authority  over  them.  Burma  is  divided  into  the 
following  ecclesiastical  divisions: 

Burma,  Eastern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Bir- 
manue  orientalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-82d),  is  entrusted 
to  the  Seminary  of  Foreign  Missions  of  Milan.  Rt. 
Rev.  Rocco  Tornatore,  who  arrived  in  this  mission 
in  1868,  was  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Castabala 
and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Eastern  Burma  1890,  and 
died  on  the  Karen  Hills,  26  January,  1908.  He  was 
the  first  Apostle  of  the  Karens,  Commendatore  of 
the  Crown  of  Italy,  and  of  the  Knights  of  Saints 
Mauritius  and  Lazarus.  Rt.  Rev.  Emmanuel 
Segrada,  b.  at  Lodi,  1860,  was  appointed  his  suc¬ 
cessor,  and  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Irina  24 
January,  1909. 

^Two  hundred  and  forty-five  villages  on  the 
Karen  Hills,  having  a  total  population  of  19,672, 
are  comprised  in  this  vicariate.  The  entire  popula¬ 
tion  numbers  several  millions,  and  of  these  only 
20,192  are  Catholic.  The  1921  statistics  credit  it 
with  251  churches  or  chapels,  14  mission  stations, 
and  241  sub-stations.  The  work  of  the  mission  is 
carried  on  by  18  foreign  missionaries,  and  the  Sis¬ 
ters  of  the  Reparation  of  Nazareth  and  the  Sisters 
of  Charity  assist  them  in  educational  and  charitable 
works.  The  various  institutions  include  an  Anglo- 
vernacular  school  for  boys  with  190  pupils,  a  ver¬ 
nacular  school  for  Karen  boys  who  are  being 
trained  as  catechists,  St.  Joseph’s  High  School  for 


BURMA 


138 


BURN AND 


girls  under  the  Sisters  of  Reparation  of  Nazareth, 
with  200  pupils,  a  boys’  school  with  60  pupils,  2 
convent  schools  for  girls,  1  with  51  and  1  with 
40  pupils,  and  several  other  small  schools.  The 
parish  priests  conduct  orphanages  for  boys  in  their 
respective  parishes,  and  3  orphanages  for  girls  are 
established  at  Leiktho,  Monlaw  and  Doranko. 

Burma,  Northern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Bir- 
manle  Septentrionalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-82d),  in 
India.  The  entire  population  numbers  at  least 
5,000,000  souls,  of  whom  10,348  are  Catholic,  divided 
as  follows:  4,000  Burmese,  3,500  Europeans  and 
Eurasians,  175  Kachins,  147  Shans,  2,500  Tamils. 
There  are  64  churches  and  chapels,  22  European 
priests  of  the  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  who  have 
charge  of  the  vicariate,  5  Burmese  priests,  49 
European  nuns,  13  native  religious,  17  native  lay 
novices,  5  European  lay  brothers  and  1  native  lay 
brother.  A  course  in  philosophy  and  theology  is 
given  at  the  college  in  Penang,  which  is  attended 
by  12  students,  and  there  is  a  preparatory  seminary 
for  boys  (15  students).  There  are  also  2  high 
schools  for  boys  (9  teachers,  90  students),  a  second¬ 
ary  school  for  girls  (34  students),  12  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  for  boys  (1,005  students),  8  elementary 
schools  for  girls  (855  students),  20  co-educational 
schools  (374  boys,  290  girls),  2  girls’  normal  schools 
for  the  training  of  elementary  teachers  (21  stu¬ 
dents)  .  Twenty-two  of  these  schools  receive  grants- 
in-aid  or  half  salary  for  teachers,  all  the  others 
are  under  the  care  of  the  missionaries  and  are 
village  schools  in  the  jungle.  The  following  in¬ 
stitutions  exist  in  the  vicariate:  2  orphanages  with 
533  orphans,  2  homes  for  the  aged  (42  inmates), 
9  pharmacies  and  10  dispensaries  that  cared  for 
5,831  sick  (during  1920-21),  1  leper  hospital  (283 
inmates;  3  workshops  (97  pupils).  During  the  year 
1920-21,  183  infidels  and  412  children  of  Christians 
were  baptized.  A  conference  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
has  been  organized  by  the  laity.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  one  missionary  was  sent  to  the  front 
and  was  made  chaplain  in  the  hospital  at  Nantes. 
The  others,  with  one  exception,  formed  part  of  the 
reserve  army  of  the  Government.  The  latter  was 
in  active  service  throughout  the  war  and  received 
the  croix  de  guerre.  The  present  vicar  of  Northern 
Burma  is  Rt.  Rev.  Eugene  Foulquier  of  the  Mis¬ 
sions  Etrangeres  de  Paris,  b.  at  Luc,  26  November, 
1866,  ordained  7  July,  1889.  He  went  to  Burma  21 
August,  1906,  was  consecrated  at  Mandalay  21  No¬ 
vember,  made  vicar  apostolic  of  Northern  Burma 
6  December  following. 

Burma,  Southern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Bir- 
mania3  meridionalis ;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-83a),  is  en¬ 
trusted  to  the  Seminary  of  Foreign  Missions  of 
Paris,  and  comprises  all  that  territory  of  Burma 
which  was  subject  to  the  English  before  the  taking 
of  Upper  Burma,  except  the  province  of  Arsacan, 
attached  to  the  Diocese  of  Dacca,  and  part  of  the 
Toungoo  district.  The  vicariate  is  presided  over 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Alexandre  Cardot,  titular  Bishop  of 
Limyra,  who  succeeded  to  the  vicariate,  19  March, 
1894. 

In  1921  the  population  of  this  territory  was  esti¬ 
mated  at  6,500,000,  and  of  this  number  60,392  are 
Catholics.  The  clergy  number  40  European  and 
21  native  priests,  and  the  vicariate  has  259  churches 
and  chapels  and  30  head  mission  stations.  Schools 
and  institutions  are  conducted  by  the  Brothers  of 
the  Christian  Schools,  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd, 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  the  Apparition,  Franciscan 
Nuns,  Missionaries  of  Mary,  Little  Sisters  of  the 
Poor  and  Native  Nuns  of  St.  Francis  Xavier.  The 
vicariate  supports  20  schools  for  boys,  19  for  girls 
and  87  for  both  boys  and  girls,  thus  giving  Catholic 


instruction  to  5,551  boys  and  3,021  girls.  Orphan¬ 
ages  numbering  35  and  sheltering  694  boys  and  821 
girls  are  established  throughout  the  vicariate,  as 
well  as  St.  Vincent’s  Orphanage  for  Burmese  girls 
at  Rangoon  under  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shep¬ 
herd,  a  leper  asylum  cared  for  by  the  Franciscan 
nuns,  Missionaries  of  Mary,  home  for  the  aged 
under  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  and  a  small 
home  for  aged  women  with  6  inmates.  The  Society 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  has  four  conferences  or¬ 
ganized,  and  a  preparatoiy  seminary  is  established 
at  Moulmein.  A  Catholic  association,  “The  Band,” 
is  organized  among  the  laity,  and  two  periodicals 
the  “Voice,”  in  English,  and  the  “Sower”  in 
Burmese,  are  published.  On  22  April,  1920,  Rt. 
Rev.  Felix-Henri  Perroy  was  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Media  and  named  coadjutor  to  the  vicar 
4  May  following.  Burma  is  placed  under  the  juris¬ 
diction  of  the  Apostolic  Delegate  for  India,  His 
Excellency  Dr.  Pisani,  who  paid  his  first  visit  to 
the  territory  in  January,  1922. 

Eumand,  Sir  Francis  Cowley,  editor  and 
humorist,  b.  in  England,  29  November,  1836,  d. 
at  Ramsgate,  21  April,  1917.  His  father,  a  stock¬ 
broker,  was  of  Huguenot  descent ;  his  mother 
whom  he  lost  in  infancy  was  a  descendant  of 
Hannah  Cowley,  playwright.  From  Eton  he  en¬ 
tered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he  made 
a  name  for  himself  by  founding  the  first  dramatic 
•club  at  the  universities.  After  his  graduation  he 
prepared  for  the  Anglican  ministry  under  Canon 
Liddon  at  Cuddesdon,  but  his  studies  served  only 
to  aggravate  certain  doubts  that  had  arisen  in 
his  mind,  and  after  reading  Newman’s  “Doctrine 
of  Development”  and  consulting  Manning,  then 
superior  of  the  Oblates  at  Bayswater,  he  was  re¬ 
ceived  into  the  Church  in  1857.  Disowned  by  his 
father  he  went  to  live  with  the  Oblates  at  Bays¬ 
water  where  his  love  of  a  joke,  verbal  or  practical, 
made  his  stay  an  eventful  one  in  the  life  of  the 
community.  Convinced  that  he  had  no  vocation 
for  the  priesthood,  he  left  and  tried  his  fortune  as 
an  actor,  proved  a  failure  and  turned  to  the 
study  of  law.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1860. 
He  then  began  to  write  for  the  stage,  and  the  suc¬ 
cess  of  his  “Dido”  enabled  him  to  marry  and 
brought  him  so  many  commissions  that  he  gave 
up  his  profession.  He  wrote  about  120  farces, 
burlesques  librettos  of  opera  and  adaptations  from 
the  French,  amongst  them  “Black-Eyed  Susan,” 
“Betsy,”  “Cox  and  Box,”  “Paul  Olaudian,”  “La 
Cigale,”  and  “The  Colonel.”  In  1862  he  began  his 
literary  burlesque  papers  in  “Punch,”  “Mokeanna 
or  the  White  Witness,”  which  won  for  him  a  place 
on  the  editorial  staff.  In  1880  he  became  editor, 
retiring  only  in  1906.  He  possessed  the  popularity 
of  all  Punch’s  editors,  and  there  were  few  more 
successful  contributions  than  those  which  emanated 
from  his  own  pen.  His  “Happy  Thought”  series 
issued  separately  in  1868,  went  through  fifteen  edi¬ 
tions. 

Burnand’s  humor  was  based  on  a  subtle  sense  of 
the  incongruities  of  human  nature  and  social  life 
and  was  always  kindly.  A  fervent  Catholic,  his 
piety  was  part  and  parcel  of  his  whole  life  and 
in  his  later  days  he  was  a  daily  communicant.  Two 
autobiographical  works  are  “My  Time  and  What 
I  Have  Done  with  It,”  and  “Records  and  Reminis¬ 
cences”  (1904).  Knighted  in  1902,  Sir  Frances  was 
for  many  years  editor  of  the  English  “Catholic 
Who’s  Who,”  an  enterprise  to  which  he  gave  the 
value  of  his  name  when  it  was  a  new  and  daring 
venture,  and  which  owes  largely  to  him  his  success 
as  a  record  of  Catholic  activities.  He  was  twice 
married  and  had  six  sons  and  five  daughters. 


Cabrieres,  Fran^ois-Marie-Anatole  de  Roverie 
de,  Cardinal,  Bishop  of  Montpellier,  b.  at  Beaucaire, 
Card,  France,  on  30  August,  1830 ;  d.  at  Montpel¬ 
lier  on  23  December,  1921.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the 
noted  Peie  d  Alzon  in  the  College  of  the  Assump¬ 
tion  at  Nimes;  he  entered  the  seminary  of  Saint- 
Sulpice  in  October,  1849,  and  was  ordained  at  Nimes 
on  24  September,  1853.  In  turn  director  of  the 
College  of  the  Assumption,  private  secretary  of 
Mgr.  Plantier,  canon  and  vicar  general,  he  was 
appointed  by  Pius  IX  Bishop  of  Montpellier  on 
16  January,  1874,  and  was  consecrated  by  Mgr. 
Plantier  on  19  March  following.  He  was  appointed 
an  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  by  Leo  XIII, 
who  sent  him  the  pallium  on  15  July,  1890,  an 
honor  very  seldom  conferred  on  simple  bishops. 
In  1911  he  was  made  a  cardinal  priest,  and  at  the 
time  of  his  death  he  wTas  senior  by  years  and 
service  in  the  ranks  of  the  entire  episcopacy  and 
by  age  in  the  Sacred  College,  where  he  was  at¬ 
tached  to  the  Congregation  of  Religious  and  of 
Ceremonies.  Cardinal  de  Cabrieres,  the  last  scion 
of  a  noble  family  was  a  scholar,  a  brilliant  writer, 
a  statesman,  a  royalist  by  tradition  and  .inclination, 
and  a  great  churchman.  He  played  a  prominent 
part  in  the  religious  life  of  France  during  his  forty- 
seven  years  episcopacy.  Where  religious  principles 
were  at  stake  he  knew  no  compromise.  As  early 
as  1877  he  denounced  the  de-Christianizing  tactics 
of  the  politicians  of  the  Third  Republic.  He  elo¬ 
quently  and  emphatically  proclaimed  to  Gambetta 
that  the  clergy  had  a  right  to  defend  themselves 
in  the  political  arena  when  they  were  assailed. 
He  protested  vigorously  in  1880  against  the  school 
laws  of  Jules  Ferry,  upholding  the  right  of  Chris¬ 
tian  schools  to  complete  freedom  from  State  autoc¬ 
racy.  When  Leo  XIII  informed  French  Catholics 
of  their  duty  to  accept  the  Republic,  he  gave  his 
adhesion  at  once,  but  proclaimed  aloud  that  this 
did  not  imply  acceptance  of  the  anti-Catholic  policy 
of  the  Government,  a  declaration  which  led  the 
Government  to  deprive  him  of  the  pension  which 
by  the  Concordat  they  were  pledged  to  allow 
him ;  and  when  the  sectaries  were  exerting  all 
their  efforts  in  1901  to  drive  the  congregations  into 
exile,  he  pronounced  a  magnificent  eulogy  of  the 
religious  life.  Yet  when  the  World  War  threat¬ 
ened  the  existence  of  France  the  union  sacree  had 
no  more  fervent  adherent,  a  devotion  recognized 
by  President  Millerand,  who  when  he  visited  Mont¬ 
pellier  in  1921  conferred  the  Cross  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor  on  the  aged  Royalist  cardinal  who  had 
come  to  pay  him  homage. 

Cabrlni,  Mother  Frances  Xavier,  foundress  of 
the  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus 
b  at  Sant’  Angelo  near  Lodi,  Italy,  on  16  July’ 
1850,  of  parents  belonging  to  the  Lombard  nobility  • 
i  -fu  ChlcaS°  on  22  December,  1917.  From  early 
childhood  she  gave  evidence  of  great  energy,  a 
spirit  of  piety  and  religious  zeal  which  character¬ 
ized  her  later  life.  Impressed  by  the  lack  of  facili¬ 
ties  for  the  education  of  the  Italian  poor,  she  or¬ 
ganized  a  small  community  for  the  instruction 
m  poor  children  and  the  training  of  teachers.  With 

•OUrioonterSoShe  opened  her  first  house  at  Codogno 
jn  1880.  Soon  there  was  a  demand  for  similar 
houses  from  many  places  and  Leo  XIII  invited 


her  to  Rome  to  open  a  pontifical  school,  and  then 
in  view  of  the  increasing  tide  of  Italian  emigration 
to  North  and  South  America  he  counseled  her  to 
go  to  their  aid.  Within  a  few  months  she  was 
in  New  York  where  she  took  charge  of  a  school  in 
St.  Joachims  parish  for  the  children  of  Italian 
immigrants.  Recognizing  the  necessity  of  aiding 
her  countrymen  in  other  ways,  she  ventured  on 
opening  a  hospital  in  1892,  Columbus  Hospital, 
New  York,  which  from  a  lowly  beginning  is  now 
a  large  hospital  of  high  standing.  The  number  of 
adult  Italians  who  were  brought  back  to  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  religion  by  contact  with  the  Sisters,  in¬ 
spired  her  to  add  the  hospital  work  to  that  of 
teaching. .  In  1905  a  Columbus  Hospital  was 
founded  in  Chicago  and  soon  the  Sisters  were  to 
be  found  throughout  the  country.  Nothing  could 
cool  the  ardor  or  daunt  the  spirit  of  Mother 
Cabrmi,  her  principle  was  not  to  discuss  the  feasi¬ 
bility  or  manner  of  assisting  the  immigrant,  the 
smk  or  the  ignorant,  but  to  begin  the  assistance 
forthwith,  trusting  to  Providence;  and  the  manner 
in  which  apparently  insurmountable  difficulties  dis¬ 
appeared  before  her  was  evidence  of  Divine  assist¬ 
ance  in  her  work.  When  this  zealous  apostle  of 
the  immigrant  passed  away,  she  had  established 
over  seventy  houses  of  her  institute,  with  over 
three  thousand  of  her  religious  to  carry  on  her 
work.  Mother  Cabrini  crossed  the  Atlantic  twen¬ 
ty-five  times,  and  personally  made  foundations  in 
Argentina,  Brazil,  and  Nicaragua. 
While  the  greatest  developments  of  her  sisterhood 
has  been  in  the  United  States,  her  daughters  are 
at  work  m  France,  England,  and  Spain  also.  When 
Italy  entered  the  war,  she  placed  all  her  houses 
and  her  communities  there  at  the  service  of  the 
Italian  Government,  and  three  large  military  hos¬ 
pitals  were  confided  to  them. 

CVnLS(1918)n  ii-nle  °f  the  Italians  in  The  Catholic  World, 

Cadiz,  Diocese  of  (Gaditana  et  Septensis;  cf. 
p-  E->  HI-131C),  with  the  united  diocese  of  Cueta 
is  suffragan  of  Seville,  Spain.  This  see  was  filled 

iono  '  %v*  dos®  Maria  Ranees  y  Villanueva,  from 
1898  until  14  June,  1917,  when  he  was  succeeded 
by.  the  present  incumbent.  Rt.  Rev.  Martial  Lopez 
Cnado,  b.  m  Cordone  1868,  ordained  1891,  prelate 
°*  the  Holy  See  1903,  appointed  18  May,  1918. 

These  two  dioceses  cover  an  area  of  4073  sq. 
miles,  and  by  1920  statistics  comprise  a  Catholic 
population  of  268,190,  the  remainder  of  the  popu¬ 
lation  being  made  up  of  about  300  Jews  and  Moors. 
Cadiz  contains  25  parishes,  190  priests,  58  chapters 
with  107  religious,  and  343  Sisters.  Cueta,  situated 
at  a  point  northeast  of  Africa,  comprises  2  parishes, 

21  priests  and  5  chapters. 

Caesarea,  Diocese  of  (C^sariensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-133c),  a  residential  see  of  the  Armenian  Rite,’ 
m  Cappadocia,  Asiatic  Turkey.  Rt.  Rev.  Matthew 
Sislian,  appointed  to  this  see  1901,  was  retired  and 
transferred  to  the  titular  see  of  Ammedara  3  Decem¬ 
ber,  1909.  After  a  vacancy  of  about  a  year  and 
a  half,  the  present  incumbent  (1922),  Rt.  Rev. 
Anthony  Bahabaman,  b.  in  Angora  1867,  ordained 
1892,  was  appointed  27  August,  1911.  This  diocese 
comprises  1500  Armenian  Catholics,  50,000  Schis¬ 
matics,  600  Protestants,  and  a  number  of  Mussul- 


CAESAREA 


140 


CAIAZZO 


mans.  The  Catholics  are  served  by  missionary 
priests  who  have  4  churches. 

For  the  Latin  Rite  this  is  a  titular  metropolitan 
see,  at  present  vacant. 

Caesarea  Philippi,  Diocese  of  (Caesariensis 
Paneasensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-135a),  a  residential  see 
of  the  Greek  Melchite  Rite,  in  Phoenicia,  Asiatic 
Turkey.  The  residence  of  the  bishop  is  at  Gedaidat- 
Margyum,  and  the  see  is  now  (1922)  filled  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Clement  Maalouf,  b.  in  Zahle  1862,  appointed 
24  November,  1901.  This  diocese  comprises  6190 
Greek-Melchites,  17,000  Schismatics,  160,000  infidels, 

8  secular  and  13  regular  clergy,  and  16  churches 
or  chapels. 

For  the  Latin  Rite  this  is  a  titular  see,  suffragan 
of  Tyre,  the  title  being  at  present  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Antonio  Micozzi,  appointed  22  July,  1921,  and 
coadjutor  in  Sabina.  He  resides  in  Rome. 

Caetite,  Diocese  of  (Caetitensis),  in  the  State 
of  Bahia,  Brazil,  South  America.  This  diocese  was 
erected  20  October,  1913,  by  a  division  of  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Bahia,  from  which  it  took  nineteen 
parishes:  Caetite,  Monte  Alto,  Gentio,  Ampara  de 
Umbaranas,  Duas  Barras,  Jacaracq,  Condenba, 
Cacule,  Bom  Jesus  dos  Meiras,  Ituassu,  Sincora, 
Minas  do  Rio  de  Contas,  Villa  Velha  de  Minas  de 
Rio  de  Contas,  Bom  Jesus  de  Rio  de  Contas,  S.  Joa 
do  Paraguassu,  Lencoes,  Remedios  do  Rio  de 
Contas,  Paramirim,  Macahubas,  Niacho  do  S.  Anna, 
Sta  Maria  do  Ouro  and  Cannabrava.  The  cathe¬ 
dral  is  dedicated  to  St.  Anne.  Statistics  have  not 
yet  been  published  for  his  diocese. 

Cagli  e  Pergola,  Diocese  of  (Calliensis  et 
Pergulensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-140a),  in  the  province 
of  Urbino-Pesaro,  Central  Italy,  suffragan  of  Urbino. 
On  5  September,  1908,  Rt.  Rev.  Ettore  Fronzi  was 
appointed  to  this  see,  and  filled  it  until  his  promo¬ 
tion  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Camerino,  14  December, 
1918.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent, 
Rt.  Rev.  Augusto  Curi,  archdeacon  of  the  Cathedral 
of  Fermo,  appointed  23  December,  1918,  and  named 
apostolic  administrator  of  Macerato  26  August,  1919. 
By  latest  statistics  (1920)  Cagli  has  a  Catholic 
population  of  19,500,  40  parishes,  60  secular  and  3 
regular  clergy,  17  seminarians,  2  Brothers,  70  Sisters 
104  churches  or  chapels.  Pergola  comprises  a  Cath¬ 
olic  population  of  14,000,  12  parishes,  35  secular 
and  4  regular  clergy,  7  seminarians,  5  Brothers,  12 
Sisters,  and  50  churches  or  chapels. 

Cagliari,  Archdiocese  of  (Calaritana;  cf.  C.  E., 
IXI-139c),  on  the  Island  of  Sardinia.  Most  Rev. 
Pietro  Balestra,  appointed  to  this  see  17  December, 
1900,  died  here  1  May,  1912,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Most  Rev.  Francisco  Rossi,  appointed  9  April,  1913, 
transferred  15  December,  1919.  The  following  year, 
8  March,  the  present  incumbent,  Most  Rev.  Ernesto 
Piovella,  was  appointed.  Bom  in  Milan  in  1867, 
he  served  as  vicar  general  of  Ravenna,  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Alghero  15  April,  1907,  and  promoted  to 
the  archdiocese  of  Oristano  15  April,  1914,  where 
he  served  until  his  transfer. 

The  latest  statistics  obtainable  (1920)  credit  this 
diocese  with  a  Catholic  population  of  199,859,  81 
parishes,  160  secular  and  40  regular  clergy,  100  stu¬ 
dents  in  the  upper  and  lower  seminaries,  25  Brothers, 
80  Sisters,  and  118  churches  or  chapels. 

Cahors,  Diocese  of  (Cadurcensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-141a),  in  France,  is  a  suffragan  of  the  Archdio¬ 
cese  of  Albi.  It  is  under  the  administration  of  Rt. 
Rev.  Joseph-Lucien  Giray,  b.  in  Chanas,  Diocese  of 
Grenoble,  21  March,  1864,  studied  at  the  petit 
seminaire  of  Rondeau  and  at  Grenoble,  ordained 


1888,  made  vicar  general  1911  and  appointed  Bishop 
of  Cahors  15  February,  1918,  consecrated  1  May, 
succeeding  Bishop  Cezerac,  who  was  promoted  to 
the  Archdiocese  of  Albi.  Bishop  Cezerac  had  filled 
the  see  from  1911  when  he  came  to  it  as  a  suc¬ 
cessor  to  Bishop  Laurans  (d.  15  July,  1911). 

Within  recent  years  the  diocese  has  lost  two 
vicar  generals,  Rev.  Father  Pomarel  (d.  29  May, 
1919),  and  Rev.  Father  Laporte  (d.  21  February, 
1921).  During  the  World  War  180  priests  of  this 
diocese  were  mobilized  and  of  these  16  gave  up 
their  lives,  as  did  also  6  seminarians. 

At  present  (1921)  the  diocese  has  33  churches 
with  pastors,  449  succursal  parishes  (mission 
churches),  a  number  of  brothers  who  have  been 
secularized  by  the  Associations  Law  of  1901,  71 
elementary  schools  with  140  female  and  12  male 
teachers  and  an  attendance  of  300  boys  and  1,600 
girls.  Missionary  and  charitable  work  is  accom¬ 
plished  through  a  house  of  diocesan  missionaries 
at  Rocamadour,  a  home  for  aged  or  infirm  priests 
at  Souillac,  a  home  for  the  protection  of  young 
girls  at  Cahors,  asylum  for  the  insane,  under  the 
Religious  of  Our  Lady  of  Calvary,  4  Catholic 
private  orphanages  at  Cahors,  7  hospitals,  one  of 
which  is  still  unoccupied,  the  others  are  conducted 
by  religious,  1  house  of  refuge  for  young  girls  at 
Cahors.  The  public  hospitals  admit  the  ministry  of 
priests.  The  “Fraternal  Union,”  and  “League  for 
Clerical  Defense,”  are  established  among  the  clergy, 
and  agricultural  organizations  among  the  laity.  The 
“Defense,”  a  weekly  periodical  with  a  circulation 
of  11,000,  is  published  as  also  the  “Revue  religieuse 
de  Cahors  et  Roc  Amadour,”  a  diocesan  weekly. 
In  1920  the  total  Catholic  population  was  approxi¬ 
mately  205,769. 

Caiazzo,  Diocese  of  (Caiacencis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III- 
141d),  suffragan  of  Capua,  is  situated  in  the  prov¬ 
ince  of  Caserta  in  Italy.  The  population,  for  the 
most  part  rural,  numbers  30,000,  all  practical  Cath¬ 
olics.  There  are  35  parishes,  72  churches  and  chapels, 
and  70  secular  priests.  The  only  religious  orders  are 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  who  direct  a 
pious  institute,  an  orphanage,  and  2  infant  asylums, 
and  the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  who 
are  in  charge  of  an  infant  asylum  and  some  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  .for  girls.  The  seminary,  which 
was  founded  shortly  after  the  Council  of  Trent, 
has  only  ten  students  making  preparatory  studies, 
who  go  to  the  regional  seminary  at  Posilipo, 
Naples,  for  their  philosophy  and  theology.  The 
pious  institute  has  twenty-five  students,  and  to  it  is 
attached  an  elementary  school  for  day  scholars. 
The  orphanage  has  17  children.  There  are  two 
almshouses,  one  for  men  and  one  for  women.  The 
elementary  schools  in  each  commune  and  rural 
center  are  maintained  by  the  State  and  usually 
taught  by  Catholic  lay  instructors. 

Both  the  clergy  and  laity  answered  the  call  to 
arms  during  the  war,  and  many  served  on  the 
battlefield,  in  trenches  and  in  hospitals.  At  present 
the  see  of  Caiazzo  is  vacant,  Rt.  Rev.  Luigi  Ermini, 
b.  in  Rome  13  December,  1856,  elected  titular 
Bishop  of  Amatha  and  auxiliary  of  Porto  and 
Santa  Rufina  30  December,  1908,  transferred  to 
Sarsina  21  April,  1910 ;  having  declined  he  remained 
titular  of  Amatha  until  4  December,  1914,  when  he 
was  transferred  to  Caiazzo,  at  the  Consistory  of 
13  June,  1921,  he  was  transferred  to  Fabriano  and 
Matelica.  His  predecessor  was  Rt.  Rev.  Adolfo 
Turchi,  b.  at  Balignano,  Diocese  of  Cesena,  24 
October,  1863,  elected  Bishop  of  Caiazzo  30  June, 
1909,  named  secretary  of  the  Congregation  of  Re¬ 
ligious  and  titular  Bishop  of  Canopus  in  July,  1914, 


CAJAMARCA 


141 


CALI 


taking  up  his  residence  in  Rome;  promoted  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Aquilla  17  July,  1918. 

Cajamarca,  Diocese  of  (Cajamarcensis),  in 
Peru,  South  America,  suffragan  of  Lima  (see  C.  E., 
XI 1-34).  This  diocese  was  erected  5  April,  1908! 
by  a  division  of  the  dioceses  of  Chachapoyas  and 
Trujillo,  taking  a  territory  of  some  20,926  sq.  miles, 
or  the  whole  department  of  Cajamarca.  Rt.  Rev! 
Francis  de  Paul  Grozo,  b.  in  Cajamarca  in  1852, 
and  ordained  in  1875,  was  appointed  the  first  bishop 
21  March,  1910,  and  still  fills  the  see.  According 
to  statistics  published  in  1920  the  Catholic  popu¬ 
lation  of  the  diocese  numbers  443*000,  and  there 
are  36  parishes  and  1  seminary. 

Cajazeiras,  Diocese  of  (Cajazeirasensis  or  de 
Cajazeiras),  in  the  State  of  Parahyba,  Brazil,  suf¬ 
fragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Parahyba.  This  dio¬ 
cese  was  erected  6  February,  1914,  by  a  division 
of  the  diocese  of  Parahyba,  and  has  as  its  limits 
the  stream  which  flows  between  the  parish  of  Santa 
Lucia  de  Saguly  and  that  of  Soldade,  as  far  as  the 
foot  of  the  Teixeira  Mountains,  and  the  line  which 
separates  the  parishes  of  Patos  and  Pianco,  as  far  as 
the  State  of  Pernambuco.  The  cathedral  is  dedi¬ 
cated  to  Our  Lady  of  Pity.  So  far  no  statistics 
have  been  published. 

Calabozo,  Diocese  of  (de  Calabozo;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-148a),  in  Venezuela,  suffragan  of  Santiago  de* 
Venezuela,  Venezuela.  Rt.  Rev.  Felipe  Neri 
Sendrea,  appointed  to  this  see  25  September,  1891, 
died  9  May,  1921,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present 
incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Arthur  Celestin  Alvarez,  b. 
m  Clarines  1870,  appointed  Bishop  of  Zulia’  16 
August,  1910,  transferred  to  the  titular  see  of 
Thapsus  18  September,  1919,  and  made  coadjutor 
to  Bishop  Sandrea.  According  to  1920  statistics 
the  Catholic  population  of  this  diocese  numbers 
210,430,  and  there  are  38  priests  and  70  churches 
or  chapels. 

Calahorra  and  La  Calzada,  Diocese  of  (Cala- 
guritan en si s  et  Calcaetensis  ;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-148a), 
in  the  province  of  Logrono,  Spain,  suffragan  of 
Burgos.  The  see  is  under  the  administration  of 
Rt.  Rev.  Fidelus  Garcia  y  Martinez,  titular  Bishop 
of  Hippos,  appointed  16  December,  1920.  The  dio¬ 
cese  comprises  a  Catholic  population  of  154,470, 
393  parishes  divided  among  19  archpresbyteries,  460 
priests,  393  churches,  316  chapels,  and  47  convents 
with  116  religious  and  428  Sisters. 

Calbayog,  Diocese  of  (Calbayogan.e;  cf.  C.  E., 
XVI-34c),  in  the  province  of  Samar,  Philippine 
Islands,  suffragan  of  Manila.  The  first  bishop  to 
fill  this  see  was  Rt.  Rev.  Pablo  Singzon,  b.  in 
Calbiga  Samur,  25  January,  1851,  prelate  of  the 
Holy  See  3  March,  1904,  appointed  12  April,  1910, 
d.  9  August,  1920.  During  his  administration  he 
wisely  governed  the  new  diocese,  did  many  good 
works,  and  was  responsible  for  the  erection  of  a 
new  seminary.  Since  his  death  the  vacant  see 
has  been  under  an  administrator,  Rt.  Rev.  Sofronio 
Hacbang  y  Goborni,  titular  Bishop  of  Anemurium, 
and  formerly  auxiliary  to  Bishop  Singzon.  This 
diocese  comprises  a  Catholic  population  of  1,100,000, 

80  parishes,  138  missions,  65  secular  and  30  regular 
clergy,  1  seminary,  20  seminarians,  1  college  for 
boys  with  14  professors  and  300  students,  2  colleges 
for  girls  with  12  professors  and  250  students.  A 
Catholic  periodical,  “Eco  de  Samar  y  Leyte,”  is 
published  here. 


?VPhentf-  g>um,  I  March,  1862,  appointed  Arcli- 

*  21  March,  1902,  and  consecrated 

TinhVf  ?if  thr.  Same  yfar- .  °wi“S  to  the  repatria¬ 
tion  of  the  German  Jesuits  the  archdiocese  was 

given  the  administration  of  the  prefecture  apostolic 
of  Assam  in  June,  1915,  and  six  of  the  Fathers 
have  been  working  in  that  territory.  During  the 
war  three  of  the  priests  of  the  archdioceses  went  to 
r  ranee  as  chaplains  with  the  Labor  Corps  sent  out 

ir(vir+u™ODg  the  Chnstians  Of  the  Chota-Nagpore. 

Within  recent  years  the  archdiocese  has  lost  two 
prominent  clergymen,  R  Alfred  Neut,  S.  J,  rector 
of  St.  Xavmr  s  Coflege  Calcutta  (1883-89),  rector 
S  Josephs  College  Darjeeling  (1885-95),  editor 
of  the  Catholic  Herald  of  India”  (1902-17)  died 
4  April,  1921;  Rev.  John  Desmet,  S.J.,  one  of  the 
pioneers  of  the  Chota-Nagpore  Mission,  in  which 
he  worked  from  1884-1921. 

This  territory  has  been  entrusted  to  the  Belgian 
Jesuits  since  1859;  the  other  religious  orders  estab¬ 
lished  now  (1921)  are:  Irish  Christian  Brothers, 
of  the  Institute  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary 
of  Rathfarnham  (Loretto  Nuns),  Daughters  of  the 
Cl  oss  of  Liege,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Ursulino 
Nuns  and  Daughters  of  St.  Anne.  There  are  8 
parishes,  43  missions,  49  churches,  33  mission  sta¬ 
tions,  2  convents  for  men  and  13  for  women  18 
secular  and  149  regular  clergy,  26  Jesuit  lay  brothers 
and  40  Christian  Brothers,  260  Sisters,  1  secular 
seminary  with  17  seminarians,  and  1  regular  semi¬ 
nary  with  25  seminarians.  The  Catholic  educa¬ 
tional  institutions  include  3  colleges  for  men  with 
90  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  2,331,  9  high 
schools  with  250  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  2,907, 

2  training  schools,  422  elementary  schools  with 
1,010  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  11,000.  The 
charitable  institutions  are:  St.  Joseph’s  Home  for 
the  Aged  under  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor, 
and  at  Kidderpore  St.  Vincent’s  Home,  St.  Cather¬ 
ine’s  Hospital  for  Incurables,  and  St.  Paul’s  Nur¬ 
sery,  all  conducted  by  the  Daughters  of  the  Cross. 
The  Gobra  Leper  Asylum  and  all  the  jails  and 
hospitals  of  the  district  permit  Catholic  priests  to 
minister  in  them.  The  Apostolic  Union  of  the 
Secular  Priests  is  established  in  the  diocese,  and  the 
Catholic  Association  of  Bengal  is  organized  among 
the  laity.  Two  periodicals  are  published:  “The 
Catholic  Herald  of  India,”  an  English  weekly,  and 
“Nishkalank”  (Immaculate),  a  Hindu  monthly. 
The  Catholic  population  is  approximately  200,432. 

Caldey,  Abbey  of.  See  Benedictine  Order. 

Calgary,  Diocese  of  (Calgariensis),  in  Canada 
(see  C.  E.,  XVI-34).  This  see,  erected  30  Novem¬ 
ber,  1912,  is  a  suffragan  of  Edmonton  and  is  under 
the  administration  of  its  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  John 
T.  McNally,  consecrated  1  June,  1913.  The  Oblate 
Fathers  of  Mary  Immaculate  are  established  here, 
as  well  as  the  Grey  Nuns,  Sisters  of  St.  Louis, 
Faithful  Companions  of  Jesus,  Sisters  of  Provi¬ 
dence,  and  Daughters  of  Jesus. 

The  progress  of  the  diocese  during  the  few  years 
since  its  foundation  is  best  shown  by  the  latest 
statistics,  published  1921,  which  credit  it  with: 
Catholic  population,  30,000;  secular  priests,  23; 
regulars,  15;  seminarians,  24;  churches  with  resi¬ 
dent  priests,  25;  churches  without  resident  priests, 
36;  mission  stations,  106;  convents  with  schools,  3; 
primary  Catholic  schools,  11;  boarding  schools  for 
Indians,  3;  industrial  school  for  Indians,  1;  hos¬ 
pitals,  2;  orphanage,  1. 


(Calcutta  ARCHomeESE  of  (Calcuttensis;  cf.  C.  Cali,  Diocese  of  (Caliensis),  in  Colombia,  South 
in  Ddla’  the0a(lministrafion  America,  suffragan  of  Popayan.  This  diocese. 

Most  Rev-  Bnce  Meuleman,  S.J.,  D.D.,  b.  erected  7  June,  1910  (see  C.  E.,  XVI-16),  is  under 


CALIFORNIA 


142 


CALIFORNIA 


the  administration  of  its  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev. 
Eladius  Perlaza,  b.  in  Cali  1853,  appointed  11 
August,  1911.  By  a  decree  of  the  Consistory  11 
June,  1920,  the  region  of  Balsa  was  separated  from 
the  diocese  of  Maniziales  and  united  to  that  of 
Cali.  This  was  done  because  this  region  is  now 
in  the  civil  province  of  Valle,  which  is  part  of 
the  diocese  of  Cali.  By  1920  statistics  the  diocese 
counted  a  Catholic  population  of  12,000. 

California  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-170c),  the  eighth  state 
of  the  United  States  in  point  of  population.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  official  returns  of  the  Federal  census 
of  1920,  its  total  area  is  158,297  sq.  miles.  Of 
this  number  2,645  sq.  miles  constitute  the  water 
area.  The  capital  of  the  state,  Sacramento,  has 
a  population  (1920)  of  65,854.  The  population  of 
the  other  chief  cities  is  (1920) :  San  Francisco, 
506,676;  Los  Angeles,  576,673;  Oakland,  216,361; 
San  Jose,  39,642;  San  Diego,  74,683;  Stockton, 
40,296;  Alameda,  28,806;  Berkeley,  56,000;  Fresno, 
45,000.  The  total  population  of  the  state  in  1910 
was  2,377,549,  an  increase  of  60.1  per  cent  upon 
that  of  1900;  in  1920  it  was  3,426,861,  an  increase 
of  44.1  per  cent  upon  that  of  1910.  According 
to  the  United  States  census  of  1920,  the  population 
of  California  is  3,426,861  or  22  persons  per  square 
mile.  The  census  of  1920  also  presents  the  following 
details  of  population:  (a)  White,  3,264,711;  African, 
38,763;  Indian,  17,360;  Chinese,  28,812;  Japanese, 
71,952;  (b)  native-born,  2,583,049;  foreign-born, 

681,662.  Of  the  total  population  68  per  cent  is 
urban,  32  per  cent  is  rural.  There  were  95,592 
illiterates  over  10  years  old,  or  3.3  per  cent. 

Resources.  Agriculture. — According  to  the  cen¬ 
sus  of  1910  the  total  value  of  all  California’s  agri¬ 
cultural  products  was  $146,526,151.  The  value  of 
the  output  in  1919  reached  the  total  of  $587,600,000. 
The  following  table  presents  the  total  output  of 
agricultural  products  in  detail  for  the  year  1918: 


Asparagus 
Almonds 
Apricots 
Apples  . . 
Beans  . . . 
Barley  . 
Brandy 
Citrus 
fruits  . . . 
Canned 
fruits  and 
vegetables 

Corn  . 

Cherries  . . 

Figs  . 

Grapes  . . . .  1 


902,236  cases 
9,000,000  pounds 
32,000,000  pounds 
12,500,000  pounds 
5,585,000  bags 
34,321,000  bushels 
5,295,952  gallons 

11,373,127  boxes 


16,136,410  cases 
2,975,000  bushels 
822,367  bushels 
18,400,000  pounds 
,979,686,525  pounds 


Hops  ....  45,000 

Hay  .  2,970,000 


Lumber 
Pears  . 
Peaches 
Plums 
Prunes 
Raisins 
Other  dried 
fruit  .. 
Olive  oil. 
Potatoes. 
Walnuts  , 
W ool  . . . 
Wheat  . . 
Wine  . . . 


90,584,000 

6,000,000 

41,000,000 

1,000,000 

90,000,000 

367,400,000 

5,500,000 

2,657,836 

12,870,000 

38,544,000 

12,145,000 

4,590,000 

42,101,971 


bales 

tons 

board  feet 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

pounds 

gallons 

bushels 

pounds 

pounds 

bushels 

gallons 


The  total  annual  output  of  fruit  from  California 
farms  is  $248,000,000.  In  the  year  1919  there  were 
42,000,000  fruit  trees  in  California.  Seven  million  of 
these  trees  belong  to  Santa  Clara  Valley  alone. 
The  principal  fruit  trees  are  as  follows:  Apple, 
3,128,000;  apricot,  3,680,000;  cherry,  657,000;  peach, 
9,000,000;  pear,  2,400,000;  orange,  10,000,000;  lemon, 
2,880,000.  In  1920,  26,313  farms  reported  153,195,000 
grape  vines  producing  2,055,644,612  pounds,  worth 
$65,780,628.  The  nut  crop  was  valued  at  $19,000,000. 

Manufactures. — The  total  value  of  the  output  of 
manufactures  in  1914,  according  to  the  census,  was 
$712,801,000.  In  1919  it  amounted  to  $1,981,443,000. 
During  1920  about  163,000  tons  of  beet  sugar  was 
produced.  In  the  same  year,  there  was  11,943  manu¬ 
facturing  establishments  in  California,  representing 
an  investment  of  $1,333,382,000,  and  giving  employ¬ 
ment  to  296,000  persons;  the  sum  paid  for  labor 
was  $380,135,000,  and  for  materials,  $1,218,890,000. 

Mining. — The  value  of  the  total  mining  output 
in  1918  was  $199,753,837.  In  1919  it  was  $196,473,560. 
Altogether  there  are  about  1,200  producing  mines 


in  the  state.  The  value  of  the  gold  output  was 
$16,529,162;  silver,  $1,427,861;  copper,  $11,805,883; 
quicksilver,  $2,579,472;  petroleum,  $127,459,929.  It 
is  estimated  that  in  the  petroleum  industry  alone 
the  total  invested  is  more  than  $50,000,000;  105,- 
668,000  barrels  of  oil  were  produced  in  1920. 

Lumber. — Nearly  20  per  cent  of  the  area  of  the 
state  is  forest-clad.  San  Francisco  alone  sends 
50,000,000  feet  of  lumber  to  the  world  each  year. 
The  total  output  of  the  state  for  1917  was  1,227,000 
m.  feet.  There  are  $78,000,000  invested  in  the 
industry,  584  mills;  and  the  value  of  the  total 
output,  together  with  the  by-products  of  the  forest, 
is  $49,000,000,  the  lumber  itself  amounting  to  $23,- 
444,000. 

Commerce. — The  harbors  of  the  state  now  carry 
on  an  ocean  commerce  of  about  $400,000,000  a  year. 
The  precise  figures  for  1918  being:  Imports, 
$231,979,474;  exports,  $49,074,000.  The  total  foreign 
commerce  of  the  state  for  1918  was  $476,420,000. 
Five  great  transcontinental  railroads  carry  her  pas¬ 
sengers  and  goods  to  and  from  her  cities,  the  fifth 
being  recently  completed.  In  1917  the  total  rail¬ 
road  mileage  of  the  state  was  9,441. 

Educational  System. — The  State  Constitution  pro¬ 
vides  for  a  school  board  of  seven  members,  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  governor,  two  every  second  year. 
The  total  number  of  professors,  including  the  vari¬ 
ous  officers  of  instruction  and  research  in  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  California,  for  the  year  ending  1 
November,  1919,  was  1,053,  as  follows:  Academic, 
607;  art,  14;  Lick  Astronomical  Observatory,  18; 
law,  9;  medicine,  167;  pharmacy,  10.  The  total 
number  of  students  for  the  same  period  was  11,633, 
of  whom  4,507  were  men,  and  7,126  women,  the 
women  being  nearly  61  per  cent  of  the  total  en¬ 
rollment.  The  university  receives  $30,000  annually 
from  the  Federal  Government  for  its  several  experi¬ 
ment  stations.  Everyone  of  the  fifty-seven  counties 
of  the  state  has  a  high  school.  Three  new  normal 
schools  have  recently  been  built  at  Areata,  Santa 
Barbara,  and  Fresno. 

In  the  school  year  ending  30  June,  1918,  there 
were  3,452  primary  and  grammar  schools  in  the  state 
and  311  high  schools.  The  total  number  of  teach¬ 
ers  in  the  public  schools  was  17,276;  the  total 
number  of  pupils,  602,758.  The  total  number  of 
pupils  in  private  schools  was  40,000.  The  total 
income  of  her  public  schools  during  the  scholastic 
year  1917-18  was  $32,017,819.  The  total  value  of 
public  school  property  for  the  same  year  was 
$90,091,819.  The  total  income  of  the  State  Univer¬ 
sity  for  the  same  period  was  $3,732,986.  The  laws 
governing  private  or  parochial  schools  are  as  fol¬ 
lows:  Private  schools  (except  as  noted  in  last 

paragraph  below)  shall  be  taught  in  the  English 
language.  In  order  to  comply  with  compulsory 
education  requirements,  private  and  parochial 
schools  must  teach  the  branches  taught  in  public 
schools,  viz. :  reading,  writing,  spelling,  arithmetic, 
geography,  language,  grammar,  composition,  history 
of  the  United  States,  constitution,  duties  of  citizen¬ 
ship,  local  civil  government,  physiology  and  hygiene, 
nature  study,  music,  drawing,  bookkeeping,  humane 
education.  Private  school  authorities  are  required 
to  keep  an  attendance  register.  No  public  money 
shall  ever  be  appropriated  for  the  support  of  any 
sectarian  or  denominational  school  (IX,  8). 

Any  educational  institution  of  collegiate  grade 
within  the  State  of  California  not  conducted  for 
profit,  shall  be  exempt  from  taxation  (XIII,  la). 
Certain  part-time  schools,  which  shall  not  be  in 
session  during  hours  of  public  schools,  nor  more 
than  one  hour  each  day,  six  hours  each  week,  thirty- 
eight  weeks  each  year,  may  be  conducted  in  a  for- 


CALIFORNIA 


143 


CALTAGIRONE 


eign  language;  provided  that  no  person  shall 
conduct  or  teach  in  such  a  private  school,  conducted 
wholly  or  in  part  in  the  language  of  a  foreign 
nation,  in  this  state  unless  and  until  he  shall  have 
first  applied  to  and  obtained  a  permit  so  to  do  from 
the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  or  a  deputy 
appointed  by  the  superintendent  for  such  purposes. 
This  shall  also  be  construed  to  include  persons 
exercising  or  performing  administrative  powers  in 
each  school.  Such  permit  shall  be  issued  to  persons 
having  knowledge  of  American  history  and  insti¬ 
tutions  and  knowing  how  to  read,  write,  and  speak 
English.  Each  applicant  must  file  an  affidavit  to 
observe  this  law  and  to  endeavor  to  make  pupils 
loyal  citizens. 

The  following  figures  for  the  year  1920  will  give 
some  idea  of  the  importance  of  Catholic  education 
in  California :  1  archdiocesan  seminary,  3  seminaries 
of  religious  orders,  1  normal  school,  12  colleges, 
academies  and  high  schools,  97  parochial  schools, 
35,000  young  people  under  Catholic  care. 

Recent  History.— The  recent  political  history  of 
the  state  has  had  a  national  complexion,  as  the 
result  of  passage  by  the  legislature  of  bills  limiting 
the  ownership  of  land  by  aliens  with  the  purpose  of 
eliminating  the  Japanese  as  owners  and  proprietors 
of  the  land.  The  rapid  increase  of  Japanese  immi¬ 
grants  with  their  strong  trend  to  land  ownership 
and  land  control,  their  industry  and  application, 
their  oriental  standards  of  living,  their  large  birth 
rate,  and  their  inability  to  assimilate  with  the 
whites  has  presented  a  problem  of  vital  importance 
to  the  state  as  well  as  to  the  nation.  The  first 
intimation  of  the  problem  came  in  1906,  when 
Japanese  laborers,  attracted  by  the  scarcity  of  labor 
in  California  and  the  prevailing  high  wages,  came 
in  great  numbers.  The  Japanese  with  his  strong 
social  race  instinct  would  acquire  a  piece  of  land, 
and  within  an  incredibly  short  time,  large  adjoin¬ 
ing  holdings  would  be  occupied  by  people  of  his 
own  race.  Attempts  at  anti-Japanese  legislation 
were  foiled  by  the  intervention  of  President  Roose¬ 
velt.  The  proposed  bill,  providing  for  separate 
schools  for  the  Japanese  subjects,  caused  the  United 
States  government  to  arrange  for  the  limitation  of 
Japanese  labor  through  the  “Gentlemen’s  Agree¬ 
ment.”  The  increase  of  Japanese  in  California  from 
41,356  in  1910  to  87,279  in  1920,  or  of  111  per  cent 
showed  the  futility  of  the  agreement,  for  skillful 
evasions  by  means  of  picture  brides,  smuggling,  and 
illegal  importations  were  resorted  to.  The  realiza¬ 
tion  of  this  lack  of  entire  good  faith  on  the  part 
of  the  Japanese  led  the  Legislature  of  1913  to  pass  a 
law  forbidding  the  ownership  of  agriculture  lands 
by  the  Japanese  and  limiting  their  tenure  to  three- 
year  leaseholds.  The  spirit  of  this  anti-alien  land 
legislation  has  been  evaded  and  broken  by  legal 
subterfuges,  such  as  corporations,  trustee  stock  own¬ 
ership,  trustee  land  ownership,  and  the  granting  of 
lands  to  native  children. 

Action  on  the  matter  was  commenced  in  1919, 
but  delayed  on  advice  of  Secretary  of  State  Lansing, 
who  cabled  from  the  Peace  Conference  in  France 
that  any  legislation  of  this  kind  would  offend  Japan, 
a  participant  in  the  conference.  However,  in  1920 
an  initiative  anti-alien  land  law  aiming  at  restricting 
the  Japanese  ownership  of  land  was  approved  by 
the  people  of  California,  the  vote  being  668,483  in 
favor;  against,  222,806  in  opposition.  This  initiative 
measure  is  more  stringent  than  the  former  one,  for 
it  not  only  forbids  ownership  of  land,  but  the  leasing 
of  lands  by  the  Japanese,  and  the  purchase  of  land 
by  American  born  Japanese  minors  under  their 
parents’  guardianship. 

During  the  World  War  California  furnished  112,514 

10 


soldieis,  or  2.98  per  cent.  Two  National  Guard 
Camps  were  established  at  Fremont  and  Kearney. 

Religion. — Iho  following  statistics  of  religious 
denominations  of  California  were  presented  by  the 
United  States  Census  of  1919,  published  that  year: 


Denomination 


»  TO 
i— <  C3 
2  O 

u  c3 

0.9 


0) 

<x> 

"o 

Sh 

3 

.G 

o 


>> 

°3  t, 
®  £?  ® 
3  3  Q. 

nM  2 


U  I 

J3  9  l 
a  o •—  v) 

z  o  s  i 


Adventist  . 

Baptist  . 

Catholic  . 

Congregational  . 

Jewish  . 

Lutheran . 

Methodist  . 

Presbyterian  . 

Protestant  Episcopal. 


176  133 


279 

626 

244 

34 

145 

869 

397 

261 


288 

515 

232 

15 

133 

810 

375 

241 


S  404,385 
3,277,346 
8,301,361 
3,419,676 
1,209,500 
1,569,313 
8,413,164 
5,500,425 
3,341,629 


11,663 

42,039 

494,539 

34,180 

8,178 

19,207 

102,654 

58,061 

30,018 


The  total  number  of  churches  was  3,244,  total 
value  of  church  property,  $40,510,180;  total  number 
of  communicants,  893,366. 

The  Catholic  Directory  for  1921  gives  the  follow¬ 
ing  figures:  Archbishop,  1;  bishops,  2;  total  priests, 
731,  secular,  477,  regular,  254;  total  churches,  545; 
churches  with  resident  priests,  307;  missions  with 
churches,  238;  stations,  118;  seminary,  1;  seminaries 
of  religious  orders,  3;  colleges  and  academies  for 
boj^s,  9 ;  academies  for  young  ladies,  46 ;  parishes 
with  parochial  schools,  108;  orphan  asylums,  15; 
total  young  people  under  Catholic  care,  38,226; 
Catholic  population  about  602,800. 

The  following^  religious  orders  of  men  are  now  in 
the  state:  Jesuits,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Paul- 
ists,  Salesians  Marists,  Christian  Brothers,  Brothers 
of  Mary,  Capuchins,  Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
Sulpicians,  Benedictines,  Redemptorists  and  Vin¬ 
centians. 

Marriage  and  Divorce.— The  law  of  California  as¬ 
signs  five  grounds  of  divorce:  extreme  cruelty; 
wilful  desertion;  wilful  neglect  (failure  to  provide); 
habitual  intemperance,  and  conviction  of  a  felony. 

Legislative  Changes. — The  annual  appropriation 
made  by  the  legislature  for  every  institution  main¬ 
taining  orphans,  has  been  increased  to  $120  for  each 
orphan  and  each  half  orphan.  Recent  legislative 
measures  provide  for  the  establishment  of  a  state 
training  school  for  girls  and  a  new  psychopathic 
state  hospital  (1913) ;  for  a  workman’s  compensation 
act,  and  an  eight-hour  day  for  women.  Women 
suffrage  had  an  important  bearing  on  the  presi¬ 
dential  election  in  California  in  1912.  Owing  to 
the  failure  of  the  Taft  partisans  to  nominate  the 
Taft  electors  on  ballot  by  petition,  the  Taft  voters 
were  practically  disenfranchised.  The  vote  was  so 
close  that  a  recount  was  necessary.  California  rati¬ 
fied  the  federal  suffrage  amendment,  1  November, 
1919,  the  eighteenth  state  to  do  so,  and  the  national 
prohibition  amendment,  13  January,  1919,  the 
twenty-fourth  state  to  do  so. 

California,  Lower,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Cali¬ 
fornia  inferioris ;  cf.  C.  E.,  Ill— 177d) ,  includes 
territory  of  the  same  name,  in  Mexico.  Entrusted 
to  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions  of  Saints  Peter 
and  Paul,  of  Rome,  the  present  administrator  is 
Rev.  John  Rosso  Mapan,  who  resides  at  La  Paz. 
It  includes  a  total  population  of  45,000,  of  whom 
43,104  are  Catholics;  9  priests,  6  parishes,  and  25 
churches  or  chapels. 

Caltagirone,  Diocese  of  (Calatayeronensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  III-190a),  on  the  Island  of  Sicily,  suffragan 
of  the  Archdiocese  of  Syracuse.  This  see  is  now 


CALTANISETTA 


144 


CAMBODIA 


(1922)  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Damaso  Pio  de  Bono,  b. 
in  Bivona  1850,  appointed  28  November,  1898. 
According  to  the  latest  statistics  (1920)  there  are 
115,500  Catholics  in  this  diocese,  25  parishes,  119 
secular  and  48  regular  clergy,  15  seminarians,  16 
Brothers,  43  Sisters,  and  112  churches  or  chapels. 

Caltanisetta,  Diocese  of  (Calathanisiadensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  III-190a),  in  Italy,  suffragan  of  Monreale. 
Rt.  Rev.  Antonio  Augusto  Intreccialagli  appointed 
to  this  see  22  May,  1907,  was  promoted  to  the 
titular  see  of  Sardica,  and  made  coadjutor  at  Mon¬ 
reale,  16  March,  1914,  succeeding  to  the  archdiocese 
of  Monreale,  31  July,  1919.  After  his  transfer  from 
Caltanisetta,  he  still  acted  as  administrator  of  the 
diocese  until  the  appointment  of  the  present  incum¬ 
bent,  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Jacono,  b.  at  Ragusa,  1873, 
appointed  Bishop  of  Molfetta,  2  July,  1918,  trans¬ 
ferred  18  March,  1921.  The  most  important  recent 
event  in  this  diocese  was  the  opening  of  a  new 
episcopal  seminary  in  1912.  The  territory  comprises 
a  Catholic  population  of  160,000,  divided  among  17 
parishes  and  95  churches.  Present  (1922)  statistics 
credit  the  diocese  with  200  secular  and  60  regular 
clergy;  5  convents  for  men  and  9  for  women,  2 
monasteries  for  women,  98  religious  women,  1  semi¬ 
nary,  40  seminarians,  1  college  for  women  with  5 
teachers  and  40  students,  28  secondary  schools  with 
69  teachers,  1,118  boy  students  and  350  girl  students, 
360  elementary  schools  with  360  teachers  and  1-1,400 
pupils.  The  various  institutions  include  3  homes,  7 
asylums,  and  4  hospitals.  One  society  is  organized 
among  the  clergy,  and  30  among  the  laity;  two 
weekly  papers  are  published,  “Aurora”  and  “Tolopo.” 

Calvary,  Congregaton  of  Our  Lady  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
III-109d). — The  twenty  monasteries  which  formed 
the  Congregation  of  Benedictines  of  Our  Lady  of 
Calvary  were  despoiled  by  the  revolutionary  govern¬ 
ment  in  1792  and  the  religious  dispersed.  Some  of 
them  managed  to  live  secretly  in  community  during 
the  French  Revolution,  and  these  faithful  observers 
of  the  rule,  who  survived  the  destruction  of  the 
convents,  were  the  restorers  of  the  congregation. 
Gradually  they  re-established  their  house  at  Orleans 
in  1807  and  that  at  Quimper  in  1809.  Under  Louis 
XVIII  the  monasteries  of  Paris,  Vendome,  Angers, 
Poitiers,  Machecoul  were  permitted  to  revive  their 
religious  life  on  condition  that  they  open  for  public 
utility  a  school  or  boarding  school  for  young  girls 
or  give  hospitality  to  lady  boarders.  Two  royal 
ordinances  authorized  the  reunion  of  these  seven 
monasteries  into  a  congregation,  3  January  and  17 
January,  1827.  On  14  November,  1828,  Pope  Leo 
XIII  confirmed  their  re-establishment  as  a  congre¬ 
gation,  according  to  their  Bull  of  erection  by  Gregory 
XV,  22  March,  1621.  In  1904  the  French  Republic 
forbade  teaching  in  the  monasteries,  in  1906  modi¬ 
fied  the  royal  ordinances  of  1827,  and  finally  30 
June,  1914,  decreed  the  dissolution  of  the  congrega¬ 
tion,  declaring  it  to  be  of  no  public  utility.  The 
World  War  (1914-18)  suspended  the  execution  of 
this  decree. 

There  are  now  in  France  seven  monasteries: 
Orleans,  Angers,  Vendome,  Poitiers,  Machecoul,  La 
Capelle  Marival,  and  Landerneau.  At  Jerusalem, 
in  Palestine,  they  founded  on  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
in  1896,  an  orphanage  for  girls  of  the  Greek  Catho¬ 
lic  Rite.  The  foundation  made  at  Sirault  (Hainaut, 
Belgium),  in  1903,  lasted  only  sixteen  years.  After 
the  war,  in  1919,  the  religious  of  this  house  returned 
to  France.  From  1617  until  the  time  of  the  French 
Revolution  the  congregation  had  thirteen  superior 
generals.  Since  its  re-establishment  it  has  had  eight. 
The  elections  are  triennial,  and  the  office  of  superior 
general  may  be  held  for  only  twelve  consecutive 


years.  The  religious  habit  is  black  with  a  black 
scapular.  The  Constitutions  of  the  Congregation 
were  published  in  1634,  revised  and  corrected  in 
1901,  and  approved  and  confirmed  by  Leo  XIII. 
The  religious  follow  the  primitive  observance  of 
the  Rule  of  St.  Benedict.  Two  notable  changes 
in  the  Constitutions  are  the  nomination  of  a  car¬ 
dinal  protector,  and  the  making  of  temporary  vows 
three  years  before  final  vows  are  taken.  The  total 
number  of  monasteries  is  eight,  with  two  hundred 
religious.  The  present  superior  general  is  Mother 
Marie  de  St.  Anselme. 

Calvi  and  Teano,  Diocese  of  (Calvensis  et 
Teanensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-195a),  in  the  province 
of  Caserta,  Italy,  suffragan  of  Capua.  The  usual 
residence  of  the  bishop  is  at  Teano,  but  at  present 
(1922)  it  is  temporarily  at  Pignataro  Maggiore.  Rt. 
Rev.  Albino  Pella,  appointed  to  this  see  19  August, 
1908,  was  transferred  to  Casale-Monferrato  12  April, 
1915.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent, 
Rt.  Rev.  Calogero  Licata,  b.  at  Aragona  1872, 
honorary  chamberlain  12  March,  1912,  appointed 
14  April,  1916. 

Statistics  published  in  1920  credit  the  diocese  of 
Calvi  with  16,294  Catholics,  17  parishes,  46  secular 
and  5  regular  clergy,  20  religious,  and  50  churches 
or  chapels;  the  cathedral  has  12  canons  and  6  man- 
sionaries.  There  are  30  students  at  the  new  semi¬ 
nary.  Teano  has  a  beautiful  cathedral  with  12 
canons  and  6  mansionaries.  It  counts  a  Catholic 
population  of  55,850,  86  parishes,  117  secular  and 

19  regular  clergy,  20  seminarians,  26  Brothers,  40 
Sisters,  175  churches  or  chapels,  and  14  religious 
houses. 

Camagiiey,  Diocese  of  (Camagueyensis),  in 
Cuba,  suffragan  of  Santiago  de  Cuba.  This  see, 
erected  10  December,  1912  (see  C.  E.,  XVI-34), 
is  under  the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Valen¬ 
tino  Zubizarreta  y  Unamunsaga,  O.  D.  C.  Bom 
in  Marquina  Echevarria,  Spain,  in  1862,  made 
provincial  of  Navarre,  sent  as  a  papal  envoy  to 
Cuba,  he  was  appointed  first  bishop  of  this  diocese 
25  May,  1914,  and  acts  as  administrator  apostolic  of 
Cienfuegos.  The  statistics  published  in  1920  credit 
this  diocese  with  a  Catholic  population  of  200,000, 

20  secular  and  21  regular  clergy,  15  churches  with 
resident  priests,  1  community  of  religious,  and  3 
communities  of  Sisters. 

Cambodia,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Cambodgi- 
ensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII-777d),  in  Indo-China,  with 
episcopal  residence  at  Phnon-Penh.  It  is  entrusted 
to  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  the 
present  vicar  being  Rt.  Rev.  Jean-Claude  Bouchut, 
b.  in  Loire  4  March,  1860,  ordained  17  February, 
1883,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Panemotichus,  23 
July,  1902,  and  vicar  apostolic  of  Cambodia.  This 
territory  comprises  about  60,000  Catholics,  including 
Europeans,  Annamites,  Cambodians,  Chinese,  and 
Indians.  These  are  divided  among  47  parishes,  183 
churches,  and  173  mission  stations,  served  by  98 
secular  priests  and  14  brothers.  There  are  2  con¬ 
vents  of  men  with  14  religious,  11  convents  of 
women  with  348  nuns  and  15  Sisters,  2  seminaries, 
113  seminarians,  2  colleges  for  boys  with  22  in¬ 
structors  and  520  students,  2  colleges  for  girls  with 
8  instructors  and  150  students,  1  normal  school 
with  2  professors  and  25  pupils,  96  elementary 
schools  with  115  teachers,  and  7.400  pupils,  5  hos¬ 
pitals  belonging  to  the  mission  with  437  beds,  con¬ 
ducted  by  Sisters,  2  maternity  hospitals  and  6 
orphanages  with  643  children.  In  1921,  6,156  chil¬ 
dren  were  baptized  while  dying  in  the  vivariate. 
An  organization,  “Amicale  des  eleves  des  Freres,” 
is  formed  among  the  laity. 


CAMBRAI 


145 


CAMPION 


Cambrai,  Archdiocese  of  (Camerancensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  III-209d). — By  a  pontifical  Decree  of  Novem¬ 
ber,  1913,  the  districts  of  Lille,  Dunkeque,  and 
Hazelbrouck  were  separated  from  the  Archdiocese  of 
Cambrai  to  form  the  new  Diocese  of  Lille.  In 
consequence  the  population  of  this  archdiocese  was 
reduced  from  1,866,000  in  1912  to  837,000  in  1914. 
Owing  to  the  World  War  the  population  has  further 
diminished  and  at  the  present  time  (1921)  it  con¬ 
sists  of  741,000  French  inhabitants,  with  20,000  Bel¬ 
gians  and  4,000  to  5,000  Poles  who  work  in  the 
mining  region.  For  more  than  four  years  the  entire 
country  was  invaded  and  laid  waste  by  the  enemy. 
A  certain  number  of  parishes  near  the  Hindenburg 
Line  were  entirely  destroyed.  In  retreating  the 
Germans  seized  a  large  number  of  church  bells 
and  bombarded  some  of  the  churches.  Of  the 
464  churches  in  the  archdiocese,  84  were  destroyed, 
one  of  which  has  been  rebuilt,  289  were  slightly 
damaged,  29  of  which  have  been  restored.  There 
are  200  churches  which  are  damaged  to  the  extent 
that  they  are  useless  and  the  work  of  restoring  them 
has  not  yet  been  begun. 

During  the  war  30  priests  and  seminarians  gave 
their  lives  for  the  cause.  The  entire  clerg3%  fore¬ 
most  among  whom  was  the  archbishop,  nobly  sup¬ 
ported  their  country  and  their  services  were 
gratefully  appreciated  and  rewarded  by  the  French 
Government,  as  well  as  by  the  Allies. 

In  1917  the  archdiocese  suffered  a  severe  loss  in 
the  death  of  Rt.  Rev.  Henry  Monnier,  titular 
bishop  of  Ludda  and  auxiliary  bishop  of  Cambrai 
since  1872.  He  was  an  earnest  and  zealous  prelate 
and  had  rendered  distinguished  sendees  to  the 
archdiocese.  The  present  incumbent  is  the  Most 
Rev.  John  Arthur  Chollet,  b.  at  Avocourt,  8  April, 
1862,  ordained  18  September,  1886,  appointed  to  the 
see  of  Verdun,  13  April,  1910,  consecrated  29  June 
following,  promoted  to  Cambrai  20  November, 
1913,  installed  22  January,  1914,  and  published  the 
25  May  following. 

An  event  of  special  importance  in  the  archdiocese 
took  place  in  1920  when  Sister  Madeleine  Fontaine 
and  her  three  companions,  Marie  Lanet,  Therese 
Fanton  and  Jeanne  Girard  were  declared  blessed. 
These  holy  women  were  Sisters  of  Charity  and  had 
nursed  the  sick  and  poor  in  a  hospital  at  Arras  dur¬ 
ing  the  French  Revolution.  On  refusing  to  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance,  they  were  imprisoned,  tried 
and  sentenced  to  death.  By  order  of  the  ex-priest 
Lebon,  they  were  taken  to  Cambrai  and  executed 
there  on  26  June,  1794.  The  superior,  Sister 
Madeleine  Fontaine,  then  72  years  of  age,  while 
awaiting  death,  declared  that  she  and  her  com¬ 
panions  would  be  the  last  victims  at  Cambrai.  Her 
prophecy  was  fulfilled  as  shortly  thereafter  the 
downfall  of  Robespierre  brought  to  an  end  the 
Reign  of  Terror  in  France.  The  cause  of  these 
saintly  women  was  introduced  at  Rome  29  May, 
1907,  they  were  declared  martyrs,  with  dispensation 
of  miracles,  6  June,  1919,  and  solemnly  beatified  13 
June,  1920. 

The  archdiocese  contains  (1921)  429  parishes,  35 
deaneries,  685  secular  priests,  12  Jesuits,  3  Marists; 

2  convents  of  the  Poor  Clares,  2  of  the  Redemp- 
torists;  1  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Adoration,  2  congre¬ 
gations  who  care  for  the  sick  and  whose  mother- 
house  is  in  the  archdiocese.  The  diocesan  seminary 
has  115  students  and  the  preparatory  seminary,  103. 
The  following  colleges  and  schools  exist  in  the 
archdiocese:  6  ecclesiastical  colleges  where  the 
teaching  staff  consists  of  90  priests  (1,520  students)  ; 

19  Catholic  primary  schools  for  boys,  81  for  girls 
with  278  teachers  and  8,500  pupils.  The  large  offi¬ 
cial  colleges  also  have  a  chaplain  who  gives  re¬ 


ligious  instruction  to  those  who  desire  it  His 
influence  is  unimportant.  The  Little  Sisters  of  the 
1  ooi  take  charge  of  5  home's  for  the  aged  and 
neaily  all  the  hospitals,  juvenile  asylums,  orphan- 
ages,  and  creches  are  in  charge  of  Sisters  of  the 
various  orders.  With  one  or  two  exceptions  these 
institutions  have  a  regularly  appointed  chaplain  who 
freely  visits  the  sick.  Ihe  priests  have  formed  two 
associations  called  the  Apostolic  Union  and  the  As¬ 
sociation  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales.  The  following 
associations  exist  among  the  laity:  Association  of 
Fathers  of  Families,  Association  of  Catholic  Com¬ 
mittees,  Association  of  Young  Men,  Patriotic  League 
of  French  Women  and  Association  of  Young 
Women.  There  are  7  Catholic  papers  published  in 
the  archdiocese. 

Camerino,  Archdiocese  of  (Camerinensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  HI— 216d) ,  in  the  province  of  Macerata,  Central 
Italy,  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  with  the 
perpetual  administration  of  Treja.  Rt.  Rev. 
Camillo  Moreschini,  appointed  to  this  see  29  April 
1909,  d.  24  October,  1918,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Ettore  Fronzi, 
b.  in  Ostra,  1862,  appointed  Bishop  of  Cagli  and 
Pergola,  12  September,  1908,  promoted  14  Decem¬ 
ber,  1918. 

By  1920  statistics  Camerino  has  a  Catholic  popu¬ 
lation  of  84,900,  174  parishes,  242  secular  and  40 
regular  clergy,  78  seminarians,  and  174  churches  or 
chapels.  Treja  is  credited  with  9597  Catholics;  8 
parishes,  30  secular  priests,  and  46  churches  or 
chapels. 

Campanha,  Diocese  of  (Campanhensis),  in  the 
State  of  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Mari¬ 
anna.  This  see,  erected  19  March,  1908  (see  C..  E., 
XVI-34)  is  still  (1922)  under  the  administration 
of  its  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Juan  d’Almeida  Ferrao, 
appointed  29  April,  1909.  This  territory  includes 
a  population  of  300,000,  and  30  parishes. 

Campeche,  Diocese  of  (Campecorensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-222c),  in  the  State  of  Campeche,  Mexico,  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Yucatan.  Rt.  Rev.  Vincent  Castellanos 
y  Nunez  appointed  to  this  see  7  February,  1912, 
was  transferred  26  August,  1921,  and  the  see  is  now 
(1922)  vacant.  It  comprises  a  total  population  of 
100,000,  of  whom  80,000  are  Catholics;  23  secular 
priests,  8  seminarians,  14  parishes,  35  churches,  5 
chapels,  and  3  Catholic  schools. 

Campinas,^  Diocese  of  (Campinensis),  in  the 
state  of  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Sao 
Paulo.  This  diocese,  erected  7  June,  1908  (see  C. 
E.,  XVI-35),  includes  a  territory  of  6196  sq.  miles 
takes  from  the  archdiocese  of  Sao  Paulo.  The 
cathedral,  dedicated  to  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
was  installed  with  a  chapter  of  ten  titular  and  ten 
honorary  canons,  3  November,  1909.  According 
to  the  1916  census  the  diocese  comprises  a  popula¬ 
tion  of  567,832;  the  1920  statistics  credit  it  with 
39  parishes,  2  colleges,  67  churches,  294  chapels,  1 
seminary,  established  in  1914,  7  convents  of  men 
with  49  religious,  21  convents  of  women  with  210 
sisters,  and  25  schools  with  1454  boys  and  1616  girls. 

The  present  incumbent  is  Rt.  Rev.  Juan  Bautista 
Correa-Nery,  the  first  bishop,  appointed  3  August, 
1907.  He  was  named  an  assistant  at  the  pontifical 
throne  in  1907  and  again  in  1915.  He  is  assisted 
by  an  auxiliary,  Rt.  Rev.  Joachim  Mamede  da 
Silva  Leite,  titular  Bishop  of  Sebaste. 

Campion  College,  situated  in  lower  town  of 
Prairie  du  Chien,  Wisconsin,  had  its  origin  in  an 
independent  school  known  as  the  Prairie  du  Chien 
College.  The  project  proved  a  failure  after  a  very 
short  trial,  and  in  1871  the  building  passed  into  the 


CANADA 


146 


CANADA 


i  a  n f  rhristian  Brothers  who  opened  a  Of  the  1920  immigrants,  51  per  cent  came  from 

hands  of  the  Christian  tfrotneis,  ^  „  ._v  the  United  Kingdom;  42  per  cent  from  the  United 


school  under  the  name  of  St.  John’s  College.  After  -----  ~  “ent  from  other  countries.  They 


SCUOOl  UUUtJl  tuc  iio-p-xv,  . - -  -  Y,  r  -l 

five  years,  St.  Johns  9Sl'®gerIl!!?'„e_„„e3.^  ,L=  thon  were  "classificef  according  to  occupation  as  follows: 


ure  and  was  closed  in  1876.  Tire  property  was  then  ^e““an‘d  "labored,  317282;  general  laborers,  7,372; 


Ult;  cLJLLU.  wa»o  v^a - x  x  .  -  i  non 

purchased  by  Mr.  John  I^ler^and  m  1880  pre-  ^ traders,  etc.,  3,805;  rnine^ 


puruiiaaeu.  uj  — ,  -  -,v 

sented  to  the  Jesuits,  an  t  ra  same^  ye a^ — ^  domestics,’  6,069;’ not  classified,  53,180.  Of 


Fathers  of  the  Buffalo ’Mission^opened^the  “Sacred  tYe7eYhe“  Maritime  Provinces  received  5,554;  Que- 


Heart  College”  at  Prairie  du  Chfen._  The^opemng  g~.~  Qataria,' '39,344 ;"  Manitoba,  11,387; 


neart  cuiicgc  au  ~ — r —  j  - 

year  there  were  61  students,  of  whom  2o  were  :y  g-^-^an,  Alberta,  20,000;  British  Co- 

lumbia  and  Yukon  Territory,  13,686;  total,  117,336 


SC  The18"  first  president  was  the  Rev.  William 
Becker,  S.J.,  who  had  been  the  founds  and  first 
president  of  Canisius  College,  Buffalo.  The  faculty 
of  the  new  college  also  numbered  among  its  mem- 


The  number  of  Chinese  entering  Canada  has  been 
much  reduced  in  recent  years,  owing  to  the  opera¬ 
tion  of  the  order,  renewed  every  six  months  since 


bersTheRewforn  H^“sXat"^t  head  of  December,  1913, under  which  the  landing  in  British 


bers  the  Rev  John  Hagen  6^  J  at  prese  ^  Columbia  of  skilled  and  unskilled  artisans  and 

the  Papal  Observatory  at  Borne.  At  tne  ena  .  nrohihit_d_  In  the  fiscal  vear  1920  the 


Hit;  x  a ycii  wuoui  v  aowij  ^ ^  ~  1  i  • 

Father  Becker’s  presidency  the  number  had  so  in 
creased  that  in  1884  a  new  building  was  added,  and 
that  same  year  saw  the  first  classical  graduates  o 
the  college.  But  in  spite  of  this  apparent  success 
undergraduate  classes  were  discontinued  from  18 


98Uto  ailorthe7e°s1rits'to  the  buddings  for  the  Asiatic  immigration, 
higher  studies  of  members  of  the  order.  In  1898 


laborers  is  prohibited.  In  the  fiscal  year  1920  the 
number  of  Chinese  who  paid  head  tax  was  363, 
as  compared  with  4,006  in  1919.  In  November,  1921, 
British  Columbia  petitioned  the  Dominion  Gov¬ 
ernment  to  take  measures  for  the  exclusion  of 


nigner  siuuies  ui  mcmuoiu  , 

the  college  again  opened  its  doors  and  in  1JU1  tne 

Rev.  Ulrich  Heinzel,  S.J.,  became  president,  to  be 

succeeded  in  1904  by  the  Rev.  Joseph  L.  Spaeth,  b.  J. 
Another  building  was  added  to  the  rapidly  growing 
college  about  this  time,  and  again  m  1910,  alter 
the  Rev.  Jos.  M.  Homing,  S.J.,  had  become 
president,  another  wing  was  added.  Upon  Earner 
Horning’s  death  in  1911,  the  Rev  George  R.  Kis- 
ter,  S.J.,  succeeded  him  and  presided  over  the  col¬ 
lege  until  March,  1918,  when  the  present  head  ot 
the  college,  the  Rev.  Albert  C.  Fox  became  president. 

In  1913  the  corporate  name  of  the  school  was 
changed  to  “Campion  College  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 


The  Indian  population  by  provinces  in  1917  was 
as  follows:  Prince  Edward  Island,  292;  Nova  Scotia, 
2,031;  New  Brunswick,  1,846;  Quebec,  13,366;  On- 
taria,  26,411;  Manitoba,  11,583;  Saskatchewan,  10,- 
646;  Alberta,  8,837;  British  Columbia,  25,694; 
Yukon,  1,528;  Northwest  Territories,  3,764;  total, 
105,998.  The  Eskimos  numbered  3,296.  Of  the 
total  acreage  of  Indian  reservations  (4,860,675  acres) 
2,143,708  acres  were  cleared  but  not  cultivated,  and 
210,024  acres  were  cultivated;  the  value  of  the 
lands  in  1919  was  51,535,245.  During  1919  crops  to 
the  value  of  3,462,147  were  raised  by  the  Indians, 
the  corresponding  value  for  1918  was  $3,142,046. 
They  owned  35,285  horses,  52,522  head  of  cattle, 


The^isuaf  cuSculum 'of  ’aU"  Jesuit  colleges  is  fol-  and;  117,453  poultry,  the  total, .value  of  the  live 


lowed:  the  faculty,  members,  15,  and  the  total  en¬ 
rollment  of  students  for  1920-21  is  101. 

Canada  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-227b). — The  area  of  Can¬ 
ada  is  3,603,336  sq.  miles  of  land  and  12b, 329  sq. 
miles  of  water,  a  total  of  3,729,665  square  miles. 
The  following  table  shows  the  population  ot  tne 


1921 

1911 

Per  Cent  of  Increase 

New  Brunswick. 

388,092 

351,092 

10.29 

Nova  Scotia  .. . 

524,579 

492,338 

6.55 

Prince  Edward 
Island . 

88,536 

93,728 

5.54  (decrease) 

Alberta  . 

581,995 

374,663 

55.34 

Manitoba . 

613,008 

461,630 

32.79 

British  Colum¬ 
bia  . 

523,369 

392,480 

33.34 

Quebec  . 

Ontario  . 

2,349,067 

2,005,776 

17.11 

2,929,054 

2,523,274 

17.25 

stock  and  poultry  being  $4,443,970.  For  Indian  edu¬ 
cational  purposes  appropriations  were  made  by 
Parliament  for  the  year  1919-20,  amounted  to  $1,- 
057,663.  There  were  321  schools  with  12,196  pupils. 
The  religious  census  of  the  Indians  31  March,  1917, 
is  given  as  follows:  Anglican,  20,183;  Presbyterian, 
2,155;  Methodist,  12,820;  Catholic,  43,986;  Baptist, 
1,297;  other  Christian  beliefs,  1,426;  aboriginal  be¬ 
liefs,  8,414. 

Agriculture. — The  total  value  of  the  annual  farm 
production  of  Canada  in  1920  was  $1,455,244,650. 
The  production  of  wheat  was  263,189,300  bushels 
from  18,232,374  acres,  an  average  of  14.5  bushels 
per  acre.  The  following  list  of  exports  reveals  the 
extent  of  Canadian  commerce: 


lhe  largest  cities  wiui  men  pupuiauvu.*.... 
treal,  607,063;  Toronto,  293,571;  Winnipeg,  178,364; 
Vancouver,  116,700;  Ottawa,  107,137 ;  Haimlton, 
81,969  (1911);  Quebec,  94,058;  Halifax,  5?,674;  Cal¬ 
gary,  63,117;  Victoria,  38,682;  Edmonton,  58  627. 

Immigration  slackened  between  1914  and  1920,  as 
the  following  figures  attest: _ _ 


Total  exportation... 

Field  products. - - - 

Animals  and  animal 

products  . 

Cheese  . 

Forest  products . 

Mineral  products... 

Manufactures  . 

Fisheries  . 


1918 

1919 

1920 

$1,586,169,792 

577,750,350 

$1,268,765,285 

292,557,383 

$1,286,658,709 

368,797,221 

179,868,168 

36,277,359 

51,960,349 

75,688,875 

660,840,430 

33,221,175 

207,285,492 

35,223,983 

70,596,199 

80,707,211 

571,498,678 

37,869,394 

266,037,489 

36,336,863 

105,546,780 

62,821,963 

435,121,936 

42,546,979 

United 

Kingdom 

United 

States 

Other 

Countries 

1914 . 

142,622 

107,530 

134,726 

1915 . 

43,276 

59,779 

41,734 

1916 . 

8,664 

36,937 

2,936 

1917  . 

8,282 

61,389 

5,703 

1918 . 

3,178 

71,314 

4,582 

1919 . 

9,914 

40,715 

7,073 

1920  . 

59,603 

49,656 

8,077 

Total 


384,878 

144,789 

48;537 

75,374 

79,074 

57,702 

117,336 


Forestry.— Statistics  of  the  lumber  industry  in 
1917  reveal  a  capital  of  $149,266,019;  employees  on 
salaries,  3,159;  payment  of  salaries,  $4,781,300;  em¬ 
ployees  on  wages,  53,318;  wages,  $34,412,411;  cost  of 
materials,  $58,403,316;  value  of  products,  $68,815,472. 

In  1919  the  income  from  the  lumber  industry  was 
estimated  at  $122,359,748,  distributed  as  follows 
Ontario,  $33,671,334;  British  Columbia,  $32,540,244 
Quebec,  $30,195,646;  New  Brunswick,  $16,477,477 
Nova  Scotia,  $6,262,745;  Saskatchewan,  $1,326,668 
Manitoba,  $937,679;  Alberta,  $696,518;  Prince  Ed 
ward  Island,  $238,687;  Yukon,  $12,680. 


CANADA 


147 


CANADA 


The  crownlands  of  Canada  are  situated  in  the 
ITairie  Provinces,  in  the  Dominion  Railway  Belt  of 
British  Columbia,  and  in  a  block  in  northern 
British  Columbia,  containing  3,500,000  acres,  known 
as  the  Peace  River  Block.  A  total  of  120,894,407 
acres  have  been  alienated  from  the  Crown.  In  the 
Maritime  Provinces,  in  Quebec,  Ontaria,  and  British 
Columbia,  the  public  lands  are  administered  by  the 
provincial  governments.  In  Nova  Scotia  the  total 
area  of  the  crownlands  is  816,862  acres;  in  New 
Brunswick,  7,250,000  acres.  In  Quebec  6,330,751 
acres  of  public  lands  are  subdivided  and  unsold. 

Fisheries. — The  capital  invested  in  the  sea  fish¬ 
eries  of  Canada  in  1919  was  $27,189,212;  in  the  inland 
fisheries,  $4,186,940;  in  fish-canning  and  curing  es¬ 
tablishments,  $23,200,874;  total  of  capital  invested 
in  fisheries,  $54,577,026.  In  the  sea  fisheries  58,885 
persons  were  employed;  in  the  inland  fisheries, 
8,919 ;  in  the  fish-canning  establishments,  18,356. 
The  value  of  the  products  of  the  fishing  industry 
in  1919  was  $56,508,479;  in  1918,  $60,250,544.  In 
1920  the  salmon  fisheries  of  British  Columbia 
brought  $15,129,348.  In  the  same  year  the  chief 
exports  went  to  the  United  Kingdom  ($9,890,805), 
the  United  States  ($18,568,264),  Cuba  ($2,387,528), 
Australia  ($538,566),  British  West  Indies  ($1,662,- 
398),  and  Porto  Rico  ($1,301,354).  The  value  of 
the  fishing  boats,  nets,  traps,  and  wharves  in  1920 
was  $29,893,213. 

Mines. — Mineral  production  reached  $217,775,080 
in  1920,  the  highest  figure  on  record.  British  Co¬ 
lumbia,  with  $33,296,313,  ranked  the  highest  in  the 
value  of  minerals  produced.  Gold  brought  $15,- 
853,478;  nickel,  $24,454,597;  copper,  $14,166,479; 
coal,  $76,326,853;  asbestos,  $13,677,841;  Portland 
cement,  $14,798,070. 

Manufactures. — The  statistics  of  manufactures 
in  1918  revealed  678,337  employees,  earning  in 
salaries  and  wages  $629,790,644 ;  turning  out  products 
worth  $3,458,036,975;  the  capital  invested  was  $3,- 
034,301,915,  and  the  cost  of  materials  $1,900,252,314. 
Ontario  ranked  first  in  the  value  of  products, 
$1,809,067,001;  Quebec  second  with  $920,621,171;  and 
British  Columbia  third  with  $216,175,517. 

Commerce. — The  imports  from  the  United  King¬ 
dom  into  Canada  in  1921  totaled  in  value  $213,- 
944,814;  from  the  United  States,  $856,613,430;  from 
all  other  countries,  $169,600,638;  total,  $1,240,158,- 
882.  The  exports  to  the  United  Kingdom  from 
Canada  totaled  $489,152,637;  to  the  United  States, 
$464,028,183;  other  countries,  $286,311,278.  The 
total  commerce  aggregated  $2,450,587,001.  The 
duty  collected  on  imports  in  1921  was  $179,658,474. 

Transportation. — The  increase  in  railroad  mile¬ 
age  in  1919  was  the  smallest  in  recent  years,  owing 
to  the  scarcity  of  capital,  being  17;  in  1918  it  was 
275;  1917,  1,170;  1916,  1,852;  1915,  4,787;  1914,  1,491; 
1913,  2,577.  The  total  mileage  in  actual  operation 
in  1919  was  38,896;  the  total  capitalization  $2,009,- 
209,510.  In  1903  the  Dominion  Government  under¬ 
took  the  construction  of  the  eastern  division  of  the 
National  Transcontinental  Railway  from  Moncton, 
N.  B.,  to  Winnipeg,  to  be  leased  to  the  Grand 
Trunk  Pacific  Railway  for  fifty  years.  Upon  the 
failure  of  the  latter  to  take  over  the  operation  of 
the  road,  when  completed,  the  Government  under¬ 
took  its  operation.  The  Prince  Edward  Island  Rail¬ 
way  is  also  the  property  of  the  Dominion  Govern¬ 
ment.  In  1917  by  an  Act  of  Parliament  the  Do¬ 
minion  acquired  the  capital  stock  of  the  Canadian 
Northern  Railway  Company  (9,566.5  miles).  In 
1918  the  Quebec  and  Saguenay  Railway  (62  miles) 
was  purchased  by  the  Government,  and  in  1919 
the  Lotbiniere  and  Megantic  Railway  (30  miles). 
The  land  subsidies  granted  to  railways  up  to  30 


June,  1919,  extends  to  56,237,383  acres;  the  total 
value  of  public  aid,  $275,163,228  (exclusive  of  the 
capital  of  the  two  government  railways),  of  which 
$219,077,163  represents  aid  granted  by  the  Dominion 
Government,  $17,914,836  by  municipalities,  and  $38,- 
171,229  by  Provincial  Governments.  During  the 
year  ending  30  June,  1919,  loans  of  $25,000,000  were 
made  to  the  Canadian  Northern  Railway  and  of 
$7,500,000  to  the  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  Railway. 

Finance. — The  gross  debt  on  21  March,  1921, 
amounted  to  $3,014,483,774,  and  the  net  debt  to 
$1,935,946,313.  On  31  July,  1920,  the  net  debt  was 
$2,234,496,916.  The  total  war  expenditure  down  to 
31  March,  1920,  was  about  $1,670,000,000. 

Education. — Education  is  more  or  less  com¬ 
pulsory,  but  the  law  is  not  very  strictly  enforced. 
In  Ontario,  Quebec,  Alberta,  and  Saskatchewan 
there  are  separate  schools  for  Catholics;  in  the 
other  provinces  the  schools  are  non-sectarian.  The 
following  are  the  latest  statistics: 


Provinces 

Year 

Ended 

Schools 

Teachers 

Pupils 

Expendi¬ 

ture 

Ontario  . 

Quebec  . 

Nova  Scotia.... 
New  Brunswick 

Manitoba  . 

British  Col’bia 
P.  E.  Island... 

Alberta  . 

Saskatchewan. .. 

Total  . 

Dec.,  1918 
June, 1918 
July,  1919 
June,  1919 
June, 1919 
June, 1919 
June,  1919 
Dec.,  1918 
Dec.,  1918 

6,995 

7,244 

1,797 

1,299 

2,017 

582 

475 

2,966 

4,145 

27,520 

14,357 

16,995 

3,012 

2,107 

3,215 

2,332 

606 

5,652 

6,223 

54,499 

564,655 

475,219 

106,982 

71,029 

114,662 

72,006 

17,865 

111,109 

151,326 

1,684,853 

$18,558,890 

14,482,870 

2,097,593 

1,530,256 

5,313,307 

4,228,720 

285,960 

4,843,890 

6,867,515 

$58,339,001 

Canada’s  recent  interest  in  technical  education  is 
evidenced  by  the  Act  of  1919,  providing  for  aid  to 
the  provinces  in  promoting  and  assisting  technical 
education  in  Canada  by  annual  grants,  beginning 
at  $700,000  and  aggregating  $10,000,000  within  a 
period  of  ten  years.  Out  of  the  annual  grant  each 
province  is  to  receive  $10,000,  while  the  balance  is 
to  be  divided  among  the  provinces  in  proportion 
to  their  population  as  shown  in  the  last  decennial 
census.  The  benefits  of  the  Act  are  extended  to 
persons  over  fourteen  years  who  are  not  provided 
for  by  the  ordinary  day  schools,  and  includes  also 
agricultural  studies,  the  training  of  nurses  and 
teachers  for  ordinary  schools  and  all  work  of  uni¬ 
versity  grade.  The  remarkable  growth  of  expendi¬ 
ture  on  public  education  is  seen  in  the  increase 
between  1901,  when  it  was  $11,751,625,  and  1919, 
when  it  was  $72,992,667.  For  twenty-one  of  the 
twenty-two  universities  in  Canada,  the  total  value 
of  the  endowments  and  property  in  land,  buildings, 
equipment,  etc.  (1920),  amounted  to  $56,830,727; 
the  total  income  $7,039,089,  of  which  $1,507,579  was 
derived  from  fees  and  the  balance  from  invest¬ 
ments,  government  grants,  and  other  sources.  The 
total  expenditure  was  $6,542,213,  and  the  total  num¬ 
ber  of  students  28,486.  Adding  to  these  the  10,057 
students  attending  the  professional  colleges  in  the 
same  year,  the  grand  total  of  students  in  attend¬ 
ance  at  Canadian  institutions  of  higher  education 
was  38,543. 

The  successive  waves  of  immigration  into  Canada 
during  the  last  decade  have  created  some  perplex¬ 
ing  situations  in  the  educational  status.  Twenty-six 
racial  entities  are  now  represented,  whereas  there 
used  to  be  only  two,  the  English  and  French.  In 
the  Maritime  Provinces  of  Prince  Edward  Island, 
New  Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia  the  religious  and 
educational  relations  between  the  English  and 
French  have  been  amicable;  in  Nova  Scotia  French 
readers  are  provided  for  French-speaking  children 


CANADA 


148 


CANADA 


with  instruction  in  English,  and  English-speaking 
teachers  are  not  required  to  know  French.  I  he 
line  of  cleavage  is  very  sharp  in  Quebec  where 
English  is  taught  in  Protestant  schools  and  French 
in  Catholic  schools,  although  a  confusing  element 
intervenes  in  the  English-speaking  Irish  population 
of  Quebec  and  Montreal.  The  Protestant  com¬ 
mittee  of  the  Provincial  Board  of  Education  wisely 
insisted  on  French  courses  of  study  in  the  Protestant 
schools  in  certain  grades;  similarly  the  ^atholic 
schools  are  required  to  use  English  m  the  first 
year  In  Ontario  the  English-speaking  population 
‘(about  2,000,000)  has  a  greater  majority  over  those 
speaking  over  languages  (500,000).  The  same  lan¬ 
guage  privileges  as  in  Quebec  are  allowed  to  the 
minority,  but  the  people  have  never  succeeded  in 
enacting  the  same  concessions  into  law.  In  recent 
years  there  has  been  an  influx  of  French-speaking 
settlers  into  Ontario,  displacing  the  English-speak¬ 
ing  farmers.  Nevertheless,  regulations  of  increasing 
severity,  requiring  the  teaching  of  English  m  all 
the  schools,  passed  by  the  Department  of  Educa¬ 
tion,  led  in  1915  and  1916  to  acute  and  m  some 
localities  disastrous  situations  in  French  schools 
and  school  boards.  The  trouble  was  settled  in 
November,  1916,  by  the  judgment  of  the  Privy 
Council  of  the  Dominion,  which  held  that  the  right 
to  the  use  of  a  certain  language  concerned  only 
legislative  or  court  use  and  did  not  relate  to  educa¬ 
tion,  but  that  the  right  to  manage  schools  as  well 
as  that  to  determine  the  language  to  be  used  in 
them  were  alike  subject  to  the  regulations  of  the 
provincial  education  departments.  The  problem  in 
the  Prairie  Provinces  of  Manitoba,  Saskatchewan, 
and  British  Columbia  is  due  to  the  successive  waves 
of  immigration  which  followed  each  other  too 
rapidly  to  be  assimilated.  Of  Manitoba  s  estimated 
one  million,  there  are  nineteen  non-English  racial 
units,  six  of  which  number  more  than  50,000.  Each 
race  took  advantage  of  the  compromise  of  189b, 
which  allowed  bilingual  teaching  in  localities  where 
ten  pupils  spoke  French  or  other  language  than 
English.  In  1915  nearly  one-sixth  of  the  schools 
of  Manitoba  were  bilingual,  143  teaching  French,  70 
German,  121  Polish  or  Ruthenian,  in  addition  to 
English.  In  1915  the  clause  allowing  bilingual 
schools  was  repealed.  In  Saskatchewan  a  new 
School  Attendance  Act  was  passed  in  1917,  requir¬ 
ing  the  parent  or  guardians  to  send  the  children 
to  public  school  “unless  the  child  was  under  instruc¬ 
tion  in  some  satisfactory  manner.”  In  Alberta  the 
refusal  of  the  supervisor  of  foreign  schools  in  1914 
to  recognize  certain  schools,  which  were  considered 
below  the  prescribed  standard  of  efficiency,  resulted 
in  the  closing  of  almost  all  the  Ruthenian  schools 
and  of  many  German-Lutheran  private  schools,  con¬ 
ducted  by  theological  students  from  Lutheran  col¬ 
leges  in  the  United  States.  The  racial  groups  in 
British  Columbia  have  been  too  small  to  cause  any 
trouble  in  the  matter  of  language  instruction  in 

public  schools.  .  . 

Government. — The  new  status  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  can  be  seen  in  the  signing  by  the 
Canadian  ministers  of  the  Peace  Treaties  with  Ger¬ 
many  and  Austria  in  behalf  of  Canada  and  the 
representation  of  Canada  in  Washington  by  her 
own  resident  minister.  Women  have  the  vote  and 
are  eligible  for  election  to  Parliament.  In  the  lattei 
part  of  1920  there  was  an  increasing  demand  for 
the  right  of  Canada  to  amend  her  own  constitution 
without  applying  to  the  king  and  his  advisers.  In 
this  Quebec  did  not  participate  because  her  lan¬ 
guage  and  civil  law  rights  are  guaranteed  against 
aggression  so  long  as  the  consent  of  the  British 
Parliament  is  required  for  amendments. 


The  Naval  Service  of  Canada,  established  by  the 
Naval  Service  Act  of  1910,  is  divided  into  eight 
branches :  naval,  fisheries,  fisheries’  protection,  radio- 
telegraphy,  patrol  of  northern  waters,  tidal  and 
current  survey,  hydrographic  survey,  and  life-saving 
service.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  two  submarines 
built  at  Seattle,  U.  S.  A.,  for  Chile  were  acquired 
by  the  Canadian  Government,  and  were  brought  to 
the  naval  base  at  Esquimalt,  B.  C.;  the  Canadian 
Naval  Service  was  placed  legally  at  the  king’s  dis¬ 
posal,  the  “Rainbow”  being  already  in  commission 
off  the  Pacific  Coast,  and  the  “Niobe”  was  rapidly 
commissioned  and  put  out  to  sea  off  the  Atlantic 
coast.  In  1920  the  nucleus  of  the  Canadian  fleet 
was  formed  by  the  gift  of  Great  Britain  of  the  light 
cruiser  “Aurora,”  the  destroyers  “Patriot”  and 
“Patrician,”  and  two  submarines. 

War  History. — At  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
War  in  1914,  steps  were  taken  to  organize  a  Ca¬ 
nadian  expeditionary  force,  and  volunteer  troops 
comprising  cavalry,  artillery,  and  infantry,  num¬ 
bering,  with  subsidiary  units,  upwards  of  35,000 
officers  and  men,  were  speedily  assembled  for  pre¬ 
liminary  training  at  Valcartier,  Quebec.  Within 
ten  days  the  first  contingent  of  over  33,000  troops 
embarked  on  transports  at  Quebec  and  crossed  the 
Atlantic  under  convoy  of  the  British  navy.  After 
the  completion  of  their  training  on  Salisbury  Plain 
they  arrived  in  France  in  February,  1915.  Proceed¬ 
ing  to  Flanders  they  speedily  entered  into  the  fight, 
and  during  the  spring  and  summer  were  engaged 
in  four  principal  battles:  Neuve-Chapelle,  Ypres, 
Festubert,  and  Givenchy.  The  second  division  of 
Canadian  troops  landed  in  England  on  6  March, 
and  in  November  a  third  division  was  accepted  by 
the  imperial  authorities.  At  the  end  of  1915 
Canada’s  military  contribution  amounted  to  212,- 
690  troops  out  of  an  authorized  total  of  250,000. 
Legal  measures  were  taken  to  increase  it  to  500,000. 
In  1916  Lieut. -General  the  Honorable  Sir  Julian 
Byng  was  appointed  to  succeed  General  Alderson 
in  command  of  the  Canadian  troops  at  the  front, 
and  in  June,  1917,  on  his  promotion  to  command 
the  Third  Army,  he  was  succeeded  by  Major  Gen¬ 
eral  Sir  Arthur  Currie.  After  the  second  battle  of 
Ypres  the  Canadian  troops  were  occupied  for  some 
months  chiefly  with  minor  operations  and  raids,  but 
they  also  took  part  in  the  severe  fighting  at  St. 
Eloi  in  April,  1916,  at  Sanctuary  Wood  m  June, 
1916,  and  on  the  Somme  in  September,  1916.  In 
1917  the  Canadian  troops  bore  a  brilliant  part  in 
the  victory  of  Vimy  (April),  and  distinguished 
themselves  also  at  Arleux-en-Gohelle  and  Fresnoy. 
Shifting  north  towards  Lens  in  June  and  July  they 
battled  hard  against  the  Germans,  attacking  and 
capturing  the  famous  Hill  70  near  Loos.  In  Sep¬ 
tember  they  moved  toward  Ypres  where  four  at¬ 
tacks  made~  in  the  last  days  of  October  and  early 
in  November  resulted  in  the  capture  of  Passchen- 
daele  and  the  highly  important  ground  on  which 
the  village  stands.  In  addition  to  the  combatant 
troops  valuable  services  were  rendered  by  the 
Canadian  Forestry  and  Railway  Corps,  also  by  the 
Aviation  Corps.  In  1918  the  Canadian  troops  dis¬ 
tinguished  themselves  in  the  battle  of  Amiens 
(6-10  August),  the  capture  of  Monchy-le-Preux 
(26-28  August),  the  breaking  of  the  Drocourt- 
Queant  line  (2-4  September),  the  crossing  of  the 
Canal-du-N ord  and  the  capture  of  Bourlon  Wood 
(27-29  September),  the  capture  of  Cambrai  (1-9 
October),  the  capture  of  Denain  (20  October),  the 
capture  of  Valenciennes  (2  November),  and  the 
capture  of  Mons  (10  November).  Up  to  31  De- 
cember,  1918,  the  casualties  among  the  Canadian 
Expeditionary  Forces  numbered  9,989  officers  and 


CANADA 


149 


CANADA 


204,397  men,  including  2,456  officers  and  45,630 
men  who  were  killed  in  action  or  died  of  wounds; 
220  officers  and  5,185  men  who  died  of  diseases; 
7,130  officers  and  148,669  men  wounded  and  183 
officers  and  4,913  men  presumed  dead  and  missing. 
In  addition  there  were  2,221  deaths  in  Canada  and 
the  prisoners  of  war  numbered  3,575,  of  whom  2,508 
were  repatriated,  escaped,  or  died  while  prisoners. 

When  the  war  broke  out  in  August,  1914,  Canada 
had  a  permanent  force  of  only  3,000  men  and  an 
active  militia  of  only  60,000.  When  hostilities 
ceased  Canada  had  enlisted  595,441  men  and  had 
equipped  and  sent  overseas  418,052  troops.  The 
total  value  of  war  orders  placed  in  Canada  by  the 
imperial  government  was  about  $1,200,000,000,  and 
of  this  amount  half  was  lent  by  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  to  the  British  Government.  Up  to  Novem¬ 
ber,  1918,  the  total  outlay  for  the  war  was  approxi¬ 
mately  $1,068,607,000.  For  the  Red  Cross  and  other 
war  charities  was  raised  the  sum  of  $98,714,933. 
The  ship-building  contracts  aggregated  $70,000,000, 
and  the  war  loans  totaled  $2,636,000,000,  besides  the 
war  savings  stamp  issue  of  $50,000,000.  In  1915 
munitions  to  the  value  of  $57,213,688  were  exported 
from  Canada;  in  1916,  $296,505,257;  in  1917,  $388,- 
213,553;  in  1918,  $260,711,751. 

To  facilitate  the  return  of  the  soldier  to  civil 
life  a  Soldiers’  Civil  Re-establishment  Department 
was  created  on  24  May,  1918;  to  assist  him  in  set¬ 
tling  on  the  land  and  to  increase  agricultural  pro¬ 
duction,  the  Soldier  Settlement  Act  was  passed  in 
February,  1918.  Up  to  1920  there  were  14,072 
settlers  on  purchased  lands,  with  loans  of  $69,- 
259,608,  1,964  on  encumbered  lands  with  loans  of 
$4,742,778,  and  3,735  settlers  on  Dominion  lands 
with  loans  of  $6,369,364.  By  order  of  Council  all 
Dominion  lands  within  a  radius  of  fifteen  miles  of 
any  railway  were  reserved  for  returned  soldiers. 
The  total  area  already  occupied  by  soldier  settlers 
under  the  Act  is  4,854,799  acres.  Canada’s  pension 
bill  for  the  year,  from  1  September,  1920,  to  31 
August,  1921,  amounted  to  $34,000,000,  there  being 
approximately  85,000  disability  and  dependent  pen¬ 
sions  and  gratuities  paid,  and  177,000  persons  bene¬ 
fited.  A  special  preference  in  respect  to  vacancies 
in  the  service  of  the  Dominion  Government  was 
extended  to  returned  soldiers  in  February,  1918. 

Ecclesiastical  History.— In  1910  the  Interna¬ 
tional  Eucharistic  Congress  was  held  in  Montreal, 
attended  by  the  Papal  Legate,  Cardinal  Vannutelli, 
all  the  bishops  of  Canada  and  the  United  States 
and  many  from  Europe,  about  4,000  priests  and 
more  than  500,000  visitors.  Two  years  later  the 
Congres  de  la  Langue  Frangaise  en  Amerique  was 
convened  in  the  same  city,  and  a  permanent  com¬ 
mittee  formed  to  safeguard  the  use  of  French  in 


the  schools.  On  25  May,  1914,  Mgr.  Louis-Nazaire 
Begin,  Archbishop  of  Quebec,  was  raised  to  the 
cardinalate  by  Pope  Pius  X  with  the  title  of  Sts. 
Vitale,  Gei  vasius  and  Protasius.  The  following 
>  ear  the  National  Congress  of  Priests  Adorers  of 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  was  held  at  Montreal,  in 
which  twenty-four  bishops  and  hundreds  of  priests 
participated. 

In  Octobei ,  1916,  the  Bishops  of  Canada  received 
a  letter  from  the  pope  regretting  the  division 
amongst  Canadian  Catholics  concerning  the  use  of 
French  in  schools  and  parishes  of  provinces  in  which 
the  majority  is  English,  and  affirming  the  right  of 
the  French  to  insist  on  their  rights  in  this  respect. 
In  the  same  year  a  monument  commemorating  the 
third  centenary  of  the  establishment  of  the  Faith 
in  Canada  was  erected  on  the  site  of  the  convent 
and  Church  of  the  Recollets,  the  first  missionaries 
to  Canada. 

.  I*1  January,  1917,  the  twelve  bishops  of  the  prov¬ 
ince  of  Ontario,  French  and  English,  signed  an  im¬ 
portant  document  begging  the  majority  in  the 
province  to  consider  in  a  sympathetic  way  the 
aspirations  and  demands  of  their  French  fellow- 
citizens  with  regard  to  the  establishing  and  func¬ 
tioning  of  bilingual  schools,  permitting  them  to 
obtain  a  suitable  knowledge  of  French  with  a  per¬ 
fect  knowledge  of  English.  By  disregarding  the 
French  minority,  politicians  threatened  to  undo  the 
work  of  union  accomplished  in  the  Catholic  Con¬ 
federation  of  Canada.  Since  1913  the  school  laws 
for  the  province  of  Ontario  permitted  the  inspector 
of  Catholic  bilingual  schools  to  be  a  Protestant  and 
made  such  restrictions  in  the  teaching  of  French 
that  the  situation  became  intolerable.  A  second 
papal  letter  recognized  the  right  of  the  French  in 
the  province  to  demand  the  use  of  their  mother- 
tongue  in  primary  education,  the  faculty  of  desig¬ 
nating  by  elected  commissioners  the  schools  which 
should  be  under  bilingual  regime,  and  normal 
schools  for  the  formation  of  bilingual  teachers,  and 
permitted  an  appeal  to  the  civil  authorities  with 
the  approbation  of  the  bishop. 

During  the  course  of  the  year  1919  the  Dominion 
entertained  three  distinguished  visitors  in  the  per¬ 
sons  of  General  Pau,  Cardinal  Mercier,  and  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  and  celebrated  the  centenary  of 
the  birth  of  Georges-Etienne  Cartier.  The  first 
Semaine  Sociale  was  held  in  Canada  21-25  June 
1920.  In  1918  Mgr.  Petrus  di  Maria,  formerly 
bishop  of  Catanzaro  in  Calabria,  was  appointed 
titular  Archbishop  of  Iconium  and  Delegate  Apos¬ 
tolic  to  Canada  and  Newfoundland  to  succeed  Mgr. 
Stagni.  The  Dominion  is  divided  ecclesiastically 
into  eleven  provinces.  For  statistics  see  following 
table  and  separate  articles  on  listed  dioceses: 


ECCLESIASTICAL  STATISTICS 


Vicariates  Apostolic 

Archdioceses,  Dioceses, 

Date  of 

Erection 

Catholic 

Population 

Secular 

Priests 

Regular 

Priests 

Communities  1 

of  Men 

Communities 
of  Women 

Parishes 

Churches 
and  Chapels 

Convents  and 
Academies 

Charitable 

Institutions 

Colleges  and 
Seminaries 

Quebec  < 

[Vic.  Ap . 

Bishopric  . 

1657' 

1674 

► 

404,000 

541 

103 

20 

29 

234 

260 

190 

37 

6 

[Archbishopric  . 

Three  Rivers . 

1844 

1852 

108,067 

131 

24 

2 

5 

56 

80 

17 

11 

1 

Rimouski  . 

1867 

145,085 

164 

11 

5 

10 

98 

135 

26 

3 

2 

Chicoutimi  . 

1878 

94,475 

141 

14 

8 

7 

63 

68 

12 

3 

1 

IN  icolet 

1885 

90,304 

164 

•  •  • 

3 

8 

68 

70 

38 

6 

2 

Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  Vic.  Ap . 

1906 

9,650 

. . . 

15 

1 

•  •  • 

11 

19 

1 

CANADA  150 

ECCLESIASTICAL  STATISTICS— Continued 


CANARY 


Vicariates  Apostolic 

Archdioceses,  Dioceses, 

Date  of 

Erection 

Catholic 

Population 

Secular 

Priests 

Priests 

Regular 

Communities 

of  Men 

Communities 

of  Women 

Parishes 

-  .  1 

Churches 
and  Chapels 

Convents  and 

Academies 

Charitable 

Institutions 

."Inllpcrps  and 

1836* 

633,538 

530 

219 

358 

23 

5 

13 

191 

138 

188 

92 

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Canary  Islands  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-243b).— The  Canary 
Islands,  with  an  area  of  3342  square  miles,  consist 
of  the  following:  Teneriffe,  919  square  miles;  Grand 
Canary,  631  square  miles;  Palma,  318  square  miles; 
Lanzarote,  380;  Gomera  172;  Fuereventura,  788, 
Hierro  122.  The  population  m  1914  was  esti¬ 
mated’  at  478,500,  including  about  300  British  m 
Las  Palmas.  The  chief  towns  are  Santa  Cruz 
(population  61,000),  the  capital  of  the  Canaries,  San 
Cristobal  de  la  Laguna  (population  16,000),  Las 
Palmas  (population  60,000),  the  chief  commercial 
town  and  the  judicial  capital  of  the  archipelago, 
and  Arucas  (population  about  9500),  the  chief 
center  of  the  cochineal  and  sugar  industries,  ror 
administrative  purposes  the  Canary"  Islands  are 
treated  as  a  province  of  Spain,  under  a  governor 

who  resides  at  Teneriffe. 

The  Diocese  of  Canaries  ( Can arien sis),  com¬ 
prises  the  whole  archipelago  of  the  Canary  Islands, 
is  suffragan  of  the  archdiocese  of  Seville  and  was 
erected  by  the  anti-pope,  Benedict  XI 11  in  14U4, 


with  the  episcopal  residence  at  Lanzarote.  Two 
years  later,  1406,  the  true  pope,  Innocent  V II, 
erected  the  see,  and  in  1435  changed  the  residence 
to  Las  Palmas,  but  the  change  did  not  become 
effective  until  1485.  From  1353  until  1485  there  was 
a  Bishop  of  Rubicond  (Lanzarote),  but  this  senes 
is  independent  of  the  Bishops  of  Las  Palmas.  The 
diocese  comprises  the  islands  of  Grand  Canary, 
Fuerta-Ventura,  and  Lanzarote,  a  territory  of 
2465  square  miles.  The  patroness  of  the  diocese 
is  Nuestra  Senora  del  Pino,  and  the  church  at  Las 
Palmas,  dedicated  to  her,  was  raised  to  a  minor 

basilica,  13  January,  1916. 

On  22  April,  1919,  took  place  the  first  diocesan 
synod  held  here  for  two  hundred  years,  at  which 
time  the  Pope  sent  a  message  of  approval  to  the 
bishop  and  recommended  to  him  the  full  applica¬ 
tion  of  all  canonical  rights,  as  far  as  the  present 
circumstances  of  the  diocese  would  permit,  this 
synod  was  held  under  the  present  incumbent,  xvt. 
Rev.  Angelo  Marquina  Corrales,  who  was  appointed 


CANDIA 


CANONESSES 


151 


18  July,  1913,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Adolfo  Perez 
y  Munoz,  transferred  to  Badajoz  the  same  day 

By  1920  statistics  these  islands  count  a  Catholic 
population  of  150,052,  50  Protestants,  8  Jews,  and 
23  other  faiths;  53  parishes  divided  among  5  arch¬ 
priests  and  139  priests,  46  churches,  67  chapels  and 
lo  convents  with  34  religious  and  194  sisters. 

Candia,  Diocese  of  (Candiensis;  cf.  C.  E, 
III-244d),  pn  the  Greek  Island  of  Crete  or  Candia, 
suffragan  of  Smyrna.  This  ancient  see  was  re-estab¬ 
lished  under  its  present  status,  as  a  Latin  See,  21 
December,  1874.  The  bishop  resides  in  the  city  of 
Candia,  on  the  north  shore  of  the  island.  The 
present  incumbent  is  Rt.  Rev.  Francesco  Giuseppe 
Semina  ra,  b.  in  Gangi,  Sicily,  1863,  entered  the 
Order  of  Capuchins,  1887,  ordained  1891,  sent  to  the 
Candia  Mission  1896,  made  apostolic  administrator 
of  the  mission  2  April,  1908,  and  appointed  bishop 
"i  1910>  succeeding  Bishop  Canavo,  retired. 

counts  only  800  Catholics,  against 
260,000  infidels  and  Schismatics.  The  mission  is 
served  (1922)  by  7  Capuchin  missionaries,  5  Broth- 
ers,  17  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  the  Apparition,  3 
Parishes,  8  churches  and  chapels,  6  schools  with  265 
children,  3  secondary  schools  with  180  students,  and 
1  orphanage  with  12  orphans. 

Canelos  and  Macas,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Equateur  Orientals;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-249c),  one  of 
the  four  vicariates  of  Eastern  Ecuador,  South 
America.  This  territory,  entrusted  to  the  Domin- 
1Cfai^D  1S  P^esen^  (1922)  under  the  administration 
2,  Enrique  Vacas-Galindo,  and  comprises  a 

Catholic  population  of  200,000.  No  statistics  of  the 
vicariate  are  published. 


benefices  or  eanonries  (even  honorary)  in  the  cathe- 

1  fV0IKCLlegiane  churches-a  right  now  belonging 
the  bishop,  all  contrary  customs  being  reprobated 
and  contrary  privileges  being  revoked  (this  modifies 
C.  E.,  Ill  253c).  The  Holy  See  does  not  now  re¬ 
serve  the  collation  of  benefices  rendered  vacant  in 
special  months.  He  must  obtain  the  consent  of 
the  chapter:  to  revive  extinct  dignities  or  to  in¬ 
crease  the  number  of  canonical  or  beneficial  pre¬ 
bends;  or  to  alienate  ecclesiastical  property  valued 
between  1,000  and  30,000  francs,  or  to  lease  the 
same  for  over  nine  years;  but  he  does  not  require 
their  consent  or  counsel  to  appoint  a  special  feast- 
day  on  a  particular  occasion.  A  canon  must  make 
his  profession  of  faith  in  presence  of  the  local  ordi¬ 
nary  or  his  delegate  and  the  chapter,  before  taking 
possession  of  his  benefice  (no  fixed  time  is  now 
mentioned  as  in  C.  E.,  Ill— 254a) ;  if  he  negligently 
omits  doing  so,  he  is  to  be  warned,  and  if  after  a 
reasonable  time  he  fails  to  carry  out  his  obligation 
he  is  guilty  of  contumacy  and  may  be  deprived 
of  his  benefice ;  in  the  meantime  he  is  not  to  re¬ 
ceive  the  income.  Canoae  are  obliged  to  take  the 
anti-Modernist  oath,  are  not  exempt  eo  ipso  from 
the  yearly  examinations  in  clerical  sciences  pre¬ 
scribed  for  priests  in  the  three  years  following  the 
completion  of.  their  studies.  Canonries  should  be 
conferred  only  on  priests  noted  for  virtue  and 
learning.  Bishops  should  take  into  account  the  re¬ 
sults  obtained  in  the  examinations  just  referred  to. 
Other  things  being  equal,  a  preference  should  be 
given  to  doctors  of  theology  or  canon  law  or  to 
those  who  have  worked  successfully  either  in  semi¬ 
nary  or  in  the  cure  of  souls. 


•  nisVis  College,  Buffalo,  New  York,  was  opened 
U  t^Jatt,ers  of  tile  Society  of  Jesus  in  Septem¬ 
ber,  18/0.  On  27  April,  1872,  the  feast  of  Bl.  Peter 
Gamsius,  patron  of  the  new  institution,  the  first 
corner-stone  was  laid  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop 
Stephen  V.  Ryan,  D.  D.  In  1911  the  erection  of 
a  new  building  was  begun  and  on  6  January,  1913, 
the  four  college  classes  were  transferred  to  this 
building,  leaving  the  original  building  for  the  high 
school,  which  is  conducted  in  connection  with  the 
college.  This  high  school  and  the  academic  de¬ 
partments  were  added  to  the  college  upon  the 
amendment  of  the  charter  to  include  them,  on  25 
October,  1906.  The  educational  system  followed  is 
substantially  that  of  all  colleges  conducted  by  the 
Society  of  Jesus  based  on  the  “Ratio  Studiorum 
Societatis  Jesu,  a  system  outlined  by  the  most 
pi  ominent  Jesuit  educators  in  1599  and  revised  in 
1832. 

The  faculty  library  comprises  about  10,000 
volumes,  the  students'  library  4,000,  and  there  is  a 
scientific  reference  library  of  2,000.  Since  January, 
1915,  the  Canisius  seismological  observatory  has  be¬ 
come  one  of  two  hundred  stations  co-operating  with 
the  I  nited  States  Weather  Bureau,  Department  of 
Seismology.  The  college  possesses  valuable  collec¬ 
tions  of  minerals  and  numerous  biological  and 
floral  specimens  as  well  as  the  Ottomar  Reinecke 
collection  of  coleoptera  and  many  famous  manu¬ 
scripts  and  Bibles,  including  the  Antwerp  Polyglot. 
■The  Rev.  Michael  J.  Ahern,  S.J.,  was  appointed 
president  of  the  college  in  1919.  There  were  364 
students  registered  for  1921. 

Canon  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-252b). — A  bishop  must  con¬ 
sult  the  cathedral  chapter  when  he  wishes:  to  unite 
simple  benefices  to  prebends  or  to  suppress  pre¬ 
bends  on  account  of  the  smallness  of  the  revenues; 
or  to  fix  the  time  for  the  canon  theologian  to  ex¬ 
plain  the  Scriptures  in  church,  to  appoint  to 


Canonesses  Regular  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-296b).— Of  the 
older  congregations  of  canonesses  only  a  few  com¬ 
munities  remain.  In  Italy,  France,  and  Spain  they 
have  suffered  severe  losses  through  political  diffi¬ 
culties,  but  are  found  in  a  flourishing  condition  in 
the  communities  of  Bruges,  Belgium,  Hayward's 
Heath,  Newton  Abbot,  and  Hoddesdon,  England. 
The  two  first  named  have  gained  a  well  merited 
reputation  for  their  educational  work.  The  latter 
have  maintained  perpetual  adoration  for  about 
seventy  years.  The  well  known  community  of  Eng¬ 
lish  Canonesses  of  Neuilly  are  now  well  established 
with  an  excellent  school  at  Ealing.  All  these  rank 
under  the  designation  of  Canonesses  Regular  of 
the  Lateran. 

The  Canonesses  Regular  of  St.  Augustine,  of  the 
Congregation  of  Notre  Dame,  founded  by  St.  Peter 
Fournier  possess  houses  spread  over  France,  Bel¬ 
gium,  England,  Holland,  Italy,  Luxemburg,  Ger¬ 
many,  Hungary,  and  Brazil.  Each  community  num¬ 
bers  between  forty  and  one'  hundred  members 
divided  into  choir  sisters,  lay  sisters,  and  tourieres. 
The  choir  sisters  take  a  fourth  vow  binding  them 
to  the  institution.  They  sing  office  in  choir  and 
are  enclosed. 

Canonesses  Regular  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
(cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-427a).  Due  to  the  zeal  of  Jean  Van 
den  Broeck,  first  Prior  of  Ste  Odile,  and  restorer 
of  the  Order  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  in  Lower  Ger¬ 
many,  the  Canonesses  Regular  were  established  in 
1480  at  the  convent  of  Kinroy,  and  thence  spread 
to  many  other  convents.  Clemence  Van  den  Broeck 
(sister  of  the  prior),  and  two  other  religious  (Cath¬ 
erine  van  Brugge  and  Catherine  van  Weert)  from 
the  convent  of  Godsboomgaars  at  Roermond  went 
at  the  request  of  Jean  Van  den  Broeck  to  Ste 
Odile  where  they  were  admitted  to  profession  as 
canonesses  8  October,  1480,  and  on  the  following 
day,  with  three  novices  who  had  received  the  habit 
of  the  order,  repaired  to  Kinroy.  They  observed 


CANONESSES 


152 


CANONS 


the  constitutions  of  the  canonesses  sent  them  from 
Perugia,  recited  and  sang  the  Divine  Office  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  rite  of  the  patriarchial  church  of  Jeru¬ 
salem,  and  gave  instruction  to  little  children  and 
young  girls.  The  canonesses  remained  at  Kinroy 
near  Thorn,  from  1480  till  1495,  and  from  there 
founded  Haeseyck  (1495-1520).  Kinroy  became 
the  mother-house  for  all  the  convents  of  canonesses 
established  in  the  Low  Countries,  in  France  and  m 
Germany,  until  the  French  Revolution.  These 
were:  Nieuwstad  near  Sittard  (1486—96),  from 
where  they  removed  to  Ste  Elizabeth  at  Liege,  re¬ 
maining  there  till  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century , 
Gartzen  St.  Antoine  (Juliers),  established  in  1490, 
canonesses  from  here  occupying  Henegomve  near 
Hasselt  in  1507;  St.  Trond  (1539-1798);  Vise  (1616- 
1822);  Ste  Walburga  at  Liege  (1622);  Huy  (1619); 
Tongres  (1640-1797);  Bouillon  (1626);  Malmedy 
(1627);  Waremme  (1640);  Mariembourg  (1629); 
Marchienne-au-Pont  (1637) ;  Verviers  (1635) ;  Char- 
leville  (1622-1792),  re-established  in  1818,  sup¬ 
pressed  in  1904;  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1626-1805); 
Maestricht  (1627-1797) ;  *Paris  (Belle-Chasse),  re¬ 
maining  there  from  1635  till  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century;  Luyennes  (in  Touraine)  Juliers 
(1644);  Neuss;  Ste  Agathe  at  Liege  (1634-1814); 
Hasselt  (1638-1798);  Turnhout  (1622-1798);  Jupille 
(1658-1823);  Liege  (1642),  English  community 
which  repaired  to  England  in  1793;  Baden  (1698); 
Bovigne  (1699).  Of  these  Warenime,  Huy,  Verviers, 
Ste  Walburga  and  Ste  Agathe  at  Liege,  Aix,  and 
Jupille  were  engulfed  and  annihilated  in  the  devas¬ 
tating  flood  of  the  French  Revolution.  In  con¬ 
sideration  of  their  educational  work  all  the  convents 
were  allowed  to  continue  in  existence  until  the 
death  of  the  last  member  of  the  community.  Baden 
was  never  suppressed  and  exists  to-day.  After  the 
Revolution  four  former  religious  re-established 
themselves  at  Charleville  in  1818.  The  English 
community  of  Liege  has  since  1799  been  established 
in  England  at  New  Hall,  near  Chelmsford.  Here 
they  have  at  the  present  day  a  large  and  flourishing 
community  of  fifty-three  members,  under  a  superior, 
elected  for  life,  assisted  by  a  council,  the  members 
of  which  are  elected  annually.  The  canonesses, 
after  a  year’s  novitiate,  take  temporary  vows  for 
three  years,  and  are  then  admitted  to  final  pro¬ 
fession.  They  maintain  a  boarding-school  for  the 
daughters  of  gentlemen. 

Since  the  French  Revolution  the  canonesses  have 
been  restored  in  Belgium  through  two  different 
foundations.  That  of  Turnhout,  re-established  in 
1826,  by  the  reunion  of  seven  religious,  formerly 
professed  canonesses  of  Turnhout,  who  wished  to 
restore  it  as  a  mother-house;  and  Bilsen,  founded 
in  1837  by  four  religious— 2  formerly  professed 
canonesses  of  Hasselt,  one  of  Ste  Agathe  (Liege), 
and  one  of  Maestricht.  Turnhout  has.  ten  affilia¬ 
tions:  Meerhout  (1885),  Baelen-sur-Neithe  (1878), 
Blauqput  (1879),  Vosselaer  (1895),  Meir  (1900), 
Sacred  Heart  at  Turnhout  (1902),  Tongerloo  (1904), 
Mont  Ste  Odile  (1912),  Beeringen  (1917),  Ste  Mar¬ 
guerite  at  Li£ge  (1917).  Bilsen  has  four  affiliations: 
Aiken  (1853),  Kinroy  (1881),  St.  Trond  (1886), 
Cozen  (1903).  In  1888  Bilsen  restored  the  convent 
of  Mont  Ste  Odile,  which  later  became  independent, 
but  deprived  of  its  resources,  entered  under  the 
dependence  of  Turnhout  in  1912,  through  Mgr. 
Drehmans,  Bishop  of  Roermond.  The  organizations 
of  Turnhout  and  Bilsen  are  similar.  Each  has  a 
prioress  general  aided  by  a  council  composed  of 
four  members  and  a  procurator  general.  The 
prioress  and  her  council  are  elected  by  the  capitular 
sisters  every  three  years,  though  they  may  be 
elected  for  life.  The  superior  of  each  mother-. 


carries  the  title  sub-prioress  Each  house  lias  its 
own  government,  the  local  superiors  being  assisted 
by  a  council,  an  economist,  and  a  mistress  of  lay 
sisters  appointed  by  the  prioress  general  every  three 
years.  The  directors  of  both  organizations  meet 
from  time  to  time  at  Bilsen,  at  Turnhout,  or  at 
one  of  the  dependent  houses. 

The  canonesses  are  distinguished  by  their  spirit 
of  prayer  and  sacrifice.  They  devote  one  hour  each 
day  to  meditation,  chant  the  Divine  Office  or  sing 
it  in  choir,  spend  a  half  hour  of  recollection  daily 
in  the  silence  of  their  cells.  The  mother-house 
at  Turnhout  is  especially  devoted  to  education,  hav¬ 
ing  an  intermediate  school  with  preparatory  section, 
courses  in  ancient  humanities  and  preparatory 
classes,  a  primary  and  intermediate  normal  school, 
and  a  school  for  lace-making  with  primary  classes; 
the  institute  numbers  about  600  pupils.  The  de¬ 
pendent  houses  all  give  primary  instruction,  and 
Liege  has  intermediate  and  professional  courses. 
The  convent  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at  Turnhout  gives 
primary  instruction  to  more  than  1000  students  of 
the  working  class  and  has  also  a  school  for  lace- 
making.  The  Institute  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at 
Turnhout  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  education 
in  Belgium.  Impelled  by  pedagogical  and  ethical 
reasons,  the  institute,  established  in  a  Flemish  coun¬ 
try,  has  Flemicized  its  higher  education  for  young 
girls,  so  that  the  students  may  now  reach  the  higher 
grades  without  giving  up  their  mother-tongue,  which 
required  redoubled  efforts,  and  heretofore  made 
many  decide  to  limit  their  studies  to  primary 
grades  The  institute  has  thus  rendered  a  great 
service  to  the  Flemish  population,  and  set  an  exam¬ 
ple  which  many  other  schools  have  followed.  A 
new  foundation  is  to  be  made  by  the  canonesses 
in  Holland,  where  the  religious  intend  to  establish 
a  catechumenate  in  order  to  devote  themselves  more 
fully  and  more  directly  to  the  Apostolate.  . 

Canonesses  distinguished  for  the  sancLty  of  their 
lives  and  their  zeal  for  the  advancement  of  the 
order  are:  Claude  de  Moy  (b.  15/2;  d.  1627),  widow 
of  the  Comte  de  Chaligny,  founded  the  convent  at 
Charleville  in  1622;  Helene  d’Enckevoert,^  entered 
at  Vise  in  1616,  founded  Maesstricht,  Liege  (Ste 
Agathe),  and  Hasselt,  d.  1658;  Bl.  Alverna  von 
Virmund  (b.  1617),  professed  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  m 
1635,  founded  Juliers  in  1644.  Among  the  prioresses 
of  Turnhout  were :  Sister  Marie-Therese  de .  St. 
Joseph  (Montens),  prioress  for  more  than  thirty 
years,  d.  1778;  Sister  Marie-Agnes  des  Sts.  Anges 
(Coomans),  prioress  for  thirty  years,  organized  the 
young  community  according  to  ancient  traditions, 
d.  1882;  Sister  Marie- Josephine  du  St.  Sacrament 
(Smeyers),  elected  prioress  at  the  age  of  thirty, 
go\remed  the  community  for  twelve .  years,  during 
which  time  the  number  of  religious  doubled, 
founded  several  houses,  affiliated  Mont  Ste  Odile  to 
Turnhout,  d.  1914.  The  present  prioress  is  Sister 
Marie  Clara  du  Sacre  Coeur  (Van  Goubergen),  who 
founded  the  houses  of  Liege  (Ste  Marguerite)  and 
Buringen.  The  present  number  of  members  in 
the  community  of  Turnhout  is  165. 

Canons  Regular  of  the  Lateran  (cf.  C.  E., 
III-293b) . — The  Congregation  at  present  consists  of 
eight  provinces,  of  which  four  are  in  Italy,  and  the 
others  divided  according  to  nationality:  French, 
English,  Spanish-American,  and  Polish.  The  abbot 
general  exercises  jurisdiction  throughout  the  Con¬ 
gregation  and  holds,  office  for  six  years.  Each 
provincial  has  a  visitor  general,  also  elected  for 
six  years,  whose  jurisdiction  is  limited  and  variable 
according  to  the  discretion  of  the  general  chapter. 
In  effect,  the  visitors  are  representatives  of  the 
general  each  in  his  own  province,  and  all  together 


CANONS 


153 


CANTON 


form  the  Definitorium  or  general  chapter.  The 
chapter  is  convened  every  six  years,  and  besides 
those  mentioned  all  abbots  of  the  Congregation 
have  a  vote  in  the  election  of  the  abbot  general 
and  the  visitors.  The  principal  local  superiors, 
whose  office  runs  for  three  years,  are  appointed  in 
this  chapter.  A  diet  is  held  at  the  period  of  three 
years  between  the  chapters  for  the  appointment  of 
local  superiors  as  well  as  to  discuss  matters  relating 
to  the  whole  congregation.  The  change  is  now 
contemplated  of  extending  to  each  community  the 
faculty  of  electing  its  own  superiors,  as  was  the 
ancient  custom  in  the  Order.  The  actual  member¬ 
ship  of  the  Congregation  (excluding  the  Austrian 
Canons)  is  roughly  250.  In  Italy  there  are  ten 
houses.  The  French  province  has  one  abbey  in 
France  and  four  houses  in  Belgium.  In  England 
there  are  four,  besides  dependencies.  The  Spanish- 
American  Province  consists  of  one  house  in  Spain 
and  two  in  South  America.  In  Poland  there  is 
one  house  with  several  dependencies. 

For  the  most  part  the  Canons  are  occupied  in 
parochial,  ministerial,  and  liturgical  work.  In  some 
instances  a  mother-house  forms  the  center  of  a 
group  of  parishes  served  by  them.  The  communi¬ 
ties  of  Verres  (Val  d ’Aosta),  Cracow  (Poland), 
Salta  (Argentina),  Bodwin  (England),  have  several 
parishes  on  this  system.  In  Rome  the  two  large 
parishes  of  Sant’  Agnese  fuori  le  mura  and  S. 
Giuseppe  at  Porta  Pia  are  in  the  charge  of  the 
Canons. 

A  very  flourishing  college  at  Salta,  in  the  Argen¬ 
tine  Republic,  has  been  under  the  direction  of  the 
Canons  for  some  years.  The  students  number  some¬ 
thing  over  300,  and  the  community  in  charge  about 
fifteen  or  sixteen.  A  new  foundation  has  recently 
been  made  at  Buenos  Aires. 

The  Church  of  S.  Agnese,  Rome,  is  the  head¬ 
quarters  of  the  Primaria  sodality  of  the  Children 
of  Mary,  which  has  affiliations  in  every  part  of  the 
world,  and  at  the  Church  of  S.  Pietro  in  Vincoli 
the  Canons  direct  the  Confraternity  of  St.  Peter’s 
Chains. 

Austrian  Canons  Regular  of  the  Lateran  (cf. 
C.  E.,  III-296a). — In  Austria  there  exists  a  congre¬ 
gation  of  six  houses  of  Lateran  Canons  in  ncr  way 
connected  with  those  whose  abbot  general  resides 
in  Rome.  According  to  the  catalogues  of  this 
year  these  Canons  number  altogether  336.  All  the 
houses  have  a  number  of  parishes  attached  to  them ; 
that  of  St.  Florian  has  as  many  as  thirty-three. 
When  we  mention  that  this  house  has  102  mem¬ 
bers  in  community,  it  may  be  realized  that  it  is 
these  Canons  who  have  preserved  something  of  the 
ancient  splendor  of  the  Order,  though  it  is  to  be 
feared  that  they  also  are  now  sharing  the  extreme 
difficulties  with  which  Central  Europe  is  beset.  Car¬ 
dinal  Piffl  was  Abbot  of  this  congregation  before  his 
elevation  to  the  Archiepiscopal  See  of  Vienna  in 
1914. 


upon  the  See  ol  Sion.  The  superior  general  is  called 
piovost,  and  is  elected  for  life;  other  superiors  are 
elected  every  three  years.  The  parish  priests  are 
nominated  by  the  provost. 


Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augustine  (cf.  C.  E., 
111-2880  have  under  their  charge  the  hospices  of 
the  Great  St.  Bernard  and  Simplon  and  the  Abbey 
Nullius  of  Agaunum  (q.v.). 

Canons  Regular  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard  (cf. 
C  E.,  III-295b),  number  about  sixty.  The  tradition 
of  affording  hospitality  to  travelers  is  still  main¬ 
tained  at  the  two  hospices  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard 
and  the  Simplon,  but  besides  this  work  they  have 
various  activities  to  engage  them,  having  charge  of 
a  school  of  agriculture  for  the  district  of  the  Valais, 
and  nine  parishes  dependent  upon  their  monasteries. 
1  hey  have  besides  the  direction  of  a  sanatorium  for 
consumptives,  and  four  other  parishes  dependent 


Canton  (Kuam-tom),  Vicariate  Apostolic  of,  in 
China.  This  territory,  erected  into  the  prefecture 
apostolic  of  Kwang-tung  in  1848,  was  raised  to  a 
vicariate  apostolic,  and  its  name  changed  to  Canton 
(Kuam-tom),  by  a  Decree  of  6  April,  1914.  At  the 
same  time  part  of  its  territory  was  taken  from  it 
to  erect  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Swatow  (Chao- 
Chiou).  Rt.  Rev.  Jean-Marie  Morel,  of  the  Foreign 
Missions  of  Paris,  to  whom  this  vicariate  is  en¬ 
trusted,  former  prefect  apostolic  of  Kwang-tung 
and  titular  Bishop  of  Orcistus,  was  promoted  to 
vicar  apostolic  by  the  decree  of  erection.  In  1908 
Bishop  Merel  traveled  to  Canada  and  induced  the 
Missionaries  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  a 
newly  founded  order  in  Montreal,  to  open  a  house 
at  Canton.  They  established  the  school  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  which,  like  their  other  works,  flourished 
under  the  zealous  guidance  of  the  first  superior, 
Rev.  Mother  Marie  de  Lourdes.  In  1911  the 
Chinese  Re\  olution  somewhat  interfered  with  the 
work  of  evangelization.  The  Republican  party, 
however,  favored  religious  freedom  and  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  confided  to  the  missionaries  the  care  of 
JePejS.#  Rev*  Father  Conrardy  was  made 
the  first  director,  and  under  his  wise  and  prudent 
administration  a  small  hospital  was  soon  built 
which  was  later  enlarged  and  united  to  the  Govern- 
ment  hospital.  The  institution  cared  for  one  thou¬ 
sand  lepers.  The  establishment  planned  by  Fathers 
Conrardy  and  Fourquet,  and  the  director  of  Ho- 
Ko-tsun,  was  regulated  by  an  agreement  signed  by 
Bishop  Merel  and  the  superintendent  of  Police  at 
Chang-Kmg-Wa.  Later  on  a  similar  contract  gave 
to  the  missionaries  the  direction  of  the  nurseries 
and  Government  .  orphanages.  In  1921  Father 
Fourquet  was  officially  charged  with  the  charitable 
works  of  the  city  of  Canton.  Bishop  Merel  re¬ 
signed  and  .  became  an  humble  missionary  in  a 
^  par*sk  *n  Diocese  of  Malacca  in  1914, 
and  his  successor,  Bishop  Guebriant  was  not 
appointed  until  February,  1917.  During  the  interim 
the  vicariate  apostolic  was  ably  administered  by 
Father  Fourquet  and  also  by  Father  Rayssac,  who 
later  became  vicar  apostolic  of  Swatow.  A  Decree 
of  9  April,  1920,  took  another  portion  of  this  vast 
territory  to  erect  the  vicariate  apostolic  of  Shiu- 
Kow,  entrusted  to  the  Salesian  Fathers  of  Dorn 
Bosco,  with  Rt.  Rev.  Luigi  Versiglia  as  vicar  apos- 
•  u*'  t>  e  erecti°n  of  Kwang-tung  and  Hainan, 
with  Bishop  Gautier  as  administrator,  took  place 
^ r  • « -f °Dowing  August..  The  American  Missionaries 
of  Maryknoll  have  joined  the  Foreign  Missionaries 
of  Paris,  and  are  awaiting  the  time  when  the  region 
entrusted  to  their  care  will  be  made  a  separate 
vicariate. 

Since  the  proclamation  of  the  Republic  the 
educational  system  has  been  improved  and  de¬ 
veloped.  The  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Concep¬ 
tion  (Chinese),  founded  by  Father  Fourquet  in 
1897,  have  done  splendid  wTork  in  directing  the 
schools  and  in  giving  religious  instruction  to  women. 
The  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  established  them¬ 
selves  in  the  vicariate  in  1913.  After  having  suc¬ 
cessively  served  as  apostolic  visitor  to  China  and 
Siberia,  .Bishop  Guebriant  was  elected  Superior  of 
the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  and  left 
China  to  take  up  his  residence  in  Paris;  his  suc¬ 
cessor  has  not  yet  been  appointed.  During  the 
period  between  1911  and  the  present  time  the  peo¬ 
ple  have  often  chosen  the  missionaries  to  act  as 


CAP  HAITIEN 


154 


CAPUCHIN 


intermediaries  between  them  and  the  invading 
forces.  According  to  1920  statistics  Canton  has  a 
total  population  of  20,000,000,  of  whom  35  773  are 
Catholics,  7000  catechumens  and  15,000  Protestants 
The  mission  is  served  by  72  missionary  and  2b 
native  priests,  258  churches,  chapels  and  oratories 
1190  stations,  1  seminary  with  50  students,  143 
schools  for  boys  and  51  for  girls  with  a  total  of 
4300  pupils,  1  college  with  300  students,  14  o*  Pl¬ 
ages,  5  Little  Brothers  of  Mary,  16  Sisters  of  St 
Paul  of  Chartres,  16  Canadian  Missionary  Sisters  of 
Mary  Immaculate,  25  Chinese  religious,  and  2  leper 
hospitals  caring  for  750  cases. 

Cap  Haitien,  Diocese  of  (Capitis  Haitiani;  cf. 

C  E.,  III-308c),  in  the  Republic  of  Haiti.  After 
the  destruction  of  the  episcopal  residence  by  hre 
the  present  administrator,  Bishop  Kersuzan  bunt  a 
new  and  equally  imposing  edifice  which  with  the 
exception  of  the  chapel,  was  completed  m  1908  ine 
seminary  for  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Haiti  had 
been  carried  on  at  Pont-Chateau,  m  Brittany,  .but 
when  the  French  Government  outlawed  the  religious 
orders,  Bishop  Kersuzan  succeeded  m  installing  his 
present  seminary  (Saint-Jacques)  at  Lampaul  m  t  e 
Diocese  of  Quimper.  It  is  under  the  care  of  former 
missionaries  of  Haiti,  a  superior  and  4  professors 
and  has  30  students.  The  same  bishop  has  also 
founded  at  Cap  Haitien  the  College  of  Our  Lady 
of  Perpetual  Help,  which  has  17  teachers  and  300 
students.  In  addition  there  are:  a  normal  school 
for  boys  with  2  teachers  and  30  students,  a  boys 
school  conducted  by  10  Christian  Brothers  and  some 
Haitian  lay  professors,  and  22  elementary  parish 
schools  with  75  teachers  and  1800  pupils.  Every 
month  the  government  gives  a  very  small  sum  of 
money  to  some  of  the  schools.  ....  .  _ 

As  a  consequence  of  the  revolution  the  American 
army  has  occupied  Cap  Haitien  since  1915.  At  nrst 
the  Americans  were  well  liked  by  the  natives,  but 
the  arrogance  of  the  civic  functionaries  has  made 
them  very  unpopular.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  W orld 
War  14  missionaries  left  the  diocese  and  joined  the 
army.  Of  these  2  were  killed  and  others  returned 
home  invalided.  Nearly  all  of  them  were  decorated 
and  3  received  the  Medaille  militaire.  Several  lay¬ 
men  also  joined  the  ranks,  of  whom  1  died  and  3 

were  decorated.  „ 

The  diocese  contains  500,000  Catholics,  ^5  panshes, 
30  churches,  83  missions,  1  convent  of  Christian 
Brothers,  5  convents  of  the  Daughters  of  Wisdom 
and  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny,  1  hospital  con¬ 
ducted  by  the  Daughters  of  Wisdom.  The  laity  of 
the  diocese  have  formed  the  following  associations: 
Rosary  Society,  Society  of  the  Children  of  Mary, 
Association  for  Perseverance,  Bona  Mors  Associa¬ 
tion,  and  the  Sacred  Heart  Sodality  for  men.  Since 
1907  the  diocese  has  lost  two  zealous  priests.  Mgr. 
Ribault,  who  as  vicar-general  and  prothonotary 
apostolic  labored  in  the  diocese  for  40  years,  and 
Canon  Chatte,  who  as  vicar-general  unselfishly 
worked  in  the  country  for  nearly  50  years.  I  he 
fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  priestly  ordination  and 
arrival  in  Haiti  of  Bishop  Kersuzan  was  celebrated 
in  the  diocese  17  November,  1921.  In  1909  the 
bishop  received  the  pallium,  and  in  1921  was  named 
assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  and  Roman  Count. 

Capaccio  and  Vallo,  Diocese  of  (Caputaquensis 
et  Vallensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-307d),  in  the  province 
of  Salerno,  Southern  Italy,  suffragan  of  Salerno 
Rt.  Rev.  Paolo  Iacuzio,  appointed  to  this  see  17 
December,  1900,  was  promoted  to  Sorrento  9  July, 
1917,  and  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev  Francesco 
Cammarota,  succeeded  him.  Born  m  Maiori  1874> 
he  was  made  vicar  general  of  Iserma  and  honorary 


chamberlain  1905,  and  appointed  bishop  22  Decern- 
1917. 

The  1920  statistics  credit  this  diocese  with  122,400 
Catholics,  102  parishes,  156  secular  and  14  regular 
clergy,  10  seminarians,  9  Brothers,  and  282  churches 

or  chapels. 

Capizana,  Diocese  of  (Capizanensis),  in  the 
Philippine  Islands,  suffragan  of  Manila.  This  dio¬ 
cese  was  erected  by  a  decree  of  17  December,  1902, 
which,  however,  was  not  put  into  effect.  .The  name 
does  not  appear  in  the  decree  of  10  April,  1910,  by 
which  Pius' X  created  some  new  dioceses  in  the 
Philippines,  and  the  territory  which  was  originally 
intended  for  this  diocese  has  been  divided  between 
the  dioceses  of  Calbayog  and  Zamboanga. 

Capocci,  Filippo,  musician,  b.  in  Rome,  1840;  d. 
there  on  24  July,  1911.  He  studied  harmony  under 
the  direction  of  his  father  Gaetano  (1871-90),  a 
composer  of  merit,  and  in  1861  obtained  his  diploma 
as  a  pianist  from  the  Accademia  di  Santa  Cecilia. 

In  1875  he  became  organist  in  St.  John  Lateran 
and  in  1898  succeeded  his  father  there  as  maestro  di 
cappella.  Later  he  was  made  a  commander  of  the 
order  of  St.  Gregory,  and  a  member  of  the  pontifical 
Commission  of  Sacred  Chant. .  Among  his  numei- 
ous  compositions  are  five  striking  sonatas  and  a 
magnificent  oratorio,  “Sant’  Anastasio  (18b3). 

Capua,  Archdiocese  of  (Capuanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
319c)  in  the  province  of  Naples,  Southern  Italy. 
This ’see  is  filled  (1922)  by  Most  Rev  Gennaro 
Cosenza,  b.  in  Naples  1852,  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Diocleea  1890,  transferred  to  Caserta  1892,  made 
an  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  20  July,  1899 
promoted  4  March,  1913,  succeeding  Cardinal 
Capecelat.ro  de  Castelpagano,  who  had  been  ap¬ 
pointed  20  August,  1880,  created  cardinal  27  July, 

1885,  d.  14  November,  1912  monno 

The  1920  statistics  credit  this  diocese  with  109, UUU 

Catholics,  57  parishes,  235  secular  and  18  regular 
clergy,  180  seminarians,  129  religious  women,  and 
96  churches  or  chapels. 

Capuchin  Friars  Minor  (cf.  C.  E.,  Ill— 320b)  .—-In 

the  pontifical  legislation  affecting  the  Capuchin 
Friars  Minor  in  recent  years,  the  first  place  must 
be  given  to  the  legislative  acts  of  Pius  X  concern¬ 
ing  the  various  families  which  constitute  the  Order 
of  Friars  Minor,  whereby  the  relation  of  these 
families  to  each  other  was  explicitly  determined 
and  what  might  be  termed  “a  union  of  charity 

set  forth.  ,  ,  „  e  . 

In  the  Letter  “Septimo  jam  pleno  sseculo  _  of  4 
October,  1909,  Pius  X  reiterated  the  declaration  of 
his  predecessors  that  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor  is 
constituted  by  three  “families” :  the  Friars  Minor 
of  the  Leonine  Union  (formerly  known  as  of  the 
Strict  Observance”),  the  Friars  Minor  Conventual, 
and  the  Friars  Minor  Capuchin.  The  mimsters- 
general  of  the  three  families,  are  equally  the  vicars 
and  successors  of  St.  Francis,  each  for  his  own 
family  and  for  the  members  of  the  Second  and 
Third  Franciscan  Orders,  under  the  respective  juris¬ 
dictions.  In  assemblies  of  ministers-general,  pre¬ 
cedence  is  granted  to  the  minister  general  of  the 
Leonine  Union  as  'primus  inter  pares.  To  emphasize 
the  fundamental  unity  of  the  order,  the  Letter 
declares  that  the  two  basilicas  of  St.  Francis  and 
St  Mary  of  the  Angels  at  Assisi,  are  quasi  commune 
patrimonium  of  the  three  families,  where  all  Friars 
Minor  may  meet  “as  in  their  paternal  home  ;  and 
the  Friars  who  have  the  care  of  these  basilicas 
are  to  hold  them  in  trust,  not  merely  for  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  their  own  family  but  for  the  entire  order. 
All  indulgences  and  privileges  granted  to  one  fam¬ 
ily  of  the  order  are  granted  equally  to  the  other 


CAQUETA 


155 


CARDIFF 


families,  except  such  concessions  as  mitigate  the 
Seraphic  Rule  or  affect  the  constitutions  of  the 
respective  families. 

In  the  Letter  “Faucis  ante  dictus”  of  1  November, 
1909,  Pius  X  condemned  the  proposition  that  the 
Capuchins  do  not  represent  the  direct  line  from 
St.  Francis;  and  declared  that  the  Capuchins 
equally  with  the  Observants  and  Conventuals  rep¬ 
resent,  and  have  their  origin  in,  the  original  un¬ 
divided  Order  of  Friars  Minor;  and  equally  with 
the  Observants  and  Conventuals  may  claim  the 
Saints  and  Beati  of  the  undivided  order  as  their 


own. 


Like  other  religious  orders,  that  oif  the  Capuchins 
has  had  to  bring  its  constitutions  into  harmony 
with  the  more  recent  legislation  of  the  Church. 
At  the  General  Chapter  of  1908  a  revision  of  the 
constitutions  was  ordered  to  be  made.  This  re¬ 
vision  was  completed  by  Easter,  1909.  Substan¬ 
tially  the  revised  constitutions  remain  the  same  as 
the  original  constitutions,  even  the  very  wording 
being  maintained.  The  modifications  chiefly  con¬ 
cerned  the  studies  of  those  destined  for  the  priest¬ 
hood  and  the  discipline  of  the  junior  members  of 
the  order. 

The  foreign  missions  accredited  to  the  order  in 
1920  comprised  7  dioceses,  8  vicariates  apostolic, 
6  prefectures  apostolic,  and  21  missions  governed 
by  regular  superiors.  The  number  of  Capuchins 
serving  these  missions  was  1011;  the  number  of 
Catholics  served  by  the  missionaries  was  1,886,504. 
There  were  795  mission  stations,  584  schools  and 
59  colleges  for  higher  education,  and  65  orphanages. 
The  number  of  baptisms  registered  in  1920  was 
51,853.  In  1921  a  new  mission  field  was  taken  over 
by  the  Swiss  Capuchins  in  British  East  Africa. 
According  to  the  general  statistics  of  1920,  the 
order  is  divided  into  54  provinces  comprising  824 
convents  and  hospices.  The  number  of  Friars  in 
that  year  was  9650,  of  whom  5320  were  priests.  The 
European  War  of  1914-18  tended  to  reduce  the 
number  of  religious,  both  because  of  the  closing  of 
the  novitiates  in  many  provinces  and  by  the  losses 
incurred  on  the  battlefields.  During  the  war  3082 
Capuchins  served  in  the  various  armies,  of  whom 
506  served  as  chaplains  and  the  others  either  as 
combatants  or  as  members  of  the  Red  Cross  staff. 
Of  these  187  lost  their  lives.  Twelve  convents  were 
totally  destroyed  within  the  war  area. 

Analecta  Ord.  Min.  Capp.:  Collect io  Actorum  SS.  D.  N. 
Pit.  Pp.  X  Minoriticas  Familias  respicientium  (Rome,  1910). 


Caqueta,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (Caquetensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  III-328a),  in  Colombia,  South  America, 
is  dependent  on  the  Congregation  of  Extraordinary 
Ecclesiastical  Affairs.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Ca¬ 
puchins,  the  present  prefect  apostolic  being  Rev. 
Mgr.  Fidelio  de  Montclar,  b.  at  Montclar,  province 
of  Catalonia,  1867,  entered  the  Order  of  Capuchins 
1882,  appointed  25  January,  1905.  This  prefecture 
should  be  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  vicariate,  but 
circumstances  make  such  a  change  inadvisable  at 
the  present  time  (1922). 


Carabobo,  Diocese  of  (de  Carabobo;  cf.  C.  E., 
II-307b) ;  also  known  as  Barquisimeto,  although  the 
name  was  changed  by  a  decree  of  the  consistory  of 
12  February,  1907,  in  Venezuela,  South  America, 
suffragan  of  Santiago  de  Venezuela.  After  the  death 
of  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop  Rodrigiez,  about  1901,  the  see 
was  left  vacant  until  the  appointment  of  Rt.  Rev. 
Agaton  Felipe  Alvarado,  b.  at  Bopare,  1845,  or¬ 
dained  1871,  appointed  16  August,  1910,  and  con¬ 
secrated  6  November  following.  By  1920  statistics 
this  diocese  is  credited  with  a  Catholic  population 
of  60,000,  74  parishes  and  49  chapels. 


Caracas  or  Santiago  de  Venezuela,  Archdiocese 
of  (bANTi  Jacobi  de  Benezuela;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-328c) 
in  the  Republic  of  Venezuela,  South  America.  This 
see  is  now  filled  (1922)  by  Rt.  Rev.  Feline  Rincon 
Gonzales,  b  m  Clnnquinquiva  1861,  prelate  of  the 

7n?r  *See  24  4u£ustG 1915>  aPPointed  10  August, 
1916,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Juan  Bautista  Castro,  d. 

7  August,  1915.  .The  population  of  this  territory 
numbering  600,000,  is  almost  entirely  Catholic.  The 
1920  statistics  credit  it  with  183  priests,  86  parishes, 
257  churches  or  chapels,  49  religious,  and  224  Sisters! 

Caratinga,  Diocese  of  (Caratingensis),  in 
Brazil,  South  America.  This  diocese  was  erected 
P,ec^m^er>  by  a  division  of  the  archdiocese 
of  Mariana,  the  whole  eastern  part,  comprising  13 
parishes,  being  taken  to  form  the  new  diocese.  It 
comprises  the  civil  provinces  of  Caratinga,  Man- 
huassu,  Carangola  and  the  communes  of  Jose- 
Pedro,  Sao-Manuel  do  Motum  and  Aymores.  The 
western  boundary  line  of  these  territories  forms 
the  division  line  for  the  Diocese  of  Caratinga. 

The  first  bishop  appointed  to  this  see,  28  January, 
1918,  was  Rt.  Rev.  Joachim  Maurede  da  Salva  Leite! 
titular  Bishop  of  Sebaste,  but  he  refused  the  ap¬ 
pointment.  Rt.  Rev.  Manuel  Nogueira  Duarte, 
b.  in  Rio  Preto,  was  then  appointed,  4  April,  1918, 
but  after  a  short  administration  he  retired,  and  the 
present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Carlos  Fernao  da  Silva 
Tavora,  was  appointed,  18  December,  1919.  No 
statistics  have  yet  been  published  for  this  diocese. 

Carcassonne,  Diocese  of  (Carcassonensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  III-331c),  in  the  province  of  Aude,  France, 
suffragan  of  Toulouse.  This  ancient  see  is  now 
filled  (1922)  by  Rt.  Rev.  Paul  Felix  Beuvain  de 
Beausejour,  b.  in  Vesoul  1839,  ordained  1863,  made 
vicar  general  of  Besangon  1892,  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Besangon  from  1875,  and  for  some  time 
president  of  it,  appointed  9  June,  1902.  This  dio¬ 
cese  has  in  its  possession  one  of  the  winding-sheets 
which  enveloped  the  sacred  body  of  Christ.  It  was 
brought  to  Carcassonne  in  1289  by  two  Augustin  ian 
monks  driven  from  Palestine  by  the  Turks,  who 
had  obtained  it  from  a  noble  Jewish  family.  The 
authenticity  of  the  relic  was  confirmed  by  King 
Charles  VI  and  Pope  Benedict  XIII,  and  many 
miracles  have  been  performed  through  it.  It  re¬ 
poses  in  the  cathedral. 

In  1915  there  were  thirty  principal  establishments 
of  religious  women  in  this  territory,  belonging  to 
the  Dominicans,  Sisters  of  Charity,  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Family  of  Nevers,  of  Our  Lady  of  Sorrows, 
of  St.  Aignan,  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  of  St.  Joseph 
of  Lyons,  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny,  of  Bon  Secours 
of  Troyes,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Sisters  de 
l’Action  de  Grace,  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Joseph, 
of  the  Angel  Guardian,  of  Our  Lady  of  Refuge, 
Dominican  Sisters  of  the  Sick  and  Poor  Clares. 

The  1920  statistics  credit  this  diocese  with  a  popu¬ 
lation  of  300,537,  almost  all  of  whom  are  Catholic, 
and  30,689  of  whom  are  in  Carcassonne  proper. 
There  are  37  first  class  parishes,  378  succursal 
parishes,  70  vicariates  formerly  supported  by  the 
State,  600  secular  priests,  20  seminarians,  450 
churches  or  chapels,  3  secondary  schools  with  550 
pupils,  and  60  primary  schools  with  3,200  pupils. 
One  Catholic  periodical  is  published. 

Cardiff,  Archdiocese  of  (Cardiffensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI-18a),  in  Wales,  was  formerly  known  as  the 
Diocese  of  Newport.  It  was  erected  into  an  arch¬ 
diocese  7  February,  1916,  and  the  name  changed 
to  Cardiff,  with  Menevia  as  a  suffragan  see.  At  the 
same  time  the  Most  Rev.  James  Romanus  Bils- 
borrow,  O.S.B.,  was  appointed  the  first  archbishop, 

7  February,  1916,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  John  Cuth- 


CARDINAL 


156 


CARDINAL 


bert  Hedley,  O.S.B.,  who  had  filled  the  see  of 
Newport  and  Menevia  (changed  to  Newport  189b) 
from  1881,  died  11  November,  1915.  Archbishop 
Bilsborrow  was  bom  27  August,  1862,  ordained  1889, 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Port  Louis  24  February,  1911, 
and  translated  from  that  see  to  Cardiff,  which  he 
resigned,  owing  to  illness,  1  September,  1920. 

The  second  archbishop  and  present  incumbent, 
Most  Rev.  Francis  Mostyn,  born  6  August,  1860, 
ordained  14  September,  1884,  consecrated  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Wales  14  September,  1895,  translated 
to  Menevia  14  May,  1898,  was  promoted  to  the 
Archdiocese  of  Cardiff  19  March,  1921.  * 

On  12  March,  1920,  a  secular  chapter  consisting 
of  eight  canons  was  erected  and  the  regular  chapter 
ceased  to  exist.  During  the  World  War  few  of  the 
clergy  could  be  spared,  but  five  of  the  secular  and 
five  regular  priests  entered  the  service  as  chaplains, 
and  the  Catholic  men  enlisted  out  of  all  proportion 
to  their  numbers  and  many  of  them  were  killed. 

By  present  (1921)  statistics  the  archdiocese  num¬ 
bers:  53  missions,  53  churches,  32  stations,  1  abbey 
of  men,  22  convents  of  women,  53  secular  and  52 
regular  clergy,  5  high  schools  with  50  teachers  and 
an  attendance  of  899,  1  training  school  with  4 
teachers  and  an  attendance  of  60,  39  elementary 
schools  with  408  teachers  and  an  attendance  of 
12,604,  3  industrial  schools  with  12  teachers  and 
an  attendance  of  314,  one  secondary  and  all  the 
elementary  schools  are  aided  by  the  government. 
There  are  3  homes  for  children,  one  of  which  cares 
for  the  aged  as  well,  1  hospital  in  charge  of  the 
Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  and 
3  refuge  homes  for  women.  A  fund  for  infirm 
secular  clergy  is  established  and  there  is  a  Catholic 
Young  Men’s  Society  among  the  laity;  one  parish 
magazine  and  the  il Welsh  Catholic  Herald  (a 
weekly)  are  published. 

Cardinal  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-333b) —Cardinals  are 
priests  or  bishops  chosen  freely  by  the  pope  to 
aid  him  by  their  advice  and  co-operation  m  the 
government  of  the  Church.  They  may  be  chosen 
from  any  nation,  but  the  Code  now  provides  that 
only  those  who  have  received  priestly  orders  are 
to  be  selected.  The  college  of  cardinals  is  now 
limited  to  70  members,  6  cardinal  bishops,  50  cardi¬ 
nal  priests,  and  14  cardinal  deacons.  The  official 
“Annuario  Pontificio”  for  1921,  however,  gives  a 
list  of  53  cardinalitial  titles  and  16  cardinalitial 
deaconries:  S.  Maria  della  Scala  and  S.  Maria  in 
Cosmedin  are  now  permanent  deaconries,  but  bb. 
Cosma  e  Damiano  and  S.  Maria  in  Aquino  have 
been  raised  for  this  occasion  to  the  rank  of  presby- 
teral  titles.  The  following  persons  are  excluded 
from  the  cardinalate:  (a)  those  who  are  of  illegiti¬ 
mate  birth,  and  those  who  are  irregular  or  pre¬ 
vented  by  canonical  descipline  from  exercising  their 
sacred  orders,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  by 
Apostolic  authority  they  may  have  been  dispensed 
so  as  to  receive  orders  and  dignities  not  excluding 
the  episcopal;  (b)  those  who  have  a  living  legiti¬ 
mate  child  or  grandchild,  or  (c)  those  who  are 
related  by  blood  in  the  first  or  second  degree  to 
any  living  cardinal. 

Clerics  who  are  promoted  to  the  sacred  purple 
by  the  very  fact  not  only  vacate  their  dignities, 
churches,  and  benefices,  but  lose  their  ecclesiastical 
pensions,  unless  the  Pope  provides  otherwise  in  a 
particular  case.  By  an  option  made  in  the  con¬ 
sistory  and  approved  by  the  Pope,  cardinal  priests, 
while  respecting  priority  of  order  and  promotion, 
can  take  another  title;  so,  too,  cardinal  deacons 
may  select  another  deaconry,  and  if  they  have 
been  cardinal  deacons  for  ten  years  can  become 
cardinal  priests.  In  the  last  case  the  cardinal  ranks 


ahead  of  all  the  cardinal  priests  who  received  the 
sacred  purple  after  him.  If  a  suburbicarian  see 
becomes  vacant,  cardinal  priests  who  at  that  time 
are  in  the  Curia  or  are  temporarily  absent  from 
it  transacting  business  for  the  pope,  can  exercise 
the  right  of  option  regarding  the  vacant  see,  observ¬ 
ing  priority  of  promotion.  Cardinals  to  whom  a 
suburbicarian  see  has  been  assigned  cannot  exercise 
an  option  on  another;  however,  the  dean  of  the 
cardinals,  that  is  the  cardinal  who  has  held  a  subur¬ 
bicarian  see  longest,  is  always  appointed  Bishop  of 
Ostia,  while  retaining  his  old  see.  Cardinals  are 
obliged  to  reside  at  the  papal  court  and  may  not 
absent  themselves  without  the  pope’s  leave;  how¬ 
ever,  the  cardinal  suburbicarian  bishops  require  no 
permission  to  go  to  their  dioceses;  those  who  are 
bishops  of  non-suburbicarian  dioceses  are  exempt 
from  residence  at  court,  but  when  they  come  to 
Rome  they  must  present  themselves  before  the 
Sovereign  Pontiff  and  may  not  leave  the  City 
without  asking  his  permission. 

Privileges. — Among  the  privileges  which  every 
cardinal  enjoys  from  the  time  of  his  promotion  in 
the  consistory  are  the  right:  of  hearing  confes¬ 
sions,  even  those  of  religious  of  either  sex  any¬ 
where,  and  of  absolving  from  all  sins  and  censures, 
except  censures  reserved  very  specially  to  the  Holy 
See,  and  those  arising  from  a  violation  of  the 
secrecy  of  the  Holy  Office;  of  choosing  for  himself 
and  his  attendants  any  confessor  who,  if  he  lacks 
jurisdiction,  obtains  it  by  being  thus  selected,  even 
in  regard  to  all  sins  and  censures,  except  the  cen¬ 
sures  just  mentioned  as  being  beyond  the  com¬ 
petence  of  a  cardinal;  of  preaching  everywhere;  of 
celebrating  Mass  on  Holy  Thursday  and  three 
Masses  at  night  on  Christmas,  or  of  permitting 
a  priest  to  do  so  in  his  presence;  of  celebrating 
Mass  on  a  portable  altar  not  only  at  home,  but 
wherever  he  is,  and  of  allowing  another  Mass  to 
be  said  on  it  in  his  presence;  of  saying  Mass  at 
sea,  on  taking  the  proper  precautions;  of  saying 
Mass  according  to  his  own  calendar  in  any  church 
or  oratory;  of  enjoying  a  personally  privileged 
altar  daily ;  of  gaining  in  his  private  chapel  all  the 
indulgences  which  are  conditioned  on  a  visit  to  a 
church  or  public  building  in  the  place  where  he  is 
stopping,  a  privilege  which  may  be  enjoyed  by  his 
attendants  also;  of  bestowing  the  episcopal  bless¬ 
ing  everywhere,  but  if  he  is  in  Rome  this  may  be 
given  only  in  churches  and  holy  places  and  at 
gatherings  of  the  faithful;  of  carrying  a  pectoral 
cross  over  his  mozzetta,  and  of  using,  the  mitre  and 
pastoral  staff;  of  celebrating  Mass  in  any  private 
chapel,  but  without  prejudice  to  the  individual 
holding  the  indult;  of  pontificating  with  a  throne 
and  canopy  in  any  church  outside  of  Rome;  how;- 
ever,  if  the  church  is  a  cathedral,  the  cardinal  must 
first  inform  the  ordinary;  of  sharing  eveiywhere 
the  honors  usually  accorded  to  local  ordinaries; 
of  speaking  with  authority  in  the  external  forum, 
when  testifying  as  to  papal  pronouncements;,  of 
having  a  chapel  exempt  from  the  ordinary  s  visita¬ 
tion;  of  freely  disposing,  even  by  will,  of  what  has 
been  acquired  with  the  income  from  his  benefices— 
however,  a  cardinal  having  a  domicile  in  Rome 
must  leave  to  the  pontifical  treasury  his  sacred 
equipment,  except  his  rings  and  pectoral  cross— 
and  all  things  intended  permanently  for  Divine 
worship,  no  matter  with  what  funds  they  were  pur¬ 
chased,  unless  he  bequeaths  them  to  a  church,  pub¬ 
lic  oratory,  pious  place,  ecclesiastic  or  member  of 
a  religious  institute;  of  consecrating  and  blessing 
churches,  altars,  altar  equipment,  abbots,  etc.,  any¬ 
where,  but  observing  the  due  formalities ;  however, 
he  may  not  consecrate  the  sacred  oils  if  he  is  not 


CARDINAL 


i  r>7 


Lrv1^’  na  he  must  get  the  consent  of  the  ordi- 

naiy  to  bless  or  consecrate  a  sacred  place-  of 
precedence  over  all  prelates  and  patriarchs  ’and 
even  papal  legates,  unless  the  legate  be  a  cardinal 
resident  in  his  own  territory— outside  of  Rome  a 
cardinal  legate  a  latere  precedes  all  others;  of  con- 
fernng  first  tonsure  and  minor  orders,  provided  the 
candidates  have  the  proper  dismissorial  letters-  of 
admmistenng  confirmation,  but  in  this  case  he  must 
make  the  proper  entries  in  the  parochial  register- 
of  granting  indulgences  of  two  hundred  days,  to 
b(  gamed  as  often  as  the  conditions  are  fulfilled 
n  places  or  institutes  and  by  persons  under  his 
jurisdiction  or  protection — he  can  also  grant  the 
same  to  be  gained  in  other  places  by  those  who 
aie  present  there,  though  not  toties  quoties’  of 
entering  the  cloister  of  convents;  of  conferring  on 
his  own  and  even  private  oratories  all  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  semi-public  oratories;  of  keeping 

t  eal  tv  g  f0lb1^  by  the  mer^ 

tical  law.  Finally ,  cardinals  are  exempt  from  penal- 

mduded°Se<1  ^  Can°n  laW  UnIeSS  they  are  exP^ssly 

Anyone  who  without  permission  of  the  Holy  See 
daies  to  bring  a  cardinal  before  a  lay  tribunal  on  a 
matter  arising  out  of  his  office  incurs  an  excom¬ 
munication  specially  reserved  to  the  Holy  See-  a 
simdar  excommunication  is  imposed  on  anyone  who 

•a^S^1-?-ent  -bands  on  a  cardinal,  such  a  culprit  is 
in  addition  ipso  jure  rendered  infamous  and  is  de- 

nonit^n0ft^1SnKne^ue•V0lffic^  diSnities>  pension  and 
po&ition,  the  Church  if  he  held  any 

It  is  the  privilege  of  the  dean  of  the  cardinals  to 
ordain  and  consecrate  the  pope-elect,  if  he  is  not 
already  a  priest  or  bishop;  in  doing  so  he  wears  the 
pallium  m  lus  absence  the  sub-dean  enjoys  this 
right,  but  if  he  also  is  unable  to  officiate  the  cere¬ 
mony  is  to  be  performed  by  the  oldest  submbi- 
carian  oaidmal  bishop.  The  cardinal  proto-deacon 

entitled  To  P°Pe  2? ?oses  the  Pallium  those 
ntitled  to  it  or  on  their  representatives;  it  is  he 

nontiffhtoa?rUnCeSithe  *ame  °f  the  newly  elected 
K  - 1  -tb  PeoPle:  A  cardinal  promoted  to  a 
subuibicarian  see  and  sent  into  it  canonically  is 
e  tme  bishop  of  the  diocese,  enjoying  in  it  all 
the  powers  of  a  residential  bishop.  The  other 
cardinals  after  taking  canonical  possession  of  their 
titles  or  deaconnes  enjoy  there  all  the  rights  which 
local  ordinaries  have  in  their  own  churches  but 
they  have  not  the  power  of  holding  trials  or  of 
exercising  jurisdiction  over  the  faithful ;  they  may 

suZ-vS  fugulate  .discipline,  correct  morals  and 
supervise  the  service  of  their  own  churches  A 

cardinal  priest  can  pontificate  in  his  own  title  with 

as  T  a“d  canopy  and  a  cardinal  deacon  can 
assist  pontifically  in  his  own  deaconry  and  no  one 

sent  Pe-rmit/ed  d°  so  there  without  his  con- 
sent,  but  mother  churches  in  Rome  the  cardinals  re- 
quire  papal  penmssjon  to  have  throne  and  canopy 
ran°d249  IT  C°"*’  23(M1'  Vermeersch-Creusen, 


CARMELITE 


u’untiMiis  promo^n2to1’therTyi  f911’  “d  ’lillad 
sano,  13  December  1918  Th  Archd,oce?e  of  R°s- 
Rt.  Rev.  Giusepoe  Anfonio  r.6  prcsent  »««w>bent, 
to  succeed  him  10  March  191QU&Th' VUS  aPP°*nted 
1920  count  the  Catholic  popula, don  o'f  ml'T*  °l 

64  Sr^rieTte^1  W“h  30  pai'ia'hes.  4  vicariates! 
or  chapels.  30  seminanans>  and  70  churches 


Cardinal  Protector  (cf.  C.  E„  III-341a) —Reli¬ 
gious  orders  and  institutes  have  their  cardinal  pro¬ 
tectors  whose  only  office  is  to  help  them  by  Ids 

w!!enS!!n!Hslt0  Pr°tcct  their  rights.  Unless  other- 

cardin-rt  fr0' ‘dod  for  m  particular  cases  the 

ardmal  protector  has  no  jurisdiction  over  the  in- 

llte  or  members,  and  cannot  interfere  in  its 

property. dlsclp  ne  «  the  administration  of  Rs 

„?£•**•  ■Dio?ese  of  (Cariatensis;  cf.  C  E 

It»lv47.dfr  m  the,  grovince  of  Cosenza,  Southern 
. j  -J'  ’  -’Ohragan  of  Santa  Severina.  The  bishop  of 
this  see  boars  the  titles  of  Baron  of  Santo  NicoSo 


t.;:  ja=  sii-rwtg 

Fr  GabrieTwenCei  hoW.?Ver-  has  been  found by 

.  r*  v-rabnel  Wessels  in  the  writings  nf  tto  u  •  ^ 
loan  Stephen  de  Salanhaco.  b.  about  1210  became' 
Poor  of  Limoges  in  1249,  of  Toulouse  ’in  S 
Visitor  in  Scotland  in  1261  and  died  -it  Z;™1259, 
8  January  1291.  He  asserts  that  the  Patriarch^? 
Antioch  Aymencus  de  Malafayda,  wrote  a  ruh 

A3S5r 

XLIV  ^o'rtore6  of° 

salem  in  the  fourth  centurv  Tt  w? ?  f  J?ru~ 

WOTk  °0bfServe^  by  critias  that  it  could  not ' beThe 
Latin  who‘  wSrte^'^!  bu‘f  ,«•“*  by  a 

With  the  Greek  lan^uag!  and  that  ft  fTTd 

Mi «  a  ? £  S&Jss 

difficulties  with  which  tfe^whole  °qi!esrionheof ^he 
antiquity  of  the  order  is  beset  Perh!!f  Ib»  8 
Joseph  of  Antioch,  author  of  the  f?n^ %d  r” 
inscribed  “Speculum  perfect*  milifeVmlt iZ 
eccles,®”  may  have  been  a  contemporary  of  Avmer 

tnU«  l?ACe  ■Po]s.sevln’s  contention  that  he  belonged 
to  sub-Apostohc  times,  is  clearly  impossible. 

Among  the  recent  Generals  of  the  Discalced 
Carmelites  must  be  mentioned  Cardinal  Jeromp 
Mary  Gotti,  born  at  Genoa  29  March  1834  mpnT 

till  1881heArdebSini,Ce  1850>  Pr°™rator-gener’al  1872 
88 became  general,  which  office  he 

fn  ?8QlDt‘  TT»1S  nommatlon  a?  internuncio  to  Brazil 
p  .ok  ,/  \''as  consecrated  titular  Archbishop  of 
Petra  22  March,  1892,  recalled  to  Rome  in  1895  and 
elevated  to  the  cardinality  dignity.  For  about 

pretectyoefa7heerhoend  the  .mosf  important  office  of 
died  19  March,  of  Propaganda.  He 

CaTmeliteOSlito"1JPOr‘ant  ”Tent  contributions  to 
meUtarnm  ”  STa™  nAnalecte  Ordinis  Car- 

Sin  of  Fr  Cohbr  ifro  m  ??T  (under  the  editor- 

Sn  i  *  ^r‘  ^aPnel  Wessels),  by  order  of  the  Gpn- 
eral  Chapter  of  the  Calced  Carmelites  of  1908  Tn 
^nnection  wRh  this  periodical  was  edited  in  1912 
the  first  volume  of  “Acta  Capitulorum  ”  containing 

byG  Fr a WprS  f?r°m  !?18  t0  1593’  the  text  being  edited 
y  r.  Wessels,  and  practjcally  all  the  notes  bv  Fr 

Benedict  Zimmerman,  O.C.D.  The  DRcalced  Car ' 

melites  publish,  since  1911.  “Etudes  Carmelitaffies’ 

b  fn  lTgll,  crit'9»cs”  (Paris,  Gabalda). 

r  n  ^ere  ^  Provinces  and  112  convents 

ber?affid19^3rH,eerte  WHh  ab°Ut  2800  mRm“ 

provinces  whh  n5e/ere  l4  Pro/inces  and  3  gemi- 
calce^CG rrirnol ’} 72r,c9nvents  and  residences  of  Dis- 

The  ntimbor  nf  G  ^nars  aPd  about  1900  religious. 

16e  number  of  convents  of  Discalced  Nuns  in  1912 


CARMES 


158 


CARPI 


was  375,  with  over  5000  religious.  There  are :  (1921) 

16  convents  of  nuns  m  England  and  12  m  IrelanO. 
In  the  United  States  there  are  communities  at 
Baltimore,  St.  Louis J,  New  Orleans ^  Boston  Phila¬ 
delphia,  Brooklyn  Santa  Clara .  (Ca  .), 

Los  Angeles  (two  houses),  Seattle,  Bett  t  t  L 

Grand  Rapids,  and  New 
foundation  was  made  16  July,  19-0,  by 
melite  nuns  from  Baltimore.  On  May,  1^5,so 
nuns  from  Reims  established  a  convent  at  nocne 
laga  near  Montreal  and  another  Canadian  fomMa- 
made  at  St.  Boniface  26  July,  luif-  yie 
American  Province  of  Calced  Carmelite  Friars  has 
a  novitiate  and  scholasticate  at  Niagara  Falls  Ont 
nnd  nriories  in  the  Archdioceses  of  Chicago  ana 
Toronto  and  Dioceses  of  Newark  Pittsburgh, 
Altoona ’and  Leavenworth.  The  Ratisbon  Province 
of  Discalced  Carmelite  Fathers  has  a  foundation  at 
Milwaukee,  Wis.,  and  the  Cataluna  Province  has  a 
foundation  at  Tucson,  Arizona.  Fathers  oi  the 

Irish  Province  of  Calced  Carmelites  are  repre^nted 

in  the  Archdiocese  of  New  York.  0n,1/*™a;rny„’ 
1921  the  Holy  See  issued  a  decree  of  dissolution 
of  the  convent  of  Marienthal  in  Alsace,  and  of 
secularization  of  the  religious  guilty  of  insubordi¬ 
nation  to  ecclesiastical  authority. 


Cannes,  Martyrs  of  the. — On  26  January,  1916, 
the  cause  of  beatification  or  declaration  of  m artyr- 
dom  of  Jean  Marie  du  Lau,  archbishop  of  Aries 
Francois- Joseph  de  la  Rochefoucauld,  bishop  o 
Beauvais,  Pierre-Louis  de  la  Rochefoucauld,  Bishop 
of  Saintes  and  their  210  companions,  martyrs  of 
the  Carmes,  was  introduced  and  signed  by  His 
Holiness  Pope  Benedict  XV.  The  three  preaes 
and  their  companions  were  victims  of  then  >  y 
to  the  Church  in  their  refusal  to  subscribe  to  the 
civil  consthution  of  the  clergy  which  at  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century  the  infidel  g°verTTe^ 
of  France  sought  to  impose  on  her.  Jean  Mane 
du  Lau  b.  in  Perigeaux  in  1738,  was  distinguished 
for  his  piety  and  love  of  learning  from  his  youth. 
He  received  his  philosophical  and  theological  tram- 
ins  at  the  Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  and  as  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Arles  devoted  himself  Pafrtl^la^  to 
studies  spirit  and  discipline  of  his  clergy. 
Refusing  to’ take  the  oath  to  the  civil  constitution 
he  was  brought  to  Paris  and  cast  into  the  prison  of 
the  Carmes,  formerly  a  Carmelite  monastery,  w  e 
Uo  mos  nssTssinated.  Francois- Joseph  de  la  Kocne 
foucauld  b.  in  Angouleme  in  1736,  studied  theology 
in  the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice  and  the  College  of 
Navarre  “nd  in  1772  was  appointed  bishop  of 
Beauvais.  He  wrote  and  worked  m  the  defense  of 
the  Faith  and  was  noted  for  his  to  tb,e 

poor.  His  brother  PierrerLouis  de  la  Rochefoucauld 
b.  in  Angouleme  m  1744,  studied  at  St.  bulpice 
and  passed  from  one  ecclesiastical  dignity 
another  being  finally  promoted  to  the  see  o 
Santes.  His  principal  care  was  the  education  o 
v’outh  and  he  was  a  vigorous  antagonist  of  Jan- 
serism  As  president  of  the  States  Provincial  of 
sSntonge  and  deputy  of  the  States  General  hs 
signed  the  principles  set  forth  against  the  civil  con- 
stftidion  of3 the  dergy;  Together  with  h.s  brother 
the  bishop  of  Beauvais,  he  was  imprisoned  m  the 
Carmes,  where  persisting  m  their  refusal  to  ta 
the  oath,  they  were  put  to  death. 


Caroline  Islands,  formerly  a  German  possession, 
now  under  the  mandatory  of  Japan,  according  o 
the  Treaty  of  Versailles  (1919).  The  chief  islands 
are  Ponape,  Yap,  Truk,  and  Kusai.  For  administra¬ 
tive  purposes,  the  islands  were  divided  into  two 
groups:  (a)  the  Eastern  Carolinas,  with  Truk  and 


Ponape  as  centers  of  administration,  and  (b)  the 
Western  Carolinas  with  Palau  and  Yap  as  admin  s- 
trative  centers.  In  Yap  there  are  /6  Japanese,  8,537 

natives,  and  3  Europeans.  ,  . 

The  world  wide  interest  which  has 
the  tiny  island  of  Yap  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
cable  lines  connecting  San  Francisco,  Shanghai, 
New  Guinea,  and  the  East  Indian  Islands  cross  at 
this  point  which  is  the  crux  of  the  Pacific  cable  com- 
munition  After  the  outbreak  of  the  Europ  an 
War  in  October,  1914,  the  Japanese  fleet  took  pos¬ 
session  of  the  Caroline  Islands  and  by  a  special 

arrangement  effected  in  N  ovember ^U^bfe! 
the  sole  administrators  of  the  island.  The  cables 
connecting  New  York  and  Germany  were  cut  and 
diverted  respectively  by  France  to  Brest  and  by 
Great  Britain  to  Halifax,  so  that  American  press 
dispatches  must  be  sent  by  way  of  Manila.  A 
Japan  was  awarded  the  mandate  over  the  foimer 
German  islands  north  of  the  equator,  she  claimed 
that  Yap  was  included  m  the  mandate.  This 
award  put  Japan  in  control  of  the  cable  communi¬ 
ons  also  and  to  this  the  United  States  vigor¬ 
ously  protested.  At  the  Congress  of  Communications 
called  in  Washington  in  1920,  mainly  to  determm 
the  disposition  of  the  cables  taken  from  Germany 
during  \he  war,  the  United  States  insisted  that 
fhe™bove  two  cables  should  be  restored  to  Germany 
and  that  the  Far  East  line  crossing  the  Pacific  by 
wav  of  Yap  be  internationalized.  . 

The  controversy  rising  froin  this  T^ion 
settled  at  the  Disarmament  Conference  m  Wash¬ 
ington  in  1921  and  the  following  agreements  were 
made-  The  United  States  was  to  have  free  access 
to  yap  and  as  Japan  was  to  maintain  on  the  island 
an  adequate  radio-telegraphic  station  co-operating 
effectively  with  the  cables  and  other  radio  stations 
the  United  States  gave  up  its  right  to  estaon 
radio-telegraph  stations  in  Yap.  N°  cable  censor- 
ship  was  to  be  exercised  by  Japan,  the  tree  entry 
and  exit  of  all  persons  and  property  was  to  be 
guaranteed :  no  taxes,  port,  harbor,  or  landing 
charges  ^r  exactions,  either  in  the  operation  of  the 
cables  or  pertaining  to  property,  persons  or  vessels 
were  to  be  levied.  Traffic  m  arms  and  ammunition 
was  to  be  controlled.  The  supplying  of  intoxicating 
spirits  and  beverages  to  natives  was  prohibited,  also 
military  training  of  natives,  except  for  police  and 
local  defense.  No  military  or  naval  baseh°ould  b* 
established  or  fortifications  erected  With  .respect 
to  missionaries,  Japan  was  to  msurn  comj  f 
dom  of  conscience  and  the  free  exercise  of  all  forms 
of  worship,  consonant  with  public  order  and  moral- 
itv  and  freedom  of  .access  to  all  missionaries  who 
could  acquire  and  possess  property,  erect  religious 
buildings^  and  open  schools  throughout  the  coun¬ 
try  The  above  clause  regarding  the  mi^ionaries 
will  reopen  more  than  one  hundred  Christian 
schools  throughout  the  mandated  area,  as  under  a 
ruling  of  the  League  of  Nations,  the  Japanese  had 
closed  these  mission  schools  and  established  thei 
own  secular  instruction  in  accordance  with  the  laws 

of  Japan.  The  United  States  Senate  ratified  the 

treaty  with  Japan,  1  March,  1922.  r>qro1me 

In  1911  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  the  Caroline 

Islands  was  suppressed  with  that  of  Mariana 
Islands  their  territory  except  the  island  of  Cuam, 
being  then  erected  into  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
the  Mariana  and  Caroline  Islands  (q.v.L 


Carpi,  Diocese  of  (Carpensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-374c),  in  the  province  of  Modena,  Italy,  su  - 
fragan  of  Modena.  This  see  is  at  pre^nt  (1922) 
filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Andrea  Righetti,  b.  m  San  Colom 
bano  Cornice,  1843,  appointed  14  December,  1891, 


CARR 


159 


CARTHAGE 


made  an  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne,  1C  May, 
1916.  J  he  1920  statistics  credit  the  diocese  with 
78,005  Catholics,  31  parishes,  78  secular  and  4  regu¬ 
lar  clergy,  18  seminarians,  4  Brothers,  54  Sisters,  and 
50  churches  or  chapels. 

Carr,  James,  educationist,  b.  at  Preston,  Eng¬ 
land,  November,  1826,  d.  at  Formby,  England, 
9  November,  1913.  Entering  Ushaw  in  his  eleventh 
year,  he  was  ordained  in  1850,  two  years  before  his 
time,  owing,  to  the  need  for  priests  in  the  Diocese 
of  Liverpool,  as  a  result  of  the  typhus  plague.  He 
was  at  once  appointed  to  St.  Nicholas’  pro-cathe¬ 
dral  and  with  a  fellow-curate  founded  a  school  for 
the  children  of  the  Whitechapel  district.  In  1854 
he  was  made  rector  of  Douglas,  Isle  of  Man,  where 
he  built  the  Church  of  St.  Maiy,  said  to  be  the 
most  remarkable  building  on  the  island.  During 
his  eight  years  there,  besides  erecting  a  presbytery 
and  school,  he  founded  missions  at  Ramsey  and 
Peel.  Recalled  to  England  in  1862  to  become 
rector  of  Formby,  a  small  country  parish  near 
Southport,  where  he  soon  erected  the  beautiful 
Church  of  Our  Lady  of  Compassion  to  replace  the 
small  chapel  that  had  been  used  since  penal  days. 
In  1866  he  was  raised  to  the  Liverpool  chapter. 

Ten  years  later  through  the  generosity  of  a 
benefactor,  Canon  Carr  was  able  to  begin  the 
erection  of  the  present  well-equipped  Formby 
Schools,  and  in  1880  the  bishop,  wishing  to  sys¬ 
tematize  the  work  of  religious  instruction,  ap¬ 
pointed  Canon  Carr  the  first  diocesan  inspector  of 
the  training  colleges  for  England  and  Scotland,  a 
post  entailing  years  of  uphill  work.  Some  time 
previously  he  and  Mgr.  Richards  of  Westminster, 
seeking  to  improve  the  Catholic  school  system, 
invited  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  at  Namur  to 
come  to  England,  knowing  they  had  English  pos¬ 
tulants  in  their  community.  They  were  established 
in  a  house  in  Mount  Pleasant,  Liverpool,  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  Mount  Pleasant  foundation,  which 
today  includes  the  most  notable  training  college 
for  teachers  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

In  addition  to  his  other  work,  Canon  Carr  found 
time  to  write  twelve  doctrinal  manuals,  two  of 
which  “The  Catholic  Pupil  Teacher”  and  “The 
Lamp  of  the  Word,”  are  still  standard  works  of 
their  class.  In  recognition  of  these  services  to 
the  Church,  Pope  Leo  XIII  made  him  a  domestic 
prelate.  From  1885  to  1895  Mgr.  Carr  was  presi¬ 
dent  of  St.  Edward’s  Ecclesiastical  College,  Liver¬ 
pool,  and  on  the  death  of  Bishop  O’Reilly  in  1892 
was  appointed  vicar  capitular.  The  new  bishop 
chose  him  as  his  vicar  general;  he  was  also  chair¬ 
man  of  the  Liverpool  Catholic  Truth  Society  and 
the  Liverpool  Catholic  Reformatory  Association. 
A  gifted  preacher,  his  lofty  panegyric  on  Pope 
Leo  XIII  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  sermons 
delivered  in  Liverpool.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
Mgr.  Carr  had  been  a  priest  for  sixty-four  years 
and  a  generation  ago  was  considered  the  greatest 
Catholic  educationist  of  the  English  speaking  world. 

Cartagena,  Archdiocese  of  (Cathagena  in 
Indus;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-384b),  in  Colombia,  South 
America.  The  present  and  first  archbishop  is  the 
Most  Rev.  Pedro  Adan  Brioschi  of  the  Foreign 
Missions  of  Milan,  b.  at  Tradate,  7  April,  1860, 
elected  bishop  of  Cartagena  15  April,  1898,  made 
archbishop  27  July,  1901,  when  the  see  was  erected 
into  an  archbishopric.  The  following  important 
religious  events  have  taken  place  in  the  archdio¬ 
cese  since  1907 :  the  third  diocesan  synod  was  held 
in  1912,  the  second  provincial  council  in  1915  and 
the  fourth  diocesan  synod  in  1918,  all  during  the 
administration  of  the  present  archbishop. 

ll 


The  inhabitants  of  the  diocese  number  more 
than  400,000.  1  here  are  84  parishes,  1  seminary 

under  the  care  of  the  Eudist  Fathers,  with  8  pro¬ 
fessors  and  about  50  seminarians.  As  the  churches 
are  built  of  straw,  and  are  only  temporary  edifices 
it  is  difficult  to  determine  their  number.  There 
is  only  one  mission,  which  is  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
St.  George  River  and  has  two  houses,  one  of  the 
German  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  the  Divine 
Savior  for  the  pueblo  of  Ayapel,  and  the  other  of 
native  missionary  priests  for  the  pueblo  of  Ure. 
A  university  has  been  established  which  is  sup¬ 
ported  by  the  government,  but  has  very  few  stu¬ 
dents.  At  Cartagena  and  at  Barranquil  there  are 
two  high  schools  for  boys  and  girls.  Four  hospitals 
and  2  asylums  exist  in  the  archdiocese.  Religious 
orders  and  congregations  having  foundations  in 
the  archdiocese  are:  Capuchin  Fathers  (1  house); 
Augustinians  (2) ;  Eudists  (3) ;  Fathers  of  the  Di¬ 
vine  Savior  (3) ;  Missionary  Sons  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  Mary  (1);  Christian  Brothers  (2);  Jesuits 
(2);  Salesians  (2);  Sisters  of  the  Presentation  of 
Tours  (5) ;  Franciscan  Tertiaries  of  Our  Lady  of 
Perpetual  Help  (5) ;  Franciscan  Tertiaries  of  the 
Holy  Family  (1);  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  of 
St.  Peter  Claver  (2) ;  Missionary  Sisters  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception  of  St.  Catherine  (1). 

Cartagena,  Diocese  of  (Carthaginensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  III-384c),  in  Spain,  suffragan  of  Granada.  This 
see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Vicente  Alonso  y  Salgado, 
of  the  Pious  Schools,  b.  in  the  Diocese  of  Orense, 
1895,  appointed  Bishop  of  Astorga  1894,  transferred 
25  June,  1903.  The  principal  events  of  this  diocese 
during  recent  years  have  been:  the  holding  of  two 
general  councils,  the  consecration  of  the  diocese  to 
the  Sacred  Heart,  and  the  organization  of  a  rural 
federation  of  Catholic  syndicates.  During  the  influ¬ 
enza  epidemic  of  1919,  14  priests  died  while  per¬ 
forming  their  parochial  duties.  Other  clergymen 
of  prominence  deceased  in  recent  years  are:  Rev. 
Pedro  Gonzalez  Adalid,  Rev.  Francesco  Orsonu 
Bautista,  and  Rev.  Pedro  Belando,  who  was  active 
in  Catholic  social  work  and  labored  unceasingly 
among  the  poor. 

By  latest  statistics  (1922)  the  diocese  contains 
302  parishes,  713  churches,  30  monasteries  for  men, 
93  convents  for  women  with  1,040  Sisters,  560 
secular  priests,  86  regulars,  125  lay  brothers,  1  semi¬ 
nary  and  235  seminarians.  The  institutions  include 
1  university,  2  normal  schools,  24  asylums,  11  hos¬ 
pitals,  and  36  other  charitable  institutions  of  various 
kinds.  Two  dailies,  1  weekly,  and  11  monthly 
periodicals  are  published  here.  The  following  re¬ 
ligious  associations  have  been  organized  among  the 
clergy :  LTnio  Apostolica,  Association  of  secular 
missionary  priests,  League  for  the  defense  of  the 
clergy,  Monte  Pio  del  Clero  Cartaginense,  and  Asso¬ 
ciation  Sacerdotal  de  Sufragio. 

Carthage,  Archdiocese  of  (Carthaginensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  III-385b),  including  the  entire  Regency  of 
Lunis,  Africa.  This  ancient  see,  founded  in  the 
first  century,  and  re-established  as  a  metropoli¬ 
tan  see  in  1884,  was  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Bar¬ 
tholomew  Clement  Combes,  b.  in  the  diocese  of 
Carcassonne  (France),  1839,  ordained  1864,  made  a 
Knight  of  St.  Gregory,  6  September,  1879,  ap¬ 
pointed  Bishop  of  Constance,  13  May,  1881,  pro¬ 
moted  15  June,  1893.  In  1908  he  was  made  apostolic 
administrator  of  Algiers,  and  on  22  January,  1909, 
he  was  made  Archbishop  of  that  see  as  well  as  of 
Carthage;  he  resigned  from  the  former  see  11 
March,  1917.  In  1914  Archbishop  Combes  cele¬ 
brated  the  golden  jubilee  of  his  priesthood  and 
died  12  February,  1922.  Mgr.  Alexis  Lemaitre, 


CARUSO 


160 


CASTELLAMARE 


titular  archbishop  of  Cabasa,  was  his  coadjutor 

with  right  of  succession. 

The  statistics  of  1911  are  the  latest  published  for 
this  archdiocese;  these  count  the  population  at 
1  600  000,  of  whom  148,776  are  Europeans  (french, 
Italians,  and  Maltese),  and  of  this  number  about 
35  000  are  Catholic.  The  cathedral  was  made  a 
minor  basilica,  5  August,  1918.  A  seminary  was 
opened  in  October,  1917,  at  Sidi-ben-Said,  and  had 
an  enrollment  of  23  students  in  1920.  The  aichdio- 
cese  comprises  54  parishes  and  14  vicariates. 

Caruso,  Enrico,  operatic  tenor,  b.  at  Naples,  25 
February,  1873;  d.  there  on  2  August,  1921.  As  a 
youth  he  sang  in  his  parish  church  choir,  and 
after  three  years’  study  under  Vergine  he  appeared 
in  opera  at  the  Teatro  Nuova,  Naples  m  1894  m 
“L’Amico  Francesco.”  His  Marcello  in  La 
Boheme,”  at  Milan  in  1898,  placed  him  definitively 
in  the  rank  of  great  tenors,  and  his  success  as 
Loris  in  Giordano’s  “Fedora”  in  1899  was  followed 
by  engagements  in  Petrograd,  Moscow,  Paris,  Lis¬ 
bon  and  Buenos  Aires.  He  won  fresh  laurels  with 
Melba  in  “La  Boheme”  at  Monte  Carlo  m  1902  and 
then  appeared  at  London  as  the  Duke  in  Rigo- 
letto.”  In  the  autumn  of  1903  he  made  a  success¬ 
ful  debut  in  the  same  role  at  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  House,  where  his  extraordinarily  beautiful 
and  powerful  voice  was  soon  to  make  him  the  ehiet 
attraction  till  his  death.  Caruso  who  commanded 
an  unprecedented  salary  during  his  later  years,  was 
noted  for  his  charity.  He  was  made  a  membei 
of  the  Royal  Victorian  Order  (British)  in  1907,  and 
in  1918  he  married  Miss  Dorothy  Benjamin  in  St. 
Patrick’s  Cathedral,  New  York.  Shortly  before  his 
death  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  sanctuary  of 
Our  Lady  of  Pompeii.  Caruso  sang  in  all  the  cur¬ 
rent  Italian  and  French  operas  and  created  the 
leading  tenor  role  in  “Fedora,”  <  La  Masclieie, 
“Adriana  Lecouvreur,”  “Germania,”  Madame  But¬ 
terfly,”  and  “La  Fanciulla  del  West.” 

Casale-Monferrato,  Diocese  of  (Casalensis),  in 
the  province  of  Alessandria,  Northern  Italy,  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Vercelli.  This  see  is  now  (1922)  filled 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Albino  Pella,  b.  in  Valdengo  1865, 
appointed  to  the  see  of  Calvi  and  Leano,  4  August, 
1908,  promoted  12  April,  1915,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev. 
Lodovico  Gavotti,  promoted  to  Genoa,  22  January, 
1915  The  diocese  comprises  a  Catholic  population 
of  180,000  (1920),  140  parishes,  312  secular  and  45 
regular  clergy,  80  seminarians,  25  Brothers,  280  Sis¬ 
ters,  and  562  churches,  chapels,  or  oratories. 

Casanare,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Casanaren- 
sis),  in  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  South  America. 
By  a  Consistorial  decree  of  26  May,  1915,  the  north- 
cm  part  of  this  vicanato  was  detached,  and  erected 
into  the  prefecture  apostolic  of  Arauca.  The  present 
(1922)  vicar  apostolic  of  this  territory  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Santos  Ballesteros,  Augustinian  Recollect,  titular 
Bishop  of  Caphamaum,  appointed  22  April,  1920. 
No  statistics  are  published  for  this  vicariate 


Caserta,  Diocese  of  (Casertanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-399d),  in  the  province  of  the  same  name,  m 
Southern  Italy.  Rt.  Rev.  Gennaro  Cosenza  now 
(1922)  Archbishop  of  Capula,  filled  this  see  from 
12  June,  1893,  until  his  promotion  4  March,  1913. 
His  successor,  Rt.  Rev.  Mario  Palladino,  b.  in 
Campobasso,  1842,  appointed  Bishop  of  Ischia,  15 
April,  1901,  and  transferred  to  Caserta,  2  June, 
1913,  died  17  October,  1921.  No  successor  has  as 
yet  been  appointed.  Caserta  is  a  suffragan  of 
Capua,  and  has  96,800  Catholics,  51  parishes,  21o 
secular  and  36  regular  clergy,  90  seminarians,  and 
176  churches  or  chapels. 


Cashel,  Archdiocese  of  (Casaliensis  or  Cassili- 
ensis  '  cf.  C.  E.,  III-401a),  includes  the  principal 
part  of  Tipperary,  and  part  of  Limerick  counties, 
and  holds  the  perpetual  administration  of  the  dio¬ 
cese  of  Emly.  Most  Rev.  Thomas  Jennelly  who 
succeeded  to  this  see  in  1902,  aftei  serving  as 
coadjutor  for  a  year,  retired  7  May,  1913,  and  was 
appointed  to  the  titular  see  of  Methymna  His 
successor  was  appointed  in  the  person  of  Most 
Rev.  John  Harty,  who  now  (1922)  fills  the  see 
He  is  a  native  of  Cashel,  born  1867,  and  educated 
in  the  Jesuit  College,  Limerick;  St.  Patrick’s  Col¬ 
lege,  Thurles,  and  Maynooth.  After  completing  his 
studies  at  the  Gregorian  University,  Rome,  he  re¬ 
turned  to  Maynooth  as  Professor  of  Dogmatic 
Theology,  and  at  the  time  of  his  appointment, 

4  December,  1913,  was  senior  Professor  of  Moral 
Theology.  In  1906  he  assisted  in  founding  the 
“Irish  Theological  Quarterly,”  and  since  that  time, 
has  acted  as  one  of  its  editors. 

In  1918  the  people  of  County  Cashel,  Tipperary, 
pledged  themselves  to  erect  a  statue  to  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  if  the  national  struggle  against  conscription 
was  successful.  In  fulfillment  of  this  promise  the 
Lourdes  Grotto  was  erected  by  the  townspeople, 

9  October,  1921,  with  impressive  ceremonies,  m 
the  presence  of  the  archbishop,  who  delivered  a 
short  address.  On  4  July- of  the  same  year,  at  a 
conference  of  the  archbishop  and  clergy  of  the 
dioceses  of  Cashel  and  Emly,  a  resolution  was 
passed  to  send  a  message  of  encouragement  and 
good  wishes  to  the  conference  of  Irish  leaders, 

meeting  in  Dublin.  .  ,. 

The  religious  orders  represented  m  the  archdio¬ 
cese  include :  Augustinian  Monks,  Christian  Broth¬ 
ers,  Brothers  of  St.  Patrick,  Ursulme  Sisters,  Sisters 
of  the  Presentation,  and  Sisters  of  Mercy.  I  he 
1911  census  credits  this  territory  with  a  Catholic 
population  of  106,000,  and  3,655  non-Catholics. 
According  to  1922  statistics  there  are  46  parishes  43 
parish  priests,  3  administrators,  71  curates,  117 
secular  clergy,  85  parochial  and  district  churches 
3  houses  of  regular  clergy,  17  convents  with  322 
religious,  6  monastic  houses,  2  colleges  for  boys, 

1  superior  school  for  girls,  and  195  primaiy  schools. 

Casimir,  Saint,  Sisters  of.  See  Saint  Casimir, 
Lithuanian  Sisters  of. 

Cassano  all*  Ionio,  Diocese  of  (Cassanensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  III-403d),  in  the  province  of  Cosenza, 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Reggio.  Rt.  Rev.  Giuseppe 
Rovetta,  appointed  to  this  see  29  March,  1911,  was 
transferred  to  the  titular  see  of  Ephestum,  16 
December,  1920,  and  the  present  incumbent,  Rt 
Rev  Brunone  Occhiuto,  was  appointed  his  suc¬ 
cessor,  11  November,  1921.  Religious  communities 
which  formerly  flourished  in  great  numbers  m  this 
diocese,  have  been  almost  entirely  abolished  by  the 
Italian  Government.  There  are  now  (1922)  only 
1  convent  of  Capuchins  with  3  priests,  1  con\  ent 
of  Poor  Clares  with  2  Sisters,  and  1  convent  of 
the  Sisters  of  Reparation.  The  1920  statistics  credit 
this  diocese  with  130,300  Catholics,  51  parishes,  37 
vicariates,  253  secular  and  10  regular  clergy,  50 
seminarians,  42  Sisters,  and  200  churches  or  chapels. 

Cassovia,  Diocese  of.  See  Kosice. 

Castellamare  di  Stabia,  Diocese  of  (Stabien- 
sis);  cf.  C.  E„  III-408b),  in  the  province  of  . Naples 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Sorrento.  This  see  is  filled  (1922) 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Michele  de  Jorio,  born  in  Mont-Cassin, 
1845,  appointed  Bishop  of  Bovino,  25  November, 
1887,  transferred  4  February,  1898,  named  an  as¬ 
sistant  at  the  pontifical  throne,  9  July,  1906.  Most 
Rev.  Paolo  Iacuzio,  Archbishop  of  Sorrento,  was 
appointed  administrator  of  this  diocese,  23  January, 


CASTELLANETA 


CaTANZARO 


m 


1920.  On  15  July,  1916,  the  Church  of  Our  Lady  of 
Pozzano  was  erected  into  a  minor  basilica.  By 
1920  statistics  this  diocese  comprises  70,500  Catho¬ 
lics,  27  parishes,  200  secular  and  20  regular  clergy, 
10  seminarians,  13  Brothers,  70  Sisters,  and  100 
churches  or  chapels. 

Castellaneta  (Castania),  Diocese  of  (Castel- 
lanetensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-408b),  in  Southern  Italy, 
is  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Taranto. 

The  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop  de  Nittis  who  had  filled 
this  see  for  twenty-two  years,  died  27  February, 
1908,  and  was  succeeded  by  Bishop  de  Martino, 
whose  administration  lasted  for  only  five  months 
when  he  died,  26  August,  1909.  He  was  succeeded 
by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Augustus  Taera, 
who  was  pro-vicar  general  of  the  prelature  nullius 
of  Acquaviva  before  his  appointment  as  Bishop  of 
Castellaneta,  23  June,  1910,  consecrated  24  June 
of  the  same  year. 

By  present  (1921)  statistics  this  diocese  numbers 
6  parishes,  46  churches,  2  monasteries  for  men  and 
1  for  women,  36  secular  priests  and  6  regulars,  4 
brothers,  50  sisters,  1  seminary  with  35  seminarians, 

1  elementary  school  with  3  teachers  and  70  pupils, 

1  home,  3  asylums,  and  3  hospitals.  In  1920  the 
total  Catholic  population  was  38,600. 


1910,  Catalonia  had  a  population  of  2,084,868  an 
average  of  185.8  to  the  square  mile.  It  is  divided 
into  four  provinces.  The  province  of  Barcelona 
lias  an  area  of  2,965  square  miles,  including  316 
municipalities,  its  capital  Barcelona,  has  a  popula¬ 
tion  of  582,240.  The  185  municipalities  ofP  the 
second  province,  Taragona,  aggregate  2,505  square 
miles  m  area.  Its  capital,  Taragona  contains  23,195 
inhabitants.  _  Lerida,  the  largest,  but  the  least 
wealthy,  province  of  Catalonia  has  an  area  of  4  690 
square  miles,  divided  into  325  municipalities.  The 
fourth  province,  Gerona,  area  2,261  square  miles, 
is  divided  into  247  municipalities,  and  has  for  its 
capital,  Gerona  with  a  population  of  14,929.  For 
further  statistics,  see  Spain. 

Catamarea,  Diocese  of  (Catamarcensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  XVI-35a),  in  the  Republic  of  Argentina,  South 
America,  suffragan  of  Buenos  Aires.  This  diocese 
v  as  erected  21  January,  1910,  embracing  the  prov¬ 
ince  of  Catamarca,  an  area  of  84,461  sq.  miles 

e  deP.artment  ?f  the  Andes,  a  district  of 
40,57o  sq.  miles.  It  is  under  the  administration 
of  its  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Barnabe  Piedrabuena 
b  at  Tucuman,  10  November,  1863,  appointed 
Bishop  of  Castrus,  16  December,  1907,  transferred 
8  November,  1910. 


Castle,  Egerton,  author,  b.  12  March,  1808,  in 
London;  d.  there  16  September,  1920.  He  was 
the  grandson  of  Egerton  Smith,  founder  of  the 
Liverpool  “Mercury,”  and  was  educated  at  Cam¬ 
bridge  and  at  the  Universities  of  Paris  and  Glas¬ 
gow.  He  also  passed  through  all  the  courses  of 
submarine  mining  at  Chatham  and  Gosport,  quali¬ 
fying  as  Captain  in  the  Royal  Engineer  Militia. 
4  hough  a  Londoner  to  the  core,  a  clubman  of  the 
“Athenaeum’’  and  the  “Garrick,”  he  was  a  cosmo¬ 
politan  in  interest  and  in  bearing.  A  noted  swords¬ 
man,  in  1884  he  wrote  his  “Schools  and  Masters  of 
France,”  and  later  the  “Story  of  Swordsmanship,” 
the  latter  delivered  as  a  lecture  at  the  Lyceum 
Theater  under  Sir  Henry  Irving,  and  subsequently 
repeated  at  the  request  of  the  Prince  of  Wales. 
In  1908  he  was  Captain  of  the  British  epee  and 
saber  teams  at  the  Olympic  games.  He  was  like¬ 
wise  a  lover  of  book-plates,  and  in  1892  published 
“English  Book-plates.” 

However,  it  is  as  a  writer  of  romance  that  Castle 
is  best  known  in  contemporary  literature.  With  his 
fellow-fencer,  Walter  Pollock,  under  whose  editor¬ 
ship  he  contributed  to  the  “Saturday  Review,”  he 
wrote  “Saviola,”  a  play  for  Sir  Henry  Irving,  and 
later  composed  “Desperate  Remedies”  for  Richard 
Mansfield.  He  also  translated  Stevenson’s  “Prince 
Otto”  into  French.  Castle  married  Agnes  Sweet- 
man,  sister  of  Mrs.  Francis  Blundell,  and  in  col¬ 
laboration  with  her  wrote  many  clever  romantic 
novels,  deservedly  popular  and  meriting  a  high 
place  in  modern  fiction.  Amongst  them  are  the 
“Pride  of  Jennico,,  and  “The  Bath  Comedy”  (both 
dramatized  and  produced  in  New  York,  the  latter 
under  the  name  “Sweet  Kitty  Bellairs”) ;  “French 
Nan,”  “The  Incomparable  Bellairs,”  “If  Youth  But 
Knew,”  “A  Little  House  in  War  Time,”  “Pamela 
Pounce,”  and  many  others.  His  marriage  proved 
a  very  happy  one  and  through  it  he  was  brought 
into  close  contact  with  the  Catholic  religion,  which 
he  embraced  before  his  death. 

Catacombs,  Recent  Excavations  in.  See  De 
Waal,  Anton. 

Catalonia  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-428a),  a  principality 
within  the  Spanish  monarchy,  occupying  an  area 
of  12,427  square  miles  in  the  northeast  corner  of 
the  Iberian  peninsula.  According  to  the  census  of 


In  April,  1916,  the  celebration  of  the  twenty-fifth 
anniversary  of  the  crowning  of  the  statue  of  Nuestra 
Senora  del  Valle,  was  celebrated  in  the  diocese. 
Mgr.  Locatelli  attended  the  ceremonies,  as  papal 
delegate,  and  the  Pope  granted  special  indulgences 
in  honor  of  the  anniversary.  On  22  May,  1920, 
upon  the  request  of  the  bishop,  the  territory  of  Los 
Andes  was  separated  from  this  diocese,  and  united 
to  the  diocese  of  Salta.  During  recent  years  the 
diocese  lost  two  prominent  members;  Dr.  Rafael 
Castillo,  deputy  to  the  National  parliament,  and 
one  time  minister  of  the  Interior,  and  Mgr.  Rafael 
D  Amico,  vicar  general  of  the  diocese,  and  largely 
instrumental  in  the  erection  of  the  sanctuary  of 
Nuestra  Senora  del  Valle,  and  the  seminary.  By 
present  statistics  (1922)  the  diocese  comprises  15 
parishes,  112  churches  and  chapels,  2  convents  of 
men,  25  secular  and  20  regular  clergy,  4  Brothers, 
1  seminary,  40  seminarians,  1  college  for  men  with 
6  professors  and  120  students,  2  colleges  for  women 
with  7  teachers  and  235  students,  2  asylums,  and  5 
hospitals.  Catholic  schools,  colleges,  asylums,  and 
hospitals  are  assisted  financially  by  the  Govern¬ 
ment.  Various  societies  are  formed  among  the 
laity,  and  2  periodicals  are  published. 

Catania,  Archdiocese  of  (Cataniensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  III-429d),  in  Sicily,  directly  subject  to  the  Holy 
See.  This  see  is  filled  by  His  Eminence  Cardinal 
Francica-Nava  di  Bontife,  born  in  this  diocese, 
1846,  ordained  1869,  named  a  papal  chamberlain, 
1876,  vicar  general  of  Caltanisetta,  1877,  appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  Alabanda  and  auxiliary  at  Cal¬ 
tanisetta,  1883,  promoted  to  the  titular  metro¬ 
politan  see  of  Heraclea,  1889  and  made  nuncio  to 
Belgium,  transferred  18  March,  1895,  made  nuncio 
to  Madrid,  1896,  and  created  Cardinal,  19  July, 
1S99.  He  is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary,  Rt.  Rev. 
Emilio  Ferrais,  titular  Bishop  of  Lystra.  By  1920 
statistics  the  archdiocese  counts  a  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  376,653,  of  whom  90,000  are  in  Catania 
proper;  43  parishes,  374  secular  and  112  regular 
clergy,  140  seminarians,  40  Brothers,  159  Sisters, 
and  223  churches  or  chapels. 

Catanzaro,  Diocese  of  (Catacensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-430c),  in  the  province  of  Calabria,  Italy,  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Reggio.  Rt.  Rev.  Pietro  di  Maria,  ap¬ 
pointed  to  this  see  6  December,  1906,  was  promoted 
to  the  titular  see  of  Iconium,  11  June,  1918,  and 


CATENIAN 


162 


CATHOLIC 


the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Agapito  Augusto 
Giovanni  Fiorentini,  was  appointed  his  successor 
25  September,  1919.  Born  in  Castrocaro,  1867,  he 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Tncanco,  27  June,  1909 
and  filled  that  see  until  his  transfer.  A  regional 
seminary  was  erected  in  Catanzaro  by  _rius  A 
and  conferred  degrees  for  the  first  time,  7  January, 
1918.  Eight  seminarians  received  the  degree  ot 
Bachelor  of  Theology,  and  at  the  same  time  a 
feast  was  solemnly  celebrated  in  honor  of  Pius ;  A, 
Pope  Benedict  XV  blessed  the  reunion,  and  Car¬ 
dinals  Gasparri,  Bisleti,  and  de  Lai  sent  telegrams 
of  congratulation  to  the  rector,  Mgr.  Goccia. 

The  1920  statistics  credit  this  diocese  with  85,000 
Catholics,  48  parishes,  5  vicariates  80  secular  and 
6  regular  clergy,  21  seminarians,  5  Brothers,  3b  bis¬ 
ters,  and  97  chinches  or  chapels. 

Catenian  Association,  The,  which  takes  its 
name  for  the  Latin  word  catena  a  chain,  is  a 
British  fraternal  organization,  strictly  Catholic,  con¬ 
stitutional,  and  non-political.  Membership  is  con¬ 
fined  to  laymen  of  the  professional  and  co™urercial 
classes.  Founded  in  Manchester  m  June,  1908,  the 
association  now  has  “circles”  (symbolized  by  an 
endless  chain),  in  London  and  most  of  the  Pfm" 
cipal  towns  of  Great  Britain.  The  primary  object 
of  the  association  is  the  cultivation  of  social  inter¬ 
course  amongst  its  members  in  the  belief  that 
such  friendly  union  is  conducive  not  only  to  the 
individual  and  collective  prosperity  of  Catemans, 
but  also  to  the  general  advancement  of  the  Catho¬ 
lic  cause.  A  certain  portion  of  each  circle  s  annual 
revenue  is  allocated  to  a  central  benevolent  fund 
from  which  practical  aid  is  given  to  such  membeis 
who  “in  the  strenuousness  of  life  have  fallen  dis¬ 
tressed  by  the  wayside.”  A  special  feature  of 
Catenian  activity  is  the  furtherance  of  the  interests 
of  Catholic  youths  entering  professional  and  com¬ 
mercial  life.  Applicants  for  memberships  must  have 
reached  their  twenty-fifth  year,  except  sons  of 
members  who  are  admitted  at  twenty-one.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  its  present  constitution,  membeiship  is 
reserved  to  those  who  have  attained  to  lecognized 
positions  of  definite  responsibility  (members  sons 
excepted).  There  is  a  tendency,  however,  to  relax 
the  original  restrictions,  and  to  adapt  the  organiza¬ 
tion  to  the  needs  of  the  times.  Normally,  the 
association,  as  such,  does  not  identify  itself  with 
any  work  outside  its  own  special  province,  but  two 
exceptions  (understood  not  to  be  precedents)  have 
been  made:  (1)  In  1915  at  a  meeting  of  the 
“Grand  Circle”  of  the  Association  held  m  London, 
a  resolution  was  unanimously  adopted  by  virtue  of 
which  the  Association  undertook  the  sponsorship 
of  a  special  issue  of  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia 
(this  was  published  as  the  “Catenian  Edition, 
and  by  its  effective  circulation,  much  useful 
work  was  accomplished  in  overcoming  Protestant 
prejudices  and  misconceptions  of  Catholic  teach¬ 
ing.)  (2)  At  the  request  of  the  English  hier¬ 
archy,  personally  voiced  by  Cardinal  Bourne  (1920) 
and  subsequently  renewed  by  Pope  Benedict  XV, 
the  Catenian  Association  undertook  to  raise 
amongst  its  members  funds  to  enable  the  Collegio 
Beda,  Rome,  to  tide  over  a  period  of  financial 
stringency;  this  purpose  having  been  accomplished, 
the  association  is  now  concerned  with  a  scheme  to 
enable  the  college  to  be  re-established,  free  from 
debt,  in  a  new  and  permanent  home.  During  the 
war  the  Catenian  Association  co-operated,  on  their 
own  territory,  with  the  Knights  of  Columbus  m 
their  work  for  the  temporal  and  spiritual  welfare 
of  men  on  active  service. 

E.  Vincent  Wareing. 


Cathedraticum  (cf.  C.  E.,  Ill— 441b) — All 
churches  or  benefices  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
bishop,  as  well  as  all  lay  confraternities  have  to 
pay  the  cathedraticum  annually.  The  amount  of 
this  tax,  if  not  fixed  by  ancient  custom,  is  to  be 
determined  by  a  provincial  council  or  a  meeting  of 
the  bishops  of  the  province;  the  decision  of  the 
bishops,  however,  has  no  force  uqtil  it  has  been 

approved  by  the  Holy  See. 

Code  jur.  can.,  1503-07. 

Catholic  Actors’  Guild  of  America,  The,  was 
organized  in  March,  1914,  by  Rev.  John  Talbot 
Smith  and  a  number  of  prominent  Catholic  actors 
in  order  “to  bring  the  Catholic  actor  and  playgoer 
together  in  social  intercourse,  to  stimulate  the  one 
by  encouragement  and  the  other  to  a  deeper  inter¬ 
est  in  the  stage,  to  assist  the  Catholic  actors  in  any 
proper  way  and  to  prepare  for  the  Catholic  theater 
and  drama  of  the  future.”  At  the  time  of  its  insti¬ 
tution  the  Church  had  let  down  the  barriers  erected 
against  the  modern  stage.  Since  in  the  days  of 
morality  plays,  the  drama  was  an  effective  teacher 
in  moral  and  religious  training,  it  was  deemed 
advisable  to  bring  this  great  and  beneficent  force 
into  modern  Catholic  life  and  thought,  and  by  so 
doing  rescue  this  important  social  institution  from 
the  secularism  that  had  so  completely  absorbed  it 
and  lowered  its  standards.  Tlie  logical  way  to 
bring  this  about  was  to  devise  ways  and  means  to 
aid  the  members  of  the  theatrical  profession  and 
direct  their  influence  into  proper  channels.  They 
were  no  longer  frowned  upon,  but  were  considered 
as  human  beings.  Many  of  them  were  Catholics, 
and  of  this  number,  some  by  reason  of  their 
nomadic  existence,  had  grown  out  of  touch  with 
Catholic  ideals  and  principles. 

The  aims  and  work  of  the  Guild  comprehend  all 
phases  of  helpful  care  for  the  spiritual  and  tem¬ 
poral  welfare  of  the  theatrical  profession.  Although 
not  a  religious  organization  in  the  restricted  sense 
of  the  word,  it  is  conscious  of  its  obligation  to  pro¬ 
vide  all  possible  means  by  which  the  members  of 
the  profession  may  keep  in  touch  with  their  re¬ 
ligious  duties.  Through  its  chaplain,  specially  de¬ 
signated  by  the  Archbishop  of  New  York,  many 
avenues  have  been  developed  by  which  this  is  pos¬ 
sible.  Every  year  during  Holy  Week  a  spiritual 
retreat  for  Actors  is  held,  and  at  a  later  date  a 
solemn  Mass  of  requiem  for  the  deceased  members 
of  the  profession.  Through  the  courtesy  of  the 
pastor  of  St.  Malachy’s  Church,  a  special  Mass 
for  actors  is  said  every  Sunday  at  11:30,  at 
which  the  ushers,  singers,  etc.,  are  all  connected 
with  the  profession.  The  Guild  has  met  a  long- 
felt  need  in  placing  in  every  theater  and  theatrical 
hotel  in  the  country  a  decorative  placard  contain¬ 
ing  information  as  to  the  situation  of  the  nearest 
Catholic  church,  the  hours  of  Masses,  confessions, 
etc.  Arrangements  have  been  made  with  New 
York  hospitals  whereby  the  office  of  the  Guild  is 
to  be  notified  on  admission  of  a  Catholic  member 
of  the  profession.  It  co-operates  actively  with  all 
theatrical  relief  organizations  and  cares  for  all  cases 
where  Catholics  are  concerned.  Its  burial  plot  in 
Calvary  Cemetery  offers  a  solution  of  the  problem 
of  Christian  burial  of  Catholic  members  of  the 
profession.  Its  affiliation  with  the  National  Catho¬ 
lic  Welfare  Council  has  opened  avenues  by  which 
actors  who  are  taken  ill  en  tour  may  be  cared  for, 
and  this  by  reason  of  their  constant  travel  has 
made  a  special  appeal  to  the  actor  of  every  denomi¬ 
nation,  and  has  impressed  upon  the  profession  the 
interest  of  the  Church  in  their  temporal  as  well  as 
their  spiritual  welfare.  . 

As  New  York  is  the  mecca  of  all  aspirants  to  the 


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163 


CATHOLIC 


stage,  and  as  so  many  hundreds  of  Catholic  young 
men  and  women  are  constantly  arriving  there  to 
pursue  the  study  of  the  arts,  the  Guild  is  desirous 
of  having  all  Catholics  register  at  its  office.  There 
the  stranger  in  the  metropolis  will  find  a  welcome 
and  a  bureau  of  information  and  guidance  through 
which  he  or  she  may  be  helped  in  the  realization 
of  worthy  ambitions.  The  Guild  in  this  way  is  a 
broadly  based  effort  to  supply  a  practical  and  pro¬ 
tective  influence  to  our  young  Catholics  who  desire 
to  enter  the  theatrical  profession.  It  acts  also  in 
the  spirit  of  guidance  and  direction  for  managers 
and  producers  who  desire  the  Catholic  viewpoint 
on  any  given  subject. 

It  is  planned  to  open  branch  offices  in  the  larger 
theatrical  centers  and  to  establish  organizations  of 
a  similar  nature  throughout  the  country  under  the 
supervision  of  chaplains  to  be  appointed  by  the 
bishops  of  the  various  dioceses.  Eventually  a  large 
building  capable  of  affording  living  accommoda¬ 
tions  for  members  will  be  erected  in  New  York. 
Included  in  its  membership  of  2,700  are  many  non- 
Catholics  and  social  members.  The  office  of  the  Guild 
is  situated  at  220  West  42nd  Street,  New  York  City. 

Martin  E.  Fahy. 

Catholic  Big  Brothers. — This  organization  was 
founded  in  New  York  in  1914  by  Rev.  Thomas 
J.  Lynch  as  a  preventive  and  protective  agency 
in  regard  to  juveniles  just  beginning  to  become 
delinquent  or  who  had  already  appeared  in  the 
Children’s  Court.  Its  object  was  not  to  coddle  or 
countenance  ill  behavior  on  the  part  of  the  boy 
through  any  mistaken  leniency  because  of  his  of¬ 
fense;  but  to  bring  home  to  him  the  necessity  of 
doing  what  was  right  by  having  some  one  outside 
of  his  family  interest  himself  in  him  and  exercise 
a  beneficial  influence  upon  him.  Its  measure  of 
success  has  varied  with  the  years;  but  its  value 
as  a  boy-saving  agency  cannot  be  disputed,  de¬ 
pending  upon  the  efficiency  and  zeal  of  those  who 
seriously  take  up  its  work.  Statistics  are  not 
available  m  regard  to  its  success. 

Catholic  Boys  Brigade  of  the  United  States 

(C.  B.  B.U.  S.),  a  semi-military  organization  intro¬ 
duced  into  New  York  in  1916  with  the  approval 
and  special  recommendation  of  his  Eminence,  Car¬ 
dinal  Farley  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  J.  Lynch,  with 
the  assistance  of  Michel  Lonergan,  who  brought 
from  Ireland  experience  in  this  kind  of  work.  The 
movement  was  completely  re-organized  in  Novem- 
bei,  1919,  and  the  best  features  found  in  other  bovs’ 
organization  were  worked  into  a  varied  but  well 
regulated  program,  including  simple  military  drill, 
a  k  etacs,  games,  sports,  contests,  outings,  parades, 
exhibitions,  camping,  procuring  of  employment  and 
promotion  of  higher  Catholic  education.  The  regu¬ 
lar  weekly  meetings  are  divided  into  a  recreational, 
a  military  and  an  educational  period  of  30-40 
minutes  each.  Everything  is  subject  to  the  selec¬ 
tion  of  the  reverend  director. 

Many  pi  elates  and  prominent  educators  have 
approved  of  the  Brigade,  which  is  entirely  under 
ecclesiastical  control  and  exclusively  Catholic.  The 
Holy  See  blessed  it  and  granted  a  plenary  indul¬ 
gence  for  the  monthly  corporate  Communion  and 
an  indulgence  of  300  days  for  each  pious  recital 
of  the  following  Brigade  Pledge :  “We  pledge  alle¬ 
giance  to  Jesus  Christ,  our  invisible  Head,  to  His 
Vicar  and  other  representatives  on  earth,  our  lead¬ 
ers  in  the  battle  against  our  outward  and  inward 
enemies,  and  to  Mary  our  Immaculate  Queen  under 
whose  protection  we  hope  to  gain  the  victory  and 
an  eternal  triumph  in  heaven.”  To  which  is  added : 
Equally  sincere  we  pledge  allegiance  to  our  flag, 
and  loyalty  to  the  country  over  which  it  waves; 


obedience  to  authority  and  to  the  Constitution 
upholding  1‘berty,  religious  freedom,  justice  and 
equality  for  all.  Finally  the  National  Catholic 
Welfare  Council  made  the  national  extension  of 
the  Brigade  one  of  its  activities. 

The  special  aims  of  the  Brigade  are:  (1)  to 
reach  boys  not  attending  parochial  schools  and 
therefore  m  no  immediate  contact  with  their  cleivv  • 
(2)  to  draw  Catholic  boys  away  from  non-Catholic 
organizations  by  providing  something  which  is  at¬ 
tractive,  really  Catholic  and  within  the  reach  of 
nearly  every  parish;  (3)  to  reach  through  the  boys 
their  families,  especially  those  who  are  in  need  of 
pastoral  care;  (4)  to  keep  pupils  of  parochial 
schools  longer  under  the  influence  of  the  priest 
by  promoting  higher  Catholic  education  and  pro¬ 
curing  suitable  positions  for  those  who  desire  to 
work ;  (5)  to  lead  boys  to  join  religious  societies 
or  sodalities  and  to  the  regular  reception  of  the 
bacraments.  In  a  word,  having  the  motto  “For 
God  and  Country,”  the  Brigade  seeks  to  make 
b(Wf  Catholics  and  patriotic  citizens. 

he  Bngade  has  a  neat  uniform.  It  has  chosen 
the  Immaculate  Virgin  as  its  primary  patroness 
and  has  adopted  a  special  standard  consisting  of 
two  square  fields  of  papal  yellow  and  white,  with 
a  blue  circular  field  surrounding  a  white  star  in  the 
center.  A  cross  surmounts  the  pole.  The  stand¬ 
ard  symbolizes  the  pledge  of  the  Brigade.  The 
indulgences  granted  by  the  Sacred  Penitentiary 
°?  19  April,  1921,  can  be  gained  only  by  members 
ot  duly  chartered  branches,  who  are  registered  at 
New  lork  General  Headquarters.  The  continual 
extension  of  the  Brigade  and  its  welcome  reception 
by  the  hierarchy  prove  its  need,  usefulness  and 
adaptability.  Affiliated  cadet  corps  although  re¬ 
taining  their  original  scope,  name,  government  and 
outfit,  participate  in  all  present  and  future  privi¬ 
leges  of  membership  in  the  Brigade. 

Father  Kilian. 

Catholic  Colonization. — Colonization  is  here  as¬ 
sumed  as  the  grouping  of  a  class  of  people  in  one 
place  to  promote  their  mutual  interests.  In  Catho- 
Hc  Colonization  the  religious  feature  is  emphasized, 
without,  however,  neglecting  the  temporal  aspect 
of  the  work.  Religious  instruction,  the  Sacraments 
and  the  Mass,  are  of  such  importance  that  the 
settlers,  or  at  least  their  children,  lose  the  faith 
if  they  are  long  left  without  these  influences.  Catho¬ 
lic  example  and.  a  Catholic  atmosphere  are  equally 
important.  It  is  a  recognized  law  of  history  that 
immigrants  scattering  broadcast  over  churchless 
districts  first  greatly  miss  the  religious  practices 
in  which  they  formerly  engaged,  but  soon  get  ac¬ 
customed  to  live  without  them.  It  is  also  a  matter 
of  experience  that  Catholics  grouped  together  grow 
in  number  and  in  fervor,  and  gradually  form  strong 
Catholic  settlements.  Catholic  colonization  en¬ 
deavors  to  group  Catholics  together,  so  that  they 
can  strengthen  one  another  in  their  faith.  It  makes 
sure  of  church  and  school  facilities,  and  supplies 
priests  and  Sisters,  and  by  systematically  grouping 
Catholic  settlers  in  certain  well  defined  districts 
it  multiplies  Catholic  parishes  and  communities. 
Besides  providing  for  the  religious  needs  of  the 
Catholic  settler,  Catholic  colonization  endeavors  to 
guide  and  protect  him  in  the  choice  of  lands  suited 
to  his  means  and  his  other  personal  qualifications. 

General  History. — There  were  two  kinds  of 
colonies  established  in  North  America,  political  and 
social.  Political  colonies  were  organized  by  Euro¬ 
pean  powers  for  the  benefit  of  their  respective 
nations.  These  colonies  generally  shared  the  for¬ 
tunes  of  the  mother  country,  some  prospering,  others 
gradually  dying  out.  The  result  of  the  Colonial  wars 


CATHOLIC 


164 


CATHOLIC 


was  that  the  English  secured  most  of  the  colonies. 
The  Latin  colonies  were  Catholic.  The  first  white 
settlers  in  the  United  States  were  the  Spanish  and 
French  immigrants,  coming  with  their  families  and 
also  inter-marrying  with  the  Indians.  1  he  Indian 
reductions  were  social  colonies,  founded  by  tne 
Franciscan  Fathers  in  the  Southwest.  They  were 
situated  in  the  best  sites  of  California,  New  Mexico, 
and  Arizona.  Anyone  acquainted  with  the  tacts, 
and  looking  for  good  lands,  will  first  direct  his 
attention  to  the  ancient  Indian  colonies.  ine 
Indians  increased  and  prospered.  There  were  as 
many  as  5000  individuals  in  a  village,  and  they 
produced  everything  they  wanted  for  their  own 
use.  As  proof  of  their  efficiency  they  built  sub¬ 
stantial  churches  and  schools,  which  to  this  day 
form  conspicuous  landmarks  of  the  country.  Ihese 
colonies  have  disappeared,  partly  for  political 
reasons,  but  mainly  because  of  economic  factors, 
the  chief  of  which  was  the  fact  that  the  baibanan 
and  the  half  civilized  man  cannot  compete  with  the 
fully  civilized  man  and  commercial  enterprises  and 
colonies  organized  by  him. 

Protestant  Colonization. — In  the  English  colonies 
the  practice  of  the  Catholic  religion  was  forbidden, 
except  in  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania.  From  Mary¬ 
land  a  number  of  Catholic  colonists  went  to  Ken¬ 
tucky  and  other  Southern  states,  forming  there 
incipient  Catholics  colonies.  The  number  of  Catholic 
Irishmen  who  were  deported  to  the  Southern  States 
from  Great  Britain  was  very  great,  as  is  testified 
by  the  names  of  many  towns  found  in  various  parts 
of  the  South.  No  doubt  these  martyrs  deported 
on  account  of  their  faith  died  in  the  Faith,  but 
the  same  cannot  be  said  of  their  children.  Without 
priest  or  religious  ministrations  their  descendants 
were  lost  to  the  Faith  and  their  religious  affiliations 
were  entirely  obliterated,  even  in  their  own  minds. 
The  French  and  Spanish  colonies  founded  in  the 
South  retained  their  racial  and  religious  characteris¬ 
tics  in  a  very  marked  degree.  These  Latin  colonies, 
wherever  they  were  not  destroyed  by  rival  influ¬ 
ence,  developed  into  great  communities  and  cities, 
such  as  St.  Augustine,  New  Orleans,  and  others.  _ 
Irish  Catholic  Colonization  Association.— Heroic 
attempts  were  made  in  the  latter  part  of  the  nine¬ 
teenth  century  to  group  that  immense  number  of 
Catholic  immigrants  from  Europe  who  were  scat¬ 
tering  throughout  the  churchless  regions  of  the 
United  States.  The  railroads  were  building  through 
the  great  basin  of  the  Mississippi  and  opening  im¬ 
mense  territories  to  settlers.  People  of  every  de¬ 
nomination  and  especially  Catholics,  flowed  into 
those  new  fields,  the  more  so  that  they  were  the 
men  who  built  the  new  lines.  There  was  neither 
church  nor  priest  for  hundreds  of  miles.  It  was 
just  at  that  time  that  the  Irish  immigration,  brought 
on  by  the  great  famine  in  Ireland,  was  most  numer¬ 
ous.  There  was  a  new  world  forming  without  tem¬ 
ple  or  sacrifice,  many  being  wholly  lost  to  the 
church  in  this  way.  The  only  remedy  was  seen 
to  be  a  grouping  together  of  these  people,  and 
many  individual  efforts  were  made  to  colonize  this 
vast  army  in  quest  of  homes  on  the  virgin  soil 
of  America. 

Finally  in  1879  there  was  formed  the  Irish  Catho¬ 
lic  Colonization  Society  of  America,  which  founded 
such  flourishing  settlements  as  the  colonies  at  Adrian 
and  Ghent,  Minnesota,  Greeley  and  Spaulding, 
Nebraska,  and  others.  The  success  of  the  Irish 
Catholic  Colonization  Society  was  demonstrated  on 
a  glorious  occasion  when  Archbishop  Ireland,  who 
was  the  soul  of  this  enterprise,  consecrated  at  one 
time  six  bishops  for  the  dioceses  of  his  province. 
These  dioceses  were  the  direct  offspring  of  the 


colonization  endeavors  of  the  Irish  Catholic  Coloni¬ 
zation  Society.  The  immigrants  who  came  to  this 
country  from  Germany  and  other  European  coun¬ 
tries,  because  of  economic  and  religious  reasons, 
wore  also  settled  in  colonies  throughout  the  Middle 
West  through  the  individual  enterprises  of  zealous 
bishops  and  priests. 

Catholic  Colonization  Society  of  the  United 
States. — In  our  day  the  Catholic  Colonization  Soci¬ 
ety,  U.  S.  A.,  represents  the  organized  National 
Catholic  Colonization  endeavors  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  the  only  national  colonization  society, 
and  the  only  organization  of  its  kind  which  has 
received  the  recommendation  and  encouragement 
of  the  Board  of  North  American  Archbishops.  At 
their  annual  meeting,  held  in  Washington  in  1912 
the  late  Archbishop  of  Chicago,  Most  Reverend 
Edward  Quigley,  presented  the  following  resolution 
which  was  accepted  by  all  the  Archbishops:  4 his 
body  has  heard  with  great  satisfaction  that  there 
is  to  be  called  a  meeting  of  Bishops  and  Priests  at 
St.  Louis,  to  consider  a  movement  with  the  idea 
of  completely  organizing  the  Catholic  Colonization 
Society,  now  in  existence,  and  give  it  responsible 
direction.  The  Archbishops  are  deeply  interested 
in  the  development  of  the  work  designed  to  aid 
Catholic  immigrants,  and  to  direct  them  to  Catholic 
localities  where  their  faith  may  be  safeguarded  by 
church,  school,  and  pastor.” 

A  special  promotion  meeting,  called  by  the  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  St.  Louis,  Most  Reverend  John  J.  Glen- 
non,  was  held  at  St.  Louis,  4  and  5  May,  1911.  It 
was  attended  by  twenty-three  representatives 
(bishops  and  delegates  of  bishops).  Archbishop 
Glennon  presided  over  the  meeting.  A  National 
Society  of  Colonization  was  established  and  a  work¬ 
ing  organization  formed.  It  was  a  convention  of 
capable  minds  and  auspicious  prospects.  On  11 
July,  1911,  a  second  general  convention  of  the 
Society  was  held  in  Chicago.  It  was  honored  by 
the  presence  of  the  four  metropolitans  of  Middle 
America,  Archbishops  Quigley,  Ireland,  Glennon, 
and  Messmer.  At  this  convention  the  constitu¬ 
tions,  by-laws,  and  other  regulations  for  the  guid¬ 
ance  of  the  executives  and  officers  of  the  Society 
were  drawn  up  and  adopted.  These  resolutions  gave 
the  central  organization  the  power  of  initiative  in 
starting  colonies,  with  a  proviso  to  co-operate  with 
diocesan  bureaus  of  colonization  wherever  they 
existed.  The  work  was  centralized  in  the  national 
bureau  established  at  Chicago.  Thus  the  society, 
as  the  National  Catholic  Colonization  Society  of 
the  United  States,  came  into  being  under  most 
worthy  and  promising  auspices,  and  was  imme¬ 
diately  placed  in  the  Catholic  Directory  as  a 
national  organization  of  the  Catholic  Church.  This 
society  was  saluted  by  both  the  secular  and  re¬ 
ligious  press  as  a  long  felt  want. 

Character  and  Policy.— The  Catholic  Coloniza¬ 
tion  Society  is  not  a  financial  or  money  making 
concern.  It  neither  buys,  sells,  nor  owns  lands 
in  any  of  its  colony  projects.  Through  the  Catholic 
Land  Information  Bureau,  U.  S.  A.,  associated  with 
it,  the  Catholic  Colonization  Society  seeks  to  cover 
the  entire  United  States  in  search  of  suitable  lands, 
so  that  there  may  be  a  wide  range  of  choice  for 
its  clients.  Such  lands  are  carefully  investigated 
by  this  bureau,  some  of  the  best  known  and  most 
reliable  agriculturists  and  land  experts  in  the  United 
States  being  employed  by  it  for  this  work  of 
investigation.  In  the  case  of  every  colony  project, 
the  business  standing  and  responsibility  of  the 
company  handling  the  lands  are  carefully  investi¬ 
gated  to  ascertain  whether  the  prospective  colonists 
may  be  safely  entrusted  to  these  parties.  Then  the 


CATHOLIC 


165 


CATHOLIC 


bureau  proceeds  to  examine  the  particular  tract 
of  land  in  question,  as  to  its  agricultural  merits, 
special  attention  is  given  to  climatic  and  sanitary 
conditions,  quality  and  productiveness  of  the  soil, 
its  adaptability  for  special  cultivation  (fruit,  grain, 
vegetable,  dairying,  cattle  raising,  etc.),  facilities  of 
transportation,  marketing,  supply  of  wood,  lumber, 
fuel,  drinking  water,  etc.  Only  when  the  afore¬ 
mentioned  examination  of  the  land  is  thoroughly 
satisfactory,  and  when  other  matters  intended  for 
the  welfare  of  the  settler  have  been  properly  ar¬ 
ranged,  will  the  Catholic  Colonization  Society  issue 
a  formal  recommendation  of  the  project  and  bring 
it  before  the  public  here  and  in  Europe.  Such  a 
recommendation  will  be  given  only  when  the  soci¬ 
ety  is  fully  satisfied  as  to  the  adaptability  of  the 
project  for  the  Catholic  settler.  While  it  is  clearly 
impossible  to  give  an  absolute  guarantee  in  under¬ 
takings  of  this  kind,  which  depend  largely  on  human 
conduct,  yet  once  the  Catholic  Colonization  Society 
has  recommended  land,  the  settler  may  rest  as¬ 
sured  that  every  precaution  which  may  be  reason¬ 
ably  demanded,  has  been  used  in  the  investigation 
of  such  a  project.  Naturally,  so  far  as  the  future 
is  concerned,  it  will  rest  entirely  with  the  colonist 
to  make  his  land  bear  fruit  and  profit.  Here,  as 
elsewhere,  labor  is  the  source  of  wealth.  The  shift¬ 
less,  and  careless  settler,  who  may  eventually  come 
to  grief  on  land  recommended  by  the  society,  must 
blame  himself,  not  the  Catholic  Colonization  Soci- 
ety.  In  order  to  protect  the  religious  interests  of 
the  settlers,  it  is  the  fixed  policy  of  the  Catholic 
Colonization  Society  not  to  recommend  any  land 
project  unless  a  church  with  regular  divine  services 
is  established  on  the  spot  to  care  for  the  religious 
needs  of  the  incoming  settlers. 

Reports  which  describe  the  actual  merits  and 
limitations  of  any  colony,  project  and  which  tell 
how  the  land  should  be  handled  in  any  particular 
Place,  are  made  by  expert  agriculturists,  working 
especially  for  the  Catholic  Colonization  Society. 
Thus  the  society  puts  at  the  disposal  of  every 
man  of  small  means  the  service  of  land  experts, 
^hich  up  to  the  present  time  could  be  secured  only 
by  the  man  of  wealth  or  the  rich  institution.  The 
small  land-seeker  was  without  such  expert  and 
practical  guidance  until  the  society  found  means 
and  ways  to  distribute  the  benefits  of  this  expen¬ 
sive  talent  and  experience  without  cost  to  the 
inquirer.  By  bringing  a  great  number  of  settlers 
mto  the  land  in  a  short  time,  the  danger  of  isolation 
which  so  often  discourages  the  individual  settler 
and  causes  him  to  fail  is  overcome.  Archbishop 
Sebastian  Messmer,  of  Milwaukee,  is  at  present 
Director  General  of  the  Catholic  Colonization  Soci¬ 
ety?  Ttev.  Julius  E.  de  Vos  of  Chicago,  President, 
and  Rev.  Peter  J.  Cichozki,  Secretary.  Its  head- 
quarters  are  at  Chicago.  Projects  recommended  by 
the  Catholic  Colonization  Society  are  made  known 
to  the  public  by  a  wide  and  efficiently  planned 
system  of  publicity  and  advertising.  The  happy 
result  has  been  a  number  of  prosperous  and  steadily 
increasing  Catholic  communities  located  in  various 
states  of  the  Union.  Among  these  may  be  men¬ 
tioned  three  Catholic  colonies  in  the  Riviera  dis¬ 
trict  of  Texas  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  colony 
at  Fruitland  in  Northwestern  New  Mexico,  the 
nourishing  colony  at  Ladysmith  in  upper  Wiscon- 
a  number  of  other  Catholic  settlements 
which  have  been  built  up  in  recent  years.  A 
great  summer  colony  at  Victory  Heights  in  the 
Aorth  "VY  oods  of  Wisconsin  was  opened  recently 
to  the  Catholic  population  of  the  cities,  where  they 
may  spend  their  summer  outdoors,  in  clean  healthy 
amusement,  and  attend  Mass  and  divine  services 


regularly.  These  colonies  amply  demonstrate  that 
systematic  Catholic  colonization  work,  carried  on 
along  practical  lines,  is  a  factor  of  the  utmost  im¬ 
portance  for  the  religious  and  temporal  good  of  the 
himself,  and  in  a  larger  sense  for  the  good 
and  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the 
United  States.  Julius  E.  deVos, 

Peter  J.  Cichozki. 


Catholic  Evidence  Guild,  The,  is  a  part- 
time  voluntary  organization  of  the  laity  for  the 
purpose  of  teaching  their  religion  to  non-Catho- 

Iics.  Its  (active)  members  are  ordinary  lay-folk  men 

and  women,  who  devote  part  of  their  leisure  time  to 
the  work;  it  thus  differs  radically  from  the  mis¬ 
sionary  orders,  although,  in  spirit  and  outlook  it 
seeks  to  copy  them.  In  method  it  is  largely 
original,  partly  on  account  of  the  new  present-day 
setting  of  the  problem  of  preaching  the  Gospel 
and  partly  on  account  of  the  peculiarities  of  struc¬ 
ture  rendered  possible,  or  necessary,  by  the  char- 
acter  of  its  membership.  Together  with  its  main 
object,  1.  e.,  that  of  preaching  the  Church  as  the 
Message  of  God,  are  bound  up  as  subsidiary  ob¬ 
jects  those  of  preaching  the  utility  and  beauty  of 
various  doctrines  and  practices  of  the  Church,  taken 
separately,  of  supporting  whatever  remains  of  Chris- 
tianity  outside  of  the  Church,  and  of  confirming 
the  faith  of  Catholics  in  the  crowd. 

The  methods  adopted  are  those  of  studying  the 
topics  m  the  Catholic  system  upon  which  non- 
Cathohc  interest  is  livelist,  and  of  using  them  as 
at  least,  jumping  off  spots  for  discourse.  All  sub¬ 
jects  are  treated  positively,  i.  e.,  by  means  of  ex¬ 
planatory  description.  The  aim  is  to  build  roads 
into  the  wilderness,  from  the  City  on  the  Hill  so 
that  men  may  not  only  see  the  City  but  also, 
close  to  hand,  the  highway  leading  to  it.  Hence 
negative  and  sterile  argumentation  is  avoided-  and 
also  abstract  disquisitions  and  matter  suitable’  only 
lor  Catholic  audiences.  The  actual  state  of  mind 
ol  the  crowd  addressed  is  throughout,  uppermost  in 
the  speakers  thoughts.  The  common  material  of 
Catholicism  is  accordingly  variously  shaped  to  meet 
the  varying  needs  of  different  audiences.  A  popular 
style  of  oratory  is  aimed  at,  e.  g.,  talks  are  preferred 
to  set  speeches  or  formal  lectures. 

As  regards  the  Catholic  community,  the  Guild 
aims  at  increasing  whatever  degree  of  apostolic 
spirit  the  laity  may  already  possess;  at  the  mass 
production  of  speakers;  and  at  the  wise  employ¬ 
ment  of  the  forces  thereby  brought  into  action. 
Its  organization  is  planned  to  subserve  these  ends; 
there  are  outdoor  training,  propaganda  and  finance 
departments.  The  outdoor  work  is  the  root  of  the 
matter;  everything  else  is  subordinate  to  success 
out-of-doors.  The  outdoor  organization  is  in 
bquads  of  speakers  and  literature  sellers  (usually 
about  ten  to  twelve  in  all),  in  charge  of  the  meet¬ 
ings  held  usually  at  three  “Pitches.”  The  squad 
leaders  form  the  Outdoor  Committee  (chairman, 
the  master  of  the  Guild),  in  general  charge  of  the 
work.  The  training  system  is  built  up  from  the 
practical  experience  gained  in  the  outdoor  work 
and,  so  far  as  regards  its  more  rough-and-ready 
side  is  in  the  hands  of  the  (mainly  lay)  Practical 
Training  Committee,  composed  of  the  leading  suit¬ 
able  speakers  of  the  guild.  More  advanced  work 
is  under  the  personal  control  of  the  Director  of 
Studies.  The  Propaganda  Committee  advertises  the 
work  among  Catholics  and  recuits  new  members. 
Finally,  the  financial  needs,  general  amenities,  and 
administration  of  the  Guild,  headquarters,  etc.,  are 
in  the  hands  of  a  special  Finance,  etc.,  Committee. 
The  governing  body  is  the  Council,  which  decides 


CATHOLIC 


166 


CATHOUC 


general  policy,  and  in  effect  is  a  meeting  ground 
for  the  special  Committees.  .  inio 

The  Guild  was  founded  at  Westminster  in  1918. 
Its  Masters  have  been  Vernon  C.  Redwood 
(1918-1920),  Mark  Symons  (1920-1922).  Its  speak¬ 
ers  in  Westminster  now  (March,  1922)  number 
about  seventy,  with  forty  auxiliary  members  (litera¬ 
ture-sellers,  etc.) ;  it  conducts  thirty  meetings 
weekly,  totalling  seventy  hours  speaking.  ine 
Guild  is  diocesan  in  organization,  and  acts  under 
the  close  direction  of  the  bishop :  it  now  exists  in 
Westminster,  Birmingham,  Portsmouth,  Plymouth, 
Liverpool,  Brentwood  and  many  other  dioceses, 
and  is  in  process  of  formation  in  various  places 


OVPTSPELS 

C.  E.  G.  Handbook  (London,  1922);  Browne,  Catholic 
Evidence  Movement  (London,  1921). 

James  Byrne. 


Catholic  Guardian  Society — The  Catholic  Guar¬ 
dian  Society  of  the  Archdiocese  of  New  York 
supervises  the  children  discharged  from  the  Catho¬ 
lic  institutions  for  dependent  children,  and  co¬ 
operates  with  similar  societies  in  other  parts  of  the 
United  States.  The  children  under  its  care  are  m 
two  groups,  those  returned  to  relatives  and  those 
discharged  directly  to  the  Society.  The  service 
rendered  the  first  group  consists  of  visiting  them 
in  their  homes  at  least  twice  a  year  for  at  least 
three  years,  following  up  their  school  and  church 
attendance,  their  reception  of  the  Sacraments, 
their  work,  and  their  general  conduct.  They  are 
given  the  use  of  the  Society’s  employment  bureau 

and  recreational  activities.  .  ,  ,, 

The  important  work  of  the  Society  is  for  the 
boys  and  girls  who  have  no  relatives  to  take  them. 
Towards  these  the  Society  stands  in  loco  parentis. 
The  director  of  the  Society  visits  every  child-carmg 
institution  of  the  archdiocese  at  least  once  every 
year  in  order  to  become  acquainted  with  the  boys 
and  girls  before  their  discharge.  The  children  look 
upon  him  as  their  medium  of  contact  with  the 
outside  world.  They  appeal  to  him  when  they 
think  that  they  should  come  out  and  they  consult 
him  about  the  kind  of  work  they  would  like  to 
take  up.  Upon  their  discharge  they  are  brought  to 
the  Society’s  office  where  the  director  interviews 
them  at  length,  takes  their  history,  explains  to 
them  that  the  Society  has  been  established  for 
their  protection  and  care  and  asks  them  to  do  their 
part  by  always  consulting  him  before  making  any 
change  in  boarding  place  or  work.  An  approved 
boarding  place  is  procured,  the  board  is  paid,  money 
is  given  for  carfare  and  lunches,  and  employment 
is  secured.  The  boy  or  girl  is  followed  up  very 
closely  for  a  while  and  after  being  given  a  good 
start  the  supervision  narrows  down  to  a  monthly 
interview  either  in  the  office  or  at  the  boarding 
home.  This  supervision  is  continued  until  the 
twenty-first  year,  but  is  not  so  frequent  towards 
the  end.  For  this  group  the  Society  is  exerting 
itself  to  the  utmost,  providing  for  the  girls  evening 
entertainments,  a  scout  troop,  and  the  visitation 
of  two  trained  nurses;  for  the  boys,  boy  scouts, 
baseball  teams,  social  evenings,  and  frequent  meet¬ 
ings  in  its  offices.  Two  men  are  employed  for  the 
work  with  the  boys.  The  Society  is  constantly  try¬ 
ing  to  teach  thrift  to  these  boys  and  girls  who 
have  at  present  in  its  care  bank  books,  Liberty 
Bonds,  War  Savings  Stamps,  and  cash  amounting 
to  many  thousands  of  dollars.  The  Society  boards 
most  of  its  boys  and  girls  in  small  groups  of  two 
or  three  in  family  homes  in  Manhattan  and  the 
Bronx,  but  it  has  several  larger  places  conducted 
solely  for  its  boys  or  girls. 

The  Society  takes  care  of  its  boys  or  girls  when 


they  become  sick  and  pays  their  board  when  they 
are  out  of  work,  advances  money  for  clothes  and 
shoes,  and  has  a  loan  fund  and  a  relief  fund.  It 
arranges  for  dental  care  and  medical  examinations, 
also  for  mental  examinations  and,  when  necessary, 
for  commitment  to  proper  institutions.  It  has  had 
to  bury  several  of  its  charges  who  had  no  one  else 
to  perform  that  last  service  for  them. 

The  staff  of  the  Society  consists  of  the  director, 
the  chief  clerk,  five  assistant  clerks,  a  supervisor 
of  case  work,  four  women  agents,  two  men  agents, 
and  three  women  who  give  part  time  to  the  work. 
Last  year  over  12,000  visits  were  made  by  the 
Society’s  agents,  nearly  4,000  children  visited  the 
Society’s  offices,  and  over  2,000  boys  and  girls  at¬ 
tended  the  Society’s  annual  reunion.  The  president 
of  the  Society  is  His  Grace  Archbishop  Patrick  J. 
Hayes,  the  director  Rev.  Samuel  Ludlow.  The 
offices  of  the  Society  are  at  480  Lexington  Avenue, 
New  York  City. 


Catholic  Guild  of  Israel,  The. — This  movement 
was  initiated  by  a  Hebrew  Catholic  and  established 
at  its  present  headquarters,  the  Convent  of  Our 
Lady  of  Sion,  Bayswater,  London,  on  18  December, 
1917,  as  an  extension  of  the  Archconfraternity  of 
Prayer  which  for  over  half  a  century  has  been 
supplicating  the  conversion  of  Israel.  The  Guild 
was  approved  and  blessed  by  Pope  Benedict  XV, 
and  partakes  in  the  indulgences  granted  to  the 
Archconfraternity  by  Pope  Pius  X,  on  22  March, 
1906.  In  addition  its  activities  have  been  wel¬ 
comed  and  are  being  supported  by  the  Cardinal 
Archbishop  of  Westminster,  the  Cardinal  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Paris,  and  other  prominent  ecclesiastics 
throughout  the  world.  The  hundreds  of  Masses 
which  are  said  every  year  in  practically  every  coun¬ 
try  for  the  Guild’s  intention  prove  the  widespread 
recognition  of  its  importance. 

The  object  of  the  Guild  is  the  conversion  of 
Israel.  The  means  adopted  are:  (I)  Prayer. 
(II)  Sermons  and  lectures  to  Catholics  on  the  work 
of  the  Guild,  and  articles  in  Catholic  newspapers 
and  magazines.  (Ill)  Correspondence  center  for 
inquiring  Jews,  and  for  collecting  and  spreading  in¬ 
formation.  (IV)  Publication  of  literature  in  Eng¬ 
lish,  Yiddish  and  other  tongues.  (V)  A  Reference 
Library  of  Hebrew  and  Catholic  books  for  the  use 
of  lecturers  and  students  to  qualify  as  such. 
(VI)  Public  lectures  to  Jews  in  the  Ghetto  dis¬ 
tricts  from  the  Guild’s  own  platforms  (the  emblem 
chosen  for  the  platforms  consists  of  Crucifix  in 
center,  on  the  left  the  Shield  of  David,  and  on 
the  right  the  Keys  of  St.  Peter).  The  public  lec¬ 
tures  already  delivered  have  given  the  Guild  great 
encouragement.  The  Guild  of  Our  Lady  oi  Ran¬ 
som  and  the  Catholic  Evidence  Guild  are  giving 
valuable  assistance  in  this  particular  branch.  The 
president  of  the  Guild  is  Very  Rev.  Bede  Jarrett, 
O.P.,  Chairman  Mr.  Hugh  Israelowicz-Angress, 
Hon.  Sec.  Mrs.  Murray.  The  principal  members 
of  the  Executive  Committee  are  members  of  the 
community  of  Our  Lady  of  Sion,  Bayswater,  who 
through  their  unceasing  energy  have  helped  to  bring 
the  Guild  to  its  present  flourishing  position. 

Hugh  I.  Angress. 


Catholic  Laymen’s  Association,  an  organization, 
the  first  of  its  kind,  composed  entirely  of  laymen 
and  women,  formed  in  1916  to  counteract  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  bigotry  in  Georgia,  where,  after  years  of 
agitation,  hatred  of  Catholics  had  been  stirred  to 
the  point  that  in  1915  the  state  Leglisature  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  inspection  by  grand  juries  of  Catholic 
schools  and  convents.  Following  the  enactment  of 
this  law,  its  sponsors  began  to  agitate  other  anti- 


CATHOLIC 


CATHOLIC 


167 


Catholic  measures,  including  the  abrogation  of  con¬ 
vents,  the  inhibition  of  clerical  celibacy,  the  dis¬ 
franchisement  of  Catholics,  and  similar  barbarisms, 
when,  at  the  instance  of  a  number  of  laymen  from 
Macon  and  Augusta,  the  Bishop  of  Savannah,  Rt. 
Rev.  Benjamin  J.  Keiley,  D.  D.,  invited  two  lay 
representatives  from  each  parish  in  the  diocese  to 
convene  for  action.  At  the  resultant  meeting  the 
Catholic  Laymen’s  Association  of  Georgia  was 
formed.  It  was  decided  to  use  all  the  channels  of 
publicity  available  to  inform  the  people  of  Georgia 
with  regard  to  Catholic  teaching  and  practice.  The 
assistance  of  the  Religious  Prejudice  Commission  of 
the  Knights  of  Columbus  was  secured,  a  central 
bureau  was  created,  with  a  trained  newspaper  man 
in  charge,  advertisements  were  inserted  in  all  the 
papers  of  the  State,  inviting  questions  about  Cath¬ 
olics  and  their  belief.  Every  unfavorable  reference 
to  things  Catholic,  appearing  in  any  of  the  two 
hundred  papers  in  Georgia,  was  promptly  corrected 
from  the  central  office.  In  a  short  time  the  Asso¬ 
ciation  had  built  up  a  large  mailing  list.  Its  file  of 
correspondence  in  reply  to  inquiries  reached  huge 
proportions  and  dealt  with  every  possible  phase  of 
Catholic  teaching  and  practice.  The  work  attracted 
the  attention  of  Catholics  throughout  the  country. 
It  became  known  in  Rome  and  was  approved  and 
blessed  by  Pope  Benedict  XV.  During  one  year 
the  Association  sent  out  500,000  pieces  of  literature, 
answered  2,500  inquiries,  wrote  5,500  letters  and 
published  numerous  articles  in  the  press. 

Since  the  Association  was  formed  the  Diocese 
of  Savannah  has  had  the  greatest  proportion  of 
converts  of  any  diocese  in  the  province  of  Balti¬ 
more.  When  the  Convent  Inspection  Law  was 
passed  in  1915,  only  one  paper  in  all  Georgia  con¬ 
demned  the  anti-Catholic  sentiment  exhibited,  while 
a  large  percentage  of  Georgia’s  two  hundred  papers 
were  outspoken  in  favor  of  it,  and  more  than  a 
score  of  papers  regularly  carried  anti-Catholic 
diatribes.  In  1921  anti-Catholic  articles  in  legiti¬ 
mate  newspapers  in  Georgia  numbered  less  than  a 
dozen  for  the  entire  year. .  The  secret  of  this  suc¬ 
cess  is  found  in  three  main  features  of  the  work, 
viz.:  (1)  it  is  persistent,  like  the  constant  drop  of 
water  on  a  hard  rock;  (2)  it  is  personal  and  local, 
every  letter  being  written  for  the  one  occasion  and 
every  article  being  prepared  with  Georgia  condi¬ 
tions  in  mind;  (3)  it  is  patient,  kind,  free  from 
controversy,  based  on  the  duty  of  loving  one’s 
neighbor  as  one’s  self.  In  addition  to  its  other 
activities  the  Association  promotes  lay  retreats  and 
publishes  a  paper,  “The  Bulletin,”  which  issues  fort- 
nightly  and  circulates  in  every  State  and  in  many 
foreign  countries.  Branch  Associations  exist  in  all 
the  principal  cities  of  Georgia.  The  Central  Bureau 
is  at  Augusta. 


Catholic  Protective  Society,  The,  of  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  New  York,  founded^  March,  1911,  by 
the  Rev.  Thomas  J.  Lynch,  with  the  approval  of 
Cardinal  Farley,  who  appointed  him  Supervisor  of 
Correction  Work  for  Catholics  for  the  diocese.  The 
charter  of  the  Society  was  granted  the  following 
June  for  the  purpose  of  separating  the  work  for 
delinquents  from  that  for  purely  dependant  sub¬ 
jects,  the  care  of  whom  still  remained  under  the 
direction  of  the  Supervisor  of  Charities.  The 
Society  has  grown  to  be  the  largest  and  only  fully 
equipped  Catholic  Church  agency  for  court  and 
prison  work  in  the  United  States.  Its  activities 
cover  the  Magistrate’s,  Special  Sessions  and  Domes¬ 
tic  Relations  Courts,  also  the  special  Night  Court 
for  Men  and  the  Women’s  Court,  in  all  of  which 
its  efforts  are  confined  to  purely  missionary  en¬ 


deavors  for  adult  misdeameanants,  the  probation 
voik  being  in  charge  of  civil  service  appointees, 
with  whom  the  society’s  officers  co-operate. 

,  u  ^sro^sionary  field  its  greatest  part  has  proved 
to  be  the  Childrens  Court,  where  it  looks  after  the 
intei ests  of  the  Catholic  juveniles  arraigned  there 
and  through  its  Children’s  Bureau  has  kept  each 
pastor  in  touch  with  every  case  brought  there  from 
his  parish,  informing  him  of  the  nature  of  the 
offense,  etc.,  with  the  request  that  home  conditions 
be  inquired  into  and  if  necessary  remedied.  It  has 
dealt  with  40,000  children,  and  when  required  placed 
«  ;ir  services  a  paid  legal  representative.  Its 
staff  of  officers  has  been  maintained  entirely  through 
individual  charity.  In  the  General  Sessions  and 
Supreme  Courts,  however,  the  society  was  given, 
through  the  will  of  the  united  judges,  complete  con¬ 
trol  of  probation  matters,  as  the  various  religious 
societies  were  favored  rather  than  any  irresponsible 
civil  agency  to  investigate  and  supervise  those 
adjudged  guilty  of  felonies.  It  has  covered  this 
ground  most  commendably  for  eleven  years,  having 
made  over  20,000  investigations  for  the  judges  of 
the  General  Sessions  and  Supreme  Court,  with  over 
o22?  sl*sPended  sentences  as  the  outcome,  of  which 
87  %  of  those  committed  to  it  for  oversight  have 
proved  faithful  to  the  trust  reposed  in  them  by 
the  judges  who  placed  them  on  probation.  All  of 
this  involved  the  securing  of  positions  for  the  men 
and  women  probationers,  the  amelioration  of  home 
conditions  and  the  bringing  of  these  subjects  under 
the  immediate  spiritual  care  of  their  pastors. 

A  most,  practical  evidence  of  the  value  of  proba- 
tion  both  as  a  cure  and  a  future  deterrent  may  be 
seen  fiom  the  fact  that  through  the  Society’s  efforts 
complainants  who  were  damaged  in  their  goods, 
restitution  from  probationers  to  the  extent 
of  $45,509.47  paid  through  the  Society’s  office.  Be- 
s*~e?  .saying  from  the  convict’s  brand  and  the  loss 
ol  citizenship  these  men  who  were  thus  committed 
to  its  care,  the  Society  has  saved  the  tax  payers 
in  its  eleven  years  of  probation  work,  an  amount  of 
not  less  than  $2,000,000.  As  the  average  cost  per 
year  of  a  State  prisoner  is  not  less  than  $400  the 
amount  saved  to  the  State  bjr  the  5000  probationers 
that  have  been  kept  out  of  its  institutions,  aggre¬ 
gates  the  huge  sum  mentioned  above,  all  of  which 
work  has  been  done  without  one  penny  of  com¬ 
pensation  from  the  State ;  and  all  through  the 
charity  of  the  friends  of  the  Society.  Another 
feature  of  the  Society’s  work  has  been  its  parole 
system,  done  voluntarily  and  without  compensa¬ 
tion  from  the  State,  for  the  men  and  women  re¬ 
leased  from  the  four  State  prisons  of  New  York. 
It  has  had  paroled  to  it  nearly  4000  men  and 
women  of  all  nationalities  and  colors,  Catholics  at 
least  by  Baptism,  and  so  effectively  has  it  dealt 
with  the  problems  of  these  difficult  cases  that  it  has 
not  lost  of  them,  either  by  disappearance  from 
oversight  or  by  new  offenses  against  the  law,  more 
than  15%  in  any  year  and  sometimes  as  low  as  7%. 
Despite  the  trying  economic  conditions  and  other 
elements  militating  against  success,  as  every  priest 
in  the  State  acts  as  a  parole  officer  in  regard  to 
those  who  come  from  his  parish,  the  rehabilita¬ 
tion  of  the  paroled  man  has  been  steadily  and 
consistently  brought  about.  It  has  also  taken  care 
of  prisoners  from  the  Federal  prisons  of  Atlanta  and 
Leavenworth. 

Its  work  for  women  has  been  most  fruitful. 
Since  1916  it  has  maintained  a  shelter  for  women 
charged  with  offenses  by  the  courts  and  for  the 
unmarried  mothers,  who  were  given  pre-natal  and 
maternity  care  in  their  need ;  so  that  during  the 
four  years  preceding  November,  1920,  it  cared  for 


CATHOLIC 


168 


CATHOLIC 


1632  unmarried  mothers  with  babies;  women  and 
girls  1820;  returned  273  girls  to  their  homes  and 
supplied  40,800  meals.  This  is  but  a  part  of  the 
work  accomplished,  which  will  be  continued 
at  the  permanent  quarters  procured  for  the 
Catholic  Big  Sisters  through  the  generosity  of 
Archbishop  Hayes,  by  the  purchase  of  a  house  at 
457  West  22nd"  Street,  New  York,  which  will  be 
maintained  by  the  Catholic  Big  Sisters  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  already  mentioned.  Its  industrial  department 
since  1911  has  been  gathering  clothing,  furniture, 
etc.  Its  aid  in  re-constructing  homes  and  getting 
families  together  again  has  been  most  marked  and 
practical.  Besides  the  departments  already  men¬ 
tioned,  there  was  inaugurated  under  the  charter  of 
the  society  the  Catholic  Boys’  Protective  League 
afterwards  known  as  the  Catholic  Big  Brothers  and 
also  the  Catholic  Boys’  Brigade,  which  had  for 
its  purpose  the  welfare  of  the  Catholic  boys  in 
the  public  schools,  both  of  which  are  now  inde¬ 
pendent  organizations.  Since  its  inception  until 
January,  1921,  all  the  expenses  incurred  by  the 
Society  in  its  various  lines  of  activity  were  borne 
by  funds  supplied  by  private  charity. 

Catholic  Social  Guild,  an  organization  whose  aim 
is  to  excite  a  keener  interest  among  Catholics  in 
social  questions,  and  to  assist  in  working  out  the 
application  of  the  Church’s  principles  to  actual 
social  conditions.  At  the  annual  conference  of  the 
Catholic  Truth  Society,  held  in  Manchester  in  1909, 
a  small  private  meeting  was  convened,  in  which  the 
view  was  unanimously  accepted  that  the  time  was 
ripe  for  Catholics  to  take  an  active  part  in  the 
great  social  movement  of  the  day.  A  provisional 
executive  was  appointed  which  met  at  Oscott  in 
the  following  October  and  framed  a  constitution. 
Early  in  1910  the  first  of  the  series  of  “Year  Books” 
of  the  Guild  appeared,  wherein  the  field  and  forces 
of  Catholic  social  action  were  displayed.  The 
Encyclical  of  Leo  XIII  “On  the  Condition  of  the 
Working  Classes”  was  published  at  once  as  the 
charter  and  programe  of  the  society’s  work.  Other 
pamphlets  speedily  followed.  In  the  publication 
of  these  early  studies  the  Guild  was  indebted  to 
the  co-operation  of  the  Catholic  Truth  Society.  On 
th$  retirement  of  the  first  secretary,  Mrs.  V.  M. 
Crawford,  after  nearly  ten  years  of  successful  or¬ 
ganization,  the  office  of  the  Guild  was  removed  to 
Oxford. 

The  Guild  is  a  teaching  service.  It  produces 
books  and  pamphlets,  organizes  meetings,  confer¬ 
ences,  study  clubs,  and  examinations,  gives  lectures 
and  acts  as  a  medium  of  information  both  national 
and  international.  Besides  the  pamphlets  of  a  more 
general  character,  there  are  volumes  under  the  gen¬ 
eral  heading  of  “Catholic  Studies  in  Social  Reform,” 
embracing  such  burning  topics  as  “Sweated  Labor 
and  the  Trade  Board  Act,”  “The  Housing  Prob¬ 
lem,”  “The  Church  and  Eugenics,”  “Christian 
Feminism.”  “The  Primer  of  Social  Science”  is  now 
in  its  fourth  edition.  The  regretted  Father  Plater’s 
“Primer  of  Peace  and  War”  was  pronounced  by  a 
non-Catholic  contemporary  to  be  far  the  ablest 
textbook  on  War  from  the  Christian  standpoint 
which  had  appeared  in  English.  Nearly  100,000 
copies  have  been  sold  of  “The  Nation’s  Crisis,”  by 
Cardinal  Bourne,  “The  Pope’s  Peace  Note,”  and 
Fr.  Bernard  Vaughan’s  pamphlet  on  “The  Worker’s 
Right  to  Live.”  A  quarterly  Bulletin  was  com¬ 
menced  in  1911,  giving  an  account  of  the  activities 
of  the  Guild  and  its  publications.  At  the  urgent 
instance  of  workingmen  this  was  superseded  in 
January,  1921,  by  “The  Christian  Democrat,”  which 
is  published  monthly. 


From  the  outset  study  clubs  were  founded  in 
various  parts  of  the  country.  At  the  present  there 
are  some  140  such  clubs  in  connection  with  the 
Guild,  using  chiefly  as  their  textbooks  “The  Primer 
of  Social  Science,”  “The  Christian  Citizen,”  and 
“The  Christian  Social  Crusade.”  Cprrespondence 
tuition  is  carried  on  in  social  science,  industrial  his¬ 
tory,  and  political  economy.  An  examination  board 
has  been  formed  in  connection  with  the  secondary 
schools.  Adult  candidates  are  examined  in  the 
same  subjects,  and  diplomas  of  merit  are  granted 
on  certain  conditions.  Much  excellent  work  has 
been  produced  by  this  class  of  candidates.  Progress 
has  hitherto  been  delayed  by  the  shortage  of  avail¬ 
able  tutors  and  lecturers,  but  this  deficiency  is 
being  gradually  remedied.  As  a  means  of  special 
instruction  and  social  intercourse  a  summer  school 
was  held  at  Oxford  in  1920  and  1921  which  will 
probably  become  an  annual  event.  Most  con¬ 
spicuous  among  the  recent  achievements  of  the 
Guild  is  the  establishment  of  a  college  at  Oxford 
for  Catholic  workingmen.  The  college  is  in  effec¬ 
tive  working  order  with  its  head  and  professors. 
The  men  in  residence  are  maintained  on  scholar¬ 
ships  provided  by  fellow-workers  in  Preston  and 
Liverpool.  Arrangements  are  being  made  to  found 
a  Westminster  scholarship,  and  a  second  is  to  fol¬ 
low  at  Liverpool.  This  significant  advance  will 
doubtless  lead  very  shortly  to  the  establishment  of 
a  similar  college  for  Catholic  women. 

As  the  movement  promoted  by  the  C.  S.  G.  was 
to  some  extent  antagonistic  to  prevailing  notions 
as  to  capital,  employer  and  worker,  it  is  no  cause 
for  wonder  that  in  some  quarters  the  C.  S.  G. 
aroused  suspicion.  It  was  blamed  by  some  for 
being  too  advanced,  and  by  others  for  not  being 
advanced  enough.  It  may  here  be  stated  that  not 
a  line  written  by  the  Guild  has  incurred  censure, 
nor  a  single  one  of  its  speakers  been  called  to  order 
by  ecclesiastical  superiors.  “Its  attitude  towards 
Socialism  was  explained  by  the  President  at  Cardiff 
(1914)  with  a  clearness  and  thoroughness  that  met 
with  the  express  and  emphatic  approval  of  H.  E. 
Cardinal  Gasquet  and  Bishop  McIntyre,  both  pres¬ 
ent  on  the  platform.”  (Year  Book,  1919). 

Henry  Parkinson. 

Catholic  Theater  Movement — A  society  founded 
in  New  York  City  on  18  December,  1918,  to  coun¬ 
teract  the  evil  tendencies  in  the  modern  drama  by 
furnishing  correct  information  about  current 
theatrical  productions.  The  first  meeting  was  called 
at  the  instance  of  Miss  Eliza  O’Brien  Lummis,  and 
was  presided  over  by  John  Cardinal  Farley,  first 
honorary  president.  The  cardinal’s  successor,  Arch¬ 
bishop  Patrick  J.  Hayes,  has  likewise  been  emphatic 
in  his  endorsement  of  the  movement,  the  direction 
of  which  from  the  first  has  remained  in  the  hands 
of  Mgr.  M.  J.  Lavelle,  rector  of  the  cathedral.  In 
the  initial  number  of  the  “Bulletin,”  the  official 
publication  of  the  Catholic  Theater  Movement, 
Cardinal  Farley  asked  for  its  “campaign  of  educa¬ 
tion,”  not  only  the  support  of  the  Catholic  public, 
but  the  co-operation  of  all  God-fearing  people  in 
a  concerted  effort  to  defend  themselves,  their  fam¬ 
ilies  and  their  children  from  the  evil  tendencies  of 
amusements  opposed  to  Christian  standards  of  right 
thinking  and  right  living.  The  best  known  and 
perhaps  distinctive  activity  of  the  movement  has 
been  the  publication  of  a  “White  List”  of  plays. 
This  list  is  put  forward  as  a  suggested,  not  an  im¬ 
posed  guide,  to  plays  which  in  the  main  are 
adjudged  to  be  free  from  objectionable  features. 
Counsels  of  perfection  are  not  insisted  upon,  and 
plays  are  included  in  the  White  List  which  must 
be  tolerated  rather  than  approved.  Reports  on 


CATHOLIC 


1G9 


CEBU 


plays,  other  than  those  submitted  for  the  White 
Lists,  are  also  made  in  the  “Bulletin,”  coming  under 
three  heads:  plays  which  because  of  some  objec¬ 
tionable  feature  cannot  receive  even  qualified  com¬ 
mendation;  plays  with  an  assumed  serious  purpose, 
the  support  of  which  must  be  left  to  the  conscience 
of  the  adult  playgoers;  and  plaj^s  which  in  effect  are 
part  of  a  propaganda  in  the  interest  of  social  and 
moral  anarchy,  ranging  from  problem  plays  with 
anti-Christian  bias  down  to  the  lowest  forms  of 
salacious  farce. 

Catholic  University  of  America  (cf.  C.  E., 
III-455a) ,  formally  opened  in  Washington,  D.  C.’ 
on  13  November,  1889,  has  made  marked  progress 
in  recent  years,  the  number  of  professors  and  in¬ 
structors  having  grown  since  1907  from  32  to  86, 
and  the  t9tal  number  of  students  from  210  to  1,834. 
With  a  view  to  providing  the  teaching  Sisterhoods 
with  the  necessary  training  for  this  work,  a  teachers’ 
college  was  established  in  1911,  and  approved  by 
Pope  Pius  X  in  his  letter  to  the  Cardinal  Chancellor 
on  5  January,  1912.  On  22  April,  1914,  the  college 
was  incorporated  as  a  separate  institution  under 
the  title  of  “The  Catholic  Sisters’  College.” 

With  the  authorization  of  the  trustees  of  the 
university,  other  colleges,  high  schools  and  novitiates 
may  be  affiliated  with  the  university,  the  affiliated 
institution  preserving  its  autonomy.  At  the  present 
time  (1921)  the  institutions  affiliated  with  the  uni¬ 
versity  number:  colleges,  15;  high  schools,  177; 
novitiates,  46. 

Owfing  to  numerous  endowments  received,  the 
university  has  been  able  to  add  substantially  to  its 
libraries  and  the  law  library  now  numbers  over 
14,000  volumes. 

In  1919  several  scholarships  were  established  in 
the  university  by  the  War  Activities  Committee 
of  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  with  a  view  to  pro¬ 
viding  educational  facilities  for  men  returned  from 
war  service. 

In  1908  the  Rt.  Rev.  Dennis  J.  O’Connell,  Bishop 
of  Sebaste  and  rector  of  the  university,  was  made 
auxiliary  bishop  of  San  Francisco,  and  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Thomas  J.  Shahan  succeeded  him  as  rector  1909. 
That  same  year  Monsignor  Shahan  was  appointed 
a  domestic  prelate,  and  in  1915  was  made  Bishop 
of  Germanicopolis.  Bishop  Shahan  is  still  (1921) 
rector  of  the  university. 

Catholic  Writers’  Guild,  The,  was  organized  at 
a  meeting  held  at  the  residence  of  the  Most  Rev. 
Patrick  J.  Hayes,  Archbishop  of  New  York,  on  12 
December,  1919.  Its  first  meeting  was  held  on  25 
March,  1920,  at  which  the  organization  was  per¬ 
fected  and  a  constitution  adopted.  The  idea  of  a 
Catholic  Writers’  Guild  was  that  of  the  Rev.  Dr. 
John  Talbot  Smith  who  at  the  first  meeting  out¬ 
lined  the  objects  of  such  an  association,  these  being 
the  mutual  aid  which  Catholic  authors,  journalists, 
artists,  illustrators,  and  playrights  can  be  to  each 
other  if  organized  in  a  body  and  the  value  such 
a  body  can  be  to  the  Church.  Archbishop  Hayes 
was  asked  to  accept  the  honorary  presidency,  and 
he  graciously  accepted.  The  second  meeting  was 
a  reception  in  honor  of  His  Grace. 

The  first  president  of  the  guild  was  Mr.  Thomas 
F.  Meehan,  the  “dean  of  Catholic  journalists.”  He 
was  succeeded  in  1921  by  Arthur  Benington  of 
the  editorial  staff  of  the  New  York  World.  The 
present  officers  are  as  follows:  Honorary  president, 
His  Grace  the  Most  Rev.  Patrick  J.  Hayes,  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  New  York;  president,  Arthur  Benington; 
vice-presidents,  Dr.  Conde  B.  Pallen,  Miss  Eliza¬ 
beth  Jordan,  Thomas  F.  Woodlock;  treasurer,  Hugh 
A.  O’Donnell;  secretary,  Thomas  C.  Quinn;  spiritual 
director,  Rev.  John  B.  Kelly. 


..Board  of  Governors:  Rev.  John  Talbot  Smith, 
Mrs.  Ihomas  A.  McGoldrick,  Austin  J.  Ford,  James 
Blaine  Walker,  Rev.  John  J.  Wvnno,  S.J.,  Daniel 
L.  Ryan^  Edward  P.  McNamec,  Dr.  Harold  Beckett 
Gibbs,  Rev.  John  J.  Burke,  C.S.P.,  Augustin  Mc¬ 
Nally,  Patrick  T.  Rellihan,  Dr.  Joseph  H  Wade 
Eleanor  Rogers  Cox,  John  Tyrone  Kelly,  Nathaniel 
I .  Babcock,  Miss  Mary  Sullivan,  John  F.  O’Neil 
Rev.  Francis  P.  Duffy. 

The  Guild’s  early  activities  have  included  an  im¬ 
posing  commemoration  of  the  600th  anniversary  of 
the  death  of  Dante.  This  so  impressed  the  National 
Dante  Committee  that  it  awarded  one  of  the  com¬ 
memorative  medals,  issued  by  the  Casa  di  Dante 
in  Rome,  to  the  guild. 

Cattaro,  Diocese  of  (Catarensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-456d),  in  Jugoslavia,  suffragan  of  Zara.  This  see* 
is  now  (1922)  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Francesco  Ucellini, 
born  in  Lopud  1847,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Benda  18  May,  1894,  transferred  18  March,  1895, 
and  named  an  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne 
28  February,  1914.  In  1920  this  diocese  had  a  Cath¬ 
olic  population  of  14,294,  15,000  non-Catholics,  19 
parishes,  10  vicariates,  29  secular  and  8  regular 
clergy. 

Cava  and  Sarno,  Diocese  of  (Cavensis  et 
Sarensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-467c).  in  the  province  of 
Salerno,  Southern  Italy,  directly  subject  to  the 
Holy  See.  Rt.  Rev.  Giuseppe  Izzo,  whio  succeeded 
to  this  see  3  December,  1890,  was  made  an  assistant 
at  the  pontifical  throne  18  March,  1906,  died  15 
January,  1914,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present 
incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Luigi  Lavitrano.  Born  in 
Forio  1874,  made  an  honorary  canon  3  March,  1904, 
director  of  the  Leonine  College  at  Rome  1901,  ap¬ 
pointed  25  May,  1914.  The  diocese  of  Cava,  accord- 
ing  to  1920  statistics,  has  a  Catholic  population  of 
28,000,  18  parishes,  118  secular  and  7  regular  clergy, 
54  seminarians,  6  Brothers,  20  Sisters,  and  100 
churches  or  chapels.  Sarno  is  credited  with  36,204 
Catholics,  8  parishes,  95  secular  and  9  regular  clergy, 
40  seminarians,  7  Sisters,  and  40  churches  or  chapels. 

Cayes,  Diocese  of  (Cajesensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-469d),  in  Haiti.  The  Catholic  population  of 
528,000  is  mostly  made  up  of  negroes  from  various 
parts  of  Africa  and  originally  brought  into  the 
diocese  as  slaves;  the  balance  of  a  small  minority 
is  European  or  American.  There  are  39  secular 
priests,  34  parishes,  98  churches,  3  convents  for 
men  and  11  for  women,  1  seminary  for  the  natives 
with  9  seminarians,  55  elementary  schools  with  61 
teachers  and  3,000  pupils,  many  primary  schools 
with  130  teachers  and  7,000  pupils,  1  home,  2  asy¬ 
lums  and  1  orphanage.  The  government  contributes 
in  part  to  the  support  of  the  Catholic  institutions. 
For  the  clergy  there  are  a  Society  of  Perpetual 
Adoration  and  a  fund  for  infirm  priests.  Many 
religioiis  societies  exist  among  the  laity.  One 
periodical  is  published  for  the  entire  province. 

Of  the  23  priests  who  fought  in  the  army  as 
soldiers  during  the  war,  1  was  killed  and  many 
were  wounded,  21  returned  to  their  former  diocesan 
duties.  On  17  August,  1911,  the  diocese  was  swept 
by  a  cyclone  which  did  great  damage.  The  Amer¬ 
ican  soldiers  were  at  one  time  quartered  in  the 
region.  Two  of  the  ordinaries  of  the  diocese  re¬ 
cently  resigned  and  two  others  were  elected.  There 
was  an  epidemic  of  small-pox  during  1919  and  1920. 

Cebu  (Diocesis  Nominis  Jesu),  Diocese  of 
(Cebuanensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-471a),  in  the  Philip¬ 
pine  Islands.  By  decree  of  10  April,  1920,  a  portion 
of  the  diocese  was  taken  to  form  the  new  diocese 
of  Calboyog.  The  first  American  bishop  to  fill  this 
see  was  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  Augustine  Hendrick,  b.  in 


CEFALtJ 


170 


CELEBRET 


Penn-Yan  N  Y.,  29  October,  1849,  consecrated  in 
Rome  23  August,  1903,  d.  of  cholera  28  November, 
1909.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  auxiliary,  Kt.  Rev. 
Juan  Bautista  Gorordo,  b.  in  Barili,  Cebu,  20  April, 
1862,  made  prelate  of  the  Holy  See  17  October, 
1905,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Nilopolis  and 
auxiliary  at  Cebu  24  April,  1909,  succeeded  27 

November,  1911.  „  ,  ..  . '  . 

The  principal  events  of  the  diocese  in  recent 
years  were  the  celebration  of  the  golden  jubilee  of 
the  coming  of  the  IVIission  Fathers,  and  on  16 
March,  1921,  the  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the 
discovery  of  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  following 
persons  of  note  have  died  in  the  diocese  in  recent 
years:  Rev.  Juan  Alcoseba,  author  of  popular  Cath¬ 
olic  books;  Rev.  Domingo  Javier,  author  of  a 
popular  theology;  Rev.  Filigonio  Solon,  editor, 
Hon.  Segundo  Singzon,  ex-Governor  of  Samar  and 
judge  of  the  Court  of  First  Instance;  Seftor  Leoncio 
Alburo,  ex-member  of  the  Cebu  Provincial  Board; 
Senor  Mariano  A.  Cuenco,  Catholic  controver¬ 
sialist  and  poet.  The  diocese  comprises  a  wholly 
Catholic  population,  chiefly  Filipinos,  numbering 
1  368  274.  These  are  served  through  93  parishes, 
96  churches,  2  mission  stations,  2  convents  of  men 
and  3  of  women,  90  secular  and  47  regular  clergy, 
6  lay  brothers,  26  Sisters,  1  seminary  30  semi¬ 
narians,  1  college  for  men  with  23  professors  and 
500  students,  1  college  for  women  with  18  profes¬ 
sors  and  300  students,  1  dormitory  for  young  girls 
attending  the  public  schools,  and  1  orphan  ay  slum. 
The  government  hospital,  the  jail,  and  all  the  public 
schools  permit  the  priests  to  minister  in  them.  A 
society  “Pia  Union  de  Misa”  is  organized  among 
the  clergy  and  the  “Federation  Catolica”  among 
the  laity;  two  periodicals,  “El  Boletin  Catolica 
and  “El  Precursor,”  are  published. 


Cefalu,  Diocese  of  (Cephaludensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
HI_476b),  in  Sicily,  suffragan  of  Palermo.  Rt.  Rev. 
Anselmo  Evangelista  Sansoni,  born  m  Terranova- 
Bracciolini,  1859,  entered  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor, 
and  was  appointed  to  this  see  11  November,  1907. 
He  died  18  June,  1921,  and  up  to  this  time  (1922) 
no  successor  has  been  appointed.  This  diocese  is 
one  of  the  richest  in  Italy,  receiving  an  annual 
revenue  of  139,284  lire  from  rents  and  royalties. 
In  1920  it  had  a  Catholic  population  of  160,320,  22 
parishes,  301  secular  priests,  50  seminarians,  90 
Sisters,  and  265  churches  or  chapels. 

Celebes,  one  of  the  four  great  Sunda  Islands  in 
the  Dutch  East  Indies  between  Borneo  on  the  west 
and  the  Moluccas  on  the  east,  extending  from 
latitude  1°  45'  North  to  5°  45'  South,  and  from 
longitude  118°  45'  to  125°  17'  East.  It  has  an  area 
of  72,070  sq.  miles,  and  consists  of  four  great  penin¬ 
sulas  stretching  east  and  south,  and  separated  by 
three  gulfs  of  Tomini  or  Gorontolo,  Tolo  or 
Tomaiki,  and  Boni.  Though  completely  in  the 
torrid  zone,  the  maritime  tropical  climate  is  health¬ 
ful,  the  temperature  ranging  generally  between  77° 
and  80°,  the  extremes  being  about  90°  and 
70°.  Vegetation  is  remarkably  rich,  the  most  im¬ 
portant  foods  grown  being  rice,  maize,  coffee,  coco¬ 
nuts,  sage,  obi  or  native  potato,  bread  fruit,  and 
tamarind.  Indigo,  cotton,  and  tobacco  are  also 
grown,  the  bamboo  and  rattan  palm  are  common 
in  the  woods  and  among  the  larger  trees  are  sandal¬ 
wood,  ebony,  sapan,  and  teak.  The  products  of 
the  forest  supply  more  than  half  the  total  exports. 
Gold,  copper,  tin,  and  iron  are  found  on  the  island. 

The  native  population  is  of  Malayan  stock:  the 
three  most  important  peoples  are  the  Bugis,  the 
Macassars,  and  the  Mandars.  Though  nominally 
Mohammedan  their  religion  is  largely  mingled  with 


superstition.  The  Macassar  language  is  spoken  m 
parts  of  the  southern  peninsula,  but  Beguinese  has 
a  much  larger  area,  and  is  the  most  cultivated 
and  copious. 

For  administrative  purposes  the  Dutch  have  di¬ 
vided  the  island  into  the  Government  of  Celebes, 
with  dependencies,  and  the  Residence  of  Menado, 
administered  by  a  Dutch  governor.  According  to 
the  official  estimate  the  population  in  1917  was 
3,094,074.  The  capital  is  the  town  of  Macassar, 
where  all  the  products  of  the  neighboring  islands, 
as  well  as  those  of  Celebes  itself,  are  sold.  The 
chief  harbor  of  the  north  is  that  of  Kema. 

Celebes  was  first  discovered  by  the  Portuguese 
in  1512.  In  1607  the  Dutch  formed  a  connection 
with  Macassar  and  in  1618  obtained  a  definite 
establishment  there.  By  the  treaty  of  Bongo  (or 
Banga)  in  1666  the  Dutch  were  recognized  as  pro¬ 
tectors,  and  have  gradually  extended  their  influence 
till  in  the  nineteenth  century  they  made  their 
supremacy  complete.  A  series  of  revolts  of  various 
chiefs  in  1905-6  was  quelled  after  considerable 
fighting. 

The  Celebes  Islands  (de  Celebes),  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of,  erected  19  November,  1919,  compris¬ 
ing  the  Island  of  Celebes  and  eight  adjacent  islands. 
These  islands  were  evangelized  in  the  sixteenth 
century  by  Portuguese  missionaries,  but  after  the 
Dutch  occupation  Calvinism  destroyed  the  work 
they  had  accomplished.  On  4  April,  1808,  two 
secular  priests  returned  to  the  mission,  and  in  1859 
the  Dutch  Jesuits  arrived.  The  territory,  which  is 
five  times  as  large  as  Holland,  covering  an  area 
of  116,196  sq.  miles,  was  formerly  a  part  of  the 
vicariate  apostolic  of  Batavia,  from  which  it  was 
separated  in  1919.  It  is  separated  from  the  Philip¬ 
pines,  lying  north  of  it,  by  the  Celebes  Sea.  Besides 
the  mission  station  of  Macassar,  which  has  506 
Catholics,  mostly  Europeans,  the  chief  center  is  the 
mission  of  Minahassa,  which  in  1920  was  served  by 
6  Jesuit  Fathers,  60  native  catechists,  31  Sisters  of 
Bois-le-Duc,  3  churches  and  stations,  36  chapels  (2 
of  which  belong  to  the  Sisters),  34  Catholic  schools 
with  57  teachers  and  1138  Catholic  pupils  and  631 
non-Catholic  pupils,  6  schools  conducted  by  Sisters 
with  12  religious  and  5  lay  teachers,  with  176  Cath¬ 
olic  and  315  non-Catholic  pupils,  1  normal  school 
for  teachers  and  catechists  at  Wolsan  with  50  pupils, 
1  Catholic  periodical,  “Geredja  Katolite,”  and  a 
number  of  pamphlets  on  apologetics.  Minahassa 
counts  a  total  population  of  742,026,  of  whom  10,763 
are  native  Catholics  and  10  Asiatic  Catholics. 
According  to  the  1918  census  these  islands  com¬ 
prise  a  total  population  of  3,131,984,  of  whom 
3,061,758  are  natives,  42,223  Europeans,  and  28,003 
Asiatics,  mostly  Chinese  and  Arabs.  This  mission 
is  entrusted  to  the  Holland  Province  of  the  Mis¬ 
sionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Issondun.  The 
first  and  present  prefect  apostolic  is  Rev.  Gerard 
Vesters,  appointed  in  January,  1920,  and  embarked 
for  Brindisi  23  June  following. 


Celebret  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-477a). — A  strange  priest 
should  be  allowed  to  say  Mass  in  a  church  on 
presenting  certified  and  still  valid  commendatory 
letters  from  his  ordinary,  if  he  be  a  secular  priest, 
or  from  his  superior  if  he  be  a  religious,  or  from 
the  Sacred  Congregation  for  the  Eastern  Church 
if  he  belong  to  an  Oriental  Rite,  unless  it  is  cer¬ 
tain  that  he  has  committed  an  offense  that  deprives 
him  of  the  right  to  say  Mass.  If  he  has  not  got 
his  letters,  he  may  be  admitted  if  his  moral  standing 
is  well  known  to  the  rector  of  the  church;  should 
he  be  unknown  to  the  rector  he  may  be  allowed  to 
say  Mass  once  or  twice,  provided  he  is  dressed  as 
a  cleric,  receives  no  compensation  at  all  from  the 


CENACLE 


171 


CENSORSHIP 


church  for  saying  Mass  there,  and  signs  his  name, 
office,  and  diocese  in  a  book  kept  specially  for  that 
purpose.  Bishops  may  issue  further  regulations  on 
this  subject  which  must  be  obeyed  by  all  rectors, 
even  by  exempt  religious,  except  where  there  is 
question  of  allowing  a  religious  to  say  Mass  in  a 
church  of  his  own  order. 

Code  jur.  can.,  804. 

Cenacle,  Religious  of  the  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-518c).— 
The  Society  has  houses  in  Belgium,  France,  Italy, 
England,  Holland,  Switzerland,  and  the  United 
States.  The  mother-house  is  at  Brussels,  and  the 
continental  novitiate  at  \  voir,  Belgium.  The  houses 
in  France  are  at:  Paris,  Versailles-,  Lyons,  Paray-le- 
Monial,  Marseilles,  Montpellier,  Nancy,  Amiens, 
Bordeaux,  Toulouse,  and  Mulhouse  (Alsace).  In 
Italy  there  are  houses  at  Rome,  Naples,  Turin, 
Milan,  where  for  a  number  of  years  the  present 
Holy  Father,  Pope  Pius  XI,  was  director  of  the 
community ;  and  San  Georgio ;  in  England  at  Liver¬ 
pool,  Manchester^  London  and  Grayshott;  in  Hol¬ 
land  at  Tilburg;  in  Switzerland  at  Fribourg.  The 
total  number  of  foundations  is  thirty,  four  of  which 
are  in  the  United  States,  where  an  American  Prov¬ 
ince  has  been  established  with  Mother  Marie 
Majoux  as  vicar-provincial.  From  the  Cenacle  of 
St.  Regis  in  New  York,  which  is  the  novitiate  for 
the  United  States,  the  Society  has  made  three  other 
foundations :  Newport,  R.  I.  (1906) ;  Brighton,  Mass. 
(1910);  Chicago,  Ill.  (1920).  There  are  151  Reli¬ 
gious  of  the  Cenacle  in  the  United  States.  The 
present  superior  general  is  Mother  Marie  Aimee 
Lautier,  who  resides  at  Brussels,  Belgium. 

Ceneda  (or  Vittorio  Veneto),  Diocese  of 
(Cenetensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-519b),  in  the  province 
of  Treviso,  Italy.  Since  1818  a  suffragan  of  Venice. 

In  1797  Ceneda  was  part  of  the  Cisalpine  Re¬ 
public;  in  1805  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  founded 
at  the  Peace  of  Pressburg;  became  Austrian  terri¬ 
tory  from  1815  until  1866,  when  it  was  liberated 
from  foreign  domination  and  united  with  the  neigh¬ 
boring  city  of  Serravalle,  made  a  commune  in  the 
Kingdom  of  Italy  under  Victor  Emanuel  II,  who 
re-named  the  city  Vittorio  Veneto. 

Vittorio  Veneto  underwent  a  further  hostile  in¬ 
vasion  during  the  last  war  (October,  1917-October, 
1918).  The  whole  diocese,  being  occupied  by  Aus¬ 
trian  troops,  suffered  heavily,  as  the  seat  of  battle 
for  long  months  lay  between  the  Piave  and  the 
Livenza  on  a  front  that  stretched  from  Monte 
Grappa  to  the  sea.  Vittorio  Veneto  again  proved 
true  to  its  name  when  a  great  Italian  victory  and 
rout  of  the  Austrian  army  took  place  there  (24 
October-4  November,  1918).  This  was  the  last  vic¬ 
tory  of  the  war  and  was  conducive  to  the  armistice 
which  followed. 

The  present  bishop  of  Ceneda  is  Rt.  Rev.  Eugenio 
Beccegato,  b.  at  Fossalta  Padovana,  diocese  of 
Treviso  23  December,  1862;  ordained  10  April,  1866; 
elected  titular  bishop  _  of  Sinope  and  apostolic 
administrator  of  Ceneda  19  May,  1917,  consecrated 
m  Treviso  17  June  following,  publish  10  March, 
1919,  to  succeed  to  the  see  in  place  of  Mgr.  Caroli, 
promoted.  Mgr.  Caroli  was  born  in  Rome  16 
December,  1869,  ordained  1  April,  1893,  rector  of 
the  Lombard  Seminary  in  October,  1911,  elected 
Bishop  of  Ceneda  18  June,  1913,  consecrated  in 
Rome  by  Cardinal  de  Lai  19  October  following, 
promoted  to  titular  archbishopric  of  Tyre  8  May, 
1917,  named  internuncio  to  Bolivia  28  April,  1919’ 
and  died  at  La  Paz  25  January,  1921,  after  having 
great  service  there  for  religion  and  the  nation. 
The  clergy  of  the  diocese  rendered  efficient  service 
during  the  war,  and  especially  during  the  invasion 


of  the  diocese.  They  strove  to  keep  up  the  morale 
ot  the  people,  to  give  material  assistance  and  dis¬ 
tribute  food  to  the  needy.  Many  priests  were  re¬ 
warded  for  their  services  by  the  Government,  first 
among  them  Bishop  Beccegato,  who  was  created  a 
commander  of  the  Order  of  Saints  Maurice  and 
Lazarus. 

x-  T£e  Pt7Pu!ation  of  the  diocese  is  250,000,  prac¬ 
tically  all  of  whom  are  Catholics.  There  are  118 
parishes,  167  sacramental  churches,  361  non-sacra- 
mental  churches  and  stations,  192  secular  and  35 
regular  priests,  10  Brothers,  1  Cistercian  monastery 
310  nuns,  1  seminary  with  14  professors  and  130 
seminal  lans,  3  colleges  for  boys  with  25  instructors 
an 34°  students,  and  3  for  girls  with  30  instructors 
and  330  students,  1  school  of  agriculture  with  10 
instructors  and  80  pupils,  1  professional  school  writh 
8  instructors  and  60  pupils,  1  bureau  of  emigration 
6  refuges,  60  asylums  for  infants,  10  hospitals,  6 
orphanages,  3  associations  among  the  clergy  and 
various  unions  among  the  laity;  1  Catholic  weekly, 

L  Azione,  is  published. 

Censorship  of  Books  (cf.  C.  E.,  111-523). -Pub¬ 
lishers  must  obtain  ecclesiastical  permission  before 
printing  sacred  pictures  with  or  without  prayers. 
Permission  to  publish  books  or  pictures  may  be 
gi  anted  by  the  local  ordinary  (a)  of  the  author, 
or  (b)  of  the  place  of  printing,  or  (c)  of  the  place 
ot.  publication;  but  if  one  of  these  refuses  per¬ 
mission  another  is  not  to  be  asked  unless  he  is 
informed  of  the  refusal  of  the  other  ordinary. 
Religious  must  obtain  the  permission  of  their 
higher  superiors  before  approaching  the  local  ordi¬ 
nary.  Secular  clergy  require  the  consent  of  their 
ordinary  and  religious  of  both  the  ordinary  and 
their  higher  superior  to  publish  books  treating  of 
profane  matters,  or  to  write  for  or  edit  newspapers 
or  periodicals;  and  Catholic  laymen  must  not  write 
for  newspapers  or  periodicals  hostile  to  Catholicism 
or  morality,  unless  for  a  just  and  reasonable  cause 
approved  by  the  local  ordinary.  Authentic  collec¬ 
tions  of  prayers  and  pious  works  to  which  the 
Holy  See  has  annexed  indulgences,  or  schedules  of 
Apostolic  indulgences,  or  summaries  of  indulgences 
formerly  collected  but  never  approved,  or  those 
now  for  the  first  time  collected,  must  not  be  pub¬ 
lished  without  the  express  permission  of  the  Holy 
See.  In  publishing  liturgical  books,  wholly  or  in 
part,  and  also  litanies  approved  by  the  Holy  See, 
the  ordinary  of  the  place  of  printing  or  publica¬ 
tion  must  first  certify  that  the  work  agrees  with 
the  approved  editions.  Vernacular  translations  of 
the  Holy  Scripture  must  not  be  printed  unless  they 
are  approved  by  the  Holy  See,  or  unless  they 
are  published  under  the  supervision  of  the  bishops, 
with  annotations  taken  chiefly  from  the  Fathers 
and  learned  Catholic  writers.  Approval  is  also  re¬ 
quired  for  translations  or  new  editions  of  a  work 
already  approved  in  the  original  text;  but  articles 
from  periodicals  when  re-issued  separately  are  not 
considered  new  editions  and  do  not  need  a  new 
approbation. 

The  diocesan  curia  should  have  its  ex-officio 
censors,  secular  or  religious  clergy  of  suitable  age, 
men  of  prudence  and  learning  who  will  observe  a 
just  mean  in  approving  or  condemning  doctrine. 
In  examining  works  the  censors  must  disregard 
personalities,  keeping  before  their  eyes  only  the 
dogmas  of  the  Church,  the  common  teaching  of 
Catholics  as  shown  by  the  decrees  of  general  coun¬ 
cils,  the  constitutions  and  ordinances  of  the  Holy 
See  and  the  consent  of  approved  learned  writers. 
The  censor,  whose  name  is  never  to  be  made  known 
to  the  author  unless  he  has  passed  a  favorable 


CENSORSHIP 


172 


CENSURES 


judgment,  must  make  his  report  in  writing.  If  the 
censor  approves  of  the  work  the  ordinary  is  to 
authorize  its  publication  with  the  censors  decision 
signed  by  his  name;  the  censor’s  name  must  never 
be  omitted,  except  in  a  very  rare  and  extraordinary 
case  when  the  ordinary  deems  the  omission  prudent. 

If  the  ordinary  refuses  to  authorize  the  publication 
of  a  work,  the  author  on  inquiring  must  be  told  why 
approval  has  been  refused,  unless  there  is  a  grave 
reason  to  the  contrary7. 

Authors  and  publishers  who  without  the  requisite 
leave  cause  books  of  the  Holy  Scripture  or  Scrip¬ 
tural  annotations  or  commentaries  to  be  printed 
thereby  incur  excommunication  reserved  to  no 
one.  This  is  a  modification  of  the  canon,  law,  as 
under  the  older  discipline  the  censure  was  incurred 
not  only  by  those  who  caused  the  works  to  be 
printed/ but  by  the  printer  also 

Prohibition  of  Books  (cf.  C.  E.,  IlI-5-nD;. 
Not  only  may  the  Holy  See  for  just  reason  forbid 
any  member  of  the  Church  to  read,  keep,  or  sell 
certain  books,  but  local  councils  and  bishops  may 
impose  similar  restrictions  on  their  own  subjects, 
though  in  the  latter  case  an  appeal  without  sus¬ 
pensive  effect  may  be  made  to  the  Holy  See.  I  he 
abbot  of  a  monastery  sui  juris  and  the  general  of 
an  exempt  clerical  religious  order  with  his  chapter 
or  council  may  forbid  certain  books  to  their  sub¬ 
jects  for  just  reasons;  when  there  would  be  danger 
if  action  were  not  taken  promptly  the  other  higher 
superiors  also  with  their  councils  may  do  so,  but 
in  such  a  case  they  must  notify  the  head  of  the 
order  as  soon  as  possible.  When  a  book  is  con¬ 
demned  by  the  Holy  See  it  is  thereby  forbidden  m 
all  places  and  in  all  languages.  If  it  has  been 
prohibited  it  may  not  be  published,  read,  kept, 
sold,  or  translated  without  permission  of  the  proper 
authorities,  nor  may  it  be  republished  before  the 
necessary  corrections  have  been  made  and  permis¬ 
sion  has  been  granted  by  the  person  who  issued, 
the  prohibition  or  by  his  successor  or  superior. 
Booksellers  must  not  supply,  sell  or  keep  pro¬ 
fessedly  obscene  books;  as  to  other  forbidden  books, 
they  should  obtain  permission  from  the  Holy  See; 
but  they  must  not  sell  them  except  to  those  who 
they  believe  have  a  right  to  ask  for  them.  Persons 
who  have  obtained  permission  of  the  Holy  See  to 
read  and  retain  prohibited  books  are  not  authorized 
to  read  or  keep  books  condemned  by  their  oidi- 
naries,  unless  this  is  expressly  stated  in  the  Apos¬ 
tolic  indult  granted  to  them. 

The  following  general  classes  of  works  are  for¬ 
bidden  by  law:  (a)  editions  of  the  original  text 
and  of  ancient  Catholic  versions  of  the  Scriptures, 
including  those  of  the  Eastern  Church,  made  by 
non-Catholics;  also  translation's  into  any  language 
made  or  edited  by  non-Catholics;  (b)  books  of  any 
writers  which  upheld  heresy  or  schism,  or  under¬ 
mine  the  foundations  of  religion;  (c)  books  attack¬ 
ing  religion  or  morality;  (d)  books  written  by  non- 
Catholics  treating  professedly  of  religion,  unless  it 
is  clear  that  they  contain  nothing  contrary  to  the 
Catholic  Paith;  (e)  certain  books  which  have  not 
obtained  the  requisite  imprimatur  before  publica¬ 
tion,  namely,  the  Bible,  Scriptural  annotations  and 
commentaries,  vernacular  translations  of  the  Bible, 
books  or  booklets  relating  new.  apparitions,  revela¬ 
tions,  visions,  prophecies  or  miracles,,  or  proposing 
new  devotions,  even  when  they  are  intended  only 
for  private  use;  (f)  books  attacking  or  ridiculing 
any  Catholic  dogma,  or  defending  errors  condemned 
by  the  Holy  See,  or  detracting  from  Divine  wor¬ 
ship,  or  intended  to  upset  Church  discipline,  or 
attacking  the  hierarchy  or  the  clerical  or  religious 
state;  (g)  books  teaching  or  recommending  any 


kind  of  superstition,  charms,  divination,  magic,  or 
evocation  of  spirits;  (h)  books  upholding  the  law¬ 
fulness  of  duelling,  suicide,  or  divorce,  or  which  m 
treating  of  the  Masonic  societies  and  others  of  the 
same  kind  declare  them  to  be  useful  and  not  in¬ 
jurious  to  the  Church  and  civil  society;  (i)  books 
professedly  treating  of,  narrating,  or  teaching  ob¬ 
scene  and  lascivious  things;  (j)  editions  of  liturgical 
works  approved  by  the  Holy  See,  in  which  there 
has  been  made  any  change  which  causes  them  to 
vary  from  the  authentic  editions  approved  by  the 
Holy  See;  (k)  books  containing  indulgences  that 
are  apocryphal  or  have  been  proscribed  or  revoked 
by  the  Holy  See;  (1)  all  representations  of  Christ, 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  angels,  saints  or  servants  of  God 
not  consonant  with  the  mind  or  decrees  of  the 

Church.  . 

The  Scriptural  works  just  referred  to  under  (a), 
as  well  as  translations  that  have  not  received  the 
requisite  imprimatur,  may  be  used  only  by.  those 
engaged  in  any  way  in  theological  or  Scriptural 
studies,  provided  they  are  edited  faithfully  and 
in  their  entirety,  and  that  the  introductions  or 
annotations  make  no  attack  on  Catholic  dogma. 
Ordinaries  may  grant  permission  to  their  subjects 
in  case  of  urgency  to  read  individual  books  pro¬ 
hibited  by  the  general  law  or  by  Apostolic  decree. 
Cardinals,  residential  and  bishops,  and  other  ordi¬ 
naries,  if  they  take  the  necessary  precautions,  are 
not  bound  by  the  ecclesiastical  regulations  pro¬ 
hibiting  books. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  1385-1405. 


Censures,  Ecclesiastical  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-527d). 

In  stating  the  relation  of  the  Code  of  Canon  Law 
to  the  earlier  discipline  and  practice,  canon  6  de¬ 
clares  that  all  penalties,  spiritual  or  temporal, 
medicinal  or  vindictatory ,  latce  or  jerendee  sentential, 
which  are  not  mentioned  in  the  Code,  are  abolished. 
So  too,  are  disciplinary  laws  not  contained  ex¬ 
pressly  or  implicitly  in  the  Code,  unless  those  that 
are  laid  down  in  the  approved  liturgical  works  or 
such  as  are  of  positive  or  natural  Divine  law.  . 

Censures  latce  sententice  are  multiplied:  (a)  ii 
different  offenses,  each  of  which  entails  the  censure, 
are  committed,  by  the  same  or  distinct  acts,  (b)  it 
the  same  offense,  entailing  the  censure,,  is  repeated 
so  as  to  form  a  distinct  offense;  (c)  if  the  crime 
when  punished  by  different  superiors  with  different 
censures  is  committed  once  or  oftener.  Censures 
ab  homine  are  multiplied  if  several  precepts  or 
several  sentences  or  more  than .  one  distinct  part 
of  the  same  precept  or  sentence  imposes  a  separate 
censure. 

Censures  may  be  reserved  to  the  Holy  See  simply, 
or  specially,  or  very  specially.  A  censure  latce 
sententice  is  not  reserved  unless  the  law  or  precept 
expressly  so  states;  in  case  of  doubt,  whether  ot 
law  or  fact,  the  reservation  does  not  hold.  Igno¬ 
rance  which  is  not  affected  or  crass  excuses  from 
censures  latce  sententi-ce  when  perfect  deliberation 
is  required,  that  is  when  the  law  uses  the  words 
dare,  knowingly,  rashly,  or  the  like.  In  ordinary 
cases,  however,  it  excuses  from  medicinal  but  not 
from  vindicatory  censures.  .  ' 

Reservation  of  censures  is.  justified  only  in  very 
grave  circumstances,  and  is  to  be  interpreted 
strictly.  In  case  of  a  censure  which  prohibits  the 
reception  of  the  sacraments  (excommunication  and 
personal  interdict),  it  implies  reservation  of  the 
sin  to  which  it  was  annexed  (absolution  from 
the  censure  must  precede  absolution  from  the  sin) ; 
whereas  in  the  case  of  other  censures  (suspension 
and  local  interdict),  the  sin  may  be  forgiven  while 
the  censure  remains;  but  the  reservation  of  the 


CENSURES 


173 


CESENA 


sin  ceases  as  soon  as  one  is  excused  or  absolved  was  reserved;  but  lie  must  impose  on  the  penitent 
irom  the  censure,  with  one  exception:  accusing  a  under  penalty  of  re-incurring  the  same  censure  the 
priest  to  his  superiors  on  a  false  charge  of  solicita-  obligation  of  having  recourse  within  a  month  at 
tion  is  a  sin  reserved  to  the  Holy  See  independently  least  by  letter  and  by  confessor,  if  this  be  possible 
of  the  censure  now  attached  to  it.  The  reservation  without  grave  inconvenience  (the  culplit’s  name  of 
of  a  censure  in  a  particular  territory  ceases  when  course,  being  suppressed)  to  the  Sacred  Penitenti’arv 
the  offender  is  outside  of  that  territory  even  if  he  or  a  bishop  or  other  superior  having  the  requisite 
has  left  in  order  to  obtain  absolution;  but  a  cen-  faculties,  and  of  carrying  out  his  instructions.  The 
sure  ad  nomine  if  reserved  is  reserved  everywhere,  penitent,  however,  after  receiving  absolution  in  this 
If  a  confessor  who  does  not  know  of  the  reserva-  manner  and  submitting  his  case  to  the  superior  in 
tion  absolves  a  penitent  from  the  censure  and  sin,  the  manner  just  described,  may  go  to  another  con- 
the  censure  is  validly  absolved,  provided  it  is  not  fessor  who  has  the  requisite  faculties  and  receive 
ah  homine  or  one  verjr  specially  reserved  to  the  absolution  from  him,  after  confessing  to  him  at 
Holy  See.  .  least  the  sin  to  which  the  censure  was  annexed 

It  several  censures  have  been  incurred,  the  culprit  when  he  has  been  thus  absolved  the  confessor  must 
may  be  absolved  from.  one  and  not  from  the  others,  impose  on  him  the  usual  injunctions  (such  for  in- 
u  *or  ^solution  all  the  cases  of  censures  stance  as  to  repair  the  injury  done  or  scandal  given, 

should  be  mentioned,  otherwise,  onfy  the  case  men-  or  to  remove  the  occasion  of  the  sin).  As  result 
*i?ni  -*S  aks°bred;  however,  if  only  a  particular  of  this,  his  case  being  now  closed,  he  may  disregard 
absolution  has  been  asked  and  the  absolution  given  any  instructions  he  may  receive  later  from  the 
was  general,  the  censures  omitted  in  good  faith  are  superior  to  whom  he  first  submitted  the  case.  If 
remitted  provided  they  are  not  very  specially  re-  in  an  extraordinary  case,  except  when  the  censure 
served  to  the  Holy  See.  In  the  extra-sacramental  has  been  incurred  from  the  crime  of  solicitation, 
forum  no  particular  formula  is  necessary  in  absolv-  this  recourse  to  a  competent  authority  is  morally 
ing  from  censures,  but  in  case  of  excommunication  impossible,  the  confessor  may,  after  imposing  the 
it  is  better  to  use  the  formula  given  in  the  ritual  usual  obligations,  absolve  the  penitent  without 
(can.  2250).  Absolution  from  a  censure  in  the  ex-  obliging  him  to  have  recourse  to  the  higher  authori- 
ternal  forum  is  valid  also  for  the  internal;  if  a  ties,  and  impose  on  him  a  fitting  penance  and 
person  has  been  absolved  in  the  internal  forum,  satisfaction  for  the  censure  which  are  to  be  per- 
he  may  act  as  if  he  had  been  absolved  in  the  ex-  formed  within  a  reasonable  time  under  penalty  of 
ternal,  provided  there  is  no  scandal;  but  unless  the  re-incurring  the  censure. 

absolution  is  proved  or  at  least  legitimately  pre-  Codex  can.  jur.,  2241-88;  O’Donnell  in  Irish  Theol.  Quart. 
sumed  in  the  external  forum,  the  superior  of  that  nl^c'enfiiris ''  (T^™Hm9)Penal  Legidation>  74'155:  Cappew>« 
forum  to  whom  the.  culprit  owes  obedience  may  con¬ 
sider  the  censure  in  force  until  absolution  in  the  Cervia,  Diocese  of  (Cerviensis-  cf.  C.  E. 
external  forum  has  been  given.  When  a  person  is  III-545b),  in  the  province  of  Ravenna,  Italy, 
in  danger  of  death  any  priest  can  absolve  him  from  suffragan  of  Ravenna.  The  present  incumbent 
all  censures;  but  if  the  censure  was  ab  homine  or  (1922)  is  Rt.  Rev.  Pasquale  Morganti,  b.  at  Lesmo 
was  very  specially,  reserved  to  the  Holy  See,  the  13  January,  1853,  appointed  Bishop  of  Bobbio  9 
culprit  on  recovering  is  obliged,  under  penalty  of  June,  1902,  promoted  to  the  archdiocese  of  Ravenna 
re-mcurrmg  the  censure,  to  have  recourse  to  him  14  November,  1904,  and  named  also  Bishop  of 
who  imposed  it,  if  it  be  a  censure  ab  homine,  or  Cervia  7  January,  1909,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev. 
to  the. Sacred  Penitentiary  or  the  bishop  or  other  Frederico  Foschi,  d.  7  October,  1908.  He  is  as- 
authorized  person,  within  a  month  at  least  by  letter  sisted  by  a  coadjutor,  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio  Lega, 
or  by  his  confessor  if  that  can  be  done  without  titular  Bishop  of  Attalia,  who  has  right  of  suc- 
grave  inconvenience,  and  to  obey  their  order,  if  cession. 

the  censure  was  a  jure.  When  there  is  no  danger  During  the  World  War  all  the  priests  of  this 
01  death  absolution  can  be  given:  (a)  from  un-  diocese  served  at  home  by  lending  aid  to  the 
reserved  censures  by  any  confessor  in  confession ;  families  of  the  soldiers,  securing  news  of  the  scat-  • 
or  extra-sacramentally  by  anyone  possessing  juris-  tered  men  or  those  fallen  in  the  field,  and  by  giving 
~  111  external  forum  over  the  culprit;  shelter  to  the  refugees  from  invaded  countries;  in 
(b)  from  censures  ab  homine,  by  him  who  inflicted  the  army  many  filled  positions  in  the  ranks,  or  as 
the  censure,  or  who  passed  sentence,  or  by  his  law-  military  chaplains. 

ful  superior,  successor,  or  delegate,  and  this  even  if  The  most  important  development  in  the  diocese 
the  culprit  should  have  acquired  a  domicile  or  quasi-  in  recent  years  was  the  erection  of  four  infant 
domicile  elsewhere ;  (c)  from  reserved  censure  a  asylums,  conducted  by  the  Sisters.  According  to 
jure,  by  him  who  created  the  censure  or  to  whom  it  present  statistics  the  diocese  now  comprises  13 
is  reserved,  or  by  their  successors  or  lawful  superiors  parishes,  26  churches,  35  secular  priests,  30  Sisters, 
or  delegates.  Consequently  if  the  censure  is  reserved  1  seminary,  1  seminarian,  20  communal  schools  with 
to  the  bishop  or  ordinary,  any  ordinary  may  absolve  30  teachers  and  2,000  pupils,  5  asylums,  and  1  hos- 
his  own  subjects,  and  a  local  ordinary  may  absolve  pital.  Five  of  the  public  institutions  permit  the 
“peregrini  also;  if  it  is  reserved  to  the  Holy  See,  the  priests  to  minister  in  them,  and  all  the  communal 
•  bee  can  absolve  and  so  may  those  who  have  schools  are  supported  by  the  Government.  An 
obtained  . from  it  general  power  of  absolving,  if  the  association  is  formed  among  the  clergy  for  deceased 
censure,  is  simply  reserved,  or  who  have  special  priests,  and  the  “Giunta  Diocesana”  among  the 
power,  if  the  censure  is  reserved  specially,  or  very  laitv. 
special  power  if  the  censure  is  reserved  very 

specially.  Cesena,  Diocese  of  (C^senatensis;  cf.  C.  E„, 

In  more  urgent  cases  when  censures  latcesent entice  III-546d),  in  the  province  of  Forli,  Central  Italy, 
cannot  be  observed  exteriorly  without  danger  of  suffragan  of  Ravenna.  This  see  was  filled  by  Rt. 
grave  scandal  or  loss  of  good  name,,  or  if  it  would  Rev.  Giovanni  Cazzani  from  5  August,  1904,  until 
be  hard  on  the  penitent  to  remain  in  the  state  of  his  transfer  to  the  diocese  of  Cremona,  19  Decem- 
sin  until  the  authority  to  absolve  could  be  obtained  ber,  1914.  The  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Fabio 
any  confessor  may  absolve  a  person  in  the  tribunal  Berdini,  born  in  San  Elpidio  1865,  was  appointed 
of  confession  from  any  censure  no  matter  how  it  to  succeed  him  4  June,  1915.  The  latest  statistics 


CEYLON 


174 


CHAMBERLAIN 


of  this  diocese,  1920,  credit  it  with  66,700  Catholics, 
59  parishes,  131  secular  and  40  regular  clergy,  31 
seminarians,  30  Brothers,  90  Sisters,  and  99  churches 
or  chapels. 

Ceylon  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-547c),  an  island  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  off  the  southeast  coast  of  India.  It 
is  a  Crown  Colony  of  Great  Britain,  administered 
by  a  governor,  an  executive  council  of  seven 
members,  and  a  legislative  council  of  twenty-one 
members.  The  executive  council  includes  the  officer 
commanding  the  troops,  the  colonial  secretary, 
the  attorney-general,  the  controller  of  revenue,  the 
colonial  treasurer,  the  government  agent  of  the 
Western  Province,  and  one  member  nominated  by 
the  governor.  The  legislative  council  includes  the 
executive  council,  four  other  office  holders,  and 
ten  unofficial  members  (six  nominated  by  the  gov¬ 
ernor  and  four  elected)  representing  different  races 
and  classes  in  the  colony.  It  is  proposed  to  in¬ 
crease  the  membership  of  the  legislative  council  to 
thirty-seven. 

The  estimated  population  of  Ceylon  in  1919  and 
census  returns  for  1911  were  as  follows,  distributed 
according  to  races:  Europeans,  7,349  (8,524); 

Burghers,  29,336  (26,673) ;  Singalese,  2,989,380 

(2,715,686);  Tamils,  1,424,649  (1,060,167);  Moors, 
276,631  (267,054);  Malays,  14,105  (12,992);  Ved- 
dahs  and  others,  16,146  (19,271);  making  a  total 
of  4,757,596  estimated  in  1919,  and  4,110,367  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  1911  census. 

Education  is  under  the  Department  of  Public 
Instruction.  In  1919  government  schools  numbered 
884,  with  an  attendance  of  130,389;  aided  schools 
numbered  1,855  with  207,676  pupils;  unaided  schools 
1,363  with  28,649  children.  English  and  Anglo- 
vernacular  schools  numbered  265,  with  an  attend¬ 
ance  of  46,888.  There  were  84  industrial  schools. 

Religious  statistics  for  1919  give:  2,866,560  Budd¬ 
hists,  1,087,063  Hindus;  328,613  Mohammedans, 
474,060  Christians.  Estimates  for  the  distribution 
of  the  Christian  population  are  as  follows:  Cath¬ 
olics,  366,327;  Anglicans,  14,733;  Presbyterians, 
3,500;  Wesleyan  .  Methodists,  29,680;  Baptists, 
28,821;  Congregationalists,  11,099. 

Ecclesiastically  Ceylon  comprises  the  Archdiocese 
of  Colombo  and  suffragan  sees  of  Galle,  Jaffna, 
Kandy,  and  Trincomali.  Colombo  and  Jaffna  are 
entrusted  to  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate, 
Galle  and  Trincomali  to  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and 
Kandy  to  the  Benedictines  of  the  Congregation  of 
St.  Sylvester.  In  Ceylon  there  are  245  priests,  both 
European  and  native,  and  religious  communities  of 
the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Family,  Franciscan  nuns,  Missionaries  of 
Mary,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Sisters  of  Charity 
of  Jesus  and  Mary,  and  several  congregations  of 
native  sisters.  The  present  delegate  apostolic  is 
Mgr.  Pietro  Pisani  (1920),  with  residence  at  Banga- 
lore. 

General  ecclesiastical  statistics  for  1919  are: 
churches  and  chapels,  673;  schools,  736,  with  67,573 
pupils;  seminaries,  5,  with  160  students  (in  the 
central  or  “Leonianum”  Seminary  at  Kandy  there 
are  81) ;  orphan  asylums,  18,  with  about  1,000 
orphans;  9  European  secular  priests,  21  native 
priests,  and  225  religious  (Oblates,  Jesuits,  Bene¬ 
dictines)  ;  and  about  650  sisters  in  the  various  edu¬ 
cational  and  charitable  institutions. 

Chabanel,  Noel  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-551a). — The  cause 
of  his  beatification  was  introduced  at  Rome,  9 
August,  1916. 

Chachapoyas,  Diocese  of  (de  Chachapoyas;  cf. 
C.  E.,  III-551b),  in  Peru,  suffragan  of  Lima.  Rt. 


Rev.  Emilio  Lisson,  now  Archbishop  of  Lima,  filled 
this  see  from  16  March,  1909,  until  his  promotion 
25  February,  1918.  The  see  was  left  vacant  for 
more  than  three  years,  until  the  appointment  of 
his  successor,  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev. 
Octavio  Ortiz  Arrieta,  Salesian,  appointed  21 
November,  1921.  The  census  of  1876,  the  last  col¬ 
lected,  credits  this  territory  with  a  population  of 
95,370.  In  1920  these  were  divided  among  6.  dean¬ 
eries,  comprising  35  parishes. 

Chaco,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (de  Chaco),  in 
Bolivia,  South  America,  was  erected  22  May,  1919. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  frontiers  of 
Brazil  and  Paraguay,  and  on  the  south  by  those  of 
Paraguay  and  Argentina.  Contrary  to  the  usual 
ruling,  which  places  a  vicariate  apostolic  in  charge 
of  the  Congregation  of  Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical 
Affairs,  the  decree  of  erection  placed  Chaco  under 
the  Congregation  of  Propaganda,  and  entrusted  it 
to  the  Friars  Minor.  The  official  residence  is  at 
Santa  Rosa  di  Cuevo  Taraija,  Granchaco.  The  first 
and  present  (1922)  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Ippolito  Ulivelli,  born  in  Castelfiorentino,  Italy, 
1879,  appointed  vicar  1  August,  1919,  and  titular 
Bishop  of  Orthosias  13  August  of  the  same  year. 
No  statistics  are  published  for  this  vicariate. 

Chalons-sur-Marne,  Diocese  of  (Catalaunensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  III-566b),  in  the  department  of  Marne, 
France,  suffragan  of  Reims.  Upon  the  promotion 
of  Rt.  Rev.  Hector-Irenee  Sevin,  appointed  to  this 
see  11  March,  1908,  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev. 
Joseph-Marie  Tissier,  was  appointed  to  succeed  him 
20  December,  1912.'  Bom  in  La  Ferte-Beauharnais, 
1857,  he  was  ordained  in  1880,  and  has  published 
a  number  of  books.  .  ; 

This  territory  figured  prominently  in  the  World 
War,  and  saw  some  of  the  heaviest  fighting.  On 

6  October,  1918,  its  bishop  was  made  a  chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor  by  M.  Poincare  in  the 
presence  of  Marshal  Petain  and  Generals  Maistre 
and  Gouraud.  Of  the  priests  and  seminarians  114 
were  mobilized,  and  of  this  number  4  priests  and 

7  seminarians  gave  up  their  lives,  1  was  decorated 
with  the  legion  d’honneur,  3  with  the  medaille 
militaire,  and  many  received  the  croix  de  guerre. 

By  1920  statistics  this  diocese  comprises  a  Cath¬ 
olic  population  of  436,310,  25  first  class  parishes, 
312  succursal  parishes,  and  6  vicariates  formerly 
supported  by  the  state.  On  13  January,  1914,  the 
Church  of  Notre  Dame  de  l’Epine  was  made  a 
minor  basilica. 

Chamberlain,  Papal. — The  title  of  chamberlain  is 
given  to  certain  distinguished  officials  attached  to 
the  private  apartments  or  the  person  of  the  pope. 
As  at  present  constituted,  papal  chamberlains  date 
from  the  sixteenth  or  seventeenth  century,  though 
the  institution  goes  much  further  back.  They  are 
members  of  the  papal  court  and  of  the  official  papal 
family  or  household.  Their  numerous  duties  and 
privileges  are  laid  down  in  their  letters  of  appoint¬ 
ment.  Papal  chamberlains  are  divided  into  the 
following  classes:  (a)  privy  chamberlains  parted - 
panti,  that  is,  active — laymen  and  clerics;  (b)  privy 
chamberlains  supernumerary — clerics  only;,  (c) 
privy  chamberlains  of  sword  and  cape  partedpanti 
— laymen  only;  (d)  privy  chamberlains  of  sword 
and  cape,  who  may  be  (1)  di  numero  or  (2)  super¬ 
numerary — laymen  only;  (e)  chamberlains  of  honor 
with  the  violet  costume — clerics  only ;  (f)  chamber¬ 
lains  of  honor  extra  urbern-- clerics  only;  (g)  cham¬ 
berlains  of  honor  of  the  sword  and  cape,  who  are 
either  (1)  di  numero  or  (2)  supernumerary— lay¬ 
men  only. 


CHAMBERLAIN 


175 


CHAMBfiRY 


The  privy  chamberlains  partecipanti  carry  out 
their  duties  under  the  supervision  of  the  papal 
majordomo  and  the  maestro  di  camera. 

They  comprise  both  clergy  and  laymen.  The 
first  in  rank  among  them  is  the  papal  almoner, 
who  is  always  an  archbishop;  his  tenure  of  office 
continues  during  a  papal  vacancy  but  terminates 
after  the  election,  if  he  is  not  re-appointed.  After 
him  in  rank  come  the  secretary  of  Briefs  to  rulers, 
the  secretary  of  the  Private  Code,  the  Regent  of  the 
Datary,  the  secretary  of  Latin  Letters,  the  Pincera 
or  cup-bearer  who  assists  the  Holy  Father  at  table, 
the  Secretary  of  the  Embassy,  the  Master  of  the 
Wardrobe,  and  the  Prefect  of  the  Apostolic  Sacristy. 

In  1921  there  were  about  1,160  supernumerary 
privy .  chamberlains,  all  clerics,  ranking  as  mon¬ 
signori.  They  are  appointed  from  all  over  the 
world,  the  title  being  generally  accorded  as  a  re¬ 
ward  for  zeal  and  virtue.  The  members  of  the 
College  of  the  Masters  of  Pontifical  Ceremonies, 
excepting  the  prefect,  are  supernumerary  privy 
chamberlains,  their  office  does  not  cease  with  the 
death  of  the  pope  and  during  the  vacancy  they 
act  as  chamberlains  partecipanti.  The  honorary 
chamberlains  of  the  violet  robe  number  about  500; 
they  are  all  clerics,  and  have  the  same  insignia  and 
privileges  as  the  supernumerary  privy  chamber¬ 
lains,  but  rank  lower  at  court.  Their  dignity  ceases 
on  the  death  of  the  pope.  Finally  the  honorary 
chamberlains  extra  urbem,  47  in  number,  all  clerics, 
have  the  same  insignia  and  titles  as  the  chamber¬ 
lains  of  the  violet  robe,  but  they  may  enjoy  these 
only  when  residing  outside  of  Rome.  Their  office 
also  ceases  on  the  death  of  the  pontiff. 

The  privy  chamberlains  of  sword  and  cape  were 
instituted  in  the  sixteenth  century.  They  are  all 
laymen.  Four  of  them  are  chamberlains  di  numero 
and  take  charge  in  turn  of  the  antechamber  to  the 
pope’s  private  room,  where  they  are  assisted  by 
the  supernumeraries  (who  numbered  about  380  in 
1921)  in  regulating  the  admission  to  audiences  with 
the  Holy  Father.  There  are  also  honorary  cham¬ 
berlains  of  sword  and  cape  who  rank  below  the 
preceding  class,  and  in  1921  comprised  5  chamber¬ 
lains  di  numero  and  130  supernumeraries;  the  latter 
but  not  the  former  lose  their  office  and  dignity  on 
the  death  of  the  pope..  The  privy  chamberlains  of 
sword  and  cape  partecipanti  are  the  Quartermaster 
Major  of  the  Sacred  Palaces,  who  is  second  in  com¬ 
mand  to  the  papal  majordomo  and  who  has  care 
of  the  buildings  and  the  furnishings;  the  Master 
of  the  Stables,  whose  office  terminates  on  the  death 
of  the  pope;  the  papal  Postmaster;  the  colonels 
and  higher  officers  of  the  Noble  Guard,  and  the 
colonel  of  the  Swiss  Guards. 

The  chamberlains  of  sword  and  cape  have  two 
court  dresses.  The  first  is  a  sixteenth  century 
Spanish  dress  comprising:  (1)  a  black  cloth  tunic 
reaching  to  slightly  above  the  knee;  the  skirt  is 
pleated  and  has  a  bank  of  black  velvet  reaching 
from  the  neck  to  the  extremity  and  running  round 
the  lower  end;  the  cuffs  of  the  tunic  are  trimmed 
with  lace.  The  collar  is  of  batiste  a  la  Henri  IV ; 
(2)  short  black  cloth  trousers,  closed  below  the 
knee  with  a  black  rose  centered  with  a  large 
aquamarine  button;  (3)  black  silk  stockings  with 
patent  leather  shoes,  having  a  black  velvet  rose 
bow  with  a  aquamarine  button  center;  (4)  a 
black  velvet  mantle  lined  with  black  silk,  attached 
oyer  the  left  and  under  the  right  shoulder;  (5)  a 
gilt  silver  triple  chain  united  by  ten  enamel  medal¬ 
lions,  with  an  enamel  tiara  and  keys  hanging  from 
the  middle.  The  distinctive  enamel  medallion 
of  the  privy  chamberlains  is  red  with  the  letters 
C.S.N.  ( camerarius  secretus  di  numero)  inter- 

12 


laced;  that  of  the  chamberlains  of  honor  being 
blue  with  the  interlaced  initials  C.  H.  N.  ( camerarius 
honorarius  di  numero) ;  (6)  an  ebony-handled  sword 
with  a  black  patent  leather  scabbard,  hanging  from 
a  black  velvet  belt;  (7)  a  black  velvet  cap  orna¬ 
mented  with  a  black  ostrich  feather. 

The  other  dress  comprises  a  black  cloth  coat  with 
a  standing  velvet  collar  and  velvet  cuffs,  a  cravat, 
a  white  vest,  and  long  black  trousers  with  gold 
braid  on  the  outer  seam.  The  velvet,  red  in  the 
case  of  chamberlains  of  honor  and  blue  in  the  case 
of  privy  chamberlains,  is  embroidered  with  golden 
olive  leaves.  The  city  dress  comprises:  (1)  an 
open  red  cloth  swallow-tail  coat,  lined  with  red 
silk.  The  cuffs  and  standing  collar  are  black  velvet 
embroidered  with  golden  olive  leaves  and  buds’. 
I  he  buttons  are  gilt  and  have  a  tiara  and  crossed 
keys  in  the  center;  (2)  a  white  cravat;  (3)  a  white 
cashmere  vest  with  similar  but  smaller  buttons; 

(4)  long  black  cloth  trousers  with  gold  braid  seam; 

(5)  a  sword  with  gilded  guard,  mother-of-peal 

from  a  golden  galloon  cincture. 

I  he  Spanish  costume  is  worn  only  in  the  chapels 
and  during  solemn  service,  at  which  times  the 
chamberlain  wears  his  triple  chain  with  its  sus¬ 
pended  white  enameled  tiara  and  keys.  When  the 
other  service,  costume  is  worn  the  chamberlains 
carry  white  kid  gloves  in  their  hand.  Except  when 
the  chamberlains  are  in  presence  of  His  Holiness 
or  in  seivice,  the  city  dress  is  de  rigueur.  However, 
it  is  now  customary  for  chamberlains  of  sword  and 
cape  when  in  Rome,  if  not  engaged  at  the  Vatican, 
to  wear  a  black  coat  with  the  golden  chain  and 
the  tiara  and  keys.  By  a  special  concession  of 
Pius  X  supernumerary  chamberlains,  both  privy 
and  of  honor,  may  wear  an  oval  medallion  enameled 
red  or  blue  respectively,  with  the  name  of  the 
pope  in  golden  letters.  It  is  only  half  the  size  of 
the  medallion  of  the  chamberlain  di  numero.  The 
distinctive  insignia  of  the  chamberlains  di  numero 
is  woin  .^e  right  breast  of  their  official  costumes 
and  of  their  frock  coats;  the  supernumeraries  may 
wear  theirs  only  on  their  frock  coats  and  on  the 
left  breast..  When  there  are  no  solemn  receptions 
at  the  Vatican  the  chamberlains  in  service  wear  a 
black  coat  and  the  chain  as  just  mentioned.  When 
a  chamberlain  comes  to  Rome  and  wishes  to  go  on 
duty,  he  arranges  with  the  maestro  di  camera  for 
a  week’s  service.  At  the  end  of  this  period  he  is 
received  by  the  Holy  Father.  The  supernumerary 
privy  chamberlains  and  chamberlains  of  honor  of 
sword  and  cape  are  employed  by  the  papal  major¬ 
domo  to  keep  order  in  the  galleries  or  corridors  of 
the  chapels  or  the  pontifical  apartments.  They  may 
be  called  upon  by  the  papal  maestro  di  camera  to 
assist  in  the  antichamber  to  the  pontifical  apart¬ 
ment.  They  do  so  uncovered,  the  privy  chamber¬ 
lains  doing  duty  in  the  privy  autichamber  and  the 
others  in  the  throne,  room.  They  aid  the  maestro 
di  camera  in  receiving  the  persons  about  to  have 
an  audience  with  the  sovereign  pontiff. 


Chambery,  Archdiocese  of  (Chamberium;  cf. 
C.  E.,  III-566d),  in  the  Department  of  Savoie, 
France,  is  under  the  direction  of  Most  Rev.  Domin¬ 
ique  Castellan,  who  was  promoted  from  the  see 
of  Digne  on  26  May,  1915,  to  succeed  His  Eminence 
Frangois-Virgile  Cardinal  Dubillard,  Archbishop  of 
Chambery,  from  1907  until  his  death,  1  December, 
1914. 

The  diocese  now  (1921)  shows  a  record  of:  171 
parishes,  2  monasteries  for  women,  2  abbeys  for 
men,  1  convent  for  men,  334  secular  priests  and  30 
regulars,  1  higher  seminary  and  1  lower  with  45 
grand  seminarians,  4  colleges  for  boys  with  60  pro- 


CHAMPAGNAT 


176 


CHAPTER 


fessors  and  650  students,  2  colleges  for  girls  with 
30  teachers  and  250  students,  1  high  school  with 
10  professors  and  80  students  (girls),  12  elementary 
schools  with  30  teachers  and  600  students. 

The  various  institutions  throughout  the  diocese 
include :  1  home  for  the  aged,  3  orphanages,  2  anti¬ 
tuberculosis  hospitals,  3  public  hospitals  under  the 
direction  of  religious,  1  refuge  home  with  18  re¬ 
ligious  and  120  assistants,  the  “Drop  of  Milk 
Society”  ( Oeuvre  de  la  goutte  de  lait)y  and  one 
Government  lycee  which  permits  the  ministrations 
of  a  Catholic  chaplain. 

There  are  various  societies  for  young  people  in 
the  diocese,  also  a  Catholic  Union  and  a  Diocesan 
League;  the  periodicals  are:  “Semaine  Religieuse, 
“Croix  de  Savoie,”  “Rosier  de  St.  Frangois,  and 

parish  bulletins.  ,  . 

In  1910  the. diocese  lost  one  of  its  most  valuable 
workers  by  the  death  of  M.  le  Canon  Coster  de 
Beauregard,  who  founded  the  orphanage  for  boys; 
in  1921  the  centenary  of  the  death  of  Joseph  de 
Maistre  was  celebrated.  During  the  World  War 
9  priests  and  12  seminarians  of  the  diocese  of 
Chambery  were  killed,  and  4  priests  decorated  with 
the  Legion  of  Honor. 

Champagnat,  Marcellin-Joseph-Benoit,  Vener¬ 
able,  religious  founder,  b.  at  Marlhes,  Loire,  France, 
20  May,  1789;  d.  near  St.  diamond,  6  January, 
1840.  It  is  said  that  a  wonderful  light  shone  around 
his  cradle  on  several  occasions,  leading  observers  to 
believe  that  he  was  to  be  remarkable  for  sanctity. 
He  studied  in  the  grand  seminaire  of  Lyons  and  on 
23  June,  1815,  was  ordained,  two  of  his  companions 
on  that  occasion  being  Blessed  Jean  Baptiste 
Vianney,  popularly  known  as  the  Cure  d’Ars,  and 
Venerable  Jean  Claude  Colin,  the  founder  of  the 
Marist  Fathers.  Champagnat  was  appointed  to  the 
little  parish  of  Lavalla  lying,  below  Mont  Puat. 
The  ignorance  of  the  population  and  the  lack  of 
moral  training  of  the  young  which  confronted  him 
there  in  his  daily  ministry  inspired  him  with  the 
idea  of  founding  the  Congregation  of  the  Little 
Brothers  of  Mary  for  the  Christian  education  of 
children.  In  this  he  was  aided  by  the  advice  and 
counsel  of  Venerable  Jean  Colin,  who  with  him  and 
Blessed  Pierre-Louis-Marie-Chanel  were  later  to  be 
among  the  first  professed  members  of  the  Marist 
Fathers.  The  cause  of  Champagnat’s  canonization 
was  introduced  on  9  August,  1896,  and  on  .11  July, 
1920,  the  Holy  See  issued  a  decree  declaring  that 
he  had  practiced  virtue  in  an  heroic  degree. 

Changanacherry,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Chan- 
gan acheren sis ;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-573a),  in  Travancore, 
British  India,  a  vicariate  of  the  Syro-Malabar  Rite. 
The  present  (1922)  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Thomas  Kurialacherry,  born  in  Kalluread,  1873, 
studied  in  the  College  of  Propaganda  and  ordained 
in  Rome,  1899,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Pella 
and  vicar  apostolic  of  Changanacherry  28  August, 
1911.  By  a  Brief  of  Pius  X,  29  August,  1911,  this 
territory  was  divided  into  two  vicariates,  the  ancient 
vicariate  of  Kottayam  being  re-established.  The 
boundaries  of  the  new  vicariate  have  not  been 
determined,  but  it  comprises  all  the  Sudist  Cath¬ 
olics  scattered  through  the  two  vicariates  of 
Changanacherry,  and  Ernaculam.  The  Sudists.  are 
descendants  of  fourth  century  immigrant  Syrians, 
thus  called  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Nordists 
or  descendants  of  native  Malabar  castes.  The  latest 
statistics  of  the  vicariate  credit  it  with  a  Catholic 
population  of  159,024;  116  parish  churches,  72 
chapels,  254  secular  priests,  111  seminarians,  1501 
neophites,  18  catechumenates,  415  catechumens,  1 
college,  4  high  schools  for  boys  and  1  for  girls, 


8  middle  schools,  8  vernacular  high  schools,  151 
vernacular  elementary  schools,  12  boarding  houses 
for  students,  12,702  boys  and  7530  girls  receiving 
Catholic  education,  4  Carmelite  monasteries  with 
99  nuns,  9  Carmelite  convents  with  142  Sisters,  7 
Adoration  convents  with  103  Sisters,  and  7  Clarist 
convents  with  153  Sisters.  Four  Catholic  periodicals 
are  published. 

Chaplain  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-579d). — The  Council  of 
Trent  allowed  parish  priests  to  appoint  whatever 
chaplains  were  necessary  for  their  parishes,  but  the 
Code  reserves  their  appointment  to  the  ordinary 
who  is  to  consult  the  rector.  The  rights  and  obliga¬ 
tions  of  chaplains  are  fixed  by  diocesan  statutes  or 
by  the  bishop  or  parish  priest.  Navy  chaplains 
seem  to  fall  under  the  general  law  concerning  the 
jurisdiction  that  may  be  granted  to  priests  who 
are  traveling  by  sea  and.  so  they  could  enjoy  the 
power  of  hearing  confessions  not  only  aboard  ship, 
but  also  on  shore  at  any  intermediate  port  of  call. 

Chapter  (cf.  C.  E.,  Ill— 252b ;  582b). — The  erec¬ 
tion,  modification  and  suppression  of  collegiate  and 
cathedral  chapters  is  entrusted  by  the  pope  to  the 
Congregation  of  the  Consistory.  In  each  capitular 
church  there  should  be  dignataries  and  canons, 
among  whom  the  offices  are  to  be  distributed ; 
there  may  be  also  other  minor  beneficiaries  of  vary¬ 
ing  rank,  but  the  chapter  consists  only  of  the 
canons  and  dignitaries — unless  the  capitular  statutes 
provide.  The  appointment  of  dignitaries  is  re¬ 
served  to  the  Holy  See:  the  chief  dignitary  of 
the  cathedral  chapter  should,  if  possible,  be  a 
doctor  of  theology  or  canon  law.  A  bishop  has  a 
right  to  appoint  honorary  canons,  not  necessarily 
his  own  subjects,  after  consulting  the  chapter  to 
which  they  are  to  be  nominated.  To  act  validly, 
however,  if  the  person  to  be  thus  honored  is  not 
his  subject,  the  bishop  must  ask  the  consent  of 
the  nominee’s  bishop,  informing  him  also  of  the 
insignia  and  privileges  attached  to  the  honorary 
office.  The  number  of  extra-diocesan  honorary 
canons  must  be  less  than  one-third  of  the  number 
of  titular  canons.  Honorary  canons .  of  churches 
outside  of  Rome  can  enjoy  their  insignia  and 
privileges  only  in  the  diocese  in  which  they  were 
appointed,  except  when  they  accompany  the  bishop 
or  represent  him  or  the  chapter  at  councils  or  other 
solemn  assemblies.  Chapters  draw  up  their  own 
statutes,  which  are  to  be  submitted  for  approval 
to  the  bishop,  without  whose  leave  they  cannot 
later  be  abrogated  or  changed.  .  If  a  chapter  should 
fail  to  draw  up  statutes  within  six  months  after 
the  bishop  has  so  ordained,  the  bishop  may  formu¬ 
late  them  himself  and  impose  them  on  the  canons. 

In  certain  cases  canons  may  absent  themselves 
from  choir  without  losing  the  fruits  of  the  benefits 
or  the  daily  distributions,  e.  g.  when  they  are  pre¬ 
vented  from  attending  by  illness  or  other  physical 
impediment;  or  when  they  are  representing  the 
bishop  at  councils,  or  assisting  him  in  solemn  ser¬ 
vices  or  on  visitation;  or  when  with  the  consent 
of  the  chapter  they  are  absent  in  the  interests  of 
the  chapter  or  of  their  church;  or  while  making  a 
retreat,  but  not  more  often  than  once  a  year;  or,  in 
the  case  of  the  canon  penitentiary,  when  he  is  hear¬ 
ing  confessions.  On  the  other  hand,  if  they  be 
absent  teaching  theology  or  canon  law,  or  while 
acting  as  vicar  general,  vicar  capitular,  official, 
chancellor,  or  episcopal  secretary,  they  do  not  share 
in  the  distributions,  however,  if  the  fruits  of  a 
prebend  consist  only  of  distributions  or  are  less 
than  one-third  of  the  amount  of  the  distributions, 
they  are  to  share  in  two-thirds  of  the  prebendary 
income  and  the  distributions.  After  forty  years 


CHAPTER 


177 


CHARITY 


continuous  faithful  attendance  at  choir  in  the  same 
church  or  at  least  in  the  same  diocese  a  prebendary 
may  ask  the  Holy  See  for  an  indult  jubilationis; 
if  it  be  granted  he  can  receive  both  the  fruits  and 
the  distributions,  even  those  restricted  to  digni¬ 
taries  actually  present  in  choir,  unless  the  express 
will  of  the  founders  or  donors,  or  the  statutes  or 
customs  of  the  church  in  question  forbid  it. 

When  the  cathedral  or  collegiate  church  is  also 
a  parish  church  the  general  regulations  governing 
the  relations  of  the  chapter  and  the  parish  priest 
are  as  follows:  It  is  the  right  or  duty  of  the  parish 
priest:  (a)  to  offer  Mass  for  the  parishioners,  to 
preach  to  and  catechize  his  flock;  (b)  to  keep  the 
parochial  registers  and  make  official  abstracts  from 
them;  (c)  to  perform  the  parochial  duties  that  are 
reserved  to  parish  priests,  such  as  baptizing 
solemnly,  giving  communion  to  the  dying,  blessing 
marriages,  holding  funeral  services,  the  chapter 
having  the  right  of  holding  such  services  only  in 
case  of  funerals  of  dignitaries,  canons  (including 
honorary  canons)  or  beneficiaries;  (d)  to  perform 
other  customary  services  not  strictly  parochial,  pro¬ 
vided  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  choir  service 
or  are  not  performed  by  the  chapter;  (e)  to  collect 
alms  for  the  parish;  to  receive,  administer,  and 
distribute  offerings,  according  to  the  wishes  of  the 
donors.  On  the  other  hand,  the  chapter:  (a)  takes 
care  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  but  the  parish  priest 
must  have  a  second  key  to  the  tabernacle;  (b)  sees 
that  the  parish  priest  observes  the  liturgical  regula¬ 
tions  '  while  officiating  in  the  capitular  church; 
(c)  takes  care  of  the  church,  administering  its 
property  and  pious  bequests.  Neither  party  must 
interfere  in  the  other’s  duties;  if  a  dispute  arise 
it  must  be  referred  to  the  local  ordinary;  the 
chapter,  moreover,  is  bound  in  charity  to  assist  the 
pastor  in  his  parochial  work,  especially  if  he  lacks 
assistants,  in  accordance  with  the  arrangements  of 
the  local  ordinary. 

There  must  be  a  canon  theologian,  and  if  pos¬ 
sible  a  canon  penitentiary  in  every  cathedral 
church,  and  similar  appointments  may  be  made  for 
collegiate  churches  also.  The  canon  penitentiary 
should  preferably  be  a  doctor  of  theology  or  canon 
law,  and  at  least  thirty  years  of  age;  he  must  not 
at  the  same  time  hold  any  other  office  in  the  dio¬ 
cese  entailing  jurisdiction  in  the  external  forum; 
he  has  by  law  ordinary  power,  which,  however, 
he  cannot  delegate,  of  absolving  strangers  in  the 
diocese  and  diocesan  subjects  outside  of  the  diocese 
from  sins  and  from  censures  reserved  to  the  bishop; 
he  must  be  ready  to  hear  confessions  in  the 
capitular  church  at  whatever  time  the  bishop  con¬ 
siders  convenient  for  the  people,  and  also  during 
Divine  service ;  he  must  not  hold  the  office  of  vicar- 
general,  and  is  exempt  from  officiating  as  sub-deacon 
or  deacon  at  the  chapter  services.  If  he  neglects 
his  duty  he  may  be  warned  by  the  bishop  and 
punished  by  a  curtailment  of  his  revenue;  if  he 
does  not  amend  within  a  year  after  being  warned, 
he  may  be  suspended,  and  if  he  remains  recalcitrant 
for  six  months  longer  he  may  be  deprived  of  his 
benefice. 

The  cathedral  chapter  is  to  be  invited  to  plenary 
and  provincial  councils;  it  sends  two  deputies  as 
representatives,  but  they  have  only  a  consultive 
vote.  When  a  see  is  vacant  the  chapter  must,  if 
necessary,  appoint  an  ceconomus  and  notify  the 
Holy  See  as  soon  as  possible  about  the  death  of 
the  bishop;  the  new  selected  vicar  capitular  must 
similarly  announce  his  own  election.  If  the  bishop 
is  not  dead,  but  is  prevented  entirely  from  com¬ 
municating  with  his  subjects,  his  place  is  taken  by 
the  vicar  general  or  other  delegate,  if  the  Holy  See 


has  not  provided  otherwise;  if  these  should  be 
similarly  impeded  thq  cathedral  chapter  appoints  its 
vicar  to  act  with  the  powers  of  a  vicar  capitular. 
can°^ 357-77 '  391'422’  Vermeersch -Creusen,  Epit.  jur. 

Charcas,  Archdiocese  of.  See  La  Plata. 

Charity  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-604d),  Congregation  of 
the  Brothers  of. — At  present  the  Brothers  con¬ 
duct  numerous  schools  and  institutions  in  Belgium. 
They  also  have  three  houses  in  England,  one  in 
Ireland,  three  in  Holland,  and  two  in  the  Belgian 
Congo.  In  Canada  they  have  six  houses  and  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  one  flourishing  institution.  A  census 
taken  of  the  congregation  in  1920  showed  that, 
despite  the  ravages  wrought  in  the  ranks  by  the 
World  War,  it  numbered  1,100  brothers.  These 
were  divided  among  50  communities,  which  shel¬ 
tered  and  provided  for  7,000  insane  men,  with  some 
hundreds  of  men  rendered  helpless  and  dependent 
by  age  and  senility,  13,000  orphan,  deaf  and  dumb, 
blind,  and  feeble-minded  boys.  At  the  Montreal 
Reformatory  there  are  500  boys  under  the  care  of 
36  brothers,  the  St.  Benedict-Joseph  Labre  Insane 
Asylum  near  Montreal  has  120  patients,  the  Mount 
St.  Bernard  s  College  and  Scientific  school  at  Sorel, 
P.  Q.,  has  250  students  taught  by  16  brothers,  the 
Sacred  Heart  Academy,  at  Sorel,  has  600  pupils 
taught  by  20  brothers.  In  Drummondville,  P.  Q„ 
the  brothers  teach  all  the  boys  of  the  district. 
They  also  teach  all  the  boys  of  the  St.  Guillaume 
d’Upton  district.  In  Boston,  Mass.,  they  conduct 
the  house  of  the  Angel  Guardian,  a  home  and 
school  for  orphan,  half-orphan,  and  destitute  boys, 
with  an  industrial  department  attached  to  it,  where 
the  boys,  after  passing  through  the  grades,  are 
taught  useful  trades. 

Charity,  Sisters  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-605b) .— The 
various  sisterhoods  included  under  this  general  title 
are  treated  of  below  under  their  respective  names. 

Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  with 
mother-house  in  Paris,  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Superior  General  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Mission.  Prominent  among  these  successors  of  St. 
Vincent#are  John  Baptist  Etienne,  whose  generalate 
ended  in  1874,  and  Antoine  Fiat,  who  resigned  at 
the  age  of  eighty-two  years  (1914)  and  died  in 
1915.  The  present  Superior  General  is  Frangois 
Verdier,  elected  30  September,  1919,  succeeding 
Emile  Villette.  The  Mother  General  is  elected 
every  three  years  and  can  be  re-elected  only  once. 
She  alone  bears  the  title  of  Mother;  the  Superioress 
of  each  house  is  addressed  simply  as  Sister.  The 
community  is  divided  into  over  thirty  provinces 
outside  France,  in  which  a  Director  represents  the 
Superior  General  and  a  Sister  Provincial  the  Mother 
General;  but  all  matters  of  importance  are  referred 
to  the  Council  of  the  Community  at  the  mother- 
house  in  Paris. 

A  candidate  for  admission  to  the  congregation 
spends  three  months  in  one  of  the  Sisters’  houses 
before  she  enters  the  novitiate  or  seminary,  and 
after  five  years  she  takes  her  vows,  which  are  re¬ 
newed  every  year.  The  novices  from  Germany, 
Austria,  North  and  South  America,  and  China  do 
not  go  to  the  mother-house  for  their  novitiate,  but 
are  trained  in  local  seminaries.  Those  from  Eng¬ 
land  and  Italy  make  the  first  part  of  their  seminary 
in  their  own  countries,  but  in  times  of  peace  go 
to  the  mother-house  to  receive  the  habit. 

The  English  Province,  erected  in  1885,  includes 
all  the  houses  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  In 
Ireland  there  are  16  houses,  7  of  which  are  in  Dub¬ 
lin;  there  are  15  houses  in  London  and  47  in  other 


CHARITY 


178 


CHARITY 


parts  of  England;  in  Scotland  there  are  14  houses. 
In  the  entire  Province  the  Sisters  have  53  institu¬ 
tions,  including  industrial  and  poor-law  schools, 
special  schools  for  the  blind,  deaf-mutes,  and  crip¬ 
ples,  orphanages,  and  homes  of  different  kinds. 
They  teach  48  elementary  schools  and  1  secondary 
school.  They  visit  the  poor  and  have  charge  of 
various  parish  works  and  associations  in  70  parishes. 
They  also  visit  5  prisons,  and  nurse  the  poor  in  9 
hospitals. 

During  the  Franco-German  War  the  Sisters  nursed 
both  French  and  German  wounded  and  in  the  re¬ 
cent  war  about  5,000  Sisters  nursed  the  wounded  in 
hospitals  and  ambulances,  and  even  on  the  field  of 
battle. 

The  following  figures  give  some  idea  of  the  work 
of  the  Sisters  in  foreign  missions.  In  one  mission 
in  China,  wThere  there  are  104,983  Christians,  400,000 
patients  seek  assistance  from  the  Sisters  in  hos¬ 
pitals  and  dispensaries,  and  were  there  accommoda¬ 
tions  the  number  could  be  increased  tenfold.  Also 
in  China,  in  a  vicariate  where  there  are  40  Sisters, 
of  whom  25  are  Europeans  and  15  Chinese :  in  8 
hospitals  3,175  men  and  440  women  have  been  re¬ 
ceived;  there  are  165  old  men  and  women  in  homes, 
and  1,074  children  are  being  educated;  in  5  dis¬ 
pensaries  198,806  remedies  have  been  distributed, 
and  25,126  visits  have  been  made  to  the  sick  in 
their  homes.  The  missions  at  Jerusalem,  Bethlehem, 
and  Nazareth  include .  the  care  of  lepers,  blind, 
cripples,  and  deserted  infants,  both  Christians  and 
Turks  receiving  like  ministrations.  These  works 
were  threatened  with  destruction  by  the  recent  war, 
but  a  few  Syrian  and  Maronite  Sisters  have  carried 
them  on  in  spite  of  evety  difficulty.  In  Constan¬ 
tinople  and  other  eastern  missions  from  which 
French  Sisters  were  banished, .  a  few  Syrian  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  community  continue  their  works  of 
charity. 

The  beatification  of  Louise  de  ManllaC,  foundress 
of  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  took  place  at  Rome,  9 
May,  1920.  The  four  Sisters  martyred  at  Cambrai 
in  1794,  Sisters  Madeleine  Fontaine,  Jeanne  Gerard, 
Therese  Fantou,  and  Marie  Lanel,  were  beatified 
13  June,  1920.  Two  other  Sisters  martyred  during 
the  French  Revolution  were  Sister  Mariapne  and 
Sister  Odile,  who  were  shot  by  the  revolutionists 
1  February,  1793. 

The  Province  of  these  Sisters  of  Charity  in  the 
United  States  was  divided  in  1910  into  an  Eastern 
Province  and  Western  Province.  Very  Rev.  J.  J. 
Sullivan,  C.  M.,  Director  of  the  Sisters  and  Sister 
Eugenia  Fealy,  Sister  Assistant  at  Emmitsburg, 
opened  the  Central  House  of  the  Western  Province 
at  St.  Louis,  Mo.  Fr.  Sullivan  was  named  Director, 
and  Sister  Eugenia  Fealey,  Visitatrix.  Veiy  Rev. 
J.  P.  Cribbons,  C.M.,  succeeded  Fr.  Sullivan  as 
Director  of  the  Eastern  Province  (Central  House 
at  Emmitsburg),  and  Mother  Margaret  O’Keefe 
was  retained  as  Visitatrix. 

There  are  in  the  Eastern  Province  1,033  Sisters 
and  76  houses,  11  of  which  have  been  opened  since 
1908.  These  institutions  include:  32  hospitals,  of 
which  21  are  general  hospitals,  8  maternities,  and 

3  for  nervous  patients  only;  24  schools,  of  which 
21  are  day  schools  and  3  asylums  and  schools;  1 
college,  St.  Joseph’s,  at  Emmitsburg,  Md.;  9  infant 
asylums;  19  orphan  asylums;  3  industrial  schools; 

4  day  nurseries.  In  several  of  the  establishments 
two  or  three  works  are  carried  on.  For  example, 
Providence  Hospital,  Detroit,  is  a  general  hospital; 
it  is  also  a  maternity  hospital  and  an  infant  asylum. 
St.  Vincent’s  Asylum,  Buffalo,  is  known  also  as  St. 
Vincent’s  Technical  School;  and  so  of  others.  St. 
Margaret’s  Hospital,  Dorchester,  Mass.,  is  connected 


with  St.  Mary’s  Infant  Asylum.  Columbia  Day 
Nursery,  Boston,  is  taken  care  of  by  Sisters  from 
Carney  Hospital,  Boston.  Therefore,  although  the 
number  of  houses  in  the  Eastern  Province  is  but 
76,  the  number  of  works  is  much  greater.  A  boys’ 
school  was  recently  opened  (1918)  in  connection 
with  St.  Mary’s  School,  Troy,  N.  Y.  There  are 
social  service  departments  at  St.  Joseph’s  Hospital, 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  Providence  Hospital,  Wash¬ 
ington,  D.  C. 

In  the  Western  Providence,  on  31  December,  1910, 
there  were  744  Sisters  in  charge  of  58  houses.  On 
31  October,  1921,  there  were  849  Sisters  in  charge 
of  66  houses.  Nine  houses  have  been  opened  since 
1910,  and  one  house  (infant  asylum  in  San  Fran¬ 
cisco)  has  been  closed.  During  1920  the  com¬ 
munity  took  charge  of  a  boys’  school  in  Mobile, 
and  during  1921  of  a  boys’  school  in  Santa  Cruz, 
as  well  as  St.  Patrick’s  School,  St.  Louis;  but  these 
three  schools  are  attached  to  old  works,  and  are 
not  counted  above  as  new  houses  opened.  In  New 
Orleans,  during  1921,  two  asylums  were  consoli¬ 
dated;  a  new  work,  a  settlement,  was  opened  in 
the  house  formerly  occupied  by  one  of  these  asy¬ 
lums,  but  it  is  not  counted  above  as  a  new  house. 
The  different  works  of  the  province  include:  30 
hospitals,  of  which  22  are  general  hospitals,  6 
maternities,  and  2  for  nervous  patients  only,  with 
100,000  patients  cared  for  during  the  year,  23,000 
free  patients  in  hospitals,  and  156,000  treatments 
in  clinics;  20  schools  with  7,200  pupils;  7  infant 
asylums  sheltering  3,300  children;  11  orphan  asy¬ 
lums  sheltering  2,800  children;  3  industrial  schools; 
and  6  settlements.  During  the  World  War  ten 
Sisters  went  to  Italy,  in  charge  of  the  nursing  in 
Hospital  Unit  No.  102. 

The  total  number  of  institutions  throughout  the 
world  is  3,359,  including  all  sorts  of  charitable 
works,  from  infant  asylums  to  homes  for  the  aged 
and  schools  of  all  grades.  These  are  under  the 
charge  (1  January,  1919)  of  37,234  Sisters. 

Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
(Mount  St.  Vincent,  Ne  v  York;  cf.  C.  E.,  III- 
607d).— The  mother-house  of  this  community,  the 
novitiate  with  a  finely  equipped  training  school, 
the  College  of  Mt.  Saint  Vincent  (founded  1910), 
a  high  school,  and  academy  are  situated  at  Mount 
St.  Vincent,  N.  Y.  The  superior  general  is  the 
Archbishop  of  New  York,  and  the  community  is 
governed  by  a  council  consisting  of  the  mother 
general  and  her  four  assistants,  all  residing  at  the 
mother-house,  to  which  the  ninety  missions  are 
subordinate.  The  present  general  superior  is 
Mother  Vincentia  McKenna,  elected  in  1922  to  suc¬ 
ceed  Mother  Josepha  Cullen.  The  community 
numbers  about  1500  members  and  has  the  follow¬ 
ing  establishments  in  the  Archdiocese  of  New  York 
and  the  dioceses  of  Brooklyn,  Albany,  and  Harris¬ 
burg:  1  college,  8  high  schools,  over  85  parochial 
schools,  1  vocational  school,  5  homes  for  children, 
including  a  foundling  hospital  with  more  than  3000 
children  and  500  homeless  and  needy  mothers,  1 
day  nursery,  9  hospitals,  3  convalescent  homes, 
1  home  for  the  aged,  1  retreat  for  nervous  and 
mental  diseases. 

Sisters  of  Charity  (Halifax,  Nova  Scotia). — The 
congregation  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  in  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Halifax,  whose  mother-house  is  at  Mount 
St.  Vincent,  Rockingham,  N.  S.,  is  a  branch  of  the 
Sisterhood  founded  in  1809  at  Emmitsburg,  Mary¬ 
land,  by  the  venerated  Mother  Seton.  In  1846  there 
were  in  the  Archdiocese  of  New  York  several  missions 
of  the  institute,  and  in  that  year  a  separate  mother- 
house  was  established  for  New  York.  In  1849,  just 
three  years  later,  the  superiors  of  the  new  congrega- 


CHARITY 


179 


CHARITY 


tion,  at  the  earnest  solicitation  of  Archbishop  Walsh 
°f  Halifax,  sent  four  Sisters  to  establish  a  mission  in 
his  metropolitan  see,  the  purposes  of  which  were 
the  education  of  youth,  the  care  of  orphans,  and 
the  visitation  of  the  sick.  The  rapid  growth  of 
these  works,  coupled  with  the  impossibility  on  the 
part  of  the  young  mother-house  in  New  York  to 
furnish  the  necessary  help,  led  Archbishop  Walsh 
to  formulate  a  plan  for  a  separate  mother-house, 
in  which  the  superiors  in  New  York  graciously  con¬ 
curred.  This  plan'  met  with  the  approval  of  the 
Holy  See,  and  on  8  December,  1855,  the  Halifax 
mission  became  a  separate  mother-house  endowed 
with  the  same  privileges  conferred  on  previous 
foundations.  Sister  M.  Basilia  McCann,  who  had 
governed  the  mission  from  its  establishment,  was 
elected  mother  superior  of  the  new  foundation.  She 
had  been  educated  at  Emmitsburg  and  received  as 
a  member  of  the  community  at  St.  Joseph’s  by 
Mother  Seton.  Notwithstanding  the  many  diffi¬ 
culties  which  the  Halifax  mother-house  had  to 
encounter  in  the  process  of  its  development,  it 
flourished,  and  at  present  counts  35  houses,  6  of 
which  are  in  the  Diocese  of  Boston,  and  1  in 
Bermuda.  In  the  scope  of  its  works  the  institute 
embraces  grammar  school  and  higher  education,  the 
care  of  orphans,  the  sick,  aged,  and  infirm  ladies, 
and  the  protection  of  working  girls.  It  has  8 
academies,  and  is  in  charge  of  14  public  schools 
and  7  parochial  schools.  It  has  3  hospitals,  a 
home  for  working  girls,  one  for  aged  ladies,  an 
orphanage  for  boys,  one  for  girls,  and  a  foundling 
asylum.  On  the  completion  of  the  first  building 
at  Mount  St.  Vincent  on  Bedford  Basin  the  mother- 
house  was  translated  to  it  15  August,  1873.  By  an 
act  of  legislature  Mount  St.  Vincent  enjoys  the 
privilege  of  a  normal  school  for  the  training  of  its 
own  members  for  positions  in  the  public  schools 
of  the  provinces.  The  novitiate  is  attached  to  the 
mother-house,  and  the  institute  numbers  about  700 
members. 

Sisters  of  Charity  of  Nazareth  (cf.  C.  E., 
X-724d)  celebrated  the  centennial  of  their  founda- 
kpV11  1912'  In  tile  same  year  occurred  the  death 
of  Mother  Eutropia  McMahon,  the  first  Mother 
General  elected,  in  1911,  according  to  the  new 
Constitution  of  the  Order.  She  devoted  her  ener¬ 
gies  to  many  good  works,  encouraged  educational 
activities,  and  improved  the  Academy.  She  was 
succeeded  by  Mother  Rose  Meagher,  elected  19 
July,  1912,  and  re-elected  in  1918  for  a  second  term 
ox  six  years.  Since  1911  the  following  foundations 
have  been  made:  Nazareth  School,  South  Boston, 
Mass.;  St.  Ann’s  School,  Morganfield,  Ky.  (1912); 
St.  Agnes’  Sanitarium,  St.  Agnes’  Parochial  School, 
and  St.  Helena’s  Commercial  College,  Louisville, 
Ky.  (1913);  St.  Dominic’s  School,  Columbus,  Ohio 
(1914);  St.  Peter’s  Parochial  School,  Lexington, 
Ky.  (1915);  Nazareth  School,  Roanoke,  Va.  (1916); 
Sacred  Heart  Academy,  Klamath  Falls,  Oregon 
(1917);  St.  Theresa  House,  Lynn,  Mass.,  a  gift  of 
Mgr.  Teeling  to  St.  Mary’s  Parish  and  a  real  home 
for  working  girls  (1918);  Hinde-Ball  Mercy  Hospi¬ 
tal,  Mount  Vernon,  Ohio  (1919).  In  1911  the  Sis¬ 
ters  resumed  teaching  at  St.  Patrick’s  School, 
Louisville,  Ky.,  and  in  1914  they  reopened  St. 
Thomas’  Parochial  School  on  the  site  of  Old 
Nazareth.  Nazareth  Academy  was  affiliated  with 
the  State  University  in  1913  and  with  the  Catholic 
University  of  America  in  1914.  The  opening  of 
Nazareth  College  at  Louisville,  Ky.,  on  4  October, 
1920,  was  to  meet  the  demand  for  higher  education 
of  women,  and  it  is  the  first  woman’s  Catholic 
college  in  Louisville. 

The  mother-house  of  the  Society,  situated  at 


Nazareth,  Kentucky,  lias  65  branch  houses  in  the 
Aichdioceses  of  Baltimore  and  Boston  and  the 
Dioceses  of  Louisville,  Covington,  Nashville,  Little 
Rock,  JNatchez,  Columbus,  Baker  City,  and  Rich¬ 
mond.  The  order  is  thus  represented  in  Kentucky, 
1  ennessee,  Arkansas,  Mississippi,  Ohio,  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  Oregon.  The  Sis¬ 
ters  conduct  the  following  institutions:  3  colleges, 
one  of  which  is  a  commercial  college  and  another 
a  junior  college;  15  academies;  58  parochial  schools; 
5  hospitals  and  infirmaries,  caring  yearly  for  10,349 
patients;  6  orphanages,  having  in  all  about  856 
orphans;  1  liome  for  aged  men;  1  home  for  work¬ 
ing  girls;  1  sanitarium.  The  society  numbers  978 
members  with  20,180  pupils  under  their  instruction. 
Educational  work  is  not  their  only  activity,  for 
they  care  also  for  the  sick,  invalids,  prisoners,  and 
the  insane.  The  governing  body  of  the  society  con¬ 
sists  of  a  Mother  General  and  five  assistants,  one 
of  whom  is  treasurer  general  and  another  secretary 
general.  During  the  last  decade  thirty-two  golden 
jubilarians  have  died,  besides  many  other  members. 
Among  the  deceased  are:  Mother  Alphonsa  Kerr 
(d.  1913),  Sister  Marie  Menard  (d.  1914),  Sister 
Aurea  O’Brien  (d.  1916),  Sister  Euphrasia  Stafford 
(d.  1917). 

Sisters  of  Charity  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio  (cf.  C. 
E.,  XI\-28a). — Mother  Mary  Florence  Kent  suc¬ 
ceeded  Mother  Mary  Blanche  Davis  in  1911  and 
held  the  office  of  Mother  Superior  until  1917.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  first  years  of  her  term  the  foundation  of 
the  new  Good  Samaritan  on  Dixsmyth  and  Clifton 
Avenues  was  laid  and  two  wings  of  the  hospital 
were  built.  The  community  took  charge  of  the  St. 
William  School,  Price  Hill,  Cincinnati,  and  of  the 
Corpus  Christi  School,  Dayton,  Ohio,  in  1912;  of 
the  St.  Sebastian  School,  Chicago,  in  1913;  of  the 
Holy  Name  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  and  of  the  An¬ 
nunciation  School,  Clifton,  Cincinnati,  in  1914.  The 
St.  Rita  Institute,  a  boarding  school  for  the  deaf 
at  St.  Rita  Heights,  near  Lockland,  Ohio,  was 
founded  on  17  October,  1915,  when  the  Sisters  took 
their  pupils  thither  from  the  school  in  Cincinnati. 
In  1916-17  the  Sisters  had  temporary  charge  of  St. 
Teresa’s  Home  for  the  Aged. 

Mother  Mary  Bertha  Armstrong  succeeded  to 
the  office  of  Mother  Superior  in  July,  1917,  and 
was  re-elected  in  1920.  During  her  first  term  of 
office  the  influenza  following  the  World  War  spread 
over  the  country  and  she  imitated  the  example  of 
her  predecessors  of  cholera  and  Civil  War  periods 
by  permitting  the  Sisters  to  serve  as  volunteer 
nurses  in  the  infected  districts  of  Ohio,  Kentucky, 
Michigan,  Colorado,  and  New  Mexico.  As  in  the 
earlier  days,  the  community  enrolled  names  of 
martyrs  to  the  cause.  The  new  Code  of  Canon 
Law  coming  into  effect  at  this  time  made  but  one 
change  in  the  constitutions  of  the  community, 
that  of  requiring  the  heads  of  institutions  to  be 
changed  at  the  end  of  six  years.  The  College  of 
Mount  St.  Joseph-on-the-Ohio  with  its  normal  de¬ 
partment  was  chartered  under  the  laws  of  Ohio  in 
April,  1920,  and  opened  to  students  in  September 
of  the  same  year.  The  community  numbers 
between  900  and  1,000  members,  teaching  50 
parochial  schools,  3  academies  for  girls,  1  for  boys, 

1  college,  1  boarding  institute  for  the  deaf,  1  day 
school  for  colored  children.  It  has  9  hospitals  and 
sanitariums,  1  infant  asylum  and  maternity  hos¬ 
pital,  1  Italian  Institute  for  welfare  work,  and  a 
day  nursery.  It  has  charge  of  domestic  affairs 
of  Mount  St.  Mary’s  of  the  West  and  of  the 
diocesan  orphanage  and  owns  and  conducts  an 
orphanage  in  Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico.  The  school 
in  connection  with  the  Church  of  the  Resurrection, 


CHARITY 


180 


CHARITY 


Price  Hill,  Cincinnati,  was  opened  by  the  Sisters 
in  1919. 

Sisters  of  Charity  of  Leavenworth.— A  pioneer 
band  of  Sisters,  several  of  whom  had  been  schooled 
at  Nazareth,  determining  to  venture  forth  into 
the  unexplored  West,  in  1858  offered  their  services 
to  Bishop  Miege  of  Leavenworth,  who  was  glad  to 
have  their  assistance  in  his  extensive  Kansas  vica¬ 
riate.  The  guiding  spirit  of  the  community  was 
Sister  Xavier  Ross,  whom  they  elected  Superior. 
Her  conversion  and  entrance  into  the  Nazareth 
Sisterhood  had  been  bitterly  opposed  by  her  parents 
and  their  relentless  hostility  was  her  great  sorrow 
She  governed  the  order  through  twenty  years  of 
missionary  ventures  and  financial  difficulties.  A 
little  cottage  in  the  frontier  town  served  the  first 
Sister  as  a  convent.  This  gave  place  to  St.  Mary  s 
Mother-house  and  Academy,  built  at  the  cost  of 
infinite  pains.  The  beautiful  chapel,  just  recently 
completed,  is  an  exact  facsimile  of  the  Church  of 
San  Alphonso  at  Rome. 

In  1869  at  the  insistent  urging  of  Fr.  De  bmet, 
their  staunch  friend  and  wise  adviser,  the  Sisters 
undertook  to  establish  a  colony  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  Mission.  They  settled  in  Helena,  Mon¬ 
tana,  and  there  found  a  field  peculiarly  their  own. 
They  accompanied  the  adventurous  pioneers  and 
railroaders  to  teach  their  children,  to  care  for  their 
sick,  or  mother  their  orphans.  Foundation  followed 
foundation,  until  today  these  nuns  have  forty  houses 
in  the  Archdiocese  of  Santa  Fe,  and  the  Dioceses  of 
Cheyenne,  Denver,  Great  Falls,  Helena,  Kansas 
City,  Leavenworth,  and  Lincoln.  They  direct  30 
parochial  schools  and  9  high  schools  and  academies, 
with  an  aggregate  enrolment  of  8,000  pupils;,  12 
hospitals  caring  for  15,415  patients,  and  3  orphan¬ 
ages  with  500  inmates.  The  Society  numbers  462 
professed  Sisters,  9  novices,  and  12  postulants. 

The  Sisters  are  well  ,  trained  for  their  _  important 
work  of  teaching,  being  under  the  direction  of 
trained  supervisors  and  attending  each  year  sum¬ 
mer  normal  courses  at  the  mother-house  or  the 
universities.  This  annual  reunion  of  the  teachers 
promotes  the  community  spirit  as  well  as  educa¬ 
tional  efficiency,  and  they  are  spiritually  rehabili¬ 
tated  by  the  annual  retreat.  By  the  provisions 
of  the  papal  Decree,  approving  the  Constitutions 
of  the  community,  the  Sisters  administer  their  own 
affairs,  subject  directly  to  the  control  of  the  Con- 
gregation  of  the  Religious  at  Rome.  Cardinal 
Donato  Sbarretti  is  the  Cardinal .  Protector  of  the 
community.  The  time  of  probation  for  admission 
to  the  Sisterhood  is  six  months  postulancy  and  one 
year  of  noviceship,  and  the  vows  are  perpetual. 
The  Rule  is,  in  the  main,  that  of  St.  Vincent. 

Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Elizabeth  (cf.  C.  E., 
III-608c),  with  mother-house  at  Convent  Station, 
N.  J.,  were  founded  by  Mother  Mary  Xavier 
Mehegan,  who  died  24  June,  1915,  after  fifty-six 
years  as  superior  of  the  community.  She  was 
ninety-one  years  of  age,  and  had  consecrated  her¬ 
self  to  God  at  the  age  of  twenty-two  as  a  member 
of  the  community  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  in  New 
York.  Mother  Mary  Cecilia  Casey,  the  second  and 
present  superior,  succeeded  the  saintly  foundress. 
The  community  numbers  1,300  professed  Sisters 
and  90  novices  and  postulants,  having  97  founda¬ 
tions,  with  110  institutions  under  their  care,  the 
greater  number  of  institutions  being  explained  by 
the  fact  that  13  are  expansions  of  foundations  long 
established.  New  foundations  since  1908  include 
1  hospital,  1  academy,  8  high  schools,  10  parochial 
schools,  and  1  home  for  working  girls.  The  total 
number  of  institutions  includes:  1  college,  7  acade¬ 
mies,  77  parochial  schools,  8  high  schools,  1  prepara¬ 


tory  school  for  small  boys,  5  orphanages,  6  hospitals, 

1  home  for  the  aged,  1  home  for  incurables,  1 
foundling  asylum,  2  day  nurseries,  and  1  home  for 
working  girls.  The  academies  offer  classical,  scien¬ 
tific,  and  commercial  courses,  while  each  of  .20  of 
the  parochial  schools  has,  in  addition  to  an  ele¬ 
mentary  grammar  school  course,  a  free  commercial 
department.  During  the  year  1920-21  there  were 
1,895  students  in  the  colleges  and  academies  and 
42,963  in  the  parochial  and  high  schools;  18,976 
patients  were  cared  for  in  the  hospitals;  341  in¬ 
mates  of  homes  for  aged  and  incurables,  234  chil¬ 
dren  in  foundling  asylums  and  nurseries,  597 
orphans,  and  195  working  girls  were  under  the  care 
of  the  Sisters. 

Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary 
(cf.  C.  E.,  III-609a).— Since  the  establishment  of 
the  mother-house  at  Dubuque,  Iowa,  in  1843  the 
Sisters  have  answered  calls  to  conduct  schools  in 
eighteen  diocese  in  twelve  States  of  the  United 
States.  In  1914  Pius  X  authorized  the  erection  of 
four  provinces  in  the  institute,  rendered  necessary 
by  its  growth  and  development.  In  1911  he  had 
appointed  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val  their  Cardinal 
Protector.  The  constitutions  of  the  congregation 
are  based  upon  the  rule  of  St.  Ignatius  and  pro¬ 
vide  for  a  central  government  under  a  superior 
general,  assisted  in  the  administration  of  her  office 
by  four  councillors.  All  these  officials,  together 
with  the  secretary  and  treasurer  general,  are  elected 
for  a  term  of  six  years.  The  postulantship  lasts 
six  months,  the  novitiate  two  years.  The  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  congregation  are  given  every  opportu¬ 
nity  to  meet  modern  educational  requirements  in 
professional  training  and  state  certification.  Con¬ 
nected  with  the  mother-house  and  novitiate  are 
schools  for  normal  and  college  extension  courses. 
In  all  the  institutions  under  their  direction  the 
Sisters  aim  at  the  highest  standards  of  discipline, 
religious  training,  and  scholarship.  A  work  to 
which  they  attach  great  importance  is  that  of 
the  parochial  grade  and  high  schools  and  they 
have  met  with  remarkable  success.  St.  Mary’s, 
the  first  Catholic  central  high  school  for  girls  in 
Chicago,  was  begun  in  1899  with  72  girls  under 
the  instruction  of  5  Sisters.  A  new  building  has 
been  erected,  added  to,  and  furnished  with  all 
modern  equipment,  and  in  1921  there  were  30 
teachers  in  the  faculty  and  800  girls  were  in  at¬ 
tendance  from  47  parishes.  The  Immaculata,  a 
central  high  school,  which  promises  to  be  for  the 
North  Side  of  Chicago  what  St.  Mary’s  is  for 
the  West  Side,  was  opened  by  the  Sisters  in  1921 
with  a  registration  of  210. 

By  special  rescript  of  the  Holy  See  the  foundress 
of  the  congregation,  Mother  Mary  Frances  Clarke, 
remained  superior  general  until  her  death  in  1887. 
Under  her  50  schools  were  opened.  She  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  1888  by  Mother  Mary  Gertrude  Regan, 
who  had  entered  the  Sisters’  novitiate  at  Phila¬ 
delphia  in  1841,  the  community  then  numbering 
only  14  members.  Mother  Gertrude  celebrated  her 
diamond  jubilee  in  1916  and  died  in  1919.  The 
third  superior  general  was  Mother  Mary  Cecelia 
Dougherty,  who  three  times  held  the  office.  She 
died  before  the  expiration  of  her  third  term,  in 
1919.  It  was  through  her  formal  petition  that 
the  Catholic  University  opened  university  courses 
to  the  teaching  sisterhoods,  and  the  Sisters’  Col¬ 
lege  in  Brookland,  Washington,  D.  C.,  was  inaugu¬ 
rated  as  an  integral  part  of  the  Catholic  University 
of  America.  The  first  students  to  matriculate 
were  six  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary  from  Dubuque.  Mother  Mary  -  Lilly,  who 
became  superior  general  in  112,  obtained  from 


CHARITY  CHARITY 

the  Holy  See,  in  114,  perpetual  vows  for  the  sis-  tember,  1845,  chevalier  of  the  Order  of  the  Crown 
terhood.  The  installation  of  provincial  govern-  elected  superior  2  September,  1899,  and  re-elected 
inent  and  the  revision  of  the  constitutions,  ren-  three  times  consecutively  in  1905,  1911,  and  1919 
dered  necessary  by  the  change,  were  ably  conducted  celebrated  the  golden  jubilee  of  her  profession  in 
under  her  supervision.  The  present  superior  gen-  1919,  and  died  17  November,  1920 
eral  is  Mother  Mary  Isabella  Kane.  Other  notable  members  recently  deceased  are- 

Since  its  foundation  in  1833,  2,000  young  women  Mother  Mary  of  the  Trinity  (Teresa  Lockens) 
have  entered  the  congregation.  At  present  there  superior  at  Lahore  (Punjab),  where  she  founded 
are  1,400  members,  conducting  95  schools  which  the  school  for  Parsees,  d.  1908;  Mother  Corine 
include  1  college,  8  academies,  13  high  schools,  and  (Margaret  Frederix),  superior  at  St.  Trudon 
73  parochial  schools,  with  a  total  enrollment  of  (Congo)  where  she  took  care  of  the  victims  of 
33,220  pupils.  These  schools  are  located  in  Iowa,  the  sleeping  sickness,  contracted  their  disease  and 
Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  died  at  the  mother-house  in  1910;  Sister  Ancina 
South  Dakota,  Colorado,  California,  Montana,  (Elizabeth  Dicteren),  contracted  the  sleeping  sick- 
Oregon,  Washington.  ness  at  St.  Trudon,  d.  at  St.  Trond,  Belgium,  1910  * 

Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Immaculate  Con-  Mother  Amalia  (Van  der  Stegen),  one  of  the  first 
ception,  St.  John,  New  Brunswick,  (cf.  C.  E.,  caravan  of  Sisters  who  went  as  missionaries  to  the 
lll-608d). — The  rules  given  the  community  by  the  Congo  in  1891,  returned  to  Belgium  1912,  d.  1913, 
founder  have  been  revised,  and  as  Constitutions  chevalier  of  the  Order  of  Leopold;  Sister  Edith 
conform  to  the  new  code  of  Canon  Law.  The  (De  Blauwe),  author  of  an  account  of  her  "trips 
affairs  of  the  community  are  administered  by  a  to  India  and  Ceylon  (edited  1901  and  1905),  began 
mother  general  with  four  assistants,  a  general  secre-  the  review  “Caritas,”  d.  1914;  Sister  Fmnbarr 
tary,  and  a  general  treasurer.  The  first  mother  gen-  (Hammond),  with  Senior  Oxford  certificate  and 
eral  under  the  revised  Constitutions  was  Rev.  Mother  the  degree  of  LL.A.  St.  Andrew’s,  head-mistress  of 
Mary  Thomas,  who  was  succeeded  by  Rev.  Mother  the  boarding  school  of  Claremont,  d.  1915  of  an 
Mary  Alphonsus,  the  present  mother  general.  Under  epidemic  which  broke  out  among  "the  Belgian 
their  wise  guidance  the  charitable  and  educational  refugees  to  whom  she  ministered;  Mother  Idonie 
works  of  the  community  have  been  greatly  ex-  (M.  Ottevaere),  superior  of  the  institute  for  abnor- 
tended.  Hospitals  have  been  opened  in  the  west  mal  children  of  Lokeren,  consecrated  twenty-seven 
at  Prince  Albert,  Sask.,  and  in  St.  John,  N.  B.  A  years  to  the  education  of  mentally  deficient  chil- 
home  for  destitute  infants  is  another  great  charity  dren,  d.  1917;  Mother  Josepha  (Clara  Hellebaut), 
undertaken  by  the  Sisters.  A  modern  boarding-  one  of  the  ten  first  missionaries  for  the  Congo’ 
school  and  academy  has  recently  been  opened,  and  decorated  chevalier  of  the  Order  of  Leopold  for 
in  1921  the  Sisters  opened  in  Regina,  Sask.,  a  Girls’  her  services  at  the  hospital  of  Kinkanda,  founded 
Guild  (called  Rosary  Hall)  for  the  accommodation  for  Belgians  working  at  the  first  railway/  returned 
of  young  women  living  away  from  home  and  earn-  to  Belgium  1905,  d.  1917;  Sister  Gamaliel  (Lucie 
ing  their  own  livelihood.  Thus  the  18  houses  of  Delaye),  for  twenty-five  years  teacher  of  the  deaf 
the  Institute  number  over  200  Sisters  who  care  and  dumb  at  the  Royal  Institute  of  the  Rampart 
for  the  poor,  the  sick,  and  infirm  from  infancy  des  Moines,  Brussels,  d.  1917;  Mother  Mary  of 
to  old  age.  The  community  is  engaged  in  all  the  Cross  (Clemantine  van  Driessche),  former 
the  educational  activities  of  the  times  from  the  superior  general,  d.  1918;  Mother  Colette  (Hor- 
primary,  intermediate,  through  the  high  school  tense  Grosse),  superior  of  St.  Trond,  which  shel- 
grades.  Their  pupils  pass  with  honors  the  matricula-  tered  many  refugees  during  the  war,  the  sick  and 
tion,  State,  and  all  departmental  examinations.  unfortunate,  d.  1918;  Mother  Pacifique  (Caroline 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Incarnate  Word.  Janssens),  successively  superior  at  Mons,  Eecloo, 
See  Incarnate  Word,  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the.  Courtrai,  and  Beirlegem,  d.  at  Lockeren  1919; 

Sisters  of  Charity  of  Jesus  and  Mary  (cf.  C.  Mother  Felicite  (Stephanie  Van  Durme),  superior 
E.,  III-609c). — This  congregation  with  mother-  at  St.  Genois  near  Courtrai,  d.  at  the  civil  hospital 
house  at  Ghent,  is  administered  by  a  superior  gen-  of  Manseron  where  she  was  obliged  to  seek  refuge 
eral,  a  secular  priest  nominated  by  the  Bishop  a  few  days  before  the  armistice,  6  November,  1918; 
of  Ghent,  and  a  mother  general,  elected  for  six  Sister  Flore  (Marie  Bauwens),  professor  at  the 
years  from  among  the  members  of  the  congrega-  Institute  of  Notre  Dame  aux  Epines  at  Eecloo, 
tion.  The  superiors  general  are  assisted  by  their  author  of  a  history  of  Notre  Dame  aux  Epines 
council,  residing  at  the  mother-house.  Each  affilia-  and  of  the  institute  (edited  1921),  d.  1918;  Sister 
tion  is  administered  by  a  superior  nominated  for  Frederique  (M.  Verstraeten),  professor  of  religion 
three  years  by  the  general  superiors.  All  the  and  philosophy  at  the  Institute  of  Notre  Dame 
affiliations  depend  on  the  mother-house.  The  con-  aux  Epines,  d.  1919;  Sister  Seraphine  (Amelie 
stitutions  are  taken  from  the  Rules  of  St.  Bernard  Janssens),  for  thirty-three  years  teacher  of  deaf 
and  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  to  suit  the  mixed  life  and  dumb  children  at  the  mother-house,  decorated 
of  contemplation  and  active  works.  The  work  in  1912  with  the  first  class  Civil  Cross,  d.  1918; 
of  revision  of  the  constitutions  will  be  sent  to  Mother  Rosalie  (M.  Van  Goethem),  foundress  of 
Rome..  The  new  Canon  Law  has  been  put  into  the  house  at  Tottington,  England,  superior  at 
execution  since  1920.  Tournai,  died  at  Ghent  where  she  had  retired  dur- 

The  present  superior  general  is  Canon  Eugene  ing  the  war. 
van  Rechem,  b.  at  Beveren-Audenarde  in  April,  At  present  (1921)  the  congregation  numbers  1,600 
1858,  appointed  superior  general,  1  November,  1903,  members  with  45  foundations,  of  which  30  are  in 
created  titular  Bishop  of  Carpasia,  26  March,  1914,  Belgium,  1  in  Holland,  1  in  England,  6  in  Belgian 
consecrated  auxiliary  Bishop  of  Ghent  14  May,  Congo,  4  in  India,  and  3  in  Ceylon.  Under  the 
1914,  chevalier  of  the  Order  of  Leopold.  The  care  of  the  Sisters  there  are  in  Europe:  1  normal 
mother  general  is  Mother  Bemardette  (Clemence  school,  9  boarding  schools,  15  day  schools,  18 
Van  Reeth),  b.  at  Antwerp,  1  November,  1853,  for-  primary  schools,  10  professional  schools,  1  institute 
merly  Superior  of  Mons,  elected  general  superior  for  the  blind,  3  institutes  for  the  deaf  and  dumb, 

11  December,  1920,  entitled  chevalier  of  the  Order  4  institutes  for  mentally  deficient  children,  1  insti- 
of  Leopold  in  1921.  She  succeeded  Mother  Ghis-  tute  for  the  disabled,  2  institutes  for  incurables, 
laine  (Rosalie  Spillemackers),  b.  at  Boom  in  Sep-  1  asylum  for  the  abandoned,  1  house  of  preserva- 


CHARITY 


CHARITY 


182 


tion  1  poor  law  school,  1  house  for  young  woiking 
eirls,  1  model  nursery,  7  lunatic  asylums,  1  sana¬ 
torium  for  tuberculous  patients,  1  sanatorium  for 
little  girls  having  symptoms  of  consumption,  6 
hospitals,  11  hospitals  for  incurables  and  old  men, 

1  hospital  for  old  blind  men,  4  refuges  for  blind 
adults,  3  refuges  for  deaf  and  dumb,  13  houses 
of  retreat;  in  India  (Punjab):  1  school  for  parsees 
and  Indian  girls,  3  boarding  schools  and  day 
schools  for  Europeans,  2  industrial  schools  tor 
natives,  1  nursery,  2  dispensaries  for  natives;  in 
Ceylon:  3  boarding  schools  and  day  schools  for 
Europeans,  1  nursery,  3  English  and  Sinhalese 
schools,  3  industrial  schools,  3  industrial  schools  tor 
native  girls;  in  Belgian  Congo:  1  school  for  white 
children,  4  schools  for  native  children,  2  hospitals 
for  Europeans,  1  hospital  for  contagious  diseases,  1 
hospital  for  incurables,  2  hospitals  for  sleeping  sick¬ 
ness,  2  dispensaries  for  natives.  The  congregation 
thus  had  the  following  pupils  under  instruction 
(1912):  guardian'  schools,  2,769;  primary  classes, 
6,118;  secondary  classes,  781;  secondary  teaching, 
55;  normal  school,  285;  humanities,  16;  commer¬ 
cial  school,  50;  domestic  economy  schools,  241; 
Sunday  schools,  2,239;  abnormal  children,  805. 
The  Sisters  take  care  of  1,502  sick,  infirm,  and 
old  men,  2,632  lunatics,  115  blind  adults,  71  deaf 
and  dumb  adults,  406  paying  guests,  80  tuberculous 
patients,  42  with  symptoms  of  tuberculosis. 

The  expropriation  of  the  Asylum  of  Ghent  was 
an  occasion  of  establishing  the  Pavilion  System, 
the  “open  doors”  unknown  in  Belgium.  The  Cantas 
asylum  was  inaugurated  at  Melle  near  Ghent,  27 
October,  1908,  by  the  late  Bishop  Stillemans,  M. 
Renkin,  Minister  of  Justice,  and  about  fifty  notable 
personages  interested  in  the  organization  of  the 
new  asylum.  At  present  there  are  6/1  patients 
and  82  Sisters.  At  the  same  time  Holland  asked 
for  an  institute  like  the  one  at  Venray  and  the 
pavilions  were  erected  on  an  estate  of  125  acres. 
The  first  Sisters  were  introduced  there  November, 
1908,  and  on  11  June,  1911,  the  official  opening 
took  place.  The  Diocese  of  Galle,  Ceylon,  wa3 
endowed  with  two  new  missions  in  1908,  at  Matara, 
and  in  1909,  at  Kegalle.  There  the  Sisters  have  a 
boarding  school,  a  day  school,  schools  for  English 
and  Singalese  pupils,  and  an  industrial  school.  In 
1909  the  hospital  for  the  blind  on  Boulevard  du 
Midi,  in  Brussels,  was  given  in  charge  of  the 
Sisters  of  Charity.  In  1910  the  Institute  of  Notre 
Dame  aux  Epines,  at  Eecloo,  opened  its  pavilion 
for  young  ladies  who  are  completing  their  educa¬ 
tion,  and  in  1913  that  of  St.  Teresa,  which  is  a 
center  for  Oxford  examinations  and  has.  Greek- 
Latin  and  commercial  sections.  In  the  institute 
there  are  1,588  pupils  and  nearly  200  Sisters.  At 
Renaix  in  1911  the  Sisters  took  charge  of  the 
Canfyn  Hospital,  near  which  a  new  civil  hospital 
was  begun  in  1914  and  completed  in.  1920.  The 
Sisters  have  been  in  charge  of  the  civil  hospital 
at  Renaix  since  1825. 

In  1911  a  mission  was  founded  at  Ehzabeth- 
ville  (Katanga).  There  the  Sisters  have  a  board¬ 
ing  school,  day  school,  the  State  hospital,  the 
hospital  of  the' blacks,  and  the  dispensary  of  the 
“Drop  of  Milk”  for  the  protection  of  black  chil¬ 
dren.  In  May,  1912,  was  laid  the  foundation  stone 
of  the  Ave  Maria,  a  sanatorium  for  insane  people 
at  St.  Servais-lez-N amur,  opened  in  January,  1914, 
and  on  the  way  to  completion.  It  shelters  almost 
600  patients,  taken  care  of  by  72  Sisters  of  Charity. 
In  1916  the  Sisters  took  possession  of  an  estate  at 
Lovenjoul,  belonging  to  the  University  of  Louvain, 
an  ideal  place  of  convalescence  for  ladies  with  non- 
contagious  disease.  In  1917  the  French  Dominican 


Sisters  gave  over  to  the  Sisters  of  Charity  the 
direction  of  the  institute  for  deaf  and  dumb  boys 
and  girls  at  Bouge-lez-Namur.  In  1921,  at  the  re¬ 
quest  of  Bishop  Heylen  of  Namur,  the  Sisters  took 
charge  of  the  sanatorium  for  tuberculous  patients 
at  Mont-sur-Meuse. 

Sisters  of  Charity  of  our  Lady  Mother  of 
Mercy  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-610b).— According  to  the 
changes  made  in  the  constitutions  of  the  com¬ 
munity  by  the  new  Code  of  Canon  Law  the 
General  Superior,  elected  for  six  years,  may  be  re¬ 
elected  only  once.  Previously  mother  generals, 
re-elected  many  times,  often  held  their  office  until 
death.  Local  superiors  are  appointed  for  a  term 
of  three,  instead  of  six  years.  Mother  General 
Teresinia  Favier  had  succeeded  Mother  Leocritia 
in  1909,  at  the  latter's  resignation  due  to  failing 
health.  She  had  been  Superior  of  St.  Mary’s  Con¬ 
vent,  Willimantic,  Conn.  In  1910  she  visited  the 
houses  in  the  United  States,  and  appointed  Mother 
Alphonsa  Superior  of  the  Holy  Family  Academy, 
Baltic,  Conn.,  as  successor  to  Mother  Aloysia 
Spight,  who  had  been  recalled  to  Europe  in  1909. 
Under  Mother  Alphonsa  a  new  wing  was  added  to 
the  academy  buildings.  In  1920  Mother  Favier  again 
visited  the  houses  in  the  United  States,  changing, 
according  to  the  new  regulations,  local  superiors 
whose  term  of  three  years  had  expired.  In  1921 
Mother  Favier  resigned,  and  canonically  elected 
as  superior  general  Mother  Christine  Borsten  who 
had  been  assistant  to  the  governing  faculty  for 
many  years.  In  1916  the  former  superior  general, 
Mother  Leocritia,  died  at  Tilburg.  Previous  to 
her  election  as  mother  general,  she  had  been 
superior  of  three  different  houses  in  Holland, 
superior  of  St.  Joseph’s  Convent,  •' Willimantic, 
Conn.,  for  four  years,  and  assistant  to  the  mother 
general  in  1887.  The  Cardinal  Protector  of  the 
Congregation  is  Cardinal  Van  Rossum. 

Three  foundations  have  been  made  in  different 
parts  of  the  world  since  1908.  In  1910  a  hospital 
was  founded  in  Utrecht,  Holland,  and  a  second 
house  of  the  congregation  was  opened  in  Para¬ 
maribo,  Dutch  Guiana,  South  America,  for  the 
twofold  purpose  of  nursing  the  sick  and  teaching 
the  native  children.  In  the  leper  colony  located 
at  some  distance  from  Paramaribo  the  Sisters  are 
engaged  in  caring  for  these  unfortunate  people  who 
belong  to  various  creeds  and  nationalities.  Num¬ 
bers  of  these  poor  victims,  by  the  charitable  minis¬ 
trations  of  priests  and  Sisters,  have  been  brought 
into  the  Church.  In  1909  one  of-  the  nursing  Sis¬ 
ters  contracted  the  dreadful  malady,  but  the  doc¬ 
tors  succeeded  in  arresting  the  progress  of  the 
disease,  so  that  she  is  able  to  continue  her  labors 
among  the  lepers.  The  third  recent  #  foundation 
was  made  in  the  East  Indies  at  Tondjong,  Sakti, 
where  the  Sisters  give  catechetical  instruction  and 
training  in  household  work,  sewing,  etc.,  to  the 
half-civilized  women  and  girls  and  teach  the  native 
children.  . 

Previous  to  the  World  War  the  congregation 
had  eight  houses  in  Belgium,  some  of  which  were 
situated  in  the  war  zone.  These  institutions  had 
sheltered  and  cared  for  the  sick  among  the  troops 
of  the  invading  army,  when  on  their  way  to  the 
front,  so  that  out  of  regard  for  these  charitable 
services  the  convents  were  spared  when  those  of 
various  other  orders  were  destroyed.  In  1917  the 
Belgian  Sisters  suffered  much,  and  as  many  fell 
sick  for  want  of  proper  nourishment,  they  were 
recalled  to  Holland.  Two  of  the  Belgian  houses 
were  subsequently  closed  on  account  of  post-war 
conditions. 

From  the  first  year  of  the  war  until  November, 


CHARLESTON 


183 


CHATHAM 


1919,  the  houses  on  the  Belgian  frontier  in  Holland 
were  taxed  to  the  utmost  to  accommodate  the 
refugees  who  poured  in  from  France  and  Belgium. 
When  Antwerp  was  besieged  most  of  the  women 
and  children  who  escaped  from  that  city  fled  to 
Tilburg,  which  is  but  twenty  miles  distant;  here 
numbers  arrived  in  a  pitiable  condition.  The  Sis¬ 
ters  in  Tilburg  did  all  they  could  to  relieve  the 
sufferers.  In  several  houses  the  parochial  school 
buildings  became  improvised  hospitals  for  soldiers 
and  civilians.  The  inmates  of  an  orphan  asylum, 
about  100  children  and  their  teachers,  were  received 
by  the  Sisters  at  the  Hague.  It  was  a  difficult 
problem  to  provide  sufficient  food  and  clothing 
for  these  refugees,  but  Divine  Providence  watched 
over  the  community  in  a  special  manner,  and  they 
never  lacked  the  necessities  of  life. 

The  principal  aim  of  the  congregation  is  to 
nurse  the  sick  in  hospitals  and  teach  parochial 
schools.  Many  of  the  communities  in  Holland 
devote  themselves  to  the  twofold  work  of  hospital 
and  school.  The  Sisters  also  direct  institutions  for 
the  aged,  asylums  for  orphan  girls,  and  schools  for 
the  blind  and  for  the  deaf  and  dumb.  They  conduct 
3  normal  schools  and  7  academies.  The  total  num¬ 
ber  of  houses  in  1921  was  100;  professed  members, 
3,608;  children  taught,  57,732;  sick  and  aged  cared 
for,  3,980.  In  the  United  States  there  are  105  Sis¬ 
ters  in  charge  of  schools  and  hospitals  in  the 
Diocese  of  Hartford,  with  1,997  pupils  under  their 
instruction. 

Charleston,  Diocese  of  (Carolopolitana;  cf.  C. 
E.,  III-630e). — The  present  bishop  of  Charleston, 
Rt.  Rev.  William  T.  Russell,  who  was  consecrated 
15  March,  1917,  succeeded  Bishop  Northrop,  who 
died  7  June,  1916.  The  Catholic  population  of  the 
diocese  is  10,000.  There  are  21  parishes  with 
churches,  17  missions,  95  stations,  31  secular 
priests  and  2  regulars.  There  are  110  sis¬ 
ters  in  the  diocese  and  12  seminarians;  1  high 
school  with  9  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  180; 
5  academies  with  an  attendance  of  750;  9  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  with  an  attendance  of  1,221;  1  hos¬ 
pital;  1  settlement  house.  All  the  public  institu¬ 
tions  in  the  state  admit  the  ministry  of  priests. 

Deaths  among  the  clergy  since  1908  include  those 
of  Rt.  Rev.  P.  L.  Duffy  and  Rev.  J.  D.  Budda. 
Diocesan  clergy  administered  to  the  spiritual  needs 
of  the  soldiers  and  sailors  at  the  recreation  centers 
which  were  established  during  the  war  in  Charles¬ 
ton,  Columbia,  Spartanburg,  Greenville,  Moul- 
trieville,  and  Beaufort,  S.  C. 

Charlottetown,  Diocese  of  (Carolinapolitana; 
cf.  C.  E.,  III-632b),  comprises  Prince  Edward 
Island,  Canada,  and  is  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese 
of  Halifax.  The  Rt.  Reverend  James  Charles  McDon¬ 
ald,  who  had  filled  this  see  since  1891,  died  1 
December,  1912,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Reverend 
Henry  J.  O’Leary.  Bishop  O’Leary  was  consecrated 
25  May,  1913,  and  filled  the  see  of  Charlottetown 
until  his  transfer  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Edmonton 
in  1920.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Rt. 
Reverend  Louis  James  O’Leary,  the  present  incum¬ 
bent,  who  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Hier- 
apolis  and  made  auxiliary  to  the  Bishop  of 
Chatham  29  January,  1914,  and  transferred  to  the 
diocese  of  Charlottetown  10  September,  1920. 

Prominent  clergy  of  this  diocese  who  have  died 
within  recent  years  are:  Rev.  James  McDonald, 
Rev.  Peter  McCarvill,  Rev.  Father  Brisco,  Rev.  J. 
T.  Murphy,  Rev.  Augustus  McDonald,  Rev.  James 
Phelan,  and  Rev.  Stephen  Phelan.  During  the 
World  War  two  of  the  priests  of  the  diocese  served 
as  chaplains. 


The  principal  events  of  the  diocese  during  recent 
years  have  been  the  erection  of  a  new  cathedral 
a  new  orphanage,  a  home  under  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Martha  and  the  burning  of  the  hospital  of 
Charlottetown. 

By  present  statistics  there  are :  40  parishes,  40 
churches,  10  missions,  10  mission  stations,  59  secular 
priests,  1  university  with  12  professors  and  an 
attendance  of  200,  2  academies  for  girls  with  35 
teachers  and  250  girls,  2  academies  for  boys  with 
100  boys,  1  elementary  school  with  12  teachers  and 
450  pupils,  1  home,,  and  1  hospital.  St.  Bernard’s 
Society  is  established  among  the  clergy,  and  the 
Knights  of  Columbus,  League  of  the  Cross  and 
B.  I.  S.  among  the  laity.  The  total  Catholic  popu¬ 
lation  is  49,200  composed  of  Irish,  Scotch,  and 
French. 

Chartres,  Diocese  of  (Carnutensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-635b),  comprising  the  whole  department  of 
Eure  et  Loir,  in  France,  suffragan  of  Paris.  This 
see,  founded  in  the  third  century,  is  now  filled 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Henri-Louis-Alfred  Bouquet,  born  in 
Paris,  1839,  ordained  1864,  professor  to  the  Faculty 
of  Theology  in  Paris,  administrator  of  the  church 
of  the  Sorbonne,  appointed  Bishop  of  Mende  18 
April,  1901,  transferred  21  February,  1906.  He  is 
a  chevalier  of  the  legion  d’honneur  and  an  officer 
of  public  instruction.  In  1917  the  centennial  of  the 
re-establishment  of  the  diocese  of  Chartres  was  cele¬ 
brated,  the  see  having  been  suppressed  from  1801-17. 
Bishop  de  Latil,  the  first  bishop  after  the  re-estab¬ 
lishment,  was  granted  the  personal  privilege  of 
wearing  the  pallium.  With  his  promotion,  how¬ 
ever,  the  privilege  was  discontinued,  but  it  was 
given  back  to  the  see  by  Benedict  XV  15  Novem¬ 
ber,  1917. 

In  1906  the  Upper  Seminary  was  expelled  from 
the  house  which  had  sheltered  generations  of  priests, 
and  from  that  time  until  1920  it  took  refuge  in  the 
Carmelite  monastery,  from  which  the  Sisters  had 
departed  for  Holland.  In  1920  it  became  perma¬ 
nently  established  in  a  house  at  1  Rue  St.  Eman, 
which  belonged  to  the  Religious  of  Providence, 
and  which  for  centuries  before  the  spoliations  of 
the  Revolution  was  the  property  of  the  Abbey  of 
St.  John.  In  1914  the  Apostolicity  of  the  Church 
of  Chartres  and  the  ancient  foundation  of  the 
famous  statue  of  the  Virgin,  which  is  said  to  have 
been  there  in  the  time  of  the  Druids,  was  con¬ 
firmed  by  a  decree  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Con¬ 
sistory,  in  refutation  of  an  article  written  by  Dom 
Leclercq,  in  which  he  questioned  the  authenticity 
of  these  facts  and  mentioned  them  as  mere  legends. 

During  the  World  War  142  priests  and  35  semi¬ 
narians  were  mobilized  from  this  diocese,  and  of 
this  number  8  priests  and  14  seminarians  gave  up 
their  lives,  2  were  decorated  with  the  legion 
dlionneur,  5  with  the  medaille  militaire,  and  36 
with  the  croix  de  guerre.  According  to  1920  statistics 
the  total  population  of  this  territory  numbers 
273,823,  of  whom  272,255  are  Catholic,  the  diocese 
comprises  24  deaneries,  25  first  class  parishes,  351 
succursal  parishes,  40  vicariates,  4-50  secular  and 
4  regular  clergy,  35  seminarians,  4  communities  of 
religious  women,  and  70  Catholic  schools  with  4500 
pupils.  A  number  of  charitable  institutions  and 
societies  are  established,  and  a  periodical,  “Voix 
de  Notre  Dame  de  Chartres,”  is  published. 

Chatham,  Diocese  of  (Chathamensi3;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-642a),  Canada. — In  1913  Mgr.  Henry  O’Leary, 
then  pastor  of  Bathurst  in  the  Diocese  of  Chatham, 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Charlottetown.  In 
1914  Mgr.  Louis  O’Leary,  chancellor  of  the  diocese 
and  author  of  the  article  on  “Chatham”  in  the 


CHAUVANCE 


184 


CHE-KIANG- 


Catholic  Encyclopedia,  was  consecrated  titular 
bishop  of  Hierapolis  and  auxiliary  to  Bishop  Barry 
of  Chatham,  who  died  in  January,  1920.  In  the 
following  August  Bishop  O’Leary  was  transferred 
to  the  see  of  Charlottetown,  and  Bishop  Patnce- 
Alexandre  Chiasson,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  succeeded  to  that  of  Chatham. 
The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  184,000, 
of  whom  92,000  are  French  and  Irish  Acadians, 
75,000  French- Acadians  and  17,000  Irish.  There 
are  59  parishes,  113  churches,  54  missions,  1  mon¬ 
astery  of  men  (Trappist)  and  one  of  women  (Trap- 
pistines),  75  secular  priests,  25  regulars,  9  brothers, 
15  convents  of  women,  298  sisters,  18  seminarians. 
The  educational  institutions  include  2  colleges  for 
boys  with  20  professors  and  400  pupils,  10  high 
schools  with  30  teachers  and  an  attendance  of 
450  (150  boys,  300  girls),  12  parochial  elementary 
schools  with  35  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  700. 
There  are  two  asylums  for  orphans  and  one  for  the 
aged;  4  hospitals,  one  of  which  is  for  lepers  and 
is  under  government  support,  as .  are  also  two 
schools.  Two  public  hospitals  admit  the  ministry 
of  priests.  The  Societe  St.  Michel  is  organized 
among  the  clergy. 

Chauvance,  Louise-Therese  de  Montaignac  de, 
religious  foundress,  daughter  of  Aime,  and  Anne 
de  Ruffin,  b.  at  Le  Havre  de  Grace,  Normandy, 
14  May,  1820;  d.  27  June,  1885.  She  was  educated 
at  Montlucon  by  an  aunt,  after  whose  death  she 
devoted  herself  to  works  of  charity,  in  particular 
aiding  poor  churches.  In  1852  she  founded  an 
orphanage  near  her  own  home  and  established  in 
connection  with  it  an  association  of  pious  women 
to  join  in  visits  of  reparation  to  and  adoration 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  every  Thursday.  On 
21  December,  1874,  her  Pious  Union  of  the  Oblates 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  received  episcopal 
approbation,  and  in  1879  she  opened  the  Little 
School  of  the  Child  Jesus  as  a  nursery  for  priestly 
vocations.  As  the  Oblates  had  already  spread  into 
many  other  dioceses  a  general  congregation  was 
held  and  she  was  elected  general  on  17  May,  1880. 
The  union  received  its  decree  of  praise  from  the 
Holy  See  in  1881,  and  in  1895  its  rule  was  definitely 
approved.  On  23  December,  1914,  the  Pope  con¬ 
firmed  the  decision  of  the  Congregations  of  Rites 
introducing  the  cause  of  canonization  of  the  found¬ 
ress. 

Che-Kiang,  Eastern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Ce-Kiam  Orientalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-677d),  in 
the  third  ecclesiastical  region  of  China,  with 
official  residence  at  Ning-po.  This  vicariate, 
first  erected  in  1698,  was  re-established  in  1846 
and  entrusted  to  the  Lazarists.  The  present 
vicar  apostolic,  Rt.  Rev.  Paul-Marie  Reynaud,  born 
in  the  department  of  Loire,  France,  1854,  entered 
this  congregation  1873,  was  ordained  1879,  and  ap¬ 
pointed  titular  Bishop  of  Fussola  and  vicar  apos¬ 
tolic,  7  March,  1884.  He  is  Dean  of  the  Chinese 
bishops.  On  28  May,  1919,  Bishop  Reynaud  re¬ 
ceived  a  letter  from  His  Holiness  congratulating 
him  on  his  thirty-five  years  in  the  episcopate,  and 
on  the  splendid  work  he  had  carried  on  for  forty 
years  in  the  Chinese  mission.  At  the  same  date 
the  president  of  the  Chinese  Republic  decorated 
him  with  the  Epi  d’  or  of  the  second  class,  in  recog¬ 
nition  of  his  devotion  to  the  people  of  China  during 
forty  years,  and  in  particular  for  the  moral  and 
financial  aid  which  he  gave  during  the  inundations 
of  1917-18.  At  this  time  he  offered  his  fur  cloak 
for  sale,  and  it  brought  over  10,000  piastres  for 
the  sufferers;  the  cloak  has  since  been  placed  in 
the  museum.  He  also  obtained  40,000  francs  from 


the  Pope  and  20,000  from  Propaganda  to  be  used 
for  relief  work.  Other  decorations  were  conferred 
on  some  of  the  priests  who  assisted  the  bishop 
during  the  famine  of  1912  or  the  floods;  Revs.  J. 
B.  Lepers,  A.  Buch,  C.  Arond,  A.  Defehvre, 
Lazarists;  and  J.  Ing,  M.  Ou,  and  J.  Chu,  native 
priests,  as  well  as  two  sisters;  Sister  Gilbert,  of 
the  Sisters  of  Charity,  superior  of  St.,  Joseph’s 
Hospital,  at  Ning-po,  and  Sister  Helene  de 
Shaohing,  a  Chinese  religious  of  the  Sisters  of 
Purgatory. 

The  1920  statistics  credit  this  territory  with  a 
total  population  of  11,000,000,  of  whom  38,460  are 
Catholic,  12,577  catechumens,  and  17,000  Prot¬ 
estants.  There  are  17  European  and  7  native 
priests,  5  lay  brothers,  401  catechists  28  churches, 
131  chapels,  2  seminaries  with  117  students,  16  hos¬ 
pitals,  136  schools,  4  secondary  schools,  9  orphan¬ 
ages,  10  homes  for  the  aged,  and  11  dispensaries. 
The  Sisters  of  Charity,  numbering  44,  and  the ' 
Sisters  of  Purgatory,  numbering  67,  are  established 
here.  The  following  statistics  of  the  spiritual  fruits 
of  the  mission  for  the  year  1920-21  give  an  idea 
of  the  progress  being  made;  conversions  of  heretics 
or  schismatics,  88;  baptisms,  of  adults  1,526,  of 
sick  or  dying,  372,  of  children  of  Christian  par¬ 
entage  1,673,  of  children  in  danger  of  death,  6,396; 
confirmations,  1,259;  confessions,  annual,  15,823;  of 
devotion,  98,959;  communions,  annual,  14,965;  of 
devotion,  275,421;  extreme  unctions,  396.,  A  weekly 
review  “Le  Petit  Messager  de  Ningpo,”  is  pub¬ 
lished  in  French.  In  1917  the  mission  celebrated 
the  jubilee  of  one  of  its  oldest  missionaries,  Rev. 
Dominic  Procacci,  C.  M.,  who  had  labored  in  this 
territory  for  forty  years,  never  leaving  it.  On  this 
occasion  he  received  a  letter  of  congratulation  from 
His  Holiness,  Benedict  XV.  In  1919  Bishop  Rey¬ 
naud  launched  a  drive  for  the  establishment  of  a 
fund  for  the  maintenance  of  Chinese  priests,  and 
on  the  13  December  the  Pope  sent  word  that  in 
order  to  encourage  this  work,  he  had  deposited 
50,000  lire,  the  interest  of  which  would  be  used  for 
the  support  of  a  Chinese  priest  who  should  be 
called  the  Pope’s  missionary. 

Che-Kiang,  Western,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf. 
C.  E.,  XVI-82b),  in  China,  comprises  the  civil 
prefectures  of  Kia-Shing,  Hu-chow,  Hang-chow, 
Yen-show,  Chuchow,  and  King-wa.  The  present 
Vicar  Apostolic  (1922)  is  Rt.  Rev.  Paul  Albert 
Faveau,  titular  bishop  of  Tamassus,  appointed  10 
May,  1910.  This  vicariate  covers  a  territory  of 
26,250  sq.  miles,  and  comprises  a  Catholic  popu¬ 
lation  of  21,161,  7,750,000  infidels  and  15,000 
heretics.  The  missionary  work  is  carried  on  by  10 
European,  15  native  priests,  and  1  lay  brother 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission;  9  secular 
priests,  17  Daughters  of  Charity,  36  Daughters  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  127  male  teachers,  and  35  female 
teachers  and  baptizers.  The  missionaries  have 
established  14  residences,  5  sub-stations,  13  churches, 
106  chapels,  110  oratories,  1  upper  seminary  with 
26  seminarians,  2  lower  seminaries  with  50  semi¬ 
narians,  1  normal  school  with  12  pupils,  54  primary 
schools  for  boys  with  1,050  pupils,  18  primary 
schools  for  girls  with  843  pupils.  The  various 
charitable  institutions  include  arms  and  work  shops, 
6  industrial  schools  for  girls  with  324  girls,  2  orphan¬ 
ages  for  boys  with  10  inmates,  3  for  girls  with 
346  inmates,  2  hospitals  for  men  in  which  806  cases 
were  treated,  2  for  women  in  which  79  cases  were 
treated,  2  homes  for  aged  men  with  17  inmates, 
2  for  women  with  19  inmates,  9  dispensaries  from 
which  266,169  cases  were  treated  and  5,198  visits 
made  to  homes,  and  3  pharmacies.  The  following 


CHELMNO 


185 


CHIAVARI 


statistics  for  the  past  year  show  the  spiritual 
progress  of  this  mission;  conversion  of  heretics  and 
schismatics  5;  catechumens  2,870,  baptisms  of  adult 
catechumens  1,017,  of  adult  pagans  in  the  hospitals 
or  at  the  point  of  death,  114;  of  children  of  Chris¬ 
tian  parents,  707,  of  infidels,  in  danger  of  death, 
3,817;  confirmation,  1,605;  confessions  of  devotion 
70,656,  annual,  11,029;  communions  of  devotion, 
193,926,  annual,  10,395;  extreme  unctions,  253, 
marriages  177,  men  and  boys  making  retreats,  301, 
women  and  girls,  630. 

Chelmno  (German,  Culm),  Diocese  of  (Cul- 
mEnsis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IV-566b),  in  the  regency  of 
Marienwerder,  Poland,  suffragan  of  Gniezno.  The 
official  residence  was  at  Lobau,  but  since  1824  the 
bishop  resides  at  Pelplin.  The  see  is  at  present 
(1922)  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Augustin  Rosentreter, 
bom  in  the  diocese  in  1844,  ordained  in  1870,  and 
appointed  23  February,  1899.  He  is  assisted  by  an 
auxiliary,  Rt.  Rev.  John  Klunder.  Appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  'Selymbria,  6  July,  1907.  The 
cathedral  is  at  Pelplin,  as  well  as  a  theological 
seminary  which,  in  1909,  had  95  students  and  one 
boarding  house  for  collegians.  The  diocese  is 
divided  into  26  deaneries;  the  1920  statistics  credit 
it  with  267  parishes,  36  filial  parishes,  502  secular 
priests  of  whom  279  are  pastors,  835,585  Catholics, 
'and  716,863  non-Catholics.  There  are  no  religious 
orders  of  men  in  the  diocese,  but  there  are  four 
congregations  of  women  distributed  through  21 
religious  houses. 

Chesterton,  Cecil  Edward,  publicist,  b.  at  Ken¬ 
sington,  England,  on  12  November,  1879;  d.  in 
the  military  hospital,  Boulogne,  France,  on  6 
December,  1918.  He  was  the  son  of  Edward  and 
Marie  Chesterton,  and  the  brother  of  the  noted 
writer,  Gilbert  Keith  Chesterton.  After  studying 
at  St.  Paul’s  School  he  entered  the  journalistic 
field  in  which  he  soon  made  his  mark.  His  sympathy 
with  the  oppressed  classes  led  him  into  the  Socialist 
camp  and  he  became  a  member  of  the  Executive  of 
the  Fabian  Society.  However,  he  was  received  into 
the  Church  in  1912,  and  subsequently  as  editor  of 
the  “Eye-Witness”  and  of  its  successor  “The  New 
Witness,”  he  was  associated  with  his  brother  and 
Hilaire  Belloc  in  an  exposure  of  the  corruption  of 
British  politicians.  In  1917  he  married  Miss  Ada 
E.  Jones  (“John  K.  Prothero”).  The  previous  year 
he  had  volunteered  as  a  private  in  the  Highland 
Light  Infantry  for  service  on  the  Continent ;  shortly 
after  the  Armistice  he  was  carried  off  by  a  brief 
illness  resulting  from  exposure  in  the  trenches. 
Among  his  writings  are:  “The  Prussian  hath  said 
in  his  Heart,”  “Party  and  People,”  and  “Nell 
Gwynne.”  His  “History  of  the  United  States,” 
written  after  a  visit  to  that  country  during  the 
War,  but  published  after  his  death,  though  written 
with  brilliancy  and  charm  was  received  in  the 
United  States  as  an  essay  written  by  an  Englishman 
primarily  for  Englishmen. 

Cheyenne,  Diocese  of  (Cheyennensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-651c),  comprises  the  State  of  Wyoming  and 
all  the  territory  of  Yellowstone  Park,  an  area  of 
101,262  sq.  miles.  The  first  Mass  recorded  in  this 
territory  was  celebrated  by  the  Rev.  Peter  J.  De 
Smet,  S.  J.,  on  5  July,  1840,  and  on  9  August,  1887, 
the  district  was  erected  into  the  Diocese  of  Chey¬ 
enne,  Rev.  Maurice  F.  Burke  of  Chicago,  being 
appointed  bishop.  At  this  time  the  diocese  had  a 
Catholic  population  of  about  4,500  and  about  300 
more  at  the  Indian  Mission,  only  5  secular  priests 
and  1  religious  and  8  churches,  1  hospital,  1 
academy  and  2  parochial  schools.  The  new  bishop, 
tfter  studying  conditions  decided  that  the  estab¬ 


lishment  of  the  see  had  been  premature  and  made 
an  unsuccessful  effort  to  have  it  suppressed.  How¬ 
ever  a  few  years  later  (1893),  lie  was  transferred 
and  the  see  was  allowed  to  remain  vacant  for  sev¬ 
eral  years,  its  affairs  being  managed  by  Very  Rev. 
Hugh  Cummiskey,  administrator. 

In  1897,  on  24  February,  a  second  bishop,  Rev. 
Thomas  M.  Lenihan  was  consecrated  and  during 
the  few  years  of  his  administration  the  new  diocese 
made  rapid  progress  and  the  state  law,  taxing  prop¬ 
erty  used  for  religious  and  educational  purposes, 
was  repealed  largely  through  his  efforts.  Bishop 
Lenihan  died  15  December,  1901,  and  his  successor 
Rt.  Rev.  James  J.  Keane,  D.  D.,  was  named  bishop 
on  10  June,  1902.  Feeling  that  Wyoming  was  still 
but  a  missionary  field  he  put  every  effort  into  the 
spreading  of  the  Faith,  building  new  churches,  ap¬ 
pealing  to  Catholics  in  more  prosperous  parts  of 
the  country  for  money  to  carry  on  his  work,  and 
finally  succeeding  in  establishing  a  fund  which  has 
been  of  permanent  benefit  in  furthering  the  cause 
of  religion  throughout  the  diocese.  He  was  also 
responsible  for  the  building  of  the  new  cathedral 
of  Cheyenne,  which  was  dedicated  on  31  January, 
1909,  and  the  new  bishop’s  residence.  On  11  August, 
1911,  Bishop  Keane  was  promoted  to  the  archiepis- 
copal  see  of  Dubuque,  and  Rt.  Rev.  Patrick  A.  Mc¬ 
Govern,  the  present  bishop,  was  appointed  to  the 
Diocese  of  Cheyenne  on  19  January,  1912,  being 
consecrated  11  April  of  the  same  year. 

The  following  statistics  for  1921  show  the  rapid 
growth  of  this  diocese :  it  now  comprises  a  Catholic 
population  of  23,661;  secular  priests  19,  religious 
priests 7;  churches  55  including  36  mission  churches; 
resident  pastors  19;  ecclesiastical  students,  13;  1 
academy;  2  parochial  schools;  1  Indian  school  with 
50  boys;  1  Indian  schools  with  51  girls;  total  stu¬ 
dents  in  Catholic  schools  506;  baptisms;  infants, 
780;  adults  (converts)  104. 

Chiapas,  Diocese  of  (de  Chiapa;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-652b),in  the  state  of  the  same  name,  in  Mexico, 
suffragan  of  Antequera,  with  residence  at  San  Cris¬ 
tobal  las  Casas.  Rt.  Rev.  Maximino  Ruiz;  ap¬ 
pointed  to  this  see  8  July,  1913,  was  transferred 
8  March,  1920,  and  succeeded  by  the  present  in¬ 
cumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Gerardo  Avaya  y  Diez  de 
Bonilla,  b.  in  Tepetpan  1881,  appointed  8  March, 
1920.  By  1922  statistics  this  diocese  comprises 
32  parishes,  21  secular  priests,  6  Brothers,  2  col¬ 
leges  for  men  with  9  professors  and  110  students, 
2  for  girls  with  12  professors  and  115  students.  Four 
societies  are  organized  among  the  laity. 

Chiavari,  Diocese  of  (Clavarensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-652c),  in  the  province  of  Genoa,  Northern 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Genoa.  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Gam- 
beroni,  appointed  to  this  see  10  April,  1911,  was 
promoted  to  Vercelli,  22  March,  1917,  and  Rt.  Rev. 
Natale  Serafino  was  appointed  his  successor,  on 
the-  same  day,  but  he  was  permitted  to  retire 
4  August  following,  to  enter  the  house  of  the 
Fathers  of  Cottolengo.  The  present  incumbent 
(1922),  Rt.  Rev.  Amedeo  Casabona,  was  then  ap¬ 
pointed,  3  November,  1917. 

During  the  World  War  thirty-nine  clerics  in 
minor  orders,  and  sixty-one  priests  from  this  dio¬ 
cese,  entered  the  army.  Of  this  number  eleven 
were  officers,  eight  military  chaplains,  five  were 
killed,  three  wounded  and  six  decorated.  The 
clergy  at  home  were  active  in  all  patriotic  works, 
tracing  men  in  the  service  and  those  missing,  as¬ 
sisting  refugees,  etc.  By  1922  statistics  this  diocese 
comprises  144  parishes,  3  convents  of  men,  275 
secular  priests,  1  seminary,  80  seminarians,  5  sec¬ 
ondary  schools  for  boys,  10  for  girls  and  1  pro- 


CHICAGO 


186 


CHICOUTIMI 


fessional  school.  Charitable  institutions  such  as 
homes,  hospitals  and  asylums  are  established  in  all 
the  principal  centers.  One  society  is  organized 
among  the  clergy  and  two  among  the  laity;  two 
periodicals,  “La  Sveglia”  and  “II  popolo,”  are  pub¬ 
lished. 


Chicago,  Archdiocese  of  (Chicagiensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  III-653b),  comprises  3;620  sq.  miles  of  the 
State  of  Illinois,  U.  S.  A.  Most  Rev.  James  Edward 
Quigley,  promoted  to  this  see  8  January,  1903,  died 
10  July,  1915.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  present 
incumbent,  Most  Rev.  George  W.  Mundelein,  b. 
in  New  York,  2  July,  1872,  ordained  in  Rome,  8 
June,  1895.  made  chancellor  to  the  Bishop  of 
Brooklyn,  prelate  of  the  Holy  See,  21  November, 
1906,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Loryma,  30  June, 
1909,  and  auxiliary  to  the  Bishop  of  Brooklyn, 
promoted  9  December,  1915,  and  made  an  assistant 
at  the  pontifical  throne,  8  May,  1920. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Chicago 
in  recent  years  has  been  very  remarkable.  “Chi¬ 
cago,  Yesterday,  To-day,  To-morrow,”  published 
by  the  Chicago  Association  of  Commerce,  says, 
“It’s  system  of  charity  under  the  direction  of  Arch¬ 
bishop  George  W.  Mundelein  and  the  Associated 
Catholic  Charities,  is  one  of  the  best  and  most 
effective,  and  its  educational  plans  are  as  far-reach¬ 
ing  as  is  the  vision  of  the  greatest  industrial  and 
commercial  leaders.” 

Archbishop  Mundelein  made  a  notable  departure 
from  precedent,  in  appointing  Jesuit  professors  for 
his  School  of  Philosophy,  at  St.  Mary  of  the  Lake, 
to  be  opened  in  September,  1922.  This  will  be  the 
only  theological  school  in  the  country  under  dioc¬ 
esan  control,  in  which  Jesuits  teach.  The  presi¬ 
dent  will  be  Rev.  John  B.  Furay,  S.J.,  former 
president  of  Loyola  University,  Chicago,  and  the 
administration  will  be  in  charge  of  diocesan  priests 
from  the  Quigley  Memorial  Seminary,  Rev.  Gerald 
A.  Kealy,  D.D.,  acting  as  rector  and  prefect  of 
discipline.  The  school  will  open  with  the  first  year 
of  philosophy,  with  an  enrollment  of  fifty  students. 

On  21  November,  1921,  Bishop  Alexander  Joseph 
McGavick,  titular  Bishop  of  Marcopolis  and  aux¬ 
iliary  of  Chicago,  since  2  December,  1898,  was 
transferred  to  the  see  of  La  Crosse.  While  in  the 
Chicago  diocese  Bishop  McGavick  accomplished  a 
work  for  the  Holy  Name  Society  and  for  welfare 
organizations,  particularly  among  the  boys  of  the 
Big  Brother  Movement,  which  is  probably  unsur¬ 
passed.  He  increased  the  Holy  Name  Society  from 
thirty-three  branches,  in  1915,  to  200  with  a  mem¬ 
bership  of  90,000,  and  some  twenty  junior  branches. 
The  Big  Brother  Movement  was  developed  so  that 
each  parish  now  has  a  Big  Brother  committee,  and 
some  20,000  Catholic  boys  have  been  advised  and 
assisted,  while  1,200  from  other  sections  of  the 
country  have  been  helped  back  to  their  homes. 
An  employment  bureau,  a  legal  aid  society,  and  a 
lecture  bureau  composed  of  priests,  and  profes¬ 
sional  and  business  men,  have  been  organized,  and 
the  interests  of  the  Catholic  press,  greatly  advanced. 

A  new  auxiliary  was  appointed  to  the  archdiocese, 
21  November,  *1921,  in  the  person  of  Rt.  Rev. 
Edward  Hoban,  appointed,  at  the  same  time,  titular 
Bishop  of  Colonia.  He  is  a  native  of  Chicago, 
educated  in  the  parochial  schools  and  St.  Ignatius 
College,  making  his  ecclesiastical  studies  at  St. 
Mary’s  Seminary,  Balitmore,  and  the  Gregorian 
University,  Rome.  At  the  time  of  his  appointment 
the  new  bishop  was  serving  as  chancellor  of  the 
archdiocese « 

During  the  past  year  (1921)  the  Catholics  of 
Chicago  contributed  over  one  million  dollars  to 


charities  here  and  abroad.  Ihe  Peter’s  pence  col¬ 
lection  alone  amounting  to  $130,000,  a  level,  says 
the  archbishop’s  pastoral  letter,  never  before  at¬ 
tained  by  any  church  in  Christendom.  The  latest 
census,  taken  in  1909,  counts  the  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  the  archdiocese  at  1,150,000. 

A  comparison  of  some  statistics  published  after 
the  great  fire,  1872,  with  those  of  1921,  shows  the 
rapid  growth  of  the  Church  in  the  city.  There 
are  now  227  churches  where  there  were  only  28; 
202  parochial  schools  against  23;  130,000  pupils  in 
these  schools,  against  10,000;  643  diocesan  priests 
against  138;  350  priests  of  religious  orders  against 
31.  The  1921  statistics  also  credit  the  archdiocese 
with:  111  country  churches  with  resident  priests, 
19  mission  stations,  50  chapels,  144  diocesan  eccle¬ 
siastical  students,  5  seminaries  for  religious  with 
206  students,  1  preparatory  seminary  with  450 
students,  12  colleges  and  academies  for  boys  with 
7,291  students,  25  academies  for  girls  with  5,375 
students,  22  high  schools  with  2,172  students,  72 
country  parochial  schools  with  19,488  pupils,  1 
school  for  mutes  with  118  pupils,  4  training  schools 
and  orphanages  for  boys  with  1,705  pupils,  5  indus¬ 
trial  schools  and  orphanages  for  girls  with  1,120 
pupils,  3  infant  asylums  caring  for  267  children, 
1  working  boys’  home  with  445  inmates,  3  working 
girls,  homes  with  365  inmates,  5  homes  for  the 
aged,  18  hospitals,  and  2  communities  nursing  the 
sick. 


Chicoutimi,  Diocese  of  (Chicoutimiensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  III-658b),  Canada,  is  under  the  direction  of  Rt. 
Rev.  Michel-Thomas  Labrecque,  appointed  8  April, 
1892,  made  an  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  14 
May,  1917.  During  recent  years  the  diocesan  semi¬ 
nary  and  the  Cathedral  of  Chicoutimi  were  de¬ 
stroyed  by  fire,  but  they  have  both  been  replaced 
by  fire-proof  buildings.  With  the  death  of  Mon¬ 
signor  F.  X.  Belley  on  1  October,  1919,  Chicoutimi 
lost  a  prominent  clergyman  who  had  been  at  one 
time  vicar-general  of  the  diocese. 

A  most  important  event  occurred  in  1920  when 
the  industrial  congress  of  Chicoutimi,  was  held 
from  19-21  July.  The  success  of  this  congress 
was  largely  due  to  the  efforts  of  Mgr.  Lapointe, 
Abbe  Fortin  and  Abbe  Hebert,  and  a  decision  was 
made  to  form  a  national  confederation  of  Caholic 
workingmen  of  Canada.  The  object  of  this  con¬ 
federation  is:  (1)  To  establish  a  central  body 
to  lend  support  to,  and  to  study  the  interests  of 
different  groups  of  workers  affiliated  with  the  con¬ 
federation.  (2)  To  assist  organized  Catholic  move¬ 
ments  as  far  as  possible  by  means  of  an  open  press 
and  salaried  organizers.  (3)  To  render  all  possible 
assistance  to  groups  affiliated  to  the  confederation 
by  the  foundation  of  food  and  credit  centers  and 
pensions  for  the  aged,  whenever  their  particular 
circumstances  show  them  to  be  deserving,  in  times 
of  sickness  or  enforced  idleness.  This  confederation 
will  have  representatives  in  various  public  organi¬ 
zations  and  start  negotiations  to  obtain  an  annual 
allotment  of  money  toward  its  support.  The  execu¬ 
tive  committee  was  charged  to  prepare  a  constitu¬ 
tion  and  by-laws  and  to  submit  them  on  15  March, 
1921,  to  all  groups  of  workers  eligible  to  be  affil¬ 
iated.  This  constitution  will  be  fully  enforced 
upon  its  adoption  at  the  next  convention. 

At  the  present  time  (1921),  the  diocese  com¬ 
prises  97,500  French  Canadian  Catholics  and  has: 
64  parishes,  69  churches,  10  missions,  1  monastery 
for  men,  7  convents  for  men  and  30  for  women,  142 
secular  priests  and  17  regulars,  85  brothers,  780 
religious  (women),  1  seminary  with  600  students 
in  the  higher  and  50  in  the  lower  semipary,  15 


CHIETI 


187 


CHILE 


colleges  for  boys  with  28  professors  and  1,500  stu¬ 
dents,  8  academies  with  68  teachers  and  500  stu¬ 
dents  (girls),  1  normal  school  with  11  teachers  and 
100  girls,  426  elementary  schools  with  600  teachers 
and  28,854  students;  the  normal  school  receives 
financial  aid  from  the  Government.  There  are  3 
Catholic  hospitals  and  3  homes  in  the  diocese,  2 
societies  organized  among  the  clergy  and  several 
among  the  laity,  and  2  Catholic  periodicals  are 
published. 

Chieti,  Archdiocese  of  (Theatensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-659a),  in  the  province  of  Naples,  Southern 
Italy,  with  the  perpetual  administration  of  the 
diocese  of  Vasto  (Vastensis).  This  see  was  filled 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Gennaro  Costagliola,  from  15  April, 
1901,  until  his  death,- 15  February,  1919.  He  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  (1922)  incumbent,  Rt. 
Rev.  Nicolas  Monterisi,  bom  in  Barletta,  1867, 
appointed  Bishop  of  Monopoli,  22  August,  1913, 
promoted  in  November,  1919.  In  1920  this  archdio¬ 
cese  counted  a  Catholic  population  of  300,500,  115 
parishes,  263  secular  and  32  regular  clergy,  90 
seminarians  and  442  churches  or  chapels. 

Chihuahua,  Diocese  of  (Chihuahuensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  III-659b),  in  Mexico,  suffragan  of  Durango. 
Rt.  Rev.  Nicolas  Gavilan  y  Echeverria,  appointed 
to  this  see  20  February,  1902,  d.  3  December,  1919, 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt. 
Rev.  Antonio  Guizar  y  Valencia,  b.  in  Cotijo,  28 
December,  1879,  appointed  30  July,  1920.  During 
the  disasters  of  1917,  the  suffering  people  of  this 
diocese  chose  the  Patriarch  St.  Joseph  as  their 
special  patron  and  intercessor,  and  on  9  January, 
1919,  His  Holiness  Benedict  XV  confirmed  their 
choice.  By  1922  statistics  the  diocese  comprises  31 
parishes,  117  churches,  120  chapels,  10  shrines,  5 
of  which  are  dedicated  to  Our  Lady  of  Guadalupe, 

1  mission,  43  priests,  1  seminary,  25  seminarians, 

2  secondary  schools  for  girls  with  20  teachers  and 
280  pupils,  1  asylum  for  boys  and  3  for  girls,  and 
1  hospital  under  construction.  The  religious  com¬ 
munities  established  here  include:  Men:  Jesuits, 
Lazarists,  and  Dominicans.  Women:  Servants  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  and  of  the  Poor,  and  Sisters  of 
Calvary.  Various  brotherhoods  and  confraterni¬ 
ties  are  organized,  the  “Pacto  Josephino,”  among 
the  clergy  and  4  syndicates  of  good  works  among 
the  laity.  A  periodical  “El  Defensor  del  Obrero,” 
is  published  here. 

Chilapa,  Diocese  of  (de  Chilapa:  cf.  C.  E., 
III-659b),  comprising  the  State  of  Querrero,  Mex¬ 
ico.  This  diocese  erected  in  1863,  is  under  the  ad¬ 
ministration  of  its  fourth  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Francisco 
Campos  y  Angeles,  born  in  St.  Nicolas  de  Actopan, 
Mexico,  1860,  entered  the  seminary  of  Lulacingo, 
of  which  he  became  rector,  appointed  Bishop  of 
Tabasco,  7  November,  1897,  and  transferred  12 
October,  1907.  In  1920  this  diocese  comprised 
361,239  Catholics,  64  parishes,  94  priests,  585 
churches,  and  58  chapels. 

Chile  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-660c). — The  area  of  the 
country  is  289,829  square  miles.  According  to  the 
census  of  1920  (15  December),  there  were  in  Chile 
3,754,723  inhabitants,  an  increase  of  505,444  over 
the  census  of  1907.  This  denotes  an  annual  in¬ 
crease  of  1.20%  during  the  last  thirteen  years. 
Of  the  population,  46.6%  was  urban  (1,749,562); 
53.4%  was  rural  (2,005,161).  The  proportion  of 
urban  population  has  shown  a  marked  increase  from 
census  to  census,  and  reflects  the  tendency  to  con¬ 
centrate  in  cities.  The  total  number  of  foreigners 
included  in  the  census  of  1920  was  115,763,  as  against 
134,524  in  1909,  a  decrease  of  18,761 ;  the  greatest 


decline  was  among  the  Peruvians,  15,088  of  whom 
emigrated.  They  were  followed  by  the  Bolivians, 
numbering  6,011.  There  are  about  100,000 
Araucanians,  1,550  of  whom  are  in  Tierra  del 
Fuego.  The  largest  cities  are:  Santiago  424,993; 
Valparaiso  218,465;  Concepcion  74,808;  Iauiaue 
47,677;  Talca  43,044.  ’  4  4 

Education.  Education  has  been  compulsory 
since  26  August,  1920.  There  were  in  1919,  3,061 
public  primary  schools  with  320,898  pupils  and 
7,038  teachers;  and  293  private  primary  schools  with 
1,012  teachers  and  41,143  pupils;  15  public  normal 
schools  with  1,955  pupils  and  409  teachers;  90 
public  and  136  private  secondary  schools  with 
32,598  and  22,295  pupils  respectively;  11  public 
commercial  schools  with  179  teachers  and  2,974 
pupils.  The  cost  of  maintaining  the  public  primary 
schools  in  1919  was  £715,138,  that  of  the  national 
normal  schools,  £98,075,  and  that  of  the  Govern¬ 
ment  secondary  schools,  £357,496.  An  industrial 
university  was  opened  at  Valparaiso  and  another  at 
Concepcion  in  1920.  The  State  University  had 
4,138  matriculated  students  in  1919. 

Government. — For  judicial  purposes,  there  are 
seven  Courts  of  Appeal,  one  in  each  judicial  sec¬ 
tion,  in  addition  to  a  High  Court  of  Justice  in 
the  capital,  tribunals  of  First  Instance  in  the  de¬ 
partmental  and  subordinate  courts  in  the  districts. 

Economic  Status— The  total  area  of  the  agri¬ 
cultural  land  is  42,183,663  acres;  of  forest  area, 
9,495,483  acres;  of  fruit  trees,  276,704  acres;  of 
meadows,  18,393,252  acres.  The  number  of  farms 
in  1919  was  96,794.  The  principal  crops  of  Chile 
in  1919  were,  wheat,  1,235,400  acres,  11,459,500  cwts; 
barley,  110,500  acres,  1,596,775  cwts;  and  beans, 
109,000  acres,  932,602  cwts.  Extensive  natural  forests 
are  found,  the  largest  being  in  the  province  of 
Valdivia  (1,885,406  acres),  in  Llanquihue  (1,406,024 
acres),  and  Chiloe  (1,188,572  acres).  Chile’s  chief 
mineral  wealth  lies  in  its  nitrate,  of  which,  in  1920, 
2,606,571  tons  were  produced  and  2,870,809  tons  were 
exported.  Chile  has  almost  a  complete  monopoly 
of  the  production  of  nitrate,  and  the  Government 
therefore  was  able  to  levy  a  heavy  export  tax  with¬ 
out  directly  curtailing  the  sale  of  the  product. 
From  this  tax  was  drawn  40  per  cent  of  the  total 
revenue  of  the  national  Government.  The  im¬ 
mediate  and  direct  effect  of  the  war  in  1914  was  to 
cut  off  almost  completely  the  shipment  of  nitrate, 
resulting  in  a  sharp  decline  in  the  revenue  of  the 
Chilean  Government.  After  the  first  five  months, 
however,  the  Powers’  demand  for  nitrates  in  their 
munition-making  caused  prosperity  to  reign  again 
in  Chile,  which  lasted  until  the  war  ceased,  and 
with  it  munition-making.  To  provide  against  the 
inevitable  deficit  in  the  national  budget  which  fol¬ 
lows  a  cessation  of  nitrate  export,  the  Chilean  Gov¬ 
ernment  is  now  considering  tax  reforms.  Chile 
ranks  second  in  the  world  production  of  copper 
and  has  an  enormous  coal  output  (1,516,524  tons 
in  1919). 

On  1  January,  1921,  the  foreign  debt  amounted 
to  29,675,080  and  the  internal  debt  to  59,794,092 
pesos.  In  1918  Chile  had  2,320  manufacturing  es¬ 
tablishments,  using  raw  material  to  the  value  of 
403,707,096  gold  pesos,  which  were  manufactured 
into  merchandise  to  the  value  of  766,776,872  pesos. 
The  number  of  workmen  employed  was  70,920. 

Recent  History. — After  the  declaration  of  war 
in  Europe  in  1914,  Chile  declared  that  she  would 
adopt  the  conventions  of  the  Second  International 
Conference  of  The  Hague  relating  to  the  rights 
and  duties  of  neutrals  in  time  of  war,  even  though 
she  had  not  ratified  them,  and  as  proof  ordered 
all  wireless  apparatus  on  all  ships  to  be  dismantled. 


CHILE 


188 


CHI-LI 


This  neutrality  was  often  endangered  by  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  belligerent  warships  in  Chilean  waters,  by 
the  torpedoing  of  the  French  ship  “Valentine”  by 
the  cruiser  “Leipzic”  and  the  sinking  of  the  German 
cruiser  “Dresden”  on  4  July,  1915,  by  a  British  naval 
division  at  Juan  Fernandez.  The  latter  case  caused 
international  complications.  On  2  April,  1915,  the 
British  squadron  appeared  in  Chilean  waters  and 
opened  fire  on  the  German  cruiser  Dresden. 
Rather  than  lose  his  ship  the  captain  of  the  Dresden 
blew  up  his  vessel.  Chile  demanded  an  apology 
from  Great  Britain  for  the  intrusion  of  the  British 
squadron  and  its  violation  of  Chilean  neutrality. 
This  was  granted  and  accepted,  to  the  intense  dis¬ 
pleasure  of  Germany,  who  protested,  denying  all 
the  allegations  in  the  British  note  of  apology  and 
demanding  satisfaction.  On  25  May,  1915,  Chile 
signed  the  A.  B.  C.  treaty  in  Buenos  Aires  (see 

Brazil).  ,  _  .  ,, 

Chile’s  conflict  with  Peru  and  Bolivia  over  the 
territories  of  Tacna  and  Arica  still  continues.  The 
Treaty  of  1883,  which  took  from  Peru  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  Tarapaca  and  provided  that  Chile’s  occupa¬ 
tion  of  the  provinces  of  Tacna  and  Arica  was  to 
be  temporary  and  was  to  terminate,  subject  to  a 
plebiscite  in  1893,  has  not  been  carried  out  as  re¬ 
gards  its  essential  provisions.  The  conditions  of 
the  plebiscite  have  never  been  agreeable  to  both 
sides  and  the  plebiscite,  therefore,  has  never  been 
carried  out.  In  the  meantime  Chile  has  remained 
in  possession  of  the  territory  by  force  of  arms. 
In  the  Treaty  of  1904  Bolivia  ceded  Antofogasta 
to  Chile,  and  in  return  Chile  began  the  construe- 
tion  of  a  railroad  from  Arica  to  La  Paz  at  her  own 
expense  ($25,000,000).  This  railroad  was  completed 
in  1913  Peru  protested  against  the  construction  of 
this  line,  saying  that  it  was  to  cross  Tacna,  part 
of  the  territory  subject  to  a  plebiscite  decision. 
This  resulted  in  the  suspension  of  diplomatic  rela- 
tions  between  Peru  and  Chile  in  1910.  After  the 
European  War  Peru  supposed  that  the  League  of 
Nations  w’ould  annul  the  Treaty  of  1883  and  return 
to  Peru  all  she  lost  in  the  war  of  1879  (Tarapaca), 
and  Peruvian  sympathizers  rejoiced  at  the  possi¬ 
bility  of  the  League’s  annulling  the  treaty  of  1904 
with  Chile.  This  policy  tended  toward  influencing 
Bolivia  against  the  Chilean  project  of  making  a 
Bolivian  port  in  Tacna  and  Arica,  and  instead 
presented  to  the  Bolivians  the  expectation  of  re¬ 
conquering  without  effort  the  rich  littoral  of  Anto¬ 
fogasta.  The  movement  was  resisted  by  Senor 
Gutierrez  Guerra-  of  the  Bolivian  Government,  who 
desired  to  keep  the  national  faith  pledged  by  the 
treaty  of  friendship  with  Chile.  This  caused  a 
revolution  in  Bolivia.  The  new  Government  de¬ 
clared  the  treaty  null  and  void.  This  concerted 
action  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  to  provoke  Chile  brought 
on  a  crisis  in  1919.  Peru  brought  the  question  be¬ 
fore  the  League  of  Nations,  which,  however,  did 
not  desire  to  engage  in  treaty  revision,  fearing  to 
establish  dangerous  precedents  for  other  countries. 
It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  Bolivia  enjoys  in 
practice  all  the  advantages  of  having  seaports.  By 
the  treaty  Chile  granted  her  the  right  to  have  her 
own  custom  houses  in  the  Chilean  ports  and  at 
present  there  are  Bolivian  custom  houses  in  both 
Arica  and  Antofogasta.  The  final  settlement  of 
the  dispute  is  expected  at  the  conference  to  be  held 
in  March,  1922,  in  Washington  between  the  pleni¬ 
potentiaries  of  Chile  and  Peru. 

Religion.— In  1920  the  Chilean  legation  to  the 
Holy  See  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  embassy.  In 
1916  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Magellan  (q.v.) 
was  erected  from  the  Chilean  territoiy  of  the  for¬ 
mer  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Southern  Patagonia. 


For  Catholic  statistics  see  Santiago,  Archdiocese 
of;  Concepcion,  Diocese  of;  San  Carlos  de  Ancud, 
Diocese  of;  Serena,  Diocese  of;  Tarapaca,  Vica¬ 
riate  Apostolic  of;  Antofogasta,  Vicariate  Apos¬ 
tolic  of;  Araucania,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of. 


Chi-li,  Central,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Ce-li 
Centralis),  erected  14  February,  1910,  comprising 
the  civil  Prefectures  of  Pao-ting-fu  and  Ychien  in 
China,  formerly  part  of  the  Vicariate  of  Northern 
Chi-li  (see  C.  E.,  XVI-82).  It  is  entrusted  to  the 
Lazarists  with  the  official  residence  at  Pao-ting-fu. 
The  present  (1922)  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Joseph-Sylvain  Fabregues,  titular  Bishop  of  Alali, 
born  in  Montpellier  1872,  ordained  1896,  and  joined 
the  mission  at  Northern  Chi-li,  director  of  the 
district  of  Pao-ting-fu  1905,  appointed  22  February, 
1910.  He  is  the  first  vicar  apostolic  of  this  vicariate. 
The  following  statistics  show  how  rapidly  the  Faith 
has  spread  in  this  territory:  in  1880  there  were 
5,463  Catholics;  1890,  7,970;  1899,  12,026;  1902, 
12,700;  1905,  26,283;  1910,  72,531;  1913,  84,196; 
and  in  1920  out  of  a  total  population  of  3,000,000, 
85,836;  this  growth  is  particularly  remarkable  in 
consideration  of  a  massacre  of  2,000  Christians 
which  occurred  in  this  mission  in  1900.  The 
statistics  of  1920  also  credit  the  vicariate  with  37 
mission  stations,  720  villages  where  a  mission  is 
given  each  year,  61  missionary  priests,  140,000  con¬ 
fessions,  and  200,000  communions  for  the  year,  22 
students  in  the  upper  seminary,  85  in  the  lower 
seminary,  and  60  in  the  preparatory  seminary.  In 
1920  Pope  Benedict  XV  addressed  a  letter  to  Bishop 
Fabregues  commending  the  splendid  work  he  has 
done  in  recruiting  and  training  native  clergy. 

Chi-li,  Eastern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Ce-li 
orientalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-677b),  is  one  of  six 
vicariates  dividing  the  territory  of  Chi-li  in  North¬ 
ern  China.  It  is  under  the  care  of  the  Lazarist 
Fathers  of  Holland,  to  whom  it  was  entrusted  upon 
its  erection  in  1899. 

The  present  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Ernest 
Francis  Geurts,  titular  Bishop  of  Rhinocolura,  born 

9  December,  1862,  ordained  at  Cheng-Ting  1887, 
consecrated  4  February,  1900.  The  episcopal  resi¬ 
dence  is  Yungpingfu. 

An  important  event  in  this  diocese  wras  the  erec¬ 
tion  in  1920  of  a  higher  seminary  at  Chala  near 
Peking,  to  be  used  as  a  central  seminary  for  the 
five  vicariates  of  Northern  China  in  charge  of  the 
Lazarists:  Central,  Eastern,  Northern,  Southwest¬ 
ern,  and  Maritime  Chi-li. 

By  present  statistics  (1921)  this  vicariate  counts: 

10  parishes,  45  chapels  and  churches,  224  missions, 
10  mission  stations;  17  regular  clergy,  30  Sisters,  1 
seminary  with  31  seminarians,  1  college  for  boys 
with  6  teachers  and  91  pupils,  1  normal  school  with 
3  teachers  and  44  students,  74  elementary  schools 
with  75  teachers  and  1,102  pupils  and  3  orphanages 
with  55  orphans.  The  Catholic  population  num¬ 
bers  15,600,  all  Chinese,  out  of  a  total  population 
of  4,000,000. 

Chi-li,  Maritime  (Tien-tsin),  Vicariate  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  (Ce-li  maritimus),  erected  27  April,  1912, 
comprising  the  civil  prefecture  of  Tien-tsin-fu,  for¬ 
merly  part  of  the  Vicariate  of  Northern  Chi-li  or 
Peking  (see  C.  E.,  XVI-82).  This  vicariate,  terri¬ 
torially  one  of  the  smallest,  but  numerically  one 
of  the  largest  in  China,  is  entrusted  to  the  Lazarists 
with  the  episcopal  residence  at  Tien-tsin.  Rt.  Rev. 
Paul  Dumond,  bom  in  Lyons  1864,  ordained  1888, 
made  director  of  the  district  of  Pao-ting-fu  1898, 
was  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Curubis  and  first 
vicar  apostolic  of  this  vicariate,  27  April,  1912. 


CHI-LI  j 

In  1920,  upon  the  creation  of  the  Vicariate  of 
Kiang-si,  Bishop  Dumond  was  made  its  apostolic 
administrator.  The  present  (1922)  administrator 
of  Maritime  Chi-li  is  Rt.  Rev.  Jean  de  Vienne  de 
Hautefeuile,  titular  Bishop  of  Abrytus  and  coad¬ 
jutor  at  Northern  Chi-li.  In  1920  this  vicariate 
counted  a  total  population  of  2,000,000,  of  whom 
38,118  are  catechists  and  2,000  catechumens.  The 
mission  is  served  by  9  European  and  11  native 
priests. 

Chi-li,  Northern  or  Pekin,  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  (Ce-liseptentrionalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-677a  ), com¬ 
prises  two  prefectures  of  Choun-tien-fu  and  Suan- 
hao-fu  in  China,  and  has  a  Catholic  population  of 
300,000,  out  of  a  total  population  of  4,324,175. 

The  present  vicar  apostolic  is  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Stanislaus  Francis  Jarlin,  a  Lazarist,  b.  in  the  dio¬ 
cese  of  Montpellier  20  January,  1856,  ordained 
1889,  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Pharbaetus  29 
April,  1900,  and  made  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Favier, 
vicar  apostolic  of  Northern  Chi-li,  with  the  right 
of  succession;  succeeded  as  vicar  apostolic  4  April, 
1905.  His  coadjutor  is  Rt.  Rev.  Jean  de  Vienne  de 
Hautefeuille,  titular  bishop  of  Abrytus  and  adminis¬ 
trator  of  Maritime  Chi-li.  The  cathedral  and  epis¬ 
copal  residence  are  at  Pekin. 

The  various  religious  orders  established  in  this 
territory  now  (1921),  besides  the  Lazarists,  who 
have  19  European  and  23  Chinese  priests  and  2 
brothers,  are:  the  Cistercians  with  23  priests,  22 
choir  religious  and  45  brothers,  the  Marist  Brothers 
with  22  Europeans  and  26  Chinese,  the  Daugh¬ 
ters  of  Charity  with  5  homes  and  58  religious, 
Franciscan  Missionaries  of  Mary  with  1  house  and 
9  religious,  Daughters  of  St.  Joseph  with  27  houses 
and  70  native  religious.  In  addition  to  the  mis¬ 
sionary  Fathers  there  are  2  European  secular  priests 
and  69  Chinese;  62  parishes,  69  European  churches, 
465  public  chapels,  and  69  oratories;  1  higher 
seminary  with  37  students  (philosophical  and  theo¬ 
logical),  1  lower  seminary  with  131  Latin  students, 

1  normal  school  with  68  students,  9  catechism 
schools  with  182  pupils,  8  schools  for  European 
sciences  and  languages  with  1,022  pupils,  6  Chinese 
schools  writh  114  pupils,  554  schools  for  boys  with 
12,567  pupils,  258  schools  for  girls  with  7,756  pupils, 
927  schools  for  catechumens  with  19,936  adult  pupils 
and  1529  children. 

There  are  3  hospitals  and  in  addition  to  these 
care  is  given  to  the  sick  in  their  homes  and  through 
9  dispensaries,  1  home  for  the  aged  and  3  asylums 
for  orphan  girls  and  1  nursery.  None  of  these  in¬ 
stitutions  receive  any  aid  from  the  Chinese  gov¬ 
ernment,  but  the  French  government  allots  them 
a  certain  sum  annually.  The  mission  has  estab¬ 
lished  a  very  active  press  which  publishes  a  num¬ 
ber  of  religious  and  educational  books  in  Chinese 
and  Latin,  not  only  for  this  mission  but  for  many 
of  the  others  in  China.  The  “Catholic  Bulletin  of 
Pekin”  and  the  “Sacerdos  in  Sinis”  are  also  pub¬ 
lished,  as  well  as  a  Catholic  Directory  “Catholic 
Missions  of  China  and  Japan,”  published  annually, 
in  French,  since  1916.  A  recent  event  of  interest  in 
the  vicariate,  was  the  conversion  of  His  Excellency 
Rene  Lou-Tseng-Tsian,  former  Minister  Plenipo¬ 
tentiary,  and  since  1912  serving  the  government  in 
various  capacities  such  as  Minister  of  Foreign  Af¬ 
fairs,  Premier,  and  delegate  and  high  commissioner 
at  the  conference  of  Versailles.  The  city  of  Pekin 
has  entrusted  the  Daughters  of  Charity  with  the 
administration  of  its  largest  hospital,  giving  it  the 
name  of  “Central  Hospital,”  and  religious  services 
are  permitted  here  just  as  in  a  religious  institution. 
Since  the  revolution  the  Bishop  is  received  once  a 


89  CHI-LI 

year  by  the  President  of  the  Republic  and  accorded 
the  same  honors  as  a  member  of  the  diplomatic 
Corps,  but  given  a  private  conference.  During 
the  World  War,  out  of  all  the  missionaries  who 
were  mobilized  only  a  few  were  called  to  France, 
and  of  this  number  none  were  killed  but  several 
wounded;  two  were  decorated  with  “Croix  de 
Guerre,”  and  “Legion  d’Honneur  ” 

Chi-li,  Southeast,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Ce-li 
Meridio-orientalis),  comprises  the  5  prefectures  of 
Hokienfu,  Scheuchow,  Kichow,  Kwangpinfu  and 
Tamingfu  and  37  sub-prefectures.  It  is  entrusted 
to  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  the  present  vicar  apostolic 
being  the  Rt.  Rev.  Henri  Lecroart,  titular  Bishop  of 
Anchialos. 

The  Catholic  population  at  present  (1921)  num¬ 
bers  105,291  baptized  Chinese  and  45,000  catechu¬ 
mens  out  of  a  total  population  of  8,300,000.  There 
are  1,085  parishes  and  missions,  114  churches,  761 
public  chapels  and  oratories,  2  convents  for  men, 
24  secular  and  55  regular  clergy,  38  Sisters,  1  semi¬ 
nary  with  20  seminarians,  2  colleges  for  men  with 
30  teachers  and  420  students,  3  colleges  for  girls 
with  15  teachers  and  135  pupils,  2,085  elementary 
schools  with  2,344  teachers  and  40,134  pupils.  The 
various  charitable  institutions  include  40  homes  of 
different  kinds,  5  asylums,  and  3  refuges.  There 
is  a  Catholic  press  which  publishes  the  necessary 
Catholic  literature. 

Chi-li,  Southwest,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Ce-li 
Meridio  occidentals),  is  entrusted  to  the  care  of 
the  Lazarist  Fathers,  the  present  vicar  apostolic 
being  Rt.  Rev.  Hubert-Frangois  Schraven,  titular 
Bishop  of  Amyclsea,  who  came  to  the  see  as  suc¬ 
cessor  to  Bishop  de  Vienne  de  Hautefeuille  (trans¬ 
ferred  1919),  who  had  been  made  coadjutor  to 
Bishop  Coqset  (1915)  and  succeeded  him  as  vicar 
(1917)  when  he  was  transferred  to  Kiang-si.  The 
episcopal  residence  is  at  Chengtingfu.  Within  recent 
years  the  vicariate  has  lost  8  of  its  European  mis¬ 
sionaries,  5  of  these  having  died  during  an  epidemic 
of  typhoid  in  1917,  which  also  took  13  of  the  native 
missionaries.  This  epidemic  was  brought  on  by  the 
great  flood  which  occurred  in  1916,  and  was  followed 
in  1920  by  a  severe  drought  which  brought  famine 
to  over  20,000,000  people.  During  these  calamities 
the  missionaries  took  an  active  part  in  helping  the 
afflicted  and  their  wrork  went  far  toward  making 
them  better  known  and  destroying  the  existing 
prejudice  against  them,  and  to  this  they  attribute 
the  remarkable  increase  in  the  number  of  catechu¬ 
mens  (20,000  in  all)  during  the  present  year,  an 
increase  of  4,000  to  5,000  on  previous  years. 

In  addition  to  the  Lazarists,  who  number  17 
European  and  21  native  priests  and  3  brothers,  the 
other  religious  communities  established  are:  Paulist 
Sisters  (with  46  members),  Daughters  of  Charity 
(26),  and  Josephine  Sisters  (124).  By  present 
statistics  (1921)  there  are  21  native  secular  priests, 
17  parishes,  86  churches,  484  public  chapels,  88 
oratories,  926  mission  stations,  1  higher  seminary 
with  28  students,  1  lower  seminary  with  100  students, 

2  normal  schools  with  116  students,  1  school  for 
foreign  languages  wTith  35  pupils,  18  native  schools 
with  646  pupils,  143  elementary  schools  for  boys 
with  3,777  pupils,  and  98  for  girls  with  4,943  pupils. 
Among  the  charitable  institutions  are  12  asylums 
with  715  children,  5  farms  and  workhouses  with 
72  inmates,  4  workshops  with  654  inmates,  3  orphan¬ 
ages  for  boys  with  180  orphans,  and  4  for  girls 
with  656  orphans,  2  hospitals  for  men  with  1,194 
patients,  2  for  women  with  708  patients,  2  homes 
for  aged  men  with  163  inmates  and  2  for  aged 
women  with  135  inmates. 


CHINA 


CHINA 


190 


China  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-663b) Area  and  Popula¬ 
tion  _The  Chinese  Republic,  situated  m  Eastern 
Asia,  includes  China  proper  or  the  Eighteen  Prov¬ 
inces  (She-pa-sheng),  the  so-called  New  Dominion 
of  Sinkiang  (including  East  lurkestan),  Man¬ 
churia,  Outer  Mongolia,  Inner  Mongolia,  and  1  ibet, 
with  a  total  area  of  3,913,560  square  miles,  of  which 
China  proper  extends  over  1,532,420  square  miles. 
These  figures  are  given  by  the  Government  Gazette 
(27  February,  1911),  which  estimates  the  total  popu- 
lation  at  320,650,000.  The  “Almanach  de *  Gotha 
(1914)  and  the  “Statesmans  Year-Book  (1921)  gi\e 
for  the  Eighteen  Provinces  an  estimated  population 
of  325,817,760  and  302,110,000  respectively.  The 
population  of  each  province  1S  as  ^Hgws:  Chi-h, 
32,571,000;  Shan-tung,  29,600,000;  Shan-si  60700,- 
000;  Ho-nan,  25,600,00;  Kiang-su,  17,300,000;  Ngan- 
hwei,  17,300,000;  Kiang-si  14,500,000 ;  Che-kiang 
17,000,000;  Fu-kien,  13,100,000;  Hu-pe  24,900,000 , 
Ilu-nan,  23,600,000;  Kwang-tung,  27,700,000;  Kwang- 
si,  6,500,000;  Yun-nan,  8,500,000;  Kwei-chou  11 " 
300,000;  Shen-si,  8,800,000;  Kan-su,  5,000,000, 
Sze-ch’wan,  23,000,000. 

Government.— The  government  of  China  is  re¬ 
publican  in  form.  The  source  of  all  executive 
powers  is  the  president  (elected  for  five  years, 
and  eligible  for  one  re-election),  who  promulgates 
the  laws,  issues  orders  for  their  execution,  is  com¬ 
mander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  appoints 
all  civil  and  military  officials.  If  he  d les  in  < ?: Ihce 
he  is  succeeded  by  the  vice-president.  The  National 
Assembly,  the  legislative  branch  of  the  Govern¬ 
ment,  is  made  up  of  a  Senate  (Tsan ,  I  Y  uan)  and 
a  House  of  Representatives  (Chung  I  Yuan),  lhe 
Cabinet  is  composed  of  a  Premier  ( Kuo  W  uTsung 
Li)  and  the  ministers  of  nine  executive  depart¬ 
ments,  or  Ministries  (Pu)  of  Foreign  Affairs  (R  ai 
Chiao),  Interior  (Nei  Wu),  Finance  (Tsai  Cheng), 
War  (Lu  Chun),  Marine  (Hai  Chun),  Justice  (Ssu 
Fa),  Education  (Chiao  Yu),  Agriculture  and  Com¬ 
merce  (Nung  Shang),  and  Communications  (Chiao 
Tung).  Eight  councillors  are  attached  to  the  Cab- 
inet  Office,  also  a  number  of  semi-mdependent 
bureaus,  as  the  Bureaus  of  Laws,  of  Statistics,  of 
Printing,  the  Civil  Service  Bureau,  etc  Chiang 
Chun  Fu  is  a  military  advisory  board  of  the  Presi¬ 
dent  The  Central  Salt  Administration  was  or¬ 
ganized  in  1913,  comprising  a  Chief  Inspectorate  of 
salt  revenues  under  a  Chinese  chief  inspector 

(Tsung  Pan)  and  a  foreign  associate  chief  inspector 

(Hui  Pan).  The  Revenue  Council  (Shut  Wu  Chu), 
formed  in  1906,  supervis  6  the  maritime  customs 
through  the  foreign  Inspectorate  General  of  Cus¬ 
toms  at  Peking  and  the  Chinese  superintendents  ° 
customs  at  the  different  ports.  The  General  Staff 
is  organized  on  the  same  basis  as  a  ministry  under 
a  Chief  of  Staff.  The  Supreme  Court,  is  the  highest 
judicial  tribunal  in  the  country.  The  Administra¬ 
tive  Court  (P’ing  Cheng  Yuan)  tries  the  impeach¬ 
ment  of  officials.  The  Department  of  Tibetan  and 
Mongolian  Affairs  (Meng  Tsang  Yuan)  has  charge 
of  the  affairs  of  the  outlying  Chinese  territories  of 

Mongolia  and  Tibet. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Republic  many  of  the 
provinces  under  their  military  governors  were  slql- 
ping  from  the  control  of  the  Central  Government. 
In  1914  a  new  system  of  provincial  administration 
was  promulgated.  In  each  province  there  is  a  cm 
governor  (Seng  Chang)  ,  appointed  by  the  presiden  , 
and  controlling  the  civil  officials,  police,  and  militi  . 
He  also  exercises  direct  control  over  the  lesser 
territorial  officials  in  the  province,  the  Taoyms 
and  district  magistrates.  The  military 
( Tu  Chun)  has  authority  over  military  matters, 
subject  to  the  orders  of  the  president,  the  Ministry 


of  War,  and  General  Staff.  A  special  envoy  for 
foreign  affairs  (Wai  Chiao  Pu  Te  Pai  Chiao)  is 
stationed  in  each  province  to  conduct  the  relations 
with  foreigners.  The  Chief  of  the  Department  of 
Finance  supervises  the  collection  of  taxes.  There 
are  also  the  Departments  of  Education  aind  In¬ 
dustry.  The  chief  judge  of  the  Higher  Court  (Kao 
Teng  Shen  P’an  Ting)  is  the  principal  judicial 
authority  in  the  province.  Each  province  is  divided 
into  a  number  of  large  circuits,  varying  between 
two  and  seven,  and  called  Tao,  each  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  an  official,  called  a  Taoyin,  who  acts 
under  the  supervision  of  the  governor,  of  the 
province.  These  circuits  are  subdivided  into  dis¬ 
tricts  (Hien),  authority  over  which  is  vested  in 
district  magistrates,  also  subject  to  the  governor. 
Rival  factions  within  the  Republic  during  recent 
years  have  united  under  the  leadership  of  the  mili¬ 
tary  governors,  whose  power  in  their  respective 
spheres  has  thus  become  supreme.  The  Unification 
Mandate,  issued  in  1920,  attempted  to  restore  cen¬ 
tral  control.  ,  , 

Calendar.— According  to  a  resolution  passed  by 
the  Tze  Cheng  Yuan  on  20  November,  1911,  China 
adopted  the  western  calendar.  The  old  method  of 
reckoning  dates  has  not  been  entirely  abolished  in 
the  provinces,  but  all  official  documents  are  marked 
according  to  the  European  calendar. 

Education.— Great  progress  has  been  made  in 
education  in  China  since  the  change  in  the  educa¬ 
tional  system  in  1905,  and  especially  of  recent  years. 
A  phonetic  script  system,  invented  in  1913,  serves 
to  unify  the  spoken  dialects,  help .  the  study  of 
Chinese  characters,  and  educate  the  illiterate.  The 
Board  of  Education  supervises  higher  .  education, 
and  primary  education  is  under  provincial  control. 
Schools  have  been  established  in  every  town,  and 
an  attempt  has  been  made  to  make  primary  educa¬ 
tion  compulsory.  Thirty-four  technical  colleges  and 
six  higher  normal  schools  have  been  founded,  lhe 
Peking  Government  University,  completely  reor¬ 
ganized  in  1917,  has  1,500  students  and  90  teachers. 
There  are  many  missionary  schools  and  colleges. 
The  extension  of  medical  science  in  recent  years 
is  noteworthy.  Since  1900  China  has  sent  about 
400  students  to  be  educated  in  the  United  States, 
a  special  preparatory  institution  in  Peking  having 
been  established.  In  1920  there  wTere  175  students 
in  the  United  States  receiving  support  from  the 
Chinese  government,  168  in  Europe,  and  1,241  in 
Japan.  There  were  altogether  1,600  Chinese 
students  in  the  United  States.  The  total  number 
of  schools  in  China  in  1919  was  134,000,  with  5,500,- 

000  students.  . 

Religion.— The  native  religions  of  China  are 
Confucianism,  Taoism,  and  Buddhism.  Proposals 
to  make  Confucianism  the  state  religion  have  tailed, 
though  it  is  the  basis  of  ethical  teaching  m  national 
education.  The  Constitution  accords  freedom  of 
worship  to  the  people.  In  an  audience  Siven  *° 
the  Bishop  of  Peking  on  26  February,  1912,  the 
president  assured  full  religious  liberty  to  all,  and 
the  abolition  of  old  disabilities.  A  Presidential 
Mandate  of  30  August,  1918,  appointed  the  Minister 
of  the  Interior  to  reverently  perform,  m  behalf  ot 
the  president,  the  ceremonies  connected  with  the 
worship  of  Confucius.  . 

Mohammedans  are  numerous  m  China,  but  ac¬ 
curate  statistics  for  them  are  unavailable.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  Broomhall  there  are  in  China  8,500,000 
Mussulmans,  of  whom  3,500,000  are  in  Kan-su  and 
over  1,000,000  in  Yun-nan.  D’Ollone  brings  the 
total  down  to  5,000,000.  The  Chinese  Year  Book 
(1919)  gives  from  15,000,000  to  20,000,000.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  the  last  source  there  are  600  Jews  in  China. 


CHINA 


101 


CHINA 


The  Russian  Ecclesiastical  Mission  in  1918  con¬ 
sisted  of  a  monastery,  a  hermitage,  a  nunnery,  5 
convents,  and  32  churches,  with  5,587  baptized 
Chinese  adherents.  The  bishop  is  resident  at 
Peking. 

Protestant  missions  date  from  1807  and  at  various 
times  no  less  than  138  societies  have  had  representa¬ 
tives  in  China.  According  to  the  “World  Statistics 
of  Christian  Missions”  in  1916  there  were  108 
Protestant  missionary  societies  active  in  China,  with 
a  total  foreign  staff  of  5,750  and  a  total  native  staff 
of  15,680;  4,082  organized  churches  and  4,037  other 
places  where  regular  services  were  held;  257,431 
communicants,  77,925  baptized  non-communicant 
adults  and  children,  114,525  others  under  Chris¬ 
tian  instruction;  3,003  Sunday  schools  with  166,054 
teachers  and  pupils.  Attached  to  Protestant  mis¬ 
sions  in  1915  were  24  colleges,  120  normal  and 
training  schools,  29  theological  schools,  216  middle 
schools,  5,212  elementary  schools,  and  386  hospitals 
and  dispensaries.  In  1915  the  publications  of  the 
Chinese  agencies  of  the  three  Bible  societies  (British 
and  Foreign,  American,  and  thJe  National  Society 
of  Scotland)  amounted  to  6,301,522  copies  of  the 
whole  Bible  or  portions  thereof.  Of  these  2,875,000 
are  in  Mandarin,  265,000  in  simple  Wen-li,  and 
98,000  in  classical  Chinese. 

Catholic  Missions. — By  decree  of  Pope  Leo  XIII, 
23  June,  1876,  China  was  divided  into  five  ecclesias¬ 
tical  regions,  which  are  made  up  of  the  following 
vicariates  apostolic. 

First  Region. — In  the  Chi-li  province:  (1)  South¬ 
eastern  Chi-li,  erected  1856;  under  the  care  of  the 
Jesuits;  residence,  Chang-kia-chwang,  in  the  Prefec¬ 
ture  of  Hokien;  vicar  apostolic,  Henri  Lecroart, 
titular  Bishop  of  Anchialos.  (2)  Northern  Chi-li, 
erected  1856;  under  the  Lazarists;  residence, 
Peking;  vicar  apostolic,  Stanislas  Jarlin,  titular 
Bishop  of  Pharbaetus;  coadjutor,  Jean  de  Vienne, 
titular  Bishop  of  Abrytus.  (3)  Southwestern  Chi-li, 
erected  1856;  under  the  Lazarists;  residence,  Cheng- 
ting;  vicar  apostolic,  Hubert-Frangois  Schraven, 
titular  Bishop  of  Amyclaea.  (4)  Eastern  Chi-li, 
erected  1899;  under  the  Lazarists; ’residence,  Yung- 
ping;  vicar  apostolic,  Ernest  Francis  Geurts,  titular 
Bishop  of  Rhinocolura.  (5)  Central  Chi-li,  erected 
1910;  under  the  Lazarists;  residence,  Pao-ting;  vicar 
apostolic,  Joseph  Fabregues,  titular  Bishop  of  Alalis. 
(6)  Maritime  Chi-li,  erected  1912;  under  the 
Lazarists;  residence,  Tien-tsin;  vicar  apostolic,  Paul 
Dumond,  titular  Bishop  of  Curubis.  In  the  Ho-nan 
province:  (7)  Northern  Ho-nan,  erected  1869; 
under  the  Foreign  Missions  of  Milan;  residence, 
Wei-hwei;  vicar  apostolic,  Martin  Chiolino,  titular 
Bishop  of  Calama.  In  Manchuria:  (8)  Southern 
Manchuria,  erected  1838;  under  the  Foreign  Mis¬ 
sions  of  Paris;  residence,  Mukden;  vicar  apostolic, 
Felix-Marie  Choulet,  titular  Bishop  of  Zela.  (9) 
Northern  Manchuria,  erected  1898;  under  the  For¬ 
eign  Missions  of  Paris ;  residence,  Kirin ;  vicar  apos¬ 
tolic,  Pierre-Marie  Lalouyer,  titular  Bishop  of 
Rhaphansea;  coadjutor,  Auguste  Ernest  Peter  Gas- 
pais,  titular  Bishop  of  Canopus.  In  Mongolia: 
(10)  Eastern  Mongolia,  erected  1883;  under  the 
Missionaries  of  Scheutveld  (near  Brussels) ;  resi¬ 
dence,  Sung-hui-tsoei-tze ;  vicar  apostolic,  Conrad 
Abels,  titular  Bishop  of  Lagania.  (11)  Central 
Mongolia,  erected  1883;  under  the  Missionaries  of 
Scheutveld;  residence,  Si-wan-tze;  vicar  apostolic, 
Jerome  Van  Aertselaer,  titular  Bishop  of  Zarai. 
(12)  Southwestern  Mongolia,  erected  1883;  under 
the  Missionaries  of  Scheutveld;  residence,  Eul-she- 
sze-king-ti;  vicar  apostolic,  Louis  Van  Dyck,  titular 
Bishop  of  Abbir. 

Second  Region. — (1)  Northern  Kan-su.  ere^d 
13  * 


1878;  under  the  Missionaries  of  Scheutveld;  resi¬ 
dence,  Liang-chou;  vicar  apostolic,  Geoffrey  Frede- 
rix,  titular  Bishop  of  Thagaste.  (2)  Southern 
Kan-su  (Prefecture  Apostolic),  erected  1905;  under 
the  Missionaries  of  Scheutveld;  residence,  Ts’in- 
chou;  prefect  apostolic,  Constantin  Daems.  (3)  I-li 
or  Kuldja  (Mission),  erected  in  1888;  under  the 
Missionaries  of  Scheutveld;  residence,  Sui-ting; 
superior  of  the  mission,  Joseph  Hoogers.  (4)  North¬ 
ern  Shen-si,  erected  1844;  under  the  Franciscans; 
residence,  Yen-an-fou;  vicar  apostolic,  Celestin 
Ibanez  y  Aparicio,  titular  Bishop  of  Bagi.  (5)  South¬ 
ern  Shen-si,  erected  1887;  under  the  priests  from  the 
Seminary  of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  Rome ;  residences, 
Ku-lu-pa  and  Hanchung-fu;  vicar  apostolic,  Antonio 
Capettini,  titular  Bishop  of  Evaria.  (6)  Central 
Shen-si,  erected  1911;  under  the  Franciscans;  resi¬ 
dence,  Si-ngan-fu;  vicar  apostolic,  Eugene  Massi, 
titular  Bishop  of  Jaffa.  (7)  Northern  Shan-si, 
erected  1844;  under  the  Franciscans;  residence, 
Tai-yuan;  vicar  apostolic,  Agapito  ‘Augusto  Fio- 
rentini,  titular  Bishop  of  Rusaddir.  (8)  Southern 
Shan-si,  erected  1890;  under  the  Franciscans;  resi¬ 
dence,  Lu-ngan ;  vicar  apostolic,  Albert  Oderic  Tim- 
mer,  titular  Bishop  of  Drusipara.  (9)  Northern 
Shan-tung,  erected  1839;  under  the  Franciscans; 
residence,  Tsi-nan;  vicar  apostolic,  Adalbert 
Schmucker,  titular  Bishop  of  Elearchia.  (10)  Eastern 
Shan-tung,  erected  1894;  under  the  Franciscans; 
residence,  Che-fu;  vicar  apostolic,  Adeodat  Wittner, 
titular  Bishop  of  Miletus.  (11)  Southern  Shan¬ 
tung,  erected  1885;  under  the  Society  of  the  Divine 
Word  of  Steyl ;  residence,  Yen-chou;  vicar  apostolic, 
August  Henninghaus,  titular  Bishop  of  Hypaepa. 

Third  Region. — (1)  Eastern  Che-kiang,  erected 
1696;  reestablished  1846;  under  the  Lazarists;  resi¬ 
dence,  Ning-po;  vicar  apostolic,  Paul-Marie  Rey- 
naud,  titular  Bishon  of  Fussola.  (2)  Western 
Che-kiang,  erected  1910;  under  the  Lazarists;  resi¬ 
dence,  Hang-chow;  vicar  apostolic,  Paul  Faveau, 
titular  Bishop  of  Tamassus.  (3)  Southern  Ho-nan. 
erected  1882;  under  the  Foreign  Missions  of  Milan; 
residence,  Nan-yang;  vicar  apostolic,  Flaminius 
Bellotti,  titular  Bishop  of  Sufetula.  (4)  Western 
Ho-nan,  erected  1906;  under  the  Congregation  of 
St.  Francis  Xavier  of  Parma;  residence,  Siang- 
cheng;  vicar  apostolic,  Lodovico  Calza,  titular 
Bishop  of  Termessus.  (5)  Eastern  Ho-nan,  erected 
1916;  under  the  Foreign  Missions  of  Milan;  resi¬ 
dence,  Kai-feng-fu;  vicar  apostolic,  Noe  Tacconi, 
titular  Bishop  of  Aradus.  (6)  Southern  Hu-nan, 
erected  1856;  under  the  Franciscans;  residence, 
Heng-chou;  vicar  apostolic,  Pellegrino  Luigi  Mon- 
daini,  titular  Bishop  of  Svnaus.  (7)  Northern 
Hu-nan,  erected  1879;  under  the  Augustinians;  resi¬ 
dence,  Li-chu;  vicar  apostolic,  Angelo  Diego  y 
Carbajal,  titular  Bishop  of  Caloe.  (8)  Northwestern 
Hu-pe,  erected  1870;  under  the  Franciscans;  resi¬ 
dence,  Lao-ho-kou;  pro-vicar  apostolic,  Fr.  Ermene- 
gild  Ricci.  (9)  Southwestern  Hu-pe,  erected  1870; 
under  the  Franciscans;  residence,  Ichang;  vicar 
apostolic,  Modestus  Everaerts,  titular  Bishop  of 
Tadama.  (10)  Eastern  Hu-pe,  erected  1870;  under 
the  priests  of  the  Irish  Maynooth  Mission;  resi¬ 
dences,  Wuchang  and  Hankow;  vicar  apostolic, 
Gratien  Gennaro,  titular  Bishop  of  Jericho.  (11) 
Kiang-nan  or  Nanking,  erected  1660;  reestablished 
1856;  under  the  Jesuits;  residence,  Shanghai;  vicar 
apostolic,  Prosper  Paris,  titular  Bishop  of  Silandus. 
(12)  Kiu-kiang  (formerly  Northern  Kiang-si), 
erected  1696;  reestablished  1838;  under  the  Lazar¬ 
ists;  residence,  Kiu-Kiang;  vicar  apostolic,  Louis 
Fatiguetj  titular  Bishop  of  Aspendus.  (13)  Yii- 
Kiang,  formerly  Fu-Chow  (formerly  Eastern 
Kiang-si),  erected  1885;  under  the  Lazarists;  resi- 


CHINA 


192 


CHINA 


dence,  Fu-chow;  vicar  apostolic,  Louis  Clerc- 
Renaud,  titular  Bishop  of  Elea.  Southern  Kiang-si 
(erected  1869)  divided  in  1920  into  two  vicariates 
as  follows:  (14)  Ki-anfu;  under  the  Lazarists;  resi¬ 
dence,  Ki-anfu;  vicar  apostolic,  Nicholas  Ciceri, 
titular  Bishop  of  Dausara.  (15)  Kan-chow,  under 
the  Lazarists;  residence,  Kan-chow;  administrator, 
Paul  Dumond,  vicar  apostolic  of  Maritime  Chi-li. 

Fourth  Region,  under  the  Foreign  Missions  of 
Paris  _(1)  Kwei-chou,  erected  1708;  reestablished 
1847;  residence,  Kwei-yang;  vicar  apostolic,  Fran- 
gois-Lazare  Seguin,  titular  Bishop  of  Pinara. 
(2)  Northwestern  Sze-chwan,  erected  1696;  resi¬ 
dence,  Cheng-tu;  vicar  apostolic,  Jacques-Victor 
Rouchouse,  titular  Bishop  of  iEgea.  (3)  Eastern 
Sze-chwan,  erected  1860;  residence  Chung-king; 
vicar  apostolic,  Celestin-Felix  Chouvellon,  titular 
Bishop  of  Dansara.  (4)  Southern  Sze-chwan,  erected 
1860;  residence,  Sui-fu;  vicar  apostolic,  Marie-Pierre 
Fayolle,  titular  Bishop  of  Lampa.  (5)  Yun-nan, 
erected  1702;*  reestablished  1840 ;  residence,  Yun¬ 
nan;  vicar  apostolic,  Charles-Marie  de  Gorostarzu, 
titular  Bishop  of  Aila.  (6)  Tibet,  erected  1846; 
residence,  Khanting;  vicar  apostolic,  Pierre-Philippe 
Giraudeau,  titular  Bishop  of  Thynias.  (7)  Kien- 
tchang,  erected  1910;  residence,  Ning-yuan-fu ;  vicar 
apostolic,  Joseph  Bourgain,  titular  Bishop  of 
Archela'is. 

Fifth  Region. — (1)  Fu-kien,  erected  1696;  under 
the  Dominicans;  residence,  Fu-chou;  vicar  apos¬ 
tolic,  Francis  Aguirre,  titular  Bishop  of  Bothrys. 
(2)  Amoy,  erected  1883;  under  the  Dominicans; 
residence,  Amoy;  vicar  apostolic,  Emmanuel  Prat, 
titular  Bishop  of  Mactaris.  (3)  Hong-Kong,  erected 
1874;  under  the  Foreign  Missions  of  Milan;  resi¬ 
dence,  Hong-Kong;  vicar  apostolic,  Domenico 
Pozzoni,  titular  Bishop  of  Tavia.  (4)  Canton  (until 
1914  prefecture  of  Kwang-tung),  erected  1858; 
under  the  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris;  residence, 
Canton;  vicariate  vacant.  (5)  Western  Kwang- 
tung,  erected  1920;  under  the  Foreign  Missions  of 
Paris;  residence,  Fort-Bayard;  vicar  apostolic, 
Auguste  Gauthier,  titular  Bishop  of  Doberus. 

(6)  Swatow,  erected  1914;  under  the  Foreign  Mis¬ 
sions  of  Paris;  residence,  Swatow;  vicar  apostolic, 
Adolphe  Rayssac,  titular  Bishop  of  Cotiseum. 

(7)  Kwang-si,  erected  1875;  under  the  Foreign 
Missions  of  Paris;  residence,  Nan-ning;  vicar  apos¬ 
tolic,  Mauriee-Frangois  Ducoeur,  titular  Bishop  of 
Barbalissus.  (8)  Shiu-kow,  erected  from  Canton 
in  1920;  under  the  Salesians;  residence,  Shiu-kow; 
vicar  apostolic,  Aloysius  Versiglia,  titular  Bishop  of 
Carystus.  (9)  Macao  (Diocese),  erected  1516.  The 
diocese,  suffragan  of  Goa,  India,  includes  the  Portu¬ 
guese  colony  of  Macao,  the  prefecture  of  Chaoking 
and  sub-prefecture  of  Siangchan  in  China;  while 
outside  of  China  it  includes  the  Island  of  Timor 
and  the  Portuguese  missions  of  Malacca  and  Singa¬ 
pore.  The  vicar  capitular  is  Mgr.  Jose  da  Costa 
Nunes  with  residence  at  Macao,  a  city  of  40,000 
opposite  Hong  Kong. 

Religious  Orders. — At  the  outbreak  of  the  Euro¬ 
pean  War  many  of  the  missionaries  of  French 
orders  and  missionary  societies  returned  to  France. 
It  is  estimated  that  one-third  of  the  French  mis¬ 
sionaries  at  this  time  were  mobilized.  We  can 
realize  the  effect  of  this  when  we  remember  that 
the  majority  of  the  missionaries  in  China  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  were  of  French  nationality. 
The  Jesuits,  Vincintians,  and  Foreign  Missionaries 
of  Paris,  who  hold  between  them  25  of  the  53 
vicariates  into  which  China  is  divided,  are  almost 
entirely  French.  This  depletion  of  missionary 
ranks,  owing  to  war  and  its  after  effects,  has  been 
the  incentive  in  other  countries  for  many  far- 


reaching  missionary  movements.  Since  1910  no 
less  than  eleven  new  organizations  have  been  ap¬ 
pointed  to  missions  in  China.  These  particularly 
come  from  America  and  Ireland.  From  America 
we  have  the  Foreign  Mission  Society  of  Maryknoll, 
the  Society  of  the  Divine  Word,  the  Chinese  Mis¬ 
sion  Society  of  Omaha,  the  Dominicans,  the  Vin¬ 
centians,  and  the  Passionists.  From  Ireland  have 
come  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  for  Chinese  Mis¬ 
sions  and  the  Christian  Brothers  of  Ireland.  In 

1920  the  American  Dominicans  were  appointed  by 
the  Holy  See  to  a  mission  in  the  Province  of 
Fukien.  This  province  is  under  the  care  of  Spanish 
Dominicans  who  set  aside  a  portion  of  their  terri¬ 
tory  for  the  American  province.  The  American 
Vincentians  took  over  a  new  mission  in  Southern 
Kiang-si  in  1921,  and  Mgr.  Dumond,  formerly  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  T’ien-tsin,  was  appointed  as  vicar 
apostolic.  The  Passionists  were  appointed  to  North¬ 
west  Hu-nan  in  1921.  In  1918  the  first  band  of 
missionaries  from  the  Foreign  Mission  Society  of 
Maryknoll  reached  China,  following  their  appoint¬ 
ment  by  the  Holy  See  to  a  section  of  the  Province 
of  Kwangtung.  Recently  they  obtained  further 
territory  in  the  Province  of  Kiang-si  with  mission 
headquarters  at  Wu-chou  on  the  borders  of  the 
two  provinces.  The  Chinese  Mission  Society  re¬ 
ceived  its  appointment  to  the  Province  of  Hu-pe 
in  1919  and  the  following  year  its  first  band  of  mis¬ 
sionaries  reached  China.  The  headquarters  of 
the  Society  are  at  Han-yang,  in  the  Province  of 
Hu-pe.  The  Society  of  the  Divine  Word  was  ap¬ 
pointed  to  a  new  vicariate  in  Kansu  during  1921 
as  a  compensation  for  the  missions  they  lost  dur¬ 
ing  the  war.  The  American  province  of  the  Society 
with  headquarters  at  Techny,  Ill.,  sent  its  first 
missionaries  to  Shan-tung  in  1919.  In  addition  to 
these  missionary  forces  we  must  also  add  the  Irish 
Vincentians  who  have  opened  schools  in  Pekin,  and 
two  American  secular  priests  who  have  gone  to 
engage  in  educational  work  in  the  Vicariate  of 
Eastern  Ho-nan  under  the  direction  of  the  Foreign 
Missionaries  of  Milan. 

Two  orders  of  Sisters  opened  institutes  in  China 
during  1920  and  1921.  In  1920  the  Sisters  of  Divine 
Providence  of  St.  Mary’s  of  the  Woods,  Ind.,  sent 
six  Sisters  to  open  schools  in  the  Vicariate  of 
Eastern  Ho-nan.  The  following  year  the  first  band 
of  the  Missionary  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic,  organized 
by  the  Foreign  Mission  Society  of  Maryknoll,  New 
York,  reached  China  and  will  work  in  the  missions 
of  the  Society  in  Kwang-tung  and  Kiang-si.  In 

1921  the  Christian  Brothers  of  Ireland  arrived  at 
Han-yang,  Hu-pe.  This  order  has  taken  over  the 
educational  work  for  the  Chinese  Mission  Society 
in  the  Province  of  Hu-pe.  The  China  Mission 
College  at  Almonte,  Canada,  sent  its  first  mis¬ 
sionaries  to  Kwei-chou  in  1919. 

The  native  orders  of  men  are  the  Paulists  and 
the  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart.  Two  unsuccess¬ 
ful  attempts  have  been  made  in  the  last  half  cen¬ 
tury  to  establish  the  Congregation  of  the  Mother 
of  God.  The  first  was  made  by  Mgr.  Languillat, 
who  established  the  Congregation  of  St.  Joseph. 
This  was  to  be  a  native  order  of  catechists  and 
teaching  brothers.  It  was  unsuccessful  and  the  few 
brothers  who  remained  after  its  dissolution  were 
received  into  the  Congregation  of  the  Mother  of 
God,  then  in  its  infancy.  The  latter  congregation 
was  founded  by  Mgr.  Gamier  at  Nan-king.  In 
1909  this  order  was  united  with  the  Marist  Brothers 
by  Mgr.  Paris,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Kiangnan.  The 
union  lasted  three  years,  and  difficulties  arose.  The 
Marists  believed  these  difficulties  to  arise  from  a 
difference  in  spirit  and  training  and  required  all 


CHINA 


193 


CHINA 


the  members  of  the  old  congregation  to  make  their 
novitiate  over  again  under  the  Marist  rule.  This 
ruling  was  refused  by  all  the  members  except 
thirty-six,  who  accepted.  The  others  left  the  com¬ 
munity  and  went  back  into  the  world.  The  Con¬ 
gregation  of  the  Mother  of  God  was  dissolved,  but 
is  now  again  under  consideration  for  reorganiza¬ 
tion.  The  Paulist  Institute  was  founded  by  Mgr. 
Bruguiere,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Southwestern  Chi-li, 
in  1894  as  a  teaching  order  for  his  vicariate.  This 
order  still  exists  with  its  motherhouse  at  Cheng- 
ting-fu,  and  numbers  at  present  thirty-five  religious. 
The  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart  were  founded 
in  Eastern  Mongolia  in  1911.  This  congregation  is 
entirely  religious  with  three  vows.  The  members 
take  vows  for  a  period  of  five  years,  after  which 
they  may  renew  them  for  a  further  period  of  five 
years,  then  for  ten  years,  and  after  this  latter 
period  they  are  admitted  to  perpetual  vows.  At 
present  they  number  sixteen  professed  brothers. 
They  wear  a  Chinese  costume  of  black  material. 

The  native  orders  of  women  have  made  far 
more  progress  than  native  orders  of  men.  The 
men  are  usually  absorbed  by  foreign  missionary 
orders  while  the  native  women  have  developed 
their  own  organizations.  It  is  a  common  thing  in 
China  to  find  women  making  vows  of  virginity  in 
early  life,  as  in  the  early  Church.  These  women 
live  in  their  own  homes  and  sometimes  adopt  the 
rule  of  some  community  as  far  as  possible.  The 
Community  of  Chinese  Virgins  in  Zechewan  was 
the  first  attempt  to  organize  a  native  Sisterhood. 
They  do  not  live  in  community,  but  scattered 
among  the  Christians  whom  they  instruct.  The 
Chinese  Virgins  of  Tibet  follow  a  rule  drawn  up 
by  Mgr.  Giraudeau,  and  live  in  community.  The 
Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary  were  founded 
in  1858  in  Northern  Manchuria  and  have  made 
great  progress  and  rendered  many  services  to  the 
missions  of  Manchuria  during  the  last  half  century. 
After  a  novitiate  of  three  years  they  devote  them¬ 
selves  to  teaching  and  works  of  mercy.  The  mother- 
house  of  the  order,  is  at  Siaopakiatze,  Manchuria. 
The  mother-house  is  elected  annually.  At  present 
this  congregation  numbers  105  members,  including 
novices.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  were  estab¬ 
lished  after  the  persecutions  of  1872  by  Mgr.  Dela- 
place.  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Pekin,  and  the  first  postu¬ 
lants  were  trained  by  the  Daughters  of  Charity. 
They  have  one  or  two  establishments  in  almost 
every  parish  of  the  Vicariate  of  Pekin,  numbering 
at  present  seventy-four  religious.  From  this  order 
have  branched  off  the  Marist  Sisters  of  Yung- 
ping-fu  (1901),  the  Josephines  of  Cheng-ting-fu 
(1878),  the  Josephines  of  Pao-ting-fu  (1910),  and 
the  Josephines  of  Tien-tsin  (1912),  all  of  whom 
follow  the  same  rule  and  were  detached  when  these 
new  vicariates  were  established.  The  Josephines 
of  Pao-ting-fu  number  34  religious,  and  the 
Josephines  of  Tien-tsin  number  14  religious.  The 
Josephines  of  Cheng-ting-fu  had  their  constitutions 
changed  somewhat  in  1910.  The  superior  general 
resides  at  the  principal  house  at  Cheng-ting-fu. 
This  congregation  at  present  numbers  133  religious. 
From  them  were  established,  in  1914,  by  Mgr.  Calza, 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Western  Honan,  the  Josephines 
of  Honan,  who  now  number  25  religious.  The  Sis¬ 
ters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  -were  detached 
from  the  Josephines  of  Peking  by  Mgr.  Geurts, 
first  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Eastern  Chi-li.  This  branch 
comprises  four  establishments  and  30  religious,  in¬ 
cluding  novices.  Its  principal  house  is  at  Yung- 
ping-fu.  The  Institute  of  the  Immaculate  Con¬ 
ception  was  founded  by  the  Belgian  Fathers  in 
Eastern  Mongolia  in  1884.  They  spend  six  years 


of  study  in  preparation  for  their  work,  and  num- 
bers  at  present  191  members.  Their  novitiate  is 
at  oung-shut-suitze.  Their  habit  consists  of  the 
Chinese  women’s  dress  of  black  cotton.  The  Sis- 

uerS  Sacred  H,eart  were  formed  in  Decem¬ 

ber,  1919,  by  a  wealthy  lady  in  Central  Mongolia 
and  approved  by  the  Vicar  Apostolic.  The  Daugh¬ 
ters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  were  established  in  1914 
m  the  vicariate  of  Western  Che-kiang  by  Mgr. 
Faveau,  Vicar  Apostolic,  as  a  teaching  order  The 
society  numbers  30  members.  Its  principal  house 
is  at  Hang-chou.  These  Sisters  dress  in  the  ordi¬ 
nary  Chinese  women’s  costume.  The  Congregation 
of  the  Pi  esentation,  founded  in  1869  in  the  Prov- 
mce  of  Nan-king,  conducts  schools  in  the  missions 
of  the  Vicariate  of  Nan-king  and  at  the  present 
time  numbers  189  members,  of  whom  32  are  novices. 
They  have  89  establishments  throughout  the  vica¬ 
riate.  The  mother-house  is  at  Sicawei.  Another 
branch  has  been  established  in  the  Vicariate  of 
Southeast  Chi-li.  Both  of  these  vicariates  are  under 
the  care  of  the  Jesuits  (French).  The  Daughters 
of  St.  Anne,  founded  in  1895  in  Southern  Kiang-si, 
have  10  foundations  and  a  community  of  32  reli¬ 
gious.  The  Virgins  of  Our  Lady  of  Good  Counsel 
were  founded  in  1907  by  Mgr.  Paul  Ferant,  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Northern  Kiang-si.  They  teach  the 
young  and  work  in  orphanages,  and  have  four  es¬ 
tablishments  in  Kiang-si  with  a  total  of  25  mem¬ 
bers.  The  servants  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  founded 
in  1910  in  Eastern  Sze-chwan,  is  a  teaching  com¬ 
munity  with  principal  house  at  Chung-king  and  a 
total  of  26  religious.  The  Virgins  of  Purgatory 
were  founded  in  Che-Kiang  in  1892  by  Mgr.  Rey- 
naud,  present  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Eastern  Che-Kiang. 
The  order  comprises  80  members,  of  whom  15  are 
novices.  They  wear  a  religious  habit.  The  mother- 
house  and  novitiate  is  at  Ning-po.  The  Religious 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception  were  founded  in 
1918  at  Canton  by  Mother  Angeline  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  and  now  number  26  professed  Sisters  and 
25  novices.  The  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis  were  under  the  direction  of  the  Canossan 
Sisters  at  Wu-Chang  from  1908  to  1917,  when  they 
were  made  an  independent  society.  The  mother- 
house  is  at  Wu-Chang,  Hu-pe.  The  members  take 
three  vows.  The  society  numbers  25  professed  Sis¬ 
ters,  4  novices,  and  24  postulants.  The  Franciscan 
Tertiaries  of  the  Holy  Childhood  were  organized 
in  1905  at  King-chou-fu  by  Mgr.  Everaerts  of 
Southwest  Hu-pe.  The  first  postulants  were  Chinese 
Virgins  who  had  lived  the  religious  life  in  their 
own  homes  and  worked  among  the  young.  They 
took  their  vows  in  the  new  congregation  in  1907. 
The  mother-house  is  at  King-chou-fu.  The  society 
has  three  establishments  and  39  members,  of  whom 
6  are  novices.  The  Oblates  of  the  Holy  Family 
were  founded  in  1910  by  Mgr.  Henninghaus,  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  South  Shang-tung.  They  take  annual 
vows  of  poverty  and  obedience.  The  principal 
house  is  at  Yen-chou-fu.  The  society  numbers  22 
professed  Sisters,  23  novices,  and  7  postulants. 

Catholic  Press. — There  are  two  monthlies  pub¬ 
lished  at  Shanghai  in  China,  “Yesou  Cheng-Sin- 
Pao”  and  “Cheng-Kia-Tsa-Dje,”  “Tchoung-Che-Pao” 
is  a  Chinese  weekly  published  at  Chung-king, 
Sze-chwan,  with  a  French  supplement,  “La  Verite.”  . 
A  Latin  theological  monthly  review,  “Sacerdos  in 
Sinis,”  is  conducted  by  the  Vincentian  Fathers  at 
Peking.  The  only  Catholic  publication  in  the 
English  language  in  the  Far  East  is  “The  Rock,” 
published  monthly  at  Hong-Kong  by  Catholic  lay¬ 
men.  French  publications  are:  “Le  Bulletin  Cath- 
olique  de  Pekin,”  monthly  organ  of  the  Vincentian 
missions  at  Peking;  “L’Echo  de  St.  Michel,”  parish 


CHINA 


194 


CHINA 


monthly  of  the  Legations  at  Peking;  Petit  Mes- 
sager  de  Mingpo,”  monthly  organ  of  the  Vincentian 
missions  in  Che-Kiang;  “L’Echo  du  Chantung 
Oriental,”  organ  of  the  Franciscan  mission  m 
Eastern  Shan-tung,  issued  every  two  months^; 
“L’Ami  des  Missionaires  du  Kiangsi  Septentrional, 
oro-an  of  the  Vincentian  missions  at  Kiu-kiang, 
published  irregularly;  “La  Verite,”  supplement  of  a 
weekly  paper  in  Chinese,  the  “Tchoung-Che-Pao, 
published  at  Chung-k’ing,  Sze-ch’wan;  LEcho  de 
Tientsin,”  a  daily  sympathetic  towards  Catholic 
interest;  “Calendrier-Annuaire  de  L’Observatoire 
de  Zi-ka-wei,”  annual,  published  by  the  Jesuit 
Fathers  at  Sikawei.  The  “Bolotin  do  Governo 
Eclesiastico  da  Diocese  de  Macau”  is  a  Portuguese 
monthly  of  the  Diocese  of  Macao. 

Trade.— The  revenue  of  the  customs  in  1919  was 
Haikwan  taels  46,009,160  (1  Haikwan  tael=$139 
U.  S.),  as  against  Haikwan  taels  22,742,104  in  1897. 

It  included  import  duties,  taels  19,631,697;  export 
duties,  tls.  19,835,823;  coast  trade  duties,  tls  2,582,- 
059;  tonnage  dues,  tls.  1,443,891;  transit  dues  in¬ 
coming,  tls.  1,490,304;  transit  dues  outgoing,  tls. 

1 025,886.  The  gross  value  of  the  foreign  trade 
was  Hk.  tls.  1,361,735,698  in  1919,  as  against  Hk. 
tls.  385,142,721  in  1897,  the  net  value  being  Hk.  tls. 
1,277,807,092,  as  against  tls.  366,329,983  in  1897.  The 
value  of  the  direct  trade  was:  Continent  of  Europe 
(Russia  excepted),  tls.  178,552,712;  Russian  Euro¬ 
pean  ports,  tls.  47,612;  Russia  and  Siberia  by  land 
frontier,  tls.  7,241,120;  Russian  Pacific  ports,  tls. 
24,899,586;  Korea,  tls.  32,049,404;  Japan  (including 
Formosa),  tls.  441,947,029;  Philippine  Islands,  tls. 
4,538,165;  Canada,  tls.  23,068,899;  United  States 
(including  Hawaii),  tls.  211,355,383;  Mexico  and 
Central  America  (including  Panama),  tls.  4,919; 
South  America,  tls.  196,514;  Australia,  New  Zea¬ 
land,  etc.,  tls.  1,367,230;  South  Africa  (including 
Mauritius),  tls.  49,907;  total  tls.  925,318,120  (net 
imports,  tls.  70,089,866;  exports,  tls.  108,462,846). 
The  chief  imports  are:  opium,  tls.  246,000  (weighing 
156.00  piculs) ;  cotton  goods,  tls.  221,114,198;  woolen 
and  cotton  mixtures,  tls.  3,382,737 ;  woolen  goods, 
tls.  3,936,585;  miscellaneous  piece  goods,  tls.  6,914,- 
276;  copper,  iron,  steel,  etc.,  tls.  57,307,814; 
cigarettes,  tls.  21,442,328;  cigars,  tls.  892,392;  fish 
and  fishery  products,  tls.  11,253,572;  flour,  tls. 
1,249,965;  matches,  tls.  5,575,912;  machinery,  tls. 
14,100,000;  medicines,  tls.  5,880,614,  etc.  The  chief 
exports  are:  beancake,  tls.  44,173,118;  beans,  tls. 
38,835,441;  bristles,  tls.  4,748,890;  camphor,  tls. 
1,595,313;  cattle,  tls.  864,388;  raw  cotton,  tls.  30,- 
253  447;  fire-crackers,  tls.  2,849,173;  matting,  tls. 
1,039,838;  medicines,  tls.  3,404,562;  raw  white  silk, 
tls.  2,242,541;  steam  filature  raw  white  silk,  tls. 
3,480,811;  yellow  silk,  tls.  5,842,445;  wild  silk,  tls. 
10,516,709;  silk  cocoons,  tls.  2,660,861;  silk  waste, 
tls.  7,982,445;  silk  cocoons  refuse,  tls.  765,714;  silk 
piece  goods,  tls.  15,744,583;  Shantung  pongees,  tls. 
7,515,645;  silk  products  unclassed,  tls.  415,142;  un¬ 
dressed  skins  and  hides  of  cows  and  buffalos,  tls. 
10  361,381;  of  horses,  asses,  and  mules,  tls.  510,335; 
of  goats,  tls.  8,588,740;  of  sheep,  tls.  370,416;  un¬ 
classed,  tls.  14,918;  straw  braid,  tls.  7,717,587;  vege¬ 
table  tallow,  tls.  1,979,333;  black  tea,  tls.  8,796,928, 
green  tea,  tls.  11,055,610;  black  brick  tea,  tls  2,345,- 
*  258;  green  brick  tea,  tls.  108,766;  tea  tablet,  tls. 
33,941;  tea  dust,  tls.  53,767;  sheep’s  wool,  tls.  11,- 
609,979;  china  ware,  tls.  3,780,285,  etc. 

Shipping. — In  1919,  112,565  steamers  (89,844,371 
tons)  and  97,190  sailing  vessels  (5,881,564  tons),  in 
all  210,755  vessels  (95,725,935  tons)  entered  and 
cleared  Chinese  ports,  of  which  Chinese  shipping 
vessels  (foreign  type)  numbered  49,043  (22,553,448 
tons),  Chinese  junks  88,532  (4,536,314  tons),  British 


36,074  (36,284,312  tons),  Japanese  27,182  (27,532,449 
tons),  French  471  (414,161  tons),  German  298  (53,142 
tons),  American  4,433  (2,569,887  tons),  Norwegian 
311  (302,959  tons),  Portuguese  118  (50,292  tons), 
Danish  93  (185,697  tons),  Swedish  18  (53,650  tons), 

Railways. — China  now  possesses  6,835  miles  of 
railway,  with  2,000  miles  under  construction.  An 
imperial  edict  of  9  May,  1911,  ordered  that  all 
trunk  lines  under  construction  or  projected  be  taken 
over  by  the  government,  while  branch  railways 
were  “to  be  allowed  to  be  undertaken  by  the  people 
according  to  their  ability.”  Under  the  Republic 
steps  have  been  taken  to  nationalize  railway  ex¬ 
pansion  in  China.  The  Chinese  government  rail- 
wavs  comprise  fourteen  lines:  Peking-Han-kan 
(810,821  miles),  Peking-Mukden  (563,030),  Tien- 
tsin-Pu-kow  (687,348),  Shanghai-Nan-kmg  (193- 
127),  Shanghai- Hang -chou-Nmg-po  (177,853), 
Peking-Sai-yuan  (304,540),  Cheng-Tai  (150,872), 
Tao-ku-Ching-hwa  (94,672),  Kai-feng-Honan  (114,- 
885),  Kirin-Chang-chun  (79,301),  Chuchou-Pmg- 
hiang  (56,200),  Canton-Kow-loon  (88,85/),  Canton- 
San-shui,  Chang-chou-Amoy  (17,388).  In  addition 
to  these  are  the  provincial  and  private  railways, 
with  a  total  of  424,143  miles,  making  the  total 
subject  to  the  Ministry  of  Communications  4,431,- 
614  miles.  The  Concessioned  Railways  have  a 
total  of  2,400,165  miles,  and  include  the  Chinese 
Eastern  (1069),  South  Manchurian  (714),  Shan¬ 
tung  (306),  Yun-nan  (289),  Canton-Kow-loon 

(British  section,  22).  #  ...... 

The  railway  system  now  in  operation  m  China  is 
located  principally  north  of  the  Yang-tse  River. 
The  Shanghai-Nanking  line,  with  the  recently  con¬ 
nected  up  Shanghai-Hang-chou-Ningpo  line,  extends 
the  system  into  south  China.  China  has  approxi¬ 
mately  460  square  miles  of  territory  and  107,000 
population  for  each  mile  of  railway,  in  contrast 
with  the  United  States,  with  12  square  miles  of 
territory  and  3,800  population  for  each  mile  of 
railway.  The  extent -of  waterways  will  probably 
always  serve  to  keep  these  average  figures  higher 
in  China  than  in  countries  not  so  favored.  Yet 
railways  tend  to  become  more  an  integral  part  of 
the  industrial  machinery  of  a  nation,  and  these 
averages  therefore  measure  to  a  certain  extent  the 
advance  of  industrial  progress. 

Projected  Railways. — Yam-chou  via  Nan-nmg, 
Po-shan,  Sin-yi  to  Yun-nan-fu,  thence  via  Weinmg 
to  Chung-king  (1,000  miles) ;  Nan-king  via  Ning- 
koe,  Hui-chan,  Nan-chang,  Ping-hiang  (1,000  miles) ; 
Heng-chou-fu-Chin-chou  (560  miles);  Chu-kiao- 
Yen-cheng-Nan-yang-Siang-yang  (225  miles) ;  Sm- 
yang-chou  (227  miles) ;  Yun-yang-Han-chung-fu 
(360  miles) ;  Chin-chou-Aigun  (800  miles) ;  Peking- 
Jehol-Chihfeng-Chingchow-Kalgan  -  Dolonor  -  Chih- 
feng  (780  miles) ;  Harbin-Mergen-Aigun-Blagovest- 
chensk  (660  miles) ;  Ta-tung-fu-Cheng-tu  (960  miles) ; 
Canton-Nan-ning-Lang-son  (550  miles) ;  Shansi-Sm- 
yi-fu  (760  miles) ;  Yun-nan-Sze-chwan  (450  miles) ; 
I-li-Lan-chou-Sian-fu  -  Tung-kwan  -  Hqnan-fu  -  Kai- 
fend-Heng-chou-fu-Tsing-kiang-pu-Hai-chou  (3,000 
miles) ;  Sui-yuan-Kiakhta  (750  miles) ;  Kao-mi- 
Yihsien  (200  miles) ;  Yen-chou-fu-Kai-feng-fu  via 
Tsao-chou-fu  (230  miles). 

Telegraph  System. — On  30  September,  1920, 
there  were  49,259  miles  of  land  lines,  73,873  miles 
of  wires,  1,002.53  miles  of  submarine  cables,  46 
miles  of  river  cables,  837  telegraph  offices.  In 
1918  the  Government  contracted  with  the  Marconi 
Wireless  Company  for  the  purchase  of  200  wireless 
telephones  for  the  Chinese  army,  and  for  the  erec¬ 
tion  of  three  powerful  wireless  stations  at  Kashgar, 
Urumchi,  and  Lanchowfu.  In  1921  the  American 


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Federal  Telegraph  Company  was  given  the  right  the  end  of  1915  he  engineered  a  campaign  to  revert 
to  erect  five  powerful  stations  in  the  largest  cities  to  a  monarchial  form  of  government,  and  as  a 
of  China  in  consideration  of  a  loan,  payable  in  result  of  elections,  was  invited  to  ascend  the  throne 
ten  years.  Among  China’s  demands  at  the  Paris  as  Emperor.  The  southern  provinces,  however 
Peace  Conference  and  the  Disarmament  Conference  immediately  rose  in  revolt.  The  movement  failed 
was  the  demand  that  no  foreign  wireless  or  tele-  and  finally  ended  in  the  death  of  Yuan  Shih-kai  in 
graphic  installations  of  any  kind  shall  be  set  up  June,  1916.  In  accordance  with  the  constitution 
on  Chinese  territory,  and  that  such  installations  Li  Yuan-hung  became  President.  The  provisional 
as  have  been  established  shall  be  handed  over  to  Constitution  of  Nan-king  (10  March,  1912)  was 
China  upon  due  compensation  being  given.  restored;  Parliament  which  had  been  suspended  by 

Postal  System— At  the  end  of  1917  there  were  Yuan  Shih-kai  was  formally  opened.  Yet  the 
9,103  localities  open  to  postal  business,  and  the  constitutional  differences  between  Parliament  and 
number  of  articles  dealt  with  had  increased  to  the  Cabinet  continued  and  resulted  in  the  dismissal 
nearly  260,233,000.  The  number  of  parcels  reached  of  the  Premier, '  Tuan  Chi-jui  and  the  dissolution 
2,640,355  and  money  orders  about  $21,523,300.  of  Parliament  in  June,  1917.  In  the  next  month 

Recent  Politics. — As  early  as  1906  preparations  there  was  an  attempt  to  restore  the  Ching  dynasty, 
were  made  in  China  for  the  introduction  of  con-  with  the  Manchu  Emperor,  Hsuan  Fung  on  the 
stitutional  government.  In  1908  an  edict  promised  Dragon  Throne.  Chang-Hsun,  the  military  com- 
the  convocation  of  a  Parliament  and  the  proclama-  mander  of  the  Yang-Tze  provinces,  who  had  come 
tion  of  a  Constitution,  drawn  in  the  ninth  year  to  Peking  with  a  number  of  troops,  was  bombarded 
from  the  date  of  the  edict,  i.  e.,  1917.  Until  then,  in  Peking.  His  defeat,  and  flight  to  a  foreign  legion, 
certain  measures  of  reform  were  to  be  undertaken  ended  the  Manchu  restoration,  and  Tuan  Chi-jui 
each  year.  In  October,  1910,  the  Senate  convened  was  premier  once  more,  with  Feng  Kuo-chang  as 
in  Peking  to  form  the  nucleus  of  the  future  Parlia-  acting  President  in  the  place  of  Li  Yuan  Hung  who 
ment,  it  however  had  only  deliberative  power  and  had  resigned. 

the  Throne  refused  to  yield  to  its  demand  that  the  In  the  meantime  the  Radical  party  of  the  Parlia- 
Grand  Council  be  made  responsible  to  it.  A  most  ment  which  had  been  dissolved  by  Li  Yuan  Hung 
determined  demand  for  an  earlier  opening  of  a  in  June,  1917,  gathered  in  Canton  and  under  the 
Parliament  resulted  in  the  edict  commanding  that  leadership  of  Sun  Yat  Sen,  set  up  an  independent 
the  Parliament  be  convened  in  1913.  A  rebellion  military  government  and  declared  a  state  of  war 
in  the  autumn  of  1911  precipitated  matters;  in  between  the  South  and  the  North,  claiming  that 
October  Wuchung  was  taken  by  the  revolutionaries  it  alone  represented  the  constitutional  government 
and  an  independent  military  government  declared,  established  by  the  treaty  of  Nan-king  after  the 
The  provinces  seceded,  one  by  one,  until  fourteen  revolution  of  1911.  Military  operations  continued 
out  of  twenty-two  including  Manchuria,  Kiang-si,  intermittently  until  November,  1918,  when  Hsu- 
Hu-pe,  Hu-nan,  and  the  viceroyalty  of  Liang-  Shih-Chang  who  had  been  unanimously  elected 
Kwang,  had  thrown  off  their  allegiance  to  the  President  by  the  Parliament  in  Peking  ordered 
Manchu  government.  The  learned  Dynasty  offered  a  cessation  of  hostilities.  The  Canton  government 
to  grant  every  demand  of  the  people,  retaining  did  likewise,  and  a  conference  of  the  two  parties 
for  itself  the  mere  title  of  sovereignty.  A  consti-  was  called  at  Shanghai,  but  failed  to  establish  an 
tution  was  immediately  drawn  up  and  sanctioned  entente. 

by  edict  issued  on  3  November,  1911,  and  on  26  The  Northern  Military  party  which  has  had  con- 
November  the  Regent  in  behalf  of  the  emperor  trol  of  the  Peking  government  for  the  last  four 
took  the  Oath  of  Constitution.  He  summoned  years  has  from  the  first  been  divided  into  two 
Yuan  Shih-kai  former  viceroy  of  Chi-li,  whom  he  factions,  known  as  the  Chilhli  and  the  Anhui  fac- 
had  dismissed  in  1909,  granted  him  the  powers  of  tions.  The  increasing  supremacy  of  the  Anhui 
dictator,  and  appointed  him  Prime  Minister  and  faction,  aided  by  the  An  Fu  (pro-Japanese)  party, 
General  of  the  forces.  A  constitutional  monarchy  was  resented  by  the  Chilhli  faction  and  friction 
with  the  Manchus  as  a  figurehead  was  decided  upon,  between  the  two  developed  into  open  warfare,  in 
and  accepted  by  most  of  the  northern  provinces,  July,  1920.  The  Anhui  faction  was  defeated.  The 
but  not  by  the  southern  provinces,  whose  aims  government  ordered  the  disbanding  of  the  troops 
were  more  anti-dynastic.  A  truce  was  called  to  but  instead  they  were  incorporated  into  the  armies 
decide  on  the  exact  form  of  government.  On  6  of  the  rival  military  governors  and  the  central  gov- 
December  the  Regent  abdicated  and  the  young  ernment  was  powerless  to  enforce  its  decision. 
Emperor  was  provided  with  two  guardians,  one  a  The  only  real  power  and  authority  in  China  is 
Manchu  and  the  other  a  Chinese.  On  29  December  in  the  hands  of  the  Tuchuns  or  Military  Governors 
the  Nan-king  (Republican)  Assembly,  a  provisional  of  the  separate  provinces,  each  acting  for  himself  in 
convention  in  which  the  14  provinces  only  were  his  own  field,  and  taking  advantage  of  the  weakness 
represented,  unanimously  elected  Dr.  Sun  Yat  of  the  central  government  to  raise  large  armies  to 
Sen  President  of  the  Republic  of  China  and  adopted  serve  their  own  ends  and  thus  to  usurp  complete 
a  provisional  constitution.  In  February,  1912,  the  autocratic  local  power.  China  is  now,  therefore  a 
Manchu  dynasty  abdicated.  Under  the  provisional  conglomeration  of  separate  states  under  the  auto- 
constitution,  a  provisional  Parliament  was  assem-  cratic  control  of  Military  Governors  who  tax  their 
bled  in  Peking  and  in  due  time  passed  laws  for  the  people  to  the  limit  and  who  have  raised  large  loans, 
election  of  a  bi-cameral  legislature,  at  the  same  for  the  support  of  their  armies  and  their  own 
time  determining  its  powers  and  functions.  The  enrichment  principally  from  the  Japanese,  for  which 
new  Parliament  met  on  8  April,  1913,  and  appointed  the  provincial  resources  are  pledged.  These  armies 
a  Committee  to  draft  a  permanent  constitution  for  are  a  horrible  incubus  upon  the  people,  and  the 
the  Republic.  The  Committee  sat  from  21  July  to  system  which  keeps  them  up  is  intolerable,  but 
25  October,  and  completed  a  draft  of  the  Constitu-  there  is  no  force  in  China  strong  enough  to  compel 
tion  consisting  of  113  articles,  of  which  only  those  their  disbandment.  At  present  (1922)  there  are 
dealing  with  the  election  and  term  of  office  of  three  super  Tuchuns  or  “Inspectors  General,”  who 
President  and  Vice-President  became  law  by  the  aim  for  supremacy  in  the  Peking  government: 
act  of  Parliament.  By  virtue  of  these,  Yuan  Chang  Tso-lin,  the  uncrowned  King  of  Manchuria, 
Shih-kai  was  celebrated  president  for  five  years.  At  who  controls  the  Peking-Mukden  railway;  Tsao- 


CHINA 


196 


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kun,  war  lord  of  the  Chihli  party,  with  head¬ 
quarters  at  Pao-ting-fu;  and  Wu  Pei-fu,  former 
chief  lieutenant  of  Tsao-kun,  in  charge  of  the 
Yang-tze  regions.  The  main  factor  in  the  south  is 
the  Canton  government  under  Dr.  Sun  Yat-sen. 
Another  political  division  exists  in  the  three  south¬ 
west  provinces  of  Yun-nan,  Kwei-chou  and 
Sze-chwan,  but  these  are  fluctuating  between  Dr. 
Sun  and  Wu  Pei-fu. 

Foreign  Relations. — Soon  after  the  outbreak  of 
the  European  War,  China  proclaimed  her  neutrality 
by  a  Presidential  Mandate  of  6  August,  1914.  A 
week  later  Japan  delivered  an  ultimatum  to  Ger¬ 
many  demanding  the  surrender  of  the  leased  ter¬ 
ritory  of  Kiao-chou  “with  a  view  to  eventual 
restoration  of  the  same  to  China.”  Failing  to 
receive  a  reply  to  her  ultimatum,  Japan  declared 
war  on  Germany,  23  August,  1914.  The  first  con¬ 
tingent  of  Japanese  troops,  20,000  strong,  despatched 
to  attack  Tsing-tao,  landed  unexpectedly  at  Lung- 
khau,  and  on  their  way  across  the  peninsula  to 
Kiao-chou,  occupied  cities  and  towns  en  route, 
even  Wei-Hsien  and  Tsi-nan.  With  the  help  of 
the  British  they  forced  the  Germans  to  surrender 
the  bombarded  Tsing-tao  and  their  garrison  on 
8  November,  1915.  Eight  days  later  they  entered 
the  city.  Seeing  that  with  the  complete  surrender 
of  the  Germans,  hostilities  had  terminated  and  mili¬ 
tary  measures  had  been  abandoned,  the  Chinese 
demanded  the  withdrawal  of  the  Japanese  from 
the  interior  of  Shan-tung  to  Tsing-tao,  but  the 
latter  had  assumed  possession  of  all  administrative 
authority  exercised  by  the  Germans,  had  taken 
possession  of  the  Shan-tung  railway,  and  had  ex¬ 
tended  their  authority  to  certain  cities  outside  and 
leased  territory.  At  this  time  (18  January,  1915), 
the  Japanese  government,  to  the  dismay  of  China, 
presented  twenty-one  demands,  including  the  fol¬ 
lowing:  China  was  to  give  full  assent  to  all  mat¬ 
ters  upon  which  the  Japanese  government  may 
hereafter  agree  with  Germany,  relating  to  the  dis¬ 
position  of  all  rights,  interests,  and  concessions  in 
Shan-tung.  Negotiations  lasted  until  7  May,  when 
Japan  sent  an  ultimatum  to  China,  demanding  a  reply 
within  forty-eight  hours.  In  face  of  the  increasing 
Japanese  garrisons  in  Manchuria  and  Shantung, 
China  was  forced  to  yield.  In  the  treaty  signed  on 
25  May,  1915,  she  agreed  never  to  alienate  any  ter¬ 
ritory  on  or  near  the  coast  of  Shan-tung  to  a  foreign 
power,  to  give  the  Japanese  a  free  hand  in  South 
Manchuria  and  Eastern  Inner  Mongolia,  to  extend 
the  leases  of  Port  Arthur  and  Dairen  for  a  period 
of  ninety-nine  years,  also  the  leases  of  the  South 
Manchurian  Railway,  and  the  Antupg-Mukden 
Railway.  At  the  Peach  Conference  at  Versailles 
in  1919,  Japan  claimed,  on  the  ground  of  conquest, 
the  leased  territory  of  Kiao-chou  and  all  Ger¬ 
many’s  economic  privileges  in  Shantung;  whereas 
China  asked  the  Conference  for  a  settlement  which 
would  secure  to  her  the  restitution  of  the  leased 
territory  and  the  cancellation  of  Germany’s  eco¬ 
nomic  privileges.  Japan,  however,  obtained  recog¬ 
nition  of  her  claim  in  the  treaty,  which  China  flatly 
refused  to  sign,  the  indignation  of  the  whole 
nation  being  promptly  expressed  by  a  boycott  of 
Japanese  goods. 

The  controversy  was  brought  up  again  at  the 
Washington  Disarmament  Conference  in  1922.  In 
a  treaty  signed  between  the  two  powers,  China 
and  Japan,  on  4  February,  1922,  Shan-tung  with 
all  the  former  German  properties,  concessions,  rail¬ 
way,  port,  mining,  maritime  customs,  and  other 
rights,  was  finally  returned  to  China,  who  was  to 
pay  the  assessed  value  of  the  properties  taken  by 
the  Japanese  from  the  Germans  during  the  World 


War,  plus  the  value  of  the  improvements  added  by 
Japan,  making  allowance  for  depreciation.  Japan 
promised  to  withdraw  all  her  military  forces  from 
Shan-tung,  as  soon  as  China  sent  her  own  troops 
to  guard  the  railway  there.  Great  Britain  offered 
to  return  her  concessions,  Wei-hai-wei,  and  France, 
Kwang-chou-wan.  Other  matters  concerning  China’s 
welfare  were  also  settled  in  the  Conference.  Under 
the  nine-power  treaty  of  4  February,  a  complete 
revision  of  China’s  revenues  was  made,  and  instead 
of  the  arrangement  adopted  in  1843  under  which 
China  was  technically  to  receive  a  5  per  cent 
quota  of  the  revenues,  but  under  which  she  actually 
received  a  scant  3%  per  cent  ad  valorem,  a  new 
arrangement  was  effected  so  that  China  will  receive 
5  per  cent  of  the  revenues  and  a  surtax  of  2V-2 
per  cent  on  some  goods;  and  the  likin  will  be 
abolished.  The  nine-power  pact  also  declared  for 
the  integrity  of  Chinese  sovereignty  and  for  equal 
opportunity  in  trade  intercourse.  Each  of  the 
powers  (United  States,  Belgium,  the  British  Empire, 
China,  France,  Italy,  Japan,  Holland,  and  Portugal) 
was  pledged  to  refrain  from  seeking  any  unfair  or 
special  advantages,  to  respect  Chinese  neutrality, 
and  to  come  together  in  a  conference  with  China, 
if  any  situation  should  rise  to  involve  the  applica¬ 
tion  of  the  stipulations  of  the  treaty.  China,  on 
her  part,  undertook  not  to  alienate  or  lease  any 
portion  of  her  territory  or  littoral  to  any  power. 
China  was  requested  to  reduce  her  armies  and  to 
reveal  all  her  secret  treaties  (one  of  these  was  a 
secret  treaty  of  alliance  with  Russia  in  1896). 
There  are  plans  to  finance  China’s  present  trans¬ 
portation  needs  by  an  International  Consortium, 
formed  by  the  bankers  of  the  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  Japan,  as  the  country  is  too 
large  to  be  financed  by  one  power. 

The  World  War. — At  the  outbreak  of  the  World 
War  China  preserved  the  strictest  neutrality,  but 
with  the  entrance  of  the  United  States  into  the 
struggle,  China  sided  with  that  country  in  her 
protest  against  the  submarine  warfare  and  declared 
war  against  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary  on  14 
August,  1917.  The  allies  responded  by  agreeing  to 
the  postponement  of  the  Boxer  indemnity  for  a 
period  of  five  years,  commencing  from  1  January, 
1918,  Russia,  however,  consenting  to  the  suspension 
of  only  one-third  of  its  annual  share.  The  internal 
condition  of  China  forbade  anything  like  active 
participation,  but  in  the  end  China  joined  the 
Allied  Expedition  to  Siberia  to  stem  the  tide  of 
Bolshevism  and  the  Interallied  Railway  Technical 
Commission  to  help  reorganize  Russia’s  railways. 
In  January,  1918,  Peking  concluded  with  Tokio  the 
socalled  Arms  Pact  under  which  Japan  agreed  to 
supply  China  with  arms  and  ammunition  to  the 
amount  of  40,000,000  yen — the  ostensible  object 
being  to  equip  the  Chinese  expedition  to  Europe, 
but  in  reality  both  the  proceeds  and  arms  went  to 
help  the  Northern  militarists  to  crush  the  Consti¬ 
tution-defending  South.  One  month  before  the 
Armistice,  on  3  October,  1918,  the  Republic  ex¬ 
tended  its  recognition  to  the  Czechoslovaks  oper¬ 
ating  in  Siberia,  and  allowed  them  passage  on  the 
Chinese  Eastern  Railway.  If  circumstances  such 
as  a  lack  of  transportation  facilities  prevented  the 
Chinese  soldiers  from  serving  in  France,  their  place 
was  nobly  taken  by  the  Chinese  laborers,  of  whom 
two  thousand  perished  in  France.  They  also  served 
in  Mesopotamia,  Egypt,  and  South  Africa,  in  all, 
no  less  than  150,000.  China  signed  the  Treaty  of 
Peace  with  Germany  on  10  May,  1921 ;  the  Bul¬ 
garian  Peace  treaty  at  Neuilly  on  27  November, 
1919;  the  Hungarian  Peace  Treaty  at  Trianon  on 
4  June,  1920. 


CHIOGGIA 


197 


CHRISTIAN 


Chioggia,  Diocese  of  (Clodiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
III-689b).— Chioggia  is  a  seaport  on  the  Gulf  of 
Venice  in  Italy.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Domenico  Mezzadri,  b.  in  San  Rocco  al  Porto, 
diocese  of  Lodi,  30  January,  1867,  elected  bishop 
2  July,  1920,  took  possession  of  the  see  22  October, 
1920,  in  succession  to  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio  Bassani, 
resigned.  Bishop  Bassani  was  born  in  Chioggia  3 
January,  1854,  elected  titular  Bishop  of  Delcos  and 
coadjutor  of  the  bishop  of  Chioggia  22  January, 
1905,  succeeded  to  the  bishopric  21  November,  1908, 
resigned  and  transferred  1  October,  1918,  to  the 
titular  see  of  Troas. 

In  the  diocese  there  are  31  parishes,  52  churches, 

2  convents  for  men  and  5  for  women,  110  secular 
and  8  regular  priests,  2  clerics,  70  nuns,  1  seminary 
with  30  seminarians,  3  colleges  for  girls  with  20 
students  in  each,  2  refuges,  1  for  men  and  1  for 
women,  3  asylums,  3  hospitals.  There  is  a  clerical 
federation,  and  among  the  laity  a  mutual  aid  or¬ 
ganization  and  Popular  Union.  A  diocesan  bulletin 
is  published,  and  also  “Annali  della  B.  V.  della 
Navicella.”  There  are  about  100,000  inhabitants 
in  the  diocese,  all  Catholics. 

Bellemo  Cav.  Vincenzo,  famous  Italian  historian, 
died  30  January,  1917,  leaving  his  library  to  the 
seminary.  Twelve  priests  and  all  the  clerics  took 
up  arms  for  their  country,  1  being  severely  wounded. 
In  recognition  of  special  service  the  Government 
made  Papal  Chamberlain  Rossetti  archpriest  of 
Cavarzere,  and  Carlo  Lorenzi  chaplain  of  St.  Pietro 
in  Volte,  Knights  of  the  Crown  of  Italy. 

Chios,  Diocese  of  (Chiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-689c), 
comprises  the  islands  of  Chios,  Chesme,  Samos, 
and  other  small  islands  in  the  Greek  archipelago, 
off  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  suffragan  of  Naxos. 
The  see  is  at  present  (1922)  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Nicolas  Charichiopoulo,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Tinos, 
1866,  studied  at  Propaganda,  Rome,  served  as  chan¬ 
cellor  of  the  Cathedral  of  Constantinople  and  was 
appointed  3  Janiiary,  1917,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev. 
Dionisio  Nicolosi,  died  24  January,  1916.  The 
Catholics  of  this  diocese,  who  number  only  170,  are 
descended  from  the  first  settlers  of  the  islands; 
about  eighty  are  Italians  and  the  rest  Greeks  or 
French.  In  1912,  on  11  December,  the  Turks  were 
expelled  from  the  islands  and  the  Greeks  took 
possession,  those  Greeks  already  there  joining  the 
army  to  help  their  fatherland.  During  the  war 
the  poor  suffered  severely,  especially  from  famine. 
In  recent  years  the  diocese  lost  three  of  its  small 
number  of  clergy  by  the  deaths  of  Revs.  Antonius 
Sigola, .  Thomas  Rostand,  and  Canon  Pantaleo 
Cochini.  It  now  comprises  2  parishes,  5  churches, 

3  at  Chios  and  2  at  Samos,  2  convents  of  religious, 

1  at  Chios  and  the  other  at  Samoo,  1  mission 
station,  3  secular  and  3  regular  clergy  (1  capuchin 
and  2  French  missionaries).  The  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  of  the  Apparition  and  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph 
of  Lyons,  conduct  schools  for  girls  with  180  pupils, 
of  whom  25  are  Catholic,  and  young  Catholic 
boys  also  attend  schools  conducted  by  the  Sis¬ 
ters,  and  complete  their  studies  in  other  cities. 
The  Children  of  Mary  and  other  associations  of 
women  are  organized. 

Chiusi-Pienza,  Diocese  of  (Clusinensis  et 
Pientinensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-690d),  in  Tuscany, 
Central.  Italy,  Chiusi  is  suffragan  of  Sienna  and 
Pienza  is  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  These 
united  sees  were  filled  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Giacomo 
Bellucci  from  30  December,  1889,  until  his  death, 
19  February,  1917.  The  present  (1922)  incumbent, 
Rt.  Rev.  Giuseppe  Conti,  was  appointed  to  succeed 
him  22  March  following.  Born  in  the  diocese  of 


Fiesole,  Italy,  1871,  he  served  as  vicar  general  of 
that  diocese,  was  made  a  papal  chamberlain,  3 
October,  1903,  and  prothonotary  apostolic,  22 
December,  1914.  These  sees  have  a  Catholic  popu¬ 
lation  of  36,000,  56  parishes,  91  secular  and  50 
regular  clergy,  31  seminarians,  19  Brothers,  55  Sis¬ 
ters,  and  125  churches  or  chapels. 

Choco,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (de  Choco),  in 
Colombia,  South  America.  This  prefecture,  erected 
28  April,  1908,  is  entrusted  to  the  Sons  of  the 
Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary,  the  present  (1922) 
prefect  apostolic  being  Rev.  Francois  Gutierrez, 
of  this  congregation.  No  statistics  are  published 
for  this  territory. 

Christchurch,  Diocese  of  (Christopolitanensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  III-699b),  in  Canterbury,  New  Zealand, 
suffragan  of  Wellington.  The  first  bishop  of  this 
diocese,  Rt.  Rev.  J.  J.  Grimes,  S.  M.,  born  in 
Bromley,  England,  1843,  consecrated  26  July,  1887, 
died  in  Sydney,  15  March,  1915.  His  successor  was 
appointed  in  the  person  of  the  present  bishop,  Rt. 
Rev.  Matthew  J.  Brodie,  born  in  Coromandel,  New 
Zealand,  1864,  ordained  1888,  made  a  prelate  of  the 
Holy  See,  1912,  appointed  27  November,  1915. 

The  religious  orders  established  in  this  diocese 
include :  Society  of  Mary  with  23  Fathers,  Marist 
Brothers  with  5  Brothers,  Missionary  Sisters  of 
Notre  Dame  with  90  Sisters,  Sisters  of  Mercy 
numbering  148  Sisters,  Religious  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  with  29  nuns,  Sisters  of  Good  Shepherd  with 
30  religious,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  with  16  Sisters,  Sisters  of  Nazareth  with  16 
Sisters,  and  Nursing  Sisters  of  the  Little  Company 
of  Mary  with  14  Sisters.  This  diocese  counts  a 
Catholic  population  of  30,000,  and  comprises  21 
districts,  63  churches,  22  secular  and  28  regular 
clergy,  8  boarding  and  high  schools,  29  primary 
schools,  1  asylum,  1  industrial  and  preservation 
school,  1  orphanage,  1  home,  and  2  girls’  hostels. 

Christian  Brothers  of  Ireland  (cf.  C.  E., 
III-710b),  have  200  houses  in  Ireland,  England, 
Australia,  and  India.  The  first  foundation  in  the 
United.  States  was  made  in  All  Saints’  parish,  New 
York,  in  1906,  and  was  soon  followed  by  others  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  all  of  which,  together 
with  the  houses  in  Newfoundland,  were  formed  in 
1916  into  the  American  province.  The  provincial 
novitiate  is  near  West  Park  in  Ulster  Co.,  N.  Y., 
and  is  known  as  St.  Mary’s  on  the  Hudson.  In 
Newfoundland  the  Brothers  have  charge  of  St. 
Bonaventure’s  College  and  St.  Patrick’s  School  at 
St.  John’s,  Holy  Cross  College  at  Riverhead,  and 
a  boy’s  orphanage  and  industrial  school  at  Mount 
Cashel.  In  Canada  there  is  a  novitiate  at  Longueil, 
P.  Q.,  and  the  Brothers  have  two  schools  in  Mon¬ 
treal,  St.  Patrick’s  Academy  in  Sherbrooke,  P.  Q., 
and  Saint  Colomban  College  at  Cornwall,  Ont.  In 
1921  a  community  of  four  Christian  Brothers  sailed 
for  Han  Yang,  China,  to  establish  a  high  school  in 
connection  with  the  work  of  the  Maynooth  Mission 
to  China.  The  superior  general  of  the  institute 
is  Br.  Patrick  Jerome  Hennessy,  elected  in  1920. 

Christian  Charity,  Sisters  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
III-711a),  also  called  Daughters  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  a 
congregation  whose  principal  activity  is  the  educa¬ 
tion  of  youth,  but  which  does  not  exclude  any  of 
the  other  works  of  Christian  charity,  founded  at 
Paderborn,  Germany,  on  21  August,  1849,  by 
Pauline  von  Mallinckrodt  (b.  3  June,  1817,  at  Min- 
den,  Westphalia;  died  30  April,  1881),  sister  of 
the  famous  Hermann  von  Mallinckrodt.  Mother 
Pauline’s  first  field  of  labor  was  the  care  of  the 


CHRISTIAN 


198 


CHRISTIAN 


blind.  The  institute,  which  was  confirmed  4 
February,  1888,  by  Leo  XIII,  had  attained  great 
success  throughout  Germany  when,  in  1873,  the 
Kulturkampf  deprived  it  of  its  principal  activity — 
Christian  education.  Some  of  the  Sisters  went  to 
South  America,  where  there  are  now  many  flourish¬ 
ing  communities.  Others  emigrated  to  New  Orleans, 
La.,  -U.  S.  A.,  where,  in  May,  1873,  they  founded 
a  house  and  took  charge  of  a  parochial  school.  A 
provincial  mother-house  was  erected  in  Wilkes- 
Barre,  Penn.,  in  1874.  The  institute  spread  rapidly, 
and  the  Sisters  now  have  houses  in  the  Archdioceses 
of  Baltimore,  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  and  St.  Paul,  and  in  the 
Dioceses  of  Belleville,  Brooklyn,  Detroit,  Harris¬ 
burg,  Newark,  Scranton,  Sioux  City,  and  Syracuse. 
They  have  in  these  establishments  784  Sisters,  41 
novices,  and  20  postulants,  conducting  4  academies, 
51  parochial  schools,  and  1  orphan  asylum.  In  1916 
the  mother-house  of  the  North  American  province 
was  transferred  to  Wilmette,  Ill.  The  Sisters  have 
houses  not  only  in  Germany  but  also  in  Bohemia, 
and  in  1920  they  opened  a  house  in  Rome,  Italy. 
The  total  membership  of  the  congregation  in  the 
three  provinces,  the  European,  North  and  South 
American,  is  1,900. 

Christian  Church  (American  Christian  Con¬ 
vention)  is  the  name  of  a  small  American  sect, 
which  is  perhaps  the  most  logical  of  the  numerous 
forms  of  Protestantism,  in  that  it  sets  forth  abso¬ 
lutely  no  creed  or  statement  of  doctrine  (except 
the  Bible),  and  in  that  no  differences  of  theological 
belief,  due  to  different  interpretations  of  the  Bible, 
constitutes  a  bar  to  membership,  providing  one  is 
a  “follower  of  Christ.”  Although  the  general  ten¬ 
dency  of  this  church  is  “evangelical”  it  is  not  clear 
that  denial  of  the  Divinity  of  Christ  would  exclude 
a  member  provided  he  accepted  Christ  as  Master 
and  Leader.  Baptism  is  not  considered  necessary 
for  members,  although  some  preach  its  reception  as 
a  duty.  Immersion  is  the  form  generally  used,  but 
any  form  is  admitted.  Open  communion  (admis¬ 
sion  of  non-members  to  reception  of  the  com¬ 
munion)  is  practiced,  sincq  no  religious  test  is 
required  even  of  members.  In  organization  this 
sect  is  congregational,  the  bond  of  union  being 
conferences  whose  functions  are  chiefly  administra¬ 
tive. 

This  denomination  is  the  result  of  the  fusion  of 
defections  from  the  Methodists  in  Virginia,  the 
Baptists  in  New  England  and  the  Presbyterians  in 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky  between  1792  and  1803, 
under  the  respective  leadership  of  James  O’Kelley, 
Abner  Jones,  and  Barton  Stone  (and  others),  who 
desired  more  freedom  of  private  interpretation 
than  was  possible  in  the  churches  which  they  left. 
A  general  organization  was  effected  in  1819,  but 
the  name  “Christian”  (adopted  because  they 
claimed  to  be  the  exponents  of  the  true  doctrine 
of  Christ),  dates  from  1794  when  O’Kelley' and  his 
followers  dropped  the  name  “Republican  Metho¬ 
dists,”  which  they  had  at  first  adopted.  The  quali¬ 
fying  phrase  “American  Christian  Convention”  is 
the  title  of  their  quadrennial  conference.  The 
present  official  title  of  the  church  dates  from  1916, 
previous  to  that  the  title  being  “Christians  (Chris¬ 
tian  Connection)”  in  official  reports.  This  sect  is 
often  confused  with  the  Disciples  of  Christ  (Camp- 
bellites)  owing  to  the  fact  that  Barton  Stone  and 
many  of  his  associates  joined  the  latter  in  1832, 
retaining,  however,  the  name  “Christian.”  A 
division  in  the  church  occurred  in  1854  due  to  the 
slavery  question,  the  two  factions  uniting  again 
in  1890. 


Foreign  missionary  work  is  carried  on  in  Porto 
Rico  and  in  Japan,  the  mission  in  the  latter  coun¬ 
try  forming  a  conference  independent  of  control  by 
the  American  conference.  In  the  two  countries 
there  were  in  1920,  12  American  missionaries,  22 
native  helpers  and  1,639  communicants.  In  the 
United  States  this  church  controls  seven  educa¬ 
tional  institutions  (including  one  for  negroes),  with 
about  1,500  students.  The  headquarters  of  the 
church  are  at  Dayton,  Ohio,  where  are  issued  the 
“Herald  of  Gospel  Liberty,”  a  weekly,  founded  in 
1808,  and  claiming  to  be  the  oldest  English-language 
religious  newspaper  in  the  United  States,  the  “Chris¬ 
tian  Missionary”  (monthly),  the  “Christian  Van¬ 
guard”  (monthly),  and  the  “Christian  Annual.” 
This  sect  reported  in  1920,  1,204  churches,  1,037 
ministers,  105,310  members  (118,000  in  1916).  In 
1922  the  statistics  of  the  Federal  Council  of 
Churches  of  Christ  gave  the  membership  _of  this 
church  as  97,084,  terming  it  a  gain  of  21,653  over 
the  figures  for  1921.  The  various  statistics  are 
not  entirely  reliable;  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that 
the  membership  is  about  100,000.  This  denomina¬ 
tion  has  its  greatest  strength  in  Ohio.,  North  Caro¬ 
lina,  Virginia,  Illinois,  and  Indiana. 

Riggle,  The  Christian  Church,  Its  Rise  and  Progress  (Ander¬ 
son,  Ind.,  1912);  Meagher,  History  of  the  Protestant  Religions 
(New  York,  1914) ;  Religious  Bodies,  1916  (Washington,  1919) ; 
Year  Book  of  the  Churches  (New  York,  annual). 

Gerald  Shaughnessy. 

Christian  Science  (Church  of  Christ,  Scien¬ 
tist),  an  American  sect,  chartered  in  1879  by  Mrs. 
Mary  Baker  Glover  (Patterson)  Eddy,  is  a  theo- 
sophic,  therapeutic  religious  system  of  “healing’ 
which  rejects  doctrinal  belief  as  a  religious  basis 
and  claims,  through  a  revival  of  the  apostolic 
healing  of  Christ  (hence  the  name  Christian)  to 
depend  on  the  application  of  scientific  rules  (hence 
Science)  in  the  accomplishment  of  its  work. 

Tenets,  Government,  Ritual. — No  creed  as  such 
is  recognized  in  this  church,  but  the  official  text¬ 
book,  Mrs.  Eddy’s  “Science  and  Health,  with  Key 
to  the  Scriptures,”  contains  the  teachings  and  the 
rules  for  healing  of  the  sick  and  saving  the  sinner, 
and  in  the  “Manual”  are  found  the  tenets  which 
must  be  subscribed  to  by  one  obtaining  membership 
in  the  church.  These  tenets  are  as  follows:  1.  As 
adherents  of  Truth  we  take  the  inspired  Word  of 
the  Bible  as  our  sufficient  guide  to  eternal  Life. 
2.  We  acknowledge  and  adore  one  supreme  and 
infinite  God.  We  acknowledge  his  Son,  one  Christ; 
the  Holy  Ghost  or  divine  Comforter;  and  man  in 
God’s  image  and  likeness.  3.  We  acknowledge 
God’s  forgiveness  of  sin  in  the  destruction  of  sin 
and  the  spiritual  understanding  that  casts  out  evil 
as  unreal.  But  the  belief  in  sin  is  punished  so 
long  as  the  belief  lasts.  4.  We  acknowledge  Jesus’ 
atonement  as  the  evidence  of  divine  efficacious  love, 
unfolding  man’s  unity  with  God  through  Christ  the 
Way-shower;  and  we  acknowledge  that  man  is 
saved  through  Christ,  through  Truth,  Life,  and  Love 
as  demonstrated  by  the  Galilean  Prophet  in  heal¬ 
ing  the  sick  and  overcoming  sin  and  death.  5.  We 
acknowledge  that  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  and  His 
resurrection  served  to  uplift  faith  to  understand 
eternal  life,  even  the  allness  of  Soul,  "Spirit,  and 
the  nothingness  of  matter.  6.  And  we  solemnly 
promise  to  watch  and  pray  for  that  Mind  to  be 
in  us  which  was  in  Christ  Jesus;  to  do  unto  others 
as  we  would  have  them  do  unto  us;  and  to  be 
merciful,  just,  and  pure.  _ 

Explanatory  of  the  foregoing  is  the  “scientific 
statement  of  being”:  “There  is  no  life,  truth,  in¬ 
telligence,  nor  substance  in  matter.  All  is  infinite 
Mind  and  its  infinite  manifestation,  for  God  is 


CHRISTIAN 


199 


CHRISTIAN 


All-in-all.  Spirit  is  immortal  Truth;  matter  is 
mortal  error.  Spirit  is  the  real  and  eternal;  matter 
is  the  unreal  and  temporal.  Spirit  is  God,  and 
man  His  image  and  likeness.  Therefore  man  is 
not  material;  he  is  spiritual.” 

Christian  Science  claims  to  be  essentially  a 
method  of  healing;  of  curing  both  body  and  soul; 
it  seeks  “the  mental,  moral,  and  physical  regenera¬ 
tion  of  mankind.”  Power  to  heal  sickness  and 
sin  is  the  sign  of  true  discipleship  of  Jesus,  and 
Mrs.  Eddy  asserted  that  He  gave  a  command,  bind¬ 
ing  on  all  His  followers,  to  preach  and  heal.  Sick¬ 
ness,  sin,  matter,  pain,  pleasure,  death,  evil  in 
general,  are  declared  to  be  nothing,  to  be  “mortal 
mind,”  while  only  Mind  (immortal,  infinite  Mind) 
is  real,  and  God  is  Mind.  Disease  being  mental 
error,  the  cure  consists  in  convincing  the  patient 
of  the  error.  There  are  no  sacraments  in  Christian 
Science;  there  is  no  prayer,  properly  so-called,  for 
“man  cannot  influence  God;  God  influences  man.” 

The  organization  is  highly  centralized,  the  “First 
Church  of  Christ,  Scientist”  in  Boston,  the  “Mother 
Church,”  being  the  center.  This  center  is  governed 
by  the  “Manual  of  the  Mother  Church”  (by  Mrs. 
Eddy),  which  contains  “the  Church  Tenets,  Rules, 
and  By-Laws,  as  prepared  by  Mrs.  Eddy.”  Until 
her  death  Mrs.  Eddy  was  at  first  Pastor  and  later 
Pastor  Emeritus  with  practically  unlimited  power. 
There  are  besides  a  Board  of  (5)  Directors,  who 
elect  also  a  President,  a  Clerk,  a  Treasurer,  and 
two  Readers.  In  addition  there  is  a  Board  of 
Trustees  who  conduct  the  business  of  the  Christian 
Science  Publishing  Society,  the  Board  of  Directors 
having  power  to  declare  vacancies  in  this  Board. 
The  branch  churches  are  forbidden  to  use  the 
“Manual,”  and  while  they  are  declared  to  have 
each  its  own  form  of  government,  subordination 
to  the  Mother  Church  is  obtained  through  the 
regulation  requiring  at  least  16  members,  four  of 
whom  must  be  members  of  the  Mother  Church, 
before  a  branch  can  be  organized,  while  in  addition 
every  Reader  in  a  branch  church  must  be  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Mother  Church.  Since  Mrs.  Eddy’s 
death  the  question  of  the  possession  of  supreme 
authority  has  been  disputed  by  the  two  boards, 
and  is  not  yet  definitely  settled. 

There  are  no  pastors  in  the  usual  sense  of  the 
term  in  Christian  Science,  the  Bible  and  “Science 
and  Health”  taking  their  places  according  to  the 
decree  issued  by  Mrs.  Eddy  in  1895:  “Humbly, 
and  as  I  believe,  divinely  directed,  I  hereby  ordain 
the  Bible  and  ‘Science  and  Health,  with  Key  to 
the  Scriptures’  to  be  hereafter  the  only  pastor  of 
the  Church  of  Christ,  Scientist,  throughout  our 
land,  and  in  other  lands.”  Services  are  conducted 
in  accordance  with  the  “Order  of  Service”  con¬ 
tained  in  the  “Manual,”  and  consist  of  fourteen 
exercises:  a  hymn,  a  Scriptural  selection,  silent 
prayer,  followed  by  the  audible  repetition  of  the 
Lord’s  prayer  with  its  “spiritual  interpretation,” 
another  hymn,  a  “solo”  the  lesson-sermon  (a  correla¬ 
tion  of  Scriptural  texts  and  excerpts  from  “Science 
and  Health,”  indicated  in  advance  by  the  central 
authorities  and  read  alternately  by  the  Readers,  the 
first  Reader,  as  being  the  most  important  reading  the 
“Science  and  Health”  passages),  then  after  the  col¬ 
lection  another  hymn  is  followed  by  the  reading  of  the 
“scientific  statement  of  being”  (see  above),  and  the 
meeting  closes  with  a  benediction,  which  consists 
in  reading  a  verse  from  Scripture.  This  service  is 
conducted  on  Sunday  morning  and  evening.  There 
is  also  a  Wednesday  evening  service  of  a  similar 
nature,  characterized  by  the  giving  of  “testimony” 
in  regard  to  cures  performed  or  experienced.  The 


Lord’s  Prayer,  with  its  “interpretation'”  is  as  fol¬ 
lows  : 

Our  Father  which  art  in  Heaven, 

Our  Father-Mother  God,  all  harmonious, 
Hallowed  be  Thy  name, 

Adorable  one, 

Thy  Kingdom  come, 

Thy  Kingdom  is  within  us,  Thou  art  ever 
present, 

Thy  will  be  done  on  earth  as  it  is  in  Heaven. 

Enable  us  to  know — as  in  Heaven,  so  on  earth 
— God  is  omnipotent,  supreme. 

Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread; 

Give  us  grace  for  today;  feed  the  famished 
affections; 

And  forgive  us  our  debts,  as  we  forgive  our  debtors; 

And  Love  is  reflected  in  love; 

And  lead  us  not  into  temptation,  but  deliver  us 
from  evil, 

And  God  leadeth  us  not  into  temptation,  but 
deliver eth  us  from  sin,  disease,  and  death, 
For  thine  is  the  Kingdom,  and  the  power,  and  the 
glory  for  ever. 

For  God  is  infinite,  all-Power,  all-Life,  Truth, 
Love,  over  all  and  All. 

For  the  convenience  of  its  members  and  the 
propagation  of  its  teachings  among  visitors,  every 
Christian  Scientist  Church  conducts  a  free  reading 
room,  in  which  are  to  be  found  books  and  publica¬ 
tions  issued  by  the  Publication  Society. 

Healing. — Actual  treatment  of  cases  to  be  healed 
is  generally  carried  on  (or  supposed  to  be)  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  Church,  and  a  regular  fee  is 
charged.  Individual  practitioners  also  treat  cases, 
having  offices  and  office  hours  after  the  manner  of 
physicians.  According  to  “Science  and  Health”  the 
human  mind  (since  it  is  unreal)  is  not  a  healing 
agent,  is  not  a  factor  in  the  principle  of  Christian 
Science  which  denies  that  it  cures  by  mental  sug¬ 
gestion  or  human  will-power  or  by  any  form  of 
faith  cure.  Healing  is  attributed  to  Mind  (that  is, 
God),  through  the  mere  knowledge  of  or  belief  in 
this  Mind  on  the  part  of  the  patient.  “Human  will¬ 
power,”  according  to  Mrs.  Eddy,  is  not  science. 
“Human  will  belongs  to  the  so-called  material 
senses,  and  its  use  is  to  be  condemned.  Willing 
the  sick  to  recover  is  not  the  metaphysical  practice 
of  Christian  Science,  but  is  sheer  animal  mag¬ 
netism.”  “The  efficient  remedy  is  to  destroy  the 
patient’s  false  belief  by  both  silently  and  audibly 
arguing  the  true  facts  in  regard  to  harmonious 
being — representing  man  as  healthy  instead  of 
diseased,  and  showing  that  it  is  impossible  for 
matter  to  suffer,  to  feel  pain  or  heat,  to  be  thirsty 
or  sick.  Destroy  fear,  and  you  end  fever.”  “Mind 
[capitalized]  has  no  affinity  with  matter,  and 
therefore  Truth  is  able  to  cast  out  the  ills  of  the 
flesh.”  The  following  excerpt  illustrates  somewhat 
the  principles  of  Mrs.  Eddy:  “You  say  a  boil  is 
painful;  but  that  is  impossible,  for  matter  without 
mind  is  not  painful.  The  boil  simply  manifests, 
through  inflammation  and  swelling,  a  belief  in 
pain,  and  this  belief  is  called  a  boil.  Now  admin¬ 
ister  mentally  to  your  patient  a  high  attenuation 
(sic)  of  truth,  and  it  will  soon  cure  the  boil.  The 
fact  that  pain  cannot  exist  where  there  is  no  mortal 
mind  to  feel  it  is  proof  that  this  so-called  mind 
makes  its  own  pain — that  is,  its  own  belief  in  pain.” 
Surgical  cases,  as  Mrs.  Eddy  decreed  after  several 
unfortunate  experiences,  are  not  to  be  treated  by 
Christian  Scientists:  “Until  the  advancing  age 
admits  the  efficacy  and  supremacy  of  Mind,  it  is 
better  for  Christian  Scientists  to  leave  surgery  and 
the  adjustment  of  broken  bones  and  dislocations  to 
the  fingers  of  a  surgeon,  while  the  mental  healer 


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confines  himself  chiefly  to  mental  reconstruction 
and  to  the  prevention  of  inflammation.  Christian 
Science  is  always  the  most  skillful  surgeon,  but 
surgery  is  the  branch  of  its  healing  which  will  be 
the  last  acknowledged.’*  Carrying  its  principles  to 
their  logical  conclusion  Christian  Science  conducts 
no  charitable  or  philanthropic  work,  and  naturally 
maintains  no  hospitals.  However,  the  Mother 
Church  founded,  in  1919,  for  the  benefit  of  its 
members,  “The  Christian  Science  Benevolent  Asso¬ 
ciation.” 

History— Mary  A.  Morse  Baker,  who  was  to 
become  the  founder  of  Christian  Science,  was  born 
in  Bow,  New  Hampshire,  16  July,  1821,  of  Con¬ 
gregational  parents  who  were  of  a  humble  station 
in  life.  Of  a  peculiar  “mystical”  temperament,  the 
young  girl  imagined  at  the  age  of  eight  that  she 
heard  “voices”  calling  her,  an  experience  which  she 
later  compared  to  the  call  of  Samuel.  Subject  to 
hysterical  and  even  cataleptic  attacks,  and  of  a 
quarrelsome  and  petulant  nature,  it  was  said  of 
her  by  her  father,  “If  Mary  Magdalene  had  seven 
devils,  our  Mary  has  ten.”  She  received  a  very 
meager  common  school  education,  regular  attend¬ 
ance  often  being  prohibited  by  her  sickness.  She 
joined  the  Congregational  (Trinitarian)  Church  at 
the  age  of  seventeen  (Mrs.  Eddy  herself  claims  at 
the  age  of  twelve),  though  denying  the  doctrine  of 
Calvinistic  predestination.  In  1843  she  married 
George  Washington  Glover,  by  whom  she  had  one 
son  (born  after  his  father’s  death).  This  son  she 
sent  away  when  he  was  four  years  of  age,  not 
to  meet  him  again  for  thirty  years.  In  1853  she 
married  Daniel  Patterson,  became  separated  from 
him  in  1866,  and  divorced  him  in  1873.  In  1877 
she  married  Asa  G.  Eddy,  who  died  in  1882  of 
heart  disease,  but  according  to  Mrs.  Eddy  of 
“arsenic”  or  “mesmeric  poison  mentally  adminis¬ 
tered.”  In  the  meanwhile,  before  her  last  mar¬ 
riage,  her  life  for  many  years  had  been  one  of 
poverty,  sickness,  and  trouble.  Friends  and  rela¬ 
tions  with  whom  she  sought  refuge  were  repeatedly 
forced  to  send  her  away  because  of  the  discord 
and  trouble  which  she  caused  in  their  families, 
so  that  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  she  had  had 
nine  dwelling  places,  being  charged  at  the  last 
place  with  attempting  to  set  the  house  on  fire. 

The  age  and  the  locality  in  which  Mrs.  Eddy 
passed  her  young  womanhood  were  characterized 
by  a  religious  unrest  which  gave  rise  to  many  cults. 
New  England  Transcendentalism,  the  Shakers, 
various  seers  and  healers  who  gathered  about  them¬ 
selves  communities  of  followers,  Joseph  Smith  and 
his  product  Mormonism,  Mesmerism,  the  spirit 
rappings  of  the  Fox  sisters — these  are  a  few 
examples  of  the  riot  of  individualism  in  religion, 
all  of  which  could  hardly  have  passed  unnoticed  by 
one  of  Mrs.  Eddy’s  temperament  and  character, 
situated  as  she  was  in  the  very  midst  of  the  excite¬ 
ment  which  they  occasioned.  In  1862  Mrs.  Eddy 
(Mrs.  Patterson)  applied  for  treatment  for  her  ills 
to  Dr.  P.  P.  Quimby,  who  at  one  time  had  been  a 
follower  of  Charles  Poyen,  a  French  Mesmerist, 
but  who  had  at  this  time  adopted  a  “mental  treat¬ 
ment”  of  healing,  discarding  all  medicines,  and 
declaring  “Truth”  to  be  the  healer.  Declaring  her¬ 
self  cured  after  three  weeks’  treatment,  she  began 
to  study  Quimby’s  methods  and  ideas,  and  from 
1864  to  1870  she  taught  the  “Quimby  science  of 
healing”  from  a  manuscript  said  to  have  been 
written  by  him,  although  later  she  absolutely  denied 
that  her  “science”  was  in  any  way  derived  from 
or  dependent  on  that  of  Quimby’s.  She  herself 
places  the  “discovery”  of  her  “science”  in  1864  in 
the  first  edition  of  “Science  and  Health,”  and  in 


1866  (after  Quimby’s  death)  in  later  editions.  This 
“discovery”  in  1866  she  laid  to  a  wonderful  recovery 
from  the  effects  of  an  injury  caused  by  an 'accident, 
“an  injury  neither  medicine  nor  surgery  could  reach, 
which  was  the  falling  apple  that  led  me  to  the 
discovery  how  to  be  well  myself  and  how  to  make 

others  so . I  could  only  assure  him  [the 

physician]  that  the  Divine  Spirit  had  wrought  a 
miracle  which  later  I  found  to  be  in  perfect  scien¬ 
tific  record  with  divine  law”  (that  is,  natural  and 
not  really  miraculous).  Doctor  Cushing,  who  at¬ 
tended  her  for  this  injury,  in  an  affidavit  made  in 
1907,  absolutely  denied  that  there  took  place  any 
wonderful  or  immediate  cure  at  this  time.  From 
1864  to  1870,  while  busy  teaching  “Quimby’s 
Science,”  Mrs.  Eddy  (Patterson)  was  also  preparing 
her  manuscript  for  which  she  tried  to  find  a  pub¬ 
lisher  in  1870.  In  1875  the  first  edition  of  “Science 
and  Health”  appeared,  meeting  with  a  very  poor 
reception  on  the  part  of  the  public.  Nevertheless, 
through  her  students  which  she  had  gathered  around 
her,  she  fanned  the  smouldering  embers  of  the 
movement  and  succeeded  in  issuing  a  second  edi¬ 
tion  in  1877 ;  and  thereafter  edition  followed  edition 
in  quick  succession,  so  that  to-day  nearly  five  hun¬ 
dred  have  been  issued,  the  number  of  the  edition 
no  longer  being  indicated,  the  only  identification 
now  being  the  year  of  publication.  In  1884  the 
“Key  to  the  Scriptures”  was  added. 

Although  apparently  not  intending  at  first  to 
found  a  church,  Mrs.  Eddy  gathered  about  her,  in 
1875,  eight  students  under  the  title  of  “Christian 
Scientists,”  and  in  1876  these  formed  the  “Christian 
Scientists’  Association.”  Trouble  was  brewing,  how¬ 
ever,  and  having  previously  “excommunicated” 
Richard  Kennedy,  one  of  her  younger  students 
who  had  helped  her  financially,  she  also  ejected 
Daniel  Spofford,  whom  she  brought  to  trial  at 
Salem  (fitting  place!)  on  the  charge  of  witchcraft 
in  1878.  Acquitted,  he  in  turn  accused  Mr.  and 
Mrs.  Eddy  and  one  of  her  students  of  conspiracy 
to  murder  him  (Spofford),  but  the  case  was  nolle 
prossed,  Mr.  Eddy  paying  the  costs.  In  1879  Mrs. 
Eddy  founded,  under  a  state  charter,  her  first 
church  organization,  “The  Church  of  Christ,  Scien¬ 
tist,”  in  Boston,  with  26  charter  members.  Mrs. 
Eddy  became  “pastor”  in  1881,  built  the  original 
“Mother  Church”  in  Boston  in  1894-5,  and  in  1906 
the  “Annex”  with  a  seating  capacity  of  5000  was 
dedicated  in  the  presence  of  40,000  (so  it  is  claimed) 
Christian  Scientists.  The  “Mother  Church”  and 
“Annex”  are  said  to  represent  an  investment  of 
about  $2,000,000.  In  1895  when  the  Bible  and 
“Science  and  Health,  with  Key  to  the  Scriptures” 
were  “ordained”  as  the  pastor  of  the  church,  Mrs. 
Eddy  became  Pastor  Emeritus,  which  position  she 
held  until  her  death,  3  December,  1910. 

Previous  to  her  death  dissension  had  been  ram¬ 
pant  in  the  church,  owing  to  Mrs.  Eddy’s  efforts 
to  retain  in  her  own  hands  supreme  control  not 
only  of  the  Mother  Church,  but  also  of  all  the 
branches.  Since  her  death  there  has  been  almost 
continuous  contention  among  the  various  authori¬ 
ties  in  control;  the  Board  of  Directors  and  the 
Board  of  Trustees  of  the  Publication  Society. 
Since  1919,  particularly,  lawsuits  have  been  re¬ 
sorted  to  and  the  entire  organization  may  be  said 
to  be  in  a  precarious  condition  in  regard  to  the 
question  as  to  where  the  authority  in  the  church 
really  rests. 

Statistics. — Because  of  the  vast  number  of  edi¬ 
tions  which  “Science  and  Health”  has  reached, 
because  of  the,  at  times,  widespread  interest,  dis¬ 
cussion,  and  controversy  due  to  the  very  peculiar 
doctrines  of  Christian  Science,  and  because  of  the 


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centralized  and,  formerly  at  least,  highly  efficient 
organization,  and  its  reputedly  enormous  wealth, 
the  impression  has  rather  generally  prevailed  that 
Christian  Science  boasts  a  vast  number  of  fol¬ 
lowers.  Actually  it  ranks  in  membership  about 
fiftieth  in  the  list  of  the  denominations  existing 
in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time  (1922). 
In  the  United  States  census  of  1890  the  Church 
of  Christ,  Scientist,  reported  221  churches  and  8724 
members,  an  average  of  40  members  to  each  church. 
In  the  United  States  religious  report  for  1906  they 
reported  638  organizations,  Nevada  and  New 
Mexico  alone  being  without  an  organization. 
Nearly  one-half  of  the  members  were  in  the  north 
central  group  of  States,  Illinois  having  the  largest 
number  with  54.  There  were  85,717  members,  less 
than  120  to  each  organization;  28  per  cent  of  the 
members  were  males,  72  per  cent  females.  There 
were  253  church  edifices,  551  Sunday  schools,  3155 
teachers,  and  16,116  pupils.  The  Readers  numbered 
1276.  The  value  of  the  church  property  was  $8,806,- 
441.  In  computing  the  membership,  however,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  there  is  much  duplication 
in  the  church  records,  since  many  members  belong 
both  to  a  branch  church  and  to  the  Mother  Church. 
Thus  in  1906  nearly  one-half  the  membership 
(41,309)  belonged  to  the  latter,  so  that,  deducting 
for  this  duplication,  the  real  net  membership  in  all 
the  organizations  was  probably  somewhere  between 
fifty  and  sixty  thousand. 

Since  1906  Christian  Scientists  have  refused  to 
make  public  their  membership  statistics  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  the  following  article  which  Mrs.  Eddy 
inserted  in  the  ‘‘Manual”:  “Christian  Scientists 
shall  not  report  for  publication  the  number  of  the 
members  of  the  Mother  Church,  nor  that  of  the 
branch  churches.  According  to  Scripture  they  shall 
turn  away  from  personality  and  numbering  the 
people.”  Probably  a  decrease  in  the  previous  rapid 
growth  caused  this  order,  but  whatever  its  reason 
since  then  no  statistics  have  been  published  and 
the  Christian  Scientists  were  not  enumerated  in  the 
government  religious  report  for  1916.  However,  a 
fairly  accurate  estimate  based  on  the  list  of  their 
churches  and  societies  in  the  world  as  published  in 
the  “Christian  Science  Journal”  has  been  made  by 
a  recent  writer  (see  bibliog.,  Snowden).  In  1919 
there  were  1702  organizations  in  the  world,  1504 
(840  churches  and  664  societies)  in  the  United 
States  (a  total  of  1589  in  1922),  and  198  (122 
churches  and  76  societies)  in  foreign  countries. 
The  estimate  of  total  membership  on  this  basis 
may  be  placed  at  about  1  Id1, 000  in  1922,  but  deduc¬ 
tions  for  duplication  make  it  probable  that  the 
total  membership  in  the  world  is  under  100,000. 
Outside  the  United  States  the  sect  is  located  in 
England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  France,  Germany,  Hol¬ 
land,  Switzerland,  Norway,  Sweden,  Canada, 
Mexico,  Argentina,  Australia,  China,  and  the  Trans¬ 
vaal.  The  apparent  discrepancy  between  the  small 
number  of  members  and  the  vast  number  of  copies 
of  “Science  and  Health”  issued  (there  have  ap¬ 
peared  as  many  as  nine  editions  in  one  year)  is 
explained  by  the  fact  that  each  new  edition  be¬ 
comes  the  standard  and  authentic  one  for  use  by 
the  members,  who  accordingly  are  supposed  to 
discard  the  “old”  and  buy  a  “new”  edition,  even 
though  the  latter  differed  at  times  from  the 
previous  edition  merely  by  the  addition  of  one  or 
two  lines. 

Criticism. — There  is  no  clear  and  precise  state¬ 
ment  of  philosophy  and  theology  in  “Science  and 
Health,”  the  textbook  of  Christian  Science,  and  a 
criticism  of  its  doctrines  and  tendencies  is  rendered 
doubly  difficult  by  the  confusion  of  thought,  “the 


quasiphilosophical  language  of  the  book,  the  abuse 
of  terms,  the  employment  of  ambiguous  words  at 
crucial  points,  the  character  of  the  exegesis,  the 
broken-backed  paradoxes,  the  astonishing  language, 
the  egotism,”  and  the  contradictions  which  abound 
on  nearly  every  page.  Tested  by  Catholic  doc¬ 
trine,  however,  sufficient  statements  can  be  gleaned 
from  it  to  prove  that  it  is  the  ne  plus  ultra  of 
heresy  and  error.  We  shall  first  subject  its  doc¬ 
trine  to  a  parallel  comparison  with  the  statements 
contained  in  the  Apostles’  Creed :  I  believe.  Faith, 
or  intellectual  acceptance  of  revealed  truth  on  the 
authority  of  God  revealing  it,  is  not  admitted  by 
Mrs.  Eddy  according  to  her  question  and  answer: 
“Have  Christian  Scientists  any  religious  creed? 
They  have  not,  if  we  accept  the  term  as  doctrinal 
beliefs.”  She  does,  however,  speak  of  being  fitted 
by  God  “for  the  reception  of  a  final  revelation  of 
the  absolute  divine  Principle  of  scientific  being  and 
healing.”  In  God,  the  Father  Almighty,  Creator 
of  heaven  and  earth.  Mrs.  Eddy  teaches  a  form 
of  Pantheism,  in  which  she  identifies  a  non-per¬ 
sonal  God  with  man.  Thus  she  says:  “God  is  all 

in  all,  but  all  things  are  not  God . He  is  an 

infinite  Man  and  we  are  men  by  virtue  of  our 
derivation  and  conception  from  Him.”  “God  is 
Principle  and  not  person,  Mind,  and  not  matter. 
...  .  God,  which  (sic)  is  the  perfect  Mind  or 
Principle,  including  the  perfect  idea,  is  all  that  is 
real  or  eternal.”  “Like  the  ray  of  light  that  cometh 
from  the  sun,  man  is  the  outcome  of  God.”  “All 
is  Mind,  and  Mind  is  God.”  “God,  without  the 
image  and  likeness  [man]  of  Himself,  would  be  a 
nonentity  or  Mind  unexpressed.”  The  Trinity  she 
misunderstands  and  rejects.  “Who,”  she  says,  “can 
conceive  either  of  three  persons  as  one  person  or 
of  three  infinities  in  one  infinity?”  And  again,  the 
Trinity  she  says,  “is  suggestive  of  polytheism.”  As 
for  the  Creation,  it  “consists  of  the  unfolding  of 
spiritual  ideas  and  their  identities,  which  are  em¬ 
braced  in  the  infinite  Mind  and  forever  reflected.” 
Matter  according  to  Mrs.  Eddy  is  error,  mortal 
mind,  and  the  2nd  chapter  of  Genesis,  she  tells 
us,  “contains  a  statement  of  this  material  view  of 
G9d  and  the  universe,”  which  “is  a  lie.”  Mortal 
mind,  matter,  she  explains  originated  from  a  mist 
which  went  up  from  the  earth. 

And  in  Jesus  Christ ,  His  only  Son,  our  Lord. 
Mrs.  Eddy  tells  us  that  “there  is  a  dual  personality 
in  Christ,  the  unseen  and  the  seen,  the  spiritual 
and  material,  the  Christ  and  Jesus.”  “Christ  is 
eternal,  Jesus  is  mortal,”  while  she  states  in  another 
passage  that  Christ  is  “Truth,”  “the  divine  mani¬ 
festation  of  God,  which  comes  to  destroy  incarnate 
error,”  and  “Jesus  is  the  highest  human  corporeal 
concept  of  the  divine  idea.”  Again  she  tells  us,  ; 
“Christ  is  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Comforter.”  The 
chief  error  which  Mrs.  Eddy  resurrects  in  her  treat¬ 
ment  of  our  Lord  is  Nestorianism  (holding  two  per¬ 
sons  in  Christ)  against  the  Catholic  teaching  that 
there  is  only  one  person  (the  Divine)  in  Christ.  At  the 
same  time  she  goes  further  and  denies  His  divinity, 
and  his  position  in  the  Trinity  since  she  admits  no 
such  doctrine.  Who  was  conceived  by  the  Holy 
Ghost,  born  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Mrs.  Eddy  admits 
the  Virgin  birth  of  our  Lord,  but  merely  because 
she  blasphemously  denies  its  miraculous  character, 
considering  “His  birth  what  everyone’s  should  be,” 
and  “explaining”  it  by  saying  that  in  the  birth  of 
Jesus  “the  Science  of  being  overshadowed  the  sense 
of  the  Virgin  mother,  with  a  full  recognition  that 
Spirit  is  the  basis  of  being.”  She  taught  further 
that  any  woman  with  “sufficient  science”  can  con¬ 
ceive  a  child  through  mental  generation,  and  in 
fact  at  least  one  of  her  disciples  claimed  to  have 


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thus  conceived,  ineptly  styling  it  an  “immaculate 
conception”  not  understanding  the  signification  of 
this  term,  but  intending  to  convey  the  idea  that  her 
child  was  an  instance  of  genesis  without  physical 
generation.  Suffered  under  Pontius  Pilate,  was 

crucified,  died,  and  was  buried . He  shall  come 

to  judge  the  living  and  the  dead.  It  must  be  re¬ 
membered  that  Christian  Science  holds  that  pain, 
suffering  and  sin  are  “mortal  mind,”  error,  unreality, 
a  “delusion,”  “nothing.”  “The  only  reality  of  sin 
....  is  the  awful  fact  that  unrealities  seem  real 
to  human  belief  until  God  strips  off  their  dis¬ 
guises.”  “In  Christian  Science  the  fact  is  made 
obvious,  that  the  sinner  and  the  sin  are  alike  noth¬ 
ingness.”  “God  never  made  man  capable  of  sin. 

....  Man  is  incapable  of  sin . For  he  derives 

his  essence  from  God,  and  does  not  possess  a  single 
or  underived  power.”  Hence  according  to  this 
teaching  Christ  could  not  and  did  not  suffer;  He 
could  not  and  did  not  atone  for  our  sins.  Yet 
inconsistently  as  ever,  Mrs.  Eddy  in  other  passages 
declares  that  “the  atonement  of  Christ  reconciles 
man  to  'God,  not  God  to  man,”  for  “to  remit  the 
penalty  due  to  sin  [which  she  claims  does  not 
exist]  would  be  for  Truth  to  pardon  error”;  and 
“Sin  is  not  forgiven;  we  cannot  escape  its  penalty. 
....  Suffering  [which  is  unreality]  for  sin  is  all 
that  destroys  it.”  Whichever  passages  we  take  as 
her  real  interpretation  we  find  that  she  has  rejected 
the  central  doctrines  of  Christianity.  Nor  did 
Jesus  die  for  death,  too,  is  unreal  and  non-existent: 
“When  you  waken  yourself  out  of  the  belief  that 
all  must  die,  you  can  then  exercise  Jesus’  spiritual 
power  to  reproduce  the  presence  of  those  who  have 
thought  they  have  died — but  not  otherwise.”  How¬ 
ever,  within  the  tomb,  Mrs.  Eddy  says,  our  Savior 
solves  the  problem  of  being  and  through  this 
solution  He  later  appears  to  His  disciples:  “The 
lonely  precincts  of  the  tomb  gave  Jesus  a  refuge 
from  His  foes,  a  place  in  which  to  solve  the  great 
problem  of  being.  His  three  days’  work  in  the 
sepulchre  set  the  seal  of  eternity  on  time.  .  .  .  . 
He  met  and  mastered  on  the  basis  of  Christian  Sci¬ 
ence,  the  power  of  mind  over  matter,  all  the  claims 
of  medicine,  surgery,  and  hygiene.”  Apparently 
she  intends  to  teach  in  this  passage  that  Jesus 
was  alive  in  the  tomb;  incidentally  she  denies  His 
omniscience  for  He  had  to  seek  a  refuge  in  which  to 
solve  the  problem  of  being !  The  Resurrection,  then, 
did  not  take  place  since  Jesus  did  not  really  die, 
and  the  Ascension  Mrs.  Eddy  explains  away  by 
teaching  that  He  merely  rose  above  the  material 
senses  of  His  disciples,  as  her  own  disciples  will 
be  able  to  do  when  they  conquer  “mortal  mind.” 
“In  His  final  demonstration,  called  the  Ascension, 
r  He  rose  above  the  physical  knowledge  of  His 
disciples,  and  the  material  senses  saw  Him  no 
more.”  The  Last  Judgment  Mrs.  Eddy  relegates 
also  to  the  realm  of  unreality  by  teaching  that 
the  next  world  is  merely  a  state  in  which  sense 
knowledge,  pleasure  and  pain  will  have  disappeared 
and  there  will  be  no  personality  or  existence  apart 
from  God.  This  denial  of  the  Last  Judgment  is 
merely  another  aspect  of  her  Pantheism  (although 
she  strenuously  denied  that  her  system  was  Pan¬ 
theistic). 

I  believe  in  the  Holy  Ghost.  As  stated  above 
Mrs.  Eddy  denies  the  Trinity  and  hence  the 
divinity  of  the  third  Person  of  the  Blessed  Trinity. 
In  one  place  she  identifies  the  Holy  Ghost  with 
“divine  Science”  (i.  e.,  Christian  Science!)  She 
says,  “In  words  of  St.  John:  ‘He  shall  give  you 
another  Comforter,  that  he  may  abide  with  you 
forever.’  This  Comforter  I  understand  to  be  divine 
Science.”  Yet  in  another  passage  we  are  told  that 


Christ  is  the  Holy  Ghost!  “Jesus  demonstrated 
Christ;  he  proved  that  Christ  is  the  divine  idea 
of  God — the  Holy  Ghost,  or  Comforter,  revealing 
the  divine  Principle,  Love,  and  leading  into  all 
truth.” 

As  for  the  Holy  Catholic  Church  Mrs.  Eddy’s 
ideas  on  this  point  are  clear  from  the  unchristian 
and  uncatholic  church  which  she  took  the  trouble 
to  found.  The  Communion  of  Saints  is  rejected, 
too,  whether  in  this  world  or  in  the  next  since  the 
only  reality  is  God.  Prayer  is  useless,  for  Mrs. 
Eddy  says,  “Prayer  is  unnecessary,  as  the  All 
has  already  decreed  what  is  good  for  us,”  and,  “a 
mere  request  that  God  will  heal  the  sick  has  no 
power  to  gain  more  of  the  divine  presen  ’,e  than 
is  always  at  hand.”  Yet  we  are  told  that  Christian 
Scientists  heal  sickness  through  prayer,  a  prayer 
however  of  “affirmation,”  for  “the  prayer  that  heals 
the  sick  is  an  absolute  understanding  of  God.” 
What  Mrs.  Eddy  taught  on  the  forgiveness  of  sins 
is  clear  from  her  treatment  of  Christ  and  the 
Atonement,  while  the  resurrection  of  the  body  and 
the  eschatological  doctrine  of  life  everlasting  have 
also  been  touched  upon  in  the  same  connection. 

The  sacraments  naturally  are  rejected  by  Mrs. 
Eddy  but  a  word  is  necessary  on  her  treatment  of 
marriage  to  which  she  devotes  a  chapter  of  “Sci¬ 
ence  and  Health.”  Marriage,  because  its  very 
nature  would  seem  to  give  the  lie  to  her  denials 
of  matter,  Mrs.  Eddy  publicly  characterized  as 
“synonymous  with  legalized  lust”  (“C.  S.  Journal,” 
July,  1906).  Inferentially  she  declares  in  “Miscel¬ 
laneous  Writings”  that  there  will  come  a  time  when 
marriage  will  be  prohibited  in  Christian  Science. 
“Until  Time  matures  human  growth,  marriage  and 
progeny  will  continue  unprohibited  in  Christian 
Science.  We  look  to  future  generations  for  ability 
to  comply  with  absolute  Science  when  marriage 
shall  be  found  to  be  man’s  oneness  with  God.  To 
abolish  marriage  at  this  period  and  maintain  moral¬ 
ity  and  generation  would  put  ingenuity  to  ludicrous 
shifts  [it  certainly  would!]  yet  this  is  possible  in 
Science,  though  to-day  it  is  problematic.”  In  “Sci¬ 
ence  and  Health”  she  states,  “Proportionally  as 
human  generation  ceases,  the  unbroken  links  of 
eternal  harmonious  being  will  be  discerned,  and 
man  not  of  the  earth  earthly,  but  co-existent  with 
God,  will  appear.” 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  dwell  at  length  on  the 
immoral  tendencies  apparent  throughout  the  teach¬ 
ings  of  Christian  Science,  apart  from  their  evident 
denial  of  all  Catholic  dogma.  Freedom  of  the  will 
is  denied  for  man  is  but  a  reflection  of  God.  Sin 
furthermore  is  unreality,  and  hence  there  can, 
according  to  Mrs.  Eddy,  be  no  such  thing  as  im¬ 
morality  ayd  therefore  there  is  no  means  afforded 
against  the  onslaughts  of  temptation.  Finally,  if 
not  directly,  at  least  indirectly,  the  evils  of  birth 
control  are  inculcated  in  her  teaching  on  marriage 
when  she  teaches  that  “a  wife  need  not  esteem  the 
privilege  of  becoming  a  mother,”  and  that  children 
are  “errors.” 

As  for  the  cures  which  Christian  Science  purports 
to  perform,  a  lengthy  discussion  is  out  of  place 
here.  That  some  cures  are  performed  is  unques¬ 
tionable,  but  they  must  be  attributed  to  “faith 
healing,”  or  suggestion,  despite  the  denials  of  Mrs. 
Eddy  that  such  factors  enter  in.  Some,  too,  may 
be  providential  cures  permitted  by  God  to  those 
who  approach  Him  in  good  faith,  even  though  they 
be  in  error.  Officially,  however,  the  fundamental 
point  on  which  Mrs.  Eddy  based  her  teaching  on 
this  question  is  that  the  miracles  of  Christ  were 
mere  natural  phenomena  within  the  control  of 
anyone  who  rises  above  “mortal  mind,”  and  that 


CHRISTIAN 


203 


CHURCH  COLLECTIONS 


Christian  Science  places  this  power  within  the 
reach  of  its  adherents.  (For  discussion  of  the 
Catholic  doctrine  on  miracles,  etc.,  see  C.  E.  arti¬ 
cles:  Miracles;  Lourdes.  See  also  especially,  Bell- 
wald,  “Christian  Science  and  the  Catholic  Faith,” 
in  which  this  point  is  treated  in  extenso.) 

A  brief  statement  of  Mrs.  Eddy’s  exalted  claims 
to  divine  guidance  in  her  life-work  will  suffice  to 
indicate,  when  compared  with  the  information  ad¬ 
duced  in  this  article,  the  utterly  misguided  efforts 
of  that  woman  whom,  all  things  considered,  it  is 
difficult  not  to  brand  as  an  imposter.  As  related 
above  she  claims  divine  revelation  in  her  “discov¬ 
ery”  of  Christian  Science.  Repeating  this  state¬ 
ment  she  says,  “In  the  year  1866  I  discovered  the 
Christ  Science  or  divine  laws  of  Life  and  named  it 

Christian  Science . For  I  neither  received  it  of 

man,  neither  was  I  taught  it,  but  by  the  revelation 
of  Jesus  Christ.”  She  also  informs  us  that,  “No 
person  can  take  the  place  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  No 
person  can  compass  or  fulfil  the  individual  mission 
of  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  No  person  can  take  the 
place  of  the  author  of  ‘Science  and  Health/  the 
discoverer  and  founder  of  Christian  Science.”  Her 
book  she  'placed  on  a  par  with,  even  above,  the 
Holy  Bible  and  she  did  not  refuse  to  be  identified 
with  the  Woman  of  the  Apocalypse  and  so  high 
was  she  raised  in  the  estimation  of  her  followers 
that  when  she  “died”  many  denied  her  death, 
while  her  resurrection  was  for  some  time  hourly 
expected.  Truly  her  ego  had  impressed  itself  on 
her  works  and  her  followers,  so  that  not  inaptly  did 
she  place  on  the  flyleaf  of  “Science  and  Health” 
the  peculiar,  yet  viewed  in  this  light,  the  significant 
inscription: 

“I, I, I, I  itself,  I 

The  inside  and  outside,  the  what  and  the  why, 
The  when  and  the  where,  the  low  and  the  high, 

All  I, I, I, I  itself,  I.” 

Revelation  does  not  come  to  such  as  Mrs.  Eddy, 
nor  is  it  proved  by  her  works.  The  entire  criticism 
of  Christian  Science  may  be  summed  up  in  the 
statement  that  it  is  neither  Christian  nor  scientific. 

Works  by  Christian  Scientists:  Eddy,  Science  and  Health 
with  Key  to  the  Scriptures  (Boston,  1875,  and  innumerable 
later  editions);  Idem,  Retrospection  and  Introspection  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1891);  Idem,  Unity  of  Good  and  Unreality  of  Evil  (Bos¬ 
ton,  1915);  Idem,  No  and  I’es  (Boston,  1917);  Idem,  Christian 
Science  versus  Pantheism  (Boston,  1917);  Idem,  Miscellaneous 
Writings,  1883-1898;  Idem,  The  Manual  of  the  Mother  Church 
(Boston,  1919) ;  Hanna,  Christian  Science  History  (Boston, 
1899);  Caporn,  Awake,  Christian  Scientists!  (Boston,  1921); 
Legal  Aspects  of  Christian  Science  (Boston,  1899) ;  Wilbur, 
Life  of  Mary  Baker  Eddy  (New  York,  1908);  Periodicals: 
Christian  Science  Quarterly  (contains  the  “lesson-sermons”); 
Christian  Science  Journal  (monthly);  Christian  Science  Sen¬ 
tinel  (weekly) ;  Christian  Science  Monitor  (daily). 

Non-Catholic  Criticisms:  Buckley,  Christian  Science  and 
Other  Superstitions  (New  York,  1899);  Idem,  Faith -healing, 
Christian  Science  and  Kindred  Phenomena  (New  York,  1892); 
The  Quimby  Manuscripts,  ed.  Dresser  (New  York,  1921); 
Snowden,  The  Truth  About  Christian  Science  (Philadelphia, 
1920) ;  Powell,  Christian  Science,  the  Faith  and  the  Founder 
(New  York,  1907):  Dresser,  History  of  the  New  Thought 
Movement  (New  York,  1919);  Paget,  The  Faith  and  Works 
of  Christian  Science  (London,  1909) ;  Milmine,  The,  Life  of 
Mary  Baker  Glover  Eddy  and  the  History  of  Christian  Sci¬ 
ence  (New  York,  1909),  very  important;  Marsten,  The  Mask 
of  Christian  Science  (New  York,  1909);  Peabody,  The  Religio- 
medical  Masquerade  (New  York,  1915);  Clemens  (Mark 
Twain),  Christian  Science  with  Notes  Containing  Corrections 
to  Date  (New  York,  1917);  Putnam,  Christian  Science  and 
Its  Real  Author  (Chicago,  1921);  Campbell,  What  Christian 
Science  Means  and  What  We  Can  Learn  from  It  (New  York, 
1920) ;  for  1906  statistics  see  Religious  Bodies,  1906  (Wash¬ 
ington,  1909). 

Catholic  Works:  Bellwald,  Christian  Science  and  the 
Catholic  Faith  (New  York,  1922),  contains  copious  treatment 
and  bibliography  on  the  question  of  Christian  Science 
cures;  Benson,  Non-Catholic  Denominations  (New  York, 
1915);  Idem,  A  Book  of  Essays  (St.  Louis,  1916);  Idem, 
Christian  Science  (review  of  Science  and  Health)  in  Dublin 
Review,  CXLIII  (1908),  61,  reprinted  in  Catholic  Mind'  (No. 


23  of  1908) ;  Lambert,  Chr is tian  Science  Before  the  Bar  of 

Reason  (New  York,  1908) ;  Coakley,  Christian  Science  and  the 

Catholic  Church  (Pittsburgh,  1912);  Searle,  The  Truth  About 

Christian  Science  (New  York ,1916);  Campbell,  The  Delusion 

of  Christian  Science  m  Catholic  Mind  (No.  24  of  1906)- 

Thurston,  Christian  Science  in  Lectures  on  the  History  of 

Religions,  V  (St  Louis  1911);  Woods,  Christian  Science  in 

T/°f  senes,  XLH  of  whole  series  (1904), 

WorWMI  YYYTY  lnStT  /ci?nce  m  Catholic 

World,  LXXXIX  (1909)  373;  Duffy,  Reflections  on  Christian 

Science,  ibid.,  XCII  (1911),  721;  Fevehel,  Christian  Science 

ibid.,  XCVI  (1912-13),  180,  360,  466,  655. 

.  Gerald  Shaughnessy. 

Chur  (anciently  Curia  Rh^etorum,  Ital.  Coira, 
Fr.  Coire,  in  the  local  Romance  language  Cuera), 
Diocese  of  (Curiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-743b),  in 
Switzerland,  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  The 
see  is  now  (1922)  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Georges  Schmid 
de  Gruneck,  b.  at  Surrhein  1851,  ordained  1875, 
appointed  7  May,  1908,  acted  as  administrator  apos¬ 
tolic  of  Lausanne  ffom  3  September  to  6  Decem¬ 
ber,  1915,  named  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne, 
9  July,  1921.  The  most  important  events  of  this 
diocese  in  recent  years  were,  the  burning  of  the 
famous  boys’  college  at  Schwyz,  3  April,  1910,  which 
was  rebuilt  during  the  four  years  following,  and 
the  celebration  in  1922  of  the  centenary  of  the 
death  of  Saint  Fidelis,  O.  M.C.,  martyr  at  Sig- 
maringa.  Twenty-five  new  churches  have  been 
erected  in  the  diocese  since  1908,  and  ten  great 
meetings  of  Catholics  from  the  seven  different  can¬ 
tons  of  the  diocese,  have  been  held.  Several  promi¬ 
nent  clergy  have  died;  Rev.  Ferdinand  Math,  D. D., 
d.  17  March,  1909;  Rev.  Christian  Tuor,  Dean,  d. 
1912;  Rev.  Martinus  Marty,  parish  priest  of  Schwyz, 
brother  of  Bishop  Marty  of  St.  Cloud,  d.  1  Septem¬ 
ber,  1916;  Dr.  Caspar  Decurtius,  professor  at  the 
University  of  Fribourg,  and  a  great  social  scholar, 
d.  June,  1916;  Rev.  Gaudenz  Willi,  and  Rev. 
Hieronymus  Lovetz,  D.  D.,  provosts  of  the  cathe¬ 
dral,  d.  19  November,  1920,  and  14  September,  1921. 
During  the  World  War  the  clergy  and  laity  as¬ 
sisted  the  sick  and  wounded  of  all  nations,  in  every 
way  possible ;  the  bishop  visited  them  in  their 
homes  in  different  parts  of  the  diocese,  particularly 
in  Davos,  Canton  of  Grisons,  where  large  numbers 
were  suffering  from  phthisis. 

The  Catholic  population  of  this  diocese  numbers 
about  300,000,  of  whom  270,000  speak  German, 
22,000  Romantsch,  the  total  Romance  language,  and 
from  7,000  to  8,000  Italian.  The  remainder  of  the 
population,  400,000,  are  Protestants.  By  1922  statis¬ 
tics  the  diocese  comprises  220  parishes,  542  churches, 
402  secular  and  274  regular  clergy,  3  abbeys  for 
men,  7  convents  for  men  and  19  for  women,  42 
lay  brothers,  217  religious  women,  1  seminary, 
69  seminarians  with  6  professors.  The  various  in¬ 
stitutions  include  8  secondary  schools  for  boys  with 
108  teachers  and  2,800  pupils,  6  secondary  schools 
for  girls  with  36  teachers  and  1,110  pupils,  1  normal 
school  with  6  teachers  and  50  students,  310  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  with  332  teachers  and  from  12,000  to 
15,000  pupils,  1  industrial  school  with  4  teachers 
and  attendance  of  70,  1  apostolic  school,  5  homes, 
22  asylums  or  refuges,  33  hospitals,  and  2  day 
nurseries.  All  the  public  institutions  permit  the 
priests  to  minister  in  them,  and  four  or  five  of  the 
Catholic  schools  are  aided  by  the  Government. 
Eight  societies  are  formed  among  the  clergy,  and 
about  twenty,  many  of  them  inter-diocesan,  among 
the  laity.  Twenty-seven  Catholic  periodicals  are 
published  here. 

Church  Collections. — Admission  to  services  in 
the  church  must  be  entirely  gratuitous,  all  cus¬ 
toms  to  the  contrary  being  now  reprobated. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  1,181;  1,263;  Irish  Eccl.  Rec.,  XIII  (1919), 
1,462-65. 


CHURCH  UNITY  OCTAVE 


204 


CIENFUEGOS 


Church  Unity  Octave — The  Church  Unity 
Octave,  the  observance  of  which  was  by  Papal 
Brief  of  His  Holiness  Pope  Benedict  XV  extended 
to  the  Universal  Church  and  enriched  with  indul¬ 
gences  on  25  February,  1916,  had  its  inception  under 
the  Rev.  Paul  James  Francis,  S.  A.,  when  he  was  a 
“Pro-Roman”  Anglican  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  United  States  of  America,  in  1908. 
At  that  time  it  was  Father  Paul’s  custom  to  recog¬ 
nize  the  authority  of  the  Chair  of  Peter  by  for¬ 
warding  Peter’s  Pence  to  the  Apostolic  See.  The 
first  practical  result  of  the  observance  of  the 
Church  Unity  Octave  was  the  submission  and 
corporate  reception  of  seventeen  members  of  the 
Society  of  the  Atonement,  of  which  Father  Paul 
was  the  founder  and  superior,  into  the  Catholic 
Church  on  30  October,  1909.  On  this  date,  Father 
Paul  and  sixteen  of  his  followers  were  received 
in  the  convent  chapel  at  Gray  moor,  Garrison,  N. 
Y.,  by  Monsignor  Conroy,  Auxiliary  Bishop  of 
Ogdensburg,  acting  for  His  Eminence  Cardinal 
Farley,  Archbishop  of  New  York. 

In  December,  1909,  the  Octave  received  the  sanc¬ 
tion  and  blessing  of  Pope  Pius  X.  This  was  fol¬ 
lowed  by  that  of  their  Eminences,  Cardinals  Farley, 
O’Connell,  Gibbons,  and  Falconio.  Still  later  Car¬ 
dinal  Bourne  of  Westminster.  Cardinal  Logue  of 
Armagh,  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Quebec  and 
His  Grace  the  Archbishop  of  Montreal  gave  their 
approval  to  the  Octave.  Meantime  many  arch¬ 
bishops  and  bishops  of  the  United  States,  Canada, 
and  England  gave  the  Octave  their  endorsement 
and  support.  Finally,  His  Holiness  Pope  Benedict 
XV,  by  the  above  mentioned  Brief,  extended  its 
observance  to  the  Universal  Church,  enriching  it 
with  indulgences.  At  the  Annual  Conference  of 
the  American  Hierarchy  in  Washington,  D.  C., 
22  September,  1921,  Cardinal  Dougherty  of  Phila¬ 
delphia,  presented  a  resolution  to  the  hierarchy 
providing  that  “the  Unity  Octave  be  held  through¬ 
out  all  the  dioceses  of  the  United  States.”  “It 
was  unanimously  adopted  by  the  Hierarchy,”  Car¬ 
dinal  Dougherty  informed  the  Central  Office  of 
the  Church  Unity  Octave,  Gray  moor,  Garrison,  N. 
Y.,  the  day  following. 

The  Observance  of  the  Octave  consists  in  the 
daily  recitation  of  the  Antiphon :  “That  they  all 
may  be  one,  as  Thou,  Father,  in  Me  and  I  in  Thee; 
that  they  also  may  be  one  in  Us;  that  the  world 
may  believe  that  Thou  hast  sent  Me  (St.  John, 
xvii,  21)  V.  I  say  unto  thee,  that  thou  art  Peter; 
R.  And  upon  this  Rock  I  will  build  My  Church”; 
followed  by  the  Prayer:  O  Lord  Jesus  Christ  Who 
saidst  unto  Thine  Apostles,  etc.,  during  the  eight 
days  of  the  Octave  from  St.  Peter’s  Chair  at  Rome, 
18  January  to  the  Conversion  of  St.  Paul,  25 
January.  A  plenary  indulgence  has  been  granted 
on  the  first  or  last  day  of  the  Octave  under  the 
usual  conditions. 

Churches  of  Christ.  See  Disciples  of  Christ,  II. 

Cienfuegos,  Diocese  of  (Centumfocencis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  III-770c),  dependent  on  Havana,  includes 
all  of  the  province  of  Santa  Clara  in  Central  Cuba. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  diocese  number  650,000,  of 
whom  600,000  are  Cubans,  both  whites  and  negroes; 
the  remainder  are  emigrants,  mostly  from  Spain, 
and  nearly  all  are  nominal  Catholics,  excepting 
small  colonies  of  Chinese,  Jamaicans,  and  Haitians 
(among  whom  are  many  Catholics).  In  reality  the 
number  of  men  who  comply  with  their  religious 
duties  is  very  much  less,  as  indifferentism  reigns. 
Masons  are  numerous,  and  Protestants  supplied 
with  abundant  money  from  the  United  States  are 


working  to  de-christianize  Cuba  with  but  small 
success.  The  Catholics  have  improved  very  much 
in  recent  years  and  work  with  enthusiasm  in  many 
parishes. 

There  are  35  parishes,  16  non-par ochial  churches,  7 
parishes  are  served  by  religious  communities:  Fran¬ 
ciscans  (2),  Carmelites  (1),  Dominicans  (2),  Capu¬ 
chins  (1),  and  Passionists  (1),  34  secular  and  54 
regular  priests,  4  seminarians  at  Havana  and  2  at 
the  Latin-American  College  in  Rome. 

The  colleges  and  religious  establishments  in  Cien¬ 
fuegos  are:  Montserrat  College,  25  Jesuits,  400 
students;  French  College,  16  Marists,  350  students; 
Bartolome  las  Casas  College,  7  Dominicans,  100 
students.  For  girls:  College  of  the  Apostolate  of 
Sacred  Heart,  13  religious  and  100  students,  College 
of  the  Incarnate  Word,  6  religious,  80  students; 
College  of  the  Most  Holy  Rosary,  7,  Dominican 
Sisters,  60  students.  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  (15 
religious)  care  for  100  aged  of  both  sexes  in  an  asy¬ 
lum;  Servants  of  Mary  are  engaged  in  caring  for  the 
sick  in  their  homes  (14  religious).  There  is  an  asso¬ 
ciation  of  Children  of  Mary  directed  by  Jesuits,  with 
600  members;  also  in  charge  of  the  same  Fathers  an 
association  of  young  men,  “Anunciata,”  with  100 
members,  and  an  association  of  workers  with  80 
members.  In  the  Jesuit  College  there  are  night 
classes  for  workers,  also  in  the  Dominican  College, 
where  a  course  in  chemistry  relating  to  the  sugar 
industry  is  given.  A  council  of  Knights  of  Colum¬ 
bus  with  43  members  is  established  in  the  city. 

In  Santa  Clara,  the  capital  of  the  province,  there 
are  the  following  establishments:  College  of  San 
Pablo  de  La  Cruz,  10  Passionists  with  100  stu¬ 
dents.  For  girls:  Teresian  College,  8  religious,  70 
students;  College  directed  by  6  Sisters  of  the  Love 
of  God  with  58  students;  in  Trinidad  a  Dominican 
College  for  boys  with  3  religious  and  35  students; 
College  of  the  Holy  Rosary  for  girls  with  8  Domin¬ 
ican  Sisters  and  63  students;  in  Sancti  Spiritus  the 
College  of  the  Nativity  in  charge  of  13  Brothers  of 
Christian  Doctrine  with  200  students;  College  of 
the  Apostolate  of  Sacred  Heart  with  11  religious 
and  90  girl  students;  also  an  asylum  for  the  aged 
with  14  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  and  60  aged; 
in  Placetas  a  College  of  San  Antonio,  with  4  Fran¬ 
ciscans  and  108  students;  in  Caibarien,  College  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  7  Marists  and  170  students,  Col¬ 
lege  of  the  Apostolate  of  Sacred  Heart  with  9 
religious  and  82  students;  in  Remedios:  College 
of  the  Love  of  God  with  6  religious  and  82  stu¬ 
dents.  In  Sagua  la  Grande:  College  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  directed  by  Jesuits  taught  by  9  Brothers  of 
Christian  Doctrine  with  170  pupils,  and  night  classes 
given  by  Jesuit  Fathers;  College  of  the  Apostolate 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  with  14  religious  and  140  stu¬ 
dents;  home  for  aged  with  14  religious  and  85  aged; 
a  sanatorium  for  the  Spanish  colony  is  in  charge  of 
the  Daughters  of  Calvary  with  10  religious  and  80 
patients.  In  Aguada  de  Psajeros  there  is  a  free  col¬ 
lege  for  girls  supported  by  the  bishop,  with  3 
teachers  and  60  girls.  In  all  the  churches  there  are 
catechism  classes  in  charge  of  Catholic  ladies. 
There  are  many  associations  for  men  and  women 
in  each  parish.  In  all  the  parishes  a  Sunday  review 
called  “Cultura”  is  distributed  gratis. 

The  diocese  is  administered  by  an  Apostolic 
administrator,  Rt.  Rev.  Valentin  Zubizarreta,  D.  C., 
bishop  of  Camagiiey.  The  first  bishop  of  Cienfuegos 
was  Aurelio  Torres  y  Sanz,  D.C.,  born  in  Havana 
3  January,  1861,  elected  to  Cienfuegos  9  April, 
1904,  transferred  19  January,  1916,  as  titular  Bishop 
of  Argilas  when  he  had  renounced  his  see  on 
account  of  infirmity,  died  in  1920. 


CILICIA  OF  THE  ARMENIANS 


205 


CINCINNATI 


The  native  clergy  of  the  diocese  are  few  in  num¬ 
ber  and  have  not  been  prominent  in  the  recent 
political  struggles.  In  the  civil  element,  however, 
are  the  famous  ‘‘Villas,”  who  meant  so  much  in 
the  War  of  Independence  and  in  politics  following 
the  founding  of  the  republic.  The  second  president 
of  Cuba,  Jose  Miguel  Gomez,  who  died  the  past 
year  in  New  York,  was  a  native  of  Sancti  Spiritus. 
Near  Cienfuegos,  in  the  parish  of  Cruces,  was 
fought  the  famous  battle  of  “Mai  Tiempo,”  when 
the  revolutionary  forces  were  in  command  of  Gen¬ 
eral  Maximo  Gomez  y  Maceo,  most  valorous  of 
all  the  Cubans  who  fought  for  independence. 

Cilicia  of  the  Armenians,  Patriarchate  of 
(Cilicia  Armenorum). — In  1830  the  Armenians, 
who  received  the  Faith  from  the  apostles,  obtained 
their  civil  emancipation  by  the  erection  of  a 
primatial  see  at  Constantinople,  the  titular  of 
which  was  recognized  by  an  imperial  berat  of 
the  chiefs  of  the  Armenian  Catholic  colony  in 
Turkey.  The  two  sees,  that  of  the  Patriarchate 
of  Cilicia,  and  the  primatial  see  of  Constantinople, 
were  reunited  by  Pius  IX  in  1867,  to  be  governed 
by  the  Patriarch  of  Cilicia  who  resides  at  Con¬ 
stantinople,  the  patriarchal  archdiocese.  The 
present  (1922)  patriarch  is  His  Excellency  Mgr. 
Paul  Terzian,  bora  in  Kiutahia,  Asiatic  Turkey, 
1855,  studied  at  Propaganda  College,  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Adana,  8  April,  1892,  and  promoted  to 
the  patriarchate  23  April,  1910,  taking  the  name  of 
Paul  Peter  XIII.  His  appointment  was  confirmed 
in  special  form  by  Pius  X,  who  also  conferred  the 
pallium  on  him  in  solemn  audience,  26  April,  1911, 
and  publicly  confirmed  by  the  consistory,  27 
November  following.  The  patriarch’s  chief  as¬ 
sistants  are,  Mgr.  Nasilian,  Bishop  of  Trebizond; 
a  patriarchal  vicar  in  Constantinople,  Mgr.  Rokos- 
sian,  titular  Archbishop  of  Achrida;  a  procurator 
in  Rome,  Mgr.  Kojunian,  titular  Bishop  of 
Chalcedon ;  the  administrator  apostolic  of  the 
Armenians  in  Russia,  Rev.  Serge  Abraamian;  and 
the  vicar  general  for  the  Armenians  of  Tiflis,  Rev. 
Denis  Kalalozoff. 

In  1920  Mgr.  Terzian  went  to  Rome,  to  one  of 
the  conferences  organized  by  the  new  oriental 
institute,  where  he  spoke  on  the  origin  and  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Cilicia  for  the  Arme¬ 
nians.  He  later  went  to  Paris  and  London  to  defend 
the  interests  of  his  people  in  the  peace  negotia¬ 
tions.  In  1920  Cilicia  comprised  600,000  Mahom- 
medans,  150,000  Greek  schismatics,  the  same  number 
of  Armenian  schismatics,  16,000  Armenian  Catholics, 
85  priests,  13  parishes,  13  churches  and  chapels,  and 
8  schools  with  300  children. 

Cimbebasia,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (Cim- 
bebasiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  II-773a),  is  bounded  on  the 
North  by  the  degree  of  latitude  determined  by  the 
lower  course  of  the  Kunene  River  and  the 
Okawanga  River;  on  the  East  by  the  22nd  degree 
of  longitude  east'  of  Greenwich;  on  the  South  by 
the  23rd  degree  of  south  latitude  in  such  manner 
that  the  border  of  the  civil  districts  of  Windbroek, 
Gobabis,  Kavibib,  and  Swakopmund  constitute  also 
the  border  of  the  ecclesiastical  territory;  on  the 
west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  As  a  result  of  the 
‘war  this  region  which  was  formerly  a  German 
colony,  is  now  under  the  control  of  the  Union  of 
South  Africa.  The  prefecture  was  erected  by  a 
decree  of  Propaganda,  1  August,  1892,  under  the 
n:ime  of  Lower  Cimbebasia  which  was  changed  to 
Cimbebasia  by  a  decree  of  10  January,  1921.  The 
Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate  have  charge  of  the 
mission  under  the  Prefect  Apostolic,  who  resides  at 
Windbroek,  the  principal  station.  The  other  mis¬ 


sion  stations  are:  Little  Windbroek,  Docbra, 
Swakopmund,  Usakos,  Aminuis,  Epukiov,  Golabis, 
Omaruru,  Okambahe,  Grootfontein,  Tsumeb, 
Kokasib,  Andara,  Njangana.  In  January,  1921,  the 
former  Prefect  Apostolic,  Rt.  Rev.  Eugene  Klaeyle, 
resigned,  and  the  present  prefect  apostolic,  Rt.  Rev! 
Joseph  Gotthardt,  was  appointed.  The  prefecture 
celebrated  its  silver  jubilee  on  8  December,  1921. 
Practically  all  eligible  males  fought  in  the’  army 
during  the  World  War.  The  clergy  and  religious 
devoted  themselves  to  the  relief  of  suffering  and 
to  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  soldiers. 

Of  the  Catholic  population  of  3,144,  about  800 
are  Europeans.  A  large  percentage  of  the  former 
German  population  returned  to  their  own  country 
in  1919,  and  many  more  emigrated  elsewhere. 
There  are  22  priests,  20  lay  brothers,  17  Benedictine 
Nuns,  and  20  Franciscan  Sisters  who  are  leaving  for 
Europe;  6  parishes  and  18  churches;  15  missions 
and  15  stations;  6  convents  for  men  and  6  for 
women;  1  high  school  for  European  girls  with  6 
teachers  and  125  pupils;  5  primary  schools  for 
natives  with  15  teachers  and  380  pupils;  2  industrial 
schools  with  2  teachers  and  10  pupils;  1  missionary 
work  for  the  conversion  of  infidels;  2  orphanages 
with  21  children;  5  asylums;  1  day  nursery.  The 
government  does  not  contribute  to  the  support  of 
the  Catholic  institutions,  but  admits  the  ministry 
of  priests  in  all  the  public  schools  and  asylums.  The 
laity  have  2  religious  associations :  Marian  Sodality, 
and  the  Sodality  of  the  Infant  Jesus.  (For  Upper 
Cimbebasia,  see  Cubango  in  Angola,  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of.) 

Cimbebasia,  Upper,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of. 
See  Cubango. 

Cincinnati,  Archdiocese  of  (Cincinnatiensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  III-773b),  Ohio,  is  under  the  direction  of 
Archbishop  Henry  Moeller,  D.  D.,  who  succeeded  to 
the  archiepiscopal  see  upon  the  death  of  Archbishop 
Elder,  31  October,  1904.  One  of  the  most  notable 
events  of  this  diocese  within  recent  years  was  the 
breaking  of  ground  early  in  1921  for  the  erection  of 
a  new  Mount  St.  Mary’s  Seminary,  which  is  ex¬ 
pected  to  be  completed  in  1922,  the  centenary  of 
the  diocese.  The  recent  organizing  of  a  Bureau  of 
Catholic  Charities,  and  the  Fenwick  Club  for  young 
men  has  also  been  of  importance  in  the  work  of 
the  diocese. 

In  1908  the  archdiocese  lost  a  prominent  clergy¬ 
man  by  the  death  of  Rt.  Rev.  John  Mackay,  rector 
of  Mount  St.  Mary’s  Seminary  of  the  West  for  the 
last  three  years  of  his  life,  and  in  1920  the  death  of 
the  vicar  general  of  the  Archdiocese,  Rt.  Rev.  John 
B.  Murray,  brought  another  loss.  During  the  World 
War  the  archdiocese  furnished  13  chaplains  for  work 
at  home  and  overseas,  and  the  laity  responded 
willingly  to  all  calls  made  upon  them. 

At  the  present  time  (1922)  the  archdiocese  com¬ 
prises  an  area  of  12,043  sq.  miles  and  includes: 
188  parishes,  219  churches,  31  missions  and  2  sta¬ 
tions,  2  monasteries  for  men,  262  secular  priests  and 
147  regulars,  2  seminaries  with  245  seminarians,  5 
colleges  for  men  with  an  attendance  of  2,368,  2 
colleges  for  women,  15  academies,  1  for  boys  and  14 
for  girls,  124  elementary  schools  with  attendance  of 
34,683,  4  industrial  schools  taught  by  brothers  with 
attendance  of  360. 

Among  the  various  institutions  of  the  diocese  are : 

1  home  for  the  aged  with  40  inmates,  3  homes  for 
working  girls  with  137  inmates, 1  home  for  young 
men  with  160  inmates,  4  orphan  asylums  with  812 
children,  1  infant  asylum  with  60  infants,  8  hospitals 
with  a  yearly  record  of  16,271  inmates,  3  refuges 


CISTERCIANS 


206 


CISTERCIANS 


for  boys  with  318  boys,  2  houses  of  Good  Shepherd 
with  203  girls,  and  2  day  nurseries. 

All  the  public  institutions  allow  the  priests  of  the 
diocese  to  minister  in  them  whenever  it  is  requested, 
but  the  Catholic  schools  and  institutions  do  not  re¬ 
ceive  any  aid  from  the  government.  The  various 
organizations  of  the  diocese  include,  among  the 
clergy,  the  Clergy  Relief  Union,  among  the  laity, 
the  National  Catholic  Welfare  Association,  made 
up  of  men  and  women.  The  “Catholic  Telegraph” 
is  the  diocesan  organ. 

Cistercians  in  the  British  Isles  (cf.  C.  E.,  XVI- 
25c)  —The  full  and  complete  history  of  mon- 
asticism  and  its  ancient  abodes  in  these  islands 
is  still  unwritten.  In  many  cases  there  is  a  great 
divergence  of  opinion  among  writers  on  various 
aspects  and  incidents  touching  the  monasteries,  and 
there  is  a  lamentable  dearth  of  chartularies  and 
records,  due  no  doubt  to  the  convulsions,  dis¬ 
turbances,  and  vandalism  attending  their  suppres¬ 
sion.  The  information  available  is  often  obtained 
only  after  extensive  research  among  many  widely 
separated  sources. 

England. — Various  computations  of  Cistercian 
monasteries  in  England  at  the  time  of  the  suppres¬ 
sion  are  found  in  different  authorities,  some  giving 
the  number  at  75,  others  at  66.  There  were, 
besides,  26  convents  of  Cistercian  Nuns.  By  the 
act  suppressing  the  lesser  monasteries,  which  num¬ 
bered  376  in  all,  about  half  or  two-thirds  of  the 
Cistercian  houses  were  dissolved,  the  yearly  income 
of  these  not  being  above  £200  according  to  the 
value  of  money  at  that  time.  Between  1538  and 
1540  the  remaining  Cistercian  houses  fell  among 
the  645  greater  monasteries,  all  victims  of  Henry 
VIII’s  rapacity  and  greed.  The  calumnies  heaped 
upon  these  monasteries  in  the  past  are  now  almost 
effaced  by  the  ever-growing  light  of  truth.  The 
many  beautiful  monastic  ruins,  to  be  found  in 
almost  every  English  shire  to-day,  testify  to  the 
existence  of  upwards  of  1000  monasteries  and  reli¬ 
gious  houses,  in  the  greater  number  of  which,  at 
the  time  of  the  suppression,  even  on  the  testimony 
of  Henry  VIITs  own  visitors,  “religion  was  right 
well  kept  and  observed.”  The  seed  of  religious 
life  had  therefore  not  been  planted  in  uncongenial 
soil.  .  * 

The  first  Cistercian  foundation  in  England  was 
made  in  1129  at  Waverley,  Surrey.  This  was  the 
36th  foundation  from  the  parent  Citeaux.  The 
founder  was  William  Gifford,  Bishop  of  Winchester. 
Pope  Eugene  III  in  1147  granted  the  Waverley 
monks  exemption  from  tithes  for  land  and  cattle. 
A  similar  privilege  was  granted  to  various  Cistercian 
houses  by  different  popes.  Tintern  Abbey,  in  Mon¬ 
mouthshire,  was  founded  in  1131  by  Walter  de 
Clare.  In  1132  Rievaulx  Abbey  was  founded  in 
Yorkshire.  Among  the  many  privileges  granted  by 
the  popes  to  the  monks  of  this  monastery  was 
that  granted  by  Alexander  III  of  celebrating  the 
Divine  Office,  even  during  a  general  interdict. 
Garendon  Abbey  in  Leicestershire  marked  a  new 
growth  in  1133,  testifying  to  the  rapid  success  of 
Waverley,  which  could  in  four  years  give  enough 
monks  to  people  this  monastery.  Fountains 
Abbey  became  Cistercian  in  1135,  and  was  in  the 
course  of  time  the  mother  of  many  daughter- 
houses.  Ford  Abbey  in  Devonshire  dates  from 
1136,  and  in  the  same  year  arose  Wardon  Abbey 
in  Bedfordshire,  one  of  the  most  influential  of  the 
Cistercian  houses.  Thame  Abbey  in  Oxfordshire 
and  Bordesley  Abbey  in  Worcestershire  are  chron¬ 
icled  for  the  year  1137.  The  Empress  Maud, 
daughter  of  Henry  I  and  mother  of  Henry  II,  was 


the  foundress  of  Bordesley.  In  1139  arose:  New- 
minster  in  Northumberland,  which  owed  its  origin 
to  the  generosity  of  Ranulf,  Baron  of  Merley; 
Dirksted  Abbey  in  Lincolnshire,  which  was  raised 
in  fulfilment  of  a  vow  made  by  Baron  Hugh  de 
Breton  and  was  the  mother  of  the  remarkable 
monastery  of  Hovedoa-  in  Norway;  Louth  Park 
Abbey,  also  in  Lincolnshire,  founded  by  Alexander, 
Bishop  of  Lincoln;  and  Kingswood  in  Gloneester- 
shire,  founded  by  William  de  Berkeley.  Another 
foundation  was  made  in  Lincolnshire  in  1143  at 
Revesby,  through  the  instrumentality  of  William, 
Earl  of  Lincoln.  Pipewell  Monastery  in  North¬ 
amptonshire  was  founded  in  1143,  its  monks  dis¬ 
persed  after  150  years,  and  later  re-established. 
Woburn  Abbey  in  Bedfordshire  dates  from  1145 
and  was  descended  from  Fountains.  Boxley  Abbey 
in  Kent,  founded  1146,  was  the  47th  filiation  of 
Clairvaux. 

Dorl  Abbey  in  Herefordshire  was  the  only 
daughter-house  in  England  of  Morimund,  one  of 
the  first  four  Cistercian  houses.  It  was  founded 
by  Robert,  Earl  of  Ferrars,  in  1147,  a  year  very 
remarkable  in  Cistercian  history  as  the  date  of 
foundation  of  21  Cistercian  houses  in  England  and 
Wales,  and  of  the  incorporation  of  the  Order  of 
Savigny  with  that  of  Citeaux.  In  1147  arose:  Kirk- 
statt  Abbey  in  Yorkshire,  sprung  from  Fountains, 
an  ex-voto  offering  made  by  Robert  de  Lacey,  the 
second  abbot  Radulph  Haggith  being  a  man  of 
conspicuous  sanctity,  and  some  of  the  lands  of 
which  were  later  confiscated  by  King  John;  Vaudey 
Abbey  in  Lincolnshire,  founded  by  William,  Earl 
of  Albemarle;  Bitlesden  Abbey  in  Buckingham¬ 
shire,  sprung  from  Garendon;  Bruerne  Abbey  in 
Oxfordshire;  Roche  Abbey  in  Yorkshire;  Saltrey 
Abbey  in  Huntingtonshire,  which  owed  its  origin 
to  Simon,  Earl  of  Northampton,  and  obtained 
special  privileges  through  Judith,  Countess  of  Hunt¬ 
ington  and  niece  of  William  the  Conqueror;  Furness 
Abbey  in  Lancashire,  which  began  its  career  under 
the  Order  of  Savigny  in  1127  and  became  Cistercian 
in  1147;  Quarr  Abbey  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  which 
was  of  Savignian  birth  and  embraced  the  rule  of 
Citeaux  in  1147,  as  did  also  Cumbermere  Abbey 
in  Cheshire,  Calder  Abbey  in  Cumberland,  Rushen 
Abbey  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  Swineshead  Abbey  in 
Lincolnshire,  Stratford-Langton  in  Essex,  Bildwas 
in  Shropshire,  Buckfast  in  Devonshire,  Byland  in 
Yorkshire,  and  Coggeshale  in  Essex.  Sawley  Abbey 
in  Yorkshire  was  founded  in  1148,  and  in  the  same 
year  abbeys  were  founded  at  Rufford  in  Notting¬ 
hamshire  and  at  Mereval  in  Warwickshire.  The 
year  1150  was  marked  by  the  foundation  of  Sibton 
in  Norfolk,  Jerval  in  Yorkshire,  and  Combe  in 
Warwickshire.  Four  foundations  were  made  in  the 
year  1151:  Meaux  in  Yorkshire,  Stanley  in  Wilt¬ 
shire,  Flexley  in  Gloucestershire,  and  Holm-Cultram 
in  Cumberland.  The  last  is  sometimes  assigned  to 
the  Kingdom  of  Scotland,  Henry,  son  of  King 
David  of  Scotland,  being  claimed  as  founder;  and 
again  King  Henry  II  of  England  is  claimed  as 
founder.  Meaux  was  founded  by  William,  Earl  of 
Albemarle,  whose  vow  to  visit  the  Holy  Land  was 
commuted  by  Eugene  III  into  that  of  erecting  a 
monastery.  Tiltey  Abbey  in  Essex  and  Stonely 
in  Warwickshire  are  assigned  to  the  years  1153 
and  1154  respectively.  Dieulacres  in  Cheshire  fol¬ 
lowed  in  1158. 

After  so  rapid  and  extensive  a  growth  of  the 
Cistercian  Order  in  England  (46  foundations  in 
25  years)  there  was  some  slight  cessation,  for  not 
until  1172  were  the  next  foundations  made.  These 
were  at  Bindon  in  Dorsetshire  and  Whalley  Abbey 
in  Cheshire.  The  Abbey  of  Roberts  Bridge  in 


CISTERCIANS 


207 


CISTERCIANS 


Sussex  was  founded  in  1176.  Its  abbot  and  the 
Abbot  of  Boxley  were  sent  to  seek  King  Richard  I, 
when  he  was  imprisoned  in  Germany  on  his  return 
from  tlie  Holy  Land.  Crokesden  Abbey  in  Staf¬ 
fordshire  was  founded  in  1178.  The  Abbey  of  Clive 
in  Somersetshire,  founded  in  1198,  is  sometimes 
claimed  as  Benedictine,  but  on  the  authority  of 
most  chronicles  seems  to  have  been  Cistercian.  In 
1201  Dunkeswell  Abbey  in  Devonshire  was  founded. 
Tanner  wrongly  assigns  it  to  the  Premonstratensians. 
Beaulieu  Abbey  in  the  New  Forest,  Hampshire, 
was  founded  from  Citeaux  by  King  John  in  1204, 
in  satisfaction  for  his  ill-treatment  of  some  Cis¬ 
tercian  abbots,  “with  whom  he  was  offended  and 
whom  he  caused  to  be  trodden  under  his  horses.’’ 
Mendham  Abbey  in  Buckinghamshire,  Hilton  in 
Staffordshire,  Grace-Dieu  in  Monmouthshire,  and 
Nelley  in  Hampshire  arose  respectively  in  1212, 
1219,  1226,  and  1239.  Hayles  Abbey  in  Gloucester¬ 
shire  dates  from  1246,  and  Newhau  Abbey  in 
Devonshire  arose  in  the  following  year.  Vale-Royal 
Abbey,  formerly  Dernhall,  in  Cheshire,  has  a  re¬ 
markable  history.  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  son 
of  Henry  III,  being  in  danger  of  shipwreck  during 
his  return  from  the  Holy  Land,  vowed  in  case  he 
and  his  came  safe  to  land  to  erect  a  monastery 
and' endow  the  same  for  100  Cistercian  monks.  The 
monastery  was  in  due  course  erected  at  Dernhall, 
but  afterwards,  when  Edward  became  king,  that 
place  was  abandoned  and  a  new  monastery  built 
at  Vale-Royal,  the  first  stone  of  the  new  founda¬ 
tion  being  laid  by  the  king  himself.  A  relic  of 
the  true  Cross,  brought  by  the  king  from  Pales¬ 
tine,  was  given  to  the  monastery.  So  great 
were  the  benefactions  of  the  king  and  queen  that 
after  their  demise  the  monks  used  a  special  Collect 
for  their  welfare,  not  only  at  all  the  Masses,  but 
also  at  all  the  canonical  hours.  The  solemn  con¬ 
secration  of  this  house  was  made  by  the  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem,  at  which  a  sentence  of  greater  excom¬ 
munication  was  pronounced  against  anyone  who 
should  enter  the  monastery  “any  other  ways  than 
by  the  gate  of  the  same.”  Edward  paid  in  all  for 
the  erection  of  this  monastery  £32,000  in  the  money 
value  of  that  time.  Henry  III  requested  all  the 
religious  houses  of  England  to  furnish  Vale-Royal 
with  books.  The  date  of  foundation  was  1274.  The 
Countess  of  Devonshire  founded  Buckland  Abbey 
in  Devonshire  in  1278.  Rewley  Abbey  in  Oxford¬ 
shire  followed  in  1281.  In  1350  the  Abbey  of  Our 
Lady  of  Graces  was  founded  near  the  Tower  of 
London  by  Edward  III.  This  was  the  708th  founda¬ 
tion  in  the  annals  of  the  whole  order,  after  which, 
until  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  there 
seems  to  have  been  no  new  foundation  made  in 
England,  though  there  were  many  in  other  coun¬ 
tries. 

Nevertheless,  the  religious  institutions  already 
established,  so  many  in  number,  so  various  in  char¬ 
acter,  continued  their  good  work  until  the  upheaval 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  between  the  years 
1535  and  1540  Henry  VIII  overthrew  the  whole 
religious  and  monastic  life  of  England.  It  is 
reckoned  that  8000  religious  of  all  orders,  men  and 
women,  not  to  speak  of  the  dependents  of  the 
monasteries,  were  thus  expelled  from  their  cloisters. 
Leaving  aside  the  religious  and  spiritual  loss  to 
England  by  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries, 
the  loss  from  a  merely  humane  and  economic  point 
of  view  was  very  great,  for  they  exercised  great 
hospitality  towards  the  poor,  received  the  sick, 
nursing  and  curing  them,  and  taught  poor  children, 
being  also  centers  of  art,  science,  and  literature. 

Not  until  1794  do  we  again  hear  of  the  Cister¬ 
cians  as  a  community  in  England,  when  through 
14 


the  generosity  of  Thomas  Weld  of  Lulworth  a 
small  body  of  monks  from  the  monastery  of  La 
\  al-Sainte,  intended  for  Canada,  found  it  possible 
to  establish  themselves  at  Lulworth  in  Dorsetshire. 
For  twenty-one  years  they  remained  in  this  new 
settlement,  but  owing  to  certain  restrictions  put 
upon  them  by  the  government,  which  they  found 
it  impossible  to  accept,  they  left  England  and  re¬ 
turned  to  Melleray  in  Brittany,  where  they  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  finally  establishing  themselves.  From 
this  French  monastery  the  present  Mt.  Melleray 
in  Ireland  was  established,  and  from  it  in  1835  a 
filiation  was  made  at  Mt.  St.  Bernard’s,  Coalville, 
in  Leicestershire,  which  continues  to  the  present 
day  the  monastic  life  according  to  the  rule  of 
Citeaux.  Mr.  Ambrose  Phillipps  de  Lisle  was  the 
generous  donor  who  thus  helped  to  revive  the  Cis¬ 
tercian  Order  in  England.  He  was  descended  from 
the  de  Lisles,  who  were  formerly  such  charitable 
beneficiaries  to  the  ancient  Abbey  of  Garendon. 
To  him  as  well  as  to  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury  the 
monks  are  indebted  for  their  present  abbey,  of 
which  Augustus  Welby  Pugin,  Esq.,  was  the  archi¬ 
tect.  In  1849  Rt.  Rev.  Bernard  Palmer  received 
the  abbatial  blessing  and  was  the  first  mitred 
abbot  in  England  since  the  Reformation. 

At  the  time  of  the  suppression  there  were  26 
houses  of  Cistercian  Nuns  in  England.  Eleven  of 
these  were  situated  in  Yorkshire,  viz.,  Sinning- 
thwaite,  Eshalt,  Hampole,  Swine,  Hoton,  Basedale, 
Nunappleton,  Kildeholm,  Wickham,  Elreton,  and 
Kirklees.  Lincolnshire  had  six,  viz.:  Greenfield, 
Legburn,  Nuncoton,  Goykwell,  Hevening,  Stixwold. 
Others  were  at  Cokehill  and  Wliiston  in  Worcester¬ 
shire,  at  Grace-Dieu  in  Leicestershire,  at  Brewood, 
Salop,  at  Marham,  Norfolkshire,  at  Pinley,  War¬ 
wickshire,  at  Sewardesley,  Northamptonshire,  at 
Wintney,  Hampshire,  and  at  Tarent  in  Dorsetshire. 
All  these  convents  and  their  inmates  shared  the 
same  fate  as  the  monks.  Yet  for  the  last  120 
years  England  has  not  been  without  its  convents 
of  Cistercian  nuns,  for  there  is  at  Stapehill  in 
Dorsetshire  a  Cistercian  convent  whose  early  his¬ 
tory  is  of  interest.  The  original  community  be¬ 
longed  to  the  Royal  Abbey  of  St.  Antoine  in  Paris. 
During  the  troubles  in  France  in  1793  the  convent 
was  suppressed  and  the  nuns  imprisoned.  After 
months  of  imprisonment  they  were  released  in 
1794,  and  feeling  they  could  not  promise  themselves 
security  on  French  soil  they  retired  to  Switzerland, 
which  had  a  short  time  previously  given  shelter  to 
the  exiled  monks  of  La  Trappe,  at  whose  head  was 
Dom  Augustine  Lestrange.  Both  monks  and  nuns, 
however,  were  forced  to  flee  before  the  French 
army  which  was  beginning  to  invade  Switzerland. 
Accordingly  they  moved  into  Austria,  and  on  their 
journeys  met  with  much  hospitality  in  Austrian 
monasteries  and  convents.  Through  the  influence 
of  Princess  Louise  de  Conde,  who  had  become  a 
Cistercian  nun,  the  then  Tsar  of  Russia,  Paul  I, 
offered  them  a  home  within  his  territory,  and 
thither  they  went,  Dom  Augustine  still  courageously 
leading  his  monks  and  Madame  de  Chabannes,  in 
religion  Sister  Maiy  Augustine,  at  the  head  of  her 
party  of  nuns.  But  owing  to  the  Tsar’s  alliance 
with  the  French,  whose  Constituent  Assembly  had 
so  recently  suppressed  religious  houses,  they  did 
not  long  have  Russian  protection.  After  many 
arduous  and  laborious  journeys  through  Russia, 
Poland,  and  Prussia  they  were  able  to  take  ship 
for  London,  where  they  arrived  in  1801.  There  they 
were  received  with  hospitality  and  remained  a  short 
time,  Mr.  Weld  and  others  being  their  generous 
hosts.  In  1802  Lord  Arundel  offered  them  a  resi¬ 
dence  at  Stapehill,  which  they  gladly  accepted. 


CISTERCIANS 


208 


CISTERCIANS 


Since  then  the  nuns  have  led  tranquil  lives  of  con¬ 
templation  and  penance  in  their  secluded  house  in 
East  Dorsetshire.  There  is  at  present  a  flourishing 
community  of  42  members. 

Ireland. — The  early  religious  history  of  Ireland 
is,  very  largely,  the  history  of  Irish  monasticism, 
for  the  early  Irish  Church  was,  in  great  part,  a 
monastic  church.  It  is  not  clear  that  any  other 
nation,  in  so  short  a  time  after  its  conversion, 
exhibited  so  remarkable  a  picture  of  monastic  life, 
whether  in  its  eremitical  or  cenobitical  aspect,  as 
the  Irish  nation.  In  the  course  of  time  Irish 
monasticism  became  a  distinct  and  well-defined 
system,  with  rather  austere  tendencies,  and  exer¬ 
cised  a  very  great  influence,  both  in  the  sanctifica¬ 
tion  of  the  Irish  people  at  home  and  in  the  con¬ 
version  of  heathen  nations  abroad.  Its  great 
number  of  saintly  men  and  women,  so  thorough  a 
novitiate  in  religion  and  sanctity  were  none  too 
great,  in  view  of  the  subsequent  trials  and  persecu¬ 
tions  for  the  faith,  to  which  the  nation  was  sub¬ 
jected  for  over  ten  centuries.  The  Danish  wars 
were  not  mere  expeditions  of  plunder,  they  were 
wars  of  religious  persecution  as  well.  Their  pagan 
fury  spared  neither  church  nor  cloister,  and  monastic 
seats  of  learning  were  plundered  and  destroyed. 
The  loss  of  faith  in  England,  through  the  so-called 
Reformation  in  the  sixteenth  century,  was  followed 
by  a  methodic  and  calculated  effort  to  rob  the 
Irish  nation  of  that  same  gift.  “But  neither  Eng¬ 
lish  persecutor  nor  Danish  invader  could  disturb 
the  constancy,  nor  shake  the  hearts,  nor  unsettle 
the  faith  of  the  Irish.”  And  this  faith  they  carried 
abroad,  seeking  the  conversion  of  other  nations. 
Sts.  Columbanus,  Kilian,  Virgilius,  and  Gall  were 
men  of  heroic  sanctity,  apostles  of  the  Gospel, 
benefactors  to  Europe,  and  the  glory  of  Ireland. 
According  to  a  Belgian  writer  of  the  seventeenth 
century  46  Irish  saints  were  propagators  of  the 
Gospel  in  Belgium  alone.  Reputed  for  four  cen¬ 
turies  as  the  Island  of  Scholars,  as  well  of  Saints, 
foreign  students  went  to  Ireland  as  to  “a  literary 
emporium.”  But  persecutions  and  ravages  of  war 
robbed  the  nation  of  her  ancient  glory,  and  this 
St.  Malachy  endeavored  in  some  degree  to  restore 
when  he  sought  the  co-operation  of  St.  Bernard  in 
establishing  the  Cistercians  in  Ireland. 

On  a  journey  to  Rome  St.  Malachy  left  some 
companions  at  Citeaux  to  be  instructed  in  its  rules 
and  discipline.  When  sufficiently  trained  they  were 
commissioned  to  return  to  Ireland  under  the  leader¬ 
ship  of  St.  Christian,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Lismore. 
With  St.  Malachy  and  under  his  guidance  they 
founded  the  first  Cistercian  monastery  at  Mellifont, 
Co.  Louth,  in  1142.  The  generous  founder  of  Melli¬ 
font,  after  St.  Malachy,  was  Donough  O’Carroll, 
Prince  of  Uriel.  The  first  abbot  was  St.  Christian. 
In  the  course  of  time  there  were  eight  foundations 
made  from  this  abbey.  Bective  Abbey,  Co.  Meath, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Boyne,  not  far  from  the  town 
of  Trim,  was  founded  by  O’Melaphlin,  King  of 
Meath,  probably  in  1147.  In  that  same  year  St. 
Mary’s  Abbey,  Dublin,  of  Savignian  origin  and 
supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Danes 
about  948,  embraced  the  rule  of  the  Cistercians. 
Boyle  Abbey,  Co.  Roscommon,  taking  its  name 
from  the  River  Boyle,  was  originally  founded  at 
Grelacdinach  and  transferred  to  Boyle  in  1161. 
Peter  O’Morra  was  the  first  abbot,  and  later  became 
Bishop  of  CHonfert.  Nenay  Abbey,  Co.  Limerick, 
was  founded  in  1148  by  Turlogh  O’Brien,  King  of 
Thomond.  Cistercian  historians  state  that  the 
abbot  and  forty  monks  were  put  to  death  by  the 
satellites  of  Elizabeth.  Battinglass  Abbey,  Co. 
Wicklow,  owes  its  origin  to  Dermont  McMurrogh, 


King  of  Leinster,  in  either  1148  or  1151.  In  1185 
the  abbot,  Albinus  Malloy,  was  made  Bishop  of 
Ferns.  Shrule  Abbey,  Co.  Langford,  was  founded 
about  1150  by  the  family  of  O’Ferrall.  Inislought 
Abbey,  Co.  Tipperary,  founded  in  1151,  is  attributed 
to  Donald  O’Brien,  King  of  Limerick.  It  seems, 
however,  that  the  original  foundation  was  on  the 
banks  of  the  Suir,  whence  it  was  called  de  Surio, 
and  in  1185,  in  Donald’s  time,  transferred  to  Inis¬ 
lought.  Abbot  Congan  of  this  monastery  is  sup¬ 
posed  to  have  supplied  St.  Bernard  with  the  matter 
for  his  famous  “Life  of  St.  Malachy.” 

Ne wry  Abbey,  Co.  Down,  was  founded,  according 
to  some  in  1144,  according  to  others  in  1153.  Both 
St.  Malachy  and  Murtogh  McLochlain,  King  of 
All  Ireland,  are  claimed  as  founders.  Abbot  Finn 
was  Bishop  of  Kildare.  Odorney  or  Kyrie  Eleison 
Abbey,  Co.  Kerry,  was  founded  in  1154  by  the  Fitz- 
maurice  family.  Here  St.  Christian,  the  first  Cis¬ 
tercian  abbot  in  Ireland,  died  in  1186.  In  1288 
Abbot  Nicholas  became  Bishop  of  Ardfert.  Fermoy 
Abbey,  Co.  Cork,  was  founded  supposedly  by  the 
Roche  family,  who  seem,  however,  to  have  been 
benefactors  rather  than  founders.  Patricius,  the 
prior,  became  Bishop  of  Cloyne  in  1226.  Maure 
Abbey,  Co.  Cork,  was  founded  in  1172  by  Dermot 
McCormac  McCarthy,  King  of  Desmond.  Astrath 
or  Assaroe  Abbey,  Co.  Donegal,  dates  from  1178. 
Roderick  O’Cananan,  •  Lord  of  Tyrconnel,  and 
Flaherty,  Lord  of  Kinel-Connell,  are  claimed  as 
founders.  Holy  Cross  Abbey,  Co.  Tipperary,  was 
founded  in  1180  by  Donald  Mor  O’Brien,  King  of 
Limerick.  The  abbot  of  this  house  was  styled  Earl 
of  Holy  Cross,  and  acted  as  vicar  general  of  the 
Cistercian  Order  in  Ireland.  Considerable  remains 
of  this  abbey  are  still  to  be  seen,  and  the  archi¬ 
tecture  is  said  to  have  been  remarkably  fine.  The 
abbey  takes  it  name  from  the  relic  of  the  true 
Cross,  formerly  preserved  with  great  veneration 
there,  but  now  in  the  Ursuline  convent  at  Black- 
rock,  Cork.  Holy  Cross  enjoyed  great  pre-eminence 
among  the  Cistercian  houses. 

Middleton  Abbey,  Co.  Cork,  had  as  founders  in 
1180  either  the  Fitzgerald  or  the  Barry  family. 
Jerpoint  Abbey,  Co.  Kilkenny,  was  founded  in  1180 
by  Donald  O’Donoghue,  King  of  Ossory.  Felix 
O’Dulany  was  the  first  abbot,  afterwards  Bishop  of 
Ossory,  a  man  famous  for  sanctity,  at  whose  tomb 
it  is  related  many  miracles  took  place.  The  early 
foundation  of  St.  Canice’s  Cathedral  is  attributed 
to  him.  Dunbrody  Abbey,  Co.  Wexford,  was 
founded  in  1182  by  Hervey  de  Montemarisco,  mar¬ 
shall  of  King  Henry  II  and  seneschal  of  Strongbow, 
Earl  of  Pembroke.  Strongbow  was  a  great  bene¬ 
factor  to  this  monastery,  which  was  one  of  the 
largest  in  Ireland,  the  church  being  nearly  200  feet 
in  length.  Leix  Abbey,  Queen’s  Co.,  was  founded 
in  1184  by  Corcheger  O’More.  Kilcooly  Abbey, 
Co.  Tipperary,  was  founded  in  the  same  year  by 
Donald  O’Brien,  King  of  Thomond.  Glandy  Abbey, 
supposed  to  have  been  in  Co.  Cork,  was  founded 
probably  in  1185.  Little  is  known  about  it.  Inis- 
courcy  Abbey  on  Juch  Island,  Strangford,  Lough, 
was  founded  by  John  de  Courcy  in  1187.  It  seems 
to  have  been  formerly  either  Benedictine  or 
Savignian.  Monasterevan,  Co.  Kildare,  owes  its 
origin  to  Dermot  O’Dempsey,  Prince  of  Offaly, 
in  1189.  The  first  abbot  became  Bishop  of  Leighlin. 
Knockmoy  Abbey,  Co.  Galway,  was  founded  by 
Cathal  Crovderg,  King  of  Connaught,  in  1190.  He 
afterwards  became  a  Cistercian  monk.  In  1290 
Abbot  Laurence  became  Bishop  of  Kilmacdaugh. 
Leigh  or  Gray  Abbey,  on  the  shore  of  Strongford 
Lough,  was  founded  in  1193  by  Africa,  daughter  of 
the  King  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  The  ruins  indicate 


CISTERCIANS 


CISTERCIANS 


the  abbey’s  former  beauty  and  magnificence.  Cor- 
comroe  Abbey,  Co.  Clare,  founded  in  1194,  is 
attributed  to  Donald  Mor  O’Brien,  King  of  Lim¬ 
erick.  A  great  monument  shows  that  Donough 
O’Brien,  King  of  Thomond,  was  buried  here  1267. 
John,  Abbot  of  Corcomroe,  became  Bishop  of  Kil- 
macduagh  in  1418.  Kilshare,  Co.  Clare,  was  founded 
in  1198  by  the  same  Donald  Mor.  It  seems  to 
have  been  annexed  to  Concomroe.  Abbot  Florence 
OTigcrnach  became  Bishop  of  Kilfenora  in  1273. 

Comber  Abbey,  Strangford  Lough,  is  attributed 
to  Brian  O’Neill  for  the  year  1200.  Its  site  was 
supposed  to  be  that  of  a  former  monastery  founded 
by  St.  Patrick.  Tintern  Abbey,  Co.  Wexford,  was 
erected  in  fulfilment  of  a  vow  made  by  William, 
Earl  of  Pembroke,  while  in  peril  at  sea.  Its 
foundation  dates  from  1200.  Being  a  daughter- 
house  of  Tintern  in  Monmouthshire,  it  is  called 
Tintern  Minor.  Glangrah  Abbey,  Co.  Cork,  or 
The  Vale  of  Charity,  as  it  was  called,  is  "supposed 
to  date  from  1200.  Much  uncertainty  exists  about 
this  monastery.  Some  writers  say  it  was  in  Ulster, 
others  in  Westmeath,  others  again  in  King’s  Co., 
and  others  in  Cork.  Kilbeggan  Abbey,  Co.  West¬ 
meath,  was  founded  by  the  Dalton  family  1200. 
Abbot  William  became  Bishop  of  Clonmaconoise 
in  1298.  Graiguemanach  Abbey,  Co.  Kilkenny,  was 
founded  in  1204  from  Stanley  Monastery,  England. 
It  is  related  that  twelve  monks  with  the  prior  (the 
abbot  had  just  died)  were  slain,  because  they 
would  not  take  off  their  ecclesiastical  vestments 
and  yield  obedience  to  Elizabeth.  Woney  Abbey, 
Co.  Limerick,  founded  1206  by  the  Butler  family, 
was  formerly  Savignian.  Abbeylaragh  or  Granard, 
Co.  Longford,  was  founded  in  1214  by  Richard 
Tuile,  Baron  Palatine  of  Moyashel.  In  1315 
Edwrard  Bruce  burned  the  town  and  despoiled  the 
abbey.  In  this  place  a  monastery  had  already  been 
founded  by  St.  Patrick.  The  first  abbot  whom 
St.  Patrick  appointed  was  St.  Guasacht,  son  of 
Milcho,  wTho  is  called  a  saint,  St.  Patrick’s  old 
master.  In  1398  Abbot  Peter  became  Bishop  of 
Clonmacnoise,  and  in  1541  Richard,  the  last  abbot, 
was  raised  to  the  see  of  Ardagh.  Moycoscane,  Co. 
Derry,  was  founded  in  1218.  John,  third  abbot, 
became  Bishop  of  Derry  in  1401.  Tracton  Abbey, 
Co.  Cork,  was  erected  in  1225  by  the  MacCarthy 
family.  There  was  a  relic  of  the  true  Cross  here, 
which  was  venerated  by  great  crowds  on  Holy 
Thursday.  Hore  Abbey,  Co.  Tipperary,  formerly 
Benedictine,  became  Cistercian  in  1272  at  the  in¬ 
stance  of  MacCarvill,  Archbishop  of  Cashel.  There 
were  also  monasteries  at:  Monkstown,  Co.  Dublin; 
Athlone,  Co.  Roscommon;  Helfothur,  Co.  Donegal; 
Juchrie,  Co.  Cork;  Abbeyfeale,  Co.  Limerick;  and 
at  Kilkenny;  but  very  little  is  known  about  them. 
Two  Cistercian  convents  of  nuns  are  known  to 
have  existed,  one  at  Derry,  founded  by  Turlogh 
O’Neill  in  1218,  the  other  at  Down. 

In  some  of  the  monasteries  the  odious  practice 
of  exclusion  from  profession  on  grounds  of  nation¬ 
ality  was  carried  on,  as  we  learn  from  the  con¬ 
demnation  of  the  practice  by  the  general  chapter 
of  1323,  which  issued  a  warning  to  all  abbots,  espe¬ 
cially  those  of  Ireland,  to  remove  all  walls  of 
separation  and  to  admit  indifferently  all  persons, 
no  matter  of  what  nation.  The  evil  practice  here 
condemned  seems  to  have  originated  with  houses 
of  English  monks  in  Ireland,  as  we  gather  from 
the  complaint  of  the  Irish  chiefs  in  their  letter  to 
John  XXII.  In  1638  the  Irish  Cistercians  estab¬ 
lished  a  congregation  known  as  that  of  Sts.  Bernard 
and  Malachy  in  connection  with  the  new  observance 
founded  by  de  Vargas.  Among  the  Cistercian 
abbots  those  of  Mcllifont,  St.  Mary’s  in  Dublin, 


Baltinglass,  Tintern,  Graiguemanagh,  Tracton, 
Dunbrody,  Nenay,  Woney,  Monasterevan,  and 
Bective  had  seats  in  parliament. 

At  the  time  of  the  suppression  of  the  monasteries 
there  were  in  Ireland  42  Cistercian  monasteries  and 
2  convents.  Henry  VIII  did  what  he  could  to 
overthrow  religious  houses  in  Ireland,  and  up  to 
1541,  78  religious  houses  had  been  surrendered,  but 
outside  the  pale  the  monasteries  seem  to  have  con¬ 
tinued  until  the  defeat  of  the  Irish  princes  at  the 
opening  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Although  the 
monks  were  often  driven  from  their  monasteries 
they  appear  to  have  returned  whenever  a  lull  in 
the  persecution  permitted.  Thus  we  read  of  Holy 
Cross  “that  the  monks  continued  for  a  considerable 
time  after  the  monastery  was  legally  dissolved,  if 
not  to  dwell  in  the  abbey,  at  least  to  remain  in 
the  neighborhood,  hoping  against  hope  that  better 
times  would  come.”  As  late  as  1700  Bernard  Lahy 
is  chronicled  as  holding  at  least  the  name,  if  not 
the  office,  of  abbot.  The  last  of  the  monks  of 
this  abbey  died  in  1752,  having  his  cell  amidst  the 
abbey  ruins. 

From  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
the  Cistercian  order  in  Ireland  seems  to  have 
ceased  to  exist.  Its  revival  dates  from  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  Mt.  Melleray  Abbey,  Cappoquin,  Co.  Water¬ 
ford,  in  1832.  The  foreign  religious  of  the  Cistercian 
Abbey  of  Melleray  in  France  were  forced  to  sepa¬ 
rate  from  their  brethren,  through  the  hostility  of 
the  French  authorities,  and  the  predominance  of 
the  Irish  section  in  that  community  gave  good 
hopes  of  a  successful  foundation  in  their  native 
land,  which  alone  at  that  time  seemed  to  present 
a  congenial  soil  and  welcome  atmosphere  for  such 
a  purpose.  Principally  through  the  instrumentality 
of  Dom  Vincent  Ryan,  then  prior  of  Melleray,  this 
work  was  immediately  undertaken,  and  in  company 
with  another  religious  Brother  Malachy  set  out  for 
Ireland  to  begin  his  task.  After  many  labors  and 
hardships  these  zealous  pioneers  found  a  holding 
in  Rathmore,  Co.  Kerry,  through  the  influence  of 
Rev.  Mother  Kelly  of  the  Presentation  Convent 
in  Killarney  and  her  nephew.  Later  on  the  Irish 
members  of  the  French  community  arrived,  and 
once  again  regular  Cistercian  life  began  in  Ireland. 
Subsequently,  in  1832,  through  Sir  Richard  Keane, 
who  held  extensive  property  in  the  Cappoquin  dis¬ 
trict,  Dom  Vincent  succeeded  in  obtaining  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  present  holding,  which  he  called  Mt. 
Melleray,  from  the  mother-house  in  France.  By 
the  labors  of  the  monks  it  was  transferred  from 
a  rough  barren  mountain  to  a  fertile  and  delightful 
region. 

Since  Dom  Vincent’s  time  up  to  now  Cistercian 
life  has  continued  in  this  place,  even  as  of  old  in 
Boyle  and  Mellifont.  There  is  a  flourishing  com¬ 
munity  numbering  about  70,  almost  equally  divided 
between  choir  religious  and  lay  brethren.  Of  the 
-choir  religious  between  20  and  30  are  in  Holy 
Orders.  The  present  abbot,  Dom  Maurus  O’Phelan, 
was  blessed  in  the  abbey  church  by  Most  Rev.  Dr. 
Sheehan,  15  August,  1908.  He  continues  the  good 
work  of  his  predecessors  in  the  erection  of  new 
buildings,  the  enlargement  and  ornamentation  of 
portions  of  the  original  edifice,  and  the  furthering 
of  virtue  and  learning  among  the  brethren.  A 
notable  feature  of  Mt.  Melleray  is  the  up-to-date 
school  which  provides  the  youth  of  Ireland,  to  the 
number  of  about  200,  with  a  thorough  and  excellent 
education.  The  greater  number  of  the  students  are 
aspirants  to  the  priesthood.  A  large  number  of 
students  are  prepared  as  well  for  civil  and  com¬ 
mercial  posts,  while  special  attention  is  devoted  to 
agriculture.  Mt.  Melleray  counts  three  filiations: 


CITATION 


210 


CIVITAVECCHIA  AND  CORNETO 


Mt.  St.  Bernard's,  Leicester,  England,  founded  1135, 
of  which  the  present  superior  is  Very  Rev.  Louis 
Carew;  New  Melleray,  Dubuque,  Iowa,  U.  S.  A., 
founded  1848,  of  which  the  present  superior  is 
Very  Rev.  Bruno  Ryan;  and  Mt.  St.  Joseph’s, 
Roscrea,  Co.  Tipperary,  founded  in  1878.  The 
personnel  of  the  latter  community  is  approximately 
the  same  as  at  Mt.  Melleray.  The  present  abbot 
is  Dom  Justin  MacCarthy,  who  received  the  ab- 
batial  benediction  in  October,  1911.  There  is  also 
an  efficient  school  attached  to  the  monastery.  Both 
at  Mt.  Melleray  and  Roscrea  are  large  guest  houses, 
much  frequented  by  clerics  and  lay  gentlemen, 
where  retreats  may  be  made. 

Citation  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-791d). — All  citations  in 

ecclesiastical  suits  are  now  peremptory,  and  need 
not  be  renewed,  unless  when  the  judge  wishes  to 
overcome  the  contumacy  of  the  person  involved  by 
threatening  spiritual  penalties.  They  are  made  by 
means  of  a  summons  (the  Code  does  not  mention 
verbal  citations)  signed  by  a  judge  or  his  auditor 
and  notary,  and  containing  in  general  terms,  at  least, 
the  reason  of  the  lawsuit,  the  plaintiff’s  and  the  de¬ 
fendant’s  name,  and  the  time  and  place  of  appear¬ 
ance.  The  summons  is  delivered  to  the  defendant 
at  his  home  with  any  member  of  his  family  or  a 
servant  if  he  accepts  it  and  promises  to  deliver 
it  as  soon  as  possible.  If,  however,  he  refuses  or 
it  is  otherwise  difficult  for  the  cursor  to  reach  the 
defendant,  the  judge  makes  an  order  authorizing 
the  sending  of  the  summons  by  registered  mail  with 
request  for  a  receipt  or  by  whatever  is  considered 
the  safest  way  in  different  localities.  If  even  then 
the  defendant  cannot  be  found  the  citation  is  made 
by  edict  or  publication,  the  summons  being  posted 
at  the  entrance  to  the  court  for  a  reasonable  time 
and  also  published  in  a  newspaper;  in  case  of  neces¬ 
sity  either  method  would  suffice. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  1,711-25. 

Citta  della  Pieve,  Diocese  of  (Civitatis  Plebis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  III-793a),  in  the  province  of  Perugia, 
Central  Italy,  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See. 
Rt.  Rev.  Domenico  Fanucchi,  appointed  to  this  see 
2  September,  1907,  died  after  two  years  of  zealous 
service,  23  July,  1910.  He  was  succeeded  by  the 
present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Giuseppe  Angelucci,  b. 
in  Genazzano,  1868,  appointed  29  August,  1910. 

During  the  World  War  the  clergy  and  laity  of 
the  diocese  showed  great  zeal  in  all  civil  and  char¬ 
itable  works  at  home,  and  about  one-fifth  of  the 
total  number  served  in  various  branches  in  the 
field,  many  of  them  winning  great  honors.  Present 
(1922)  statistics  credit  this  diocese  with  33  parishes, 
90  churches,  2  monasteries  for  women,  2  convents 
for  women,  55  secular  clergy,  74  Sisters,  1  seminary, 
6  seminarians,  1  secondary  school  for  girls  with  6 
teachers  and  50  pupils,  1  elementary  school  with 
2  teachers  and  90  pupils,  1  industrial  school  for 
girls  with  2  teachers  (Sisters)  and  100  pupils,  and 
1  infant  asylum.  All  the  civil  hospitals  permit  the 
ministry  of  priests.  A  mutual  aid  society  is  formed 
among  the  clergy,  and  an  official  diocesan  bulletin 
is  published. 

Citta  di  Castello,  Diocese  of  (Civitatis  Castelli 
or  Tifern aten sis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-793b),  in  the 
province  of  Perugia,  Central  Italy,  directly  subject 
to  the  Holy  See.  This  see  is  now  (1922)  filled  by 
Rt.  Rev.  Carlo  Liviero,  born  in  Vicenza,  1866, 
studied  at  the  Seminary  of  Padua,  incorporated  into 
the  diocese  of  Citta  di  Castello  as  a  diocesan  mis¬ 
sionary,  served  as  archpriest  of  Agna,  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed  bishop  8  January,  1910.  The  1920  statistics 
credit  this  diocese  with  50,250  Catholics,  156  parishes, 


162  secular  and  10  regular  clergy,  40  seminarians, 

4  Brothers,  105  Sisters,  and  200  churches  or  chapels. 

Ciudad  Real,  Diocese  of  (Ecclesia  Cluniensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  III-793c),  Bishopric-Priorate  of  the  Mili¬ 
tary  Orders  of  Spain,  directly  subject  to  the  Holy 
See.  It  is  perpetually  united  to  the  titular  see  of 
Dora  and  to  the  territory  of  the  province  of  Ciudad 
Real,  where  the  bishop  resides.  The  see  is  at  pres¬ 
ent  (1922)  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Francisco  Xavier 
Irastorza  y  Loinaz,  born  in  San  Sebastiano,  Spain, 
1875,  studied  in  the  seminaries  of  Larressore  and 
Louvain,  served  as  secretary  to  the  Bishop  of 
Ciudad  Real  in  1905,  chancellor  of  the  cathedral, 
then  archpriest,  vicar  general  and  protonotary 
apostolic,  named  Prior  of  the  Spanish  Military 
Orders  and  prelate  of  Ciudad  Real  by  the  king  28 
March,  1914,  appointed  by  the  Pope  11  July  fol¬ 
lowing,  and  made  an  armed  knight  by  the  king  23 
January,  1915.  The  diocese  comprises  a  territory 
of  about  12,254  sq.  miles  and  a  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  383,988.  By  1920  statistics  it  counts  127 
parishes,  11  archpriests,  367  priests,  179  chapels,  and 
13  convents  with  151  religious  and  440  Sisters. 

Ciudad  Rodrigo,  Diocese  of  (Civitatensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  III-793d),  comprising  almost  all  of  the 
province  of  Salamanca,  Spain,  is  suffragan  of  Val¬ 
ladolid.  This  diocese,  erected  anew  in  1175,  was 
governed  by  a  vicar  capitular  in  1835.  Suppressed 
by  the  Concordat  and  united  to  Salamanca,  it  has 
since  15  February,  1884,  been  governed  by  an  ad¬ 
ministrator  apostolic.  At  present  (1922)  he  is  Rt. 
Rev.  Manuel  Maria  Vidal  y  Boullon,  titular 
Bishop  of  Birta,  named  a  prelate  of  the  Holy  See, 
8  October,  1904,  and  appointed  25  February,  1915. 
This  diocese  covers  an  area  of  182  sq.  miles,  and 
comprises  a  Catholic  population  of  120,130;  106 
parishes  divided  among  12  archpriests  and  172 
priests,  17  chapels  and  11  convents  with  35  religious, 
and  122  Sisters. 

Civita  Castellana,  Orte  and  Gallese,  Diocese  of 
(Civitatis  Castellano,  Hortan  et  Gallesinensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  III-798b),  in  the  province  of  Rome,  Italy, 
directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  The  two  sees  of 
Civita  Castellana  (with  which  Gallese  is  incorpo¬ 
rated)  and  Orte  were  united  5  October,  1917.  Rt. 
Rev.  Giacomo  Ghezzi,  O.  F.  M.,  born  in  Castel- 
madama,  1842,  ordained  1865,  custodian  of  the  Holy 
Land,  appointed  to  this  see  29  November,  1895,  died 
26  January,  1920.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  present 
incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Goffredo  Zaccherini,  born  in 
Imola,  1871,  served  as  vicar  general  of  Subiaco, 
and  was  appointed  8  March,  1920.  These  united 
dioceses  comprise  40,200  Catholics,  20  parishes,  105 
secular  and  27  regular  clergy,  36  seminarians,  and 
202  churches. 

Civitavecchia  and  Corneto,  Diocese  of  (Cen- 

TUMCELLARUM  ET  CoRNETANENSISJ  cf.  C.  E., 

III-79Sc),  in  the  province  of  Rome,  Italy,  directly 
subject  to  the  Holy  See.  In  ancient  times,  when 
Corneto  (Corneto-Tarqninia)  was  under  pontifical 
government,  a  prison  was  established  here  for  priests, 
guilty  of  crimes  against  the  holiness  of  their  state. 
Different  popes  accorded  indulgences  to  the  pris¬ 
oners  and  on  18  and  21  July,  1759,  Clement  VIII 
confirmed  these  indulgences  and  added  new  ones, 
ordering  that  they  should  be  put  into  table  form 
and  bung  in  the  prison  corridors.  They  are  both 
plenary  and  partial  indulgences,  applicable  to  the 
Souls  in  Purgatory.  The  united  sees  of  Civitavecchia 
and  Corneto  are  now  (1922)  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Luca 
Piergiovanni,  born  in  Novelara,  1876,  archdeacon  of 
the  Chapter  of  Pesaro,  appointed  10  November, 
1917,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Pacifico  Fiorani  who 


CLANDESTINITY 


211 


CLERIC 


fill  od  this  see  from  1911  until  his  transfer  to  Osimo, 
12  May,  1917. 

According  to  1920  statistics  Corneto  counts  a 
Catholic  population  of  11,000;  6  parishes,  15  secular 
and  8  regular  clergy,  7  Brothers,  50  Sisters,  and  34 
churches  or  chapels.  Civitavecchia  is  credited  with 
27,000  Catholics;  6  parishes,  27  secular  and  17  regu¬ 
lar  clergy,  14  seminarians,  14  Brothers,  30  Sisters, 
and  14  churches  or  chapels. 

Clandestinity  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-1). — Many  important 
modifications  regarding  clandestine  marriages  were 
made  by  the  decree  “Ne  Temere”  (1907),  which  was 
binding  on  Catholics  throughout  the  world,  though 
later  a  dispensation  was  granted  in  Germany  and  in 
Hungary.  Some  further  changes  have  been  made 
since  then  by  the  Code.  Only  those  marriages  are 
now  valid  which  are  contracted  before  the  parish 
priest — or  a  pastor  who  in  canon  law  is  regarded 
as  a  parish  priest — or  the  local  ordinary  of  the 
place  of  contract  (Ne  Temere  had  “of  the  parties 
contracting”),  who  may  act  only  from  the  day  of 
taking  formal  possession  of  or  being  canonically  in¬ 
stalled  in  their  office,  or  if  there  is  no  installation 
from  the  day  they  begin  to  exercise  their  office,  or 
by  a  priest  delegated  by  one  of  them  and  at  least 
two  witnesses.  The  parish  priest  or  ordinary  re¬ 
quired  for  validity  must  not  have  been  by  a  par¬ 
ticular  decree  excommunicated  or  interdicted,  or 
suspended  from  office  or  declared  to  be  such — other 
censures  apparently  would  not  effect  validity — they 
can  validly  assist  at  all  marriages,  even  of  persons 
not  subject  to  them,  within  their  own  territory; 
their  presence,  however,  must  not  have  been  ob¬ 
tained  by  force  or  grave  fear,  and  they  must  both 
ask  and  receive  the  consents  of  the  parties  con¬ 
tracting — under  the  Tridentine  regime  it  did  not 
matter  whether  or  not  the  priest’s  presence  was 
free.  While  the  pastor  or  ordinary  may  delegate 
another  priest  to  assist  at  a  marriage  within  their 
territory,  the  permission  given  must  be  expressed 
to  a  specified  priest,  for  a  particular  marriage,  thus 
excluding  all  kinds  of  general  permissions,  except 
to  priests  appointed  as  parochial  assistants  ( viccirii 
cooperatores )  and  then  only  for  the  parish  to  which 
they  "are  attached.  This  permission  should  not  be 
granted  until  the  freedom  of  the  parties  to  marry 
has  been  duly  established.  While  the  priest  or 
ordinary  of  the  place  of  contract  might  validly  as¬ 
sist  at  any  marriage  within  his  territory,  he  cannot 
do  so  lawfully  unless  at  least  one  of  the  parties 
has  a  domicile,  quasi-domicile  or  has  resided  in  that 
territory  for  a  month — or  less  in  case  of  a  vagus — 
or  unless  he  has  been  authorized  by  the  parish 
priest  or  ordinary  of  one  of  the  parties,  but  in  the 
case  of  vagi  having  no  actual  residence  or  where  a 
grave  reason  excuses  one  from  asking  the  permission, 
the  priest  of  the  place  of  contract  can  assist  lawfully. 
It  may  be  noted  that  the  question  of  domicile  now 
affects  only  the  liceity,  not  the  validity,  of  a  mar¬ 
riage. 

The  bride’s  parish  priest  is  the  proper  priest  to 
assist  at  a  marriage  but  for  a  just  cause  the  bride¬ 
groom’s  or  another  priest  may  be  chosen.  If  the 
parties  belong  to  different  Catholic  Rites,  the  man’s 
parish  priest  has  first  claim,  unless  there  is  a  law 
to  the  contrary — such  a  law  exists  in  the  United 
States  when  one  of  the  parties  belongs  to  the  Greco- 
Ruthenian  Rite.  If  it  is  not  morally  possible  for 
the  parties  to  go  before  the  parish  priest,  the  ordi¬ 
nary,  or  a  delegated  priest  as  mentioned  above, 
or  for  one  of  these  to  come  to  the  parties,  the 
latter  can  contract  a  valid  and  lawful  marriage 
merely  before  two  witnesses;  (a)  if  there  is  danger 
(Ne  Temere  said  “imminent  danger”)  of  death; 


no  special  reason  is  mentioned  as  necessary ;  for¬ 
merly  the  marriage  was  allowed  only  to  set  consci¬ 
ences  right  or  to  legitimize  offspring;  and  also 
(b)  if  there  is  no  danger  of  death,  but  it  is  pru¬ 
dently  judged— certainty  is  not  needed— that  the 
impossibility  of  having  the  proper  assistant  priest 
will  last  for  a  month  (Ne  Temere  required  this 
condition  actually  to  have  existed  for  a  month). 
If  any  priest  could  be  obtained  in  either  of  the 
cases  just  mentioned  this  should  be  done,  though  a 
neglect  to  do  so  would  not  affect  the  validity  of 
the  marriage. 

These  regulations  bind  (1)  all  Catholics  of  Latin 
Rite,  Catholic  here  means  all  those  who  have  been 
baptized  in  the  Catholic  Church,  and  all  converts 
to  Catholicism  from  heresy  or  schism,  even  if  they 
fell  away  later,  but  it  does  not  include  the  children 
of  non-Catholic  parents  who  may  have  been  bap¬ 
tized  in  the  Catholic  Church,  but  have  always  been 
brought  up  outside  of  the  Church;  (2)  all  such 
Catholics  marrying  non-Catholies  even  where  a 
dispensation  has  been  obtained  on  account  of  dif¬ 
ference  in  religion — under  the  Tridentine  regime  on 
the  contrary  the  exemption  of  one  party  was  com¬ 
municated  to  the  other;  (3)  all  other  Catholics  who 
marry  a  Latin  Catholic.  In  conclusion  it  may  be 
well  to  add  that  all  these  restrictions  do  not  apply 
to  other  Christian  or  non-Christian  marriages. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  1094-99;  Ayriniiac,  Marriage  Legislation, 
235-60. 


Cleric  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-49). — Clerics  should  not, 
merely  go  frequently  to  confession  but  should  make 
an  examination  of  conscience,  a  meditation,  a  visit 
to  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  and  recite  the  Rosary 
daily.  In  view  of  their  mission  they  must  not 
volunteer  for  military  service,  unless  when  this  is 
done  with  the  permission  of  their  ordinary,  in  coun¬ 
tries  where  the  service  is  imposed  on  clerics,  in 
order  to  finish  their  period  of  service  the  sooner; 
nor  may  they  take  any  part  in  internal  wars  or 
public  disturbances.  A  dleric  in  minor  orders  who 
volunteers  for  military  service,  except  when  he  is 
duly  authorized  by  the  law  or  his  ordinary,  loses  his 
clerical  status  thereby,  he  is  dropped  from  the  ranks 
of  the  clergy,  also,  if  on  his  own  authority  he 
abandons  the  clerical  dress  and  tonsure  without  just 
cause  and  after  being  warned  by  his  ordinary  re¬ 
mains  recalcitrant  for  a  month.  Clerics  even  if  not 
bound  by  the  law  of  residence  must  not  absent 
themselves  from  this  diocese  for  a  notable  time 
without  leave  of  the  ordinary.  They  are  forbidden 
when  they  assist  at  funerals  to  help  to  carry  the 
body  of  any  lay  person  whatsoever;  they  must 
assist  at  the  customary  processions  of  their  churches, 
and  are  obliged  to  aid  their  parish  priest  in  teach¬ 
ing  catechism;  they  must  not  publish  works  on 
secular  subjects  or  write  for  newspapers  or  period¬ 
icals,  or  edit  them  without  the  ordinary’s  consent. 
If  a  cleric  is  made  trustee  of  property  for  pious 
purposes  he  must  notify  his  ordinary  and  give  him 
details  of  the  property  and  its  obligations.  It  is  ab¬ 
solutely  forbidden  to  compel  any  one  to  become  a 
cleric  and  those  who  are  guilty  of  such  an  offense 
incur  thereby  unreserved  excommunication. 

Clerics  must  not  act  as  sureties  or  pledge  prop¬ 
erty  without  their  ordinary’s  consent.  They  must 
refrain  entirely  from  whatever  is  unbecoming  the 
clerical  state,  from  exercising  certain  indecorous 
arts,  from  gambling,  carrying  arms  without  neces¬ 
sity,  hunting,  especially  if  it  is  noisy,  entering  drink¬ 
ing-houses  and  other  such  places,  except  in  case  of 
necessity  or  for  a  just  cause  approved  by  the  local 
ordinary.  They  should  avoid  certain  other  things 
which  are  foreign  to  the  clerical  state:  thus,  they 
are  not  to  practice  medicine  or  surgery  without 


CLERMONT 


212 


CLIFTON 


permission  of  the  Holy  See,  nor  may  they  act  as 
notaries  or  scriveners,  except  in  ecclesiastical  pro¬ 
ceedings,  or  accept  a  public  office  which  entails 
lay  jurisdiction  or  administration;  they  must  not 
engage  in  secular  business  or  accept  lay  positions 
in  which  they  should  have  to  render  a  public  ac¬ 
counting,  unless  the  ordinary  authorizes  them; 
neither  may  they  act  as  advocates  or  procurators 
in  civil  courts,  unless  in  protection  of  their  own  or 
their  church’s  interests,  nor  may  they  take  part  in 
secular  criminal  trials  even  by  giving  evidence,  ex¬ 
cept  in  case  of  necessity,  if  the  defendant  would  be 
liable  to  severe  personal  punishment.  They  must 
not  seek  or  accept  legislative  rank,  such  as  that  of 
senator  or  deputy,  without  leave  of  the  Holy  See  in 
places  where  a  pontifical  prohibition  is  in  force,  or 
in  other  places  unless  they  have  received  the  per¬ 
mission  both  of  their  own  ordinary  and  of  the  ordi¬ 
nary  of  the  place  where  the  election  is  to  be  held. 
Finally,  they  are  forbidden  to  be  present  at  dances, 
pageants,  and  shows,  where  their  presence  would  be 
unbecoming  or  would  cause  scandal,  especially  if 
they  are  held  in  public  theaters. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  108-486;  Vermeersch-Creusen,  Epit.  jur. 
can.,  184-207. 

Clermont  (Clermont-Ferrand),  Diocese  of 
(Claromontensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IV-53d),  comprising 
the  department  of  Puy-de-Dome,  France,  suffragan 
of  Bourges.  Rt.  Rev.  Pierre-Marie  Belmont,  born  in 
Lyons  1838,  was  appointed  to  this  see  19  January, 
1893,  and  filled  it  until  his  death,  19  March,  1921. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  auxiliary,  the  present  in¬ 
cumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Francisque  Marnas,  born  in 
Lyons  1859,  served  as  vicar  general  of  Osaka,  Japan, 
made  an  honorary  chamberlain  1907,  prothontary 
apostolic  1916,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Sura  and 
coadjutor,  with  right  of  succession,  at  Clermont, 
10  March,  1919.  Since  1894  the  titular  of  this  see 
has  had  the  privilege  of  wearing  the  pallium.  The 
1920  statistics  credit  the  diocese  with  525,916  Cath¬ 
olics,  of  whom  65,386  are  in  Clermont-Ferrand 
proper,  5  first  class  parishes,  447  succursal  parishes, 
and  175  vicariates  formerly  supported  by  the  state. 

Cleveland,  Diocese  of  (Clevelandensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  IV-55a),  comprises  8034  sq.  miles  in  the  State 
of  Ohio,  U.  S.  A.,  and  is  suffragan  of  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Cincinnati.  Almost  a  year  after  the 
death  of  Bishop  Horstmann,  13  May,  1908,  Mgr. 
John  Patrick  Farrelly,  spiritual  director  of  the 
American  College  in  Rome,  was  consecrated  his 
successor  by  Cardinal  Gotti  in  the  chapel  of  that 
college,  on  1  May,  1909.  His  diocese  was  divided 
along  the  west  line  of  Erie,  Huron,  and  Richmond 
counties,  separating  sixteen  counties  to  create  the 
Diocese  of  Toledo,  15  April,  1910.  The  services  of 
Rt.  Rev. .  Joseph  Mary  Koudelka,  who  had  been 
made  auxiliary  bishop  for  the  Slavs  in  1908,  were 
transferred  to  the  see  of  Milwaukee  in  1911,  and 
two  years  later  he  was  named  second  bishop  of 
Superior  on  6  August,  1913. 

Bishop  Farrelly  followed  a  deliberate  rather  than 
strenuous  policy,  and  the  benefit  of  his  cautious 
statesmanship  was  felt  only  gradually.  His  in¬ 
fluence,  nevertheless,  was  progressive  and  profound. 
His  artistic  taste  had  something  to  do  with  the 
fact  that  the  best  architecture  of  the  diocese,  in 
churches,  schools,  and  hospitals,  belongs  to  his 
eleven  years.  His  special  pride  was  the  Cathedral 
Latin  School  which  he  built  himself  in  1918,  and 
which  now  accommodates  750  students.  He  made 
a  larger  use  of  native  priests  in  bilingual  congre¬ 
gations,  reorganized  the  charities  of  the  diocese 
under  a  clerical  director,  and  availed  himself  of 
efficient  lay  co-operation  in  caring  for  dependents. 


He  relieved  the  Sisters  of  the  odious  task  of  beg¬ 
ging  alms  for  their  charitable  projects,  and  by  the 
appointment  of  a  superintendent  for  the  primary 
schools  aided  them  in  bringing  order  into  texts, 
curriculum  and  methods  of  instruction.  Bishop 
Farrelly  died  at  the  age  of  sixty-five  in  Knoxville, 
Tennessee,  on  12  February,  1921.  He  was  succeeded 
on  16  June  of  the  same  year  by  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph 
Schrembs,  transferred  from  Toledo,  where  he  had 
served  as  first  bishop  of  the  new  see  from  11 
August,  1911.  Born  in  Ratisbon,  Germany,  in  1866, 
he  studied  under  the  Sulpicians  in  Montreal,  was 
ordained  in  1888  and  incorporated  into  the  diocese 
of  Grand  Rapids  as  rector  of  St.  Mary’s  Church. 
After  being  named  a  prelate  of  the  Holy  See  25 
January,  1906,  he  was  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Sophene  and  auxiliary  at  Grand  Rapids  8  January, 
1911. 

In  a  polyglot  population  of  half  a  million,  drawn 
from  sixteen  different  nationalities,  the  diocese  has 
329  secular  priests,  and  98  regulars  with  50  lay 
brothers,  besides  25  Brothers  of  Mary.  The  Sisters, 
distributed  through  20  communities,  count  1690 
members.  Of  the  205  residential  parishes,  147  have 
their  own  schools  and  teach  the  elementary  branches 
to  56,349  pupils.  The  diocese  has  a  seminary  at 
Cleveland  which,  though  now  exclusively  theo¬ 
logical,  has,  by  its  nearness  to  the  higher  schools, 
drawn  candidates  with  a  steady  increase.  Of  all 
the  secular  priests  now  in  the  diocese,  two-fifths 
were  ordained  from  the  diocese  under  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  Bishop  Farrelly.  There  are  now  100 
students  for  the  priesthood,  58  in  theology  at 
Cleveland  and  most  of  the  rest  in  philosophy  at 
St.  Bernard’s,  Rochester,  New  York.  Twenty 
academies  and  high  schools  give  secondary  educa¬ 
tion  to  1513  boys  and  2959  girls.  In  addition  there 
are  2  colleges  for  boys.  For  the  service  of  the  sick 
there  are  8  hospitals  with  a  total  of  1300  beds;  for 
dependents  there  are  7  asylums  and  4  homes;  for 
other  charitable  charges  there  are  3  refuges,  1  settle¬ 
ment  house  and  1  day  nursery.  In  recent  years 
the  diocese  lost  three  prominent  members  of  its 
clergy  by  the  deaths  of  Msgr.  Houck,  chancellor 
of  the  diocese  for  thirty-five  years;  Father  Boff, 
seven  times  administrator  of  the  diocese;  and 
Father  Moes,  rector  of  the  seminary  for  a  number 
of  years. 

Clifton,  Diocese  of  (Cliftoniensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-58c),  England,  was  left  vacant  for  a  long  time 
upon  the  death  of  Bishop  Burgess,  second  bishop 
of  the  diocese,  owing  to  a  controversy  which  was 
going  on  over  the  fate  of  the  seminary  of  Prior 
Park,  the  crux  of  the  infant  diocese.  During  this 
period  the  administration  of  the  diocese  was  given 
provisionally  to  Archbishop  Errington,  coadjutor 
to  Cardinal  Wiseman.  After  the  closing  of  Prior 
Park  in  1856  a  new  bishop  was  appointed  in  1857, 
and  the  work  of  the  diocese  proceeded  as  usual. 
Prior  Park  was  re-opened  in  1867,  but  was  finally 
closed  in  1904  and  is  now  the  property  of  the  Irish 
Christian  Brothers,  who  use  it  for  an  industrial 
school.  The  present  Bishop  of  Clifton,  Rt.  Rev. 
George  Ambrose  Burton,  was  consecrated  1  May, 
1902.  At  the  present  time  (1921)  the  diocese  in¬ 
cludes  42  parishes,  52  churches,  20  missionary  sta¬ 
tions,  1  abbey  for  men,  5  convents  for  men  and  37 
for  women,  49  secular  priests  and  84  regulars;  these 
latter  include  the  Benedictines,  Carmelites,  Domin¬ 
icans,  Jesuits,  and  Franciscans.  The  Franciscans 
include  both  Observants  and  Conventuals. 

There  are  20  high  schools,  35  elementary  schools, 
3  industrial  schools,  10  homes,  1  reformatory  school, 
and  13  hospitals.  All  the  public  institutions  per- 


CLOGHER 


COCHABAMBA 


213 


rait  the  ministry  of  Catholic  priests  and  20  of  the 
elementary  and  1  secondary  school  are  aided  by 
the  government.  The  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society 
is  organized  among  the  laity. 

Clogher,  Diocese  of  (Clogheriensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-59d),  in  Ireland,  suffragan  of  Armagh.  This 
diocese  includes  almost  all  of  Fermanagh,  a  large 
portion  of  Tyrone,  and  portions  of  Donegal,  Louth 
and  Cavan.  The  present  incumbent  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Patrick  McKenna,  born  in  Cerrigal,  Truagh,  1868, 
professor  of  theology  at  Maynooth  College,  ap¬ 
pointed  1  June,  1909,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Richard 
Owens  (d.  5  March,  1909).  Various  religious  orders 
are  established  in  this  diocese,  including  the  Pas- 
sionist  Fathers,  Christian  Brothers,  Presentation 
Brothers,  Brothers  of  St.  Patrick,  Brothers  of  the 
Christian  Schools,  Sisters  of  St.  Louis  and  Sisters 
of  Mercy.  According  to  the  latest  census,  collected 
in  1911,  the  total  population  of  this  territory  num¬ 
bers  151,730,  and  of  this  number  98,690  are  Catholic. 
The  1922  statistics  credit  the  diocese  with  40 
parishes,  38  parish  priests,  3  administrators,  60 
curates  and  other  priests,  8  clergy  in  colleges,  87 
churches,  4  colleges,  8  convents,  1  School  of  the 
Christian  Brothers,  1  Presentation  Monastery,  1 
Patrician  Monastery,  and  a  diocesan  seminary,  be¬ 
sides  a  number  of  charitable  institutions. 

Cloister  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-60). — No  one,  whether 
male  or  female,  old  or  young,  except  those  men¬ 
tioned  below,  may  enter  the  enclosure  of  nuns  hav¬ 
ing  solemn  vows,  without  leave  of  the  Holy  See; 
if  they  do,  they  and  those  admitting  or  introducing 
them  incur  excommunication  reserved  simply  to 
the  Holy  See;  clerics  in  addition  are  to  be  sus¬ 
pended  temporarily  by  the  ordinary.  Children 
below  the  age  of  puberty,  however,  are  exempt  from 
all  censures  under  the  Code  regime.  Those  who 
may  go  within  the  enclosure  are  (a)  local  ordinary 
or  regular  superior  when  engaged  in  visitation  or 
other  visitors  delegated  by  them  to  inspect;  they 
should,  however,  be  accompanied  by  one  or  more 
clerics  or  religious  men  of  mature  age;  (b)  con¬ 
fessor,  for  the  purpose  of  administering  the  sacra¬ 
ments  to  the  sick  or  of  assisting  the  dying;  (c) 
reigning  sovereigns,  their  wives  and  suite;  also 
cardinals;  (d)  finally,  mother  superiors  should  get 
at  least  habitual  approbation  from  the  local  ordi¬ 
nary  to  allow  physicians,  surgeons,  and  workmen  to 
enter  when  they  are  needed ;  in  case  of  urgency,  the 
ordinary’s  approbation  may  be  presumed.  No  pro¬ 
fessed  nun  may  go  outside  the  enclosure,  even  for 
a  short  time,  without  a  special  indult  of  the  Holy 
See,  except  in  imminent  danger  of  death  or  other 
very  grave  evil,  recognized  in  writing  as  such  by 
the  local  ordinary  if  time  permits.  The  local  ordi¬ 
nary  is  to  see  that  the  regulations  concerning  the 
enclosure  are  observed,  even  in  the  case  of  convents 
under  the  direction  of  regulars,  and  may  punish  all 
delinquents  even  if  they  are  regulars;  the  regular 
superior  may,  too,  punish  the  nuns  and  his  own 
subjects  if  the  regulations  are  violated. 

The  enclosure  should  be  observed  in  all  houses 
belonging  to  religious  congregations,  whether  pon¬ 
tifical  or  diocesan;  no  person  of  the  other  sex  be 
admitted,  except  those  mentioned  above,  or  others 
when  the  superior  sees  a  just  and  reasonable  cause 
for  so  doing.  The  extent  of  the  enclosure  is  not 
fixed  by  the  Code.  If  there  are  boarding  students 
in  the  houses  of  these  congregations  or  of  an  in¬ 
stitute  of  male  regulars,  at  least  a  part  of  the 
building  should,  if  possible,  be  marked  off  as  en¬ 
closed.  Plans  outside  of  the  enclosure  reserved 
for  extern  or  intern  pupils,  or  for  works  proper  to 
the  institute,  must  not  be  entered  by  persons  of  the 


other  sex,  except  for  a  just  cause  and  with  the 
superior’s  permission.  The  bishop  in  particular 
cases  and  for  grave  reasons  may  enforce  the  ob¬ 
servance  of  this  enclosure  by  censures,  except  in 
the  case  of  exempt  regular  clerics.  Except  when 
lawfully  engaged  in  seeking  alms,  superiors  may 
not  allow  their  subjects  to  dwell  outside  their  own 
houses,  unless  for  a  just  grave  reason  and  for  as 
short  a  time  as  possible  and  in  accordance  with 
their  rule;  if  the  absence  exceeds  six  months  the 
leave  of  the  Holy  See  is  required,  except  when  the 
religious  is  pursuing  a  course  of  studies. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  597-606;  Vermeersch-Creusen,  Epit.  jur 
can.,  604-13. 

Clonfert,  Diocese  of  (Clonfertensis,  Irish 
Clauin-fearta  Brenainn;  cf.  C.  E.,  IV-64d),  in 
the  province  of  Tuam,  Ireland,  suffragan  of  Tuam. 
This  diocese  includes  portions  of  Galway,  Roscom¬ 
mon,  and  King’s  County,  and  is  ft  present  (1922) 
under  the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas 
O’Doherty,  consecrated  14  September,  1919,  to  suc¬ 
ceed  Most  Rev.  Thomas  P.  Gilmartin,  who  filled 
this  see  from  1910  until  his  promotion  to  the 
Archdiocese  of  Tuam,  9  July,  1918. 

During  the  World  War  four  priests  of  this  diocese 
served  as  military  chaplains,  one  of  whom  remained 
with  the  army  and  another,  having  lost  a  limb,  is 
serving  as  a  professor  of  theology  in  Manly  Col¬ 
lege,  Australia.  Large  members  of  the  laity,  well 
over  a  thousand,  joined  the  fighting  forces,  and 
many  of  them  were  killed.  By  present  statistics 
the  diocese  numbers  a  Catholic  population  of 
40,000,  all  Irish,  24  parishes,  46  churches,  1  mon¬ 
astery  for  men  and  1  for  women,  50  secular  priests, 
5  convents  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  1  seminary,  80 
seminarians,  2  high  schools,  taught  by  the  Sisters, 
with  60  girl  students,  2  technical  schools  with  6 
teachers  and  70  pupils,  85  elementary  schools  with 
170  teachers  and  6,800  pupils,  2  industrial  schools, 
under  the  Sisters,  with  60  pupils,  1  home  for  aged 
and  infirm  with  450  inmates,  and  1  asylum  for 
Galway  and  Roscommon  Counties  with  1,400  in¬ 
mates.  The  technical  and  industrial  schools  receive 
financial  aid  from  the  government.  The  Pia  Unio 
Cleri  and  the  Father  Matthew  Union  are  estab¬ 
lished  among  the  clergy,  and  the  Sacred  Heart 
and  Holy  Family  Sodalities,  and  temperance  socie¬ 
ties  among  the  laity. 

Cloyne,  Diocese  of  (Cloynensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-72c),  comprising  a  large  portion  of  County  Cork, 
Ireland,  is  suffragan  of  Cashel.  This  see  is  now 
(1922)  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Robert  Brown,  born  in 
Charleville,  1844,  appointed  26  June,  1894.  On  24 
August,  1919,  the  new  Cathedral  of  St.  Colman  was 
consecrated  by  Cardinal  Logue  in  the  presence  of 
70,000  people,  and  a  set  of  chimes  with  forty  bells 
was  afterwards  installed.  The  Presentation,  de  la 
Salle,  Patrician  and  Irish  Christian  Brothers  are 
established  in  this  diocese,  as  well  as  the  Presenta¬ 
tion  nuns,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Loreto  Sisters,  Sisters 
of  Charity,  Sisters  of  the  Little  Company  of  Mary, 
Bon  Secours  Sisters,  and  Poor  Servants  of  the 
Mother  of  God.  According  to  the  1911  census  the 
Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  counts  128,488, 
non-Catholics  9,426.  In  1920  there  were  44  parish 
priests,  3  administrators,  78  curates,  7  chaplains,  5 
priests  at  St.  Colman’s  College,  47  parishes,  103 
parochial  and  district  churches,  19  convents  with 
410  members  in  the  communities,  and  8  schools 
conducted  by  Christian  Brothers,  besides  orphan¬ 
ages,  industrial  schools  and  homes. 

Cochabamba,  Diocese  of  (Cochabambensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  IV-75c),  in  Bolivia,  South  America,  suf¬ 
fragan  of  La  Plata.  After  the  death  of  Rt.  Rev. 


COCHIN 


214 


COCHIN  CHINA 


Jacinto  Anaya,  appointed  18  August,  1897,  d.  17 
December,  1915,  this  see  was  vacant  for  a  year 
before  the  appointment  of  the  present  incumbent, 
Rt.  Rev.  Luigi  Francesco  Pierini,  b.  at  Bagnaia 
1871,  appointed  20  February,  1918.  In  1914  this 
diocese  was  solemnly  united  with  the  Eucharistic 
Congress  of  Lourdes,  and  the  people  took  part  in 
the  devotions  with  great  fervor.  During  recent 
years  it  lost  a  prominent  member  by  the  death  of 
Dr.  Mariano  Baptista,  ex-President  of  the  Republic, 
founder  of  the  Catholic  Union,  and  zealous  de¬ 
fender  of  the  Catholic  institutions. 

By  latest  (1922)  statistics  the  population  of  the 
diocese  numbers  550,000,  made  up  of  Spanish- 
Americans  and  half-breeds,  about  60 %  of  the  total 
population  being  Indians,  30%  half-breeds,  and  10% 
whites.  There  are  53  parishes,  74  churches,  100 
public  chapels,  1  mission,  3  monasteries  of  women, 

4  convents  of  men,  129  secular  and  32  regular  clergy, 

6  Brothers,  95  Sisters,  1  seminary,  22  seminarians, 

2  colleges  for  boys  with  6  teachers  and  240  students, 

1  college  of  women  with  9  teachers  and  340 
students,  1  asylum  and  1  hospital.  All  the  state 
colleges  and  charitable  institutions  permit  the 
priests  to  minister  in  them,  and  the  seminary,  one 
college  and  the  orphanage  receive  state  aid.  The 
Apostolic  Union  is  organized  among  the  clergy, 
and  a  Catholic  Center,  and  the  Knights  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  among  the  laity.  Two  periodicals, 
"Bolivia  Eclesiastico”  and  “Informacion  Catolica, 
are  published. 

Cochin,  Denys-Marie-Pierrb-Augustin,  Baron, 
statesman  and  author,  b.  at  Paris  on  1  September, 
1851;  d.  there  on  24  March,  1922.  He  was  the  son 
of  Pierre-Susana-Augustin  Cochin,  member  of  the 
French  Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences, 
and  Adeline,  daughter  of  Count  Benoist  d’Azy.  He 
belonged  to  one  of  the  oldest  known  Paris  families, 
one  of  his  ancestors  having  been  an  alderman  there 
in  the  days  of  St.  Louis,  King  of  France,  while 
another  held  a  similar  position  under  Francis  II  m 
1562.  His  father  was  elected  Prefet  of  the  Seine-et- 
Oise  in  1871.  Denys  Cochin  was  studying  at  the 
Lycee  Louis-le-Grand,  with  Brunetiere,  Becquerel, 
and  Paul  Bourget,  when  the  war  of  1870  broke  out. 
He  fought  with  the  Eighth  Lancers,  taking  part  in 
Bourbaki’s  campaign,  being  twice  wounded,  and  re¬ 
ceiving  the  medaille  militaire  for  bravery.  On  being 
mustered  out  of  the  army  he  continued  his  studies, 
graduating  in  law  and  science.  He  then  entered  the 
diplomatic  service  and  for  a  time  was  an  attache 
at  the  Embassy  in  London,  but  soon  he  returned 
to  his  scientific  studies  and  for  several  years  carried 
out  research  work  under  Pasteur.  In  1878  he  en¬ 
gaged  in  politics,  and  was  elected  to  the  municipal 
council  of  Paris.  True  to  the  religious  spirit  of 
his  family  he  protested  vigorously  against  the 
secularization  of  the  schools  and  hospitals,  par¬ 
ticularly  against  the  violation  of  the  religious  pro¬ 
visions  in  the  charter  of  the  Hopital  Cochin  which 
was  established  in  the  eighteenth  century  by  his 
great-uncle,  Abbe  Jacques-Denys  Cochin.  At  a 
later  period  he  was  elected  to  the  French  Chamber, 
where,  distinguished  by  his  powers  of  oratory,  he 
vigorously  opposed  the  anti-Catholic  policy  of 
Combes  and  Waldeck-Rousseau.  When,  after  the 
separation,  the  Government  expelled  the  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Paris  from  his  palace,  Denys  Cochin 
placed  his  magnificent  residence  in  the  rue  de 
Babylone  at  the  disposal  of  Cardinal  Richard. 
M.  Cochin  was  a  recognized  authority  on  Near- 
Eastern  questions,  and  was  an  ardent  pleader  on 
behalf  of  the  Armenians  and  Greeks.  In  1914,  when 
the  French  Government  withdrew  from  Paris  to 


Bordeaux,  he  remained  behind  to  direct  the  mobil¬ 
ization  of  the  chemical  industries  in  the  capital. 
He  was  an  active  promoter  of  the  Union  Sacree 
during  the  war,  being  the  official  representative  of 
the  Catholics,  and  he  played  no  small  part  in 
bringing  about  the  reconciliation  of  France  and  the 
Holy  See.  In  1911  he  was  elected  to  the  French 
Academy.  Among  his  writings  may  be  mentioned 
“L’Evolution  et  la  Vie”  (1885)  and  “Le  Monde 
exterieur”  (1895),  crowned  by  the  academy,  “Contre 
les  Barbares”  (1899),  “L’Esprit  nouveau”  (1900), 
and  “Ententes  et  ruptures”  (1905).  With  his 
brother  Henri-Denys  (b.  1854  at  Paris),  who  is  a 
distinguished  lawyer,  politician,  and  authority  on 
Italian  poetry  and  art,  he  published  several  of  the 
works  of  his  father  (b.  at  Paris  1823;  d.  at  Ver¬ 
sailles  1872),  whose  “Abolition  de  Tesclavage” 
(1861)  was  crowned  by  the  academy. 

Cochin,  Diocese  of  (Coccinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-76c),  in  India,  is  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese 
of  Goa.  It  is  at  present  (1921)  under  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Jose  Bento  Martin  Ribeiro, 
b.  at  Laurigal  do  Campas,  Portugal,  22  August, 
1859,  professor  at  the  College  of  Missions,  Portugal, 
appointed  bishop  28  February,  1909,  consecrated 
15  August  of  the  same  year.  He  succeeded  Rt. 
Rev.  Matheus  d’Oliveira  Xavier,  who  was  promoted 
to  the  archdiocese  of  Goa. 

At  present  time  (1921)  the  population  of  this 
diocese  is  approximately  450,000,  of  whom  108,700 
are  Catholics,  and  the  yearly  conversions  average 
about  300.  The  religious  communities  established 
are:  the  Society  of  Jesus  with  10  priests  and  3 
brothers,  the  Franciscan  Missionaries  of  Mary  with 
a  novitiate  for  Indian  nuns  with  9  religious  and 
17  novices,  Canossian  Sisters  with  20  religious. 
There  are:  42  parishes,  77  churches  and  chapels,  63 
secular  clergy,  62  of  whom  are  natives,  11  regulars 
(10  Jesuits  and  1  Carmelite),  a  preparatory  semi¬ 
nary  conducted  by  the  Jesuits  at  Alleppy  with  26 
students,  besides  14  seminarians  from  this  diocese 
who  are  studying  in  higher  seminaries  in  other 
parts  of  India,  2  high  schools  for  boys  with  1,780 
pupils,  2  for  girls  under  the  Canossian  Sisters  with 
438  pupils,  10  Anglo-vernacular  parochial  schools 
with  1,156  pupils,  86  vernacular  parochial  schools 
with  7,065  pupils. 

The  charitable  institutions  comprise:  2  orphan¬ 
ages  for  girls  with  124  orphans,  1  for  boys  with 
15  orphans,  2  industrial  schools  for  girls  with  88 
pupils,  2  catechumenates  and  a  printing  office. 
There  are  66  different  confraternities  established 
throughout  the  diocese,  3  congregations  of  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis,  1  Association  of  Holy  Family, 
2  conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  2  societies 
for  the  relief  of  the  souls  in  purgatory,  15  sodalities 
of  the  children  of  Mary,  1  Misericordia  Confra¬ 
ternity.  The  Apostleship  of  Prayer  and  the  Asso¬ 
ciation  of  Christian  Doctrine  are  established  in  all 
the  parishes  and  the  confraternity  of  Mount  Carmel 
in  almost  all  of  them. 

Cochin  China,  Eastern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Cocincinn,®  orientalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII-777d),  one 
of  the  three  ecclesiastical  divisions  of  the  French 
possession  of  this  name  in  Indo-China.  By  a  decree 
of  1  July,  1907,  the  most  northerly  province  of  this 
vicariate,  the  region  of  Phan-thiet,  was  united  to 
the  vicariate  apostolic  of  Western  Cochin  China 
because  of  the  difficulty  the  bishop  had  in  visiting 
it.  The  present  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Damien 
Grangeon,  of  the  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  b.  in 
Gelles,  France,  1857,  ordained  1883,  appointed  21 
March,  1902,  titular  Bishop  of  Utina.  He  was  as¬ 
sisted  by  Rt.  Rev.  'Constante-Philomene  Yean- 


COCHIN  CHINA 


215 


CODE  OF  CANON  LAW 


ningros,  his  coadjutor,  titular  Bishop  of  Havara 
from  1912  until  his  death,  21  March,  1921. 

During  the  World  War  18  missionaries  were 
mobilized  from  the  vicariate,  some  of  whom  re¬ 
turned  to  France,  others  remaining  here;  two  were 
decorated  with  the  croix  de  guerre,  and  many  won 
other  citations.  The  (1922)  statistics  credit  this 
territory  with  a  total  population  of  2,800,000,  of 
wThom  68,880  are  Catholics  (Annamites  and  Bahnar 
natives).  The  vicariate  comprises  56  parishes,  489 
churches,  518  missions,  121  secular  priests,  3  brothers, 
8  European  and  260  native  sisters,  2  seminaries, 
132  seminarians,  82  elementary  schools  with  1,480 
pupils,  2  schools  of  catechists  with  169  pupils,  168 
catechists  in  employment,  1  hospital,  and  2  printing 
presses.  A  monthly  bulletin  is  published. 

Cochin  China,  Northern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Cocincinnte  septentrionalis  ;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII-777d), 
comprising  part  of  the  district  of  this  name  in 
Indo-China.  It  is  under  the  administration  of  Rt. 
Rev.  Eugene-Marie-Joseph  Aliys,  b.  in  Paimpont, 
France,  1852,  ordained  1875,  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Phacusa  and  vicar  apostolic,  30  January,  1908. 
In  recognition  of  his  work  in  this  mission,  Bishop 
Aliys  was  decorated  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor,  5  February,  1921,  and  on  16  April  of  the 
same  year  the  Emperor  of  Annam  conferred  on 
him  the  decoration  of  Kim-Khanh  hors  classe  in 
acknowledgment  of  the  work  the  bishop  had  been 
doing  in  the  kingdom  of  Annam  for  over  forty 
years.  This  honor  was  likewise  recently  conferred 
on  Marshal  Joffre.  Among  the  religious  orders  rep¬ 
resented  in  this  territory  are :  Brothers  of  the 
Christian  Schools,  with  10  European  and  18  native 
members;  Sisters  of  St.  Paul  with  15  members, 
conducting  schools,  hospitals  and  orphanages;  and 
Carmelites  -with  11  members.  Besides  these  must 
be  counted  419  native  women  who  live  under  a 
common  rule,  but  up  to  the  present  time  have 
not  taken  any  vows.  They  teach  in  the  parochial 
schools,  baptize  dying  children,  and  take  part  in 
other  good  works;  these  women  are  of  great  assis¬ 
tance  in  the  mission. 

The  statistics  published  for  this  vicariate  (1920- 
21)  credit  it  with  a  Catholic  population  of  66,829; 
26  quasi-parishes  for  Europeans  and  48  for  natives, 
306  mission  stations,  36  missionaries  and  79  native 
priests,  an  upper  seminary  with  34  students,  a 
lower  seminary  with  78  students,  42  schools  for 
boys  with  2,080  pupils,  37  schools  for  girls  with 
1,683  pupils,  4  orphanages  with  144  boys  and  149 
girls,  and  2  hospitals,  one  of  which  cares  of  lepers. 
The  following  statistics  show  the  spiritual  progress 
of  the  mission:  Baptisms  of  children  of  Christian 
parents,  1,850;  of  pagan  children,  1,735;  of  catechu¬ 
mens,  1,447;  annual  confessions,  39,269;  annual  com¬ 
munions,  38.342;  communions  of  devotion,  464,925; 
confirmations,  2,478 ;  viaticums,  708 ;  extreme 
unctions,  757.  - 

Cochin  China,  Western,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Cocincinn^  occidentals;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII-777c), 
one  of  the  ecclesiastical  divisions  of  Cochin  China 
in  Indo-China.  Entrusted  to  the  Foreign  Missions 
of  Paris,  it  is  at  present  (1922)  under  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Victor-Charles  Juinton,  b.  in 
Carelles  1866,  ordained  1899,  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Laranda  and  coadjutor  to  the  vicar 
12  December,  1912,  succeeding  as  vicar  apostolic 
upon  the  death  of  Rt.  Rev.  Lucien-Emile  Mossard, 
12  February,  1920. 

During  the  World  War  two  of  the  missionaries 
and  about  ten  Catholic  laymen  of  the  vicariate 
died  on  the  battlefield.  In  1911  a  new  residence 


imo^e  ^Jshop  was  constructed  at  Saigon,  and  in 
1913,  on  16  April,  the  five  hundredth  anniversary 
of  the  foundation  of  the  seminary  was  celebrated. 
This  mission  lost  one  of  its  greatest  benefactors 
through  the  recent  death  of  Madame  Laphab  Dab. 

By  latest  statistics  (1921)  this  territory  counts 
a  Catholic  population  of  78,672,  comprising  about 
6,000  French,  71,172  Annamites,  800  Indians,  and 
700  Chinese.  These  Catholics  are  divided  among 
72  parishes  and  162  missions,  served  through  234 
churches,  1  monastery  of  women,  1  convent  of  men, 
5  of  women,  129  secular  priests,  of  whom  92  are 
natives,  37  catechists,  41  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools,  442  Sisters,  2  seminaries,  117  seminarians, 
2  secondary  schools  of  boys  with  55  teachers  and 
1,409  pupils,  7  secondary  schools  for  girls  with 
28  teachers  and  346  pupils,  1  normal  school  with 
2  teachers  and  20  pupils,  199  elementary  schools 
with  219  teachers  and  10,003  pupils,  and  1  industrial 
school  with  1  teacher  and  19  pupils.  Among  the 
charitable  institutions  established  are:  1  home  for 
the  aged  with  49  old  men,  12  hospitals  in  which 
15,341  cases  were  treated  (1920-21),  and  24  nur¬ 
series  caring  for  4,486  baptized  children.  The 
priests  are  allowed  to  minister  in  all  the  govern¬ 
ment  hospitals,  and  the  children  in  the  schools 
attend  catechism  classes  in  their  parishes.  A  society 
of  apostolic  works  is  organized  among  the  clergy, 
and  mutual  aid  societies  are  established  in  almost 
all  the  parishes  for  the  laity.  The  religious  orders 
represented  in  this  territory  include :  Christian 
Brothers,  Carmelite  Sisters,  Sisters  of  St.  Paul,  and 
Native  Sisters.  A  press  for  the  printing  of  reli¬ 
gious  literature  has  been  founded,  and  a  “Semaine 
Religieuse”  is  published  in  Annamite. 

The  progress  which  is  being  made  in  this  mis¬ 
sion  is  best  shown  by  the  following  statistics  which 
were  published  for  the  year  (1920-21):  Baptisms 
of  adults,  1,244  (714  dying) ;  baptisms  of  children 
of  Christian  parents,  2,781 ;  baptisms  of  pagan  chil¬ 
dren,  4,487;  confirmations,  2,087;  annual  confes¬ 
sions,  42,784;  confessions  repeated,  300,936;  Easter 
communions,  42,260 ;  communions  of  devotion, 
701,769;  extreme  unctions,  1,242;  ordinations,  2 
deacons,  2  priests,  1  subdeacon,  5  exorcists,  5  lectors 
and  5  porters. 

Code  of  Canon  Law  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-56d).— For 

many  centuries  a  multitude  of  ecclesiastical  laws 
had  been  enacted,  not  a  few  of  which  had  in  the 
course  of  time  been  abrogated  or  had  fallen  into 
desuetude,  while  others  had  become  either  difficult 
to  enforce  or  less  useful  for  the  common  good. 
These  laws,  moreover,  were  to  be  found  only  in 
incomplete  scattered  compilations,  so  that  many 
of  them  were  unknown  even  to  the  learned.  Pius 
X,  realizing  how  helpful  it  would  be  for  the  restora¬ 
tion  and  permanency  of  Church  discipline  to  end 
this  inconvenience,  decided  in  March,  1904,  to 
codify  the  ecclesiastical  laws,  abolishing  obsolete 
decrees,  adapting  others  to  the  needs  of  the  age, 
and  enacting  new  ones  where  expedient.  The  arch¬ 
bishops  of  the  entire  world  were  directed  to  confer 
with  their  suffragans  and  the  other  ordinaries  who 
are  obliged  to  assist  at  provincial  synods  and  to 
inform  the  Holy  See  what  modifications  and  cor¬ 
rections  of  the  laws  they  deemed  especially  neces¬ 
sary.  The  work  was  carried  out  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  Cardinal  Gasparri,  and  a  commission  of 
cardinals  was  appointed  to  examine,  modify,  and 
correct  the  proposed  canons.  The  five  original 
members  of  the  commission  were  Cardinals  Ferrata, 
Gennari,  Cavicchioni,  Vives  y  Tuto,  and  Cavagnis, 
with  Cardinal  Gasparri  as  ponens;  these  five 
scholars  having  died  during  the  course  of  the 


CODE  OF  CANON  LAW 


216 


COLLATION 


undertaking  their  work  was  continued  by  Cardinals 
Vincenzo  Vannutelli,  de  Lai,  Martinelli,  Pompili, 
Bisleti,  Van  Rossum,  Giustini  and  Lega.  A  copy 
of  the  Code  as  completed  and  corrected  was  sent 
before  its  promulgation  to  all  the  bishops  and  to 
those  superiors  of  religious  orders  who  are  legiti¬ 
mately  invited  to  oecumenical  councils,  in  order 
that  they  might  freely  express  their  views  in  re¬ 
gard  to  the  canons.  After  the  death  of  Pius  X 
the  completed  work  was  ratified,  approved,  and 
sanctioned  by  His  Holiness  Pope  Benedict  XV, 
as  announced  by  his  Bull  “Providentissima  Mater 
Ecclesia”  (27  May,  1917),  which  decreed  that  the 
prescriptions  of  the  Code  should  have  the  force 
of  law  from  Pentecost,  19  May,  1918.  The  work, 
which  was  published  by  the  Vatican  Press,  opens 
with  the  Bull  of  promulgation,  “Providentissima 
Mater  Ecclesia,”  followed  by  the  Profession  of 
Faith  of  Pius  V,  with  the  addition  of  Pius  IX. 
Then  begins  the  Code  proper,  comprising  2,414 
canons,  occupying  456  octavo  pages;  the  canons 
are  followed  by  reprints  of  eight  papal  constitu¬ 
tions  dealing  with  Church  government  during  a 
vacancy  and  with  papal  elections,  examinations  for 
vacant  parishes,  solicitation,  and  marriages  in  the 
Indies,  Brazil,  and  Ethiopia,  and  by  a  short  gen¬ 
eral  index,  since  supplemented  by  a  detailed  alpha¬ 
betical  index  filling  sixty-three  octavo  pages.  This 
second  index,  published  as  an  appendix  to  the 
“Acta  Apostolicse  Sedis,”  IX,  part  2,  is  preceded 
by  a  list  of  corrigenda  and  addenda  signed  by 
Cardinal  Gasparri,  17  October,  1917,  and  by  a  Motu 
Proprio  of  Benedict  XV,  dated  15  September,  1917, 
appointing  a  commission  for  the  exclusive  authori¬ 
tative  interpretation  of  the  canons  of  the  Code 
and  for  the  compilation  and  addition  of  any  pro¬ 
visions  that  in  the  course  of  time  might  be  found 
necessary.  In  1918  a  new  edition  was  published 
with  a  preface  giving  a  summary  account  of  earlier 
canonical  collections  and  a  history  of  the  compila¬ 
tion  of  the  new  Code.  Each  page  of  the  text  of 
the  canons  is  provided  with  footnotes  indicating  the 
sources  from  which  the  different  canons  were  de¬ 
rived  ;  the  notes,  like  the  analytical  index  and 
the  preface,  are  the  work  of  His  Eminence  Cardinal 
Gasparri. 

The  Code  is  divided  into  five  books.  The  first 
book  (can.  1-86)  deals  with  certain  general  regula¬ 
tions,  the  relation  of  the  Code  to  the  Oriental 
Church,  to  concordats,  to  the  liturgy,  to  custom,  to 
statutory  law,  and  to  privileges.  The  second  book 
(can.  87-725)  treats  of  persons:  clerics,  religious, 
and  laics;  the  third  book  (can.  726-1551)  of  things: 
sacraments,  sacred  places,  and  times,  Divine  service, 
teaching  authority  of  the  Church,  benefices  and 
church  property;  the  fourth  book  (can.  1552-2195) 
with  ecclesiastical  procedure:  trials,  beatifications 
and  canonizations,  special  proceedings  against 
clerics;  and  the  fifth  book  (can.  2195-2414)  with 
crimes,  punishments,  and  special  offenses. 

Among  the  commentaries  or  treatises  on  the  new 
legislation  are:  Blat,  “Commentarium  textus” 
(Rome,  1919-  ) ;  Leitner,  “Handb.  des  kathol. 
Kirchenrechts”  (1919);  Maroto,  “Institutiones  juris 
Canon”  (Madrid,  1921) ;  Noval,  “Commentarium 
Codicis:  de  Processibus”  (Turin,  1920);  Cappello, 
“Tractatus  canonico-moralis  de  sacramentis”  (Turin, 
1921) ;  Sole,  “De  delictis  et  pcenis”  (Rome,  1920) ; 
Vermeersch-Creusen,  “Epitome  juris  ca-nonici” 
(Malines,  1921);  and  in  English,  Augustine  “Com¬ 
mentary”  (in  6  vols.,  1918-  );  Ayrinhac  “Marriage 
Legislation”  (1919),  and  “Penal  Legislation” 
(1920);  Petrovits,  “On  Matrimony”  (1921);  Papi, 
“Religious  Profession.” 

Vermeersch-Cbeusen,  Epit.  jur.  can.,  17-20. 


Coimbatore,  Diocese  of  (Coimbaturensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  IV-95a),  in  the  district  of  the  same  name  in 
Madras,  British  India,  suffragan  of  Pondicherry. 
This  diocese,  which  counts  a  Catholic  population 
of  43,792  out  of  a  total  population  of  2,796,000,  is 
entrusted  to  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions  of 
Paris.  The  present  (1922)  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Augustin  Roy,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Poitiers  1863, 
ordained  1888,  appointed  12  February,  1904.  The 
Brothers  of  St.  Patrick,  Indian  Brothers  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  Franciscan  Missionaries  of  Mary, 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Tarbes  and  Indian  Nuns 
of  the  Presentation  Order  are  established  here. 
By  latest  statistics  this  mission  is  served  by  31 
European  priests,  of  whom  4  are  in  France,  and 
23  Indian  priests,  1  seminary,  126  churches  and 
chapels,  74  elementary  schools  and  an  orphanage 
and  industrial  school. 

Coimbra,  Diocese  of  (Conimbricensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  IV-95b),  in  the  province  of  Beira,  Portugal, 
suffragan  of  Braga.  This  see  is  now  (1922)  filled 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Manuel-Aloys  Coelho  da  Silva,  born 
in  Busteclo,  Portugal,  1859,  appointed  31  October, 
1914,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Manuel  Correa,  died 
19  November,  1913.  The  bishop  of  this  see  bears 
the  title  of  Count  of  Arganil.  He  is  assisted  by 
an  auxiliary,  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio  Antunes,  appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  Rhittymna  12  September,  1919. 
The  1920  statistics  credit  this  diocese  with  539,836 
Catholics,  divided  among  319  parishes. 

Coira,  Diocese  of.  See  Chur. 

Coire,  Diocese  of.  See  Chur. 

Colima,  Diocese  of  (Colimensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-lOOc),  comprising  the  state  of  the  same  name 
and  part  of  the  State  of  Jalisco,  in  Mexico,  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Guadalajara.  This  diocese  covers  an  area 
of  3,386  sq.  miles,  and  in  1920  counted  a  population 
of  72,500  divided  among  31  parishes  and  vicariates. 
The  present  incumbent  is  Rt.  Rev.  Jose  Amador 
Velasco,  born  in  this  diocese  1856,  served  as  vicar 
general  of  the  diocese,  appointed  17  July,  1902. 

Collation  (cf.  C.  E.,  11-475). — Benefices  may  be 
granted  by  cardinals  in  their  own  titles  or  deacon- 
ries,  but  not  by  vicar-generals.  Besides  all  con- 
sistorial  benefices  and  all  dignities  of  cathedral  or 
collegiate  churches,  the  following  are  reserved  to 
the  Holy  See  (even  during  a  vacancy) :  (a)  all 
benefices  rendered  vacant  by  the  death,  promotion, 
renunciation  or  transfer  of  cardinals,  papal  legates, 
higher  officials  of  the  Sacred  Congregations,  tribu¬ 
nals,  and  offices  of  the  Roman  Curia,  and  of  those 
who  are  members,  even  honorary,  of  the  papal 
family  at  the  time  of  vacating  the  benefice;  (b) 
which,  though  founded  outside  of  the  Roman  Curia, 
have  become  vacant  by  the  death  of  the  beneficiary 
in  Rome;  (c)  which  have  been  invalidly  conferred 
owing  to  simony;  (d)  benefices  which  the  pope 
has  taken  under  control  when  he  has  personally 
or  by  proxy  declared  the  election  void  or  forbidden 
the  electors  to  hold  it,  or  accepted  the  renuncia¬ 
tion,  or  promoted  or  transferred  the  beneficiary  or 
deprived  him  of  the  benefice,  or  given  the  benefice 
in  commendam.  If  an  ordinary  fails  to  grant  a 
benefice  within  six  months  after  learning  of  the 
vacancy — except  when  he  judges  it  prudent  under 
special  circumstances  not  to  fill  a  parochial  benefice 
— the  right  of  collation  devolves  on  the  Holy  See. 

No  one  can  grant  a  benefice  to  himself;  all  bene¬ 
fices  must  be  granted  for  the  lifetime  of  the  holder, 
unless  the  terms  of  the  foundation,  or  immemorial 
custom,  or  a  special  indult  provides  otherwise. 
Clerics  or  laymen  knowingly  presenting  or  nominat- 


COLLE  DI  VAL  D’ELSA 


217 


COLOMBIA 


ing  an  unworthy  person  lose  by  the  very  fact  the 
right  of  nomination  or  presentation  for  that  time, 
and  under  analogous  circumstances  a  cbllege  loses 
temporarily  its  right  of  electing;  those  guilty  of 
simony  in  connection  with  the  granting  of  benefices, 
lose  in  consequence  thereof  their  right  of  election, 
presentation,  or  nomination,  and  incur  excommuni¬ 
cation  and,  if  they  are  clerics,  suspension.  Anyone 
who  assumes  an  ecclesiastical  benefice,  office,  or 
dignity  on  his  own  authority,  or  who  takes  pos¬ 
session  of  or  administers  a  benefice  or  office  before 
he  receives  the  necessary  letters  and  show  them 
to  the  proper  authorities,  incurs  canonical  dis¬ 
ability  and  is  to  be  punished  suitably  bv  the  ordi¬ 
nary;  moreover,  he  must  give  up  the  benefice, 
office,  or  dignity;  any  chapter  or  body  admitting 
such  individuals  before  they  exhibit  their  letters 
is  by  the  very  fact  deprived  of  the  right  of  elec¬ 
tion,  nomination,  or  presentation,  during  the 
pleasure  of  the  Holy  See;  finally,  anyone  accepting 
an  office,  benefice,  or  dignity  not  legally  vacant 
and  allowing  himself  to  be  inducted  becomes  by 
that  fact  incapable  of  acquiring  it  later  and  should 
be  suitably  punished. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  1431-47. 

Colle  di  Val  d’Elsa  (Collis  Hetruscus),  Diocese 
of  (Collensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IV-107a),  in  the  province 
of  Siena,  Tuscany,  suffragan  of  Florence.  Rt.  Rev. 
Massimiliano  Novelli,  appointed  to  this  see  22  June, 
1903,  retired  in  1921  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
present  incumbent.  Rt.  Rev.  Andrea  Giovanni 
Masera,  transferred  to  this  see  13  June,  1921.  Born 
in  the  diocese  of  Turin,  1867,  he  served  as  vicar 
general  and  chancellor  of  Fossano  and  Chaplain 
to  Princess  Clotilda,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Biella 
19  August,  1906,  transferred  to  the  titular  see  of 
Himeria  2  December,  1912,  and  made  auxiliary  at 
Sabina,  27  June,  1914,  where  he  served  until  his 
transfer.  From  February  to  October,  1921,  he  acted 
as  administrator  of  the  diocese  of  Leghorn.  In 
1920  this  diocese  counted  a  Catholic  population  of 
50,200,  72  parishes,  605  secular  and  20  regular  priests, 
35  seminarians,  14  Brothers,  10  Sisters,  and  117 
churches  or  chapels. 

College  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-111). — Unless  otherwise 
provided  by  common  law  or  the  statutes,  the  de¬ 
cision  of  a  collegiate  body  is  given  by  a  majority 
vote;  if  two  scrutinies  fail  to  give  a  majority,  a 
plurality  suffices  in  the  third  voting;  but  if  the 
voting  is  then  equal,  the  president  has  a  deciding 
vote,  or  in  case  of  elections  if  he  does  not  wish 
to  exercise  it  the  candidate  who  is  senior  in  orders, 
or  by  first  profession,  or  age,  is  to  be  considered 
elected.  Decisions  of  collegiate  moral  persons  which 
affect  the  members  as  individuals  require  the  ap¬ 
proval  of  all.  Colleges  like  other  moral  personalities 
are  by  nature  perpetual ;  they  become  extinct,  how¬ 
ever,  if  they  are  suppressed  by  lawful  authority  or 
if  they  have  been  one  hundred  years  out  of  exis¬ 
tence. 


vember,  1910,  promoted  8  March,  1920,  named 
president  of  the  Union  of  German  Clergy  for  the 
Missions  3  December,  1920,  and  created  Cardinal- 
priest  7  March,  1921.  He  is  assisted  by  two  auxil¬ 
iaries,  Rt.  Rev.  Franz  Rodolph  Bornewasser,  titular 
Bishop  of  Bida,  appointed  23  April,  1921,  and  Rt. 
Rev.  Peter  Joseph  Lausberg,  titular  Bishop  of 
Thyatira,  appointed  1  May,  1914. 

During  the  World  War  the  city  of  Cologne  suf¬ 
fered  severely  from  areo  attacks,  and  since  Decem¬ 
ber*.  1918,  it  has  been  the  headquarters  of  the 
British  army  of  occupation.  By  the  incorporation 
of  neighboring  tpwns  and  villages  (the  largest  of 
which  is  Mulheim)  the  limits  of  the  city  have 
been  greatly  extended  in  recent  years,  and  it  now 
covers  a  territory  of  19,726  hectares,  and  includes 
a  population  of  663,935,  of  whom  533,680  are  Cath¬ 
olics.  The  metropolitan  chapter  includes  a  provost 
and  dean,  10  numerary  and  4  honorary  canons,  and 
10  assistant  priests;  the  enlarged  city  counts  64 
parishes  and  many  churches,  chapels  and  convents 
of  religious  orders.  By  a  Letter  of  His  Holiness, 
Benedict  XV,  29  June,  1921,  Cardinal  Schulte  was 
authorized  to  found,  in  Cologne,  an  Institute  of 
Catholic  Philosophy.  The  same  year,  the  newly 
erected  diocese  of  Eupen-Malmedy  (see  Liege) 
took  from  the  archdiocese  42  parishes,  61,000  Cath¬ 
olics,  and  65  diocesan  priests. 

A  most  important  portion  of  the  archdiocese  is 
the  Prussian  administrative  district  of  Aachen  (Aix- 
la-Chapelle),  which  was  a  diocese  for  a  short  period 
under  the  reign  of  Napoleon  I,  but  was  suppressed 
in  1821.  However,  in  consideration  of  the  great 
desire  of  the  people  of  the  district  to  have  it 
erected  into  a  diocese  the  archbishop  ordered  his 
auxiliary,  Bishop  Bornewasser,  to  reside  here,  29 
May,  1921.  He  is  Provost  of  the  collegiate  chapter, 
founded  by  Charlemagne  in  804,  which  consists 
of  six  numerary  and  four  honorary  canons. 

According  to  the  latest  (1922)  statistics  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Cologne  comprises  52  deaneries,  divided 
into  1,003  parishes,  of  which  7  were  newly  erected 
in  1921.  The  secular  priests  number  2,254,  of  whom 
1,872  are  working  in  parishes,  37  in  diocesan  ad¬ 
ministration,  40  in  diocesan  institutes,  16  as  pro¬ 
fessors  of  Catholic  theology,  in  the  University  of 
Bonn,  17  as  officers  of  ecclesiastical  organizations, 
12  as  prison  chaplains,  4  as  reformatory  chaplains, 
and  201  as  instructors  in  high  schools;  the  regular 
clergy  number  450.  The  various  educational  insti¬ 
tutions  include:  the  archiepiscopal  seminary,  where 
ecclesiastical  candidates  receive  their  final  training, 
which  counted  132  students  in  1921;  2  theological 
colleges  in  Bonn  with  578  students,  3  colleges  in 
Neuss,  Munstereifel  and  Rheinbach  with  225 
students,  the  greater  number  of  whom  plan  to 
enter  the  priesthood,  104  high  schools  for  boys, 
69  for  girls,  6  intermediate  schools,  10  training 
schools  for  teachers  and  12  sectors  of  small  second¬ 
ary  schools. 


Cologne,  Archdiocese  of  (Coloniensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  117d),  in  Germany.  This  see  was  filled  by 
His  Eminence  Anthony  Cardinal  Fischer,  from  6 
November,  1902,  until  his  death,  30  July,  1912, 
when  he  was  succeeded  by  His  Eminence  Cardinal 
von  Hartmann,  appointed  12  December,  1912,  d.  11 
November,  1919.  (See  Hartmann.)  The  present 
incumbent,  His  Eminence  Charles  Cardinal  Schulte, 
was  appointed  his  successor.  Born  in  Valbert,  14 
September,  1871,  he  studied  at  Essen  and  was  a 
pupil  of  Doctor,  later  Cardinal,  Fischer,  ordained 
22  March,  1895,  appointed  Bishop  of  Paderbom  30 
November,  1909,  vicar  Apostolic  of  Anhalt  12  No- 


Colombia  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-121d).— The  area  of  the 
republic  is  estimated  at  about  440,846  sq.  miles. 
According  to  the  census  of  1918  the  population 
included  2,745,748  males,  2,941,307  females  exclusive 
of  160,436  Indians,  a  total  of  5,847,491.  The  capital, 
Bogota,  has  143,994  inhabitants;  the  chief  com¬ 
mercial  towns  are  Barranquilla  (66,107),  Manizales 
(39,643),  Cartagena  (51,382),  Medellin  (79,146),  Cali 
(45,524),  Bucaramanga  (25,919). 

Economic  Conditions. — Agriculture. — Coffee  is 
the  principal  export  of  Colombia,  the  production 
having  doubled  since  1906.  In  1918  it  was  1,102,677 
sacks;  the  estimate  for  1919  was  1,300,000  sacks. 
About  67  per  cent  of  the  coffee  exported  from 


COLOMBIA 


218 


COLOMBIA 


Colombia  goes  to  the  United  States.  The  cotton 
area  in  1918  was  24,000  acres;  production,  2,750,000 
pounds.  The  value  of  the  tobacco  exported  in  1918 
was  $1,004,692.  The  cultivation  of  rice  on  a  large 
scale  was  first  attempted  in  1918-19. 

Manufacturing. — The  Panama  hat  industry  is 
making  great  strides;  some  86  per  cent  of  the  hats 
manufactured  are  sent  to  the  United  States.  The 
total  number  of  factories  in  Colombia  in  1915  was 
121,  in  which  $12,406,000  was  invested.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  manufacturing  centers  are  Bogota,  Medellin, 
Barranquilla,  and  Cartagena.  The  petroleum  in¬ 
dustry  has  become  of  great  prospective  importance. 

Commerce. — Colombia’s  foreign  trade  for  1918 
included  imports  valued  at  $22,034,004  (Colombian 
dollars) ;  exports,  $37,728,559.  In  1918  56.72%  of 
the  imports  were  from  Great  Britain;  of  the  ex¬ 
ports,  82.5%  ($31,134,000)  went  to  that  country. 
The  United  States  received  92%  of  all  the  exports 
in  1916,  and  furnished  56%  of  the  imports.  At 
Cartagena  in  1918  there  entered  263  vessels  of 
428,625  tons;  of  these  110  of  320,971  tons  were 
American,  and  26  of  66,242  tons  Were  British.  In 
1920  there  were  15  lines  of  railway  (10  national 
and  5  British  companies),  with  a  total  mileage  of 
891  miles.  The  roads  of  Colombia  are  generally 
simple  mule  tracks,  but  are  being  improved  for 
the  use  of  automobiles.  Much  of  the  inland  traffic 
is  by  river;  the  work  of  canalizing  the  lower  and 
upper  Magdalena  is  being  carried  on.  This  river 
is  navigable  for  900  miles,  steamers  ascending  as 
far  as  La  Dorada,  592  miles  from  Barranquilla. 
In  July,  1920,  there  were  13,640  miles  of  govern¬ 
ment  telegraph  lines.  At  the  end  of  1920  the 
consolidated  debt  amounted  to  $2,848,260,  and  the 
floating  debt  to  $10,840,654.  The  budget  estimates 
for  the  same  year  were:  revenue,  $23,855,253;  ex¬ 
penditures,  $27,792,581.  The  main  sources  of  reve¬ 
nue,  were  the  customs  and  next,  the  salt  tax.  The 
leading  items  of  expenditure  were  for  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  the  Interior  and  the  national  debt  service. 
The  following  items  were  allowed  in  January,  1919: 


Public  instruction  . 

Charitable  institutions  . 

Hospital  of  San  Juan  de  Dios - 

Various  ecclesiastical  foundations 
Non-religious  foundations . 


$660,662 

149,500 

269,592 

854,048 

436,680 


The  redemption  of  paper  currency  and  the 
restoration  of  metallic  money  has  been  undertaken 
by  the  Government.  A  special  law  has  fixed  the 
rate  of  exchange  between  the  paper  and  gold  at 
10,000  per  cent,  making  the  value  of  the  paper 
pesos  equal  to  one  cent  gold.  The  monetary  unit 
is  a  gold  dollar  equal  to  one-fifth  of  a  pound 
sterling  or  $0.97  United  States  money.  The  first 
gold  was  coined  in  1913  and  in  1916  a  law  allowed 
the  Government  to  coin  gold  pieces  in  the  mints 
of  Bogota  and  Medellin  free  of  charge.  The  silver 
coins  minted  before  1911  ceased  to  be  legal  tender 
on  1  May,  1918. 

Education. — According  to  law,  attendance  in  the 
public  school  is  gratuitous,  but  not  compulsory. 
The  school  system  is  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction  and  .the  national 
Government  furnishes  the  textbooks,  supplies,  and 
appliances,  while  the  departments  and  municipalities 
furnish  the  buildings  and  pay  the  teachers.  Educa¬ 
tion  is  divided  into  primary,  secondary,  profes¬ 
sional,  artistic,  and  industrial.  In  1919  there  were 
5,236  primary  schools  with  32,696  pupils,  75  second¬ 
ary  schools  with  6,716  pupils,  24  professional  schools 


with  2,317  pupils,  and  24  art  and  trade  schools 
with  1,203  pupils.  In  1920  there  were  altogether 
4,422  public  and  private  elementary  schools  with 
333,658  pupils;  also  27  normal  schools  with  1,359 
pupils.  The  universities  of  Medellin,  Cartagena, 
Popayan  and  Pasto  had  an  attendance  of  2,488  in 
1917.  In  1919  the  State  spent  1,096,810  pesos.  A 
university  for  women  has  been  opened.  In  1918 
the  pupils  in  the  public  schools  of  the  municipality 
of  Medellin  included  17.1%  of  the  population, 
which,  compared  with  19.65%  in  the  United  States, 
speaks  very  favorably  for  primary  education  in  this 
progressive  district  of  Colombia.  In  1918,  7.31% 
throughout  the  Department  of  Antioquia  were  at¬ 
tending  school,  as  compared  with  an  average  of  only 
3%  for  the  rest  of  the  country  outside  the  De¬ 
partments  of  Caldas  and  El  Valle. 

Government. — At  present  there  are  14  depart¬ 
ments,  2  “intendencies,”  and  7  commissaries.  The 
legislative  power  rests  with  a  Congress  of  two 
Houses,  called  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre¬ 
sentatives.  The  Senate  contains  34  senators  elected 
for  4  years  indirectly  by  electors  chosen  for  the 
purpose.  The  House  of  Representatives  consists 
of  92  members  elected  by  the  people  in  17  electoral 
circumscriptions  (one  for  every  50,000  of  popula¬ 
tion).  Senators  are  elected  for  4  years,  one  for 
every  120,000  inhabitants;  representatives  for  2 
years.  The  President  is  elected  by  direct  vote  of 
the  people  for  a  term  of  4  years  and  has  two  sub¬ 
stitutes  (designados) ,  a  first  and  second,  elected 
annually  by  Congress  to  succeed  the  President 
respectively,  in  case  of  his  absence,  death,  or  in¬ 
ability  to  serve.  There  is  no  vice-president.  Ap¬ 
pointed  bjr  the  President  and  freely  removable  by 
him  are  the  Ministers  of  War,  Finance,  Foreign 
Affairs,  Public  Instruction,  Treasury,  Agriculture, 
and  Commerce  and  Public  Works.  The  Supreme 
Court  judges  (9)  are  elected  for  five  years,  four 
by  the  Senate,  five  by  the  House.  General  Pedro 
Nel  Aspina  was  elected  President  in  February,  1922. 
The  Presidents  since  1910  have  been  Senor  Carlos 
E.  Restrepo  (1910-1914),  Don  Jose  Vincente  Concha 
( 1914—18) ,  and  Senor  Marco  Fidel  Suarez  (1918-22). 

Army  and  Navy.— There  is  compulsory  military 
service  for  a  year  and  a  half  or.  a  year.  The  per¬ 
manent  army  of  Colombia  consists  of  about  6,000 
men.  The  President  is,  however,  authorized  to 
increase  this  number  to  20,000  men  in  case  of  public 
necessity.  The  total  war  strength  of  the  armed 
force,  including  trained  reserves,  is  estimated  at 
120,000. 

Ecclesiastical  History. — In  March,  1908,  the  pre¬ 
fectures  apostolic  of  Piani  di  S.  Martino  and  In- 
tendencia  Orientale  were  united  and  erected  into 
a  vicariate.  On  28  April,  1908,  the  prefecture  apos¬ 
tolic  of  Chaco  was  erected,  and  entrusted  to  the 
care  of  the  Sons  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary. 
The  vicariate  apostolic  of  Casanare  was.  divided  in 
1915,  and  the  Prefecture  of  Arauca  formed  from 
that  part  of  its  northern  territory  west  of  the 
Casanare  River.  In  the  same  year  the  Diocese 
of  Antioquia  was  dismembered,  the  southern  por¬ 
tion  being  erected  into  the  Diocese  of  Jerico.  In 
1917  the  latter  was  reunited  aeque  principaliter  to 
Antioquia  and  the  Diocese  of  Santa  Rosa  de  Osos 
erected  from  territory  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
Antioquia.  The  mission  of  Uraba  became  a  pre¬ 
fecture  in  June,  1917,  and  was  put  in  charge  of  the 
Discalced  Carmelites.  For  Catholic  statistics  see 
articles  on  subjects!  mentioned  above;  Bogota, 
Archdiocese  of;  Cartagena,  Archdiocese  of; 
Medellin,  ArchdioLese  of;  Popayan,  Archdiocese 
of;  and  their  suffragans. 


COLOMBO 


219 


COLORADO 


On  August,  1920,  the  Republic  of  Colombia  by 
legal  enactment  was  solemnly  consecrated  to  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  the  first  nation  to  give  this 
public  testimony  of  faith.  The  ceremony  took  place 
in  the  National  Temple,  Bogota,  in  presence  of  the 
President,  members  of  his  cabinet,  the  Auxiliary 
Bishop  of  Bogota,  the  auditor  of  the  Apostolic 
Nunciature  and  many  other  important  ecclesiastical 
and  civil  personages.  Colombia  has  an  Envoy 
Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  ac¬ 
credited  to  the  Holy  See. 

Recent  History. — In  1903  Colombia  rejected  the 
Hay-Herran  treaty,  a  convention  made  between 
the  United  States  and  Colombia,  for  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  a  ship  canal  connecting  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  oceans.  The  French  Company,  which  in 
1894  succeeded  the  French  Panama  Company, 
formed  in  1881,  offered  to  sell  all  its  property  and 
rights  to  the  United  States  for  $40,000,000.  The 
rejection  of  this  treaty  in  1903  was  immediately 
followed  by  the  secession  of  Panama,  which  on  3 
November,  1903,  proclaimed  its  independence  and 
imprisoned  all  the  Colombian  army  and  navy  offi¬ 
cials  in  the  principal  city.  The  new  provisional 
government  of  Panama  immediately  opened  negotia¬ 
tions  with  the  United  States.  In  1909  there  was 
an  attempt  to  negotiate  a  treaty  between  Colombia, 
the  United  States  and  Panama,  exonerating  the 
United  States  and  Panama  from  any  charge  of 
injustice  to  Colombia.  This  Colombia  rejected 
also,  claiming  that  she  had  isthmian  rights  in 
Panama  and  demanding  the  payment  of  $20,000,000 
from  the  United  States  for  Colombia’s  rights  in 
the  Panama  railway.  Finally,  on  6  April,  1914, 
Colombia  signed  a  treaty  with  the  United  States 
at  Bogota,  agreeing  to  recognize  the  independence 
of  Panama  and  receiving  in  return  $25,000,000  and 
certain  rights  in  the  Panama  Canal  Zone.  This 
treaty,  after  a  long  delay,  was  ratified  by  the 
United  States  Senate  on  20  April,  1921. 

A  new  fiscal  code  was  published  on  4  March,  1913, 
and  a  penal  colony  was  established  in  Magdalena. 
In  1915  a  gold  basis  was  adopted  in  place  of  the 
silver  standard  which  had  been  used  for  twenty- 
one  years.  During  the  war  the  falling  off  of  cus¬ 
toms  receipts  wrought  great  havoc  with  the  nation’s 
finances,  and  the  President  with  the  extraordinary 
powers  voted  him  doubled  the  duty  of  stamped 
paper,  doubled  the  stamp  tax,  decreed  coinage  of 
9,000,000  pesos  in  silver,  reduced  the  salaries  of  the 
officials  of  the  country,  and  taxed  the  imports  of 
gold  and  valuable  wood. 

Colombo,  Archdiocese  of  (Columbensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  IV-124b),  comprises  two  of  the  nine  ecclesias¬ 
tical  provinces  of  the  Island  of  Ceylon,  and  is 
entrusted  to  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate.  It 
has  as  its  suffragans  the  dioceses  of  Galle,  Jaffna, 
Kandy  and  Trincomalie.  Since  1905  this  see  has 
been  filled  by  Most  Rev.  Antoine  Coudert,  born 
in  Manglieu,  France,  1861,  ordained  1886,  appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  Balansea  and  coadjutor  to  the 
Archbishop  of  Colombo  28  June,  1898,  succeeding  to 
the  see  17  June,  1905.  A  number  of  religious  orders 
are  established  in  the  diocese:  the  Oblates  of  Mary 
Immaculate  (104  priests  and  8-  lay  brothers), 
Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  (22),  Marist 
Brothers,  Indian  Franciscan  Brothers  (40),  Sisters 
of  the  Good  Shepherd  (51),  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Family  (30),  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  (16),  Fran¬ 
ciscan  Nuns,  Missionaries  of  Mary  (90),  Ceylonese 
Nuns  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  under  the  direction  of 
the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  (144),  and  Sisters 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception  (155).  Various  edu¬ 
cational  and  charitable  institutions  are  conducted 


by  these  orders:  1  seminary,  23  English  schools 
for  boys  with  an  attendance  of  5,481,  17  for  girls 
with  an  attendance  of  2,576;  231  vernacular  schools 
for  boys,  total  registration  20,507;  228  vernacular 
schools  for  girls,  total  registration  17,804;  6  orphan¬ 
ages  for  girls  caring  for  449  children,  an  industrial 
school  for  girls  with  212  pupils,  1  home  for  the 
aged  with  200  inmates,  and  a  government  hospital, 
entrusted  to  the  Franciscan  Nuns,  Missionaries  of 
Mary.  A  Catholic  press  is  established  which  pub¬ 
lishes  two  semi-weekly  newspapers,  “Nanarantha 
Pradigaya”  in  Sinhalese,  and  the  “Ceylon  Catholic 
Messenger”  in  English,  and  a  monthly  magazine 
called  the  “Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart  for 
Ceylon,”  besides  other  religious  literature  in  Eng¬ 
lish  and  Sinhalese.  The  diocese  comprises  340 
churches  and  chapels,  62  head-stations,  and  300  sub¬ 
stations. 

Colorado  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-129a).-The  area  of  the 
State  of  Colorado  is  103,948  sq.  miles. 

Population. — By  the  census  of  1920  the  popula¬ 
tion  was  939,376.  Denver,  the  state  capital  and 
largest  city,  had  a  population  of  256,369.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  the  statistics  of  1919  the  suicide  death  rate 
for  the  state  was  14.2  per  100,000  population,  which 
is  a  large  decrease  compared  with  18.8  in  1915. 

Resources.— In  1920  gold  to  the  value  of  $10,- 
249,300  and  5,966  ounces  of  silver  were  mined.  The 
coal  output  for  1918  was  10,484,237  tons  bituminous 
and  12,483,336  tons  anthracite.  The  average  wheat 
yield  (1919)  was  about  fourteen  bushels  to  the  acre. 
The  value  of  output  of  agriculture,  dairy  and  poul¬ 
try  for  1919  was  $193,761,245;  fruit,  $16,978,412.  In 
1920  the  irrigated  acreage  was  3,348,385,  yielding 
a  total  crop  value  of  $486,000,000.  The  estimated 
value  of  the  manufactures,  outside  of  smelting,  for 
1919  was  $275,391,000.  The  railway  mileage  in  1920 
was  5,610. 

Education.— In  1918  the  State  University  at 
Boulder  had  1,953  students  and  219  professors  and 
instructors.  A  second  normal  school  has  recently 
been  opened  at  Gunnison.  School  district  owner¬ 
ship  is  over  $16,000,000.  The  total  number  of  pupils 
enrolled  in  1918  was  200,763.  The  teachers  num¬ 
bered  7,219  and  the  schoolhouses  3,089.  The  ex¬ 
penditure  for  that  year  was  $9,733,763. 

The  state  laws  affecting  private  and  parochial 
schools  are  as  follows:  No  child  of  school  age 
who  has  not  completed  the  eighth  grade  shall  be 
permitted  to  attend  any  school  where  the  common 
branches  are  not  taught  in  the  English  language; 
no  appropriation  shall  be  made  for  educational1 
purposes  to  any  person  or  institution  not  under 
the  absolute  control  of  the  state,  nor  to  any  denom¬ 
inational  or  sectarian  institution  or  association. 
(IV,  34) ;  lots  with  the  buildings  thereon,  if  said 
buildings  are  used  exclusively  for  schools,  shall  be 
exempt  from  taxation  (X-5).  All  teachers  in  public 
and  private  schools  must  take  oath  of  allegiance; 
compulsory  school  law  requires  that  children  attend¬ 
ing  private  schools  shall  receive  such  instruction 
as  will  be  an  equivalent  to  that  given  in  the  public 
schools.  For  Catholic  school  statistics  see  Denver, 
Diocese  of. 

Legislative  Changes. — Colorado’s  recent  legisla¬ 
tion  has  displayed  the  same  modern  tendency  as 
other  state  legislation,  as  in  the  creation  of  a 
public  service  commission,  of  a  Mothers’  Pension 
Act  (1912),  a  Bill  providing  the  recall  of  all  elec¬ 
tive  officers,  including  judges,  a  pure-seed  law 
(1919),  a  minimum  wage  commission,  a  workmen’s 
compensation  law  JL1915),  and  gtatute  providing 
for  the  investigation  and  control  of  smelters.  The 
school-fund-farm-loan  law,  whereby  moneys  derived 


COLUMBUS 


220 


COMO 


from  school  funds  can  be  drawn  upon  for  loans  to 
farmers,  was  upheld  as  constitutional. 

Recent  History. — The  Colorado  mine  strike  of 
1914  will  always  be  remembered  for  the  extreme 
bitterness  displayed  by  the  strikers.  They  de¬ 
manded  an  eight-hour  day,  a  ten  per  cent  advance 
in  wages,  the  abolition  of  the  guard  system  and 
the  recognition  of  unions.  The  arrival,  of  the  militia 
smoothed  matters  until  it  was  suspected  that  in 
its  makeup  many  of  the  mining  companies’  own 
men  were  included.  There  were  pitched  battles 
and  the  Federal  troops  were  called  to  the  scene. 
After  ineffective  attempts  at  mediation  President 
Wilson  appointed  a  commission,  which  submitted 
a  three-year  truce.  This  the  operators  rejected  and 
the  miners  accepted.  In  December  the  strikers 
went  back  to  work  without  gaining  their  points. 

Prohibition  under  the  state  constitution  became 
effective  on  1  January,  1916.  Three  boards  of  great 
importance  have  been  recently  organized — the  Tax 
Commission,  State  Public  Utilities  Commission,  and 
Industrial  Commission.  Each  is  composed  of  three 
members  appointed  by  the  governor  and  confirmed 
by  the  senate  for  six  years.  The  State  Board  of 
Correction,  consisting  of  three  members,  was  created 
in  1915  to  control  the  penitentiary,  reformatory 
and  insane  asylum.  Colorado  ratified  the  Federal 
suffrage  amendment  12  December,  1919,  and  the 
prohibition  amendment  15  January,  1919. 

During  the  European  War  Colorado  contributed 
34,393  soldiers,  or  .92%  of  the  United  States  Army. 
The  Colorado  members  of  the  National  Guard 
joined  the  40th  Division  at  Camp  Kearney,  Cali¬ 
fornia.  The  summary  of  casualties  of  Colorado 
members  of  the  expeditionary  forces  is  as  follows: 
deceased,  34  officers,  533  men;  prisoners,  2  officers, 
15  men;  wounded,  87  officers,  1,088  men. 

Columbus,  Diocese  of  (Columbensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-149c),  comprises  13,685  sq.  miles  of  the  State 
of  Ohio,  U.  S.  A.  It  is  at  present  (1922)  under  the 
administration  of  Rt.  Rev.  James  J.  Hartley,  b.  in 
Columbus,  1853,  ordained  1882,  appointed  23  Decem¬ 
ber,  1903.  On  3  March,  1918,  the  golden  jubilee 
of  the  diocese  was  celebrated.  During  the  World 
War  it  gave  6  priests  and  6,262  laymen  to  the 
service. 

By  present  statistics  there  is  a  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  109,024  in  this  territory,  comprising  75,843 
Americans,  13,212  Italians,  6,719  Poles,  7,026  Slovaks, 
1,864  Syrians,  574  Lithuanians,  and  3,354  Ruthenians 
of  the  Greek  Rite.  These  are  served  through  101 
parishes,  152  churches,  37  missions,  45  mission  sta¬ 
tions,  2  monasteries  for  men,  144  secular  and  37 
regular  clergy,  5  lay  brothers,  841  sisters,  1  seminary, 
170  seminarians,  1  college  for  men  with  14  profes¬ 
sors  and  375  students,  2  colleges  for  women  with  20 
teachers,  27  high  schools  with  67  teachers,  254  boys 
and  286  girls;  3  academies  with  32  teachers,  480 
boys  and  403  girls;  1  normal  school  with  4  teachers 
and  30  students;  61  elementary  schools  with  427 
teachers  and  15,919  pupils.  The  various  charitable 
works  include  the  Home  and  Foreign  Mission 
Society,  4  homes  with  537  inmates,  6  hospitals,  and 
2  settlement  houses.  The  Eucharistic  League  and 
a  society  for  infirm  priests  are  organized  among 
the  clergy,  and  three  periodicals,  the  “Catholic 
Columbia,”  “Josephium  Weekly”  and  “Ohio  Waisen- 
freund,”  are  published  here. 

Comacchio,  Diocese  of  (Comaclensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-151a),  in  the  province  of  Ferrara,  Italy.  This 
see  was  formerly  suffragan  of  Ravenna,  but  by  a 
Decree  of  7  January,  1909,  it  was  made  directly 
subject  to  the  Holy  See.  Rt.  Rev.  Alfonso  Archi, 
appointed  to  the  see  28  September,  1902,  was  trans¬ 


ferred  to  Como  8  September,  1905,  and  the  see  was 
left  vacant  for  a  long  period.  In  1909,  however, 
His  Eminence  Cardinal  Boschi,  Archbishop  of 
Ferrara,  was  named  Bishop  of  Comacchio  also,  and 
administered  the  diocese  until  his  resignation  in 
1919.  The  following  year  Comacchio  was  again 
given  a  bishop  of  its  own  in  the  person  of  Rt.  Rev. 
Gherardo  Sante  Menegazzi,  F.  M.Cap.,  born  in 
Rovereto  di  Goa,  Italy,  1866,  appointed  16  Decem¬ 
ber,  1920.  This  diocese  comprises  a  Catholic  popu¬ 
lation  of  40,909,  14  parishes,  36  secular  and  5  regular 
clergy,  14  seminarians,  14  Sisters,  and  14  churches 
or  chapels. 

Comayagua,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Tegucigalpa. 

Communion  of  Children  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-170).— In 

danger  of  death  young  children  ought  to  receive 
Holy  Communion  if  they  know  how  to  distinguish 
Christ’s  Body  from  ordinary  bread  and  adore  It 
reverently.  If  there  is  no  danger  of  death  they 
should  have  a  certain  knowledge  of  the  mysteries 
of  Faith  that  are  to  be  believed  as  a  necessary 
means  to  salvation,  and  be  prepared  to  receive  with 
such  devotion  as  might  be  expected  of  children  of 
their  age.  The  Code  says  that  the  confessor  and 
the  parents  or  guardians  are  to  decide  if  the  child 
is  sufficiently  advanced  and  prepared  to  receive  its 
first  communion;  but  it  also  requires  the  parish 
priest  to  exercise  vigilance  lest  the  child  should  go 
too  soon  or  should  refrain  too  long  from  communion 
when  sufficiently  prepared. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  854;  cf.  Irish  Eccl.  Rev.,  XVII  (1921), 
609-11,  for  a  case  where  the  confessor  and  parish  priest 
disagree. 

Communion  of  the  Sick  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-174). — 

Persons  who  have  been  confined  to  bed  by  illness 
for  a  month  and  who  have  no  sure  hope  of  a  speedy 
recovery  may  on  the  advice  of  their  confessors  re¬ 
ceive  Holy  Communion  once  or  twice  a  week  after 
taking  medicine  or  some  liquid  food  (modifying 
C.  E.,  VI-279d). 

Codex  jur.  can.,  858-66. 

Communism  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-1 79b). —There  has 
been  no  increase  in  the  number  of  communistic 
societies  in  the  last  decade.  In  fact,  the  few  that 
were  in  existence  ten  years  ago  have  either  declined 
or  disappeared.  The  name  “Communism,”  how¬ 
ever,  has  been  frequently  on  men’s  lips  since  the 
year  1918.  It  has  been  applied  by  both  friend  and 
foe  to  the  Bolshevist  regime  in  Russia.  (See  Bol¬ 
shevism.)  In  this  connection  it  has  about  the  same 
meaning  as  Socialism.  This  usage  indicates  a  re¬ 
turn  to  Marx  and  Engels;  for  the  document  in 
which  they  first  set  forth  their  system  was  called 
“The  Communist  Manifesto.” 

John  A.  Ryan. 

Como,  Diocese  of  (Comensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-183c),  in  Lombardy,  Northern  Italy,  suffragan 
of  Milan.  This  diocese  is  under  the  administration 
of  Rt.  Rev.  Alfonso  Archi,  b.  at  Faenza,  1864,  ap¬ 
pointed  titular  Bishop  of  Gaza,  19  June,  1901,  trans¬ 
ferred  to  Comacchio,  29  September,  1902,  to  Como, 
8  September,  1905,  and  appointed  an  assistant  at 
the  pontifical  throne,  11  March,  1912. 

During  the  World  War  the  clergy  and  laity  of 
this  diocese  distinguished  themselves  in  the  patriotic 
and  charitable  works  at  home,  as  well  as  in  active 
service  in  the  field.  On  15  August,  1919,  the  papal 
delegate,  Cardinal  Ferrari,  solemnly  crowned  the 
statue  of  Nostra  Signora  del  Sacra  Cuore  di  Gesu, 
in  the  church  of  Santa  Giorgia  in  Borgo  Nico. 

By  latest  statistics  (1922),  this  diocese  com¬ 
prises  a  Catholic  population  of  377,873 ;  337  parishes, 
1,000  churches,  1  monastery  of  women,  9  convents 


COMPLEX 


221 


CONCLAVE 


of  men,  530  secular  and  45  regular  clergy,  23  broth¬ 
ers,  about  600  sisters,  2  seminaries,  200  seminarians, 
2  secondary  schools  for  boys,  7  for  girls,  7  elemen¬ 
tary  schools,  23  homes,  63  asylums,  12  hospitals, 
and  1  day  nursery.  About  10  of  the  public  institu¬ 
tions  permit  the  priests  to  minister  in  them,  and 
2  of  the  schools  are  assisted  by  the  government. 
Besides  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  and  various 
other  missionary  works,  2  societies  are  formed 
among  the  clergy,  and  about  250  among  the  laity  of 
different  parishes.  Six  Catholic  periodicals  are  pub¬ 
lished  here. 


Complex,  Psychological.  See  Psychoanalysis. 


Compostela  (or  Santiago dei Galicia),  Archdiocese 
of  (Compostellanensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IV-187d),  in 
the  province  of  Galicia,  Spain.  The  archbishop  of 
this  ancient  see  bears  the  title  of  major  chaplain 
of  his  majesty,  judge  ordinary  of  the  royal  chapel, 
house  and  court,  and  major  notary  of  Leon.  At 
present  (1922)  the  see  is  filled  by  His  Eminence 
Cardinal  Martin  de  Herrera  y  de  la  Iglesia,  born 
m  Aldeadavila  de  la  Ribera,  Spain,  in  1835,  ap¬ 
pointed  Archbishop  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  5  July, 
1875,  transferred  14  February,  1889,  Senator  and 
member  of  the  Royal  Council,  created  cardinal  19 
April,  1897.  He  is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary,  at 
present  Rt.  Rev.  Ramir  Fernandez  y  Valbuena, 
appointed  7  July,  1911,  titular  Bishop  of  Scillium. 
This  archdiocese  which  covers  an  area  of  5,341 
sq.  miles  and  comprises  a  Catholic  population  of 
900,000,  is  credited  by  the  1920  statistics  with  1,137 
parishes,  980  priests,  1,137  churches,  837  chapels, 
14  convents  with  212  religious,  and  664  Sisters. 


Compromise  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-189)  .—Compromise 
by  option  is  the  only  kind  mentioned  in  the  Code. 
If  the  person  chosen  to  settle  the  controversy  is  to 
decide  by  the  principles  of  the  law  he  is  known  as 
an  arbiter,  if  by  the  principles  of  equity,  he  is  an 
arbitrator.  Only  those  suits  that  may  be  settled 
by  transaction  (q.v.)  may  be  compromised.  Lay¬ 
men  or  those  who  have  been  judicially  declared 
excommunicated  or  infamous  cannot  act  validly  as 
arbiters ;  religious  must  not  accept  the  office  without 
leave  of  their  superiors.  At  an  election  by  com¬ 
promise  the  person  delegated  to  vote  in  the  name 
of  all  cannot  declare  himself  elected;  and  if  several 
have  been  so  delegated  none  of  them  can  of  his 
own  accord  procure  his  own  election  by  voting  with 
the  other  delegates  wishing  to  elect  him.  If  the 
election  is  in  connection  with  a  clerical  college  the 
delegates  must  be  priests,  otherwise  the  election 
would  be  invalid. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  1929-32. 


•  Vii  V?Ilgl0US  communities  of  men  established 
in  the  diocese  include:  Franciscans  (12  convents, 
M  lellg.lol?s) »  Dominicans  (3  convents,  12  religious) ; 
Mercedarians  (3  convents,  28  religious);  Augl 
ustiamans  (1  convent  5  religious) ;  Capuchins  (3 
convents  25  religious) ;  Jesuits  (2  residences,  15 
rehgious);  C  erks  Regular  of  the  Pious  Schools 
(1  college,  11  religious);  Salesians  (1  house,  20 
religious) ;  Redemptonsts  (2  residences,  22  re- 
hgmus);  Missionaries  of  the  Immaculate  Heart 
of  Mary  (2  residences,  17  religious);  Discalced 
Irmitarians  (1  residence,  19  religious);  Discalced 
Carmelites  (1  residence,  11  religious);  Fathers  of 
Picpus  (8  religious),  and  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools  (2  colleges,  18  Brothers).  Eighteen  con- 
gregations  of  religious  women  are  established  here- 
ce  i  Trinitarians,  Conceptionists,  Religious 
of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Sisters  of  Providence,  Daugh¬ 
ters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Sisters  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception,  Sisters  of  the  Good 
Shepherd  of  Angers,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor 
Sacramentines,  Hospital  Sisters  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Sisters  of  Providence  of  Corenc  (Grenoble) 
Mercedarians,  Servants  of  Jesus,  Sisters  of  the 

Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Protectors 
of  Childhood,  Sisters  of  the  Infant  Jesus  of  Aurillac 
Franciscan  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception! 
and  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross.  These  congrega- 
tions  have  in  all  56  houses  and  599  religious.  By 
the  latest  census  (1907)  the  total  population  of 
this  territory,  which  comprises  45,000  sq.  miles, 
numbered  1,113,000,  of  whom  all  were  Catholic 
except  a  few  thousand  Araucan  infidels  and  a 
if1  aLnnUm°e-  have  strayed  from  the  Faith. 
By  1920  statistics  the  diocese  is  credited  with  68 
parishes,  6  sub-parishes,  3  seminaries,  and  122  secular 
priests.  Numerous  charitable  institutions  and  soci¬ 
eties  are  established. 


Conaty,  Thomas  J.  See  Monterey  and  Los 
Angeles,  Diocese  of. 


Concepcion,  Diocese  of  (Sanctissim.®  Con- 
cepcionis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IV-190b),  in  Chile,  South 
America,  suffragan  of  Santiago  de  Chile,  Rt.  Rev. 
Luis  Enrique  Izqierdo  y  Vargas,  appointed  to  this 
see  26  January,  1906,  died  7  August,  1917,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Gil¬ 
bert  Fuenzalida  y  Guzman,  born  in  Talca,  1868,  he 
made  his  studies  at  the  seminaries  of  Talca,  Santiago 
and  the  Latin-American  College  at  Rome,  served  as 
rector  of  the  seminary  of  Talca,  and  then  of  San¬ 
tiago,  member  of  the  council  of  public  instruction, 
dean  of  the  faculty  of  theology  of  the  state  in  1905, 
and  was  appointed  20  February,  1918.  In  1920  a 
new  parish  was  erected  in  the  diocese,  under  the 
title  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  and  entrusted  to  the 
Mercedarians,  and  the  following  year  a  new  church 
of  St.  Joseph  was  entrusted  to  the  Capuchins, 


Conclave  (cf.  C.  E,  IV-192)  .-Papal  elections 
are  held  in  accordance  with  the  Constitution 
Vacante  Sede  Apostolica”  of  Pius  X,  dated  25 
December,  1904.  At  the  first  of  the  general  pre¬ 
paratory  meetings  which  are  to  take  place  from 
the  day  of  the  pope’s  death  till  the  day  when  the 
cardinals  enter  the  conclave,  the  “Commissum  No¬ 
bis”  of  Pius  X  abolishing  the  Veto  and  the  “Prae- 
decessores  Nostri”  of  Leo  XIII,  with  the  annexed 
instructions  concerning  elections,  are  to  be  read  and 
the  cardinals  present  must  swear  to  observe  them 
and  the  prescriptions  of  the  “Vacante  Sede  Apos¬ 
tolica,”  and  also  if  they  are  elected  never  to  cease 
vindicating  the  rights  of  the  pope,  especially  the 
civil  power  of  the  Holy  See;  furthermore,  they 
must  swear  that  they  and  their  assistants  will  ob¬ 
serve  secrecy,  even  after  the  election,  as  to  all  that 
takes  place  in  the  conclave,  unless  in  as  far  as  they 
are  expressly  dispensed  by  the  pope.  Inspiration, 
compromise,  and  balloting  are  the  only  three  meth¬ 
ods  of  election  now  recognized  as  valid,  accession 
having  been  abolished.  Neither  the  violation  of 
the  enclosure  nor  the  crime  of  simony  now  invali¬ 
dates  an  election,  a  provision  adopted  to  eliminate 
any  occasion  for  disputing  the  validity  of  the  pro¬ 
ceedings.  As  the  interval  of  ten  days  between  the 
death  of  the  pope  and  the  beginning  of  the  con¬ 
clave  proved  to  be  insufficient  to  enable  cardinals 
from  distant  countries  like  Brazil,  Canada,  and 
the  United  States  to  reach  Rome  in  time  for  the 
election,  Pius  XI  meeting  the  wishes  of  the  car¬ 
dinals  at  the  recent  conclave,  has  modified  certain 
prescriptions  laid  down  in  the  “Vacante  Sede.” 
The  interval  of  ten  days  has  been  extended  to 
fifteen  full  days;  cardinals  are  empowered  to  add 
two  or  three  days  more,  but  they  must  enter  the 


CONCORDAT 


222 


CONFIRMATION 


conclave  and  proceed  at  once  to  the  election  after 
the  eighteenth  day  at  the  latest.  The  prescription 
for  the  three  more  solemn  final  funeral  Masses  is 
to  be  observed;  but  the  cardinals  at  their  first 
meeting  are  to  fix  the  days  on  which  the  six  other 
Masses  are  to  be  celebrated.  The  cardinals,  more¬ 
over,  though  they  4  may  have  two  assistants,  can 
bring  only  one  into  the  conclave,  and  he  must 
be  a  layman — but  this  is  not  to  modify  the  pro¬ 
visions  already  made  for  cardinals  who  are  ill. 
Furthermore,  the  cardinals  may  celebrate  Mass  dur¬ 
ing  the  conclave  but  if  for  any  reason  anyone  does 
not  do  so  he  is  to  hear  Mass  and  receive  Holy 
Communion  in  a  designated  chapel.  Finally  the 
Motu  proprio  in  which  these  changes  are  made  is 
to  be  read  at  the  first  general  meeting  of  the 
cardinals  after  the  death  of  the  pope. 

The  clerics  present  at  the  conclave  of  1922  in 
attendance  on  the  cardinals  from  dioceses  outside 
of  Italy  were  granted  the  privilege  of  a  private 
oratory,  provided  it  was  first  visited  and  approved 
by  the  ordinary.  It  was  formerly  customary  to  be¬ 
stow  life  pensions  on  the  clerics  attendant  on  the 
cardinals  from  Italian  sees,  but  owing  to  the  pov¬ 
erty  of  the  Holy  See  to-day,  this  practice  was  dis¬ 
continued;  however,  each  of  those  who  had  been 
present  received  a  donation  of  300  lire. 

Concordat  (cf.  C.  E.,  IY-196). — The  canons  of 
the  Code  in  no  way  abrogate  or  modify  the  con¬ 
cordats  already  existing  between  various  nations 
and  the  Apostolic  See.  On  24  June,  1914,  Servia, 
desiring  to  be  free  from  the  religious  protectorate 
of  Austria,  arranged  a  concordat  with  the  Holy 
See,  which  was  after  approved  by  the  Skuptchina 
and  ratification  by  King  Peter  was  published  on 
18  September,  1914,  and  ratified  by  Benedict  XV 
on  20  March,  1915.  Codex  jur.  can.,  3;  for  text 
of  Servian  Concordat  cf.  Rome,  XV,  and  Annuaire 
pontifical  (1916),  69. 

Concordia,  Diocese  of  (Concordiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-206d),  in  the  province  of  Venice,  Northern 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Venice.  This  see  was  filled  by 
Rt.  Rev.  Francesco  Isola  from  22  June,  1896,  until 
his  transfer  to  the  titular  see  of  Adrianople,  14 
February,  1919.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  present 
incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Luigi  Paulini,  born  in  For- 
miaso,  1862,  made  a  prelate  of  the  Holy  See  11 
September,  1911,  appointed  10  March,  1919.  The 
episcopal  residence  is  at  Portogruaro;  the  chancel¬ 
lors  of  the  cathedral  are  ipso  facto,  prothonotaries 
apostolic  supernumerary.  The  1920  statistics  credit 
this,  diocese  with  302,481  Catholics;  131  parishes, 
255  secular  and  2  regular  clergy,  112  Sisters,  142 
seminarians,  and  287  churches  or  chapels. 

Concordia,  Diocese  of  (Concordiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-206d),  comprises  an  area  of  26,685  sq.  miles 
in  the  State  of  Kansas,  and  a  Catholic  population 
of  35,179.  Since  the  death  of  the  last  bishop,  Rt. 
Rev.  John  Francis  Cunningham,  D.D.,  who  was 
consecrated  21  September,  1898,  and  died  23  June, 
1919,  the  see  has  been  vacant  and  the  progress 
of  the  diocese  retarded  on  this  account.  The 
present  records  (1921)  show  the  following  statis¬ 
tics:  churches  with  resident  priests,  59;  missions, 
36;  stations,  10;  secular  priests,  60,  regulars,  34; 
ecclesiastical  students,  5;  1  college  for  boys  with 
95  students;  1  academy  with  110  students;  33 
parochial  schools  with  4,713  students;  3  hospitals, 
and  1  orphan  asylum.  The  various  religious  orders 
represented  in  the  diocese  are  the  Capuchin  Fath¬ 
ers;  the  Oblate  Fathers;  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
and  Sisters  of  St.  Agnes. 


Concubinage  (cf.  C.  E.,  1V-207).— Persons  who 
live  in  public  concubinage  are  to  be  excluded  from 
all  legal  ecclesiastical  acts  until  they  give  proof  of 
real  repentance;  if  the  culprit  has  received  minor 
orders  he  should  be  punished  by  dismissal  from 
the  clerical  state  if  necessary;  if  he  has  received 
major  orders,  and  disregards  the  ordinary’s  warn¬ 
ing  he  is  to  be  forced  by  suspension  and  priva¬ 
tion  to  end  the  association  and  repair  the  scandal. 
Clerics  are  presumed  to  be  concubinaries,  if  they 
are  contumacious  when  they  have  been  forbidden 
by  the  local  ordinary  on  account  of  the  moral 
danger  or  scandal  to  retain  in  their  service,  or 
associate  with,  any  woman.  The  manner  of  dealing 
with  such  cases  is  as  follows:  If  the  cleric  after 
being  duly  warned  neither  obeys  nor  replies,  when 
he  could  do  so,  he  is  to  be  suspended  a  divinis  by 
his  ordinary,  and  is  to  be  deprived  immediately 
of  his  parish,  should  he  have  one ;  if  he  holds  only  a 
benefice  without  cure  of  souls  and  does  not  amend 
within  two  months  after  his  suspension  he  is  to 
lose  half  of  his  revenue,  three  months  later  he  loses 
the  remainder,  and  three  months  later  is  to  be  de¬ 
prived  of  the  benefice.  If,  however,  the  accused  has 
excused  himself  to  the  ordinary,  his  answer  is  to 
be  sent  to  two  examiners ;  if  the  ordinary  after  con¬ 
sulting  them  judges  the  alleged  excuse  insufficient, 
he  must  at  once  notify  the  cleric  and  command 
him  formally  to  obey  within  a  short  specified  time. 
If  the  disobedient  culprit  is  a  removable  parish 
priest  he  may  be  coerced  at  once  as  stated  above; 
where,  however,  the  culprit  hold  a  permanent 
benefice  and  gives  new  reasons  instead  of  obeying, 
the  ordinary  should  submit  them  to  examination 
as  before;  if  the  excuses  are  then  deemed  insuffi¬ 
cient  the  ordinary  is  to  command  obedience  within 
a  fitting  time,  and  if  the  culprit  remains  recalcitrant, 
he  is  to  be  dealt  with  as  above. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  2,176-81. 

Concursus  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-208). — In  places  where 
appointments  to  parishes  are  made  by  concursus, 
this  practice  is  to  be  continued  until  the  Hoty  See 
decrees  otherwise. 

Conferences,  Ecclesiastical  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-213).--- 
Ecclesiastical  conferences  have  now  been  made  obli¬ 
gatory  and  are  to  be  held  in  the  episcopal  city  and 
each  vicariate  forane  frequently.  They  are  to  be 
attended  by  all  secular  priests,  regulars,  even  ex¬ 
empt,  having  care  of  souls,  and  other  religious  who 
hold  diocesan  faculties  for  hearing  confessions  if 
they  have  no  conferences  in  their  own  houses. 
Those  who  are  obliged  to  attend  but  are  unable 
to  do  so  must  send  written  solutions  of  the  ques¬ 
tions  under  discussion,  unless  they  have  been  ex¬ 
pressly  exempted  by  the  local  ordinary.  Similar 
conferences  are  to  be  held  in  clerical  religious 
houses,  and  are  to  be  attended  by  all  the  professed 
who  are  engaged  in  or  have  completed  their  theo¬ 
logical  studies,  excepting  those  who  are  exempted 
by  the  constitutions. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  131,  591. 

Confirmation  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-215).— Even  without 
special  delegation  Confirmation  may  be  adminis¬ 
tered  by  cardinals  and  also  by  abbots  or  prelates 
nullius,  vicars  and  prefects  Apostolic,  who  can  act 
validly,  however,  only  within  their  own  territory 
and  while  holding  office.  Priests  of  the  Latin  Rite, 
who  administer  the  sacrament  by  special  indult,  can 
validly  confirm  only  persons  of  the  Latin  Rite,  un¬ 
less  their  indult  expressly  asserts  otherwise.  Eastern 
priests  enjoying  the  faculty  or  privilege  of  con¬ 
firming  children  of  their  Rite  at  baptism  are  for¬ 
bidden  to  confirm  children  of  the  Latin  Rite;  if 
they  did  confirm  their  act  would  be  valid,  though 


CONFIRMATION 


223 


CONGO 


sinful.  They  may  administer  confirmation  with 
baptism  to  their  own  people  everywhere  except  in 
Bulgaria,  Albania,  Cyprus,  Italy,  and  the  adjacent 
islands,  the  Maronite  districts  of  Mount  Lebanon 
and  the  Ruthenian  districts  in  the  United  States. 
Private  baptism  and  confirmation  in  other  Rites 
may  be  given  anywhere  without  special  leave  but 
solemn  baptism  requires  at  least  the  presumed 
leave  of  the  ordinary  if  the  priests  wish  to  act 
outside  of  their  own  districts.  A  bishop,  or  priest 
having  a  local  Apostolic  privilege,  can  licitly  con¬ 
firm  externs  in  his  territory,  unless  their  own  ordi¬ 
nary  has  expressly  forbidden  it;  the  bishop,  more¬ 
over,  may  confirm  his  own  subjects  outside  of  his 
diocese  privately,  without  using  his  pastoral  staff 
or  mitre;  but  he  would  require  at  least  the  reason¬ 
ably  presumed  permission  of  the  local  ordinary  to 
confirm  others;  hitherto  no  one  might  be  confirmed 
without  the  permission  of  the  local  bishop.  A 
bishop  is  obliged  to  administer  the  sacrament  to  his 
subjects  who  lawfully  and  reasonably  ask  for  it, 
especially  during  the  diocesan  visitation,  and  a 
similar  duty  is  incumbent  on  a  specially  privi¬ 
leged  priest;  ordinaries  must  see  that  their  subjects 
have  an  opportunity  at  least  every  five  years  of 
being  confirmed — formerly  every  eight  or  ten  years 
was  often  deemed  sufficient;  if  an  ordinary  is  guilty 
of  grave  negligence  in  this  matter  now,  the  metro¬ 
politan  is  to  inform  the  Holy  See. 

When  a  subject  has  attained  the  use  of  reason  he 
should  be  instructed  to  receive  confirmation;  he 
must  not  neglect  to  receive  it,  even  though  it  is 
not  a  necessary  means  of  salvation,  and  his  parish 
priest  should  see  that  he  receives  the  sacrament 
in  due  time.  W  here  several  are  to  be  confirmed 
all  must  be  present  at  the  first  imposition  or  exten¬ 
sion  of  hands,  and  none  may  depart  until  the  rite 
has  been  completed.  The  sacrament  may  be  ad¬ 
ministered  at  any  time,  but  preferably  in  Pentecost 
week.  Though  it  should  be  given  in  a  church,  any 
other  suitable  place  may  be  selected  for  a  reason¬ 
able  cause;  moreover,  as  far  as  the  bishop’s  right 
to  administer  confirmation  is  concerned  there  are 
.  no  exempt  localities  in  his  diocese.  The  chrism  for 
confirming  should  be  consecrated  by  a  bishop— 
the  Code  neither  affirms  nor  denies  that  a  priest 
would  be  delegated  by  the  pope  for  this  function. 

If  possible  there  should  be  a  sponsor  at  con¬ 
firmation;  unless  the  minister  believes  there  is  a 
reasonable  excuse,  each  sponsor  should  stand  for 
only  one  or  two  subjects.  To  act  validly  as  spon¬ 
sor,  a  person  (a)  must  be  confirmed,  have  attained 
the  use  of  reason,  and  intend  to  assume  the  obliga¬ 
tion;  (b)  must  not  belong  to  a  heretical  or  schis- 
matical  sect  or  be  excommunicated  by  condemnatory 
or  declaratory  sentence,  or  have  incurred  infamy  of 
law,  or  be  incapable  of  legal  acts,  or  be  a  deposed 
or  degraded  cleric;  (c)  must  not  be  the  father, 
mother,  or  spouse  of  the  subject;  (d)  must  be 
chosen  by  the  subject,  parents,  guardians,  or  if 
there  are  none  or  if  they  refuse,  by  the  minister 
or  parish  priest;  (e)  must  personally  or  by  proxy, 
touch  the  subject  physically  at  the  act  of  confirma¬ 
tion.  To  act  licity  as  sponsor,  one  (a)  should  be 
other  than  the  baptismal  sponsor,  unless  the  min¬ 
ister  decides  there  is  a  reasonable  excuse,  or  unless 
the  confirmation  takes  place  lawfully  immediately 
after  baptism;  (b)  should  be  of  the  same  sex  as 
the  subject,  except  for  a  just  cause;  (c)  should 
possess  the  qualifications  required  for  acting  licitly 
as  a  baptismal  sponsor.  Spiritual  relationship  arises 
only  between  the  sponsor  and  the  subject,  and  is  no 
longer  an  impediment  to  matrimony. 

d  he  parish  priest  is  to  record  in  a  special  book 
the  names  of  the  minister,  recipients,  parents  and 


sponsor,  and  also  the  date  and  place  of  confirma¬ 
tion;  he  should  record  the  fact  also  in  the  bap¬ 
tismal  register.  If  he  was  not  present  at  the  cere- 
mony  the  minister  must  personally  or  by  proxy 
notify  him  as  soon  as  possible  that  the  sacrament 
has  been  conferred.  To  establish  the  fact  of  con¬ 
firmation,  if  no  one’s  interests  are  endangered,  the 
testimony  of  one  unexceptionable  witness,  or  the 
oath  of  the  recipient,  unless  he  was  confirmed  as 
as  infant,  suffices. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  780-800;  O'Donnell  in  Irish  Eccl.  Rec. 

XI  (1918);  206-16. 

Confraternity  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-223)  .—Members  of 
confraternities  may  not  assist  as  such  in  sacred 
functions  unless  wearing  their  habit  or  insignia: 
Women  can  be  enrolled  as  members,  but  only  for 
the  purpose  of  gaining  the  indulgence  and  spiritual 
favors  granted  to  the  associates.  Local  ordinaries 
are  to  see  the  confraternities  of  the  Blessed  Sacra¬ 
ment  and  of  Christian  Doctrine  are  erected  in 
every  parish;  on  being  legitimately  erected  they 
are  thereby  aggregated  to  the  corresponding  arch¬ 
confraternities  in  Rome  erected  by  the  cardinal 
vicar.  Religious  can  and  should  communicate  to 
confraternities  erected  by  them  the  spiritual  favors 
which  are  expressly  jnentioned  as  communicable  in 
the  faculties  received  from  the  Holy  See;  but 
confraternities  erected  by  religious  may  not  assume 
a  habit  or  insignia  to  be  worn  at  public  processions 
or  other  sacred  functions  without  special  leave  of 
the  ordinary.  No  confraternity  may  change  or 
abandon  its  habit  or  insignia  without  the  local  ordi¬ 
nary’s  consent.  Confraternities  must  be  present 
with  their  insignia  and  their  own  standards  at  the 
usual  processions  unless  they  have  been  excused  by 
the  ordinary.  See  Associations,  Pious. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  701-25. 

Congo,  Belgian  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-228b).— The  area 
is  estimated  at  909,654  square  miles,  with  a  popula¬ 
tion  of  Bantu  origin  officially  estimated  at  eleven 
millions.  The  European  population  in  January, 
1920,  numbered  6,971.  Of  these  3,588  were  Belgians, 
818  English,  239  Americans,  657  Portuguese,  298 
Italians,  53  Russians,  87  Swedish,  153  French,  183 
Dutch,  75  Swiss,  308  Greeks,  22  Luxemburgers,  21 
Danish,  14  Norwegians,  and  11  Spaniards. 

Education. — So  far  comparatively  little  has  been 
done  for  native  education.  The  first  schools 
founded  by  the  state  were  charity  schools  in  which 
orphans,  children  abandoned  by  their  parents,  and 
the  children  freed  by  the  dispersal  of  slave  convoys 
were  cared  for.  These  schools  were  situated  at 
Boma  and  New  Antwerp  and  their  management  was 
entrusted  to  Catholic  priests,  who  prepared  the 
pupils  for  the  military  or  civil  service  of  the  colony. 
For  other  natives  there  are  professional  schools  at¬ 
tached  to  the  workshops  which  the  State  possesses! 
at  Boma,  Leopoldville,  and  Stanleyville.  These  . 
are  open  to  youths  from  twelve  to  twenty  years  of 
age,  who  have  the  consent  of  their  parents  and 
have  been  recommended  by  their  chiefs  to  the 
commissioner  of  their  district.  In  addition  there 
are  primary  schools  taught  by  members  of  religious 
orders  and  a  school  for  the  sons  of  chiefs,  which 
was  opened  at  Stanleyville  in  1913.  Some  of  the 
mission  schools  are  organized  like  state  schools 
and  are  under  the  general  control  of  the  Governor 
General;  some  have  obtained  additional  grants  of 
land  and  are  under  partial  control ;  others  are 
completely  free.  The  first  two  must  follow  the 
general  program  arranged  by  the  heads  of  the 
missions,  in  consultation  with  the  Governor  Gen¬ 
eral.  The  only  scientific  establishments  of  impor¬ 
tance  are  the  medical  laboratory  at  Leopoldville 
and  the  botanic  gardens  of  EalsS.  In  1920  the 


CONGO 


224 


CONGO 


Government  grant  to  the  missionaries  for  education 
amounted  to  887,100  francs,  while  the  total  expendi¬ 
ture  on  education  was  1,297,880  francs. 

Economic  Status. — The  gold  mines  in  1919  em¬ 
ployed  some  8,000  natives,  the  output  being  3,356 
kilos.  The  copper  mines  produced  22,130  tons  of 
copper.  The  exportation  of  diamonds  in  1919 
amounted  to  215,532  carats.  The  chief  exports 
in  1919  were:  Palm  nuts,  34,350,030  kilograms;  rub¬ 
ber,  3,797,440  gr.;  palm  oil,  6,404,510  kilogs;  cop¬ 
per,  ore,  and  crude,  23,028,000  kilogs.  Of  the  special 
imports  in  1918,  the  value  of  28,712,502  francs  came 
from  Great  Britain;  1,224,856  francs  from  France; 
2,056,017  francs  from  Angola;  1,824,238  francs  from 
the  United  States.  The  rubber  industry  was  revived 
in  1915,  and  the  following  year  2,232  tons  of  rubber 
were  exported. 

Communications. — The  Congo  is  navigable  for 
nearly  100  miles  above  its  mouth,  as  far  as  Matadi, 
and  again  above  the  Stanley  Pool  for  a  distance 
of  1,600  miles.  The  railway  mileage  on  1  January, 
1920,  was  1,250,  the  longest  lines  being  those  from 
Bukama  by  way  of  Elizabethville  to  the  frontier 
of  Rhodesia  (456  miles),  the  Kindu-Kongolo  line 
(327  miles)  and  the  Matadi-Leopoldville  line  (248 
miles).  Within  the  Congo  system  are  included  two 
sections  of  the  Cape-to-Cairo  Hailway.  The  tele¬ 
graph  mileage  is  2,065. 

Government. — As  a  result  of  the  international 
situation  created  by  the  charges  of  misgovernment 
against  the  Congo  Free  State,  the  Belgian  Congo 
was  annexed  by  Belgium  in  1908,  the  annexation 
becoming  more  effective  November  15  of  that  year. 
The  government  of  the  country  is  now  carried  on 
according  to  the  Constitution  finally  approved  by 
King  Leopold  on  18  October,  1908,  modified  to 
some  extent  by  subsequent  Acts  of  the  Belgian 
Parliament,  of  which  the  more  important  are  those 
of  29  March,  1911,  5  March,  1912,  and  9  December, 
1912. 

By  these  enactments,  Congo  is  placed  under  the 
legislative  control  of  the  King  of  the  Belgians, 
but  he  must  act  on  the  advice  of  the  Colonial 
Minister,  who  is  responsible  to  Parliament.  His 
legislative  power  he  exercises  by  decree,  and  his 
executive  power  by  regulations,  subject,  however, 
to  any  laws  passed  by  the  Belgian  Parliament. 
The  King  is  aided  by  a  Colonial  Council  of  four¬ 
teen  members,  eight  of  whom  are  nominated  by 
the  King,  three  by  the  Senate,  and  three  by  the 
Chamber.  Parliament  retains  the  control  of  the 
Colonial  Budget.  In  addition  to  the  Colonial 
Council  there  are  two  other  bodies  of  a  consulative 
character  at  Brussels,  the  Conseil  superior  du 
Congo,  which  created  in  1899,  and  acts  as  a  court 
of  appeal,  and  the  Commission  des  terres,  which 
was  created  in  1910,  and  consists  of  five  members, 
government  officials,  who  examine  all  questions 
relative  to  the  concession  or  sale  of  land. 

By  a  royal  decree  in  1912,  the  territorial  divisions 
of  the  colony  were  reorganized,  the  number  of  dis¬ 
tricts  being  increased  from  twelve  to  twenty-two. 
Each  district  is  administered  by  a  commissioner 
who  is  in  charge  of  the  military  and  police.  The 
twenty-two  districts  are:  Lower  Congo,  Middle 
Congo,  Kwango,  Sankuru,  Kassai,  Lake  Leopold  II, 
Equator,  Lulonga,  Baugala,  Ubangi,  Lower  Uele, 
Upper  Uele,  Ituri,  Stanleyville,  Aruwimi,  Lowa, 
Kivu,  Maniema,  Lomami,  Tanganika-Moero,  Lulua, 
and  Upper  Luapula.  By  a  royal  decree  of  1914,  the 
last  four  districts  form  the  Province  of  Katanga; 
the  first  five  districts  form  the  Province  of  Congo- 
Kassai,  the  next  five  form  the  Province  of  Equator, 
and  the  remaining  eight  districts  form  the  Eastern 
Province,  with  Stanleyville  as  its  capital.  Each 


of  the  provinces  is  administered  by  a  vice-governor 
general,  to  whom  is  entrusted  the  care  of  its  inter¬ 
nal  affairs.  The  governor  general  has  full  executive 
authority  in  the  colony,  except  in  so  far  as  he  is 
restrained  by  laws  and  royal  decrees. 

Judicial  Power. — For  the  administration  of  civil 
and  criminal  cases  there  are  seven  Courts  of  First 
Instance,  each  with  a  judge,  procureur  d’Etat  to 
represent  the  people,  and  a  greffier;  there  are  two 
courts  of  appeal  composed  of  a  president,  two 
judges,  a  procureur  general  and  a  greffier.  Under 
the  new  regime  (1913)  the  territorial  administrator 
sits  as  a  police  court  with  power  over  minor  of¬ 
fences.  From  this  an  appeal  can  be  made  to  the 
Court  of  Public  Prosecutor,  wrhich  deals  with  all 
offenses  by  natives  and  consists  of  a  judge,  the 
royal  prosecutor,  and  a  registrar.  A  crime  com¬ 
mitted  by  a  native  is  judged  by  the  chief  of  the 
place  where  it  is  committed.  An  appeal  can  be 
made  to  the  court  of  a  superior  chief,  and  to 
a  European  court  only  when  the  defendant  is 
aggrieved  and  demands  that  the  case  be  heard 
anew.  In  civil  matters  natives  may  always  have 
recourse  to  European  courts.  Despite  the  de¬ 
fendant’s  reluctance  the  chief’s  judgment  holds 
between  non-matriculated  natives.  There  are  also 
military  courts  ( conseil  de  guerre,  conseil  de  guerre 
d'appel).  At  the  head  of  this  administration  of 
justice  is  the  conseil  superior  de  Bruxelles,  which 
constitutes  the  cour  de  cassation. 

Defense. — The  colony  possesses  a  force  of  native 
troops  amounting  to  about  16,000  men,  all  infantry, 
organized  into  thirty  companies  and  recruited  by 
voluntary  enlistment.  The  officers  and  non-com¬ 
missioned  officers  (365)  are  Europeans,  for  the 
most  part  Belgians,  and  are  enlisted  for  seven  years. 
The  territorial  force  numbers  about  6,000  men. 

Recent  Changes. — In  the  Franco-German  Con¬ 
vention  of  1911,  Germany  promised  not  to  oppose 
the  establishment  of  a  French  protectorate  over 
Morocco,  and  France  agreed  to  maintain  the  open 
door  in  Morocco  and  to  cede  two  strips  of  the 
French  Congo  to  Germany.  In  1918,  however, 
the  districts  of  Ruanda  and  Urundi,  together  with 
the  territory  around  Lake  Kivu  (formerly  in  Ger¬ 
man  East  Africa)  were  ceded  to  Belgium  as  manda¬ 
tory  of  the  League  of  Nations.  The  total  area  is 
about  19,000  square  miles.  In  order  to  obtain  a 
practicable  railway  route  to  join  the  Tanganyika 
Territory  to  Uganda,  the  British  acquired  by  trans¬ 
fer  the  eastern  strip  of  the  Province  of  Ruanda 
and  a  small  part  of  Urundi. 

Missions.  —  Non-Catholic.  —  The  Episcopalian 
Methodists  of  the  Northern  States  of  America  re¬ 
cently  came  from  Rhodesia  into  this  region  where 
in  the  past  two  years  the  Pentecostal  Mission  and 
the  Heart  of  Africa  Mission  have  also  opened 
stations.  The  African  Mission,  finding  itself  cramped 
in  British  East  Africa,  also  moved  into  the  Congo. 
In  1918  some  members  of  the  Brethren  persuasion 
from  America  began  the  Ubangi-Shari  Mission.  In 
all  there  are  fifteen  Protestant  societies  with  a 
staff  of  400  missionaries  in  seventy-eight  stations; 
five  are  British,  one  is  Swedish,  and  the  rest  are 
American. 

Catholic. — Ecclesiastically  Belgian  Congo  is 
divided  into  five  vicariates  apostolic:  Leopoldville, 
New  Antwerp,  Upper  Kassai,  Stanley  Falls  and 
Upper  Congo;  and  seven  prefectures  apostolic : 
Katanga,  Northern  Katanga,  Matadi,  Belgian 
Ubanghi,  Western  Uele,  Eastern  Uele,  and  Kwango. 
For  statistics  see  articles  under  these  titles. 

Congo,  Lower  or  Portuguese,  Vicariate  Apos¬ 
tolic  of.  See  Loango. 


CONGO 


CONGRESSES 


Congo,  Upper,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Congi 
Superioris),  erected  10  December,  1895  (see  C.  E., 
XVI-82).  This  vicariate,  entrusted  to  the  White 
Fathers,  is  under  the  direction  of  its  first  vicar 
apostolic,  Rt.  Rev.  Victor  Roelens,  titular  Bishop 
of  Girba,  appointed  30  March,  1895.  He  resides 
at  Beaudoinville  and  is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary, 
Rt.  Rev.  Auguste-Leopold  Huys,  titular  Bishop  of 
Rusicade,  appointed  24  March*  1909.  By  the  1918 
census  the  total  population  of  this  territory  was 
300,000,  of  whom  16,012  were  Catholic  and  5,419 
catechumens.  The  vicariate  comprises  (1920),  11 
principal  stations,  27  chapel-schools,  52  missionaries, 
1  upper  seminary  with  2  students,  1  lower  seminary 
with  12  students,  8  Brothers,  19  White  Sisters  of 
Our  Lady  of  Africa,  161  native  catechists  who  are 
charged  with  79  schools  with  a  total  attendance  of 
8,211  boys  and  5,826  girls,  thus  carrying  on  the' 
work  of  evangalizing  300  pagan  villages;  14  orphan¬ 
ages  with  540  children,  7  hospitals,  22  dispensaries, 
and  1  refuge  for  widows.  In  1918  there  were  2,590 
baptisms  of  adults  in  this  vicariate  besides  3,514 
at  the  hour  of  death. 

Congregationalism  (cf.C.E.,  IV-239c).— A  move¬ 
ment  toward  organic  union  among  the  congrega¬ 
tions,  and  toward  union  with  other  churches;  a 
loss,  of  members  in  various  localities,  of  ministers 
quite  generally,  and  an  intensive  attempt  to  stay 
the  adverse  tide  mark  this  sect  during  recent  years. 
The  triennial  national  council  of  1913  (the  last  of 
the  triennial  councils,  the  body  now  meeting  bien¬ 
nially)  marked  the  definite  recognition  of  the  Con¬ 
gregational  Churches  as  an  organized  religious  body 
with  specific  purposes  which  are  set  forth  in  what 
may  be  called  a  Congregational  platform,  including 
a  preamble,  and  statements  of  faith,  probity  and 
wider  fellowship. 

Along  the  line  of  union  or  co-operation  with 
other  sects  the  Congregationalisfs  have  been  promi¬ 
nent  workers.  In  April,  1911,  as  a  result  of  pre¬ 
liminary  work  in  preparation  for  the  World  Con¬ 
ference  on  Faith  and  Order,  an  agreement  was 
entered  into  with  the  Church  of  the  Disciples 
whereby  consolidation  of  local  churches  of  the  .two 
sects  is  allowed  where  deemed  advisable.  Several 
instances  have  been  reported  where  such  consolida¬ 
tion  has  taken  place. 

In  Canada  a  movement  has  for  some  ten  or 
fifteen  years  been  under  way  having  for  its  object 
the  union  of  the  Congregationalists,  Methodists, 
and  Presbyterians.  In  1916  progress  was  reported, 
but  final  negotiations  were  deferred  until  the  end 
of  the  war  and  since  then  complete  arrangements 
have  not  been  made.  The  Baptists  were  to  have 
been  included  in  the  union  but  finally  withdrew 
from  the  movement.  As  the  Northern  Baptist  Con¬ 
vention  of  the  United  States  in  1919  said,  “There 
is  no  centralized  body  which  could  deliver  the  Bap¬ 
tist  churches  to  any  merger.  If  Baptist  churches 
do  not  have  unity  among  themselves  they  obviously 
cannot  have  organic  unity  with  other  denomina¬ 
tions.” 

There  has  been  also  a  movement  toward  union 
or  rapprochement  with  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church.  In  1918  the  latter  church  reported  un¬ 
favorably  on  a  proposal  by  the  Congregational  and 
various  other  churches,  suggesting  joint  ordination, 
as  a  war  measure,  of  chaplains  for  the  army  and 
navy.  In  October,  1919,  the  General  Convention 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  drew  up  a 
tentative  concordant  with  the  Congregational 
Church  whereby  ministers  of  the  latter  might  under 
certain  conditions,  receive  ordination  in  the  Epis¬ 
copal  Church  and  yet  continue  to  minister  in  their 


own  churches.  Already  in  1915,  during  the  General 
Council  of  the  Congregational  Churches  held  in 
New  Haven,  a  number  of  the  pulpits  of  the  Prot¬ 
estant  Episcopal  Church  in  that  city  were,  with 
the  express  approval  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese, 
open  to  members  of  the  Congregational  Council! 

In  Massachusetts  at  a  meeting  of  the  IVlassachu- 
setts  General  Convention  of  Congregational  minis¬ 
ters  a  Unitarian  minister  urged  that  the 
Congregational  and  Unitarian  churches  be  reunited, 
the  name  Unitarian  to  be  dropped  and  the  Congre¬ 
gationalists  to  relinquish  their  doctrinal  and  creedal 
statements.  The  proposal  was  welcomed  by  the 
Rev.  Samuel  Bushnell  on  the  part  of  the  Congre¬ 
gationalists,  but  it  led  to  no  actual  results. 

The  Congregational  Church  also  co-operated  in 
the  Pan-Protestant  Panama  conference  of  1916, 
and  is  a  member  of  the  Federal  Council  of  Churches 
of  Christ  in  America,  and  after  the  Episcopalians, 
has  been  especially  prominent  in  the  preparation 
for  the  World  Conference  on  Faith  and  Order. 

There  were  about  2,000,000  Congregationalists  in 
the  world  in  1922.  In  the  United  States  there 
were  6,019  churches,  5,772  ministers,  and  819,225 
members.  In  1920  there  were  in  Great  Britain 
492,968  members,  13,000  in  Canada,  18,000  in  Japan, 
21,000  in  Australia,  and  20,000  in  South  Africa. 
The  number  of  ministers  in  the  United  States  has 
decreased  considerably  since  1907  and  in  the  Gen¬ 
eral  Council  in  1917  the  president  of  the  Chicago 
seminary  characterized  the  situation  as  the  most 
critical  since  the  Civil  War.  There  was  also  a 
falling  in  membership  in  Great  Britain.  In  Mace¬ 
donia,  in  January,  1922,  according  to  press  des¬ 
patches,  the  Congregational  Church  lost  control  of 
the  twenty-five  Protestant  missionary  churches 
which  it  had  founded  and  maintained  there.  This 
loss  is  due  to  alleged  leanings  toward  Unitarianism, 
and  according  to  reports  the  Methodists  have  taken 
charge  of  these  churches. 

To  rouse  greater  interest  in  Congregationalism 
and  its  works  the  “tercentenary  plan”  (Plymouth, 
1620-1920)  was  devised,  the  aim  being  to  seek  new 
members,  to  add  to  the  ministerial  force,  and  espe¬ 
cially  to  raise  a  fund  of  $50,000,000  principally  for 
missions.  Late  reports  indicate  satisfactory  progress 
in  raising  this  fund. 

The  widespread  movement  of  Congregationalism 
toward  internal  organic  union,  and  toward  union 
or  at  least  co-operation  with  other  sects,  would 
Seem  to  lead  to  the  logical  conclusion  that  in 
the  future  this  sect  should  gradually  lose  its  cor¬ 
porate  identity  and  merge  with  some  other  sect, 
for  hitherto  its  distinctive  tenet  (and  theoretically 
it  still  retains  it)  has  been  that  each  congregation 
is  a  complete  organization,  independent  of  all 
others;  by  practically  abandoning  this  tenet  the 
sect  seems  to  lose  its  raison  d’etre. 

Keeler,  The  Reunion  of  Christendom,  in  America,  XXIV 
(1921),  303;  Idem,  The  Living  Church  in  Controversy,  ibid. 
571 ;  Religious  Bodies,  1916  (Washington,  1919) ;  Year  Book 
of  the  Churches  (New  York,  annual). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Congresses,  Catholic  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-242a). — The 
first  International  Eucharistic  Congress  held  since 
the  beginning  of  the  World  War,  and  the  twenty- 
seventh  of  the  series,  opened  in  Rome  on  Ascension 
Thursday,  25  May,  1922,  and  continued  in  session 
until  29  May,  when  the  Holy  Father,  Pius  XI, 
carried  the  Blessed  Sacrament  in  solemn  proces¬ 
sion  from  the  Sistine  Chapel  to  the  Vatican 
Basilica.  The  Pope  presided  at  the  general  open¬ 
ing  meeting  on  24  May,  and  responded  to  the 
addresses  of  Cardinal  Vincenzo  Vannutelli,  honorary 
president  of  the  Congress.  The  general  theme 


CONNECTICUT 


226 


CONNECTICUT 


developed  at  the  Congress  was  “The  Peaceful  King-  of  which  was  derived  from  basalt  or  trap  rock, 
ship  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  through  the  Educational  Facilities— The  libraries  of  Yale 
Eucharist.”  Addresses  were  delivered  each  day  in  University  contain  about  1,000,000  volumes.  In 
Italian,  the  official  language  of  the  gathering,  and  1919  its  property  and  funds  amounted  to  twenty- 
in  English,  French,  Spanish,  and  German.  On  the  five  millions  of  dollars  in  value,  and  it  expended 
closing  day  solemn  ceremonies  were  held  in  every  in  that  year  one  and  a  half  million  dollars  in  its 
diocese  of  the  Catholic  world  in  spiritual  conjunc-  operations.  Upwards  of  400  Catholics  are  numbered 
tion  with  those  in  Pome.  The  twenty-six  preceding  among  its  students.  The  total  enrollment  in  1920 
Congresses  were  held  as  follows:  Lille,  1881;  was  3,896,  and  the^faculty  numbered  569.  The 
Avignon,  September,  1882;  Liege,  June,  1883;  Fri-  endowment  amounts  to  $24,049,730.  Especially 
bourg,  September,  1885;  Toulouse,  June,  1886;  notable  was  the  recent  bequest  of  John  Sterling, 
Paris,’  July,  1888;  Jerusalem,  May,  1893;  Reims,  a  New  York  lawyer  amounting  from  $16,000,000  to 
July,  1894 ;  Paray-le-Monial,  September,  1897;  Brus-  $20,000,000.  A  beautiful  memorial  quadrangle  of 
sels,’  July,  1898;  Lourdes,  August,  1907;  Angers,  dormitories,  containing  six  campuses  and  covering 
September,  1900;  Namur,  September,  1902;  An-  an  entire  city  square  has  recently  been  completed, 
gouleme,  July,  1904;  Rome,  June,  1905;  Tournai,  one  of  the  finest  groups  of  buildings  of  this  sort 
August,  ’  1906;  Metz,  August,  1907;  London,  Sep-  in  the  world,  the  gift  of  Mrs.  Stephen  Harkness, 
tember,  1908;  Cologne,  August,  1909;  Montreal,  in  memory  of  her  son.  Wesleyan  University  has 
September,  1910;  Madrid,  June,  1911;  Vienna,  about  426  students,  and  forty-eight  professors  and 
September,  1912;  Malta,  April,  1913;  Lourdes,  1914.  instructors.  The  Connecticut  Agricultural  College 
The  Marian  Congress,  held  in  India  13-16  January,  has  an  enrollment  of  354  students.  The  public 
1921,  was  attended  by  a  papal  delegate,  24  bishops,  schools  have  a  total  enrolment  of  243,880  pupils 
and  12,000  of  the  laity.  At  Paris,  4-11  December,  with  5,987  teachers.  The  total  expenditure  for  the 
1921,  the  first  International  Democratic  Congress,  maintenance  of  these  schools  for  the  year  1919  was 
organized  by  Marc  Sangnier,  had  for  its  purpose  $11,280,097.  For  statistics  of  Catholic  schools  see 
the  promotion  of  international  peace  and  was  Hartford,  Diocese  of. 

notable  for  the  attendance  of  delegates  from  all  State  laws  relative  to  private  and  parochial 
the  recently  warring  nations,  who  manifested  the  schools  are  as  follows:  attendance  of  children  at 
most  harmonious  and  fraternal  relations  with  each  a  school  other  than  a  public  school  shall  not  be 
other.  The  Catholic  Bible  Congress,  in  which  the  regarded  as  compliance  with  the  laws  of  the  state, 
leading  biblical  scholars  took  part,  held  its  sessions  unless  the  teachers  or  persons  having  control  of 
at  Cambridge,  England,  16-19  July,  1921.  such  school  shall  keep  a  register  of  attendance  in 

the  form  and  manner  prescribed  by  the  state  board 
Connecticut  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-253c). — According  to  of  education  for  the  public  schools,  which  register 
the  federal  census  of  1920  the  population  of  the  shall  at  all  times  during  school  hours  be  open  to 
State  of  Connecticut  was  1,380,631.  the  inspection  of  the  secretary  and  agents  of  the 

Wealth  and  Resources. — Manufacturing  had  an  state  board  of  education;  compulsory  education 
early  beginning  in  Connecticut.  Iron  products  law  requires  that  children  in  private  schools  be 
were  manufactured  in  the  eighteenth  century;  nails  taught  same  subjects  as  in  public  schools;  state 
were  made  before  1716;  and  the  cannon  for  the  board  may  examine  incorporated  or  endowed  sec- 
Continental  troops  made  to  block  the  channel  of  ondary  schools,  and  shall  aprove  them  if  course  of 
the  Hudson  River  to  British  ships,  was  manufac-  studies  and  equipment  are  satisfactory Bible  read- 
tured  in  Connecticut.  Tinware  was  made  in  Berlin  ing  is  neither  permitted  nor  excluded  in  the  public 
as  early  as  1770;  Connecticut  clocks  were  well  schools  of  state. 

known  *  in  the  eighteenth  century.  In  1732  the  Recent  History.— The  Constitution  of  1918  was 
London  hatters  complained  of  the  competition  of  amended  to  permit  an  annual  or  biennial  election 
Connecticut  hats  in  their  trade.  Brass  works  were  of  town  selectmen,  the  use  of  voting  machines,  to 
in  operation  in  Waterbury  in  1749;  paper  mills  at  allow  the  lieutenant-governor  to  exercise  the  author- 
Norwich  in  1768;  in  Hartford  in  1776.  In  1900  ity  of  the  governor  in  case  of  the  death  or  disability 
Connecticut  led  all  the  states  in  the  manufacture  of  the  latter,  and  to  provide  for  the  adjournment 
of  ammunition,  bells,  brass,  and  copper.  According  of  the  legislature,  sine  die,  not  later  than  the  first 
to  the  census  of  manufactures  of  1919,  there  were  Wednesday  after  the  first  Monday  in  June, 
in  Connecticut  4,104  manufacturing  establishments,  During  the  World  War,  Connecticut  was  given 
with  an  aggregate  capital  amounting  to  $620,194,000,  over  to  war  work.  Munition  factories,  metal  work- 
employing  25,112  salaried  officials,  and  on  the  aver-  ing  concerns  in  Hartford,  New  Haven,  Bridgeport 
age  of  226,264  wage  earners.  The  cost  of  raw  mate-  and  Naugatuck  Valley  and  textile  manufactures 
rial  used  annually  was  $228,511,000,  and  the  value  brought  an  increase  of  population  to  the  state, 
of  the  output  was  $545,472,000.  #  Connecticut  was  the  first  state  in  preparation  for 

The  latest  agricultural  census  shows  a  decrease  in  war,  in  the  formation  of  its  Home  Guard  and  its 
the  number  of  farms  from  26,815  in  1910,  to  22,655  Council  of  Defense,  and  was  the  first  to  have 
in  1920.  Of  the  total  land  area  of  the  state,  3,084,800  soldiers  sent  abroad. 

acres,  1,898,980  are  in  farms  and  of  this,  701,086  Legislative  Changes— In  1913  the  Sunday  law 
acres  are  improved  land.  In  1920  the  value  of  all  was  slightly  relaxed  to  permit  free  concerts  and 
farm  property  was  $226,991,617;  of  live  stock,  $23,-  athletic  sports  in  public  parks  with  the  consent 
472,693.  The  crops  in  1919  brought  a  total  value  of  the  authorities,  if  no  prizes  were  to  be  offered, 
of  $44,492,385,  of  which  $4,457,809  came  from  cereals,  The  exemption  of  charitable  bequests  from  a  suc- 
$13,711,567  from  hay  and  forage,  $7,218,194  from  cession  tax  was  repealed  in  1917.  In  the  same  year 
vegetables,  and  $15,189,551  from  tobacco.  The  dairy  a  law  was  passed  requiring  the  approval  of  the 
products  brought  $14,923,971.  State  Board  of  Charities  before  support  for  different 

In  1919,  Connecticut  ranked  forty-fourth  of  all  religious  and  charitable  causes  could  be  solicited, 
the  states  in  the  Union  in  the  total  number  of  Other  legislative  measures  included  the  creation 
persons  engaged  in  the  mining  and  quarrying  indus-  of  a  state  Civil  Service  Commission,  Workmens 
tries  and  in  the  average  number  of  wage  earners  Compensation  Act,  registration  of  voters,  tax  ex- 
employed.  The  total  value  of  products  from  all  emption  of  bonds  of  state,  counties,  and  munici- 
mines  and  quarries  in  1919  was  $1,649,003,  76.6%  palities,  a  teachers’  retirement  Act,  old  age  pension 


CONSANGUINITY 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


227 


law,  and  child  labor  laws.  In  1919  the  governor 
was  authorized  to  suspend  the  child  labor  law  in 
cases  of  emergency.  In  1921  the  marriage  law  was 
changed  to  stop  the  bigamous  marriages  that  were 
permitted  through  a  loop-hole  in  the  statute. 

Prisons. — In  1911  all  male  prisoners  under  twenty- 
five  years  of  age,  sentenced  to  less  than  five  years 
imprisonment  were  transferred  from  the  state  prison 
to  the  new  reformatory  at  Cheshire. 

Church  Statistics. — For  Catholic  statistics  see 
Hartford,  Diocese  of.  The  Congregationalists  are 
the  most  numerous  of  the  Protestant  denominations, 
having  according  to  the  religious  census  of  1916 
71,188  members.  The  same  census  disclosed  48,854 
Protestant  Episcopalians,  38,581  Methodists,  and 
26,243  Baptists  and  3143  Presbyterians. 

Consanguinity  (cf.C.  E.,  IV-264). — Consanguinity 
is  a  diriment  impediment  of  marriage  between  per¬ 
sons  related  by  blood  in  the  direct  line,  and  also 
between  those  who  are  related  in  a  collateral  line 
to  the  third  degree  inclusive.  The  impediment  is 
multiplied  only  as  often  as  the  common  stock  is 
multiplied.  Formerly  it  was  multiplied  when  there 
was  more  than  one  line  of  descent  from  the  com¬ 
mon  stock  (e.g.  two  cousins  whose  grandparents 
■were  also  cousins).  The  Congregation  of  the  Sacra¬ 
ments  grants  dispensation  from  consanguinity;  if 
it  is  in  the  third  degree  it  is  considered  an  impedi¬ 
ment  of  minor  rank  from  which  the  prosecretary 
of  the  Congregation  can  dispense.  Formerly  dis¬ 
pensaries  were  obtained  through  the  Datary.  Propa¬ 
ganda,  of  course,  still  deals  with  petitions  in  this 
matter  forwarded  by  persons  subject  to  its  juris¬ 
diction. 

16^70^  JUr'  Can'’  1,076  ’  Aybinhac’  Marriage  Legislation, 


college  for  boys  with  4  teachers  and  190  students; 
2  high  schools  with  1,600  girl  pupils;  3  elementary 
schools;  2  orphan  asylums;  2  hospitals;  3  day 
ui  series.  The  Government  contributes  nothing 
toward  support  of  the  Catholic  schools.  The  Jesuit 
lathers  have  2  missions  and  2  stations  established 
and  have  under  headway  5  missionary  projects! 
lor  the  clergy  there  is  an  association  of  reparation- 
and  for  the  laity  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  d4 
Paul,  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis;  Congrega- 
^  the  blessed  Sacrament,  and  of  St.  John 
of  the  Cross.  One  Catholic  weekly  under  episcopal 
auspices  is  published.  Among  the  recently  deceased 
is  Rev.  Ludovico  Bozzo,  who  had  charge  of  the 
bociety  of  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul  and  lived  an 
exemplary  life.  The  Government  gave  public 
acknowledgment  of  the  meritorious  work  of  the 
clergy  during  the  World  War. 


Consecration  (cf.  C.  E,  IV-280)  .—While  the  ordi¬ 
nary  minister  of  consecration  of  a  church  is  the 
diocesan  bishop,  a  cardinal  may  consecrate  the 
church  or  altar  of  his  title  or  deaconate.  The  con- 
secrator  and  those  who  asked  for  the  consecration 
for  themselves  are  bound  to  fast  on  the  day  before 
the  ceremony.  When  a  church  or  an  altar  is  conse¬ 
crated,  the  officiating  bishop,  even  if  he  has  no 
jurisdiction  over  the  locality,  is  to  grant  an  indul¬ 
gence  of  one  year  to  all  those  who  visit  the  church 
or  the  altar  on  that  day.  At  the  same  time  another 
indulgence,  to  be  gained  on  the  same  condition  on 
each  anniversary  of  the  consecration,  is  to  be  pub¬ 
lished;  this  indulgence  is  for  fifty,  or  a  hundred, 
or  two  hundred  days,  according  as  it  is  granted  by 
.  a  bishop,  an  archbishop  or  a  cardinal. 

Regarding  loss  of  consecration,  under  the  Code 
a  church  loses  its  consecration  only  when  it  has 
been  completely  destroyed,  or  when  the  greater 
part  of  the  walls  have  been  demolished;  of  course 
the  consecration  or  benediction  disappears  when  the 
church  is  entirely  unfitted  for  Divine  worship  and 
cannot  be  repaired  and  has  been  legitimately  turned 
over  to  profane  purposes  by  the  local  ordinary.  A 
chalice  or  paten  does  not  now  lose  its  consecration 
on  being  regilt. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  1,147;  1,161-78. 

Consolata,  Missionaries  of  the.  See  Mis¬ 
sionaries  of  the  Consolata. 

Constantine,  Diocese  of  (Constantiniensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  IV— 295a),  in  Algeria.  The  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  is  121,000,  made  up  of  French,  Italians,  Spanish, 
and  Maltese.  Their  spiritual  needs  are  attended  by 
75  secular  and  10  regular  priests,  assisted  by  12  lay 
brothers.  There  are  18  parishes  and  19  churches; 

1  convent  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd;  1 
seminary,  recently  built,  with  30  seminarians;  1 


Constantinople,  Patriarchate  of  (Constanti- 
nopolitana;  cf.  C.  E,  IV-301c),  in  Turkey.  The 
Batnarcn  of  Constantinople  resides  in  Rome,  but 
the  Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite  have  a  patriarchal 
vicar,  who  is  also  delegate  apostolic  for  the  Orien- 
tals,  residing  m  the  city  of  Constantinople.  Until 
1911  those  Catholics  of  the  Greek  Rite  who  are 
united  to  Rome,  were  governed  by  an  apostolic 
vicar,  but  in  that  year  Pope  Pius  X  gave  a  bishop  to 
this  community,  Rt.  Rev.  Isias  Papadopulos,  with 
ordinary  jurisdiction  over  the  Greek  Catholics 
within  the  limits  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic,  includ¬ 
ing  Constantinople,  Thrace,  Macedonia,  and  the 
Asiatic  litoral  of  the  Black  See  and  of  the  See  of 
Marmora.  After  the  Balkan  war,  Macedonia  was 
attached  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Athens.  Before 
the  World  War  there  were  three  parishes  in  Con¬ 
stantinople,  one  at  Para,  conducted  by  the  secular 
clergy,  one  at  Kadi-Keui  (Chalcedonia),  and  the 
third  m  Koum-Kapou  (Stamboul),  conducted  by 
the  Assumptions  Fathers  of  the  Greek  Rite.  The 
parish  of  Constantinople  had  missions  at  Malgara 
and  Daudeh  m  Thrace  with  flourishing  schools;  that 
of  Koum-Kapou  had  missions  at  Gallipoli  (Thrace) 
and  at  Cesarea  in  Capadocia.  During  the  war  the 
Assumptionist  Fathers  being  French,  were  forced 
to  abandon  their  missions,  except  the  parish  of 
Kadi-Keui  which  they  still  hold,  while  the  native 
clergy  remained  in  possession  of  all  the  missions. 
Upon  the  establishment  of  the  new  Congregation 
for  the  Oriental  Churches  in  1917,  the  late  Pope 
Benedict  XV  called  Bishop  Papadopulos  to  Rome 
and  appointed  him  Assessor  of  this  Congregation, 
and  in  1920  appointed  the  Rev.  George  Calavassy 
to  succeed  him.  Born  in  Turkey,  he  made  his 
studies,  in  the  Greek  College  in  Rome,  and  was 
later  given  the  direction  of  the  Greek  missions  in 
Thrace,  where  he  served  until  1914,  when  he  was 
sent  to  Rome  by  the  Apostolic  Delegate  to  plea 
the  cause  of  the  Greek  missions.  The  Sacred  Con¬ 
gregation  of  Propaganda  later  sent  him  to  Belgium 
to  seek  funds  for  the  necessary  development  of 
the  missions,  but  upon  the  German  invasion  he 
was  compelled  to  go  back  to  Rome.  Sent  to  the 
United  States  by  the  Holy  See  in  behalf  of  the 
same  missions  he  carried  on  a  very  successful 
campaign  here,  and  upon  his  return  to  Rome  in 
1918  was  appointed  administrator  of  the  Greek 
missions.  On  13  July,  1920,  he  was  elected  bishop 
with  ordinary  jurisdiction  over  the  Greek  Catholics 
of  the  Vicariate  of  Constantinople  and  was  conse¬ 
crated  titular  Bishop  of  Theodoropolis  in  Rome, 
at  the  Greek  Church  of  St.  Athanasius  on  15  August 
of  the  same  year. 

or8anization  of  the  Greek  missions  started 
by  Bishop  Papadopulos  and  interrupted  by  the  war 


CONSULTORS 


228 


CONVENTUALS 


in  1914,  was  resumed  in  1918.  Recent  progress  has 
proved  the  efficacy  of  native  works  in  schismatical 
countries,  if  they  are  provided  with  sufficient  means 
and  with  zealous  missionaries.  During  the  last 
three  years  the  number  of  the  Greek  missionaries 
has  been  increased  from  eight  to  thirteen;  the 
work  has  been  provided  with  proper  buildings  for 
bishop’s  residence,  presbytery,  seminary,  convent, 
and  schools  frequented  by  hundreds  of  Schismatic 
children  to  whom  is  given  an  entirely  Catholic 
education.  Conversions  have  averaged  about  one 
hundred  a  year  and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that  this  average  is  going  to  be  much  higher  in  the 
near  future,  if  only  this  important  work  is  provided 
with  more  schools  and  a  greater  number  of  Mis¬ 
sionaries.  Last  year  (1921)  Bishop  Calavassy 
founded  a  Congregation  of  Sisters  of  the  Greek 
Rite,  the  first  founded  among  the  Greeks,  and  to 
whom  he  gave  the  name  “Sisters  of  the  Pam- 
macaristos.”  This  new  congregation  is  under  the 
direction  of  an  Ursuline  nun,  Rev.  Mother  Magdalen 
Photiades,  of  a  prominent  family  of  Athens,  who 
was  requested  by  Pope  Benedict  XV  to  embrace 
the  Greek  Rite  and  take  up  this  work.  The  semi¬ 
nary  founded  in  1919  is  directed  by  the  secular 
clergy  of  Bishop  Calvassy;  the  building  has  a 
capacity  of  thirty  seminarians.  The  Melchites,  or 
Arabic-speaking  Syrians  of  the  Greek  Rite,  have  a 
church  with  a  priest  subject  to  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Greek  Catholic  Patriarch  of  Antioch.  As 
the  Syrians  and  Chaldean  patriarchs  have  no  juris¬ 
diction  whatever  in  Constantinople,  the  Chaldean 
and  Syrian  priests  in  this  territory,  as  well  as  the 
very  few  faithful  of  those  rites  are  subject  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Greek  Catholic  Bishop.  There 
is  no  church  of  either  rite  in  Constantinople.  Dur¬ 
ing  recent  years  several  of  the  prominent  clergy 
of  this  diocese  have  died.  Father  Polycarp 
Anastasiades,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Greek 
Catholic  community  of  Constantinople  in  1861,  the 
year  of  his  conversion,  and  for  over  forty  years 
director  of  this  work,  died  in  1911,  at  the  age  of 
seventy-two;  Father  Sophronios  Petrides,  Assump¬ 
tion^  of  the  Greek  Rite,  editor  of  “Echos 
d’Orient,”  and  contributor  to  the  Catholic  Ency¬ 
clopedia,  died  in  1911;  Father  Silvain  Barthassat, 
Assumptionist  of  the  Greek  Rite,  Rector  of  the 
Oriental  Seminary  of  Koum-Kapou,  now  closed, 
died  in  1917;  Father  Maximos  Malatakis,  author 
of  the  confutation  of  the  encyclical  letter  written 
by  the  Orthodox  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in 
answer  to  Leo  XIIPs  invitation  to  re-unite  with 
Rome,  died  in  1910;  Father  Christophore  Papa- 
dopulos,  Vicar  General  under  Bishop  Papadopulos, 
died  in  1920. 

Bishop  Calavassy  counts  about  1500  Greek  Cath¬ 
olics  (1922)  under  his  jurisdiction,  and  has  1 
secondary  school  for  boys  with  220  students,  1  for 
girls  with  100  students,  and  2  elementary  schools 
with  160  pupils.  Two  associations  are  formed 
among  the  laity,  “Unio  Grsecorum  Catholi'corum 
Constantinopolus”  and  the  sodality  of  the  Immacu¬ 
late  Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary. 

Consultors,  Diocesan  (C.  E.,  IV-323— There 
must  now  be  diocesan  consultors  in  all  dioceses, 
and  likewise  in  all  secular  prelatures  in  which  there 
are  no  cathedral  chapters.  The  consultors  have  the 
same  rights  and  duties  as  the  cathedral  chapter 
in  the  government  of  members  of  the  diocese  and 
at  councils.  They  should  number  at  least  six,  or 
four  in  dioceses  where  priests  are  few,  and  should 
live  in  or  near  the  episcopal  city.  Before  taking 
office  they  must  swear  to  act  faithfully  and  with¬ 
out  favor.  They  are  all  appointed  first  by  the 


bishop  without  consultation,  but  if  during  their 
three-year  period  of  office  one  of  them  dies,  the 
bishop  is  to  consult  the  others  concerning  his  sub¬ 
stitute, — if  this  happen  during  an  episcopal  vacancy 
the  vicar  capitular  with  the  consent  of  the  other 
consultors  appoints  the  substitute,  who  must  be 
confirmed  by  the  new  bishop  if  he  is  to  remain  in 
office. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  423-28. 

Consultors,  Parochial. — The  rules  governing  the 
appointment,  number,  duties  and  removal  of 
parochial  consultors  are  the  same  as  those  relating 
to  synodal  examiners.  The  two  offices  may  be  held 
by  the  same  person,  who  cannot,  however,  act  in 
both  capacities  in  the  same  case. 

Conventuals,  Order  of  Friars  Minor  (cf.  C.  E., 
IV-344d). — A  steady  and  solid  growth  of  the  order 
has  set  in  since  the  eighties,  so  that  there  are 
almost  2000  members  at  present,  with  bright  pros¬ 
pects  of  a  more  prosperous  future.  There  are  20 
provinces  with  about  200  convents.  The  instruc¬ 
tions,  both  religious  and  educational,  are  imparted 
in  the  numerous  colleges  of  the  order,  of  which 
every  province  possesses,  as  a  rule,  one  or  more 
for  the  philosophical  and  theological  formation  of 
its  clerics.  There  is  one  International  College  at 
Rome  which  supplies,  to  some  extent,  the  lacuna 
caused  by  the  suppression  of  the  once  famous  St. 
Bonaventure  College.  Besides  the  assistance  at 
choir  and  other  spiritual  practices,  customary  to 
religious,  the  members  devote  themselves  to  study, 
to  giving  missions,  preaching,  and  hearing  confes¬ 
sions.  In  some  countries,  as  for  instance  in  the 
United  States,  they  have  charge  of  numerous 
parishes,  missions,  and  stations.  They  have  also 
the  honor  to  provide  the  penitentiaries  in  the 
Basilica  of  St.  Peter,  Rome,  and  in  the  Holy  House 
of  Loreto,  and  have  besides  12  penitentiaries  ad 
instav  in  the  Basilica  of  Assisi,  3  in  Padua,  and  1  in 
Osimo.  The  order  has  also  the  right  to  have  a 
Consultor  of  the  Holy  Office,  who  is  ipso  facto 
the  dean  of  the  consultors,  and  likewise  a  perma¬ 
nent  Consultor  on  the  Congregation  of  Sacred 
Rites.  To  its  missions  in  Moldavia  and  the  Orient 
the  order  added  a  house  in  Damascus  in  1912.  It 
also  founded  a  convent  in  Spain,  and  .increased  its 
foundations  in  Denmark;  its  steady  growth  in  the 
United  States  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  it  has 
added  11  houses  since  1910,  of  which  the  seminary 
at  Rensselaer,  N.  Y.,  and  the  shrine  at  Carey,  Ohio, 
are  the  most  important.  The  order  directs  also  the 
nuns  of  the  “Giglio,”  founded  in  Assisi  in  1702 
with  branches  in  the  Orient.  Aggregated  to  it, 
with  the  right  of  participation  in  its  spiritual  priv¬ 
ileges,  are  numerous  communities  of  nuns,  of  which 
nine  are  in  the  United  States.  Many  thousands  of 
secular  tertiaries  are  under  the  direction  of  the 
order;  over  5000  in  the  United  States  alone.  A 
variety  of  institutions  are  in  charge  of  the  religious 
of  the  order,  such  as  chaplaincies  of  prisons,  orphan¬ 
ages,  hospitals,  homes  for  the  aged,  etc. 

The  order  has  produced  many  distinguished  men 
in  the  various  branches  of  learning.  A  few  of  the 
more  recent  literary  authors  are :  Balthassar  Lom¬ 
bardi  (d.  1802),  the  famous  commentator  of  Dante; 
Laurence  Fusconi  (d.  1814) ;  Louis  Pungileoni  (d. 
1844) ;  Anthony  Brandimarte  (d.  1838),  the  librarian 
of  Leo  XII  and  hymnographer  of  the  Congregation 
of  Rites;  William  della  Valle  (d.  1805);  Francis 
Villardi  (d.  1833) ;  Francis  Detti  (d.  1885) ;  Alphonse 
Consoli  (d.  1879).  In  a  very  special  manner  the 
order  has  cultivated  the  art  of  music,  having  pro¬ 
duced  more  than  300  masters  distinguished  in  this 
art.  Those  deceased  since  1800  are :  Louis  Anthony 


CONVERSANO 


229 


COPUS 


Sabatini  (d.  1809);  Stanislaus  Mattei  (d.  1825), 
who  had  such  eminent  disciples  as  Morlacchi,  Ros¬ 
sini,  and  Donizetti;  Alexander  Borroni  (d.  1896); 
and  Emil  Norsa  (d.  1919).  Louis  Palomes  (d.  1906) 
and  Conrad  Eubel,  still  living,  are  important  names 
in  Franciscan  historical  studies.  In  the  field  of 
pedagogy  one  of  the  most  celebrated  educators  of 
the  past  century  was  Gregory  Girard  of  Fribourg, 
Switzerland  (d.  1850),  to  whom  his  native  city 
erected  a  public  monument.  Of  painters  of  recent 
note  Paschal  Sarullo  (d.  1892)  is  worthy  of  special 
mention.  The  early  centuries,  especially,  produced 
many  theologians  and  philosophers;  in  the  nine¬ 
teenth  century  died  Andrew  Sgambati  (1805), 
Gregory  Girard  (1850)  and  Angelus  Bigoni  of 
Corfu  (1860).  Recent  generals  of  the  orders  are: 
Dominic  Reuter,  of  Trenton,  N.  J.  (1904-10),  who 
reintroduced  the  order  in  Spain  and  England;  Vic¬ 
tor  Sottaz  of  Fribourg,  Switzerland  (1910-13);  and 
Dominic  Tavani  of  Apulia,  at  first  vicar  general 
(1913-19),  and  now  minister  general  since  1919. 

Contemporary  history  of  the  order  may  be 
gleaned  from  its  periodicals  of  which,  for  this 
purpose,  the  main  ones  are  the  “Commentarium 
Ordinis  Minorum  Conventualium”  (SS.  XII  Apos- 
toli,  Rome),  and  the  “Miscellanea  Francescana” 
(Sacro  Convento,  Assisi). 

/  T^l?gnami>  H  B-  Paolucci  Trinci  e  i  Minori  Osservanti 
(Assisi,  1920) ;  Sparacio,  Dalla  leggenda  alia  Storia-Censura 
di  una  Nuova  Storia  dell’  Ordine  Franciscano  (Perugia,  1921). 

Conversano,  Diocese  of  (Conversanensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  IV-346c),  in  the  province  of  Bari,  Southern 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Bari.  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio  Lam- 
berti,  appointed  to  this  see,  1897,  died  17  August, 
1917,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent, 
Rt.  Rev.  Domenico  Lancelloti,  b.  at  Montegallo, 
1858,  secretary  of  the  camereria,  1904,  prelate  of  the 
Holy  See,  1908,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Delcos, 
29  April,  1909,  transferred  to  Troja,  21  April,  1911, 
transferred  to  Conversano,  14  March,  1918.  In  July, 
1911,  the  cathedral  of  the  diocese  was  destroyed 
by  fire,  but  its  reconstruction  was  begun,  with 
funds  contributed  chiefly  by  the  government,  and 
after  being  interrupted  by  the  war,  it  was  continued 
under  the  present  bishop.  During  the  World  War 
18  priests  of  this  diocese  were  mobilized,  and  the 
clergy  at  home,  as  well  as  the  laity,  took  an  active 
part  in  patriotic  and  charitable  works.  The  1922 
statistics  credit  this  diocese  with  a  population  of 
80,954;  7  parishes,  130  churches,  7  mission  stations, 

2  convents  of  men  and  1  of  women,  100  secular 
and  5  regular  clergj^  5  brothers,  1  seminary,  30 
seminarians,  1  college  of  men  with  30  teachers  and 
400  students,  1  for  girls  with  10  teachers  and  100 
students,  7  elementary  schools  with  about  60  teach¬ 
ers,  1  home  for  the  poor,  7  asylums,  and  5  hospitals. 

Conza,  Archdiocese  of  (Compsana;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-350a),  with  the  perpetual  administration  of 
Campagna,  in  Southern  Italy.  This  see  is  at 
present  (1922)  under  the  administration  of 
Most.  Rev.  Carmine  Caesarano,  b.  at  Pagani, 
1869,  appointed  Bishop  of  Azieri  8  April, 
1915,  promoted  30  September,  1918,  to  suc¬ 
ceed  Most  Rev.  Nicolas  Piccirilli,  transferred  to 
Lanciano  25  April,  1918.  These  united  dioceses 
count  a  total  population  of  122,861,  37  parishes,  230 
churches,  2  monasteries  for  men  and  12  for  women, 
194  secular  and  12  regular  clergy,  1  interdiocesan 
seminary,  30  seminarians.  All  the  elementary 
schools  are  supported  by  the  government.  The 
Sursum  Corda  Association  is  formed  among  the 
clergy,  and  the  Unione  popalare  fra  i  Catholici 
among  the  laity.  A  decree  separating  the  two 
dioceses  of  Campagna  and  Conza  is  expected  at 


any  time  now;  this  decree  will  make  the  diocese 
of  Campagna  self-governing,  and  unite  the  diocese 
of  Sant’  Angelo  dei  Lombardi  to  Conza. 

Cooktown,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Cookopoli- 
tanen sis ;  cf.  C.  E.,  IV-350b),  comprises  North 
Queensland,  Australia,  from  18°  30'  south  latitude 
to  Cape  York.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Irish  Augus- 
tinians.  Rt.  Rev.  James  D.  Murray  died  13  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1914,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  vicar 
apostolic,  Rt.  Rev.  John  Hearey,  born  in  Wicklow, 
Ireland,  1868,  ordained  in  Rome  1891,  served  as 
Prior  of  New  Ross  and  was  appointed,  3  May,  1914, 
titular  Bishop  of  Coracesium;  he  resides  at  Cairns. 
The  Sisters  of  Mercy  (50)  and  the  Sisters  of  the 
Good  Samaritan  (6)  are  established  here.  By  the 
latest  statistics  (1921)  the  vicariate  is  divided  into 
6  districts  and  comprises  40  stations,  9  regular  clergy, 
22  churches,  56  nuns,  and  3  boarding  schools.  The 
total  Catholic  population  numbers  7,000,  and  there 
are  1,200  children  attending  Sunday  schools.  Six 
primary  schools,  which  are  conducted  in  Cook- 
town  proper,  have  an  attendance  of  900  children. 
All  district  and  private  hospitals  permit  the  ministry 
of  the  priests,  and  although  the  Catholic  schools 
do  not  receive  any  aid  from  the  government,  state 
scholarships  may  be  worked  out  in  the  secondary 
schools. 

Coppens,  Charles,  educationist  and  author,  b.  at 
Turnhout,  Belgium,  on  24  May,  1835;  d.  in  Chicago 
on  14  December,  1920.  He  received  his  classical 
training  in  the  Jesuit  College  of  his  native  town, 
and,  desiring  to  devote  himself  to  the  growing 
Church  in  America,  he  entered  the  society  in  1853. 
After  studying  philosophy  at  St.  Louis  and  theology 
at  Fordham  he  was  ordained  by  Cardinal  Mc- 
Closkey  in  1865.  Father  Coppens  spent  close  on 
sixty  years  in  the  cause  of  Catholic  education, 
teaching  rhetoric  for  seventeen  years  at  Florissant 
and  St.  Louis,  and  philosophy  for  more  than  twenty 
years,  principally  in  Detroit  College  and  Creighton 
University.  His  “Practical  Introduction  to  English 
Rhetoric”  (1885),  a  pioneer  work  in  Catholic 
schools,  enjoyed  immense  popularity,  as  did  his 
excellent  “Act  of  Oratorical  Composition”  (1886); 
while  his  “Moral  Principles  and  Medical  Practice” 
(1898)  was  the  first  Catholic  treatise  in  English  on 
medical  jurisprudence.  In  addition  to  numerous 
articles  in  Catholic  magazines  and  reviews  we  are 
indebted  to  Father  Coppens  for  several  textbooks, 
“Logic  and  Metaphysics”  (1892),  “Moral  Phi¬ 
losophy”  (1896),  a  brief  “History  of  Philosophy” 
(1909);  and  two  important  historical  studies:  “Who 
are  the  Jesuits?”  (1911),  and  “Protestantism,  How 
it  was  brought  about”  (1907).  His  “Mystic  Treas¬ 
ures  of  the  Holy  Mass”  (1904)  and  “Spiritual  In¬ 
structions  for  Religious”  reveal  him  as  a  ascetic 
writer  of  merit. 

Copus,  John  Edwin,  writer,  b.  at  Guilford,  Eng¬ 
land,  on  24  January,  1854;  d.  at  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
on  19  June,  1915.  He  was  born  of  Protestant 
parents  and  was  educated  at  the  Archbishop  Abbot 
and  Lydgate  schools  in  Guilford.  After  teaching 
at  Broughton-under-Blean,  Kent,  and  Western 
College,  Somersetshire,  he  became  a  Catholic  in 
1876.  In  days  gone  by  some  of  his  kinsmen  had 
gained  renown  in  the  Church,  among  them  being 
Father  John  Copus,  who  was  imprisoned  for  the 
Faith  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  Alan  Copus,  who 
wrote  a  “Syntaxis  historiae  evangelicae,”  and  died 
in  1568  a  canon  of  St.  Peter’s,  Rome. 

In  1877  Copus  emigrated  to  Canada  and  later  to 
the  United  States,  where  he  engaged  in  journalism, 
becoming  commercial  editor  of  the  “Detroit  News” 
in  1882.  Five  years  later  he  joined  the  Society  of 


CORDOVA 


230 


CORK 


Jesus,  and  after  studying  philosophy  in  St.  Louis 
and  theology  at  Woodstock,  Maryland,  he  was 
ordained  by  Cardinal  Gibbons  in  1899.  His  work 
as  a  Jesuit  did  not  diminish  his  enthusiasm  for 
journalism,  and  he  established  the  School  of  Jour¬ 
nalism  in  Marquette  University,  Milwaukee,  acting 
as  its  first  director  from  1910  till  his  death.  Father 
Copus  is  well  known  as  a  writer  of  fiction  for  boys, 
his  "Harry  Russell”  (1903),  "St.  Cuthbert’s”  (1903), 
"Shadows  Lifted”  (1904),  "Tom  Losely,  Boy”  (1906), 
and  "The  Making  of  Mortlake”  (1909)  is  still  enjoy¬ 
ing  great  popularity.  In  addition  he  is  the  author 
of  more  serious  fiction  like  "The  Month  of  Nison,” 
"Lydgate’s  Call,”  "Andros  of  Ephesus,”  "Sana  Teip- 
sum,”  and  "The  Son  of  Siro.”  As  a  playwright  he 
revealed  his  skill  in  "The  Chancellor,”  "Malagrida,” 
and  a  dramatization  of  Longfellow’s  "Robert  of 
Sicily.” 

Cordova,  Diocese  of  (Cordubensis  in  America; 
cf.  C.  E.,  IV-360c),  comprises  the  states  of  Cordova 
and  Rioja  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  and  is 
suffragan  of  Buenos  Aires.  This  see  is  filled 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Zeno  Bustos  y  Ferreyra,  O.  F.  M., 
born  in  Cordova  1850,  ordained  1874,  served  as 
Provincial  of  the  Argentine  Republic  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed  27  March,  1905.  He  is  assisted  by  two 
auxiliaries,  Rt.  Rev.  Innocent  Davila  y  Matos, 
titular  Bishop  of  Ostracine,  and  Rt.  .Rev.  Jose 
Anselm  Lugue,  titular  Bishop  of  Forni.  In  1918 
the  bishop  published  a  vigorous  pastoral  letter  pro¬ 
testing  against  the  violent  manifestation  and  anti¬ 
clerical  organizations  which  were  spreading  through 
the  country  under  pretext  of  defending  universal 
rights.  This  territory,  which  covers  an  area  of 
156,584  sq.  miles,  embraces  a  population  of  780,000. 
The  diocese  is  divided  into  40  parishes  and  counts 
numerous  churches  and  chapels. 

Cordova,  Diocese  of  (Cordubensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-359b),  in  Spain,  comprises  the  province  of  Seville 
and  some  parishes  in  the  provinces  of  Badajoz 
and  Malaga.  It  covers  an  area  of  about  18,871 
sq.  miles,  and  is  suffragan  of  Seville.  Rt.  Rev. 
Ramon  Guillamet  y  Coma,  born  in  San  Esteban 
de  Olof  1856,  ordained  1878,  served  as  secretary 
to  the  Bishop  of  Gerona,  chancellor  of  Tarragone, 
vicar  general  and  chancellor  maestrescuola,  ap¬ 
pointed  Bishop  of  Leon  29  April,  1909,  was  trans¬ 
ferred  to  this  see  18  July,  1913,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev. 
Jose  Pozuelo  y  Herrero,  died  23  March,  1913.  He 
was  transferred  to  the  diocese  of  Barcelona  22 
April,  1920,  and  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev. 
Adolfo  Perez  y  Munoz,  succeeded  him.  Born  in 
Soto  de  Campos  1864,  made  a  prelate  of  the  Holy 
See  1899,  appointed  Bishop  of  the  Canaries  29  April, 
1909,  transferred  to  Badajoz  18  July,  1913,  he  was 
again  transferred  to  Cordova  11  July,  1920.  The 
1920  statistics  credit  the  diocese  with  a  Catholic 
population  of  525,000,  130  parishes  divided  among 
17  archpriests,  447  priests,  269  chapels,  and  110 
convents  with  107  religious  and  1,256  Sisters. 

Corea.  See  Seoul;  Taiku;  Wonsan. 

Corfu,  Zante,  and  Cephalonia,  Archdiocese  of 
(Corcyrensis,  Zacynthiensis  et  Cephaloniensis  ; 
cf.  C.  E.,  IV-362d). — The  archdiocese  consists  of 
several  islands  in  the  Ionian  sea  belonging  to 
Greece.  By  Apostolic  decree  of  3  June,  1919, 
the  suffragan  sees  of  Zante  and  Cephalonia, 
formerly  administered  by  Corfu,  were  united 
to  the  metropolitan  see.  The  present  archdio¬ 
cese  is  made  up  of  5  parishes,  2  of  which  are 
in  Corfu,  as  are  4  of  the  8  churches.  There  is  1 
convent  for  men  in  Cephalonia  and  1  in  Santa 
Maura,  and  2  for  women  in  Corfu,  1  in  Zante, 


and  1  in  Cephalonia.  There  are  1  college  for  men 
with  about  100  students,  4  for  women  with  about 
GOO  students  and  a  combined  total  of  36  teachers; 
also  1  orphan  asylum,  7  confraternities  for  the' 
laity,  and  2  juvenile  societies.  In  the  public 
asylums,  etc.,  the  ministry  of  the  priests  is  per¬ 
mitted.  There  are  12  secular  and  3  regular  priests 
and  1  lay  brother  for  a  Catholic  population  of 
5,000,  of  whom  4,000  are  in  Corfu,  and  which  is 
made  up  of  1,000  Greeks,  2,000  Italians,  1,500 
Maltese,  with  the  remainder  English,  French,  etc. 

Archbishop  Teodore  Antonio  Polito  ( 1901—11 ) 
was  succeeded  by  Archbishop  Dominic  Darmanin, 
who  died  in  1919.  The  present  archbishop  is  Most 
Rev.  Leonardo  Brindisi,  formerly  Bishop  of  Naxos, 
consecrated  at  Athens  2  May,  1909,  succeeding  to 
the  see  of  Corfu  3  July,  1919. 

Coria,  Diocese  of  (Cauriensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-363c),  in  the  province  of  Caceres,  Spain,  suffra¬ 
gan  of  Toledo.  This  see  was  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Ramon  Peris  y  Mencheta,  born  in  Valencia  in 
1851,  and  appointed  to  this  see  21  May,  1894,  until 
his  death,  6  January,  1920.  The  present  incumbent, 
Rt.  Rev.  Pedro  Segura  y  Saenz  was  appointed  to 
succeed  him  10  July  of  the  same  year.  Born  in 
Darazo,  Spain,  1880,  he  was  ordained  in  1906,  be¬ 
came  professor  of  canon  law  at  the  University  of 
Burgos  in  1909,  and  was  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Appolonia  and  auxiliary  at  Valladolid  14  March, 
1916,  where  he  served  until  his  transfer.  This 
diocese  covers  an  area  of  about  8,091  sq.  miles, 
and  embraces  a  Catholic  population  of  193,000. 
The  1920  statistics  credit  the  diocese  with  135 
parishes,  10  archpriests,  400  priests,  138  churches, 
85  chapels  and  25  convents  with  40  religious  and 
250  Sisters. 

Cork,  Diocese  of  (Corcagiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-370c),  in  the  province  of  Munster,  Ireland, 
suffragan  of  Cashel.  The  long  administration  of 
Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  Alphonsus  O’Callaghan  over  this 
diocese  ended  with  his  death,  14  June,  1916.  Born 
in  Cork  in  1839  he  entered  the  Dominican  novitiate 
in  1857,  studied  in  Rome  and  was  ordained  in  1863. 
He  was  made  Prior  of  Saint  Clement’s  in  Rome 
in  1881,  and  was  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Lam- 
bese  (a  see  since  suppressed)  13  June,  1884,  and 
made  coadjutor  at  Cork,  where  he  succeeded  Bishop 
Delaney  13  November,  1886.  In  1914  Bishop 
O’Callaghan,  greatly  handicapped  by  age  and  in¬ 
firmity,  was  given  an  auxiliary  in  the  person  of 
Rt.  Rev.  Daniel  Cohalan,  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Vaga  25  May,  1914.  He  was  bom  in  the  diocese 
1858,  and  studied  at  Maynooth,  where  he  later 
served  as  professor  of  dogma,  was  ordained  in  1882, 
and  has  since  written  a  number  of  theological 
works.  Upon  the  death  of  Bishop  O’Callaghan  he 
was  transferred  to  succeed  him,  and  now  (1922) 
fills  the  see.  From  the  time  of  his  appointment 
as  auxiliary,  Bishop  Cohalan  has  taken  an  active 
part  in  local  social  and  administrative  work,  and 
it  was  largely  due  to  his  efforts,  assisted  by  those 
of  the  Nationalist  Lord  Mayor  of  the  city,  that 
peace  was  preserved  in  Cork  during  the  tragic 
Easter  week  of  1916.  However,  Cork  has  been  the 
scene  of  some  of  the  most  violent  demonstrations 
during  the  recent  struggle,  and  in  May,  1921,  one 
of  its  priests,  Rev.  James  O’Callaghan  of  the  North 
Cathedral,  was  murdered  by  a  band  of  armed  men, 
who  broke  into  the  home  of  one  of  the  aldermen 
where  he  had  his  lodgings. 

By  the  latest  census  (1911)  the  diocese  includes 
a  total  population  of  192,313,  of  whom  169,335  are 
Catholic.  It  comprises  35  parishes,  33  parish  priests, 
2  administrators,  and  86  curates  and  chaplains,  74 


CORNETO-TARQUINIA 


231 


COSTA  RICA 


regular  clergy,  70  churches,  7  monasteries,  12  houses 
of  regulars,  25  convents  of  nuns,  4  schools  under 
Christian  Brothers,  7  under  Presentation  Brothers, 
4  directed  by  Presentation  Nuns,  6  by  the  Sisters 
of  Mercy,  and  1  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  1  French 
community  and  1  French  institute. 

Corneto-Tarquinia,  Diocese  of.  See  Civitavecchi 

AND  CORNETO. 

Corpus  Christi,  Diocese  of  (Corpus  Christi;  cf. 

C.  E.,  XVI-35a),  in  Texas,  was  erected  out  of  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Brownsville,  23  March,  1912, 
the  boundaries  remaining  the  same.  The  first 
bishop  of  the  new  diocese  was  Rt.  Rev.  Paul 
Joseph  Nussbaum,  C.P.,  b.  Philadelphia,  7  Septem¬ 
ber,  1870,  appointed  Bishop  of  Corpus  Christi  4 
April,  1913,  retired  and  made  titular  Bishop  of 
Gerasa  22  April,  1920.  He  was  succeeded  by  the 
present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Emmanuel  B.  Ledvina, 

D.  D.,  appointed  30  April,  1921. 

By  present  (1921)  statistics  the  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  this  diocese  numbers  about  98,000,  of  whom 
92,000  are  Mexican  and  the  remainder  chiefly 
American  with  a  small  percentage  of  German, 
Bohemian  and  Spanish.  There  are  31  parishes,  75 
churches,  83  mission  stations,  14  secular  priests  and 
31  regulars,  189  Sisters,  1  college  for  boys  with  6 
teachers  and  176  students,  4  academies,  namely, 
Brownsville,  Corpus  Christi,  Laredo  and  Rio  Grande 
City,  with  62  teachers  and  1,617  pupils,  1  orphan 
asylum  and  3  hospitals.  The  Knights  of  Columbus 
and  Catholic  Daughters  of  America  are  organized 
in  the  diocese. 


Cosenza,  Archdiocese  of  (Cusentinensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  IV— 403a),  in  the  province  of  Naples,  southern 
Italy  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  Rt.  Rev. 
Camillo  Sorgenti,  who  filled  this  see  for  thirty- 
seven  years  died  2  October,  1911,  and  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev  Tom- 
maso  Trussoni,  b.  in  Chiavenna  1856,  papal  cham¬ 
berlain  13  June,  1911,  appointed  14  December,  1912. 
In  1920  the  diocese  lost  its  vicar  general,  who  had 
served  in  this  capacity  for  thirty-five  years,  through 
the  death  of  Mgr.  Federico  Piragino. 

By  latest  statistics  (1922)  this  diocese  comprises 
111  parishes,  164  secular  and  37  regular  clergy,  13 
convents  of  men,  80  monks,  1  monastery  of  womeh, 
Dominicans  of  the  second  order,  1  seminary,  80 
seminarians,  1  normal  school  for  girls  with  ’  100 
pupils.  All  the  superior  schools,  lyceums,  technical 
and  industrial  schools  are  under  the  control  of  the 
government.  One  periodical,  “LTJnione,”  is  pub¬ 
lished;  2  societies  are  organized  among  the  clergy, 
and  4  among  the  laity,  besides  numerous  rural 
federations. 


Corrientes,  Diocese  of  (Corrientensis),  in  the 
Argentine  Republic,  suffragan  of  Buenos  Aires. 
This  see,  erected  21  January,  1910  (see  C.  E., 
KVI-35),  is  filled  by  its  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev. 
Louis  Niella,  bom  in  this  province  1854,  or¬ 
dained  1879,  appointed  3  February,  1911.  By  a 
Decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Council, 
13  November,  1920,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops 
of  the  Argentine  over  the  female  societies  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  in  all  dioceses  where  they  are 
organized,  was  established.  Although  not  canon¬ 
ically  erected  confraternities  or  pious  unions,  the 
Decree  nevertheless  defines  them  as  coming  under 
the  bishop’s  jurisdiction,  as  do  all  local  societies 
and  affiliations  formed  among  the  faithful.  The 
diocese  covers  an  area  of  88,844  sq.  miles  and  com¬ 
prises  370,000  inhabitants.  It  is  dedicated  to  the 
Holy  Cross  of  Milagros,  and  includes  26  parishes, 
48  chapels  and  3  convents. 

Cortona,  Diocese  of  (Cortonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-401b),  in  the  province  of  Arezzo,  Central  Italy, 
is  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  This  see  is 
filled  (1922)  by  Rt.  Rev.  Michael  Baldetti,  born  in 
the  diocese  in  1854,  after  ordination  incorporated 
in  the  Diocese  Perugia,  and  appointed  to  this  see 
16  December,  1901.  The  territory  embraces  a 
Catholic  population  of  30,200,  scattered  through 
50  parishes,  served  by  81  secular  and  36  regular 
clergy,  22  seminarians,  34  Brothers,  90  Sisters,  and 
60  churches  or  chapels. 

Corumba,  Diocese  of  (Corumbensis),  in  Brazil, 
suffragan  of  Cuyaba,  was  erected  10  March,  1910 
(see  C.  E.,  XVI-35).  The  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev. 
Cyril  de  Paula  Freitas,  retired  and  was  transferred 
to  the  titular  see  of  Antipatris,  8  February,  1918. 
The  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Maurice  Da 
Rocha,  then  serving  as  secretary  to  the  Bishop  of 
Maceio,  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  10  March, 
1919.  The  cathedral  is  dedicated  to  the  Holy 
Cross.  No  statistics  are  yet  published. 


Costa  Rica,  Republic  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-417d). _ 

The  area  of  the  Republic  is  estimated  at  23,000 
English  square  miles,  divided  into  seven  provinces, 
San  Jose,  Alajuela,  Heredia,  Cartago,  Guanacaste, 
Punta  Arenas,  and  Limon.  According  to  an  esti¬ 
mate  made  on  31  December,  1918,  the  population 
was  459,423,  of  which  approximately  300,000  were 
of  the  peon  class  with  a  small  daily  wage.  There 
are  some  18,000  colored  British  West  Indians,  mostly 
on  the  banana  farms  in  the  Limon  Province.  The 
largest  cities  are:  San  Jose  (38,016),  Alajnela 
(9,177),  Cartago  (14,398),  Heredia  (9,328),  Liberia 
(2,639),  Limon  (7,790),  Punta  Arenas  (5,283). 

Economic  Status. — The  principal  agricultural 
products  are  coffee  (24,000,000  pounds  estimated 
production  in  1920-21)  and  bananas,  95,400  acres 
(7,129,655  bunches  valued  in  1918  at  about  $3,100,- 
000).  About  2,700  acres  are  under  tobacco.  The 
United  States  furnished  more  than  half  of  the 
imports  (59.9%)  in  1918  and  took  a  still  larger 
share  of  the  exports  (90.46%).  Coffee  represented 
more  than  one-third  of  the  total  exports  of  Costa 
Rica,  and  bananas  amounted  to  only  a  little  less. 
Cocoa,  hides  and  woods  are  also  important  items 
in  the  export  trade.  The  total  foreign  trade  in 
1919  was  54,337,255  colones  (1  colone  equals  $.4653 
at  par);  imports,  16,167,718  colones;  exports,  $38,- 
169,537. 

Communications. — Costa  Rica  has  in  actual 
operation  338  miles  of  railway,  including  branches 
and  sidings,  all  of  3  ft.  6  in.  gauge.  Of  this  mileage 
82  miles  are  the  property  of  the  Government,  67 
miles  belong  to  the  Northern  Railway  Co.,  and 
189  miles  to  the  Costa  Rica  Railway.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  Costa  Rica  Railway  is  leased  to  the 
Northern,  so  that  the  whole  system  of  some  256 
miles,  having  its  local  focal  point  at  Port  Limon, 
is  under  one  general  management.  In  1919  there 
entered  the  ports  of  the  Republic  479  vessels  of 
486,131  tons. 

Manufactures. — There  are  officially  enumerated 
3,296  factories  in  the  Republic,  including  coffee 
drying  establishments,  starch,  broom,  and  wood¬ 
work  factories.  In  1919  the  first  attempt  was  made 
at  labor  organization  throughout  the  country. 
There  is  a  pronounced  opposition  to  the  continua¬ 
tion  of  the  national  liquor  business.  Liquor  manu¬ 
facturing  is  a  government  monopoly,  and  its  exis¬ 
tence  is  temporarily  prolonged  by  the  fact  that  it 
stands  as  security  to  the  loan  of  35,000,000  francs 
made  by  France  to  Costa  Rica  in  1911,  France 
having  first  mortgage  on  the  revenues  of  the  alcohol 


COSTA  RICA 


232 


COUNCILS 


and  liquor  manufacture.  There  is  also  an  export 
tax  which,  in  the  opinion  of  many,  tends  to  dis¬ 
courage  agricultural  development.  The  two  per 
cent  tax  which  was  levied  in  1918  on  the  monthly 
gross  sales  of  all  large  business  and  commercial 
houses  was  abolished  at  the  end  of  January,  1920. 

The  largest  sources  of  income  are  the  export 
taxes,  customs,  liquor,  and  direct  taxes,  including 
2%  on  business  and  6%  on  banks.  The  largest 
items  of  expenditures  are  finance,  public  instruction, 
and  internal  development.  At  the  end  of  1919  the 
internal  debt  was  $7,440,000,  and  the  foreign  debt 
about  $14,752,280. 

Education. — In  1918  there  were  315  .elementary 
schools,  the  teachers  numbered  950  and  the  enrolled 
pupils25,857,  the  average  attendance  being  19,672.  For 
secondary  instruction  there  are  at  San  Jose  a 
lyceum  for  boys,  with  357  pupils  in  1918,  and  a 
college  for  girls  with  350  pupils.  A  normal  school, 
established  in  1915  at  Heredia,  has  220  pupils. 
The  towns  of  Cartago,  Alajuela,  and  Heredia  have 
each  a  college. 

Government. — By  the  election  law  of  18  August, 
1913,  universal  suffrage  was  adopted  for  all  male 
citizens  who  are  of  age  and  able  to  support  them¬ 
selves,  except  those  deprived  of  civil  rights,  crim¬ 
inals,  bankrupts  and  the  insane.  The  voting  for 
president,  deputies  and  municipal  councilors  is 
public,  direct  and  free.  According  to  the  election 
law  of  28  October,  1918,  the  election  of  president 
and  vice-president  of  the  Republic  is  made  by  an 
electoral  college,  composed  of  those  who  at  any 
time  of  the  election  are  senators  and  deputies,  and 
by  those,  what  at  any  time  within  a  period  of  six 
months,  may  have  been  president  of  the  Republic. 
The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  chamber  of 
representatives  elected  for  four  years,  one-half  re¬ 
tiring  every  two  years.  The  presidents  in  the  last 
decade  were:  Ricardo  Jimenez,  1910-1914;  Alfredo 
Gonzales,  1914-1918;  Don  Julio  Acosta,  1918—1922. 

A  new  penal  code  was  adopted  in  1918.  Capital 
punishment  cannot  be  inflicted.  On  23  August, 
1921,  the  right  of  suffrage  was  granted  to  all  citizens 
of  Costa  Rica,  including  women.  _  They  must  be 
able  to  read  and  write  and  be  citizens  by  birth, 
naturalization  or  adoption. 

Recent  History  (1910-1921). — The  boundary  be¬ 
tween  Costa  Rica  and  Panama,  which  had  been  in 
dispute  for  many  years,  was  fixed  by  the  arbitration 
of  President  Loubet  of  France  in  1900.  It  begins  at 
Monkey  (Mona)  Point  on  the  Atlantic,  follows 
a  ridge  of  hills  overlooking  the  valley  of  the  Sixola 
River,  westward  to  Mount  Chirripo  and  Mount 
Pando.  Thence  the  line  strikes  southeast  along 
the  crests  of  the  Talamanca  Mountains  as  far  as 
nine  degrees  north  latitude,  where  it  turns  sharply 
south  to  Burica  Point,  cutting  Burica  Peninsula 
in  half.  West  of  this  peninsula  is  the  Golfito  River, 
near  the  mouth  of  which  is  Coto.  This  territory 
has  been  in  possession  of  Panama  ever  since  the 
Republic  was  founded,  and  of  Colombia  before  that. 
The  Golfito  River  empties  into  the  Golfo  Dulce 
about  thirty  miles  west  of  Burica  Point  Ridge  and 
the  point  where  its  headquarters  rise  is  fifty  miles 
inland.  The  river,  the  ridge,  and  the  gulf  coast 
form  a  triangle  which  is  the  territory  in  dispute. 

It  was  awarded  to  Costa  Rica  by  President 
Loubet  in  compensation  for  a  considerable  area  of 
land  given  to  Panama  on  the  Atlantic  side  between 
the  Sixola  River  and  the  ridge  north  of  its  valley 
extending  west  to  Mount  Chirripo.  Nevertheless, 
Costa  Rica,  since  1881,  has  occupied  the  Sixola 
River  Wedge,  despite  President  Loubet’s  decision, 
asserting  that  the  Loubet  award  was  not  clear.  In 
1914  Chief  Justice  White  of  the  United  States 


Supreme  Court  was  asked  to  render  a  legal  inter¬ 
pretation  of  it,  but  Panama  declined  to  accept  his 
interpretation;  Costa  Rica  held  the  Sixola  watershed 
and  Panama  retained  the  Coto  triangle  until  the 
recent  invasion.  This  occurred  on  21  February, 
1920,  after  which  time  the  United  States  warships 
were  ordered  to  Costa  Rica  to  protect  American 
lives  and  property.  The  dispute  was  finally  given 
to  the  United  States  to  arbitrate,  as  agreed  in  the 
treaty  of  1915,  whereby  Panama  and  Costa  Rica 
agreed  to  submit  disputes  to  the  United  States  as 
mediator. 

In  March,  1916,  Costa  Rica  brought  action  against 
Nicaragua  for  violation  of  her  rights  under  the 
Canal  Treaty  with  the  United  States,  and  the  Cen¬ 
tral  Court  of  Justice  gave  a  decision  in  her  favor. 
A  bloodless  revolution  occurred  on  27  January, 
1917,  when  President  Gonzales  Flores  was  deposed 
by  the  military  forces  at  the  capital.  After  the 
overthrow  a  provisional  chief  executive  was  created 
in  the  person  of  the  minister  of  war,  Frederico 
Tinoco  Granados,  who  on  11  April,  1917,  was  elected 
president.  The  United  States  Government,  how¬ 
ever,  refused  to  recognize  his  government  unless 
it  proved  that  it  had  been  elected  by  legal  and 
constitutional  means.  In  August,  1919,  Tinoco  left 
the  country  and  Julio  Acosta  was  elected  president. 
During  the  presidency  of  Tinoco,  Costa  Rica  was 
refused  admittance  to  the  League  of  Nations,  but 
after  his  overthrow  she  was  admitted,  the  fact  in 
her  favor  being  her  declaration  of  war  against  Ger¬ 
many  in  1917.  Her  activities  included  the  placing 
of  the  waters  and  ports  at  the  disposal  of  the 
United  States  for  war  purposes,  the  canceling  of 
the  letters  patent  of  all  Germans  in  the  consular 
service,  and  the  organization  of  a  guard  service 
along  the  coast  and  boundaries  as  a  protection 
against  German  activities. 

For  ecclesiastical  history  see  San  Jose  de  Costa 
Rica,  Diocese  of. 

Cotrone,  Diocese  of  (Cotronensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-422d),  in  the  province  of  Catanzaro,  Southern 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Reggio  di  Calabria.  Rt.  Rev. 
Saturnino  Peri,  appointed  to  this  see  22  October, 
1908,  was  transferred  to  Iglesias  16  December,  1920, 
and  as  no  successor  has  yet  been  appointed  the 
diocese  is  now  (1922)  governed  by  an  apostolic 
administrator  in  the  person  of  Most  Rev.  Carmelo 
Pujia,  Archbishop  of  Santa-Severina.  By  1920 
statistics  this  diocese  is  credited  with  15,000  Cath¬ 
olics,  9  parishes,  1  vicariate,  30  secular  priests,  30 
Sisters,  3  seminarians,  and  30  churches  or  chapels. 

Cottolengo,  Joseph  Benedict.  See  Joseph  Bene¬ 
dict  CoTTOLEN GO,  BLESSED. 

Councils,  General  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-423).— No  coun¬ 
cil  is  oecumenical  unless  it  has  been  convoked  by 
the  pope,  who  has  the  exclusive  right  of  presiding 
over  it  personally  or  by  proxy,  of  deciding  what 
questions  are  to  be  debated,  of  transferring,  sus¬ 
pending,  or  dissolving  the  council,  and  of  confirm¬ 
ing  its  decrees.  If  any  of  those  who  by  law  are 
to  be  called  to  an  oecumenical  council  cannot  come, 
they  must  send  a  deputy  and  give  a  satisfactory 
reason  of  their  absence.  The  deputy  can  be  pres¬ 
ent,  as  such,  only  at  public  sessions;  he  has  no 
vote,  but  on  the  conclusion  of  the  council  he  may 
sign  the  acts.  None  of  those  who  should  be  present 
may  leave  before  the  end  of  the  council,  unless  with 
the  permission  of  the  president,  to  whom  he  shall 
have  made  known  the  reason  necessitating  his  de¬ 
parture.  The  decrees  of  a  general  council  are  not 
definitely  binding  until  they  have  been  confirmed 
by  the  pope  and  promulgated  by  his  order.  If  a 
pope  dies  during  a  general  council,  it  is  interrupted 


COURTS 


COURTS 


until  his  successor  orders  it  to  be  continued. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  222-29. 

Courts,  Ecclesiastical  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-447). — 
Cases  brought  before  the  ecclesiastical  courts  for  the 
infliction  or  declaration  of  a  penalty  are  called 
criminal,  otherwise  they  are  termed  contentious. 
The  pope  alone  may  deal  judicially  with  all  suits 
involving  rulers,  their  children  and  the  heirs  ap¬ 
parent  to  the  throne,  cardinals,  papal  legates,  and 
residential  or  titular  bishops  in  criminal  cases.  The 
tribunals  of  the  Holy  See  have  exclusive  jurisdic¬ 
tion  over  (a)  residential  bishops  in  contentious 
suits — but  disputes  concerning  the  rights  or  tem¬ 
poral  property  of  a  bishop,  or  the  mensa,  or  dioc¬ 
esan  curia,  may  with  the  bishop’s  consent  be  tried 
before  a  diocesan  tribunal  consisting  of  the  official 
and  two  of  the  older  synodal  judges  or  by  the 
judge  immediately  higher;  (b)  dioceses  or  moral 
ecclesiastical  persons  subject  immediately  to  the 
pope,  for  instance,  exempt  religious  orders.  Only 
a  judge  appointed  by  the  pope  has  jurisdiction  in 
a  case  which  the  sovereign  pontiff  has  taken  up. 
The  suit  is  to  be  decided  in  the  defendant’s  forum, 
but  if  the  defendant  has  several  fora,  the  plaintiff 
may  choose  between  them.  A  peregrinus  in  Rome 
may  be  cited  to  appear  there,  but  he  has  the  right 
of  returning  home  and  of  asking  that  the  case  be 
remitted  to  his  own  ordinary;  on  the  other  hand 
a  person  who  has  been  stopping  a  year  in  Rome 
may  insist  on  being  cited  before  a  Roman  tribunal. 

Court  of  first  instance. — Usually  a  case  is  first 
heard  in  the  diocesan  court,  where  the  local  ordi¬ 
nary  is  ex-officio  the  judge;  he  may  act,  person¬ 
ally  or  through  others.  Each  bishop  must  appoint 
an  official,  other  than  the  vicar  general — unless 
owing  to  the  small  size  of  the  diocese  it  is  prefer¬ 
able  that  one  priest  should  hold  both  offices — with 
ordinary  power  of  deciding  litigation.  He  and  the 
bishop  form  one  tribunal,  and  he  may  adjudicate  in 
all  cases  except  those  that  the  bishop  reserves  to 
himself.  The  official,  who  may  have  vice-officials 
as  assistants,  should  be  a  priest,  not  less  than  thirty 
years  old  and  skilled  in  law;  he  may  be  removed 
by  the  bishop;  during  a  vacancy  he  continues  in 
office,  and  cannot  be  removed  by  the  vicar  capitu¬ 
lar;  but  he  requires  confirmation  by  the  new 
bishop.  If  the  vicar  general  happens  to  be  the 
official  during  a  vacancy,  he  ceases  to  be  vicar, 
but  continues  as  official.  If  the  official  is  chosen 
vicar  capitular,  he  is  to  appoint  a  new  official.  In 
addition  each  diocese  should  have  a  number  of 
priests,  not  more  than  twelve,  to  act  as  judges 
with  power  delegated  by  the  bishop;  they  are  ap¬ 
pointed  usually  in  the  synod  and  are  known  as 
synodal  judges;  they  hold  office  for  ten  years,  and 
can  be  removed  only  for  grave  cause  by  the  bishop 
after  consulting  the  cathedral  chapter.  It  is  now 
laid  down,  all  customs  to  the  contrary  being  repro¬ 
bated  and  all  contrary  privileges  revoked,  that  (a) 
contentious  cases  concerning  the  bond  of  holy  or¬ 
ders,  matrimony,  the  rights  or  temporalities  of  the 
cathedral  and  all  criminal  cases  entailing  loss  of 
permanent  benefices  or  excommunications  are  to 
be  tried  before  a  collegiate  tribunal  of  three  judges; 
(b)  crimes  involving  deposition,  perpetual  loss  of 
the  right  to  wear  clerical  dress,  and  degradation 
are  reserved  to  a  tribunal  of  five  judges.  The  local 
ordinary  may  have  any  other  case  tried  before 
three  or  five  judges,  and  must  do  so  in  cases  of 
serious  moment.  These  collegiate  tribunals  decide 
by  a  majority  vote.  Though  the  bishop  may  pre¬ 
side  over  the  diocesan  tribunal,  except  in  the  in¬ 
stances  mentioned  above,  he  is  strongly  advised  not 
to  do  so,  particularly  in  criminal  and  grave  con¬ 
tentious  suits.  The  judge  of  first  instance  for  dis¬ 


putes  between  exempt  clerical  religious  or  in  a 
monastery  sui  juris,  is  usually  the  provincial  or 
local  abbot  respectively;  in  suits  between  two 
provinces  or  two  monasteries,  the  general  or  head 
of  the  monastic  congregation  respectively,  or  their 
delegate,  but  between  different  orders  or  between 
non-exempt  or  lay  religious,  or  between  a  religious 
and  secular  cleric  or  layman,  the  local  ordinary 
acts  as  judge. 

Court  of  second  instance.— An.  appeal  is  ordi¬ 
narily  taken  from  the  court  of  a  suffragan  to  the 
metropolitan  ( see  Appeals).  If  the  first  decision 
was  handed  down  by  a  collegiate  tribunal,  at  least 
the  same  number  of  judges  must  hear  the  appeal. 

Court  of  third  instance.— From  the  two  preced¬ 
ing  courts  an  appeal  may  be  taken,  if  the  dispute 
has  not  become  res  judicata,  to  the  Sacred  Roman  * 
Rota  for  final  decision  (C.  E.,  XIII-205).  If  a 
litigant  is  dissatisfied  with  the  proceedings  in  the 
Rota  on  the  grounds  of  violation  of  secrecy,  or  par¬ 
tiality  of  an  auditor,  or  if  he  contests  the  validity 
of  the  judgment,  he  can  address  himself  to  the 
Apostolic  Signature  (C.  E.,  XIII-149),  which  may 
examine  his  complaint  and,  if  equitable,  refer  the 
matter  back  to  the  Rota  for  its  consideration.  The 
Apostolic  Signature,  moreover,  can  decide  questions 
of  competency, .  if  the  judges  between  whom  the 
conflict  of  opinion  has  arisen  are  not  subject  to  a 
higher  tribunal,  and  further  it  is  delegated  to  ex¬ 
amine  and  answer  petitions  addressed  to  the  sov¬ 
ereign  pontiff  asking  to  have  a  suit  sent  before  the 
Rota.  The  Apostolic  Signature  is  never  bound  to 
state  the  reason  for  its  decision,  but  it  may  do  so. 

Delegated  Courts. — A  judge  delegated  by  the 
Holy  See  may  avail  himself  of  the  services  of  the 
curial  officers  of  the  diocese  in  which  he  is  to  ad¬ 
judicate,  or  of  any  other  persons  (unless  restricted 
by  the  rescript);  but  those  delegated  by  a  local 
ordinary  must  employ  the  officers  of  the  diocesan 
curia,  unless  the  bishop  for  grave  cause  decrees 
that  special  assistants  should  be  engaged. 

Procedure. — The  judge  proceeds  with  the  case 
only  at  the  request  of  the  litigants  if  the  dispute 
is  merely  personal,  but  in  criminal  suits  or  those 
involving  the  interests  of  the  Church  or  the  salva¬ 
tion  of  souls  he  proceeds  in  virtue  of  his  office. 
Dilatory  exceptions,  particularly  those  regarding 
persons,  must  be  taken  before  the  pleading  (con- 
testatio  litis),  unless  the  grounds  for  objecting  arise 
later  or  the  party  swears  that  they  had  not  come 
to  his  notice  earlier;  the  competency  of  the  judge, 
however,  may  be  questioned  at  any  stage  of  the 
case,  and  an  exception  based  on  excommunication 
may  be  raised  at  any  time  before  the  definitive 
judgment.  Peremptory  exceptions  known  as  litis 
finitce,  which  would  stop  the  suit  entirely  if  upheld, 
are  to  be  taken  and  decided  before  the  pleading; 
they  may  be  taken  later,  but  the  party  objecting 
must  pay  the  costs,  unless  he  proves  that  he  was 
not  responsible  for  the  omission;  other  peremptory 
objections  are  to  be  made  during  the  course  of 
the  trial.  Counterclaims  may  be  made  after  the 
pleadings;  they  are  to  be  tried  ordinarily  along 
with  the  original  suit.  The  question  of  surety  for 
costs  and  other  similar  matters  are  generally  to 
be  discussed  before  the  pleadings.  Extension  of 
time  may  be  granted  to  either  party  by  the  judge 
if  it  is  requested  before  the  customary  period  has 
elapsed,  except  when  the  law  has  laid  down  a  limit 
after  which  it  recognizes  no  legal  claim  to  relief; 
if  the  last  day  is  a  feast-day,  the  period  is  extended 
to  the  morrow. 

The  diocesan  court  is  as  a  rule  to  be  held  in  a 
hall  near  the  bishop’s  residence,  which  should  con- 


COURTS 


234 


COURTS 


tain  a  crucifix  prominently  displayed  and  a  copy  of 
the  Gospels;  the  bishop  is  to  issue  a  public  decree 
stating  the  day  and  the  hour,  when  the  court  can 
ordinarily  be  approached.  No  one  should  be  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  trial  unless  the  judges  believe  his 
presence  to  be  necessary.  The  record  of  the  pro¬ 
ceedings  is  as  far  as  possible  to  be  drawn  up  in 
Latin,  but  the  questions  and  answers  of  witnesses 
should  be  recorded  in  the  vernacular.  The  actuary’s 
signature  and  the  seal  of  the  court  should  appear 
on  each  leaf ;  when  the  signatures  of  the  litigants  or 
witnesses  are  required,  if  they  cannot  or  will  not 
sign,  the  fact  should  be  recorded  in  the  record  and 
the  judge  and  actuary  should  declare  that  the  state¬ 
ments  were  read  to  the  party  or  witness  and  that 
he  could  not  or  would  not  sign.  In  cases  of  ap¬ 
peal,  indexed  copies  of  the  record,  authenticated 
.  by  the  actuary  or  chancellor,  are  forwarded  to  the 
higher  court ;  in  case  of  necessity  the  original  record 
could  be  sent.  If  they  are  sent  to  a  place  where 
the  vernacular  language  is  unknown  the  records 
should  be  translated  into  Latin ;  if  they  have  not 
been  properly  prepared,  they  may  be  rejected  by 
the  higher  court. 

Parties. — The  plaintiff  and  defendant  may  be 
compelled  to  appear  personally ;  minors  appear 
through  their  parents  or  guardians,  but  in  suits 
involving  spiritual  interests  they  can  act  without 
leave  of  the  parents  or  guardians,  if  they  have  at¬ 
tained  the  use  of  reason,  and  if  they  are  fourteen 
years  of  age  can  appear  personally,  otherwise  they 
are  to  be  represented  by  a  guardian  chosen  by  the 
ordinary  or  a  procurator  named  by  them  with  the 
ordinary’s  permission.  Religious  can  engage  in  law¬ 
suits  without  their  superior’s  consent  only  (a)  in 
vindication  of  the  rights  they  acquired  against  their 
order  by  profession;  (b)  when  it  is  necessary  in 
order  to  defend  their  rights  while  they  are  living 
with  permission  outside  of  the  houses  of  their 
order;  (c)  when  they  wish  to  denounce  their 
superior.  A  bishop  can  appear  on  behalf  of  the 
cathedral  church  or  episcopal  mensa ;  but  to  do  so 
lawfully,  he  must  listen  to  the  cathedral  chapter 
or  council  of  administration  or  have  their  consent 
or  advice,  when  such  a  sum  of  money  as  would 
necessitate  their  consent  or  advice  for  valid  aliena¬ 
tion  is  involved.  Beneficiaries  may  prosecute  or 
defend  suits  on  behalf  of  their  benefice,  but  to 
act  licitly  they  should  have  the  written  consent 
of  the  ordinary  or,  if  there  is  not  time  to  obtain 
it,  of  the  vicar  forane.  Prelates  and  superiors  of 
chapters,  sodalities,  and  colleges  require  the  con¬ 
sent  of  these  bodies;  and  the  local  ordinary  may 
appear  personally  or  by  proxy  in  the  name  of  a 
moral  body  whose  administrator  neglects  to  take 
action.  Excommunicates  vitandi  or  others  after 
declaratory  or  condemnatory  sentence  cannot  ap¬ 
pear  personally  except  to  contest  the  justice  or 
legitimacy  of  their  excommunication;  they  may 
appear  by  a  procurator  to  avert  any  other  spiritual 
danger;  otherwise  they  have  no  standing  in  court. 
Other  excommunicates  can  generally  appear  in 
court. 

In  criminal  cases  the  defendant  must  always 
have  an  advocate;  and  in  contentious  cases  involv¬ 
ing  the  public  welfare  or  the  interests  of  minors, 
the  judge  must  appoint  one  to  assist  a  litigant  who 
has  none,  and  may  even  provide  a  second  advocate 
if  the  circumstances  demand  it. 

The  right  of  action  in  contentious  suits,  both 
real  and  personal,  may  be  lost  by  prescription;  but 
the  question  of  personal  status  may  always  be 
raised.  Criminal  actions  are  terminated  by  the 
death  of  the  defendant,  by  condonation  by  a  law¬ 
ful  superior,  and  by  delay  in  starting  the  suit; 


actions  for  affronts  are  barred  in  a  j^ear,  trials  for 
special  crimes  against  the  sixth  and  seventh  com¬ 
mandments  in  five  years;  trials  for  simony  or 
homicide  in  ten  years;  all  other  criminal  actions 
in  three  years;  suits,  however,  reserved  to  the 
Holy  Office  are  governed  by  the  special  regulations 
of  that  body.  Even  if  a  criminal  action  has  been 
barred  by  lapse  of  time,  a  suit  may  at  times  be 
brought  to  recover  damages,  and  a  legitimate 
superior  may  be  obliged  to  refrain  from  promoting 
a  cleric  if  a  doubt  remains  as  to  his  fitness,  and 
even  to  prohibit  him  from  exercising  his  ministry 
if  scandal  would  result.  In  contentious  suits  the 
time  for  prescription  begins  to  run  from  the  moment 
the  action  could  have  been  begun;  in  criminal  cases 
it  runs  from  the  date  of  the  offense,  unless  the 
crime  is  continuous  in  its  nature  or  is  one  of  a 
series,  in  which  cases  it  begins  after  the  last  act. 

For  procedure  followed  in  the  court  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-452.  The  witnesses  should  ordinarily  testify 
under  oath,  but  those  who  have  not  reached 
puberty,  the  feeble-minded,  those  declared  or  con¬ 
demned  as  excommunicated,  perjurers,  or  infamous, 
persons  of  depraved  morals,  and  known  bitter 
enemies  of  one  of  the  litigants  are  usually  not 
sworn,  their  testimony  being  accepted  merely  as 
corroborative.  In  private  suits,  however,  the  parties 
may  allow  a  witness  to  testify  without  being  sworn; 
the  judge  may  oblige  the  witness  by  oath  to  ob¬ 
serve  secrecy  till  the  proceedings  are  made  public, 
or  even  never  to  make  them  known  where  there  is 
danger  of  scandal  or  discord.  Though  the  wit¬ 
nesses  should  ordinarily  testify  in  court,  cardinals, 
bishops,  and  distinguished  persons  who  by  civil  law 
are  exempt  from  appearing  before  a  judge  as  wit¬ 
nesses,  can  select  another  place  for  giving  their 
evidence,  but  they  should  notify  the  judge.  Nuns 
professed  with  solemn  vows  and  persons  who  are  ill 
may  testify  at  home.  A  witness  who  lives  in  a  re¬ 
mote  district  and  cannot  reach  the  judge  without 
grave  inconvenience  may  testify  before  a  com¬ 
mission;  and  those  living  in  another  diocese  under 
similar  circumstances  may  give  their  evidence  be¬ 
fore  a  local  tribunal.  The  litigants  may  not  be 
present  at  the  examination  of  the  witnesses  with¬ 
out  the  judge’s  permission,  nor  may  the  witnesses 
be  examined  in  one  another’s  presence.  However, 
when  all  the  testimony  has  been  taken,  the  judge 
may  confront  two  witnesses  or  a  witness  and  a 
litigant  if  the  witnesses  differ  seriously  and  sub¬ 
stantially  from  one  another  or  from  a  litigant,  and 
if,  at  the  same  time,  this  is  the  easiest  way  of 
getting  at  the  truth  and  can  be  done  without  dan¬ 
ger  of  scandal  or  discord. 

The  witness  is  questioned  only  by  the  judge;  if 
the  litigants,  the  promoter  of  justice,  or  the  de¬ 
fender  of  the  bond  are  present  at  the  examination 
and  wish  to  get  his  answer  on  any  point,  they  must 
submit  their  questions  to  the  judge  to  be  asked 
by  him.  The  questions  asked  of  the  witness  should 
be  short,  candid,  uncomplicated,  pertinent,  and 
should  not  suggest  the  answer;  if  any  facts  have 
slipped  from  his  memory  the  judge  may  assist  him 
in  recalling  the  circumstances,  if  this  can  be  fairly 
done.  The  witness  may  not  read  his  testimony,, 
except  when  there  is  question  of  complicated 
figures;  his  evidence  is  to  be  taken  down  verbatim 
by  the  actuary,  unless  the  judge  deems  anything 
too  trivial  to  be  recorded;  before  leaving  the  court¬ 
room  the  transcript  of  the  testimony  is  to  be  read 
to  the  witness  so  that  he  may  add,  suppress,  cor¬ 
rect,  or  vary  what  is  necessary;  the  transcript  is 
then  signed  by  the  witness,  the  judge,  and  the 
notary.  When  the  parties  or  the  procurators  have 
not  been  present  at  the  examination,  the  judge 


COURTS 


235 


COURTS 


may  order  the  publication  of  the  evidence  as  soon 
as  the  testimony  is  complete.  When  this  has  been 
done  exception  cannot  be  taken  to  a  witness,  unless 
a  party  can  prove  or,  at  least,  swears  that  he  was 
not  aware  of  the  disqualification  of  the  witness  in 
time  to  object;  he  may,  however,  challenge  the 
validity  of  the  examination  or  of  the  evidence  itself. 
The  witness  is  entitled  to  be  reimbursed  for  his 
traveling  and  hotel  expenses  and  for  loss  of  time, 
the  judge  fixing  the  amount.  If  the  party  who 
called  him  does  not  pay  within  the  time  fixed 
the  evidence  given  on  his  behalf  by  the  witness  is 
considered  stricken  out.  The  testimony  of  one 
witness  is  not  considered  sufficient  proof,  except 
regarding  matters  done  by  him  ex-officio;  the  con¬ 
current  testimony  of  two  unexceptionable  witnesses 
is  necessary  but  sufficient  to  establish  a  point, 
though  occasionally  the  judge  may  demand  more 
ample  proof  on  account  of  the  gravity  of  the  issue 
or  if  some  doubt  still  remains. 

An  incidental  suit  sometimes  occurs,  as  when 
after  the  citation  a  question  arises  which,  though 
not  contained  expressly  in  the  bill,  is  so  connected 
with  the  main  controversy  that  it  should  be  set¬ 
tled  first.  It  may  be  raised  verbally  or  by  writ¬ 
ing  and  is  decided  by  an  interlocutory  sentence  of 
the  judge,  which  for  just  cause  may  be  corrected 
or  revoked  by  him  before  the  conclusion  of  the 
main  case.  These  suits  deal  with  contumacy,  the 
intervention  of  a  third  party  to  protect  his  own 
interests,  and  attentates  or  attempts  of  either  party 
or  of  the  judge  to  do  anything  during  the  suit, 
against  the  interests  of  one  of  the  litigants  and. 
without  his  consent. 

The  next  step  before  the  discussion  of  the  case  is 
the  publication  of  the  acts,  by  which  is  meant  that 
each  party  and  his  advocate  may  inspect  the  acts 
which  up  to  this  point  have  been  kept  secret  and 
may  obtain  copies  of  them.  When  the  judge  has 
ascertained  that  all  necessary  matters  have  been 
set  forth  or  that  the  legal  time  for  adducing  proofs 
is  over,  he  issues  a  decree  declaring  the  case  con¬ 
cluded,  and  fixes  a  date  for  the  parties  to  bring 
forward  their  defense  or  claim.  The  defense  is 
made  in  writing,  copies  being  exchanged  between 
the  parties  and  also  prepared  for  each  of  the  judges, 
though  the  president  of  the  court  may  order  them 
to  be  printed.  Each  party  is  entitled  to  reply 
once  in  writing  to  the  allegations  of  his  adversary. 
If  he  thinks  it  advisable  the  judge  may  allow  a 
brief  address  to  be  made,  but  only  to  clear  up  some 
obscure  point.  The  judgment  must  be  based  on 
the  acts  and  proofs;  if  the  judge  cannot  attain 
moral  certainty  he  should  announce  that  the 
plaintiff  has  not  proved  his  claim  and  uphold  the 
defendant,  except  in  a  causa  favorabilis — or  when 
there  is  a  doubt  about  the  right  of  two  claimants 
to  possession,  in  which  case  he  should  leave  both 
parties  in  undivided  possession.  Before  a  collegiate 
tribunal  decides,  its  members  meet  and  each  reads 
his  decision  and  the  reasons  therefor;  a  discussion 
takes  place  and  any  judge  may  change  his  opinion; 
if  no  agreement  is  reached  another  meeting  may 
be  called  within  a  week  for  further  discussion.  The 
judgment  must  give  the  main  details  of  the  pro¬ 
ceedings  and  decide  for  or  against  the  defendant; 
prescribe  what  the  loser  is  to  do,  and  how,  when, 
and  where  he  must  do  it;  give  the  reasons  for 
the  judgment,  and  settle  the  question  of  costs; 
and  be  dated  and  signed  by  the  judge  or  judges  and 
the  notary.  The  sentence  is  to  be  published  as  soon 
as  possible;  this  may  be  done  by  citing  the  parties 
to  hear  it  read,  or  by  informing  them  that  they 
can  obtain  copies  of  it  from  the  chancery,  or  by 
sending  them  a  copy  by  registered  mail. 


Expenses.  In  contentious  suits  the  parties  may 
be  compelled  to  pay  something  towards  the  ex¬ 
penses  of  the  court,  unless  they  are  excused  by  rea¬ 
son  of  their  poverty.  The  usual  costs  are  fixed  by 
the  provincial  council  or  by  a  meeting  of  the 
bishops,  and  the  judge  may  insist  on  security  for 
the  costs  being  lodged  in  the  chancery.  The  loser 
usually  pays  all  the  costs,  but  in  very  intricate 
cases  or  in  suits  between  relatives  or  for  a  just 
cause  a  pro  rata  payment  may  be  ordered  in  the 
sentence.  The  decree  of  execution  becomes  opera¬ 
tive  when  the  suit  has  been  definitively  settled;  in 
cases  of  necessity,  however,  a  provisional  execution 
may  be  ordered.  The  ordinary  of  the  court  of  first 
instance,  or  if  he  refuses  or  neglects  the  appellate 
judge  is  the  executor.  The  judgment  in  real  actions 
is  to  be  executed  at  once ;  in  personal  actions,  how¬ 
ever,  a  delay  of  not  less  than  two,  or  more  than  six 
months  is  allowed. 

Criminal  cases. — Criminal  courts  deal  only  with 
public  offenses;  if  the  offense  is  a  violation  also  of 
the  civil  law  the  ordinary  usually  does  not  insti¬ 
tute  proceedings  if  the  accused  is  a  lay  person  and 
the  civil  authorities  have  taken  the  case  in  hand. 
When  the  offense  is  certain,  spiritual  punishment 
such  as  penance,  excommunication,  suspension,  and 
interdict  can  be  imposed  by  precept  irrespective  of 
a  trial.  The  right  of  action  is  reserved  to  the 
promoter  of  justice,  but  a  private  individual  may 
and  sometimes  is  obliged  to  denounce  the  offender 
to  the  bishop,  chancellor,  vicar  forane,  or  parish 
priest,  and  must  then  aid  the  promoter.  If  the 
offense  is  not  public  and  certain  there  must  be  a 
special  inquisition  to  insure  that  an  innocent  party’s 
reputation  will  not  suffer  by  his  being  summoned 
to  answer  a  criminal  charge.  If  the  accused  when 
cited  to  appear  confesses  his  guilt,  the  ordinary 
may  confine  himself  to  a  judicial  correction.  This 
correction  may  be  administered  only  twice,  and 
never  when  the  offense  entails  excommunication 
very  specially  or  specially  reserved  to  the  Holy 
See,  or  infamy,  deposition,  degradation,  or  privation 
of  a  benefice,  or  when  it  is  necessary  to  pronounce 
a  vindicatory  punishment  or  censure,  or  when  it 
would  not  be  sufficient  to  repair  the  scandal  and 
the  wrong  done.  When  there  may  be  no  correc¬ 
tion  or  if  it  has  been  administered  in  vain,  the 
record  of  the  inquisition  is  turned  over  to  the 
promoter  of  justice,  who  at  once  draws  up  a  bill 
and  the  case  proceeds  along  the  lines  of  contentious 
suits  already  described. 

Matrimonial  Suits. — Matrimonial  suits  of  rulers, 
their  children,  and  heirs  apparent  are  to  be  tried 
only  before  the  Sacred  Congregation,  tribunal,  or 
special  commission  which  the  pope  selects  for  the 
purpose;  the  Congregation  of  the  Discipline  of  the 
Sacraments  has  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  dispensa¬ 
tions  from  ratified  unconsummated  marriages;  the 
Holy  Office  decides  all  questions  of  the  Pauline 
Privilege.  In  other  cases  the  competent  judge  is 
the  local  judge  where  the  marriage  was  celebrated 
or  where  the  party  lives,  or  where  the  Catholic 
party  has  a  domicile  or  quasi-domicile,  if  the  other 
party  is  not  a  Catholic 

Ordination  Suits. — To  begin  a  suit  on  the  validity 
of  ordination  or  its  obligations,  a  libellus  should 
be  forwarded  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Disci¬ 
pline  of  the  Sacraments  or  if  the  question  of  a 
substantial  defect  of  rite  is  involved,  to  the  Holy 
Office;  the  congregation  decides  if  the  case  is  to 
be  sent  to  the  tribunal  of  the  diocese  of  the  cleric 
at  the  time  of  ordination,  or  to  the  diocese  where 
he  was  ordained,  if  the  suit  is  based  on  a  defect 
of  rite  or  if  it  may  decide  the  question  itself.  The 
defender  of  the  bond  of  ordination  must  intervene 


COUSERANS 


236 


CREMA 


in  these  suits,  which,  in  general,  follow  a  procedure 
similar  to  that  of  matrimonial  cases,  including 
appeals  and  the  sentence  of  nullity. 

Couserans,  Diocese  of.  See  Pamiers. 

Coutances,  Diocese  of  (Constantiensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  IV-455c),  suffragan  of  Rouen,  comprises  all  of 
the  department  of  La  Manche,  France,  and  carries 
the  united  title  of  Avranches  (Abrincensis).  Since 

28  November,  1898,  this  see  has  been  filled  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Joseph  Guerard,  born  in  Loudeac  1846,  or¬ 
dained  in  1869,  and  served  as  titular  chancellor  of 
Rennes,  where  he  was  later  consecrated.  The 
activity  and  generosity  of  Bishop  Guerard  during 
his  long  administration  have  been  largely  re¬ 
sponsible  for  the  complete  restoration  of  the  ancient 
cathedral.  In  1903  the  choir  was  repaired  according 
to  its  original  form,  the  high  altar,  stalls  and  epis¬ 
copal  throne  were  restored,  a  new  floor  was  laid 
and  the  beautiful  tower  in  the  centeirtook  on  its 
old  beauty.  Two  years  later  the  Chapel  of  St. 
John,  abandoned  since  1755,  was  opened  and  given 
the  title  of  Chapel  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and  1916 
saw  the  restoration  of  the  chapel  and  the  devotion 
of  Notre  Dame  des  Puits.  An  unused  apartment 
in  the  south  wing  of  the  cathedral  was  converted 
into  a  chapel  for  relics,  and  new  windows  were 
added  and  blessed.  In  1919  the  restoration  was 
completed  with  the  repairing  of  the  great  organ, 
constructed  in  1720  and  originally  belonging  to  the 
Abbey  of  Sarigny-le-Vieux.  The  same  year,  on  3 
July,  the  Government  gave  permission  for  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  religion  in  the  abbatial  basilica,  which  had 
been  denied  this  privilege  for  thirty  years.  On 

29  January,  1917,  upon  the  request  of  Mgr.  Lemon- 
nier,  Bishop  of  Bayeux,  the  authenticity  of  the 
relics  preserved  in  the  episcopal  chancellery  was 
established.  In  1913  the  Upper  Seminary  was  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  Chateau  of  Coigny,  generously  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  the  bishop  by  a  noble  English 
lady,  Madame  la  Contesse  de  Beauchamps,  of  the 
family  of  the  Dukes  of  Coigny.  By  1920  statistics 
the  diocese  Counts  476,119  Catholics,  16  first  class 
parishes,  612  succursal  parishes,  and  284  vicariates 
formerly  supported  by  the  state. 

Covington,  DioceseJ^  ( Covin gtonen sis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  IV-462c),  Kentucky,  comprises  an  area  of 
17,286  sq.  miles  and  a  Catholic  population  of 
some  60,600,  chiefly  of  German  or  Irish  descent. 
Upon  the  death  of  Rt.  Rev.  Camillus  P.  Maes, 
third  Bishop  of  Covington,  11  May,  1915,  Rt.  Rev. 
Ferdinand  Brossart  was  consecrated  his  successor 
25  January,  1916.  Bishop  Brossart  was  born  in 
Bavaria,  19  October,  1849,  but  was  brought  to  this 
country  in  his  infancy  and  made  all  his  studies 
here,  spending  all  of  his  priestly  career  in  the 
Diocese  of  Covington.  Before  his  appointment  as 
bishop  he  was  vicar  general  of  the  diocese  for 
twenty-eight  years.  During  his  administration  he 
has  liquidated  the  debt  on  the  old  cathedral  and 
raised  large  sums  for  the  erection  of  the  present 
cathedral. 

The  diocese  of  Covington  at  present  comprises: 
64  parishes,  81  churches,  17  missions  with  25  sta¬ 
tions,  84  secular  priests  and  10  regulars,  4  lay  broth¬ 
ers,  584  religious  (women),  23  seminarians,  1  high 
school  with  50  boys,  10  academies  with  attendance 
of  2,130,  2  normal  schools  for  sisters  with  10  teach¬ 
ers  and  an  attendance  of  46,  a  hospital  training- 
school  with  an  attendance  of  24,  44  elementary 
schools  with  226  teachers  and  an  attendance  of 
8,413.  Among  the  institutions  are:  1  Good  Shep¬ 
herd  home  with  105  penitents  and  59  children,  2 
orphan  asylums  with  192  children  and  2  hospitals 


with  a  yearly  record  of  6,887.  The  priests  of  the 
dioceses  are  permitted  to  minister  in  all  the  public 
institutions,  but  no  support  is  received  from  the 
Government  in  supporting  the  Catholic  institutions. 

Cracow  (Polish,  Krakow),  Diocese  of  (Cracovi- 
ensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IV-464c),  in  Poland,  directly  sub¬ 
ject  to  Rome.  This  see,  founded  in  the  tenth  cen¬ 
tury,  is  now  (1922)  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Adam  Stephen 
Sapieha,  a  member  of  the  Polish  nobility,  born  in 
Krasiczyn  in  1867,  studied  at  the  Gregorian  Col¬ 
lege  in  Rome,  and  ordained  in  1893,  served  ys  vice- 
rector  of  the  Seminary  of  Lemberg,  made  £  private 
chamberlain  in  1906  and  appointed  27  November, 

1911,  to  succeed  Cardinal  Puzyna  (d.  8  September, 
1911).  He  is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary,  Rt.  Rev. 
Anatolius  Nowak,  titular  Bishop  of  Irenopolis,  ap¬ 
pointed  17  December,  1900.  In  1920  the  population 
of  the  diocese  numbered  975,525  Catholics,  about 
3,489  Protestants  and  64,811  Jews.  The  territory 
is  divided  into  18  deaneries,  184  parishes,  and  34 
fillial  parishes,  and  comprises  557  secular  and  313 
regular  clergy,  an  upper  and  a  lower  seminary  at 
Cracow,  42  convents  with  712  religious,  and  1,499 
Sisters  distributed  through  119  religious  houses. 

Crato,  Diocese  of  (Cratensis),  erected  by  a  De¬ 
cree  of  20  November,  1914,  which  divided  the 
Diocese  of  Fortaleza,  in  the  State  of  Ceara, 
Brazil,  and  took  the  southern  portion  to  form 
the  new  diocese.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by 
the  boundary  lines  of  the  States  of  Ceara,  Rio 
Grande,  Norte,  and  Parahyba;  on  the  south  by 
the  limits  of  the  States  of  Ceara  and  Poj^Mpdto; 
on  the  west  by  the  boundary  lines  of  ti^^Pftes  of 
Ceara  and  Piauhy.  These  limits  were  slightly 
changed  on  24  January,  1919.  The  diocese  com¬ 
prises  parishes  a  cathedral  dedicated  to 

Our  Lady  of  Penhc^Plt  is  under  the  direction  of 
its  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Quintin-Rodrigues  de 
Oliveira  e  Silva,  born  in  Guixeramobim  (now  part 
of  this  diocese)  in  1863,  ordained  188?n?rofessor 
and  then  rector  of  the  Seminary  of  Crato,  founder 
of  the  CathQUcjournal,  “La  Cruz,”  named  an  hon¬ 
orary  prival^ppamberlain  extra  urbem,  27  January, 

1912,  and  ap^ipted  to  the  see  of  Piauhy,  which  he 
declined  17  ^bruary,  1913,  and  again  appointed 
Bishop  of  Crato,  iO  March,  1915.  Statistics  are  not 
yet  published  for  this  diocese. 

Creighton  University  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-480b),  a  free 
institution  locat^fct- Omaha,  Nebraska,  U.  S.  A., 
and  conducted  bythe  Society  (^^lesus.  In  1913 
a  summer  school  was  opened  in  connection  with  the 
university;  in  1920,  the  College  of  Commerce  was 
established  and  in  1921  fwo  new  buildings  were 
completed,  to  be  used  for  law  and  dentj^ry.  The 
institution  is  steadily  growing,  the  totarregistra- 
tion  for  1921  being  1,230;  707  men  and  523  women, 
under  a  faculty  of  161  members,  21  religious  and 
140  lay  professors.  A  high  school  with  a  registra¬ 
tion  of  415  boys,  is  conducted  in  connection  with 
the  university.  The  president  is  Rev.  John  F. 
McCormack,  S.  J. 

Crema,  Diocese  of  (Cremensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV-481b),  in  the  province  of  Cremona,  Italy,  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Milan.  Rt.  Rev.  Bernardo  Pizzorno,  now 
titular  Bishop  of  Flaviopolis,  filled  this  see  from  4 
January,  1911,  until  he  retired  6  December,  1915. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Dalmazio  Minoretti, 
born  in  San  Dalmazio  in  1861,  professor  in  the 
Seminaries  of  Monza  and  of  Milan,  appointed  6 
December,  1915.  The  statistics  of  1920  credit  the 
diocese  with  66,900  Catholics ;  53  parishes,  70  secular 
and  4  regular  clergy,  44  seminarians,  4  Brothers, 
150  Sisters,  and  78  churches  or  chapels. 


CREMATION 


237 


CRIME  IN  CANON  LAW 


Cremation  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-481). — The  practice  of 
cremation  is  reprobated  by  the  Church,  and  no 
attention  must  be  paid  to  any  request  for  it.  If  a 
person  has  asked  to  be  cremated  he  may  not  re¬ 
ceive  Christian  burial,  unless  he  repented  before 
dying;  unreserved  excommunication  is  incurred 
ipso  facto  by  those  who  order  or  compel  the  Chris¬ 
tian  burial  of  such  persons,  while  those  who  give 
it  voluntarily  are  interdicted  from  entering  church, 
the  censure  being  reserved  to  the  ordinary. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  1,552-2,194;  Noval,  C ommentarium. 

Cremona,  Diocese  of  (Cremonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-483b),  in  Lombardy,  Northern  Italy,  suffragan 
of  Milan.  Mgr.  Bonomelli,  appointed  to  this  see 
27  October,  1871,  although  an  active  and  zealous 
worker,  merited  the  disapproval  of  the  Church  by 
his  uncompromising  attitude  on  the  question  of 
temporal  power.  He  desired  a  union  between  the 
Church  and  State,  but  a  union  wrhich  wrould  be  to 
the  advantage  of  the  latter,  and  maintained  very 
close  relations  with  the  Italian  court.  When  the 
Pope  condemned  the  separation  of  Church  and 
State,  Bishop  Bonomelli  published  a  pastoral  letter 
directly  opposed  to  the  pronouncement  of  the  Holy 
Father,  causing  a  great  scandal  throughout  the 
country.  He  afterwards  wrent  to  Home  to  justify 
himself,  but  Pius  X  refused  to  receive  him.  In  1889 
he  published  a  well  known  pamphlet,  ‘‘Roma, 
1’  Italia  et  la  realta  della  cose,”  setting  forth  the 
necessity  of  a  reconciliation  between  the  two;  it 
was  published  annonomously,  but  was  known  to  be 
ttofe^Mj^)f  Bishop  Bonomelli.  He  later  declared 
him^^BBbe  its  author  and,  to  avoid  direct  con¬ 
demnation,  announced  submission  to  the  judgment 
of  authority,  thus  gaining  wider  publicity  for  his 
book.  He  died  in  NigoliM^^  Augus^B^14,  after 
a  long  illness  and  was  moUPd  by  all  the  Liberal 
press,  which  fact  was  in  itself  the  bitterest  criticism 
of  the  man  and  the  prelate.  However  two  accom- 
plishmeate  still  stand  to  his  credit;  the  reorganiza¬ 
tion  of  the  Upper  Seminary  in  new  buildings  which 
have  a  capacity  of  300  students,  but  which  so  far 
have  never  housed  more  than  35^BL  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  an  aid  association  for  I^ffan  emigrants. 
This  provides  moral  protection  forWlians  in  foreign 
countries  and  enables  them  to  procure  material 
assistance  as  wTell. 

He  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Cazzani, 
transferred  to  Cremona,  22  January,  1915.  Born  in 
the  diocese  o^J*avia  in  18^BBe  studied  at  the 
university,  -waWrdained  in  1889,  became  a  profes¬ 
sor,  and  then  vice-rector  of  the  seminary,  and 
later  secretary  to  the  jpishop  whom  he  followed  to 
Ravenna  in  1901.  He  returned  to  Pavia- the  follow¬ 
ing  yea^fcgnd  became  rector  of  the  seminary,  chan¬ 
cellor  oT  the  cathedral,  apostolic  visitor  to  the 
seminary  of  the  province  of  Benevento,  and  private 
chamberlain,  and  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Cesena, 
5  August,  1904.  The  diocese  comprises  a  Catholic 
population  of  377,790  and  is  credited  by  the  1920 
statistics  with  230  parishes,  541  secular  and  40  regu¬ 
lar  clergy,  200  seminarians,  20  Brothers,  1,475  Sis¬ 
ters,  and  530  churches  or  chapels. 

Crime,  Impediment  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-489). — 
According  to  the  Code  of  Canon  Law  a  valid  mar¬ 
riage  cannot  be  contracted  between  two  parties: 
(1)  who,  while  one  of  them  was  legitimately  mar¬ 
ried,  have  committed  adultery  together  and  prom¬ 
ised  to  marry  one  another  or  have  attempted  to 
do  so  even  civilly — this  impediment  is  one  of  the 
minor  grade;  or  (2)  who  while  one  was  legitimately 
married  have  committed  adultery  together  and  in 
addition  one  of  them  has  committed  conjugicide; 
or  (3)  who  by  mutual  co-operation,  whether  physi¬ 


cal  or  moral,  have  caused  the  death  of  one  of  their 
spouses,  even  if  no  adultery  has  been  committed. 
It  may  be  noted  that  the  Code  in  treating  of  cases 
(2)  and  (3)  makes  no  mention  of  any  intention 
to  contract  marriage.  Before  the  Code  apeared, 
such  intention  was  not  laid  down  expressly  in  the 
law  as  necessary,  yet  the  necessity  of  it  was  empha¬ 
sized  by  the  standard  moralists  and  canonists. 
Ignorance  of  the  existence  of  this  impediment  pre¬ 
vents  it  from  arising.  One  may  note,  however,  that 
(a)  when  a  dispensation  is  granted  by  the  Holy 
See  from  a  ratified  but  unconsummated  marriage, 
or  (b)  when  permission  is  given  to  contract  a  new 
marriage  on  account  of  the  presumed  death  of  a 
spouse,  there  is  always  implied,  when  necessary,  a 
dispensation  from  the  impediment  of  crime  arising 
from  adultery,  but  it  is  never  implied  in  cases 
(2)  or  (3)  that  is,  from  adultery  and  conjugicide 
or  from  conjugicide  alone. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  988;  1053. 

Crime  in  Canon  Law. — By  the  word  crime  is 
meant  an  external  sinful  violation  of  a  law  to 
which  at  least  an  indeterminate  canonical  sanction 
has  been  annexed;  unless  the  contrary  is  appar¬ 
ent  what  the  Code  says  about  crimes  applies  also 
to  the  violation  of  a  precept  imposed  with  a  penal 
sanction.  Its  quality  depends  on  the  object  of  the 
law;  its  gravity  on  the  importance  of  the  law  vio¬ 
lated,  the  degree  of  imputability,  and  the  injury 
caused.  It  is  (a)  public,  if  it  is  commonly  known 
or  has  taken  place  under  such  circumstances  that 
a  prudent  person  must  easily  know  that  the  fact 
is  about  to  become  public;  (b)  notorious  noto- 
rietate  juris,  after  a  lawful  judgment  or  after  con¬ 
fession  in  court;  (c)  notorious  notorielate  facti,  if 
publicly  known  and  committed  under  such  circum¬ 
stances  that  it  cannot  be  explained  away  or  legally 
excused;  (d)  hidden  or  occult,  if  it  is  not  public; 
materially  occult,  if  the  crime  is  secret;  formally 
occult,  if  the  imputability  is  so. 

The  degree  of  imputability  depends  t>n  the  mal- 
ice^of  the  agent  and  his  responsibility  for  being 
ignorant  of  the  law  or  for  not  exercising  proper 
diligence.  If  the  law  has  been  violated  externally, 
deliberate  ill-will  is  presumed  in  the  external 
forum  until  the  contrary  is  proved.  Ignorance  of 
the  penalty  annexed  diminishes  somewhat  but  does 
not  prevent  imputability;  so,  too,  do  inadvertence 
and  error.  If  the  law  has  been  violated  through 
lack  of  proper  diligence,  prudence  will  dictate  to 
what  extent  imputability  has  decreased.  In  case 
of  merely  ecclesiastical  laws,  relatively  grave  fear, 
necessity,  or  great  inconvenience  will  often  prevent 
an  act  from  being  criminal.  Crime  is  aggravated 
by  the  higher  rank  of  the  offender  or  of  the  party 
wronged,  and  also  by  abuse  of  authority  in  com¬ 
mitting  it.  A  recidivist  is  one  who  after  condemna¬ 
tion  commits  a  crime  of  the  same  nature  under  such 
circumstances  and  within  such  time  as  preclude  one 
from  judging  prudently  that  his  evil  will  was 
changed. 

As  a  general  rule  all  those  who  have  concurred  in 
a  crime  as  conspirators,  or  necessary  accomplices, 
or  those  but  for  whose  influence  the  crime  would 
not  have  been  committed  share  equally  in  the 
guilt  with  the  principal  offender;  those,  however, 
who  wTere  superfluous  accomplices,  or  who  partially 
withdrew  their  influence,  or  who  participated  only 
by  neglecting  their  duty  are  less  guilty.  Accessories 
after  the  fact,  e.g.,  those  who  praise  the  evil  done, 
or  share  in  its  fruits,  or  conceal  the  culprit  do 
not  share  the  guilt  of  the  principal,  if,  before  the 
commission  of  the  crime,  they  had  no  agreement 
with  him  to  act  thus;  their  acts  may,  however, 


CRIME  IN  CANON  LAW 


238 


CRIMMINS 


constitute  distinct  crimes.  These  provisions  about 
co-operation  have  a  special  importance  inasmuch  as 
certain  co-operators  mentioned  expressly  as  cen¬ 
sured  in  the  Constitution  “Apostolicae  Sedis”  are 
passed  by  in  silence  in  the  provisions  of  the  Code 
imposing  excommunications  and  suspensions. 

An  attempted  crime  occurs  when  one  does  or 
omits  something  that  would  naturally  result  in  an 
actual  crime,  which,  however,  does  not  happen 
either  because  the  agent  has  changed  his  mind  or 
has  made  use  of  insufficient  means.  If  the  means 
employed  were  sufficient  but  the  crime  was  pre¬ 
vented  by  the  intervention  of  a  cause  independent 
of  the  agent’s  will,  we  have  what  is  called  a  frus¬ 
trated  crime.  The  nearer  an  attempted  crime 
approaches  to  fruition  the  greater  is  its  imputa- 
bility ;  but  other  things  being  equal  it  is  less  blame¬ 
worthy  than  a  frustrated  crime.  Nothing,  however, 
is  to  be  imputed  to  one  who,  having  set  about 
committing  a  crime,  -voluntarily  desists  before  its 
accomplishment,  provided  no  injury  or  scandal  was 
caused  by  the  attempt. 

Punishments. — The  Church  has  an  innate  right, 
independent  of  any  human  authority,  of  controlling 
its  delinquent  subjects  by  both  spiritual  and  tem¬ 
poral  penalties.  These  penalties  are :  (a)  medicinal, 
or  censures;  (b)  vindicatory;  (c)  remedial.  There 
should  be  a  just  proportion  between  the  punishment 
and  a  crime;  whatever  excuses  from  grave  guilt 
excuses  from  all  penalty,  and  the  milder  view  is  to 
prevail  in  doubtful  cases,  except  when  there  is  ques¬ 
tion  of  the  justice  or  injustice  of  a  penalty  inflicted 
by  a  competent  superior.  Only  those  who  may 
enact  laws  or  impose  precepts  can  annex  pun¬ 
ishments  for  the  violation  of  these;  a  vicar  general, 
therefore,  cannot  inflict  a  penalty  without  a  special 
mandate.  Those  who  legislate  may  under  certain 
circumstances  annex  or  increase  penalties  to  se¬ 
cure  the  observance  in  their  own  territory  of  ex¬ 
isting  laws,  whether  divine  or  enacted  by  a  higher 
superior.  When  a  law  has  no  sanction  annexed  a 
lawful  superior  may  impose  a  just  punishment  on 
a  subject  violating  it,  even  without  previous  warn¬ 
ing,  in  case  of  scandal  or  of  an  unusually  grave 
infraction;  otherwise  the  culprit  must  not  be  pun¬ 
ished  unless  the  offense  took  place  after  due  warn¬ 
ing  of  the  impending  penalty.  A  judge  may  not 
increase  the  penalty  imposed  by  law,  except  where 
the  crime  was  committed  under  extraordinarily 
aggravating  circumstances,  but  he  may  often  re¬ 
mit  it,  partially  or  entirely,  especially  where  the 
culprit  has  sincerely  repented  and  repaired  the 
scandal  given  or  has  been  or  is  to  be  sufficiently 
punished  by  the  evil  authorities.  When  the  num¬ 
ber  of  crimes  is  very  great  the  number  of  penalties 
need  not  be  increased  proportionately;  the  judge 
might  for  instance,  inflict  the  heaviest  punishment 
annexed  to  any  of  the  offenses,  with  or  without  any 
additional  remedial  penalty.  If  a  penalty  latce  sen- 
tentioe  or  ferendoe  sententioe  is  imposed  as  a  deter¬ 
rent  in  an  individual  case  it  should  ordinarily  be 
declared  in  writing  or  in  presence  of  two  witnesses, 
the  reasons  for  the  punishment  being  given,  though 
these  may  be  kept  private  if  the  superior  so  de¬ 
sires.  If  after  a  crime  has  been  committed  the 
penal  law  is  changed,  the  milder  law  is  to  be  ap¬ 
plied  in  punishing;  when  a  later  law  abolishes  a 
penalty  there  is  to  be  no  punishment,  except  that 
censures  already  incurred  continue.  A  penalty  binds 
the  offender  everywhere,  unless  the  contrary  is 
clearly  stated. 

In  regard  to  punishments  latce  sententioe,  (a)  af¬ 
fected  ignorance,  whether  of  law  or  the  penalty 
alone,  never  excuses;  (b)  any  diminution  of  re¬ 
sponsibility,  arising  from  the  intellect  or  the  will, 


excuses  when  the  law  employs  the  words  "pre¬ 
sume,”  "dare,”  “knowingly,”  “deliberately,”  “rash¬ 
ly,”  or  similar  terms  implying  full  knowledge  and 
deliberation;  (c)  when  such  expressions  are  not 
found  in  the  law,  crass  or  supine  ignorance  does 
not  excuse;  other  degrees  of  ignorance  excuse  from 
medicinal  but  not  from  vindicatory  punishments; 
drunkenness,  want  of  care,  mental  weakness,  pas¬ 
sion,  do  not  excuse  from  the  penalty  if  the  action 
is  grievously  sinful;  nor  does  grave  fear,  if  the 
offense  involves  public  spiritual  danger  or  contempt 
of  the  Faith  or  ecclesiastical  authority.  When  not 
expressly  mentioned,  cardinals  are  not  subject  to 
penal  laws,  nor  are  bishops  subject  to  suspension 
or  interdict  latce  sententioe.  Those  who  have  not 
reached  the  age  of  puberty  are  excused  from  penal¬ 
ties  latce  sententioe,  but  they  are  to  be  corrected 
by  the  ordinary  methods  used  in  training  the  young 
rather  than  by  censures  or  other  more  serious  vin¬ 
dicatory  penalties;  their  older  accomplices  or  co- 
operators,  however,  incur  the  full  punishment. 

A  medicinal  or  vindicatory  punishment  latce 
sententioe  binds  an  offender  conscious  of  his  fault 
in  both  fora;  before  a  declaratory  sentence  has 
been  pronounced,  however,  he  is  excused  from  ob¬ 
serving  the  censure  as  often  as  his  reputation  would 
suffer,  and  in  the  external  forum  he  need  not  heed  it 
unless  the  fault  was  notorious.  No  punishment  can 
be  imposed  unless  it  is  certain  that  the  crime  was 
committed  and  also  that  judgment  has  not  been 
barred  by  lapse  of  time ;  furthermore,  when  there  is 
question  of  inflicting  a  censure,  the  offender  must 
first  be  reprimanded,  warned  to  recede  from'  his 
contumacy,  and  given  suitable  time  to  repent,  should 
the  case  admit  of  delay;  if  he  then  remains  con¬ 
tumacious.  the  censure  may  be  imposed.  A  judge 
who  in  the  exercise  of  his  office  has  imposed  _  a 
penalty  laid  down  by  a  superior  cannot  remit  it. 
An  ordinary,  however,  has  wide  powers (a)  in 
public  cases,  he  can  remit  all  penalties  latoe 
sententioe  laid  down  by  common  law,  except  in 
cases  which  are  still  in  court,  or  if  the  censure  is 
reserved  to  th^v  rHoly  See,  or  in  case  of  inability 
to  hold  ecclesiastical  offices,  benefices,  dignities, 
or  of  loss  of  active  and  passive  voice,  perpetual 
suspension,  infamy  of  law,  loss  of  the  right  of 
patronage  and  Apostolic  privileges  or  favors;  (b)  in 
occult  cases,  he  can  personally  or  by  a  delegate 
remit  all  censures  laid  down  in  the  common  law, 
except  those  reserved  specially  or  very  specially 
to  the  Holy  See.  See  Censures;  Excommunica¬ 
tion;  Suspension. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  2195-2414;  Ayrinhac,  Penal  Legislation. 

Crimmins,  John  Daniel,  contractor,  patron  of 
arts,  and  philanthropist,  b.  at  New  York  on  18 
May,  1844;  d.  there  on  9  November,  1947.  He 
was  the  son  of  Thomas  and  Joanna  (O’Keefe) 
Crimmins,  his  father  being  a  native  of  Limerick 
City,  Ireland,  who  had  emigrated  to  New  York  in 
1837.  After  studying  in  the  Jesuit  College  of  St. 
Francis  Xavier,  New  York,  he  joined  his  father  in 
the  contracting  business,  and  in  1873  he  succeeded 
as  head  of  the  firm,  with  his  younger  brother  as 
partner.  Among  the  notable  city  works  he  executed 
were  the  renovation  of  Broadway,  the  construction 
of  the  Broadway  Cable  road,  the  first  subways  for 
the  telegraph  and  telephone,  and  the  changing  of 
the  street  railways  into  the  present  electric  railway 
with  its  underground  power  apparatus.  In  1868  he 
married  Miss  Lily  Louise  Lalor,  and  at  the  time  of 
his  death  was  survived  by  five  sons  and  five  daugh¬ 
ters.  He  was  buried  by  tha  side  of  his  wife,  who 
died  in  1888,  in  a  mortuary  chapel  erected  by  him 
in  the  convent  of  the  Dominican  Nuns  of  the 
Perpetual  Adoration,  Hunts  Point,  New  York. 


CRIMMINS 


239 


CROSS 


Crimmins’  interest  in  national  and  eivic  affairs 
was  recognized  by  his  appointment  as  Democratic 
presidential  elector  on  three  occasions,  as  a  member 
of  the  Special  Panama  Committee,  as  Commis¬ 
sioner  of  Parks  of  New  York  City  from  1883  till 
1888,  and  as  a  member  of  the  New  York  Constitu¬ 
tional  Convention  of  1894.  But  it  was  for  his  zeal 
in  promoting  the  welfare  of  the  Church  and  of 
Catholic  charities  that  he  was  best  known — numer¬ 
ous  colleges,  schools,  hospitals,  homes,  and  refuges, 
both  in  America  and  abroad,  being  beneficiaries  of 
his  generosity.  In  recognition  of  this  spirit  he  was 
created  a,  Knight  Commander  of  the  Order  of  St. 
Gregory  in  1901  by  Leo  XIII.  He  was  a  trustee  of 
the  Catholic  University  of  America,  and  of  St. 
Patrick’s  Cathedral,  the  Roman  Catholic  Orphan 
Asylum,  and  the  Foundling  Hospital  of  New  York. 
He  was  a  noted  patron  of  art.  His  love  for  America 
and  for  the  Irish  race  and  tradition  was  unbounded, 
and  he  was  one  of  the  most  active  members  of  the 
Friendly  Sons  of  St.  Patrick,  and  of  the  American 
Irish  Historical  Society.  He  is  the  author  of  two 
works:  “Irish  American  Historical  Miscellany,”  and 
“St.  Patrick’s  Day — Its  Celebration  in  New  York 
and  other  American  Places,  1737-1845.” 

Crisium,  Diocese  of.  See  Kri2?eva6ke. 


Croatia.  See  Jugoslavia. 

Crookston,  Diocese  of  (Crookstoniensis), 
erected  31  December,  1909,  by  a  division  of  the 
diocese  of  St.  Paul  (see  C.  E.,  XVI-35).  It  com¬ 
prises  17,210  sq.  miles  in  the  State  of  Min¬ 
nesota,  and  is  under  the  administration  of  its  first 
bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Timothy  Corbett,  appointed  9 
April,  1910.  Born  in  Mendota,  Minnesota  in  1858, 
he  studied  in  France  at  the  lower  seminary  of 
Meximieux,  and  was  ordained  in  Boston  in  1886 
and  served  as  vicar  in  Minneapolis,  then  chancellor 
to  the  Bishop  of  Duluth  and  pastor  of  the  cathe¬ 
dral,  and  was  consecrated  in  ’St.  Paul  19  May 
following  his  appointment.  The  diocese  is  dedicated 
to  the  Immaculate  Conception;  the  Benedictine 
Fathers,  Sisters  of  St.  Benedict,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
and  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  are  established  here.  Out 
of  a  total  population  of  27,621  this  territory  counts 
24,103  Catholic  whites  and  3,518  Catholic  Indians. 
The  1921  statistics  credit  the  diocese  with  41  secular 
and  13  regular  clergy,  44  parishes,  35  missions,  20 
mission  stations,  2  academies  for  girls  with  110 
pupils,  8  parochial  schools  with  1,358  pupils,  2 
Indian  Industrial  Schools  with  244  pupils,  a  total 
of  1,602  children  under  Catholic  care,  and  3  hospitals. 

Cross,  Daughters  of  the  (La  Louviere,  Belgium; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XVI-31a),  a  French  institute  first  es¬ 
tablished  in  1625  at  Roy,  Picardy,  by  Fr.  Guerin, 
Frangoise  Wallet,  and  Marie  Samier,  to  provide  for 
the  Christian  education  of  girls.  Charlotte  and 
Anne  de  Lancy  jointed  the  good  work,  and  Fran- 
goise  Wallet  was  named  “First  Sister.”  They  were 
not  bound  by  vows,  and  became  known  as  Daugh¬ 
ters  of  the  Cross,  meeting  many  misfortunes.  In 
1639  the  capture  of  Roy  by  the  Spaniards  com¬ 
pelled  the  Sisters  to  seek  refuge  in  Paris,  where 
they  were  received  by  Madame  de  Villeneuve,  and 
several  foundations  were  started.  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  gave  them  every  encouragement  to  overcome 
all  obstacles.  Later  on,  two  branches  of  the  insti¬ 
tute  were  established,  when  Mme.  de  Villeneuve 
introduced  certain  innovations  which  were  accepted 
by  some  of  the  members,  while  the  others  adhered 
to  their  original  purpose  and  under  Fr.  Guerin  re¬ 
turned  to  the  cradle  of  the  institute.  The  Bishop 
of  Noyon,  Mgr.  de  Rochebonne,  in  1728  drew  up 
the  Constitutions  of  the  community  who  pledged 


themselves  to  religious  life,  taking  simple  vows  and 
adopting  religious  enclosure. 

The  mother-house  at  St.  Quentin  was  in  a  flour¬ 
ishing  condition  at  the  outbreak  of  the  French 
Revolution  in  1789  when  the  Sisters  were  expelled 
and  their  convent  seized  and  converted  into  a 
prison.  Sister  Hunegonde  Duplaquet  refusing  to 
leave  the  convent,  hoping  thus  to  prevent  its  sale, 
was  locked  up  in  her  cell  and  made  a  prisoner. 
After  the  fall  of  Robespierre,  though  the  convent 
continued  to  be  a  house  of  detention,  Sister  Hune¬ 
gonde  opened  a  school  in  her  room  and  gradually 
gathered  around  her  some  of  her  former  religious 
Sisters.  _  In  1837  Mgr.  Simony,  Bishop  of  Soissons, 
reorganized  the  institute  by  obtaining  from  Mgr.  de 
Bruillard,  Bishop  of  Grenoble,  five  Sisters  from  his 
diocese,  who  agreed  to  be  affiliated  to  the  Daughters 
of  the  Cross.  The  Society  received  the  final  decree 
of  papal  approbation  from  Leo  XIII,  12  June,  1899. 

The  first  Mother  General  was  Mother  Mary 
Henrietta  Rimey,  the  second.  Mother  Caroline  Got, 
the  third,  Mother  Marguerite  de  St.  Preux,  and 
fhe  fourth  and  present  Superior  General  is  Mother 
Helene  Afchain  who,  with  her  council,  resides  at 
La  Louviere,  Belgium.  Owing  to  the  laws  against 
religious  teaching  in  France  a  few  of  the  nuns  were 
secularized  for  a  time.  Branch  houses  of  the  order 
are  at  Bar-le-Duc,  Soissons,  Paris,  Ryde,  Southsea, 
and  Boscombe.  An  English  novitiate  has  been  be¬ 
gun  at  the  Convent  of  the  Cross,  Boscombe,  and 
it  is  the  intention  of  the  superior  general  to  make 
further  foundations  when  the  number  of  members 
has  sufficiently  increased. 

Cross,  Daughters  of  the  (Liege,  Belgium;  cf.  C. 
E.,  XVI-30b). — At  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War, 
as  early  as  5  August,  1914,  the  Belgian  Congrega¬ 
tion  of  the  Daughters  of  the  Cross  opened  at  Liege 
a  temporary  hospital  for  the  wounded  soldiers,  in 
which  about  700  were  received.  In  nearly  all  the 
houses  of  England  a  very  large  number  of  Belgian 
refugees  found  hospitality  until  the  end  of  the  war. 
Four  Daughters  of  the  Cross  met  with  tragic 
deaths  while  on  their  way  to  the  Indian  Missions 
on  board  the  “Persia,”  which  was  torpedoed  near  the 
Island  of  Crete,  30  December,  1915.  The  congre¬ 
gation  now  has  a  Cardinal  Protector,  granted  to 
them  by  Pope  Pius  X.  The  present  and  sixth 
Superior  General  is  Mother  Marie-Victorine,  elected 
8  April,  1920,  to  succeed  Mother  Marie-Augustine, 
who  had  governed  the  congregation  for  twenty 
years.  The  late  Provincial  of  the  English  Prov¬ 
ince,  Sister  M.  Theophile,  died  26  June,  1921.  New 
foundations  of  the  order  are:  a  dispensary  at 
Kindu,  Belgian  Congo  (1911);  hospital  for  Euro¬ 
peans  and  natives,  orphanage,  and  dispensary  at 
Lubunda,  North  Kabanga,  Belgian  Congo  (1912); 
Institution  of  St.  Michael,  for  feeble-minded  chil¬ 
dren,  at  Spa,  Belgium  (1912);  sanatorium  for  con¬ 
sumptives  at  Haslemere,  Surrey,  England  (1917); 
school  for  young  ladies  at  Waltham-Cross,  Herts, 
England  (1919) ;  Central  School  at  Jarrow,  Northum-* 
berland,  England  (1919);  Donaghmore  House, 
Tyrone,  Ireland  (1920),  where  a  hospital  will  be 
opened.  The  present  number  of  foundations  is  86, 
and  the  number  of  members  is  1,610.  The  religious 
have  under  their  care:  77  schools  with  14,152  chil¬ 
dren,  18  orphanages  with  1,667  orphans,  2  foundling- 
homes,  7  homes  for  preservation  with  1,301  refugee 
girls,  11  homes  for  the  aged  with  325  inmates,  11 
hospitals  with  6,042  patients,  5  sanatoriums,  6  semi¬ 
naries,  3  homes  for  epileptics  with  631  inmates,  1 
prison. 

Cross,  Daughters  of  the  (Shreveport.,  Loui¬ 
siana. — The  main  object  of  this  institution, 


CROWLEY 


240 


CSANAD 


founded  by  Mme.  Villeneuve  under  the  direction  of 
St.  Francis  de  Sales,  is  the  sanctification  of  its  mem¬ 
bers  whilst  devoting  themselves  to  Christian  educa¬ 
tion.  The  time  of  probation  is  two  years  of 
novitiate  and  three  years  of  temporary  vows,  after 
which  the  members  take  perpetual  vows.  The  first 
house  of  the  congregation  was  founded  in  Paris  in 
1640,  and  the  institution  spread  rapidly  through 
different  parts  of  France.  Among  the  bishops  who 
asked  the  Sisters  to  establish  schools  in  their  dio¬ 
ceses  was  Bishop  Balthazar  Grangier  of  Treguier. 
This  convent  in  Treguier,  founded  in  1666,  was  very 
prosperous  till  1793,  when  the  Reign  of  Terror  com¬ 
pelled  the  community  to  disperse.  The  Sisters  con¬ 
tinued  their  work  as  religious  teachers  in  their 
families  and  among  their  acquaintances,  and  when 
peace  was  restored  to  the  Church  of  France,  they 
reassembled  in  their  former  house  at  Treguier,  soon 
regaining  their  prosperity. 

It  was  from  this  community  that  the  first  foun¬ 
dation  of  the  Daughters  of  the  Cross  was  made  in 
America.  In  1854  Bishop  Martin  of  Natchitoches, 
while  on  a  voyage  to  France  in  quest  of  missionary 
laborers,  became  acquainted  with  the  community 
and  requested  their  establishment  in  his  diocese. 
A  missionary  band  of  ten  Sisters  from  Treguier, 
with  Mother  Mary  Hyacinth  as  Superior,  embarked 
at  Havre,  24  October,  1855.  Bishop  Martin  met 
them  in  New  Orleans  and  they  reached  their  desti¬ 
nation  at  Cocoville,  Avoyelles,  Louisiana,  26 
November.  In  spite  of  many  hardships  and  diffi¬ 
culties,  the  Sisters  opened  their  school  2  February, 
1856.  The  population  of  Avoyelles  parish  were 
mostly  of  French  descent  and  Catholic,  though  for 
lack  of  religious  instruction  an  indifference  to  re¬ 
ligious  matters  prevailed.  The  school,  however,  was 
well  patronized  and  soon  others  were  established: 
He  Brevel  (1857),  Alexandria  (1858),  and  Shrevo 
port  (I860). 

The  Civil  War  spread  ruin  and  desolution 
throughout  the  South,  and  the  new  convent  schools 
were  closed.  Other  teaching  congregations  aban¬ 
doned  the  field,  but  when  peace  was  restored,  the 
Daughters  of  the  Cross  reopened  their  schools  with 
the  exception  of  that  at  Alexandria,  and  in  1866 
founded  a  new  school  at  Monroe.  In  1868  the 
mother-house  was  transferred  from  Cocoville, 
Avoyelles  parish,  to  the  suburbs  of  Shreveport. 
This  is  now  known  as  St. -Vincent’s  College  and 
Academy.  In  the  Dioceses  of  Alexandria  and  Sioux 
Falls  the  Sisters  conduct  eight  academies  with  1,285 
pupils.  The  number  of  professed  religious  is  80; 
novices,  5;  postulants,  2.  In  1873  during  the  yellow 
fever  epidemic  in  Shreveport  the  Sisters  nursed  the 
sick  and  the  dying  and  three  of  them  fell  victims 
to  the  terrible  disease,  which  was  a  great  loss  for 
the  little  community. 

Crowley,  Mary  Catherine,  author  and  lecturer, 
b.  in  Boston,  U.  S.  A.,  d.  in  New  York  4  May,  1920, 
granddaughter  of  Daniel  Crowley,  one  of  the  first 
Catholics  of  Boston,  and  on  the  maternal  side  a 
direct  descendant  from  Lochiel,  the  famous  Cath¬ 
olic  chieftain  of  Scotland.  She  was  educated  at 
the  Academy  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Manhattanville, 
and  began  her  literary  work  in  1877  as  a  contributor 
of  poems  and  short  stories  to  “Wide  Awake,”  “St. 
Nicholas,”  “Ladies’  Home  Journal,”  the  “Pilot,”  etc. 
In  1892  she  went  abroad  and  on  her  return  lived 
for  ten  years  in  Detroit,  where  she  was  a  col¬ 
laborator  on  the  Memorial  History  of  the  city. 
Miss  Crowley  was  a  recognized  authority  on  the 
early  history  of  Detroit,  and  a  leader  in  its  bi¬ 
centennial  celebration  in  1901,  the  pageant  being 
founded  on  descriptions  in  her  book  “A  Daughter 
of  New  France.”  Her  later  years  were  spent  in 


New  York,  where  since  1907  she  edited  the  “Cath¬ 
olic  Missions  Magazine”  and  the  “Annals  of  the 
Propagation  of  the  Faith.”  Miss  Crowley  lectured 
extensively  on  art  and  literature,  and  was  the  author 
of  the  following  novels:  “Merry  Hearts  and  True” 
(1889),  “Happy-Go-Lucky”  (1890),  “Apples  Ripe 
and  Rosy”  (1893),  “The  City  of  Wonders”  (1894), 
“The  Sentinel  of  Metz”  (1897),  “An  Every  Day 
Girl”  (1900),  “Tilderee”  (1900),  “A  Daughter  of 
New  France”  (1901),  “The  Heroine  of  the  Straits” 
(1902),  “Love  Thrives  in  War”  (1903),  “In  Treaty 
with  Honor”  (1906). 

Cruise,  Sir  Francis,  physician  and  scholar,  b.  in 
Dublin,  1834;  d.  there  26  February,  1912,  was  a 
descendant  of  an  historic  Meath  family,  which 
settled  in  Ireland  in  the  twelfth  century  and  lost 
lands  and  fortune  for  their  open  fidelity  to  the 
Faith.  He  was  educated  at  Clongowes  and  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  where  he  graduated  in  arts  in 
1856  and  in  medicine  two  years  later.  When  the 
Mater  Misericordiae  Hospital  was  opened  in  1861 
he  was  appointed  junior  physician,  and  the  same 
year  obtained  his  degree  in  medicine  from  the 
University  of  Dublin.  He  was  a  prolific  writer 
on  medical  topics,  among  his  subjects  being  the 
endoscope  as  a  means  of  diagnosis,  cholera,  and  the 
mode  of  propagation  of  that  malady,  and  hyp¬ 
notism.  His  investigations  into  the  medicinal 
springs  of  Europe,  especially  those  of  Coutrexeville, 
are  of  great  importance.  From  1884  to  1886  he 
was  president  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians 
of  Ireland,  and  in  1896  was  knighted.  Five  years 
later  he  was  appointed  Physician  in  Ordinary  to 
the  king  in  Ireland,  and  later  .was  offered  a 
baronetcy,  which  he  declined.  To  the  general 
reader  he  is  best  known  by  his  critical  work 
“Thomas  a  Kempis  and  the  Authorship  of  the 
Imitation,”  a  subject  to  which  he  devoted  all  his 
leisure  time  and  in  the  preparation  of  which  he 
visited  all  the  foreign  libraries  wherein  original 
manuscripts  were  to  be  found.  The  municipality 
of  Kempen  has  named  a  street  after  this  Irish 
doctor,  who  vindicated  the  claims  of  their  famous 
townsman.  His  work  in  the  great  Catholic  hos¬ 
pitals  as  well  as  his  labors  and  writings  in  honor 
of  a  Kempis  were  recognized,  in  1905,  by  Pope 
Pius  X,  who  conferred  on  him  the  Knighthood  of 
St.  Gregory. 

Crusade,  Bull  of  the  (cf.  C.  E.,  III-543). — On 
31  December,  1914,  Benedict  XV  withdrew  the  privi¬ 
lege  and  favors  granted  to  the  Portuguese  in  the 
Bulla  Cruciatse  and  the  Labbatine  and  Lenten  in- 
dults,  replacing  them  by  a  new  series  of  favors 
contained  in  indults  which  are  to  be  published 
yearly,  till  31  December,  1924.  There  are  seven 
separate  indults,  summaries  or  schedules  of  which 
have  to  be  obtained  each  year  by  those  who  wish 
to  enjoy  the  favors;  the  price  of  each  summary 
is  fixed  and  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  must  be  de¬ 
voted  to  the  clerical  seminaries,  poor  churches,  and 
other  pious  works.  The  summaries  may  be  ob¬ 
tained  by  any  one  resident  in  Portuguese  territory; 
and  the  indult  regarding  fast  and  abstinence  may 
be  used  in  any  part  of  the  world,  provided  there  is 
no  scandal.  The  Cardinal  Patriarch  of  Lisbon  is 
executor  of  the  indults  and  can  subdelegate  to  the 
different  ordinaries  the  faculties  granted  to  him.  On 
12  August,  1915,  in  practically  the  same  terms  the 
Bulla  Cruciatse  were  renewed  for  Spaniards  and 
these  living  in  Spanish  territory  for  twelve  years 
beginning  from  28  November,  1915. 

Csanad,  Diocese  of  (Csanadiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IV- 
558b) ,  suffragan  of  Kalocsa.  According  to  the  Treaty 
of  Versailles  in  1919,  the  diocesan  area  now  lies  within 


CUBA 


241 


CUBA 


three  separate  kingdoms — two-fourths  in  Rumania, 
one-fourth  in  Hungary,  one-fourth  in  Jugoslavia.  The 
episcopal  seat  remains  in  Temesvar,  Rumania.  In 
1920  the  Jesuits  founded  a  house  in  Szeged  with  a 
novitiate  attached,  towards  which  work  Mr.  Joseph 
Varhelyi  made  a  munificent  gift.  During  the  World 
War  Bishop  Julius  Glattfelder  converted  the  epis¬ 
copal  residence  into  a  hospital,  and  for  two  years 
taught  canon  law  in  place  of  the  former  professor 
who  was  called  to  the  army.  Of  the  50  priests 
assigned  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  the  soldiers,  some 
were  wounded  and  one  was  taken  captive.  The 
seminarians  to  the  number  of  about  100  fought  in 
the  army,  many  being  wounded,  while  others  were 
killed  or  taken  prisoner.  Among  the  recently  de¬ 
ceased  are  the  following  persons  of  note:  Canon 
Anthony  W  ittenberger  (d.  1916),  for  sixteen  years 
director  of  the  diocesan  chancery;  Joseph  Nemeth 
(b.  1831,  d.  1916),  titular  Bishop  of  Isaura  and  for¬ 
merly  administrator  of  the  diocese;  Dr.  Alexander 
Wekerle  (d.  1921),  Prime  Minister  of  Hungary,  who 
befriended  the  Church  as  governor  of  Zlapodia. 

The  Catholic  population  (1921)  is  970,944,  for 
the  most  part  German;  the  minority  are  Hun¬ 
garians,  Bulgarians,  Bohemians,  Croatians,  or 
Rumanians.  The  priests  number  401  seculars  and 
673  regulars.  There  are  273  parishes,  13  monasteries 
for  men  and  38  for  women;  1  university  with  5 
professors  and  32  students;  5  colleges  for  boys  and 
15  for  girls;  4  normal  schools  with  28  teachers;  19 
training  schools  with  108  teachers;  135  elementary 
schools  with  375  teachers;  2  orphan  asylums,  1  in 
Temesvar  and  1  in  Nagybeeskerek;  3  day  nurseries, 
in  Szeged,  Arad,  and  Temesvar,  respectively.  The 
asylums  are  in  charge  of  the  Government  which 
contributes  nothing  towards  the  support  of  the 
Catholic  institutions.  ‘For  the  clergy  there  is  a  con¬ 
gregation  of  Mary,  and  a  sodality  for  the  laity,  the 
Congregation  of  Mary,  Sodality  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Rosary  Society,  an  apostleship  for  the  men, 
a  society  for  social  welfare,  Society  of  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul,  a  charitable  organization  of  the  women, 
and  a  social  organization  of  the  Catholic  people. 
The  Catholic  publications  are  numerous,  totalling 
11,  of  which  5  are  political,  1  religious,  2  social,  1 
devoted  to  music,  and  2  for  youth. 

Cuba  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-558d). — Latin  American  re¬ 
public  in  the  West  Indies,  comprising  the  island  of 
Cuba,  the  Isle  of  Pines  and  small  adjacent  islands. 
The  area  is  44,215  square  miles,  and  the  population, 
according  to  an  estimate  of  November,  1919,  was 
1,898,905.  The  area,  population,  and  density  of  each 
of  the  six  provinces  were  as  follows: 


Province 

Area 

Population 
in  1919 

Population 
Per  Square 
Mile 

Havana  . 

3,174 

697,583 

219.77 

Pinar  del  Rio . 

5,212 

266,198 

51.07 

Matanzas  . 

3,260 

312,704 

95.09 

Santa  Clara  . 

8,266 

657,697 

70.95 

Camagiiey  . 

10,076 

228,913 

22.71 

Oriente  . 

14,227 

735,810 

51.31 

44,215 

2,898,905 

65.34 

The  population  in  1919  increased  261,369  over 
that  of  1916.  The  whites  formed  74.3  per  cent  and 
the  colored  25.7  per  cent  of  the  total  population. 
The  immigrants  in  1919  numbered  80,485,  of  whom 
39,573  were  Spanish,  24,187  Jamaicans,  1,236  Chinese, 
and  745  English.  The  chief  cities  are  Havana, 
363,506;  Cienfuegos,  95,865;  Camagiiey,  98,193; 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  70,232;  Guantanamo,  68,883; 


Matanzas,  62,638;  Santa  Clara,  63,151;  Manzanillo, 
56,570. 

Education. — Each  municipality  has  a  board  of 
education,  and  government  schools  are  being  estab¬ 
lished  in  all  towns  and  rural  districts,  as  education 
is  compulsory.  In  1919  there  were  334,671  children 
enrolled  in  the  government  schools,  which  had 
6,151  teachers.  In  1919,  223  new  schools  were  estab¬ 
lished.  In  each  province  there  is  maintained  a 
Government  Institute  for  Advanced  Education,  to 
which  are  annexed  the  normal  schools  for  training 
teachers.  University  instruction  is  given  in  the 
University  of  Havana,  which  is  divided  into  the 
three  Faculties  of  Liberal  Arts  and  Sciences,  of 
Medicine  and  Pharmacy,  and  of  Law.  According 
to  the  latest  census  statistics,  illiteracy  has  been 
reduced  to  31  per  cent  and  is  now  rapidly  disap¬ 
pearing. 

Government. — The  Provincial  Government  es¬ 
tablished  by  the  United  States  in  1906  continued 
until  24  January,  1909,  when  the  national  govern¬ 
ment  was  resumed  after  the  institution  of  electoral 
reforms.  The  present  government  is  republican  in 
form;  the  president  is  chosen  by  popular  suffrage 
and  serves  four  years.  He  appoints  his  own  Cabi¬ 
net.  The  National  Congress  consists  of  a  Senate 
(24  members,  4  for  each  province)  and  a  House  of 
Representatives  (118  members,  1  for  every  25,000 
inhabitants).  A  new  electoral  code  was  adopted  in 
1919. 

Economic  Conditions. — The  total  foreign  com¬ 
merce  of  Cuba  during  the  fiscal  year  1919-20  ex¬ 
ceeded  $1,290,000,000,  which,  compared  with  1918-19, 
shows  an  increase  of  $504,000,000  or  of  64%.  This 
included  imports,  valued  at  $435,257,727,  and  ex¬ 
ports,  valued  at  $855,138,341.  The  chief  articles  of 
export  were  sugar  and  honey  ($376,000,000)  and 
tobacco  ($13,500,000),  most  of  which  went  to  the 
United  States  and  the  United  Kingdom.  In  1918 
the  tobacco  manufactured  in  Cuba  consisted  of 
331,705,125  cigars,  341,803,669  boxes  of  cigarettes  and 
378,426  pounds  of  cut  tobacco.  In  1918  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  tobacco  amounted  to  508,980  bales  (81,436,240 
pounds),  and  in  1919-20  the  sugar  crop  was  3,735,425 
tons,  valued  at  $1,005,451,080.  The  total  area  of 
the  sugar  plantations  was  1,384,812  acres.  In  1918-19 
there  were  211  sugar  mills.  The  State  owns  about 
1,250,000  acres  of  forest  lands.  In  1919  there  were 
3,200  miles  of  railway,  connecting  the  principal 
towns  and  seaports  from  Pinar  del  Rio  in  the  west 
to  Santiago  de  Cuba  in  the  east.  The  question  of 
nationalizing  the  railways  is  under  consideration. 
There  are  1,285  miles  of  cart  roads  open  to  traffic. 

Ecclesiastical  History. — In  1912  the  dioceses  of 
Camagiiey  and  Matanzas  were  erected,  each  com¬ 
prising  the  province  of  the  same  name.  In  1921 
Mgr.  Pietro  Benedetti  was  made  Apostolic  Delegate 
for  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.  For  Catholic  statistics 
see  Santiago  de  Cuba,  Archdiocese  of  and  its  suf¬ 
fragans. 

Civil  History. — Cuba’s  career  as  a  republic  has 
been  successful,  except  on  one  occasion,  11  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1917,  when  two  companies  of  soldiers  out¬ 
side  the  walls  of  Havana  mutinied  and  the  next 
day  the  entire  force  of  government  troops  in  Ciego 
de  Avila,  Santiago  de  Cuba  and  towns  of  the 
eastern  part  of  the  island  revolted  and  forcibly 
took  possession  of  those  districts.  The  United 
States  fleet  was  sent  to  Key  West  in  readiness  for 
any  emergency,  but  found  the  Cuban  Government 
able  to  control  the  situation.  The  revolution  was 
suppressed  in  less  than  two  months.  Since  1909 
the  following  have  been  presidents  of  Cuba:  Jose 
Miguel  Gomez  (1909-13),  General  Mario  Gracia 
Menocal  (1913-21),  and  Alfredo  Zayas  (1921-25). 


CUBANGO 


242 


CURACAO 


In  1919  Provost-Marshal  Crowder  was  sent  to  Cuba 
to  advise  with  the  Government  in  regard  to  the 
revision  of  the  electoral  law.  The  law  establishing 
obligatory  military  service,  promulgated  in  1918, 
was  repealed  in  1919. 

Cubango  in  Angola,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
(cf.  C.  E.,  III-772d),  formerly  known  as  Upper 
Cimbebasia,  was  given  its  present  title  by  a  decree 
of  10  January,  1921.  It  comprises  a  Portuguese 
colony  in  Southern  Africa  and  is  entrusted  to  the 
Holy  Ghost  Fathers,  the  present  prefect  being  Mgr. 
Louis  Keiling,  appointed  30  November,  1909,  who 
resides  at  Catoco.  The  1921  statistics  credit  this 
territory  with  a  population  of  about  4,000,000,  of 
whom  9,200  are  Catholics,  8,000  natives  and  1,200 
Europeans,  and  about  1,000  catechumens.  Mis¬ 
sionary  work  is  carried  on  by  twenty  missionary 
priests,  assisted  by  5  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny. 
The  mission  comprises  12  churches  or  chapels,  7 
stations,  8  schools,  and  7  orphanages. 

Cuenca,  Diocese  of  (Conchensis  in  Indus; 
cf.  C.  E.,  IV-562a),  in  the  Republic  of  Ecuador, 
South  America,  suffragan  of  Quito.  It  embraces  a 
territory  of  18,305  sq.  miles  and  has  a  population 
of  147,634,  according  to  the  last  census  of  1885. 
Rt.  Rev.  Manuel  Maria  Polit,  appointed  to  this 
see  11  January,  1907,  was  promoted  to  the  arch¬ 
diocese  of  Quito  7  June,  1918,  and  Rt.  Rev.  Daniel 
Hermida  was  appointed  to  succeed  him  10  March, 
1919.  No  statistics  are  published  for  this  diocese. 

Cuenca,  Diocese  of  (Conquensis  or  Conchen¬ 
sis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IV-562c),  in  the  province  of  New 
Castille,  Spain,  suffragan  of  Toledo.  This  diocese 
is  now  vacant.  Rt.  Rev.  Wenceslas  Sanguesa  y 
Guia,  b.  at  Madrid,  1840,  ordained  1864,  appointed 
19  April,  1900,  and  consecrated  5  August  following, 
died  15  February,  1922.  On  13  April,  1902,  the  tower 
of  the  beautiful  cathedral  church  of  this  diocese  col¬ 
lapsed  and  it  was  only  through  the  generosity  of  the 
citizens,  who  looked  upon  this  work  of  the  twelfth 
century  as  a  national  monument,  that  it  was  pos¬ 
sible  to  rebuild  it.  In  1908  the  centenary  of  St. 
Julian,  second  bishop  of  the  diocese  and  its  patron, 
was  solemnly  celebrated,  with  a  triduum  and  civil 
ceremonies. 

This  diocese  comprises  a  population  of  400,000, 
326  parishes  and  79  sub-parishes,  654  churches  and 
chapels,  44  monasteries,  86  monks  and  580  religious 
women,  494  secular  and  54  regular  clergy,  32 
brothers,  125  sisters,  2  seminaries,  an  upper  and 
a  lower  seminary,  194  seminarians,  2  normal  schools 
with  18  teachers  and  160  students,  297  elementary 
schools  with  1  teacher  and  12,500  pupils.  Various 
missionary  works  are  organized,  as  well  as  5  homes 
for  the  aged  and  infirm,  5  hospitals,  1  refuge,  and 
1  lay  charitable  center.  Societies  are  formed  among 
the  clergy  and  laity  and  4  periodicals,  “El  Centro,” 
“Voz  de  Catecismo,”  “El  Segrario”  and  “La  Viva,” 
are  published. 

Cuera,  Diocese  of.  See  Chur. 

Cuernavaca,  Diocese  of  (Cuernavacensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  IV-562c),  in  the  State  of  Morelos,  Mexico, 
suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Mexico.  Rt.  Rev. 
Francisco  Plancarte  y  Navarrette  filled  this  see 
from  1898  until  his  transfer  to  Linares,  27  Novem¬ 
ber,  1911,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  the  present 
incumbent  (1922),  Rt.  Rev.  Manuel  Fulcheri  y 
Pietrasanta,  bom  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Mexico 
1874,  studied  at  the  Latin-American  college,  Rome, 
where  he  was  ordained  in  1898,  and  served  as  vice¬ 
rector  and  rector  of  the  seminary  in  Mexico,  and 
then  chancellor  of  the  diocese  until  his  appointment^ 
6  May,  1912.  The  diocese  comprises  150,000  Cath¬ 


olics,  42  secular  priests,  40  seminarians,  34  parishes, 
284  churches  or  chapels,  and  10  Catholic  schools 
with  2,500  pupils. 

Cueta,  Diocese  of.  See  Cadiz. 

Culm,  Diocese  of.  See  Chelmno. 

Cuneo,  Diocese  of  (Cuneensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-569b),  in  Piedmont,  Northern  Italy,  suffragan 
of  Turin.  This  see  was  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Andrea 
Fiore,  from  1895  until  his  death,  20  January,  1914. 
when  he  was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent, 
Rt.  Rev.  Gabriele  Moriondo,  b.  in  Turin,  1870, 
entered  the  Dominican  Order  1888,  ordained  1893, 
superior  of  the  mission  at  Constantinople  1900, 
appointed  25  May,  1914.  During  the  World  War 
2  priests,  1  deacon  and  3  minor  clerics  were  killed, 
2  were  wounded  and  12  won  medals  of  honor.  The 
laity  were  well  represented  in  the  army,  where  they 
bravely  did  their  duty.  At  home  many  associations 
were  formed  to  aid  the  poor,  the  wounded  and 
refugees.  In  1917  the  first  centenary  of  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  the  diocese  was  celebrated,  and  in  1919  the 
diocese  rejoiced  upon  the  news  that  His  Eminence 
Teodoro  Valfre  di  Bonzo,  bishop  of  this  diocese 
(1885-95),  had  been  created  a  cardinal. 

The  diocese  comprises  a  Catholic  population  of 
111,122;  the  entire  population,  with  the  exception 
of  250  Jews  and  Protestants.  The  1922  statistics 
credit  it  with  67  parishes,  250  churches,  1  monastery 
of  men,  4  convents  of  men  and  32  of  women,  210 
secular  and  22  regular  clergy,  6  Brothers,  170  Sisters, 
1  seminary,  80  seminarians,  1  secondary  school  for 
boys  with  12  teachers  and  130  pupils,  2  secondary 
schools  for  girls  with  210  pupils,  1  state  normal 
school  with  22  teachers  and  450  students,  1  state 
technical  school  with  16  teachers  and  340  students, 
6  homes,  24  infant  asylums,  and  10  hosnitals.  Homes 
for  war  orphans  are  maintained  by  the  state,  as 
well  as  all  the  elementary  schools.  Three  organiza¬ 
tions  are  formed  among  the  clergy,  and  about  110 
in  different  parishes  among  the .  laity.  A  weekly 
journal  and  seven  monthly  bulletins  are  published. 

Curagao,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
IV-569d). — In  1920  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the 
coming  of  the  Dominican  Fathers  to  the  vicariate 
was  celebrated.  In  the  same  year  a  new  congrega¬ 
tion  of  teaching  Sisters  was  established  within  the 
mission.  J.  J.  A  van  Baars,  O.P.,  former  vicar 
Apostolic  and  a  zealous  defender  of  the  faith,  upon 
his  death  in  1910  was  succeeded  by  M.  A.  M. 
Vuylsteke,  created  vicar  Apostolic  in  the  same  year. 
Among  the  recently  deceased  especially  deserving 
of  note  are:  Rev.  P.  Poiesz,  who  died  in  1919,  for 
fifteen  years  noted  Catholic  editor,  poet,  man  of 
letters  and  friend  of  the  people,  and  Rev.  T.  J.  A. 
van  den  Donk,  who  died  in  1920,  able  Catholic 
editor  and  contributor,  for  ten  years  lay  teacher  in 
the  schools,  ordained  priest  in  1896. 

The  Catholic  population  of  the  vicariate  is 
50,000,  the  greater  part  of  whom  are  negroes  and 
Indians;  about  5,000  are  either  Spanish,  Dutch,  or 
Jews.  Their  spiritual  needs  are  attended  by  secular 
and  34  regular  priests,  principally  Dominicans,  44 
Brothers,  and  205  Sisters,  of  whom  139  teach  in 
the  parochial  schools  and  66  attend  the  sick  and 
infirm.  In  the  schools  taught  by  the  Brothers  there 
is  a  total  of  1,026  pupils,  and  in  those  taught  by 
the  Sisters  5,462  made  up  of  both  sexes.  There 
are  19  parishes  and  19  churches,  5  convents  for 
men  and  10  for  women,  2  training  schools  for  girls 
with  14  teachers  and  53  pupils,  1  industrial  school 
with  7  teachers  and  35  pupils,  3  hospitals  or  homes 
besides  1  leper  hospital,  2  orphan  asylums,  1  insane 
asylum,  5  day  nurseries.  The  men  and  the  women 


CURATES 


243 


CUYPERS 


of  tho  vicariate  have  an  association  called  the 
“Roman  Catholic  League  of  the  People  of  Curasao.” 
There  are  3  Catholic  publications.  The  Catholic 
schools  and  institutions  are  supported  by  the  Gov¬ 
ernment. 

Curates  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-570).— The  right  of  se¬ 
lecting  curates  belongs  not  to  the  parish  priest  but 
to  the  local  ordinary,  who,  however,  should  first 
consult  the  parish  priest  before  making  an  appoint¬ 
ment  (cf.  C  E.,  XI-538).  Curates  may  be  ap¬ 
pointed  either  in  the  entire  parish  or  in  a  particular 
part  of  it.  They  must  reside  in  the  parish,  and  as 
a  rule  they  should  live  with  the  parish  priest,  who 
is  to  assist  in  training  them  in  the  ministry  and 
report  their  progress  to  the  ordinary  at  least  yearly. 
They  may  be  removed  at  will  by  the  bishop  or 
vicar  capitular,  but  not  by  the  vicar  general  with¬ 
out  a  special  mandate. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  471-78;  Vermeersch-Creusen,  Epit.  jur. 
can.,  4i9-30. 

Curityba  do  Parana,  Diocese  of  (Curytibensis 
de  Parana;  cf.  C.  E.,  IV-572d),  in  the  State  of 
Parana,  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Sao  Paulo.  This  dio¬ 
cese,  comprising  a  territory  of  184,672  sq.  miles, 
is  under  the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Joao  Fran¬ 
cisco  Braga,  born  in  Pelotas,  Brazil,  1868,  ordained 
1900,  served  as  secretary  to  the  Bishop  of  Rio 
Grande  do  Sul,  appointed  Bishop  of  Petropolis  1 
March,  1902,  transferred  25  August,  1907.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  1920  statistics  the  population  of  this  territory 
comprises  496,538  Catholics,  36,638  Protestants,  and 
1000  infidels.  The  diocese  is  credited  with  70 
parishes,  58  secular  and  30  regular  clergy,  and  302 
churches  and  chapels. 

Cusack,  Thomas  F.,  Bishop  of  Albany,  b.  in 
New  York  City  on  February  22,  1862;  d.  at  Albany 
on  12  July,  1918.  He  was  educated  at  Saint  Francis 
Xavier’s  College,  and  received  his  theological  train¬ 
ing  at  the  archdiocesan  seminary  at  Troy,  New 
York. 

He  was  ordained  on  30  May,  1885,  and  before 
his  appointment  as  auxiliary  to  Cardinal  Farley, 
he  acted  as  superior  of  the  New  York  Apostolate, 
the  archdiocesan  mission  band.  He  was  conse¬ 
crated  titular  Bishop  of  Theniscyra  on  25  April, 
1904,  by  Cardinal  Farley  and  was  transferred  to 
the  Diocese  of  Albany  on  5  July,  1915. 

Corrigan,  Episcopal  Succession  in  The  United  States  in  The 
Cath.  Hist.  Rev.,  II,  141;  The  Catholic  News  (New  York, 
July  20,  1918). 

Custom  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-576). — If  any  customs,  uni¬ 
versal  or  particular,  at  present  existing  and  con¬ 
flicting  with  the  canons  of  the  Code,  are  expressly 
reprobated  by  the  canons  they  are  to  be  corrected, 
even  if  they  be  immemorial,  and  they  must  not 
be  revived  in  future;  others,  if  centennial  and  im¬ 
memorial,  may  be  tolerated  if  the  ordinary  judges 
thought  under  the  circumstances  it  would  not  be 
prudent  to  abolish  them;  the  remainder  are  abol¬ 
ished  unless  the  Code  provides  otherwise.  This 
canon  refers  expressly  to  customs  contra  legem,  not 
to  those  preeter  legem.  The  period  required  to 
legalize  any  custom  is  forty  years;  but  if  the  law 
contains  a  clause  prohibiting  future  customs  to 
the  contrary,  only  a  reasonable  centennial  or  im¬ 
memorial  custom  can  become  lawful.  A  law  does 
not  revoke  centennial  or  immemorial  customs  nor 
does  a  general  law  abolish  particular  customs  with¬ 
out  express  mention;  but  any  legalized  custom  may 
be  revoked  by  a  contrary  custom. 

Among  the  regulations  laid  down  in  the  Code 
which  expressly  reprobate  customs  to  the  contrary 
are  the  following:  A  bishop  may  select  any  two 
clerics  he  desires  to  accompany  and  assist  him  on 


visitation;  neither  he  nor  any  of  his  suite  may 
on  account  of  the  diocesan  visitation  ask  or  ac¬ 
cept  for  themselves  or  friends  any  kind  of  gift; 
the  right  of  option  in  connection  with  dignities  in 
cathedral  or  collegiate  chapters  is  prohibited  unless 
where  it  is  enjoined  by  the  deed  of  foundation; 
when  a  see  is  vacant  only  one  vicar  capitular  can 
be  lawfully  chosen;  in  a  parish  there  should  be 
only  one  parish  priest  having  care  of  souls;  each 
parish  church  must  have  its  own  baptismal  font, 
however,  the  vested  rights  of  other  churches  are 
to  be  respected ;  a  priest  celebrating  Mass  must 
observe  the  rubrics  and  beware  of  adding  other 
ceremonies  or  prayers  arbitrarily;  no  one,  without 
special  leave  of  the  pope,  may  receive  minor  orders 
with  the  subdiaconate  or  two  major  orders  on  the 
same  day;  without  express  leave  of  the  Holy  See 
local  ordinaries  or  their  officials  may  not  ask  any 
payment,  when  dispensations  are  being  sought,  ex¬ 
cept  a  small  fee  to  cover  the  expenses  of  the  chan¬ 
cery;  admission  to  church  for  the  purposes  of 
Divine  service  must  be  absolutely  free;  lay  and 
clerical  administrators  of  any  church  or  canonically 
erected  pious  place  or  confraternity  must  give  an 
account  of  their  administration  to  the  local  ordinary 
yearly;  finally,  any  custom  introducing  a  new 
matrimonial  impediment  or  contrary  to  the  existing 
impediments  is  reprobated. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  25-30;  Vermeersch-Creusen,  Epit.  jur 
can.,  85-93. 

Cuyaba,  Archdiocese  of  (Cuyabensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-580c),  in  the  State  of  Matto  Grasso,  Brazil. 
This  see  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  metropolitan 
19  March,  1910,  by  a  Decree  which  divided  the 
diocese  and  created  two  new  sees  as  its  suffragans, 
San  Luiz  do  Caceres  and  Corumba.  Rt.  Rev.  Carlos 
Luiz  d’Amour,  born  in  Sao  Luiz  de  Maranhao  1836, 
who  made  his  studies  in  the  diocesan  seminary, 
and  was  ordained  30  November,  1860,  filled  this 
see  from  21  September,  1877,  until  his  death,  8 
July,  1921.  He  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Fran¬ 
cisco  Agnino  Correa,  a  Salesian,  appointed  to  this 
see  26  August,  1921.  Born  in  Cuyaba  1885,  he 
studied  in  Rome,  was  ordained  in  1909,  became 
editor  of  the  review  “Matto  Grasso,”  and  when 
only  twenty-nine  years  of  age  was  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Prusiade  and  auxiliary  at  Cuyaba,  2 
April,  1914.  As  a  result  of  his  efforts  a  civil  war 
which  threatened  the  state  was  prevented,  and  the 
president  of  the  Republic  named  him  civil  governor 
of  Matto  Grasso  in  September,  1917.  On  25  October, 
1919,  he  was  made  an  assistant  at  the  pontifical 
throne.  Before  the  division  of  this  diocese  it 
covered  a  territory  of  about  862,282  sq.  miles  and 
had  a  Catholic  population  of  199,559.  There  were 
9  parishes,  3  secular  and  17  regular  clergy,  27 
churches  and  chapels,  4  religious  communities 
(Third  Order  Regular  of  St.  Francis,  Salesians,  Sis¬ 
ters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  and  Daughters 
of  Mary  Auxiliat.rice),  7  Catholic  schools  with  500 
pupils,  and  a  Catholic  journal,  “A  Cruz,”  published 
since  1910. 

Cuyo,  Diocese  of.  See  San  Juan  de  Cuyo. 


Cuypers,  Peter  J.  H.,  architect  and  Catholic 
revivalist,  b.  in  Roermond,  Holland,  1827;  d.  3 
March,  1921.  He  graduated  from  the  Academy  of 
Antwerp  in  1850  with  highest  honors,  and  returned 
to  his  native  country  to  begin  his  battle  for  truth 
and  fitness  in  architecture,  for  a  Christian  and 
national  as  against  a  pagan  and  foreign  style.  The 
definite  establishment  of  an  episcopal  hierarchy  in 
Holland  in  1853,  attendant  upon  the  general  Cath¬ 
olic  revival,  demanded  more  dignified  centers  of 


CUZCO 


244 


CZAPLICKA 


public  worship,  and  on  these  Cupyers  impressed  the 
seal  of  his  art,  drawn  from  the  best  medieval  tradi¬ 
tions.  For  years  his  conception  of  art  was  virulently 
opposed,  but  finally  he  won  official  recognition  in 
his  own  country  and  abroad.  In  1897  his  seventieth 
birthday  was  celebrated  with  national  honors,  and 
at  that  time  he  had  already  built  64  churches  and 
restored  570  others,  besides  designing  many  secular 
buildings,  and  his  active  work  continued  for  many 
years  later. 

In  1870  Doctor  Cuypers  was  entrusted  with  the 
restoration  of  the  Mainz  cathedral,  and  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  placed  him  on  the  Advisory  Board  of 
Historical  and  Artistic  Monuments.  In  1876  he 
designed  the  National  Museum  of  Amsterdam,  his 
greatest  achievement  in  secular  architecture.  Among 
the  churches  built  or  restored  by  him  are  St. 
Willibrod’s  and  the  Church  of  the  Sacred  Heart  in 
Amsterdam,  the  church  at  Eindhoven,  the  cathe¬ 
dral  of  Breda,  St.  James’  and  Church  of  Our  Lady 
at  The  Hague,  the  Church  at  Jutphass,  the  minster 
of  Roermond,  and  his  crowning  work,  the  beautiful 
cathedral  at  Haarlem.  Doctor  Cuypers  was  an 
officer  of  the  French  Legion  of  Honor,  a,ssociate 
member  of  the  Institute  of  American  Architecture, 
of  the  Institute  of  British  Architecture,  and  of  like 
bodies  in  Petrograd,  Vienna,  Stockholm,  Madrid, 
etc.  He  presided  at  the  International  Congresses 
of  Architects  in  Brussels  in  1897,  in  Paris  in  1900, 
in  Madrid  in  1904,  in  Liege  in  1905,  in  Vienna  in 
1908,  honors  which  he  valued  for  the  sake  of  his 
faith  and  his  principles  of  art. 

Cuzco,  Diocese  of  (Cuschensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
lV-580d),  suffragan  of  Lima,  Peru,  South  America. 
This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Pedro-Paschasio 
Farfan,  born  in  Cuzco  1870,  studied  at  the  diocesan 
seminary,  served  as  fiscal  promoter  and  chancellor 
of  the  cathedral,  and  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Huarez  5  March,  1907,  transferred  19  April,  1918, 
to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Jose  Gregorio  Castro,  retired, 
and  transferred  to  the  titular  see  of  Clazomenes  13 
November,  1917.  The  1920  statistics  credit  the 
diocese  with  480,680  Catholics,  14  deaneries  com¬ 
prising  37  parishes,  90  secular  priests,  313  churches, 
833  public  chapels,  and  4  seminarians  at  the  semi¬ 
nary  of  Lima. 

Cyclades  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-581a). — The  area  of  the 
Cyclades  is  about  1,050  square  miles;  24  of  the 
islands  possess  an  area  of  more  than  9  square 
miles.  The  latest  census  gives  a  population  of 
130,206,  but  the  latest  estimate  gives  146,000,  the 
densest  population,  156  per  square  mile,  being 
found  in  Tinos.  In  recent  years  there  has  been 
a  good  deal  of  emigration,  mostly  to  the  mainland 
or  to  America.  After  the  Balkan  Wars  the  Cyclades 
were  included  among  the  four  general  administra¬ 
tions  set  up  by  Greece  in  Macedonia,  Epirus,  Crete, 
and  the  islands  of  the  archipelago,  receiving  gen¬ 
eral  instructions  from  the  central  government  in 
Athens,  but  otherwise  enjoying  a  large  measure  of 
independence.  Owing  to  the  disturbances  of  the 
World  War,  this  abnormal  arrangement  has  held 
good  up  to  the  present. 

Cyprus  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-589d),  island  in  the  Med¬ 
iterranean  formerly  administered  by  Great  Britain 
under  a  convention  concluded  with  the  Sultan  of 
Turkey  at  Constantinople,  4  June,  1878.  After  the 
outbreak  of  hostilities  with  Turkey,  the  island  was 
annexed  by  Great  Britain,  5  November,  1914.  The 
area  is  3,584  square  miles;  the  population  (census 
of  1911),  274,108,  including  144  military  population. 
The  estimated  population  in  1919  and  311,108.  The 
principal  towns  are  Nicosia  (the  capital),  18,461; 
Lamaca,  10,652;  Limasol,  11,843;  Famagusta  and 


Varoshia,  6,127;  Paphos  and  Ktema,  3,946  ;  Kyrenia, 
1,986.  There  are  six  administrative  districts  named 
after  these  towns. 

Education. — In  1919-20  there  were  741  schools 
open  with  935  teachers  and  41,887  scholars,  an  in¬ 
crease  of  571  schools  and  35,111  pupils  since  1881. 
These  schools  were  maintained  at  an  expense  of 
£40,829,  which  was  raised  by  assessments  on  the 
villages  supporting  schools,  and  includes  grants  from 
religious  bodies  and  private  persons,  as  well  as  a 
grant  of  £12,000  from  the  Government.  There  are 
two  secondary  Moslem  schools  for  boys  and  one 
for  girls;  the  Greek  Christian  community  supports 
seven  secondary  schools  for  boys  and  one  for  girls, 
on  which  a  sum  of  £13,447  was  expended,  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  grant  being  £670.  The  English  school  at 
Nicosia  (undenominational),  which  is  conducted  on 
the  lines  of  an  English  grammar  school,  and  the 
American  Academy  at  Larnaca  (attached  to  the 
Reformed  Presbyterian  Mission)  have  continued 
their  work,  as  have  also  a  commercial  school, 
founded  at  Lamythou  in  1912  by  Mr.  D.  Mtzis. 
The  secondary  schools  are  chiefly  classical.  The 
Moslem  Idadi  school’s  program  is  arranged  to  pre¬ 
pare  boys  for  higher  education  at  Constantinople, 
and  the  Greek  Christian  schools  prepare  their  pupils 
for  the  university  at  Athens.  The  secondary  school 
at  Larnaca  is  a  commercial  lyceum. 

Government. — The  High  Commission  of  Cyprus 
has  the  usual  powers  of  a  colonial  governor.  There 
is  an  executive  council  consisting  of  the  chief  secre¬ 
tary,  the  king’s  advocate,  the  treasurer,  with  three 
locally  resident  additional  members.  The  Legis¬ 
lature  consists  of  eighteen  members,  six  being  office 
holders,  including  the  chief  secretary,  the  king’s 
advocate,  and  the  treasurer,  and  twelve  elected 
(for  five  years),  three  by  Mohammedan  and  nine 
by  non-Mohammedan  voters. 

Religion. — In  the  Archdiocese  of  Cyprus,  a 
Maronite  see,  there  were  (1921)  30,300  Catholics, 
of  whom  1,300  belonged  to  the  island  of  Cyprus, 
72  villages,  20  churches,  120  priests,  14  convents  of 
Antonines  with  140  monks,  5  convents  of  Aleppines 
with  100  monks,  1  convent  of  Antonine  nuns  with 
20  religious,  and  1  convent  of  missionaries  of  the 
Latin  rite.  A  seminary  with  30  students  is  annexed 
to  the  archiepiscopal  palace,  and  every  parish  has 
a  primary  school.  In  1911  Mgr.  Paul  Aouad  suc¬ 
ceeded  Mgr.  Pierre  Zoghhe,  deceased,  as  Archbishop 
of  Cyprus.  He  is  the  author  of  several  works  in 
Arabic,  amongst  them  the  translation  of  the  Summa 
of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas. 

The  Blue  Book  of  Cyprus  gives  the  following 
statistics  of  other  denominations  represented  on 
the  island:  Autocephalous  Church  of  Cyprus  (Greek 
Orthodox),  252,000  followers,  657  churches,  11 
cenobitical  monasteries,  84  non-cenobitical  monas¬ 
teries;  Moslem,  62,000  members,  202  mosques, .  15 
tekyes  or  convents  of  dervishes,  8  seminaries; 
Armenian  Gregorians,  640  members,  2  churches,  1 
monastery  under  the  Gregorian  Patriarch  of  Jeru¬ 
salem  ;  Church  of  England,  400  members,  3  churches, 
2  church  rooms,  under  the  Bishop  in  Jerusalem; 
Presbyterians,  etc.,  100  members,  1  church,  chiefly 
attached  to  the  Reformed  Presbyterians  at  Larnaca; 
Jews,  200  members,  1  synagogue,  1  settlement  at 
Margo  and  a  few  scattered  communities.  No  de¬ 
nomination  receives  state  aid. 

Czaplicka,  Marie  Antoinette,  scientist  and 
author,  b.  near  Warsaw,  Poland;  d.  in  England, 
June,  1921.  In  1910  she  came  to  London,  with  the 
Mianowski  Research  scholars  from  Warsaw,  and 
studied  at  Somerville  College,  Oxford,  specializing 
in  anthropology  and  taking  the  Oxford  diploma  in 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


245 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


1^12.  Two  years  later  the  Oxford  University  Press 
published  her  Aboriginal  Siberia/’  with  a  preface 
by  Doctor  Marett.  As  the  Mary  Ewart  Traveling 
Scholar  of  Somerville,  she  went  with  the  anthropo¬ 
logical  expedition  organized  by  Oxford  University 
and  the  Philadelphia  University  Museum  to  the 
\enisei  \  alley  in  Siberia,  living  for  a  year  with 
the  Samoyed  and  Tungus  tribes  within  the  arctic 
circle.  In  1916  she  published  an  account  of  her 
travels  in  her  book  “My  Siberian  Year/’  a  serious 
contribution  to  the  knowledge  of  the  primitive 
tribes  of  Northern  Asia.  This  was  followed  in  1919 
by  "The  Turks  of  Central  Asia  in  History  and  at 
the  Present  Day/’  a  volume  that  is  used  as  a 
reference  book  by  the  Foreign  Office.  Miss  Czap- 
licka  was  an  accomplished  linguist,  and  her  essays 
on  Asiatic  and  anthropological  subjects  were  written 
in  English,  Russian,  and  Polish.  She  was  an 
honorary  member  of  Lady  Margaret  Hall,  Mary 
Ewart  lecturer  in  Ethnology,  and  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society. 

Czechoslovakia,  new  republic  formed  after  the 
dissolution  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  empire,  of 
Bohemia,  Moravia,  Silesia,  Slovakia,  and  autono¬ 
mous  Ruthenia.  It  is  bounded  by  Germany  and 
Poland  on  the  north,  by  Germany,  Austria,  Hungary 
and  Rumania  on  the  south,  and  by  Germany  on 
the  west. 

The  area  and  population  of  the  various  provinces, 
according  to  the  census  of  1919,  were: 


Area 

Square 

Miles 

Population 

Bohemia  . 

20,065 

8,584 

1,596 

19,173 

4,670 

359 

6,768,548 

2,622,271 

608,128 

2,952,846 

572,028 

111,569 

Moravia  . 

Silesia  . 

Slovakia  . 

Ruthenia . 

German  and  Austrian  territories 
assigned  to  Czechoslovakia  by 
the  Peace  Conference . 

Total  . 

54,438 

13,636,390 

F or  the  area  and  population  of  the  various 
provinces  comprising  Czechoslovakia,  no  late 
statistics  are  available,  except  for  Slovakia,  which 
in  November,  1919,  showed  a  population  of  2,940,374, 
including  2,141,000  Slovaks,  665,000  Magyars,  and 
140,322  Germans.  The  principal  cities,  with  their 
estimated  population  on  30  June,  1914,  are: 
Prague  and  environs,  550,000;  Brno,  135,000;  Pilsen, 
85,000;  Pressburg,  85,000;  Kosice,  48,000;  Ostrava, 
42,000;  Liberec,  40,000;  Usti,  40,000;  Budejovice, 
40,000.  In  all  Czechoslovakia  there  are  about 
6,700,000  Czechs,  2,000,000  Slovaks,  900,000  Magyars, 
3,800,000  Germans,  400,000  Russians  and  Ruthenians, 
and  130,000  Poles. 

Economic  Situation.— Agriculture  is  highly  de¬ 
veloped  in  Czechoslovakia.  The  crop  yield  has 
almost  come  up  to  the  pre-war  standard.  In  the 
crownlands  formerly  Austrian,  but  now  belonging 
to  Czechoslovakia,  about  half  the  entire  area  is 
devoted  to  agriculture.  Cattle  raising  is  carried 
on  on  a  large  scale ;  in  spite  of  this,  however,  the 
country  is  unable  to  supply  all  its  own  foodstuff 
requirements,  as  during  the  war  the  yield  of  the 
soil  diminished,  and  the  stocks  of  cattle  suffered 
severely.  The  country  contains  both  pit  coal  and 
lignite.  The  pit  coal  output  comprises  about  five- 
sixths  of  the  total  output  of  what  was  once  Austria. 
Before  the  war  it  averaged  12.2  million  tons,  dur¬ 


ing  the  war  it  fell  off  considerably,  but  in  1920 
it  increased  again  to  11.1  million  tons.  In  the 
Jattei  yeai  1.4  million  tons  of  coke  were  produced. 

e  oufput,  which  before  the  war  averaged 

21  million  tons,  in  1920  amounted  to  19  7  million 
tons.  In  consequence  of  the  reduced  activities  of 
the  industries  induced  by  the  world’s  economic 
crisis,  Czechoslovakia  has  a  surplus  of  lignite  and 
has  reduced  the  export  duties  to  stimulate  its  ex- 
portation.  In  1919  the  number  of  coal  mines  was 
366;  of  employees,  110,233.  The  iron  ore  deposits 
are  not  very  rich  and  may  well  be  exhausted  in 
fifty  years.  The  gold  and  silver  output  of  old 
Austria  has  fallen  almost  exclusively  to  Czecho¬ 
slovakia.  The  output  of  radium-containing  ores  is 
of  great  importance,  and  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia 
there  are  large  deposits  of  kaolin  and  clay.  The 
kaolin  is  of  great  importance  to  the  German  porce¬ 
lain  industry,  68,000  tons  of  the  entire  output 
(91,000  tons)  going  to  Germany. 

Of  the  entire  industries  of  the  former  Austria- 
Hungary  four-fifths  are  now  to  be  found  in  Czecho¬ 
slovakia.  On  account  of  the  large  decrease  in 
population,  all  branches  are  forced  to  rely  to  a 
large  extent  on  export.  The  number  of  factories  in 
1920  was  8,833,  of  which  2,000  were  textile  mills, 
1,755  glass  works  and  precious  stone  factories,  1,358 
for  food  production,  674  for  furniture  and  bent  wood 
manufacture,  595  machine  factories,  592  for  metal 
manufacture,  297  paper  mills,  458  chemical  fac¬ 
tories.  A  considerable  part  of  the  industries  are 
in  the  hands  of  the  Germans;  in  Bohemia  nearly 
47%  of  the  industrial  workers  and  45%  of  the  home 
workers  are  found  in  German  districts.  For  1919 
the  imports  amounted  to  6,555,418,562  kronen  and 
the  exports  to  5,323,621,196  kronen.  The  imports, 
which  consisted  chiefly  of  cereals,  cottons,  woolens, 
and  leather,  came  principally  from  Italy,  the  United 
States,  Jugoslavia,  Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzer¬ 
land;  the  exports,  consisting  chiefly  of  sugar,  tim¬ 
ber,  fruit,  glass,  and  iron,  went  to  Austria,  France, 
Germany,  Poland,  Great  Britain,  and  Norway. 

There  are  8,297  miles  of  railway  line  in  Czecho¬ 
slovakia,  of  which  4,928  miles  are  owned  by  the 
State  and  the  remaining  3,369  miles  are  privately 
owned. 

It  was  the  policy  of  the  Austrian  and  Hungarian 
governments  to  separate  Slovakia  from  its  kindred 
countries,  Bohemia  and  .Moravia,  and  to  bind  it 
by  a  net  of  railways  to  the  center  of  Hungary.  The 
old  government  therefore  constructed  railway  lines 
extending  from  Budapest,  from  north  to  south ;  only 
here  and  there  were  tracks  built  in  a  different  direc¬ 
tion,  but  without  any  interconnection,  the  only  aim 
being  to  increase  the  traffic  towards  the  Magyar 
center.  The  new  Czechoslovakian  government  has 
plans  not  only  to  change  this  system  in  order  to 
bind  Moravia,  Slovakia,  and  Bohemia  more  closely, 
but  to  improve  the  bad  condition  of  the  rolling 
stock.  The  Peace  Treaty  gave  the  Czechoslovak 
state  the  right  to  use  certain  wharves  in  the  ports 
of  Hamburg  and  Stettin.  The  chief  port  on  the 
Danube  is  Bratislava  (Pressburg) ;  on  the  Elbe, 
Usti  (Aussig)  and  Decin  Testchen). 

The  debts  of  Czechoslovakia  fall  into  five  cate¬ 
gories:  (1)  debts  resulting  from  the  war;  (2)  the 
nation’s  share  of  Austria-Hungary’s  pre-war  debts; 
(3)  tax  of  liberation,  i.  e.,  contribution  to  the  war 
expenses  of  the  allies;  (4)  internal  debt;  (5)  loans 
of  the  new  republic,  totaling  on  31  December,  1919, 
3,500,000,000  francs  of  foreign  debt  and  25,000,000,000 
crowns  of  internal  debt.  A  Board  of  Audit  and 
Control  was  constituted  in  March,  1919,  to  take 
charge  of  state  economy,  state  property,  and  the 
national  debt.  At  the  beginning  of  1922  the  krone 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


246 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


($0,202  at  par  of  exchange)  had  emancipated  itself 
from  the  German  mark  and  its  fluctuations  and 
had  risen  to  its  normal  value. 

Education. — The  first  task  of  the  new  Czecho¬ 
slovak  government  was  to  free  over  50,000  Czech 
children  from  German  schools  and  to  give  them 
the  opportunity  to  acquire  an  education  in  their 
mother  tongue.  Though  the  Magyars  formed  only 
22%  of  the  population  of  Slovakia,  90%  of  the 
schools  were  Magyar,  there  being  but  300  Slovak 
schools  for  2,000,000  Slovaks,  and  not  a  single  Slovak 
secondary  school.  In  one  year  alone  the  new  re¬ 
public  established  about  500  new  elementary  schools 
in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia.  In  1918-19  there 
were  in  Slovakia  3,931  elementary  schools  with  4,953 
teachers  and  390,764  pupils;  of  the  total  number 
of  schools  in  the  district,  756  were  state  institutions, 
the  rest  were  denominational.  In  other  parts  of 
the  republic  the  elementary  schools  are  all  state 
schools.  Czechoslovakia  has  74  gymnasia,  71  real 
gymnasia,  71  real  schools,  making  a  total  of  216. 
Of  the  178  secondary  schools  in  Bohemia  and 
Moravia,  114  were  Czech  and  64  German.  In  1920 
there  were  opened  2  gymnasia,  20  real  gymnasia, 

1  lyceum,  6  real  schools,  and  8  teacher’s  institutes. 
There  are  4  universities  in  Czechoslovakia  and  4 
technical  high  schools.  The  law  of  7  February, 
1919,  provided  for  the  establishment  of  popular 
courses  in  civic  education,  and  the  law  of  22  July, 
1919,  for  the  compulsory  establishment  of  public 
libraries;  another  on  23  May,  1919,  placed  public 
school  teachers  on  equality  with  governmental  offi¬ 
cials  who  possess  a  secondary  school  education. 

Militia. — The  system  prevailing  in  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  army  at  the  time  of  its  collapse  was 
adopted  for  a  time,  but  the  army  was  used  pri¬ 
marily  for  defense  and  maintenance  of  internal 
order.  On  20  March,  1920,  Parliament  adopted  a 
bill  to  establish  a  militia  and  an  army  of  150,000 
men. 

Government. — The  Provisional  Constitution,  pro¬ 
mulgated  as  the  Law  of  13  November,  1918,  was 
superseded  on  29  February,  1920,  by  a  new  con¬ 
stitution  passed  by  the  National  Assembly.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  its  terms  Czechoslovakia  is  a  republic,  with 
an  elected  president  as  its  head.  The  National 
Parliament  has  two  chambers,  the  House  of  Repre¬ 
sentatives  with  300  members,  and  the  Senate  with 
150  members,  the  former  elected  for  six  years,  the 
latter  for  eight  years,  by  a  universal,  equal,  direct 
and  secret  suffrage  according  to  the  principles  of 
proportional  representation,  the  election  to  be  on 
a  Sunday  chosen  by  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior. 
Voting  is  a  civic  duty  which  must  be  exercised  per¬ 
sonally,  not  by  proxy.  The  Parliament  meets  in 
two  regular  sessions  every  year,  and  in  electing  the 
President  both  houses  unite  into  a  National  As¬ 
sembly.  It  has  the  legislative  initiative,  and  when 
it  is  not  in  session  a  Permanent  Committee,  com¬ 
posed  of  sixteen  members  of  the  House  of  Repre¬ 
sentatives  and  eight  of  the  Senate,  is  in  office  to 
make  necessary  provisions  having  the  force  of  law, 
and  to  control  the  Executive.  It  cannot,  however, 
change  the  constitutional  laws,  elect  the  President 
or  impose  a  lasting  financial  burden,  enlarge  the 
military  obligation,  or  alienate  state  property.  The 
President,  elected  for  seven  years,  is  supreme  com¬ 
mander  of  the  armed  forces  and  can  declare  war 
with  the  consent  of  Parliament,  appoints  the  higher 
officers  and  officials,  exercises  the  right  of  reprieve 
and  is  himself  amenable  to  the  laws  only  on  a 
charge  of  high  treason.  All  governmental  and 
executive  powers  not  explicitly  given  to  the  Presi¬ 
dent  are  vested  in  the  government,  i.  e.,  collective 
body  of  ministers  (sixteen  in  all),  which  has 


the  same  responsibility  as  the  British  cabinet. 
There  is  a  Constitutional  Court  modeled  on 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court.  Carpathian  Rus¬ 
sia,  enjoying  home  rule,  is  an  inseparable  part  of 
Czechoslovakia,  which  is  divided  for  electoral  pur¬ 
poses  into  23  districts  for  the  House  of  Representa¬ 
tives  and  16  for  the  Senate.  The  official  language 
is  Czechoslovak,  but  the  minority,  numbering  over 
20%,  may  choose  its  official  language  and  have  its 
own  schools.  Freedom  of  speech  and  of  the  press, 
the  protection  of  racial  minorities,  etc.,  are  guar¬ 
anteed. 

Religion. — The  population  is  90%  Catholic,  the 
percentage  of  religious  affiliations  being  divided 
approximately  as  follows:  Catholics,  85.6% ;  Uniats, 
4.3%;  Lutherans,  4.5%;  Calvinists,  2.5%;  Jews, 
2.7%.  By  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace  all 
inhabitants  are  entitled  to  th6  free  exercise,  whether 
public  or  private,  of  any  creed,  religion  or  belief, 
whose  practices  are  not  inconsistent  with  public 
order  or  public  morals;  the  Czechoslovak  nationals 
who  belong  to  racial,  religious,  or  linguistic  minor¬ 
ities  are  to  enjoy  the  same  treatment  and  security 
in  law  and  in  fact  as  other  Czechoslovak  nationals, 
and  in  particular  have  an  equal  right  to  establish, 
manage  and  control  at  their  own  expense  charitable, 
religious,  and  social  institutions,  schools  and  other 
educational  establishments,  with  the  right  to  use 
their  own  language  and  to  exercise  their  religion 
freely  within  them.  The  minorities  shall  be  assured 
an  equitable  share  of  the  public  funds  for  educa¬ 
tional,  religious,  or  charitable  purposes.  Marriage, 
the  family  and  motherhood  are  under  the  special 
protection  of  laws.  Such  are  the  chief  provisions 
of  the  Constitution  of  Czechoslovakia  in  matters 
touching  directly  upon  religion,  which  work  out 
in  an  unexpected  way.  In  the  first  election  (1920) 
the  principle  of  proportional  representation  gave  rise 
to  16  parties,  8  Czechoslovak,  5  German,  and  3 
Magyar.  The  following  results  give  a  clear  idea 
of  the  composition  of  the  population: 


Name  of  Party 

Seats 

in 

Chamber 

Seats 

in 

Senate 

Czechoslovak  Parties 

1.  Social  Democrats . 

74 

41 

2.  Socialists  . 

24 

10 

3.  Progressive  Socialists  . 

3 

0 

4.  National  Democrats  . 

19 

10 

5.  Agrarians  . 

28 

14 

6.  Slovak  National  Peasants - 

12 

6 

7.  Popular  (Catholic)  . 

8.  Tradesmen’s  . 

33 

18 

6 

3 

German  Parties 

9.  Social  Democrats  . 

31 

16 

10.  Bourgeois  . 

15 

8 

11.  Farmers  . 

11 

6 

12.  Christian  Socialists  (Catholic) 

10 

4 

13.  Freethinkers  . 

5 

3 

Magyar  Parties 

0 

14.  Socialists  . 

4 

15.  Farmers  . 

1 

1 

16.  Christian  Socialists  . 

5 

2 

Total  . 

281 

142 

Although  the  population  is  over  85%  Catholic, 
the  socialistic  parties  obtained  over  50%  of  the 
available  seats,  while  the  Catholic  parties  obtained 
only  17%,  to  be  increased,  perhaps,  when  the  re¬ 
maining  19  deputies  and  8  senators  were  up  for 
election.  This  indicated  that  the  vast  majority 
of  Catholics  were  affiliated  with  parties  other  than 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


247 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


the  expressly  designated  Catholic  parties.  More- 
over,  the  Catholics  obtained  only  one  representa¬ 
tive  in  the  first  Cabinet,  appointed  by  the  National 
Assembly  in  1918,  and  none  at  all  in  the  second, 
appointed  by  President  Masaryk,  seven  months 
later.  The  ministers  of  the  two  Governments,  as 
they  are  called,  were  divided  among  the  parties 
as  follows: 


Name  of  Party 

First 

Gov’t 

Second 

Gov’t 

Social  Democrats  . 

3 

4 

National  Democrats  . 

3 

0 

Agrarians  . 

4 

4 

Socialists  . 

3 

4 

Slovaks  . 

2 

2 

Popular  (Catholic)  . 

1 

0 

Non-party  . 

1 

1 

With  the  National  Assembly  and  Government 
frankly  socialistic,  it  is  not  surprising  that  anti- 
Catholic  measures  should  be  the  order  of  the  day, 
such  as  the  law  passed  22  May,  1919,  abolishing  the 
indissolubility  of  marriage  and  providing  for  divorce 
for  a  number  of  reasons.  A  Bill  for  the  separation 
of  the  Church  and  State  was  introduced,  its  main 
points  being  the  elimination  of  all  expense  items 
in  the  budget  for  religious  work,  the  declaration 
of  all  church  property  as  State  property,  and  the 
performance  by  civil  authorities  of  all  marriage 
ceremonies.  The  passage  of  such  a  Bill  would  be 
contrary  to  the  stipulations  of  Article  I  of  the 
Treaty  of  Peace,  but  its  very  introduction  shows 
the  trend  of  the  present  Government.  President 
Masaryk,  formerly  a  Catholic,  now  an  agnostic,  is 
subservient  to  the  anti-clerical  Jewish  elements  in 
the  government,  and  only  Archbishop  Kordac’s 
determined  defense  of  his  rights,  the  growing 
strength  of  the  Catholic  party  and  the  realization 
of  the  weight  of  papal  influence  in  the  world  have 
checked  the  campaign  of  Church  spoliation  at  first 
inaugurated.  In  September,  1921,  an  agreement 
between  the  bishops  and  the  Government  was 
reached,  whereby  high  schools  and  colleges  were 
to  remain  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  former, 
subject  to  the  inspection  of  the  latter.  In  1920 
Mgr.  Clement  Micara,  consecrated  titular  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Apamea,  presented  his  credentials  as 
papal  nuncio  to  Czechoslovakia  to  President 
Masaryk.  Doctor  Krofta,  Minister  from  Czecho¬ 
slovakia  to  the  Vatican,  was  present  at  his  conse¬ 
cration  in  Rome.  In  the  new  Cabinet  (1921)  Mgr. 
Francis  Sramek,  a  papal  chamberlain  from  the 
diocese  of  Olmutz,  is  minister  of  railways. 

In  1918  after  Czechoslovakia  had  gained  its  in¬ 
dependence,  and  with  every  national  instinct  fanned 
to  white  heat,  a  small  group  of  Catholic  priests 
broke  away  from  their  allegiance  to  the  Holy  See 
and  endeavored  to  found  a  national  church.  The 
use  of  the  vernacular  in  their  worship  and  the 
marriage  of  the  clergy  were  the  first  distinctive 
changes.  Many  of  those  who,  under  the  Austrian 
regime,  when  Catholicism  was  the  established  reli¬ 
gion,  had  been  nominal  adherents  for  reasons  of 
Convention,  tradition,  facility,  and  personal  advan¬ 
tage,  and  others  to  whom  it  was  an  appeal  for 
Czech  liberty,  joined  the  new  Church.  In  1920  its 
members  were  excommunicated  by  the  Pope,  who 
appointed  to  such  dioceses  as  were  then  vacant 
Slovakian  priests  who  were  at  the  same  time  loyal 
Republicans,  and  permitted  the  use  of  the  Czech 
language  in  the  administration  of  the  Sacraments. 
The  schism  is  rapidly  disintegrating,  its  faith,  liturgy, 
and  discipline  alike  being  in  a  state  of  flux  and 


^  now  seeks  uni°n  with  the  Servian 
•  F  inoi°X-^^urc ^rsi;  national  census  taken 
in  1921  it  was  shown  that  the  majority  of  the 
apostates  profess  no  religion  and  are  not  now 
adherents  of  the  National  Church.  The  change 
from  autocracy  to  democracy,  from  a  friendly  gov- 
ernment  to  a  hostile  one,  has  been  efficiently  coped 
with  by  the  Church,  and  in  spite  of  a  hostile  gov- 
f^nment,  a  small  schism,  many  apostasies,  much 
indifference,  a  vigorous  Servian  propaganda,  and 
a  still  more  influential  propaganda  emanating  from 
wealthy  Protestants  in  America,  the  Church  in 
Czechoslovakia  has  become  better  organized  and 
far  more  active  in  the  space  of  ttvo  years  than 
she  was  for  three  centuries  under  the  Austrian 
regime. 

The  Church  in  Czechoslovakia  is  divided  into 
tke  following  sees:  the  prince  bishopric  of  Olomouc 
L1^2'’  Wltk  lts  suffragan  Brno  (Briinn) ;  the 
archdiocese  of  Prague  with  its  suffragans  Bude- 
jovice  (Budweis),  Hradec  Kralove  (Konniggratz) 
and  Litomence  (Leitmentz) ;  the  diocese  of  Kosice 
(Cassovia),  dependent  on  Eger;  Banska  Bystrica 
(JNeusohl),  dependent  on  Esztergom;  Nitra,  de- 
penuent  on  Eger;  Roznava  (Rosenau),  dependent 
on  Eger;  Spisz  (Zips),  dependent  on  Eger.  The 
diocese  of  Munkacs  and  Prjasev  (Eperies)  follow 
fhe  Greek  Ruthenian  Rite  and  are  dependent  on 
Esztergom. 

History.— -The  history  of  Czechoslovakia  as  a 
republic  dates  from  28  October,  1918,  when  the 
Narodni  Vybor  (N  dional  Council)  took  over  the 
government  of  the  Czechoslovak  countries,  includ- 
Bohemia ,  Moravia,  Silesia,  and  Slovakia,  which 
had  hitherto  belonged  to  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy.  This,  however,  was  the  culmination  of 
a  movement  which  dated  back  to  1848,  when  the 
European  upheaval  strengthened  the  Czech  move- 
ment  winch  assumed  a  political  shap  >  with  the 
establishment  of  the  Czech  language  press.  The 
outbreak  of  the  World  War  found  the  Czechs  united 
and  ready  for  liberty.  The  bulk  of  them  had 
fought  for  autonomy  within  a  federalized  empire, 
but  the  reign  of  terror  with  which  the  people’s 
reluctance  to  take  part  in  the  war  was  met, 
strengthened  those  who  demanded  complete  inde¬ 
pendence.  The  thousands  of  military  executions, 
the  numberless  confiscations  and  arbitrary  im¬ 
prisonments,  angered  the  people,  whose  soldiers  were 
going  over  to  the  Russians  and  Servians  in  great 
numbers.  Finally  in  Paris  in  November,  1915,  a 
committee  of .  exiles  demanded  complete  indepen¬ 
dence  and  unity  of  race.  Formal  action  severing 
Bohemia  from  Austria-Hungary  was  taken  by  the 
provisional  government  on  18  October,  1918,  when 
it  adopted  a  declaration  of  independence.  On  the 
same  day  the  Czechs  seized  control  of  Prague,  the 
capital  of  Bohemia,  and  the  Czech  flag  was  raised 
over  Hradschin  Castle.  A  general  strike  was  pro¬ 
claimed  throughout  the  country.  The  Austrians 
made  little  attempt  at  resistance  and  after  a  few 
days  fighting  the  Czechslovak  National  Council 
gained  full  control.  The  Czech  Nationalists  took 
over  the  functions  of  the  local  government  in 
Prague  on  28  October.  The  Austrian  Government 
fled  to  Vienna  and  the  imperial  military  authorities 
handed  over  their  power  to  the  local  head  of  the 
National  Council.  The  republic  was  immediately 
proclaimed.  Two  delegations  of  Czech  leaders,  one 
from  Prague  and  another  from  the  Provisional 
Government  at  Paris,  met  in  Geneva,  Switzerland, 
to  formulate  a  new  constitution  for  the  republic. 
On  14  November,  1918,  the  Czechoslovak  National 
Assembly  met  in  Prague  and  formally  declared  the 
Czechoslovak  state  to  be  a  republic  with  Professor 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


248 


CZECHOSLOVAKIA 


Thomas  G.  Masaryk  as  the  first  president.  The 
Constitution  was  passed  by  the  National  Assembly 
on  29  February,  1920.  In  the  general  elections 
following,  Masaryk  was  elected  president  (28  May, 
1920). 

In  the  meantime  the  Czechoslovak  army  was 
fighting  gallantly  in  Siberia.  It  had  been  organized 
in  Russia  from  the  Czech  and  Slovak  prisoners  of 
war  and  fought  side  by  side  with  the  Russian  army, 
keeping  up  the  advance  even  after  the  Russian 
debacle.  When  the  Bolshevist  Soviet  Government 
signed  the  peace  treaty  at  the  beginning  of  March, 
1918,  the  Czechoslovak  army  of  50,000  men  was  in 
Ukrainia  near  Kiev.  With  the  advance  of  the 
Austrian  and  German  armies  into  Ukrainia  and 
the  continual  surrender  of  the  Ukrainians  into  their 
hands,  there  was  nothing  for  the  Czechs  to  do  but 
to  retreat,  despite  their  lack  of  lines  of  communica¬ 
tion,  of  stores  of  materials,  and  of  reserves.  They 
decided  to  transport  the  army  over  Siberia  and 
America  to  France,  and  with  this  purpose  began 
the  difficult  retreat  from  Kiev.  As  proof  of  their 
loyalty  to  the  Bolshevik  government  they  sur¬ 
rendered  all  their  arms,  and  in  return  the  Bolsheviks 
guaranteed  them  unmolested  passage  through 
Siberia.  Soon,  however,  came  the  order  counter¬ 
manding  the  permission  and  in  May,  1918,  Trotzsky 
of  Russia  declared  war  on  Czechoslovakia.  By  this 
time  the  soldiers  were  strung  out  in  a  thin  line 
from  the  Volga  to  Vladivostok.  Assisted  by  Cos¬ 
sacks  and  Czechs,  Colonel  Kadlets,  then  commander 
of  the  Czech  forces  west  of  Irkutsk,  fought  his 
way  west  to  Omsk,  taking  towns  en  route.  Owing 
to  the  keen  hostility  of  the  Bolsheviki,  the  situa¬ 


tion  of  the  Czechoslovak  forces  became  desperate, 
as  they  were  hard  pressed  and  near  to  the  end  of 
their  resources.  A  frantic  appeal  to  the  allies  was 
made.  Japanese  and  American  Expeditionary 
Forces  landed  at  Vladiovostok  and  fought  their 
way  far  into  the  region  of  the  Amur  and  the 
Trans-Baikal  Provinces  to  protect  the  railway  lines, 
which  afforded  the  sole  means  of  transportation  of 
the  Czechoslovak  troops  from  the  interior  of  Siberia 
to  the  Port  of  Vladiovostok.  In  January,  1920,  the 
United  States  decided  to  terminate  its  military  un¬ 
dertaking  in  Siberia  and  ordered  the  withdrawal  of 
its  forces.  The  last  of  the  Czechoslovak  troops 
safely  embarked  from  Vladiovostok  in  September, 
1920,  returning  home  via  the  United  States. 

Under  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  a 
plebiscite  was  to  be  held  in  the  district  of  Austrian 
Silesia  surrounding  the  town  of  Teschen,  in  order 
to  decide  whether  that  district  should  be  united 
with  Poland  or  with  Czechoslovakia.  The  Czechs 
claimed  the  Teschen  district  in  the  first  instance 
on  historical  grounds,  since  the  province  had  been 
part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Bohemia,  which  they 
claimed  to  be  indivisible.  On  the  other  hand  there 
was  a  large  Polish  majority  in  the  northeastern 
part  of  the  district.  In  1919  actual  hostilities  broke 
out.  The  controversy  was  settled  at  the  Spa  Peace 
Conference  in  July,  1920,  where  it  was  decided  to 
partition  the  Teschen  province  forthwith  instead  of 
holding  a  plebiscite.  The  agreement  gave  a  large 
moiety  of  territory,  including  the  city  of  Teschen, 
to  Poland,  but  Czechoslovakia  had  the  better  of 
the  bargain  in  the  matter  of  coal  fields,  receiving 
as  its  share  valuable  mines  and  railways. 


D 

Dacca,  Diocese  of  (Dacchensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IV-  of  the  Family  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (5).  There 
601b),  in  Bengal,  India,  suffragan  of  Calcutta,  is  a  seminary  in  the  Vicariate  with  9  students,  also 
The  population  (1921)  of  this  diocese  numbers  1  normal  school  for  teachers  and  catechists  (12 
18,123,300,  of. whom  11,730  are  Catholics,  exclusive  students),  18  elementary  schools  (3,000  students  of 
of  Catholics  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  both  sexes),  9  workshops  (619  children),  91  cate- 
Mylapore.  Rt.  Rev.  Francis  Frederick  Linneborn,  chists.  Instruction  was  given  to  362  children  in  the 
C.S.C.,  D.  D.,  died  21  July,  1915,  and  was  sue-  mission;  there  were  1,160  baptisms  in  a  year,  51,758 
ceeded  by  lit.  Rev.  Joseph  Legrand,  C.S.C.,  D.D.,  confessions,  137,190  communions,  and  62  marriages, 
born  at  Laigle,  France,  1853,  elected  16  August,  The  following  important  events  have  taken  place 
1916,  consecrated  5  November,  1916.  There  are  in  in  the  vicariate  since  1918:  the  Cathedral  of  the 
the  diocese  18  priests  and  13  Brothers  of  the  Con-  Immaculate  Conception  was  consecrated  in  1909; 
gregation  of  the  Holy  Cross,  2  secular  priests,  and  a  seminary  for  the  training  of  a  native  priesthood 
40  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Mission  of  Lyons,  was  opened  in  1914;  a  normal  school  in  1918;  a 
The  educational  institutions  under  the  care  of  the  Congregation  of  native  Sisters  was  founded  in  1912. 
religious  orders  established  in  the  diocese  are  St.  Since  1920  there  has  been  a  widespread  move- 
Gregory’s  School,  a  higher  elementary  boarding  ment  in  favor  of  Catholicism, 
and  day  school  for  European  boys,  and  St.  Francis  Soon  after  the  declaration  of  the  World  War 
Xavier’s  convent,  a  higher  elementary  boarding  the  majority  of  the  missionaries  offered  themselves 
and  day  school  lor  girls.  The  charitable  institu-  for  ambulance  sendee  and  by  their  tact,  self-sacrifice 
tions  consist  of  2  orphanages  for  boys  and  girls,  and  earnestness  rendered  invaluable  services  to  their 
Dispensaries  and  day  nurseries  are  under  the  care  country.  Those  who  remained  at  home  took  up 

of  the  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Mission;  there  the  work  of  the  absent  priests  and  continued  the 

also  are  hostels  for  Catholic  boys  and  girls,  and  institutions  which  had  previously  been  established 
St.  John  the  Baptist’s  Training  School  for  Cate-  and  which  signally  helped  to  maintain  order 
echists.  ...  .  throughout  the  country.  It  is  noteworthy  that 

The  statistics  of  the  diocese  (1921)  gives  13  head  throughout  the  war  not  a  single  tribe  revolted  in 
stations,  30  churches  and  chapels,  and  the  Cathedral  any  place  where  there  was  a  residential  priest.  Dur- 
of  the  Holy  Cross  in  Dacca.  The  stations  between  ing  these  years  of  misery  and  distress,  the  Catholics 
Dacca  and  Bahadurabad  and  Jagannathgunj,  and  were  among  the  first  who  generously  and  willingly 
jute  stations  on  the  Brahmaputra  are  attended  from  gave  their  services  to  their  country.  The  teachers 
Dacca.  The  Holy  Cross  Bengali  Booklet  Series  and  and  catechists  spontaneously  gave  a  part  of  their 
the  ‘‘Dharma  Joyoti,”  a  Bengali  monthly,  are  pub-  monthly  salary  to  the  bishop  to  compensate  for 

lished  in  this  diocese.  the  decrease  in  his  revenues,  while  a  great  number 

of  Catholics  voluntarily  joined  the  army.  When 

Dahomey,  vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Dahomensis;  the  Government  issued  the  first  war  loan,  the 
ct  C.  E.  I\ -603d),  a  French  colony  in  West  Africa,  natives,  prominent  among  whom  were  the  Cath- 
The  Faith  was  first  preached  hereby  the  Franciscans  olics,  clearly  understood  their  duty  and  were  among 
in  1660,  but  with  littlo  success.  Subsequently  the  the  first  to  subscribe. 

attempts  made  by  the  Dominicans  and  the  Angus-  The  present  Vicar  Apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Francis 
tinians  also  met  wit1',  failure.  It  was  not  until  1861,  Steinmetz,  of  the  Lyons  Society  of  African  Mis- 
when  Fathers  Borghero  and  Fernandez  of  the  newly  sions,  b.  at  Morschwiller  in  the  diocese  of  Stras- 
founded  Society  of  African  Missions  >  of  Lyons  burg,  10  January,  1868,  ordained  13  July,  1890,  and 
arrived,  that  the  mission  began  to  flourish.  Porto  named  missionary  to  Dahomey,  elected  bishop  20 
Novo,  the  principal  mission  station,  is  now  an  June,  1906,  and  consecrated  at  Lyons  21  October 
active  and  prosperous  parish  with  a  flourishing  following, 
school  for  boys  and  girls  with  1400  students.  More 

than  40,000  communions  were  given  here  in  1920.  Dail  Eireann.  See  Ireland. 

Wydah  is  the  second  most  important  mission  and 

the  seat  of  the  Vicar  Apostolic.  It  contains  12,000  Dallas,  Diocese  of  (Dallasensis),  Texas,  U.  S. 
inhabitants.  Formerly  a  notorious  center  of  Fetish-  A.,  suffragan  of  New  Orleans,  created  16  July,  1890, 
ism,  it  has  now  become  a  thriving  mission.  The  subdivided  through  the  erection  of  the  diocese  El 
negro  chieftains  have  been  won  over  by  the  Cath-  Paso,  January,  1915,  comprises  North  Texas,  em- 
olics  and  frequent  the  church  and  even  the  idola-  bracing  an  area  of  approximately  96,000  sq.  miles, 
trous  priests  are  becoming  reconciled  to  the  Catholic  In  1915  Bishop  Lynch,  the  present  (1922)  incum- 
religion.  The  station  at  Agme  is  less  important  bent,  petitioned  the  Holy  See  to  be  relieved  of 
than  formerly,  as  two  new  posts  have  been  estab-  the  western  portion  of  the  diocese,  a  request  which 
lished  in  the  vicinity,  those  of  Grand-Popo  and  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  Diocese  of  El 
Koutonou,  the  latter  of  which  is  particularly  pros-  Paso,  composed  of  parts  of  the  dioceses  of  Dallas, 
perous  and  will  soon  rival  Wydah.  San  Antonio,  and  Tucson. 

The  population  numbers  more  than  a  million  The  city  of  Dallas  has  a  population  of  159,960  (of 
inhabitants,  of  whom  15,000  are  Catholics  and  whom  40,000  are  Catholics),  and  is  surrounded 
belong  to  the  Fons,  the  Gorubas  and  Minas  tribes,  within  a  radius  of  fifty  miles  by  two-fifths  of  the 
There  are  11  principal  stations  with  resident  pas-  population  of  Texas.  In  forming  the  new  diocese, 
tors,  32  missionary  stations,  32  churches  and  chapels,  Dallas  contributed  thirty-six  churches  and  a  Catho- 
25  priests,  2  lay  brothers,  5  communities  of  Euro-  lie  population  of  42,000.  It  is  an  important  dis- 
pean  nuns,  1  community  of  native  Sisters  with  11  tributing  center,  rich  in  mineral  resources,  products 
members.  The  religious  orders  represented  are  the  of  the  soil,  and  has  recently  become  an  oil  center. 
Sisters  of  the  Queen  of  the  Apostles  (19),  Sisters  Rt  Rev.  Joseph  P.  Lynch,  the  present  (1922)  and 

249 


DALMATIA 


250 


DAN 


the  third  bishop  of  the  diocese,  was  appointed  as 
successor  of  Rt.  Rev.  Edward  Joseph  Dunne  (b.  23 
April,  1848;  d.  5  August,  1910).  Born  16  November, 
1872,  in  the  Diocese  of  Detroit,  ordained  9  June, 
1900,  appointed  vicar  general  of  the  diocese  by 
Bishop  Dunne,  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Dallas 
by  Pope  Pius  X,  and  consecrated  12  July,  1911. 

The  latest  statistics  of  the  diocese  give  60  parishes, 
120  churches,  60  missions  with  churches,  62  stations, 
61  secular  and  39  regular  priests,  2  convents  for 
men,  14  for  women,  483  Sisters  in  the  various  com¬ 
munities,  1  university  with  27  professors  and  186 
students,,  14  seminarians,  1  college  for  men  with  72 
boys,  12  academies  with  an  attendance  of  4253  in 
parish  schools,  1  industrial  school  with  8  teachers 
and  50  pupils.  The  charitable  institutions  number: 
1  home  for  business  women,  2  Orphanages,  6  hos¬ 
pitals,  free  clinic  and  care  is  given  to  the  sick  in 
5  hospitals,  1  refuge.  Good  Shepherd  Home,  and  1 
medical  mission.  All  institutions  receive  no  com¬ 
pensation  from  the  government.  < 

Societies  organized  in  the  diocese,  among  the 
clergy :  Priests’  Eucharistic  League ;  among  the  laity : 
Sacred  Heart  League,  Confraternity  of  Blessed 
Sacrament,  Catholic  Daughters  of  America,  Holy 
Family  Sodality,  Holy  Name  Society,  Sodality  of 
the  B.  V.  M.,  St.  Aloysius  Sodality,  and  Knights  of 
Columbus.  .Two  Catholic  periodicals  are  published 
in  the  diocese,  ‘'Cathedral  Parish  Monthly”  and 
"St.  Mary’s  Parish  Monthly,”  Fort  Worth.  _ 

During  the  World  War  the  clergy  and  laity  co¬ 
operated  in  all  war  activities,  especially  at  Dallas 
and  Forth  Worth.  Under  the  auspices  of  the  clergy, 
the  laity  co-operating,  considerable  sums  were  ex¬ 
pended  for  recreating  the  soldiers  and  assisting  them 
in  the  matter  of  religious  helpfulness.  Since  1900 
the  diocese  lost  three  zealous  workers  by  the  deaths 
of  Rt.  Rev.  Msgr.  J.  Martiniere,  pioneer  priest  of 
the  district,  ministering  in  the  early  days  to  all  the 
territory  of  96,000  sq.  miles,  d.  10  April,  1910;  Rt. 
Rev.  Mgr.  Louis  Granger,  d.  12  Jan.,  1918,  and 
Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Joseph  Blum,  d.  1  October,  1918,  both 
of  whom  labored  zealously  in  the  missions  of  Texas. 

Dalmatia.  See  Jugoslavia. 

Damao  (Daman,  Damaun),  Diocese  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
IV-610a),  is  suffragan  to  Goa,  in  Portuguese  India. 
This  territory  comprises  four  districts  with  a  Cath¬ 
olic  population  of  87,842,  of  whom  39,966  are  in 
the  city  of  Bombay,  26,814  in  the  vicariate  forane 
of  Thana,  19,527  in  the  vicariate  forane  of  Bassein, 
926  in  Damao,  and  609  in  Diu.  Rt.  Rev.  Anthony 
Peter  da  Costa,  the  first  Bishop  of  Damao,  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  Most  Rev.  Sebastiao  Jose  Pereira, 
b.  4  October,  1857,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Epiphania  and  prelate  nullius  of  Mozambique  7 
November,  1897,  proclaimed  24  March,  1898,  trans¬ 
ferred  17  July,  1900.  He  is  the  Bishop  of  Damao 
and  Archbishop  ad  honorem  of  Cranganore.  There 
are  5  European  and  89  Indian  priests  aided  by 
Franciscan  Missionary  Brothers  and  the  Francis¬ 
can  nuns.  The  educational  institutions  under  the 
care  of  the  missionaries  consist  of  primary  schools 
for  boys  and  girls  under  the  management  of  the 
parish  priests,  2  high  schools,  3  schools  for  boys 
and  girls,  a  Catholic  institute,  and  a  diocesan  semi¬ 
nary.  The  charitable  institutions  of  the  diocese 
consist  of  3  homes  for  the  poor,  conducted  by  the 
Society  of  Nossa  Senhora  da  Piedade,  2  orphanages 
with  120  orphans,  a  widows’  home  with  a  school 
for  girls,  a  confraternity  of  O.  L.  of  Piety  for  the 
benefit  of  old  and  invalid  priests  of  the  diocese. 
By  1921  statistics  there  are  50  churches,  21  chapels, 
and  71  head-stations. 


Damaraland  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-610d),  the  middle  part 
of  the  protectorate  of  Southwest  Africa,  formerly 
a  German  colony,  now  administered  by  the  Union 
of  South  Africa,  under  a  mandate  from  the  League 
of  Nations,  dated  17  December,  1920.  The  country 
was  captured  from  the  Germans  in  July,  1915.  Up 
to  1920  the  German  law  was  in  force;  new  legisla¬ 
tion  has  been  effected  by  proclamations  under 
martial  law.  In  January,  1920,  Roman  Dutch 
was  made  the  common  law  of  the  country  and  a 
number  of  Union  Acts  have  since  been  applied  by 
proclamations.  Civil  Courts  have  beun  established 
and  all  troops  withdrawn,  and  although  martial 
law  has  not  been  repealed,  the  government  has 
been  conducted  on  a  civil  basis  for  some  time.  For 
Catholic  statistics  see  Cimbebasia,  Prefecture  Apos¬ 
tolic  of. 

Damascus,  Archdiocese  of  (Damascensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  IV-611d),  in  Syria,  was  founded  by  the  Apostles. 
The  diocese  comprises  three  rites,  namely,  the 
Greek  Melchite  (Damascensis  Melchitarum),  the 
Maronite  (Damascensis  Maronitarum),  and  the 
Syrian  Rite  (Damascensis  Syrorum). 

Damascus  is  the  Patriarchal  Diocese  of  the  Greek 
Melchite  Rite,  and  the  episcopal  residence  of  the 
Patriarch  of  Antioch,  and  has  jurisdiction  over  the 
sees  of  Alexandria  and  Jerusalem,  whose  titulars 
are  still  schismatic.  As  the  result  of  an  indult 
it  carries  the  title  of  these  patriarchates  and  has 
three  patriarchal  vicars  at  Damascus,  Alexandria, 
and  Jerusalem.  Since  1895  it  also  has  jurisdiction 
over  the  Greek  Catholics  of  Constantinople. 

The  Most  Rev.  Joseph-Demetri  Cadi,  b.  18 
January,  1861,  studied  in  Paris,  entered  the  semi¬ 
nary  of  Issy  in  1883,  was  ordained  priest  in  1888, 
professed,  made  prefect  of  the  patriarchal  College 
of  Damascus,  patriarchal  vicar  of  Jerusalem,  rector 
of  St.  Julien  le  Pauvre  in  Paris,  1898,  appointed 
bishop  27  October,  1903,  enthroned  in  Aleppo  22 
December  of  the  following  year,  elected  patriarch 
and  confirmed  3  July,  1919.  He  resides  at  Damascus 
and  governs  his  diocese  through  the  Patriarchal 
Vicar,  Mgr.  Homsi,  titular  Bishop  of  Tarsus. 

According  to  the  1921  census  the  population  num¬ 
bers  200,000  Mussulmans,  10,835  Greek  Catholics, 
19,000  Greek  Orthodox,  11  secular  and  15  regular 
priests,  14  churches  or  chapels. 

The  Maronite  Rite  with  the  episcopal  residence 
at  Reyfoun,  in  ancient  Lebanon,  is  administered 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Richard  Scemaly,  appointed  bishop 
1920,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop  Massad  (b.  6 
January,  1859;  d.  March,  1919).  This  diocese  com¬ 
prises  85,000  Maronite  Catholics,  about  15,000 
Schismatics  and  200,000  Mussulmans,  52  parishes, 
95  secular  and  27  regular  clergy,  89  churches  or 
chapels. 

The  Syrian  Rite,  administered  by  Most  Rev. 
Clement  Michael  Baccasce,  born  6  October,  1865, 
in  Aleppo,  student  of  the  College  of  the  Propaganda 
in  Rome,  appointed  bishop  3  June,  1900,  conse¬ 
crated  24  September  following.  According  to  1921 
statistics  the  diocese  numbers  3,000  Catholics;  9 
secular  priests,  4  churches  or  chapels,  4  schools 
with  68  pupils. 

For  the  Latin  Rite  Damascus  is  a  titular  see,  the 
title  being  held  by  Mgr.  Carlo  Sica,  former  bishop 
of  Foligno,  now  resident  in  Rome. 

Dan  (or  Gian),  Cochin-Chinese  martyr,  b.  at 
Biuho  Cang,  eastern  Cochin-China,  about  1845;  d. 
at  Cho-moi,  about  1860.  The  child  of  honest 
Christian  parents,  she  was  remarkable  for  her  filial 
obedience,  respect,  and  love,  not  less  than  for  her 
sweetness  and  strength  of  character.  When  only 


DANIEL 


251 


DELAWARE 


thirteen  years  of  age  she  was  imprisoned  during  the 
persecution  by  which  Tu-duc,  King  of  Annam  devas¬ 
tated  the  province  from  1858-1862.  For  two  years 
she  underwent  excruciating  tortures  rather  than 
renounce  her  faith,  her  sufferings  finally  causing 
her  death.  It  was  not  until  several  years  later 
that  she  was  given  proper  burial,  when  her  re¬ 
mains,  together  with  those  of  eight  other  martyrs, 
were  collected  and  buried  in  the  cemetery  at  Cho- 
moi  by  Van,  a  native  priest.  The  cause  of  her 
canonization  was  introduced  and  signed  by  Pope 
Benedict  XV,  25  May,  1921. 

Daniel,  Anthony  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-621c).— The 
cause  of  his  beatification  was  introduced  at  Rome, 
9  August,  1916. 

Danzig,  formerly  an  important  commercial  city 
of  Germany,  now  a  free  state  by  the  terms  of  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles  (1919).  The  area  is  about  709 
square  miles,  and  the  population  on  8  October, 

1919,  was  351,380,  of  which  about  7  per  cent  are 
Poles.  To  the  west,  five  miles  distant,  is  the  near¬ 
est  Polish  district.  Danzig’s  importance  as  a  port  is 
shown  in  the  latest  register  of  shipping:  in  1918, 1,237 
vessels  of  455,127  tons  with  a  total  cargo  of  76,436 
tons  entered,  and  1,223  vessels  of  439,473  tons,  with 
a  total  cargo  of  109,785  tons  cleared  the  port.  The 
city  is  connected  with  Poland  by  three  main  rail¬ 
way  lines:  Danzig  to  Warsaw,  204  miles;  Danzig 
to  Lodz,  263  miles;  and  Danzig  to  Posen,  192  miles. 
The  educational  system  of  the  city  in  1919  included 
38  common  schools  with  517  classes,  322  male  and 
218  female  teachers,  and  24,288  pupils;  3  inter¬ 
mediate  schools  with  44  classes,  46  teachers  and 
1,858  pupils;  5  higher  schools  with  81  classes  and 
2,464  pupils;  and  a  technical  high  school  with 
65  teachers  and  864  students.  The  government  of 
the  city  is  laid  out  in  the  new  Constitution,  ap¬ 
proved  by  the  League  of  Nations  on  17  November, 

1920,  wdiich  provides  for  a  Volkstag  or  Diet  of  120 
members  elected  for  four  years,  and  a  Senate,  con¬ 
sisting  of  a  president,  vice-president  and  twenty 
senators.  The  president  and  nine  senators  are 
elected  by  the  Volkstag  for  six  years;  the  vice- 
president  and  the  other  eleven  senators  for  the 
duration  of  the  Volkstag.  The  sittings  of  the 
Senate  are  not  public.  The  President  is  the  chief 
administrative  officer.  The  elections  are  universal, 
direct,  and  secret  on  the  basis  of  proportional  repre¬ 
sentation,  suffrage  being  granted  to  those  of  both 
sexes  over  twenty  years  of  age.  The  official  lan¬ 
guage  is  German,  but  the  Polish-speaking  element 
is  to  have  freedom  to  develop  its  own  nationality, 
and  to  use  its  mother-tongue  in  the  schools,  law 
courts,  and  government  offices.  Danzig  is  not  to' 
serve  as  a  naval  or  military  base,  and  in  case  of 
attack  is  to  be  defended  by  Poland.  The  public 
school  system  is  to  be  “organically  developed  on  the 
principles  of  undenominationalism.”  The  procla¬ 
mation  of  the  freedom  of  the  city  and  adjacent 
territory  as  well  as  the  announcement  of  the  Dan- 
zig-Polish  treaty  took  place  on  20  November,  1920. 

Dar-es-Salaam,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See 
Zanzibar,  Southern. 

Dark  Ages.  See  Middle  Ages. 

Davenport,  Diocese  of  (Davenportensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  LV-640b),  Iowa,  comprises  an  area  of  12,000 
sq.  miles,  and  has  a  Catholic  population  of 
51,253.  Rt.  Rev.  James  Davis,  D.  D.,  is  still  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese.  According  to  1921  statistics 
the  diocese  numbers  135  secular  and  8  regular 
clergy,  92  churches  with  resident  priests,  31  missions 
with  churches,  13  chapels,  23  seminarians,  1  college 


for  boys  (300  students),  1  college  for  young  ladies, 
6  academies  for  girls,  49  parishes  and  missions  with 
schools,  1  orphanage  (101  orphans),  12  hospitals, 
lhe  clergy  are  aided  by  the  various  religious  com¬ 
munities  of  men  and  women  established  in  the 
diocese. 

Dax,  Diocese  of.  See  Aire. 

Dayton  Uuiversity,  in  the  State  of  Ohio, 
formerly  known  as  St.  Mary  College,  was  incor¬ 
porated  under  that  name  in  1878,  and  in  July, 
1920,  an  amendment  was  made  to  the  original  arti¬ 
cles  of  incorporation  and  the  name  changed  to 
“University  of  Dayton.”  It  is  a  boarding  and  day 
college  for  young  men  under  the  direction  of  the 
Society  of  Mary,  and  comprises  three  distinct  de¬ 
partments;  the  collegiate,  the  pre-medical,  and  the 
preparatory  or  high  school.  The  collegiate  depart¬ 
ment  comprises  the  schools  of  arts,  letters,  science, 
education,  commerce  and  finance,  and  engineering. 
The  school  of  engineering  was  organized  in  Septem¬ 
ber,  1910.  The  pre-medical  department  comprises 
a  two-year  course  for  high  school  graduates  desiring 
to  prepare  for  medical  college. 

In  1920  the  university  organized  an  extension 
course  to  be  given  evenings  in  any  of  the  usual  col¬ 
lege  subjects,  whenever  the  number  of  registrants 
is  sufficient  to  warrant  it.  Since  1907  a  number  of  • 
scholarships  have  been  founded  in  the  university. 
The  total  registration  of  students  in  the  collegiate 
and  pre-medical  departments  for  1920-21  was  131, 
and  the  faculty  numbered  49.  The  Rev.  Joseph  A. 
Fetzlaff,  S.  M.,  is  president  of  the  university. 

Deacons  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-647b).— No  one  may  re¬ 
ceive  the  diaconate  unless  he  has  begun  his  fourth 
year’s  theological  studies.  Deacons  may  as  a  mat¬ 
ter  of  course  be  authorized  to  preach,  but  can  ad¬ 
minister  solemn  baptism  only  by  permission  and  in 
exceptional  cases;  they  can  expose  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  at  Benediction,  but  may  not  bless  with 
the  Sacred  Host,  except  when  in  case  of  necessity 
they  bring  the  Viaticum  to  the  sick. 

Defender  of  the  Matrimonial  Tie  (cf.  C.  E., 
IV-675.) — Every  diocese  must  have  a  priest  to  act 
a£  defender  of  the  matrimonial  tie.  If  he  is  not  ap¬ 
pointed  merely  for  a  special  case  he  continues  in 
office  during  an  episcopal  vacancy,  but  he  requires 
confirmation  by  the  new  bishop.  He  is  usually 
charged  with  defending  the  validity  of  ordinations 
^nd  frequently  acts  as  diocesan  promoter  of  justice. 
Codex  jur.  can.,  1,586. 

Delaware  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-692a). — The  population 
of- the  State  of  Delaware  according  to  the  United 
States  census  of  1920  was  223,003,  an  increase  of 
10.2%  over  that  of  1910.  The  population  of  the 
city  of  Wilmington  was  110,168.  Of  the  total  popu¬ 
lation,  192,615  were  whites,  30,335  were  negroes,  and 
the  rest  (53)  included  Indians,  Chinese,  and  Japa¬ 
nese.  Of  the  native  whites,  there  were  172,805 
(native  parentage,  139,876)  and  of  the  foreign-born 
white,  19,810.  The  urban  population  was  120,767; 
the  rural  population,  102,236.  The  .  number  of  il¬ 
literates  over  ten  years  of  age  was  10,508,  or  5.9  per 
cent.  Of  the  negroes,  over  ten  years  of  age,  19  per 
cent  were  illiterate. 

Agriculture  and  Industry. — Delaware  is  mainly 
an  agricultural  state,  85  per  cent  of  the  land  being  in 
farms,  which  in  1920  numbered  10,140  and  had  a  total 
area  of  944,511  acres,  653,052  acres  being  improved 
land.  The  total  value  of  farm  property  was  $80,- 
137,614.  The  chief  crops  are  maize  and  wheat,  but 
fruit  and  tomato  growing  are  important.  The  state 
has  oyster  and  other  fisheries  which  are  receiving 


DELAWARE 


252 


DELUIL-MARTINY 


increasing  attention.  The  capital  invested  in  manu¬ 
facturing  industries  in  the  state  in  1919  was  $148,- 
207,598,  an  increase  of  113  per  cent  over  that  in 
1914.  The  number  of  establishments  was  668,  of 
persons  engaged  in  manufacture,  32,972 ;  of  the 
value  of  the  products,  $165,073,009.  The  tanning, 
currying,  and  finishing  of  leather  is  the  most  im¬ 
portant  manufacturing  industry.  During  the  war, 
Wilmington  experienced  the  greatest  boom  of  its 
history,  on  account  of  the  powder  works  situated 
there.  There  is  an  important  coastwise  trade,  par¬ 
ticularly  with  New  York,  which  is  connected  with 
Wilmington  by  a  line  of  steamers.  Chesapeake 
Bay  and  Delaware  Bay  are  connected  by  a  canal. 

Education. — The  present  school  law  was  passed 
in  1919  and  provides  for  a  minimum  school  tax  of 
$100  yearly  in  each  district  to  support  the  schools 
therein,  and  grants  $250,000  derived  each  year  from 
the  income  tax  to  the  elementary  schools  (from 
first  to  seventh  grade).  The  State  Board  of  Educa¬ 
tion  consists  of  five  members  appointed  by  the  gov¬ 
ernor  for  five  years.  Six  months  continuous  school 
attendance  in  each  year  is  compulsory  for  all  chil¬ 
dren  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen.  In 
1920  the  total  attendance  in  the  free  schools  of  the 
state  was  37,135;  the  total  expenditure  for  school 
purposes  was  $1,738,884.  In  1914  the  Women’s  Col- 
,  lege  of  Delaware  was  established  by  the  state.  The 
*  laws  relative  to  private  and  parochial  schools  are 
as  follows:  in  every  elementary  school,  both  public 
and  private,  of  and  in  the  state,  there  shall  be 
taught  at  least  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  spelling, 
oral  and  written  English,  history  of  the  United 
States  and  Delaware,  civics,  elementary  science, 
hygiene,  sanitation,  and  physical  training.  All  of 
these  subjects  shall  be  taught  in  the  English  lan¬ 
guage;  no  public  money  shall  be  appropriated  in 
aid  of  any  denominational  school  (X-3) ;  all  real 
or  personal  property  used  for  school  purposes,  where 
the  tuition  is  free,  shall  be  exempt  from  taxation 
and  assessment  for  public  purposes  (X-3) ;  session 
of  private  schools  must  be  the  same  as  that  of 
public  schools ;  private  schools  must  annually  report 
to  State  Board  regarding  enrollment  and  attendance. 
They  must  also  submit  a  monthly  attendance  record, 
and  furnish  such  records  as  required  by  laws  regu¬ 
lating  child  labor. 

Recent  History. — During  the  European  War 
Delaware  contributed  7,487  soldiers  or  .2  per  cent 
of  the  United  States  Army.  In  the  expeditionary 
force,  7  officers  and  80  men  died;  12  officers  and  200 
men  were  wounded;  4  were  taken  prisoners.  Dela¬ 
ware  ratified  the  Federal  prohibition  amendment 
on  18  March,  1918,  the  ninth  state  to  do  so;  the 
woman  suffrage  amendment  was  defeated  in  the 
state,  2  June,  1920. 

Catholic  Progress. — The  Catholic  population  of 
the  state  in  1920  was  30,000.  There  are  50  churches 
in  the  diocese  of  Wilmington,  of  which  25  are  in 
Delaware.  The  number  of  priests  in  the  diocese  is 
57,  and  the  number  in  the  state  is  42;  of  the  latter 
15  belong  to  religious  orders.  There  are  13  parochial 
schools  in  the  state,  with  4,635  pupils.  The  active 
church  membership  of  the  leading  Protestant 
denominations  are  (1916) :  Methodist  Episcopal, 
28,004 ;  Protestant  Episcopal,  4,656 ;  Baptist,  3,651 ; 
Presbyterian,  6,197.  In  1919  Dr.  Frederic  Joseph 
Kinsman,  the  Protestant  Episcopal  bishop  of  Dela¬ 
ware,  resigned  his  see  to  become  a  Catholic. 

Recent  Legislation. — Recent  legislation  includes 
the  regulation  of  child  labor  by  means  of  a  com¬ 
mission  (1913),  change  in  administration  of  the 
state  government  by  the  consolidation  of  several 
departments,  a  budget  system,  a  provision  for  the 
commitment  and  care  of  the  feeble-minded  or 


criminally  inclined  persons,  and  a  new  school  code. 

Delta  of  the  Nile,  Vicariate  Apostolic  (Delta 
Nili;  cf.  C.  E.,  IV-701d),  Egypt,  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  a  vicariate  17  September,  1909,  with  resi¬ 
dence  at  Choubra.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  African 
Missions  of  Lyons,  Mgr.  Auguste  Duret,  titular 
bishop  of  Bubastis,  being  appointed  first  Vicar 
Apostolic  24  February,  1910.  In  1911,  Baron  Em- 
pain,  promoter  of  the  Company  of  the  Oasis  of 
Heliopolis,  offered  the  Society  two  pieces  of  land 
and  the  building  of  a  church  and  residence  gratui¬ 
tously,  with  the  condition  of  making  Heliopolis 
the  residential  see.  It  was  partially  agreed,  and 
Mgr.  Duret  with  Jwo  Fathers  of  the  African  Mis¬ 
sions  took  his  residence  there  as  simple  occupant. 

The  vicariate  comprises  (with  the  four  provinces 
under  its  jurisdiction  and  a  part  of  the  government 
at  Cairo),  a  total  population  of,  by  the  (1920) 
statistics,  3,500,000  inhabitants;  Catholics  of  the 
Latin  Rite,  12,000;  Oriental  Catholics,  12,000; 
heretics  and  schismatics,  20,000;  and  the  rest 
Mohammedans.  At  the  start  of  the  Delta  Mission, 
there  were  hardly  a  thousand  Catholics  of  all  the 
rites,  attended  by  the  Franciscan  Fathers,  who 
had  only  two  stations.  In  1920  there  were  7  im¬ 
portant  stations  with  7  parochial  churches,  35  public 
chapels  of  the  Latin  Rite,  10  schools  for  _  boys, 
directed  by  the  three  Congregations  of  men  in  the 
Vicariate;  African  Mission  Fathers,  Jesuit  Fathers, 
and  Christian  Brothers  with  2,211  pupils;  13  schools 
for  girls  directed  by  the  Religious  of  N.  D.  des 
Apotres,  Good  Shepherd,  Sacred  Heart,  Charity  of 
Bescangon,  and  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  with  an  attend¬ 
ance  of  4,046  pupils.  A  comparison  of  the  statistics 
between  1915  and  1920  show  a  steady  growth  in 
the  attendance  of  Catholic  schools,  which  num¬ 
bered  3,360  in  1915  and  6,256  in  1920.  The  charitable 
institutions  comprise  7  dispensaries,  1  home  .  for 
the  aged  with  100  inmates  kept  by  the  Religious 
of  N.  D.  des  Apotres,  3  workshops  for  the  poor, 
1  refuge,  2  orphanages  for  girls,  1  for  boys,  1  nurs¬ 
ery,  2  hospitals,  and  1  house  of  the  Religious  de 
Marie  Reparatrice,  a  contemplative  order  of  women 
who  conduct  several  pious  works  for  ladies  and 
young  people.  The  vicariate  is  administered  by  40 
priests  of  the  African  Missions,  3  brothers;  29  Jesuit 
Fathers,  13  brothers,  3  auxiliary  priests  and  33 
Christian  Brothers,  aided  by  372  religious  of  the 
various  congregations. 

The  present  (1922)  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Jules  Girard  of  the  African  Missions,  titular  Bishop 
of  Bulla,  b.  25  May,  1863,  in  the  diocese  of  Puy, 
ordained  priest  19  September,  1886,  founder  of  St. 
Mark’s  parish  in  Cairo,  administrator  of  the  Vica¬ 
riate  Apostolic  of  Delta  of  the  Nile,  1916,  appointed 
Vicar  Apostolic,  28  June,  1921,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev. 
Auguste  Duret  (b.  2  January,  1846;  d.  29  August, 
1920). 

Deluil-Martiny,  Mary  of  Jesus,  foundress  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Daughters  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  b.  in  Marseilles,  France,  28  May,  1841;  d. 
there  27  February,  1884.  She  was  educated  at  the 
Visitation  Convent  in  her  native  city  and  at  the 
convent  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  in 
Lyons.  For  several  years  she  remained  at  home 
and  devoted  herself  to  the  spread  of  the  devotion 
of  the  “Guard  of  Honor  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Jesus.”  In  1867  with  the  permission  of  her  director 
she  took  a  vow  of  perpetual  chastity,  and  soon 
after  set  about  the  foundation  of  a  congregation 
of  women  to  be  devoted  to  the  reparation  of  the 
faults  of  the  faithful  and  of  priests.  She  put  her¬ 
self  under  obedience  to  the  Archbishop  of  Malines, 


DENMARK 


DENMARK 


253 


who,  on  9  December,  1872,  approved  the  new 
institute  to  be  known  as  the  Congregation  of  the 
Daughters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus. 

Sister  Mary  of  Jesus  built  the  first  house  of 
the  Society  at  Berchem  near  Antwerp,  and  adjoin¬ 
ing  it  erected  the  Basilica  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 
She  then  established  her  religious  in  Aix-en- 
Provence  and  at  La  Servianne,  near  Marseilles. 
Many  houses  were  founded  after  her  death,  amongst 
them  the  mother-house  in  Rome.  The  constitu¬ 
tions  were  finally  approved  by  the  Holy  See  2 
February,  1902.  The  foundress  was  assassinated  by 
the  gardener  of  La  Servianne,  as  she  walked  in 
the  grounds  with  her  community.  On  the  expulsion 
of  the  Congregation  from  France,  her  body  was 
removed  to  the  Basilica  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at 
Berchem.  She  had  ruled  her  institute  with  great 
prudence  and  charity  and  given  an  example  of 
the  highest  virtue  to  the  perfection  of  her  life. 
The  introduction  of  her  cause  of  canonization  was 
signed  by  Pope  Benedict  XV,  25  May,  1921. 


Denmark  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-722d) The  census  held 
on  1  February,  1921,  gives  the  area  of  Denmark 
as  16,566  square  miles  and  the  population  as 
3,268,807,  including  184,133  in  North  Schleswig.  In 
1916  the  population,  excluding  the  Faroes,  consisted 
of  1,415,833  males  and  1,505,540  females.  The 
largest  cities  with  their  population  in  1916  are: 
Copenhagen  506,390  (with  suburbs,  605,772), 
Aarhuus  65,858,  Odense  45,303,  Aalborg  38,102, 
Horsens  25,149,  Randers  24,428. 

Economic  Conditions. — Of  the  total  area  of 
Denmark  80  per  cent  is  productive;  about  one- 
sixth  of  the  unproductive  area  is  peat  bogs.  Of 
the  productive  area  6  per  cent  is  forest  and  of 
the  remainder  less  than  one-half  is  arable,  and 
the  residue  pasture  and  meadows.  The  acreage 
and  production  of  the  chief  crops  in  1920  were  as 
follows:  wheat  156,405  acres,  189,000  tons;  rye  525,- 
512  acres,  319,700  tons;  barley  596,292  acres,  512,- 
700  tons;  oats  1,012,787  acres,  684,100  tons.  During 
the  first  three  years  of  the  World  War,  Denmark 
was  called  upon  to  furnish  food  supplies  in  greater 
quantities  than  ever  before  in  her  history,  but 
the  submarine  campaign  in  1917  cut  off  the  supply 
of  raw  materials  from  abroad  and  the  lack  of 
fertilizers  resulted  in  decreased  production  of  the 
land.  On  15  July,  1920,  there  were  in  Denmark 
proper  563,467  horses,  2,286,408  head  of  cattle, 
504,241  sheep,  1,007,861  swine,  and  13,997,015  hens. 
Denmark  owes  her  prominent  position  in  dairying 
and  agriculture  chiefly  to  the  Co-operative  System. 
The  divisions  of  land  are  so  small  and  stocks  of 
animals  are  so  great— nearly  60  per  cent  of  the 
Danish  farms  consist  of  less  than  thirteen  acres 
each— that,  without  an  organization  to  combine 
scientifically  the  productive  capacity  of  the  dif¬ 
ferent  farms,  the  country  could  hardly  have  gained 
the  rank  that  is  now  holds.  The  Central  Co¬ 
operative  Committee  has  general  powers  of  super¬ 
vision  over  the  entire  country.  The  total  value 
of  the  fisheries  in  1919  was  £3,006,222.  The  fleet 
in  1919  consisted  of  15,422  boats.  In  1920  the 
value  of  the  exports  was  about  $430,000,000;  of 
the  imports,  $800,000,000.  In  1918  most  of  Den¬ 
mark’s  trade  was  with  Germany,  Sweden,  Great 
Britain,  and  Norway.  The  country  proper  (exclud¬ 
ing  Copenhagen)  had  in  1919,  4197  miles  of  road, 
besides  23,654  miles  of  by-ways.  In  1918  there 
were  2635  miles  of  railway,  of  which  1283  miles 
belong^  to  the  State.  In  1920  the  state  debt  was 
£51,458,894,  divided  into  an  internal  and  a  foreign 
debt.  The  latter  amounted  to  £14,130,282.  The 
public  debt  was  incurred  in  part  by  large  annual 


deficits  of  former  years  before  the  establishment 
of  parliamentary  government,  and  in  part  by  rail¬ 
way  undertakings  and  construction  of  public  works. 

>  Xpen^tfure.  °ld-age  pensions  was 
33,71  i, 000  kroner,  of  which  one-half  was  expended 
by  the  State.  An  important  feature  in  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  the  finances  of  Denmark  is  the  main¬ 
tenance  of  a  large  reserve  fund.  In  weights  and 
measures  the  country  has  now  adapted  itself  to 

the  decimal  system  of  Central  and  Southern 
Europe. 

Education. — There  are  3466  public  elementary' 
schools  of  which  63  are  in  Copenhagen,  158  in 
other  towns  and  3245  in  the  rural  districts.  The 
number  of  pupils  in  1918  was  406,000.  Be¬ 
sides  the  elementary  schools,  there  were  13  gov¬ 
ernment  schools  and  150  private  schools  and 
certain  unclassified  private  schools,  which  had  in 
1918  an  attendance  of  60,000.  For  higher  in¬ 
struction  there  are  furthermore  (1919) :  a  veterinary 
and  agricultural  college  at  Copenhagen  with  58 
professors  and  teachers  and  about  600  pupils;  203 
technical  school  with  23,000  pupils;  21  training 
colleges  for  teachers  with  1600  pupils;  81  commer¬ 
cial  schools  with  12,500  pupils;  21  agricultural  or 
horticultural  schools,  and  58  popular  high  schools 
(adult  schools  of  about  9000  pupils);  a  college  of 
pharmacy  with  80  students;  a  dental  school,  an 
art  school,  and  a  polytechnical  institute.  The 
adult  schools  are  all  private,  but  to  them  and  the 
agricultural  schools  the  State  makes  an  annual 
grant  of  about  706, 000  kroner.  Grants  are  made 
to  the  grammar  and  middle-class  schools  amount¬ 
ing  annually  to  about  4,000,000  kroner.  The  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Copenhagen  has  about  100  on  the  faculty 
and  a  total  attendance  of  about  3200  students. 

Recent  History. — In  1916,  a  plebiscite  in  Den¬ 
mark  favoring  the  step,  the  Virgin  Islands  were 
sold  to  the  United  States  for  $25,000,000.  At  the 
same  time  the  United  States  agreed  to  recognize 
Danish  sovereignty  over  the  whole  of  Greenland. 
In  1918  Iceland  became  a  sovereign  state  of  Den¬ 
mark;  this  new  status  is  the  culmination  of  long 
agitation  on  the  part  of  Iceland  for  greater  equality 
between  the  two  countries.  The  Bill  granting 
autonomy  was  first  submitted  to  the  Legislature 
of  Iceland,  ratified  by  a  plebiscite  among  the 
people  of  the  island,  and  finally  passed  by  the 
Danish  Parliament.  During  the  World  War  Den¬ 
mark  maintained  a  position  of  impartial  neutrality, 
although  the  war  had  adverse  economic  effects  on 
the  people,  as  the  British  Government,  in  their 
policy  of  blockading  Germany,  restricted  imports 
into  contiguous  neutral  states.  At  the  Peace  Con¬ 
ference  at  Versailles  in  1919  it  was  decided  that 
the  portions  of  Schleswig  which  had  been  taken 
away  from  Denmark  by  Germany  as  a  result  of  the 
war  of  1864,  should  decide  by  a  plebiscite  whether 
or  not  they  should  be  attached  to  Denmark,  and 
provision  for  this  was  made  by  the  Treaty  of 
Versailles.  Schleswig  was  accordingly  divided  into 
three  zones;  the  first,  including  the  territory  to 
the  north  of  the  line  reaching  from  the  south  of 
Tondern  to  the  north  of  Flensburg;  the  second 
comprising  the  center  of  the  German  population, 
namely  the  city  of  Flensburg;  the  third,  including 
both  banks  of  the  Kiel  Canal.  The  first  voted 
for  union  with  Denmark;  the  second  to  remain 
with  Germany;  and  the  third,  being  completely 
German,  was  excluded  from  the  plebiscite.  Den¬ 
mark  in  turn  was  to  recompense  Germany  for  rail¬ 
road  property  and  all  state  buildings,  also  make 
restitution  to  Danish  citizens  for  loss  sustained  in 
exchange  in  crowns;  and  to  assume  responsibility 
for  the  pensioning  of  widows  and  orphans,  and 


DENMARK 


254 


DENVER 


disabled  soldiers.  In  1922  the  Danish  Parliament 
discussed  the  living  apart  of  married  couples  for 
a  year  and  a  half  as  sufficient  ground  for  divorce. 

The  present  Constitution  of  Denmark  is  founded 
on  the  Grundlov  (charter)  of  5  June,  1915,  as 
amended  on  10  September,  1920.  It  provides  for 
a  Diet  ( Rigsdag ),  composed  of  two  houses:  the 
Folketing  (House  of  Commons)  and  the  Landsting 
(Senate).  The  King  must  be  a  member  of  the 
Evangelical-Lutheran  Church,  the  official  Church 
of  the  state;  he  has  not  the  right  to  declare  war 
or  to  sign  peace  without  the  consent  of  the  Rigsdag. 
The  present  ruler  is  Christian  X,  who  succeeded 
to  the  throne  at  the  death  of  his  father  on  14 
May,  1912.  The  new  election  law  was  passed  on 
11  April,  1920,  to  secure  fair  representation  in  this 
small  country  of  many  political  parties.  The 
old  Danish  law  was  based  upon  the  absolute 
majority  principle  and  single  member-district 
method.  The  method  was  revised  in  1915,  when 
another  electoral  law  retained  the  single-member 
seats,  but  added  for  distribution  23  supplementary 
seats  among  the  parties  which  did  not  obtain  a 
representation  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
votes  cast.  Under  the  new  law  the  principle  of 
proportional  representation  is  introduced.  All 
single-member  districts  are  replaced  by  large  con¬ 
stituencies  which  elect  members  by  the  list 
ballot  ( scrutin  de  liste )  method  according  to  the 
proportional  representation  system.  To  make  the 
representation  of  the  different  parties  conform  to 
their  voting  strength,  supplementary  seats  are  re¬ 
tained.  Copenhagen  is  divided  into  three  con¬ 
stituencies,  each  of  which  elects  six  members  by 
proportional  representation.  To  the  18  members 
thus  elected  are  added  six  supplementary  seats 
distributed  to  parties  which  may  not  have  obtained 
a  representative  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
votes  cast  for  them.  The  country  outside  Copen¬ 
hagen  is  divided  into  20  constituencies  which  elect 
93  representatives  by  the  proportional  system.  In 
addition  there  are  23  supplementary  seats,  13  of 
which  go  to  Jutland  and  10  to  the  Islands  of 
Seeland,  Funen,  etc.,  for  distribution  to  parties 
which  have  not  obtained  a  proportional  representa¬ 
tion. 

Denmark,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Danioenen- 
sis),  with  residential  seat  at  Copenhagen,  comprises 
a  Catholic  population  of  27,000,  of  whom  7000  are 
Poles,  and  about  100  Germans,  the  rest  being 
Danes.  In  1921  the  northern  part  of  the  prefecture 
apostolic  of  Schleswig-Holstein  was  annexed  to  the 
vicariate  Apostolic  of  Denmark  and  the  southern 
part  left  to  the  care  of  the  Diocese  of  Osnabruck. 

According  to  statistics  for  1922  there  are  in  the 
vicariate  29  parishes,  20  secular  and  55  regular 
priests,  25  Brothers,  4  seminarians,  33  churches 
or  chapels,  16  stations,  1  high  school  and  1  training 
school  aided  by  the  Government,  11  religious  con¬ 
gregations  of  men,  11  of  women  with  600  sisters, 
1  home,  8  asylums,  and  20  hospitals.  In  the  city 
of  Copenhagen  there  are  6000  Catholics;  5  parishes 
and  6  chapels;  a  new  church  was  consecrated  in 
June,  1917.  The  Jesuit  College  of  St.  Andrew 
at  Odrupshoi  has  been  closed  and  its  buildings  are 
now  occupied  by  the  Sisters  of  the  Assumption. 
The  Cistercians  of  Bohemia  have  recently  made  a 
foundation  in  the  vicariate. 

The  Sodality  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  the  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  Society  are  established  among 
the  laity.  New  missions  have  been  opened  at 
Aakirkeby,  Holbak,  Haderslev,  Horsholm,  Allerslev, 
Naestved,  Nykobing,  Maribo,  Nakskoo.  and 
Svendborg.  Catholic  journals  include,  “Nordisk 
Ugeblad,”  “Katolsk  Ungdom,”  and  “Jesu  Hjertes 


Budbringer.”  The  Church  in  Denmark  continues 
to  advance  and  there  are  many  yearly  conversions, 
chiefly  amongst  the  wealthier  tradespeople.  A 
genuine  respect  for  Catholicism  is  prevalent  every¬ 
where,  and  the  recent  canonization  of  Joan  of 
Arc  was  celebrated  by  a  public  ceremony  and  her 
statue  placed  in  a  central  square  of  the  city,  the 
first  time  a  saint  was  publicly  honored  in  Denmark 
since  the  Reformation.  Among  the  recent  promi¬ 
nent  converts  are  Har  Scavenius,  Minister  of  For¬ 
eign  Affairs,  and  his  wife,  and  Count  Knuth- 
Knuthenborg.  In  1919  Mgr.  Dieppen,  Bishop  of 
Bois-le-Duc,  was  appointed  Apostolic  Visitor  to  the 
Scandinavian  countries  by  Pope  Benedict  XV,  in 
order  to  study  their  condition  and  report  on  the 
most  efficacious  means  for  the  spread  of  the  Faith. 
King  Christian  visited  the  Pope  in  1921,  and  on 
his  return  reported  his  visit  to  the  vicar  apostolic, 
a  thing  unprecedented  in  Denmark. 

The  first  vicar  apostolic  Mgr.  Johannes  Von 
Euch,  the  apostle  of  Denmark,  died  in  March,  1922. 
He  was  born  at  Meppen,  Hanover,  in  1834,  studied 
at  Mainz,  and  in  1860  was  sent  as  vicar  to  the 
church  of  St.  Anschaire,  Copenhagen.  Two  years 
later  he  went  to  Fredericia  in  Jutland,  where  he 
created  one  of  the  most  flourishing  parishes  in  the 
country;  on  the  death  of  Mgr.  Gruder  he  returned 
to  Copenhagen  to  succeed  him  as  prefect  apostolic. 
When  Denmark  was  made  a  vicariate  (1892)  he  be¬ 
came  vicar  with  the  title  of  Bishop  of  Anastasiopolis, 
and  the  steady  progress  of  the  Church  .in  this 
country  where  he  was  universally  loved  is  due 
to  his  tireless  labor.  The  Holy  See  bestowed  upon 
him  the  dignity  of  assistant  to  the  pontifical  throne, 
domestic  prelate  and  Roman  count,  while  King 
Christian  X  made  him  a  Commander  of  the  Order 
of  “Dannebrog,”  the  Danish  Legion  of  Honor. 

Denunciation  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-733b). — Clerics  and 
religious  joining  the  Freemasons  or  other  like  soci¬ 
eties  are  to  be  denounced  to  the  Congregation  of 
the  Holy  Office  (Codex  jur.  can.,  2336). 

Denver,  Diocese  of  (Denveriensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-733d),  comprises  the  entire  State  of  Colorado, 
an  area  of  103,645  sq.  miles.  The  second  bishop  of 
this  diocese,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Nicholas  C.  Matz,  who 
had  filled  the  see  since  1889,  died  on  9  August, 
1917,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  J.  Henry  Tihen,  D.D.  Bishop  Tihen  was 
born  in  Oldenburg,  Ind.,  in  1861  and  ordained  in 
1886,  after  which  he  accompanied  the  Rt.  Rev. 
John  J.  Hennessy  to  Wichita  when  he  took  charge 
of  that  see,  and  acted  as  chancellor  of  the  diocese 
and  rector  of  the  cathedral  until  his  promotion  to 
the  episcopacy.  He  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Lin¬ 
coln,  Neb.,  on  6  July,  1911,  and  filled  that  see  until 
his  transfer  to  Denver,  21  December,  1917. 

The  Cathedral  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  over  half  a  million  dollars,  was 
consecrated  by  Bishop  Tihen  on  23  October  of  the 
present  year  (1921).  The  liquidation  of  the  debt 
which  had  remained  on  the  cathedral  as  well  as  the 
erection  of  a  home  for  the  aged,  completed  in  1918, 
and  entrusted  to  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  was 
due  to  the  generosity  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  John  K. 
Mullen.  Mr.  Mullen  was  appointed  a  Knight  of 
St.  Gregory  by  Pontifical  Brief  dated  10  August, 
1921.  This  honor  was  also  conferred  on  Captain 
John  J.  Lambert  of  Pueblo,  who  was  largely  re¬ 
sponsible  for  the  erection  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
Orphanage  in  that  city,  and  who  died  5  January, 
1916,  at  the  age  of  79.  In  1907  St.  Thomas  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary  was  erected  by  the  priests  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Mission  and  opened  the  follow¬ 
ing  year.  During  the  war,  however,  the  Benedictine 


DE  ROALDES 


DESECRATION 


255 


College  at  Pueblo  was  forced  to  close  because  of  He  was  educated  in  the  Lycee  Louis-le-Grand 
lack  of  funds  to  support  it,  and  where  formerly  Bonaparte,  and  Versailles,  studied  law  and  was 
there  were  10  academies  in  the  diocese  there  are  called  to  the  bar  in  1870.  Shortly  afterwards  he 
now  5,  the  others  having  given  way  to,  or  been  enlisted  in  a  regiment  of  zouaves  was  taken 
transformed  into  parochial  schools.  prisoner  at  Sedan,  escaped  and  returning  to  France 

At  present  the  religious  orders  established  in  the  was  made  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 

diocese  are:  Men:  Jesuits,  Benedictines,  Francis-  After  devoting  a  number  of  years  to  literary  per- 
cans,  Dominicans,  Redemptorists,  Servites,  Thea-  suits,  he  entered  politics  and  founded  the  League 
tines,  and  Augustimans.  Women:  Sisters  of  of  Patriots,  an  association  noted  for  its  hostility 
Loretto,  Charity,  St.  Joseph,  Mercy,  the  Good  Shep-  to  Germany.  In  1883  he  went  to  Russia  to  further 

herd,  Third  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  St.  Francis,  St.  a  Franco-Russian  alliance,  and  later  supported 

Benedict,  Charity  of  the  B.  V.  M.,  St.  Francis  of  the  General  Boulanger  during  his  temporary  rise  to 

Perpetual  Adoration,  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Sa-  power.  His  anti-Semitism  was  marked  durim-  the 

cred  Heart,  St.  Benedict,  St.  Joseph,  St.  Francis  Dreyfus  case.  In  1890  he  was  a  member  of  the 

of  Assisi,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Servants  of  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  ten  years  later  was 

Mary,  Holy  Cross,  Presentation,  Capuchin,  Third  banished  for  having  tried  to  substitute  the  Re- 
Order  of  St.  Francis,  School  Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  publican  Plebiscite  for  the  Parliamentary  Constitu- 
and  School  Sisters  of  Charity.  There  are  119  secular  tion.  He  was  pardoned  in  1905.  During  the  last 
and  78  regular  priests  in  the  diocese,  101  churches  years  of  his  life  M.  Deroulede  was  a  fervent  Cath- 
with  resident  pastors  and  148  missions  with  chapels,  olic,  and  died  fortified  by  the  rites  of  the  Church 
The  various  educational  and  charitable  institutions  His  literary  productions  include  the  popular  “Son gs 
include,  5  academies  with  855  pupils,  36  parochial  of  the  Soldier”  (1872),  “More  Songs  of  the  Soldier” 
schools  with  8,778  children,  a  theological  seminary  (1875),  “Marches  and  Alarms”  (1881),  “The  Tower 
with  29  students,  19  of  whom  are  from  this  diocese,  of  Auvergne,”  “Military  Songs”  (1888)  a  patriotic 
a  Jesuit  college  for  boys  with  281  students,  5  drama  “L’Hetman”  (i877);  other  dramas  “The 
orphan  asylums  with  873  children,  an  industrial  Moabites”  (1880)  prohibited  by  the  censor  ’  “Mes- 
and  reform  school  with  248  inmates,  a  home  for  the  sire  Duguesclin”  (1895),  and  “The  Death  of  Hoche” 
aged  with  120  inmates,  a  home  for  girls  and  busi-  (1897),  “Sons  of  the  Peasant”  (1894),  “The  Most 
ness  women,  and  13  hospitals  with  22,189  patients  Beautiful  Girl  in  the  World”  (1897),  “Writings  bv 
annually.  The  Catholic  population  numbers  113,722.  the  Way”  (1907),  “More  Writings ’by  the  Way” 

De  Roaldes,  Arthur  Washington,  surgeon,  b.  etc* 

at  Opelousas,  Louisiana,  25  January,  1849;  d.  in  twy-it 

New  Orleans,  12  June,  1918.  He  was  educated  in  n/  Diocese  of  (Derriensis;  cf.  C.  E., 

France  by  the  Jesuits  and  graduated  from  the  ,  reland,  suffragan  of  Armagh,  is  at 

University  of  France  in  letters  in  1865  and  in  arts  Lfn  (1922)  administered  -^ev-  Charles 

in  1866.  Three  years  later  he  received  his  degree  fa,i  ^  August,  1852,  in  the  diocese,  rector 

in  medicine  from  the  University  of  Louisiana  and  q  ~  semmaiy  vicar  general,  prelate  cf  the  Holy 
in  1870  from  that  of  Paris.  During  the  Franco-  ,  V  „  Tn/v?  er’  1906,  consecrated  bishop,  29  Sep- 
German  war  he  was  assistant  surgeon  with  the  er,  1907,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  John  Keys 
6th  International  Ambulance  Corps,  was  mentioned  rp,0  ei  •v’  ,  ^  September,  1833,  d.  February,  1907. 
for  bravery  and  subsequently  decorated  with  the  010ie0  population  according  to  1911  census  was 
Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  He  served  as  ’  v*’  whom  122,528  were  Catholics.  There 
surgeon  with  the  Red  Cross  during  the  French  ale  ,  Prcseait  (1922)  39  parishes,  82  churches,  120 
Commune,  and  in  1872  returned  to  New  Orleans,  secuyar  priests,  8  convents,  200  nuns  of  various  com- 
where  from  1880  to  1883  he  was  in  charge  of  the  P^umties,  1  seminary,  high  class  boarding-schools. 
Charity  Hospital  of  Louisiana.  In  1889  Dr.  De  Roaldes  atlonal  and  primary  schools  are  under  clerical 
founded  the  Eye,  Ear,  Nose,  and  Throat  Hospital  ^ianagemc^f-  Gie  charitable  institutions  include, 

of  New  Orleans,  of  which  he  was  trustee  and  **  homes,  2  °f  which  are  for  young  girls  and  old 

surgeon-in-chief  until  his  death.  He  was  emeritus  W0Ihen,  and  the  other  for  boys  and  old  men,  are 
professor  of  diseases  of  the  ear,  nose  and  throat  by  the  Sisters  of  N  azareth,  1  home  kept  by  the 
at  the  Post  Graduate  Department  of  Tulane  Uni-  Asters  °*  the  Good  Shepherd,  for  penitents  and 

versity,  Louisiana,  a  member  of  many  medical  a  PleseUra  .lor];.  shelter.  In  county  hospitals  and 

congresses  and  an  officer  of  numerous  medical  •  .  e  institutions  supported  by  public  votes,  the 
societies.  In  1905  the  Progressive  Union  of  New  of  priests  is  unrestricted. 

Orleans  awarded  Dr.  De  Roaldes  the  “Picayune  1  he  events  of  special  importance  in  the  diocese 
Loving  Cup”  for  the  most  meritorious  services  are,:  e^e^on  °f  the  Church  of  St.  Columcille; 

rendered  the  community  during  that  vear,  the  a  ch[uch  at  Maghera,  the  laying  of  the  cornerstone 
French  Government  offering  at  the  same  time  a  °*  ,  e  c  lll,rc  i  °*  Pur  Lady  of  Lourdes,  and  the 

magnificent  Sevres  vase  to  his  foundation,  which  PU1  chase  of  extensive  grounds  for  charitable  pur- 
subsequently  received  like  gifts  from  Italy,  Spain,  Poses>  the  foundation  of  a  diocesan  society  for  the 
Germany,  and  Russia  for  gratuitous  services  ren-  ®l)PP01t  sick  priests  and  the  promotion  of  various 
dered  their  indigent  sick.  In  1906  he  was  promoted  diocesan  interests. 

'to  be  a  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  ~  ^  ^  „  ,  , 

and  Pope  Pius  X  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  ,  ^c/.*  E  ‘  A  fixed  altar 

Commander  of  the  Order  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great.  I?ses  lts  consecration  if  the  table  is  separated  from 
Three  years  later  the  King  of  Italy  made  him  a  ^  j-  suPPort  even  momentarily;  in  this  case  the 
knight  of  the  Order  of  Saints  Maurice  and  Lazarus,  oidmary  can  permit  a  priest  to  reconsecrate  it  by 
Before  his  death  Dr.  De  Roaldes  lost  his  sight  as  the  short  formula;  hitherto  an  ordinary  required  a 
the  immediate  result  of  his  work  for  the  blind.  PaPal  indult  to  authorize  this.  Both  fixed  and 
He  wrote  much  on  surgical  topics.  In  1921  the  moy.  e  altars  lose  their  consecration  (a)  if  a  large 
enlargement  and  renovation  of  the  hospital  estab-  Potion  or  an  anointed  part  is  broken  off;  (b)  it  the 
lished  by  him  was  begun  as  a  memorial  to  him.  le^ies  are  removed  or  the  sepulchre  cover  is  broken 
,  .  .  .  °r  removed,  unless  when  the  cover  is  removed  by 

IJ  rouiede,  Paul,  poet  and  politician,  b.  in  Paris  the  bishop  or  his  delegate  in  order  to  repair  it  or  to 
2  September,  1846;  d.  in  Nice,  30  January,  1914.  examine  the  relics — this  exception  being  an  innova- 


DES  MOINES 


256 


DETROIT 


tion;  a  slight  fracture  of  the  cover,  however,  does 
not  destroy  the  consecration,  and  any  priest  may 
repair  it  with  cement.  The  desecration  of  a  church 
does  not  affect  an  altar,  and  vice  versa.  (Code 
juris  canonici,  1,170  sqq.) 

Des  Moines,  Diocese  of  (Desmoinensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  XVI-35c),  of  which  was  erected  August  12,  1911, 
comprises  12,446  sq.  miles  of  the  State  of  Iowa  and 
is  under  the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas 
W.  Drumm,  D.  D.,  consecrated  bishop  of  this  dio¬ 
cese  21  May,  1919.  He  is  the  second  bishop  of  the 
diocese,  his  predecessor  having  been  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Austin  Dowling,  D.D.,  who  was  consecrated  the 
first  Bishop  of  Des  Moines  on  25  April,  1912,  and 
later  promoted  to  the  See  of  St.  Paul,  January, 
1919..  The  present  (1921)  statistics  of  the  diocese 
show  the  following  record:  secular  priests,  76;  regu¬ 
lars,  7;  parishes,  57;  missions,  32  and  stations,  6; 

1  college  for  boys;  2  academies  for  girls;  22  paro¬ 
chial  schools  with  an  attendance  of  2,918.  Various 
institutions  included  in  the  diocese  are:  1  monas¬ 
tery  (Passionist  Fathers);  2  homes  for  working 
women;  and  3  hospitals.  Three  religious  orders 
are  represented :  the  Passionists,  the  Benedictine, 
and  the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  The  number  of  Cath¬ 
olics  is  37,977. 

Detroit,  Diocese  of  (Detroitensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-758b),  established  8  March,  1833,  comprises  a 
part  of  the  lower  peninsula  of  the  State  of  Michi¬ 
gan,  U.  S.  A.  Rt.  Rev.  John  S.  Foley,  D.D.,  the 
third  bishop  of  this  diocese,  who  had  filled  the  see 
since  1888,  died  5  January,  1918,  and  was  succeeded 
by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Michael  James 
Gallagher,  transferred  to  this  diocese  18  July,  1918. 
Bishop  Gallagher  was  ordained  a  priest  19  March, 
1893,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Tipasa  and  coad¬ 
jutor  to  the  Bishop  of  Grand  Rapids,  5  July,  1915, 
and  on  17  November,  1918,  he  arrived  in  Detroit 
and  was  escorted  to  the  episcopal  residence  by  a 
parade  of  50,000  men,  while  100,000  more  lined  the 
streets  to  welcome  him.  In  May,  1920,  the  bishop 
called  upon  the  people  of  the  diocese  to  contribute 
four  million  dollars  to  found  and  endow  Sacred 
Heart  Preparatory  Seminary,  and  within  three 
months  over  nine  million  had  been  subscribed  and 
the  seminary  is  now  opened  in  temporary  quarters 
with  an  enrollment  of  more  than  two  hundred  stu¬ 
dents.  The  faculty  is  composed  of  secular  priests, 
but  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross  and  the 
Trappist  Fathers  have  arranged  to  open  houses 
of  study  for  their  candidates,  in  connection  with 
the  seminary.  The  vigorous  leadership  and  fear¬ 
less  attitude  of  Bishop  Gallagher  in  fighting  the 
anti-parochial  school  bill,  which  came  up  at  the  fall 
elections  of  1920,  was  responsible  for  its  defeat  and 
the  state  records  show  that  within  his  diocese  the 
issue  was  defeated  two  to  one.  Since  the  elections 
an  act  of  the  Legislature  was  passed  undertaking 
a  certain  amount  of  state  supervision  of  parochial 
schools  and  the  diocesan  authorities  are  co-oper¬ 
ating,  the  bishop  having  appointed  a  diocesan  super¬ 
intendent  of  schools. 

During  the  World  War  the  diocese  supplied  10 
chaplains,  and  over  18,000  men  went  into  the  ser¬ 
vice,  of  whom  about  1,000  gave  up  their  lives. 

Since  Bishop  Gallagher’s  incumbency  30  new  par¬ 
ishes  have  been  established  and  12  new  schools 
opened  and  the  statistics  now  (1921)  show:  202 
parishes,  274  churches,  72  missions,  1  monastery  for 
men  and  1  for  women,  13  convents  for  men  and  4 
for  women,  336  secular  and  70  regular  clergy,  34 
lay  brothers,  1,103  Sisters,  2  seminaries  with  345 
seminarians.  Among  the  educational  institutions 
are:  1  university  with  90  professors  and  1,343  stu¬ 


dents,  2  colleges  for  women  with  15  teachers  and 
75  students,  51  high  schools  with  127  teachers  and 
an  attendance  of  1,143  boys  and  1,796  girls,  6 
academies  with  68  teachers  and  attendance  of  480 
boys  and  904  girls,  4  normal  schools  with  180  stu¬ 
dents,  131  elementary  schools  with  1,140  teachers 
and  65,887  pupils.  The  charitable  institutions  com¬ 
prise  homes  for  the  aged  poor,  the  aged  and  the 
feeble  minded,  5  orphan  asylums,  1  insane  asylum, 

2  infant  asylums,  9  hospitals,  2  refuges,  and  3  set¬ 
tlement  houses.  The  Eucharistic  League  and 
“Pactum  Sacerdotum,”  are  established  among  the 
clergy,  and  the  Holy  Name  and  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  societies,  National  Catholic  Welfare  Council 
of  men,  National  Catholic  Council  of  women, 
League  of  Catholic  women,  Association  of  Holy 
Childhood,  Catholic  Study  Club  and  Salve  Regina 
are  organized  among  the  laity.  A  periodical,  “The 
Michigan  Catholic,”  is  published.  The  Catholic 
population  numbers  492,767. 

Detroit,  University  of. — This  institution,  under 
the  care  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
was  founded  in  1877  and  incorporated  27  April, 
1881,  according  to  the  general  law  of  the  State  of 
Michigan,  under  the  corporate  title  of  “Detroit 
College,”  with  power  to  grant  such  literary  honors 
and  confer  such  degrees  as  are  usually  conferred 
by  similar  colleges  in  the  United  States.  The 
growth  of  the  institution  and  the  advancing  promi¬ 
nence  of  its  alumni,  and  most  of  all  the  almost 
unprecedented  progress  of  the  city  in  population 
and  extent  and  diversity  of  industrial  and  com¬ 
mercial  enterprise,  constituted  at  once  a  warrant 
and  a  demand  for  new  development  in  its  educa¬ 
tional  work.  For  this  reason,  on  the  expiration  of 
the  original  charter  in  1911,  the  authorities  effected 
a  new  organization  on  a  broader  basis,  and  incor¬ 
porated  under  the  title  of  “The  University  of 
Detroit.”  At  present  (1922)  the  different  depart¬ 
ments  of  the  university,  along  literary,  philosophical, 
Family  Sodality,  Holy  Name  Society,  Sodality  of 

The  School  of  Law  was  established  in  1912,  carries 
on  instructions  in  two  courses:  a  day  course  and  an 
evening  course.  Total  registration  (1921-22)  275 
students. 

The  School  of  Engineering  offers  a  five-year  co¬ 
operative  course  in  civil,  chemical,  electrical,  me¬ 
chanical,  and  aeronautical  engineering.  It  includes 
alternate  bi-weekly  periods  at  the  university  and 
in  actual  engineering  practice  in  the  shops.  This 
practice  is  made  possible  by  an  arrangement  of 
the  university  with  the  engineering,  manufacturing 
and  public  service  establishments  of  the  city.  The 
employment  is  under  the  united  control  of  the 
university  and  the  employer.  Total  registration, 
236. 

The  School  of  Commerce  and  Finance  was  or¬ 
ganized  in  1916  to  meet  the  demand  for  supple¬ 
mentary  training  along  commercial  and  industrial 
lines.  The  course  covers  a  four-year  period. 
Studies  and  lectures  in  economics,  law,  business 
administration,  accounting,  cost  accounting,  soci¬ 
ology,  advertising,  salesmanship,  ethics,  languages, 
etc.,  are  arranged  to  develop  careers  as  certified 
public  accountants,  business  analists,  advisors  or 
executives.  Total  registration,  679. 

The  College  of  Arts  and  Sciences  extends  through 
four  years  and  embraces  instruction  in  the  depart¬ 
ments  of  religion,  philosophy,  economics,  political 
science,  sociology,  education,  language,  literature,  his¬ 
tory,  science,  and  mathematics.  The  aim  of  the  course 
is  to  give  the  student  a  complete  liberal  education, 
which  will  train  and  develop  all  the  powers  of  the 
mind,  and  will  cultivate  no  one  faculty  to  an 


DEVINE 


257 


DIAKOVU 


exaggerated  degree  at  the  expense  of  the  others, 
lotal  registration,  115. 

The  university  also  maintains  a  standard  high 
school.  Ihe  law  department  has  a  very  complete 
library,  numbering  about  15,000  volumes,  the  School 
ot  Commerce  and  Finance  about  10,000  volumes 
and  the  high  school  library  about  30,000.  The 
Law  Review  and  “\  arsitj^  News”  are  published 
m  the  university,  and  “The  Cub”  in  the  high  school, 
the faculty  comprises:  the  president,  Rev.  William 
1 .  Doran,  S.  J .,  70  professors,  63  lecturers,  7  in¬ 
structors,  18  associate  professors,  3  assistant  pro¬ 
feasors  and  4  laboratory  assistants. 


Devine,  Arthur,  theologian  and  devotional 
writer,  b.  at  Kilmactiege,  Sligo,  Ireland,  1 
December,  1849;  d.  at  St.  Paul’s  Retreat,  Mount 
Argus,  Dublin,  20  April,  1919.  He  was  educated 
at  home,  entered  the  Passionist  Order  in  1865 
and  made  his  ecclesiastical  studies  at  St.  Paul’s 
Retreat,  Mount  Argus.  He  was  professed  in  1866 
and  was  professor  of  theology  at  Mount  Argus 
for  two  years  preceding  his  ordination  in  1872.  The 
greater  part  of  his  priestly  life  was  spent  in  Eng- 
land  and  Scotland,  principally  at  St.  Joseph’s, 
-bugugate  Hill,  London,  where  he  was  lector  of 
geology  for  nearly  thirty  years.  From  1884  to 
1887  he  was  consultor  to  the  Provincial  of  his  Order. 
The  last  twelve  years  of  his  life  were  spent  as 
professor  of  theology,  Scripture,  and  canon  law 
at  Mount  Argus. 

Father  Devine  was  -  greatly  interested-  in  the 
revival  of  the  Irish  language,  preached  many  ser¬ 
mons  m  Irish,  and  instituted  a  course  of  Sunday 
instructions  for  Irish  speakers  at  Mount  Argus. 
During  intervals  of  parish  and  literary  work  he 
gave  many  missions  and  retreats  to  religious  He 
was  the  author  of  “Convent  Life,”  “The  History 
of  the  Passion,”  “The  Creed  Explained,”  “The 
Sacraments  Explained,”  “The  Commandments 
Explained,”  “A  Manual  of  Ascetical  Theology” 
A  Manual  of  Mystical  Theology,”  “The  Ordinary 
of  the  Mass  Explained,”  “Frequent  and  Daily 
Communion,”  “The  Law  of  Christian  Marriage,” 
and  “Pentecostal  Sermons,”  several  articles  in  the 
Catholic  Encyclopedia  and  various  contributions 
to  the  “Homiletic  Monthly,”  “The  Passionist 
Record,  and  other  Catholic  magazines. 


De  Waal,  Anton  Maria,  archaeologist,  b.  at  Em- 
mench-am-Rhein,  Prussia,  4  May,  1837;  d.  in 
Rome,  23  February,  1917.  He  was  educated  at  the 
gymnasium  of  his  native  town  and  at  the  Academy 
of  Munster  and  was  ordained  in  1862.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  six  years  were  spent  as  professor  in  the 
seminary  at  Gaesdonk;  he  then  went  to  Rome 
where  he  was  successively  curate  at  Santa  Maria 
dell  Amma,  chaplain  at  the  German  College,  Santa 
Maria  dell’Amma;  assistant  rector  and  rector  of 
Campo  Santo  de’Tedeschi  (C.  E,  III-224d),  which 
he  organized  in  its  present  form  in  1876;  and  con¬ 
sult^  of  the  Commission  for  Historical  Studies. 
During  the  siege  of  Rome  (1870)  he  served  as  chap- 
lain  with  the  Papal  army.  For  over  seventy  years 
Father  de  Waal  was  president  of  the  German 
Reading  Association  in  Rome  and  presided  at  the 
hirst  Archaeological  Congress  at  Salona,  Dalmatia 
He  was  magister  of  the  Collegium  Cultorum  Mar¬ 
cum  and  a  member  of  the  French  Archaeological 
Society.  In  1896  Pope  Leo  XIII  made  him  a  prel- 
a£e  Holy  See,  and  in  1900  conferred  on  him 

aa  dJlg1mty  of  Prothonatary  Apostolic,  to  which  was 
added  later  the  decoration  Pro  ecclesia  et  pontifice. 
Ihe  civil  honors  accorded  him  include  those  of 
Commander  of  the  Austrian  Order  of  Franz  Joseph, 
Rmght  of  the  Prussian  Order  of  the  Eagle  (2nd 


thc  Saxon  Order  of  Albertus  (2nd  class) 
of  the  Prussian  Order  of  the  Crown  (2nd  class). 
Mgi.  de  Waal  was  a  contributor  to  the  Catholic 
^  clopedia,  editor  of  the  archaeological  section 
°v  ,R-  “1Sche  Quartaschrift”  and  the  author  of 
Valeria  a  novel  (5  eds.),  “Die  Blinde  vom 
Aventin,  (  “Komgin  Serena,”  “Die  Swanzigste  Sep- 

pXbre”’“-R?ie  alten„fromr?en  Stiftungen  bei  Sankt 
Peter  Rompilgor,  a  guide  for  pilgrims  to  Rome 
^ds,)T7;  ,  Katakombenbilder,”  a  novel  (3  eds.) 
Judas  Ende,  a  novel  (3  eds.),  “Der  Campe  Santo 
der  Deutschen  zu  Rom,”  “Roma  sacra”  (2  eds.) 
etc.;  several  short  plays  and  novels. 

Ihe  excavations  of  St.  Sebastian  on  the  Appian 
Way  in  Rome  begun  in  1915  by  the  Commission 
of  Sacred  Archaeology  at  the  request  and  with  the 
help  of  Mgr.  de  Waal,  and  continued  by  the  exca¬ 
vation  office  have  led  to  the  most  important 
discoveries.  It  was  in  the  hope  of  settling  the  con¬ 
troversies  concerning  “La  Platonia”  that  Mgr.  de 
Waal  inaugurated  this  work.  Ancient  liturgical 
hagiographical  and  historical  documents  attest  the 
existence  in  Rome  of  a  triple  memoria  of  the  Apos¬ 
tles  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul.  The  first  two  are  their 
ambs  undei  the  altars  of  the  basilicas  respectively 
dedicated  to  them.  The  third  is  on  the  Appian 
Way  ad  Latacumbas,  on  the  spot  where  today  the 
basilica  of  St.  Sebastian,  originally  a  basilica  of  the 
Apostles,  stands.  Opinions  differ  about  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  this  third  liturgical  commemoration,  but 
?ne.  fin.ady  adopted  by  the  majority  of 
archaelogists  is  that  the  bodies  of  the  saints  were 
translated  there  by  the  Christians  of  Rome  to  save 
them  from  profanation  during  the  persecution  of 
Valerian.  Since  the  Middle  Ages  scientists  believed 
that  the  exact  spot  where  the  bodies  reposed  was 
in  a  subterranean  chapel  called  “La  Platonia”  un¬ 
der  the  basilica  of  St.  Sebastian.  In  1894  the  dis¬ 
covery  of  an  inscription  revealed  the  fact  that 
this  chapel  had  served  as  the  tomb  of  St.  Quirinus, 
Bishop  of  Siscia,  whose  remains  had  been  trans- 
*®rred,  Home  Whence  arose  bitter  disputes, 
Mgr.  de  Waal  holding  in  opposition  to  those  who 
believed  the  chapel  had  held  the  three  bodies, 
that  the  bodies  of  the  Apostles  were  elsewhre  prob- 
ably  under  an  altcfr  called  “the  altar  of  relics  ” 

•  Uru  e  U  discoveries  complicated  matters  and  it  was 
in  the  hope  of  finding  something  conclusive  on  the 
subject  that  Mgr.  de  Waal  inaugurated  the  excava¬ 
tions  of  St.  Sebastian.  On  this  precise  point  they 
^  realize  his  hopes,  but  they  led  to  many 

other  most  important  discoveries,  uncovering  the 
oldest  of  Christian  tombs  yet  known  in  Rome,  and 
the  ruins  of  “la  Triclia,”  the  walls  of  which  are 
covered  with  inscriptions  in  the  names  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul.  They  give  a  new  and  valuable 
proof  of  the  sojourn  and  death  of  the  two  apostles 
in  Rome.  The  construction  in  1919  of  a  large  garage 
in  the  Viale  Mazoni,  between  the  Lateran  and  the 
Porta  Tiburtina  led  to  the  discovery  of  one  of  the 
most  curious  funeral  monuments  ever  found  in 
Rome,  of  very  ancient  origin,  containing  many 
paintings,  seemingly  Christian  in  origin.  The  exca¬ 
vation  office  which  conducted  the  works  has 
decided  to  give  over  the  monument  to  the  Commis¬ 
sion  of  Sacred  Archaeology.  In  1920  building  oper¬ 
ations  northeast  of  the  Villa  borghese  led  to  the 
discovery  of  the  cemetery  of  St.  Pamphilius,  of 
the  clearance  of  which  the  Commission  took  charge. 
From  day  to  day  new  monuments  of  great 
archaelogical  value  are  being  unearthed. 

Edith  Donovan. 


Diakovu,  Diocese  of  (Diakovarensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-769d),  suffragan  to  the  see  of  Zagrab.  After 


DIAMANTINA 


258 


DIGBY 


the  long  administration  of  Bishop  Strossmayer 
(1849-1905)  the  see  of  Diakovu  was  left  vacant 
until  1911,  when  Rt.  Rev.  John  Baptist  Krapac 
was  elected  bishop.  After  Bishop  Krapac  s  death 
(16  July,  1916),  the  see  was  again  left  vacant  until 
1920,  when  Rt.  Rev.  Antonius  Aksamovic  was  ap¬ 
pointed  (22  April)  to  succeed  him.  Since  1918  the 
diocese  has  belonged  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Croats, 
Serbs,  and  Slovenes.  In  1913  a  new  seminary  was 
erected-  in  1920  the  diocese  lost  one  of  its  most, 
prominent  clergy  by  the  death  of  Canon  Michael 
Cepelic;  and  in  1921  (23  August)  occurred  the 
death  of  Rt.  Rev.  Engelbertus  Yorsak,  titular  Bishop 
of  Zenopolis,  who  resided  at  Diakovu. 

The  present  (1921)  records  of  the  diocese  show  a 
Catholic  population  of  310,600  classified  as  follows:- 
Croats,  87%;  Germans,  8%;  Hungarians,  2%; 
Slovenes  and  others,  3%.  There  are:  98  parishes, 
98  parish  churches  and  115  missionary  churches,  8 
monasteries  for  men  and  1  for  women,  12  convents 
for  women,  171  secular  priests  and  25  regulars,  21 
lay  brothers,  1  seminary  with  5  professors  and  16 
seminarians,  1  college  for  men  with  4  teachers  and 
an  attendance  of  50,  1  college  for  women  with  17 
teachers  and  120  students.  The  diocese  maintains: 

1  home  for  the  destitute  in  Osjek,  10  orphanages 
and  6  day  nurseries ;  7  of  the  public  institutions  per¬ 
mit  the  ministry  of  priests.  Among  the  clergy  two 
societies  are  organized,  one  for  Perpetual  Adora¬ 
tion  and  the  other,  the  “Urajamnost.”  Among  the 
laity  there  is  also  a  society  for  Perpetual  Adoration 
as  well  as  the  League  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  the 
Society  of  the  Holy  Rosary,  the  Third  Order  of 
St.  Francis,  the  Congregation  of  Mary,  societies 
for  young  girls  and  associations  for  young  men. 
Four  periodicals  are  published  in  the  diocese. 
“Hrvatska  Obzana,” published  at  Osjek;  “Djakovaeke 
Pucke  Slovine,”  published  at  Diakovu;  Glasnik, 
published  at  Diakovu,  and  i  Christliche  Volks- 
zeitung,”  published  at  Osjek. 

Diamantina,  Diocese  of  (Adamantina;  cf.  C.  E., 
IV-772b),  in  the  State  of  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil. 
This  diocese  was  erected  in  1854  as  a  suffragan  of 
Marianna  and  included  the  northern  part  of  the 
State,  but  on  10  December,  1910,  the  Diocese  of 
Montes  Claros  was  created  from  its  northern  sec¬ 
tion,  and  on  25  August,  1913,  the  Diocese  of 
Arassuahy  was  cut  off  on  the  east,  while  on  28  June, 
1917,  Diamantina  became  an  archdiocese,  with 
Montes  Claros  and  Arassuahy  as  suffragans. 

The  archdiocese  has  about  440,000  inhabitants, 
mostly  Catholic,  and  is  divided  into  7  ecclesiastical 
districts,  59  parishes,  and  1  curato  with  66  secular 
and  17  regular  priests,  6  lay  brothers,  and  13  nuns. 
There  are  two  missionary  orders  of  men,  the 
Lazarists  and  Redemptorists.  The  Lazarists  have 
charge  of  the  archiepiscopal  seminary  and  college, 
which  has  79  seminarians  and  60  students,  and 
their  church  of  the  Sacred  Heart  is  renowned 
throughout  Brazil,  being  magnificently  constructed 
and  decorated  and  having  a  large  congregation.  In 
connection  with  it  Leo  XIII  erected  an  archconfra¬ 
ternity  and  established  there  a  guard  of  honor  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  and  Benedict  XV  accorded  it  the 
rights  of  a  minor  basilica.  The  Redemptorists  have 
a  convent  attached  to  their  beautiful  church  of  Sao 
Geraldo  in  Curvello.  The  orders  of  women  are 
the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and 
the  Poor  Clares.  There  are  3  colleges  for  girls 
with  21  instructors  and  240  students.  The  most 
important  of  these  is  the  College  of  Our  Lady  of 
Sorrows  at  Diamantina,  in  charge  of  Sisters  of 
Charity,  and-  the  other  schools  are  at  Serro,  one 
under  Sisters  of  Charity  and  the  other  in  charge 


of  the  Franciscans.  These  schools  prepare  girls  for 
the  state  normal  schools.  There  are  2  orphan 
asylums  attached  to  colleges  of  Sisters  of  Charity, 
and  1  asylum  for  the  poor;  3  hospitals  (2  Charity; 

1  Franciscan),  2  in  Diamantina,  1  in  Serro. 

The  Archbishop  of  Diamantina  is  Most  Rev. 
Joachim  Silverio  de  Sousa,  bom  in  San  Miguel, 
Diocese  of  Marianna,  20  July,  1859,  ordained  4 
March,  1889,  elected  titular  bishop  of  Bagi  16 
November,  1901,  and  coadjutor  at  Diamantina,  suc¬ 
ceeded  Mgr.  Dos  Santos  5  May,  1905,  promoted 
29  January,  1909,  titular  archbishop  of  Axum  and 
auxiliary  of  Rio  de  Janeiro;  transferred  to  Dia¬ 
mantina  25  January,  1910,  succeeding  himself  and 
retaining  his  titular  archbishopric;  then  made  arch¬ 
bishop  27  June,  1917.  Archbishop  de  Sousa  received 
the  pallium  18  October,  1919,  from  hands  of  Arch¬ 
bishop  Pimenta  of  Marianna.  The  archbishop  is 
the  author  of  many  well  known  books  published  in 
Brazil.  On  13  December,  1918,  Jose  Antonio  dos 
Santos,  C.  M.,  born  at  Cacheira,  Diocese  of 
Marianna,  was  elected  titular  bishop  of  Croia  and 
auxiliary  of  Diamantina. 

Diano  (or  Teggiano),  Diocese  of  (Dianensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  IV-773b),  province  of  Salerno,  Southern 
Italy,  has  a  population  of  100,000  Catholics.  The 
bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Orazio  Caldarolo,  born  12  Novem¬ 
ber,  1871,  in  Bitonto,  appointed  bishop  8  May,  1916, 
proclaimed  4  December  following,  succeeding  Rt. 
Rev.  Tiberio  (b.  24  October,  1850;  d.  suddenly  26 
April,  1915).  According  to  the  census  of  1922  the 
diocese  numbers  44  parishes,  171  secular  priests,  73 
churches  or  chapels. 

Diego  Suarez,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
XVI-83a),  Madagascar.  Erected  in  1896  under  the 
name  of  Madagascar,  it  was  changed  to  the  present 
name  20  May,  1913,  and  is  confided  to  the  Fathers 
of  the  Holy  Ghost.  It  covers  an  area  of  77,220  sq. 
miles,  with  a  total  population  of  430,000,  of  whom 
21,000  are  Catholics,  1,500  catechumens,  3,000  Prot¬ 
estants.  The  diocese  at  present  (1922)  is  adminis¬ 
tered  by  Rt.  Rev.  August  Fortineau,  C.S.Sp., 
titular  Bishop  of  Chytri.  He  was  born  in  1873  in 
Machecoul,  France,  where  he  studied  and  left  for 
Madagascar,  1898;  chaplain  of  the  military  hospital 
of  Diego  Suarez,  founder  of  the  missions  in  Fen- 
erive,  later  in  Merimandrado,  rector  of  the  cathe¬ 
dral  and  coadjutor  to  the  vicar  apostolic  17  July, 
1914,  proclaimed  8  September  following,  succeeding 
as  vicar  apostolic  26  April,  1914,  Mgr.  Corbet  (b.  9 
November,  1836;  d.  26  July,  1914).  According  to 
(1920)  statistics  the  diocese  includes  11  stations 
with  chapels,  17  schools,  5  orphanages,  21  Fathers 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  5  Brothers,  4  Premonstra- 
tensians,  35  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny,  6  Fran¬ 
ciscan  missionaries  of  Mary,  24  Daughters  of  Mary. 

Digby,  Mabel,  Superior  General  of  the  Society 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  b.  at  Ashford  House, 
near  Staines,  Middlesex,  7  April,  1835 ;  d.  at 
Ixelles,  Brussels,  21  May,  1911.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Simon  Digby  of  Osbertstown,  Kildare, 
Ireland,  and  Elizabeth  Anne  Morse,  only  daughter 
of  Mr.  John  Morse  of  Sprowston  Hall,  Norfolk. 
She  belonged  to  the  Protestant  branch  of  the  Digby 
family,  but  in  1852  her  mother  and  elder  sister 
were  received  into  the  Church  at  Montpellier, 
France,  where  the  family  resided  for  several  years. 
Her  conversion  followed  two  years  later  under 
circumstances  that  seemed  to  foreshadow  the  call 
to  some  special  mission,  and  worked  an  extraor¬ 
dinary  change  in  her  character.  In  1857  she  was 
admitted  into  the  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
by  its  foundress,  Blessed  Madeleine  Sophie  Barat, 


DIGNE 


259 


DIOCESAN  CHANCERY 


and  ^two  years  later  made  her  vows  at  the  novitiate 
in  Conflans.  She  was  then  sent  to  Marmoutiers, 
Tours,  where  she  worked  for  thirteen  years,  the 
last  eight  of  which  were  spent  in  the  position  of 
superior.  In  1872  Mother  Digby  went  as  superior 
vicar  to  Roehampton,  the  House  of  her  order  in 
England,  a  post  which  she  filled  for  twenty-two 
years.  The  Society  flourished  under  her  wise 
guidance  and  six  new  houses  were  opened  in 
England;  she  also  made  the  first  foundation  in 
Australia,  where  the  Society  now  has  many  houses. 

In  1894  on  the  death  of  the  superior  general 
Mother  Digby  became  one  of  the  assistants  general 
and  took  up  her  work  at  the  mother-house  in  Paris. 
The  newly  elected  superior  general  died  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year,  and  Mother  Digby  was  unanimously 
chosen  to  succeed  her.  One  of  her  first  works  in 
this  new  position  was  to  visit  the  houses  of  the 
Order  in  Canada,  the  United  States  and  Mexico, 
where  no  superior  general  had  ever  been.  The 
great  work  of  her  generalate,  however,  was  the 
conducting  of  the  retreat  of  her  order  from  France, 
where  by  the  nefarious  Laws  of  Suppression  forty- 
six  houses  were  closed  in  .rapid  succession.  The 
crisis  found  her  prepared,  for  with  characteristic 
insight  she  seemed  to  have  realized  from  the 
beginning  what  the  outcome  would  be.  For  every 
house  closed  in  France  a  new  one  was  opened 
elsewhere,  so  that  when  the  work  of  destruction 
had  been  completed  the  Society  as  a  whole  counted 
a  larger  number  of  centers  than  it  has  possessed 
in  the  days  of  peace.  Every  member  of  the 
Society  found  another  home  in  other  lands  alike 
in  spirit  and  rule  to  the  one  from  which  she  had 
been  expelled.  In  1909  Rev.  Mother  Digby  trans¬ 
ferred  the  mother-house  of  the  Society  to  Ixelles, 
Brussels,  and  it  was  there  that  she  died.  Her 
body  was  taken  to  Roehampton  where  she  had 
worked  for  so  many  years. 


dOr  in  France,  and  is  suffragan  of  Lyons.  This 
see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  J.  R.  Maurice  Landrieux, 
born  in  Tnquy  France,  1857,  ordained  1883,  served 
as  secretary  to  Cardinal  Langeuieux,  made  an 
honorary  canon  in  1888,  vicar  general  in  1894,  titular 
canon  in  1901,  archpriest  of  the  cathedral  1912, 
appointed  bishop  6  December,  1916,  to  succeed  Rt. 
Rev  Jacques-Louis  Monestes,  who  was  appointed 

w  d’.  31  March>  1915.  During  the 

World  War  211  priests  and  65  seminarians  were 
mobilized  from  this  diocese,  and  of  this  number 
priests  and  11  seminarians  gave  up  their  lives 
3  were  decorated  with  the  legion  d’honneur,  2  with 
the  medmlle  militaire,  and  81  with  the  croix  de 
guerre.  By  latest  statistics  the  diocese  is  divided 
m  r?  <a?anerles,  comprising  520  parishes  and  counts 

%  •  0  1C  Population  of  350,044.  A  former  bishop 

of  this  see,  Bishop  Dadolle,  was  honored  by  Car- 
dmal  Maurm  in  1919,  when  he  placed  a  bust  in  the 
church  of  Villemontais,  the  bishop's  native  town, 
in  the  diocese  of  Lyons. 


Digne,  Diocese  of  (Diniensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IV-793b) 
Basses- Alpes,  France,  includes  the  titles  of  the  sup¬ 
pressed  dioceses  of  Riez  and  Listeron  in  the  de¬ 
partment  of  Aix.  The  present  (1922)  incumbent 
of  the  see,  Rt.  Rev.  Jean  Joseph  Martel,  was  born 
21  September,  1860,  at  St.  Benoit  in  the  diocese, 
studied  at  Aix  and  Digne,  was  ordained  priest  29 
June,  1885,  was  professor  at  the  Lower  Seminary, 
went  to  Paris  in  1885,  made  preceptor,  general 
secretary  of  the  bishopric  and  the  director  of  the 
“Semaine  religieuse”  in  1891;  honorary  canon  in 
1893;  superior  of  the  Institute  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception  and  vicar  general,  appointed  bishop  27 
November,  1917;  proclaimed  10  March,  1919,  suc¬ 
ceeding  Mgr.  Lenfant  (b.  6  January,  1858;  d.  6 
August,  1917).  According  to  the  (1922)  statistics 
the  diocese  comprises  a  population  of  107,231;  292 
parishes,  of  which  94  have  no  resident  priests,  367 
priests  in  the  parishes  and  75  others,  12  convents, 
diocesan  missionaries  established  in  1918.  In  1917 
the  late  Bishop  Lenfant  restored  the  public  daily 
prayer  in  the  chapter. 

Dignities,  Ecclesiastical  (cf.  C.  E.,  IY-794).— A 
capitular  dignity  is  a  canonry,  which  not  merely 
is  entitled  to  precedence  but  confers,  or  formerly  at 
least  conferred,  jurisdiction  in  the  internal  forum, 
e.  g.  the  archdiaconate,  or  archipresbyterate. 
Though  the  erection  of  the  office  of  capitular  dig¬ 
nity  and  appointments  thereto  are  reserved  to  the 
Holy  See,  a  bishop  may,  with  the  consent  of  the 
chapter,  restore  the  office  if  it  has  fallen  into  abey¬ 
ance. 

Dijon,  Diocese  of  (Divionensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IV- 
794c),  comprises  the  entire  department  of  Cote 


Dimissorial  Letters  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-797b)  can  be 
granted  for  the  ordination  of  a  secular  by  his 
proper  bishop,  provided  he  have  taken  possession 
ot  nis  see,  even  if  he  be  not  yet  consecrated.  By 
the  term  proper,’’  so  far  as  seculars  are  here  con- 

Cevvu ’xuS  mear}t  only  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  in 
which  the  candidate  has  a  domicile  together  with 
origin  or  a  simple  domicile  without  origin;  in  the 
latter  case  the  candidate  must  swear  that  he  intends 
to  remain  perpetually  in  the  diocese,  unless  he  is 
a  cleric  already  incardinated  in  another  diocese  by 
fu  st  tonsure,  or  is.  a  student  for  the  service  of 
another  diocese,  or  is  a  professed  religious.  Letters 
may  be  granted  by  a  vicar  general,  authorized  by 
his  bishop.  A  vicar  capitular  with  the  consent  of 
the  chapter  can  grant  letters  if  the  bishop  has  been 
dead  a  year;  before  that  time  they  can  *e  granted 
only  to  those  who  have  received  or  are  about  to 
receive  a  benefice,  or  to  one  who  is  to  occupy  an 
office  which  the  needs  of  the  diocese  require  to  be 
filled  without  delay.  A  vicar  capitular  granting 
dimissorial  letters  in  violation  of  these  provisions 
incurs  ipso  facto  suspension  a  divinis;  he  is  for¬ 
bidden  moreover  to  grant  the  letters  to  one  who 
uj  ,.een  reje°ted  by  the  bishop.  Anyone  who 
had  himself  ordained  without  letters  or  with  forged 
dimissorial  letters  would  be  ipso  facto  suspended 
from  the  order  received.  Vicars  and  prefects  apos¬ 
tolic,  abbots  or  prelates  nullius,  even  non-episcopal, 
can  grant  letters  for  minor  and  major  orders  to 
seculars  under  their  jurisdiction.  Letters  are  not 
to  be  granted  until  the  prescribed  canonical  exami¬ 
nation  into  the  candidate’s  antecedents  has  been 
made.  .  Letters  for  exempt  religious  are  granted  by 
the  major  superiors,  but  only  for  tonsure  and  minor 
orders  in  the  case  of  those  who  are  professed  of 
simple  vows;  non-exempt  religious  are  treated  like 
seculars.  The  regular  superior  must  address  his  let¬ 
ters  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  in  wrhich  the 
religious  house  is  situated,  except  when  that  bishop 
grants  permission,  or  belongs  to  another  rite,  or  is 
absent,  or  is  not  holding  ordinations  at  the  pre¬ 
scribed  time,  or  is  dead  and  has  left  no  one  with 
episcopal  orders  to  take  his  place.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  bishop  in  granting  letters  may  direct  them 
to  any  bishop  in  communion  with  the  Holy  See 
who  is  of  the  same  rite  as  the  candidate,  the  re¬ 
strictions  placed  formerly  on  the  suburbicarian  car¬ 
dinals  and  clerics  who  had  remained  more  than  four 
months  in  Rome  having  been  removed. 

Diocesan  Chancery  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-799).— In  each 
curia  a  priest  is  to  be  appointed  by  the  bishop  ♦ 
as  chancellor;  his  chief  duty  is  to  take  charge  of 


DIOCESE 


260 


DISPENSATION 


the  diocesan  archives,  arranging  them  in  chrono¬ 
logical  order  and  compiling  an  index  of  their  con¬ 
tents.  He  is  by  the  very  fact  a  notary,  and  if 
necessary  should  have  an  assistant  or  vice-chan¬ 
cellor.  He  can  be  removed  or  suspended  by  the 
bishop,  his  successors  or  superior,  but  not  by  the 
vicar  capitular  without  the  consent  of  the  chapter. 
Codex  juris  canonici,  372-84. 

Diocese  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-l).— In  canon  law  the  word 
diocese  includes  abbeys  and  prelatures  nullius,  and 
the  word  bishop  includes  abbots  and  prelates  nullius 
unless  the  context  shows  otherwise.  Without  a  par- 
titular  apostolic  indult  special  parishes  for  the 
faithful  of  different  races  or  speech  living  in  the 
same  city  or  territory  may  not  be  created  in  future ; 
no  change  is  to  be  made,  however,  in  those  already 
existing  without  consulting  the  Holy  See.  The 
bishop  is  to  group  the  parishes  of  his  diocese  into 
larger  units  known  as  vicariates  forane,  deaneries, 
archpresbyterates,  etc.  If  this  seems  impossible  or 
inopportune,  he  is  to  consult  the  Holy  See,  un¬ 
less  it  has  already  provided  for  the  difficulty.  If  the 
bishop’s  rule  is  entirely  impeded  by  captivity,  exile, 
or  legal  disability,  ordinarily  the  vicar  general  or  an 
ecclesiastic  delegated  by  the  bishop  takes  his  place ; 
if  the  delegate  is  similarly  impeded  the  cathedral 
chapter  is  to  nominate  its  vicar  to  act  with  the 
powers  of  a  vicar  capitular;  if  the  bishop  should 
become  excommunicated,  interdicted,  or  suspended 
the  metropolitan,  or  if  he  is  unable  or  is  the  bishop 
in  question,  the  oldest  of  the  suffragan  bishops  is  to 
notify  the  Holy  See. 

Codex  juris  canonici,  215-17 ;  429. 

Disciples  of  Christ  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-29c). — I.  Since 
the  death  of  the  founder,  Alexander  Campbell 
(1866),  in  the  expansion  of  this  Church,  disagree¬ 
ment  arose  on  the  two  points  of  ecclesiastical  or¬ 
ganization  and  the  use  of  instrumental  music  in 
the  churches,  th‘e  two  parties  being  termed  the 
“Progressives”  and  the  “Conservatives.”  In  the 
United  States  report  for  1890  all  were  included 
under  one  head,  but  in  1906  and  1916  the  objec¬ 
tions  of  the  “Conservatives”  led  to  their  classifi¬ 
cation  as  a  separate  denomination  known  as 
Churches  of  Christ.  The  “Progressives”  (Disciples 
of  Christ)  reported  in  1916,  1,226,028  members, 
6,815  church  edifices  and  5,938  ministers.  It  is 
especially  flourishing  in  the  middle-western  states. 
Although  the  Disciples  of  Christ  are  known  also  as 
“Christians”  they  are  not  to  be  confused  with  the 
“Christian  Church”  (American  Church  Convention). 

II.  Churches  of  Christ. — As  noted  above  this 
sect  is  listed  separately  now  in  the  United  States 
reports.  In  1916  it  reported  317,937  members, 
4,342  church  edifices  and  2,507  elders  (ministers). 

H.  K.  Carroll’s  statistics  for  1921  listed  for  the 
two  bodies  8,506  ministers,  14,416  church  edifices 
and  1,493,515  members  in  the  United  States  (“Chris¬ 
tian  Herald,”  7  March,  1921). 

Religious  Bodies,  1906  (Washington,  D.  C.,  1909);  Religious 
Bodies,  1916  (Washington,  D.  C.,  1919);  Year  Book  of  the 
Churches  (New  York,  1920). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Discussions,  Religious  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-34). — Catho¬ 
lics  are  warned  not  to  engage  in  religious  or  moral 
discussions  or  conferences,  especially  public,  with 
non-Catholics,  without  leave  of  the  Holy  See,  or,  in 
urgent  cases,  of  the  local  ordinary. 

Codex  juris  canonici,  1,325. 

Disparity  of  Worship  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-37).— The 
Church  grants  no  dispensation  from  the  impediment 
of  disparity  of  worship  unless  (1)  there  are  jusfl 
and  grave  causes;  (2)  the  non-Catholic  party  gives 
guarantees  that  the  danger  of  perversion  for  the 


Catholic  party  will  be  removed,  and  both  parties 
promise  that  all  the  children  will  be  baptized  and 
brought  up  only  in  the  Catholic  faith;  (3)  there 
is  a  moral  certainty  that  the  promises  will  be  ful¬ 
filled.  Regularly  the  promises  should  be  in  writing. 
The  impediment  now  arises  only  between  an  un¬ 
baptized  person  and  a  person  baptized  in  the  Cath¬ 
olic  Church  or  converted  to  the  Catholic  Church 
from  heresy  or  schism.  Formerly  it  arose  also  if 
the  baptized  person  had  received  baptism  in  a 
heretical  or  schismatical  Church  and  had  never 
embraced  Catholicism.  If  at  the  time  of  marriage 
one  of  the  parties  was  commonly  reputed  to  have 
been  baptized  or  if  his  baptism  was  doubtful,  the 
marriage  is  to  be  considered  valid  until  it  is  proved 
with  certainty  that  one  of  the  parties  had  been 
baptized  and  the  other  had  not.  If  a  parish  priest 
is  certain  that  a  Catholic  who  has  received  a  dis¬ 
pensation  from  this  impediment  has  either  per¬ 
sonally  or  by  proxy  gone  before  a  non-Catholic 
minister  to  be  married,  or  is  about  to  do  so  later, 
he  may  not  assist  at  the  marriage,  unless  for  very 
grave  reasons,  and  then  only  after  the  removal  of 
the  danger  of  scandal  and  after  consulting  the  ordi¬ 
nary.  If  a  dispensation  for  the  marriage  has  been 
granted  it  is  forbidden  to  observe  any  sacred  rites, 
unless  very  serious  evils  would  result,  in  which  case 
.the  ordinary  may  allow  some  ceremony  but  never 
the  celebration  of  Mass. 

Codex  juris  canonici,  1070-71  ;  Ayrinhac,  Marriage  Legisla¬ 
tion,  s.  v. ;  for  a  discussion  of  the  question  of  guarantees  cf. 
Harrington  in  Reel.  Review,  LXV  (1921),  257-62,  and  O’Don¬ 
nell  in  Irish  Eccl.  Rec.,  XVIII  (1921),  411-18. 

Dispensation  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-41). — Though  the  pope 
can  dispense  from  all  ecclesiastical  laws,  he  rarely 
does  so  personally,  as  he  usually  acts  through  the 
Roman  Congregations.  Applications  are  to  be  made 
therefore  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Council  for 
dispensations  from  the  disciplinary  laws  governing 
the  clergy  and  laity;  to  the  Congregation  of  the 
Sacraments  in  matters  regarding  the  disciplinary 
laws  of  the  sacraments;  to  the  Holy  Office  in  ques¬ 
tions  of  the  Pauline  privilege,  mixed  marriages, 
disparity  of  worship,  or  the  Eucharistic  fast  of 
priests  celebrating  Mass;  and  to  the  Sacred  Peni¬ 
tentiary  for  all  dispensations  regarding  the  internal 
forum,  both  sacramental  and  extra-sacramental. 

No  one  except  the  pope  personally  or  through 
the  Congregations  can  dispense  from  the  general 
laws  of  the  Church,  even  in  a  single  case,  unless 
he  is  explicitly  or  implicitly  authorized  to  do  so; 
thus  ordinaries  are  empowered  to  dispense  when 
it  is  difficult  to  have  recourse  to  the  Holy  See  and 
at  the  same  time  delay  would  likely  result  in  serious 
evil,  but  this  is  permitted  only  in  cases  in  which 
the  Holy  See  is  wont  to  grant  a  dispensation.  The 
power  of  the  bishops,  parish  priests,  and  vicars- 
general  are  now  of  ordinary  jurisdiction.  The  in¬ 
clusion  of  the  vicars-general  among  the  ordinaries 
involves  an  important  change,  as  their  power  of 
dispensing  now  arises  from  a  general  mandate, 
whereas  heretofore  it  was  conferred  only  by  special 
mandate.  The  power  of  dispensation  granted  in 
the  Code  belonging  generally  as  it  does  to  ordinary 
jurisdiction  can  be  delegated  in  accordance  with  the 
general  rules  governing  delegation. 

Local  ordinaries  may  dispense  from  diocesan 
laws,  and  also  from  the  laws  of  national  and  pro¬ 
vincial  synods,  in  particular  cases  and  for  just  cause, 
but  not  from  pontifical  laws,  especially  passed  for 
their  dioceses,  except  when  it  is  difficult  to  com¬ 
municate  with  the  Holy  See  and  at  the  same  time 
there  is  danger  of  serious  evil  in  delay.  Where 
a  doubt  of  fact  arises  they  may  dispense  from 
laws  imposing  nullity  or  incapacity,  provided  the 


DISPENSATION 


261 


DISPENSATION 


pope  is  wont  to  dispense  from  them.  A  dispensa¬ 
tion  granted  by  an  inferior  without  a  cause  that  is, 
considering  the  circumstances,  just  and  reasonable, 
is  neither  licit  nor  valid. 

In  canon  4  of  the  Code  is  stated  that  “acquired 
rights,  privileges  and  indults  which  have  been  hith¬ 
erto  granted  to  physical  or  moral  persons  by  the 
Apostolic  See  and  which  are  still  in  use  and  un¬ 
recalled,  remain  in  vigor,  unless  they  are  expressly 
revoked  by  the  canons  of  this  Code.”  On  25  April, 
1918,  a  decree  was  issued  by  the  Consistorial  Con¬ 
gregation.  After  pointing  out  that  many  of  the 
powers  of  ordinaries  formerly  acquired  only  by 
special  concession  were  now  granted  by  the  general 
law,  the  decree  provided  among  other  things  that 
except  in  places  subject  to  the  Sacred  Congregation 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith— for  which  suit¬ 
able  regulations  will  be  issued  at  an  opportune 
time — in  all  dioceses  subject  to  the  common  law, 
all  faculties  granted  to  ordinaries  for  the  external 
forum,  and  contained  in  twenty-five-year  briefs, 
and  ten-year,  five-year,  three-year  formulae,  will 
cease  from  18  May,  1918.  However,  local  ordinaries 
in  America,  the  Philippine  Islands,  the  East  Indies, 
Africa — except  the  territories  along  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea — and  Russia,  may,  for  a  period 
of  five  years  from  18  May,  1918,  dispense  from  the 
minor  impediments  to  marriage;  they  may  also 
grant  sanationes  in  radice  for  marriages  contracted 
invalidly  on  account  of  one  of  these  minor  impedi¬ 
ments,  but  the  party  who  is  aware  of  the  impedi¬ 
ment  is  to  be  warned  of  the  effect  of  the  sanatio. 
Moreover,  they  can  dispense  for  the  same  period 
from  the  major  impediments  of  the  ecclesiastical 
law,  whether  public  or  occult,  even  when  multiple 
(except  impediments  arising  from  priesthood  or 
affinity  in  the  direct  line  when  the  marriage  has 
been  consummated)  and  also  from  the  prohibitory 
impediment  of  mixed  religion,  if  the  petition  for 
the  dispensation  has  been  sent  to  the  Holy  See, 
and  in  the  meanwhile  an  urgent  necessity  for  the 
dispensation  arises. 

Irregularities  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-173). — Any  ordi¬ 
nary  may  personally  or  by  another  dispense  his 
subjects  from  all  irregularities  arising  from  occult 
crimes,  except  those  arising  from  crimes  brought 
into  the  judicial  forum  and  those  arising  from  vol¬ 
untary  homicide  or  the  efficacious  abortion  of  a 
human  foetus  or  from  co-operation  in  these  crimes. 
No  mention  is  made  of  the  power  of  dispensing 
from  the  irregularity  of  illegitimacy  for  the  recep¬ 
tion  of  tonsure  and  minor  orders,  hitherto  enjoyed. 
Confessors  have  the  same  power  in  urgent  secret 
cases  in  which  it  is  impossible  to  reach  the  ordinary 
and  there  is  danger  of  serious  evil  or  scandal,  but 
this  power  is  granted  to  them  only  to  enable  the 
penitent  to  exercise  licitly  the  orders  he  has  already 
received.  In  asking  for  a  dispensation  from  irregu¬ 
larities  or  impediments,  all  must  be  mentioned;  a 
general  dispensation,  however,  removes  all  those 
that  have  been  omitted  bona  fide  (with  the  ex¬ 
ceptions  just  mentioned),  but  not  those  omitted 
mala  fide.  In  the  case  of  voluntary  homicide,  the 
number  of  offenses  must  be  given,  under  penalty  of 
nullity.  A  general  dispensation  to  receive  orders 
is  valid  for  major  orders,  and  those  who  have  been 
dispensed  can  obtain  non-consistorial  benefices,  even 
with  the  cure  of  souls  annexed;  but  for  appoint¬ 
ment  as  cardinal,  bishop,  abbot  or  prelate  nullius, 
or  higher  superior  in  an  exempt  clerical  religious 
order  a  special  concession  is  required.  Dispensa¬ 
tions  granted  in  the  extra-sacramental  internal 
forum  are  to  be  in  writing  and  an  entry  concern¬ 
ing  them  should  be  made  in  the  secret  archives 
of  the  curia. 


Ordination.— -Ordinaries  can  dispense  for  a  just 
cause :  from  the  publication  of  the  names  of  secular 
candidates  for  orders  which  is  to  be  made  in  their 
parochial  churches;  also  from  the  intervals  of  time 
that  should  elapse  between  the  reception  of  dif¬ 
ferent  orders,  not,  however,  so  that  two  sacred 
orders,  or  minor  orders  and  the  subdiaconate  should 
be  received  on  one  day,  or  the  four  minor  orders 
or  tonsure  and  minor  orders  together. 

Parishes.— With  the  consent  of  the  synodal  ex¬ 
aminers  ordinaries  may  dispense  candidates  of 
known  ability  from  an  examination  in  theology  etc 
before  giving  him  a  parish.  ’ 

Vows  and  Oaths. — Local  ordinaries  can  dispense 
tneir  own  subjects  and  even  peregrini  from  un- 
reserved  vows  or  oaths,  provided  the  rights  of  a 
thud  party  are  not  injured  thereby. 

Index.— In  urgent  cases  the  ordinary  can  allow 
one  of  his  subjeets  to  read  a  book  forbidden  by 
the  Holy  See. 

Feasts,  fasting,  and  abstinence.— Local  ordinaries 
and  even  parish  priests,  in  particular  cases  and  for 
just  cause,  can  dispense  their  subjects,  even  when 
away  from  their  territory,  and  peregrini  in  their  ter¬ 
ritory  from  the  common  law  regarding  feasts,  fast¬ 
ing  and  abstinence.  Superiors  in  exempt  clerical 
religious  orders  have  the  same  power  over  their 
subjects  and  those  who  live  in  their  houses  by  day 
and  night,  such  as  guests,  servants,  students.  Ordi¬ 
naries,  moreover,  can  dispense  a  whole  diocese  or 
a  place  from  the  laws  of  fast  and  abstinence  for 
reasons  of  health  or  on  an  occasion  of  a  great  gath¬ 
ering  of  the  faithful. 

Penalties.— Ordinaries  can  remit  the  penalties 
latcB  sentential  imposed  by  the  general  law,  in  pub¬ 
lic  cases,  except :  (a)  when  the  case  has  come  into 
the  judicial  forum;  (b)  censures  reserved  to  the 
Holy  See;  (c)  incapacity  to  receive  benefices,  of¬ 
fices,  dignities,  or  positions  of  trust  in  the  Church, 
or  privation  of  active  and  passive  voice,  perpetual 
suspension,  infamy  of  law,  privation  of  the  right  of 
patronage  and  of  privilege  or  favor  granted  by 
the  Holy  See.  In  occult  cases,  the  ordinary  can 
personally  or  by  another,  remit  all  penalties  latce 
sententuB  of  common  law,  except  censures  reserved 
very  specially  or  specially  to  the  Holy  See.  Hitherto 
he  could  dispense  only  in  the  case  of  light  crimes 
and  of  suspension  for  certain  occult  offenses.  In 
more  urgent  occult  cases  if  by  the  observance  of 
a  vindicatory  punishment  latce  sententice  a  culprit 
would  betray  himself  and  thus  incur  infamy  and 
give  scandal,  a  confessor  can  suspend  in  the  sacra¬ 
mental  forum  the  obligation  of  undergoing  the 
penalty,  but  he  must  impose  on  the  culprit  the 
obligation  of  having  recourse,  at  least  within  a 
month,  by  letter  and  by  his  confessor,  to  the  Sacred 
Penitentiary  or  to  a  bishop  having  power  to  deal 
with  the  case,  if  this  can  be  done  without  grave 
inconvenience,  and  of  submitting  to  the  orders  he 
receives.  If  in  any  extraordinary  case  this  recourse 
is  impossible  the  confessor  himself  may  dispense, 
but  subject  to  those  conditions  under  which  he 
may  absolve  from  censures  in  similar  circumstances. 
This  is  a  notable  change  in  the  extent  of  powers 
granted  to  confessors. 

Cause  for  granting  dispensations  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-45). 

— There  must  be  a  sufficient  just  cause  for  the  licit 
granting  of  a  dispensation.  If  a  person  alleged  a 
false  cause  or  concealed  part  of  the  truth,  it  would 
not  invalidate  a  dispensation  granted  from  a  minor 
matrimonial  impediment,  even  if  the  sole  motive 
for  granting  it  were  false;  but  in  any  other  case 
at  least  one  true  motive  cause  is  necessary,  but 


DISPENSATIONS 


262 


DIVINE  CHARITY 


sufficient,  for  validity,  even  when  the  rescript  con¬ 
tains  the  words  “motu  proprio.” 

Codex  jurid  canonici,  80-86;  Vermeersch-Creusens,  Epitome 
jur.  can.,  136-56. 

Dispensations,  Matrimonial  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-44a). — 
A  local  ordinary  may  dispense  from  the  publication 
of  the  banns  of  marriage  of  his  subjects  for  a  just 
cause  anywhere;  if  the  parties  have  different  local 
ordinaries  the  right  belongs  to  the  ordinary  in 
whose  territory  the  marriage  is  to  take  place;  if  it 
is  to  be  celebrated  in  a  third  territory,  either  of 
the  ordinaries  mentioned  may  dispense.  When 
there  is  imminent  danger  of  death  local  ordinaries, 
in  order  to  secure  peace  of  conscience  of  the  party 
or  parties  concerned  and  to  legitimize  their  off¬ 
spring  where  necessary,  should  that  be  necessary, 
may  dispense  their  own  subjects  in  any  place  and 
all  others  residing  at  the  moment  in  their  territory 
from  the  formalities  to  be  observed  in  contracting 
marriage  (presence  of  a  priest  and  two  witnesses), 
and  from  each  and  every  impediment,  public  or 
occult,  whether  simple  or  multiple,  of  ecclesiastical 
origin,  except  those  arising  from  the  priesthood  or 
from  affinity  in  the  direct  line  if  the  marriage  has 
been  consummated;  scandal  must  be  avoided,  and 
if  there  is  question  of  disparity  of  worship  or  of 
mixed  religion  the  usual  guarantees  must  be  given. 
When  a  case  of  this  kind  arises  and  it  is  impossible 
to  go  to  the  ordinary,  the  same  dispensing  power 
is  enjoyed  by  the  parish  priest  or  any  priest  law¬ 
fully  assisting  at  the  marriage;  or  by  the  confessor, 
but  the  latter’s  power  is  only  for  the  internal  forum 
in  sacramental  confession.  A  local  ordinary  can 
dispense  from  any  of  the  impediments  just  men¬ 
tioned  if  it  is  discovered  (that  is,  made  known  to 
the  priest  or  ordinary,  Acta  A.  S.,  1921,  178)  when 
everything  is  ready  for  the  marriage  and  the  cere¬ 
mony  cannot  be  deferred  until  a  dispensation  is 
obtained  from  the  Holy  See,  without  probable  dan¬ 
ger  of  grave  evil;  he  is  empowered  likewise  to  use 
these  faculties  to  validate  a  marriage  already  con¬ 
tracted,  if  there  is  the  same  danger  in  delay  and 
time  does  not  allow  an  application  to  the  Holy 
See.  Under  the  same  circumstances  a  like  power  is 
enjoyed  by  the  parish  priest,  assistant  priest  and 
confessor,  as  mentioned  above,  but  only  for  occult 
cases,  when  it  is  not  possible  to  reach  the  local 
ordinary  or  at  least  not  without  danger  of  violating 
secrecy.  The  parish  or  assistant  priest  in  this  case 
should,  however,  notify  the  local  ordinary  at  once 
about  the  dispensation  granted  in  the  external 
forum,  and  the  fact  should  be  recorded  in  the 
marriage  register. 

Unless  it  is  ordered  otherwise  by  the.  sacred 
penitentiary  a  dispensation  from  an  occult  impedi¬ 
ment  granted  in  the  extra-sacramental  internal 
forum  is  to  be  recorded  in  the  secret  archives  of 
the  curia;  no  other  dispensation  is  necessary  for 
the  external  forum,  even  if  the  occult  impediment 
should  ever  become  public,  though  another  would 
be  required  if  the  dispensation  had  been  granted 
only  in  the  sacramental  internal  forum.  As  regards 
marriage  contracted  or  to  be  contracted,  whoever 
enjoys  a  general  indult  for  dispensing  from  a  given 
impediment  can,  unless  the  indult  explicitly  states 
the  contrary,  dispense  from  it  when  it  is  multiple. 
Whoever  has  a  general  indult  for  dispensing  from 
several  impediments  of  different  kinds,  whether 
diriment  or  impedient,  can  dispense  from  these 
impediments  even  if  they  are  public,  occurring  in 
one  and  the  same  case  (modifying  C.  E.,  V-749a). 
But  if  an  impediment  from  which  he  cannot  dis¬ 
pense  coexists  with  one  or  more  over  which  he  has 
control  in  virtue  of  an  indult,  recourse  must  be 


had  to  the  Holy  See  in  connection  with  all  of 
them;  however,  if  after  obtaining  the  dispensation 
from  the  Holy  See,  one  or  more  impediments  from 
which  he  can  dispense  are  discovered,  he  may  use 
his  power  to  dispense  from  it.  When  a  dispensa¬ 
tion  has  been  granted  from  a  diriment  impediment 
by  ordinary  power  or  power  delegated  by  a  general 
indult,  though  not  by  a  rescript  in  particular  cases, 
the  offspring,  already  born  or  conceived,  of  those 
who  are  dispensed  are  thereby  legitimized,  excepting 
adulterous  or  sacrilegious  offspring. 

A  dispensation  from  the  impediment  of  consan¬ 
guinity  or  affinity  in  any  degree,  if  granted,  is 
valid,  even  if  any  error  as  to  the  degree  chanced 
to  be  made  in  the  petition  or  concession,  provided 
the  real  degree  is  more  remote,  or  even  if  another 
impediment  of  the  same  kind  in  an  equal  or  more 
remote  degree  was  not  mentioned.  A  dispensation 
granted  by  the  Holy  See  in  case  of  an  unconsum¬ 
mated  marriage  or  permission  granted  to  contract 
a  new  marriage  on  the  presumption  of  the  death 
of  a  spouse,  always  contains  a  dispensation  from 
the  impediment  of  crime  due  to  adultery  with  a 
promise  of  or  attempted  marriage,  if  necessary,  but 
not  from  the  impediment  of  crime  arising  even 
in  part  from  conjugicide.  While  an  application 
for  a  dispensation  from  public  impediments  may 
be  made  directly  to  Rome  by  the  parties  concerned, 
it  is  customarily  made  through  the  ordinary  (the 
bishop  or  vicar-general)  of  the  place  of  domicile  or 
quasi-domicile,  of  either  party,  but  usually  of  the 
bride,  or  of  the  Catholic  party  if  the  impediment 
affects  him  directly.  Such  dispensations  when  en¬ 
trusted  to  the  ordinary  of  the  petitioners  shall  be 
executed  by  the  ordinary  who  has  given  the  testi¬ 
monial  letters  or  wdio  transmitted  the  petition  to 
the  Holy  See,  even  if  the  parties,  at  the  time  when 
the  dispensation  is  to  be  put  into  effect,  have  given 
up  their  domicile  or  quasi-domicile  and  gone  into 
another  diocese  m  ver  to  return,  but  he  is  to  notify 
the  ordinary  of  the  place  where  the  parties  wish 
to  marry  (Ayrinhac,  n.  102). 

Expenses.— Except  a  small  contribution  to  meet 
the  chancery  expenses  in  obtaining  a  dispensation 
for  one  who  is  not  poor,  local  ordinaries  or  their 
officials  cannot  exact  any  payment  for  the  dis¬ 
pensation  without  the  express  permission  of  the 
Holy  See.  Any  custom  to  the  contrary  is  now 
reprobated;  formerly  it  was  customary  to  levy  a 
tax  approved  by  bishop  of  a  province;  if  eccle¬ 
siastics  exact  anything  now  in  violation  of  this 
law  they  are  bound  to  restitution.  Whoever  dis¬ 
penses  in  virtue  of  power  delegated  to  him  by  the 
Holy  See  is  to  make  express  mention  of  his  pon¬ 
tifical  indult  in  using  it.  . 

Codex  juris  canonici,  1043-56;  Ayrinhac,  Marriage  Legisla¬ 
tion,  n.  76  sqq. ;  Petrovits,  The  New  Church  Law  on  Matri¬ 
mony,  pp.  80-108;  Vlaming,  Prael.  juris  matrimonii,  11,  pp. 
1-138;  de  Smet,  De  spons .  et  matrim.,  II  (1920),  pp.  190-345. 

Divine  Charity,  Daughters  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
V-52a).— The  foundress  and  first  superior  general 
of  this  congregation  was  Mother  Franziska  Lechner, 
who  died  14  April,  1894.  She  was  succeeded  as 
superior  general  by  Mother  M.  Ignatia  Egger,  who 
was  born  25  February,  1844,  and  entered  the  order 
in  1869.  She  celebrated  the  jubilee  of  her  pro¬ 
fession  in  October,  1920,  and  still  performs  the 
duties  of  her  office,  notwithstanding  her  advanced 
age,  having  been  re-elected  superior  at  the  last 
general  chapter  of  the  order  in  July,  1918.  Sisters 
Xavier  Egger,  Helene  Banard,  Valeria  Morvay, 
and  Ludovika  Binder  were  named  assistants  gen¬ 
eral.  The  International  Eucharistic  Congress,  held 
in  Vienna  in  1912,  was  solemnly  celebrated  in  the 
houses  of  the  Order  in  Vienna,  and  in  preparation 


DIVINE  CHARITY 


263 


divine  charity 


for  it  a  solemn  Eucharistic  triduum  was  held  in 
the  mother-house.  The  golden  jubilee  of  the 
order  was  celebrated  in  November,  1918.  The 
cardinal  protector  of  the  order  is  Cardinal  Januarius 
Granito  Pignatelli  de  Belmonte,  who  succeeded 
Cardinal  Serafjno  Vanutelli  in  this  office  upon  the 
latter’s  death  in  1915.  The  apostolic  visitation  of 
the  congregation  was  begun  in  August,  1921,  by 
Mgr.  Franz  Hlawati,  replacing  Cardinal  Friedrich 
Gustav  Piffl.  .  In  October,  1920,  the  congregation 
was  divided  into  provinces.  The  then  existing 
Austrian  province  was  divided  and  from  it  four 
provinces  were  erected,  one  in  each  of  the  following 
countries:  Czechoslovakia,  Jugoslavia,  Hungary 
and  Poland.  Permission  was  received  for  the  erec¬ 
tion  of  an  American  province  in  January,  1921. 

The  first  foundation  in  America  was  made  in 
1913,  when  Sister  Valeria  Morvay,  general  of  the 
order,  and  Sister  Kotska  Bauer  established  in  New 
York  St.  Mary’s  Home  for  servants  out  of  em¬ 
ployment,  positions  being  secured  for  them.  The 
Sisters  also  gave  religious  instruction  at  various 
places.  There  was  a  wide  field  for  activity,  and 
on  several  occasions  Sisters  were  called  from  the 
branch  houses  in  Hungary  to  the  American  foun¬ 
dation.  After  the  foundation  was  well  established 
Sister  Valeria  Morvay  returned  to  Hungary,  and  Sis¬ 
ter  Kotska  Bauer  was  made  superior  of  the  North 
American  houses.  Since  then  she  has  been  made 
provincial  superior  of  the  American  province  of 
the  congregation.  At  the  present  time  there  are 
seven  foundations  in  the  United  States :  St.  Joseph’s 
Hill,  Arrocher,  Staten  Island,  provincial  house, 
novitiate,  day^  and  boarding  school;  St.  Mary’s 
Home,  New  York  City,  for  servants  seeking  em¬ 
ployment  ;  Convent  of  Our  Lady  of  Hungary 
Perth-Amboy,  N.  J.,  school;  Convent  of  St’. 
Ladislaus,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  school,  kinder¬ 
garten,  and  day  nursery;  St.  Stephen’s  Convent, 
Trenton,  N.  J.,  school;  St.  Stephen’s  Hungarian 
Convent,  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  kindergarten  and 
classes  for  religious  instruction;  South  Bethlehem, 
near  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  school  and  kindergarten. 
Permission  to  establish  a  novitiate  in  North 
America  was  granted  in  July,  1913.  In  June,  1920, 
a  foundation  was  made  in  South  America  at  Serro- 
Azul,  Diocese  of  Uruguayana,  Brazil,  with  a  day 
school,  boarding  school,  and  kindergarten. 

Many,  new  foundations  have  been  made  in 
Europe  in  the  last  thirteen  years.  A  new  Marian 
Institute  was  opened  in  Trappan  in  April,  1909, 
the  old  institute  being  bought  by  the  city  authori¬ 
ties  for  a  charitable  institution.  The  new  institute 
cares  for  poor  servants  and  is  also  a  home  for 
ladies;  the  Church  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  erected  in 
connection  with  it,  was  dedicated  in  June,  1910. 
The  home  for  children  at  Alt  Dejvitz,  near  Prague, 
was  taken  over  by  the  Sisters  in  April,  1909,  and 
a  Sunday  school  for  girls  was  later  established 
there.  The  Sisters  were  obliged  to  give  up  the 
establishment  in  September,  1921,  when  the  pro- 
vostship  was  requisitioned  by  the  Czech  Govern- 
ment  and  taken  from  the  bishop.  During  the 
period  of  its  existence  699  children  were  cared  for 
in  the  home  and  281  were  taught  in  the  Sunday 
school.  A  home  for  children  was  erected  at 
Hochstrass-Stassing  in  1908  and  dedicated  25  May 
1909  ;  40  foundlings  are  educated  there.  The  train¬ 
ing  school  for  women  of  the  Marian  Institute  at 
Cracow  was  granted  its  charter  in  June,  1909.  The 
secondary  and  boarding  school  at  Szepesszombat, 
Hungary,  was  taken  over  by  the  Sisters  in  August, 
1909,  and  opened  the  following  October,  the  chapel 
being  dedicated  in  September,  1910;  it  is  the  only 
Catholic  school  in  the  vicinity.  A  new  building 


was  added  in  August,  1909,  to  the  Sisters’  estab¬ 
lishment  at  Biala,  Galicia,  where  they  conduct  a 
secondary  and  primary  school  where  German  and 
Polish  are  taught,  a  training  school  for  female 
teachers  industrial  school,  kindergarten  at  Wolkes- 
dorf  enlarged  and  dedicated  in  1909,  was  given 
to  the  Sisters  and  consecrated  in  1914.  The  culinary 
department  at  the  house  of  correction  and  agri¬ 
cultural  institute  at  Korneuburg,  Lower  Austria 
was  placed  in  charge  of  three  Sisters  of  Divine 
Charity  in  March,  1910.  A  new  chapel  and  addi¬ 
tion  to  the  home  for  aged  and  infirm  Sisters  and 
invalided  servants  at  Breitenfurt  was  built  in  May 

1910,  and  dedicated  3  November,  1911.  The  Marian 
Congregation  for  young  women  was  established 
at  the  Empress  Elizabeth  Home  for  Girls  and  17 
new  members  received  8  December,  1910.  A  poor- 
house  with  12  inmates  at  Lichtenegg,  Lower  Aus- 
JUJb  wa&u  takfn  over  by  the  Sisters  30  January, 

1911.  lhe  addition  to  the  kindergarten  at  Hoch- 
stetten  was  dedicated  in  September,  1911.  An 
institute  and  home  for  servants  erected  at  Budapest 
by  the  League  of  Catholic  Housewives  was  opened 
by  the  Sisters,  9  September,  1911,  the  Sisters  giving 
up  their  work  there  in  June,  1912.  In  September, 
1911,  a  school  for  girls  was  opened  at  Marczali, 
Hungary.  The  Sisters  at  Unter-Stinkenbrunn  took 
up  the  work  of  caring  for  the  sick  in  their  homes 
in  October,  1911.  A  villa  and  extensive  woodlands 
were  purchased  5  October,  1911,  at  Pale  near 
Serajevo;  where  a  school  was  built  and  dedicated 
5  August,  1913.  The  new  kindergarten  and  work 
school  at  Gerasford  was  dedicated  in  March,  1912. 
The  charter  for  the  women’s  training  school  at 
Serajevo  as  received  in  March,  1912.  The  new 
foundation  of  St.  Cecilia’s  Home  for  children  at 
Aspersdorf,  near  Oberhollabrunn,  was  blessed  15 
June,  1913;  the  principal  work  there  is  the  kinder¬ 
garten.  The  new  country  house  at  Wola-Fustowska 
near  Cracow,  was  blessed  12  July,  1913.  A  rural 
housekeeping  school  at  Maria  Frost,  near  Graz 
was  opened  in  October,  1913.  A  house  in  Vienna 
was  purchased  in  January,  1914,  for  the  Marian 
Institute,  serving  also  as  a  home  for  old  ladies 
and  civil  service  employees,  and  the  institute  was 
further  enlarged  m  October,  1916,  by  the  purchase 
of  another  house  in  Vienna.  A  school  and  board¬ 
ing  house  was  opened  at  Swaffham,  Diocese  of 
Northampton,  England,  in  June,  1914,  and  the 
chapel  was  opened  30  October,  1920.  A  home  for 
children  of  reservists  at  Serajevo  was  taken  over 
by  the  Sisters  in  September,  1915.  The  children’s 
home  at  Hochwolkersdorf,  Lower  Austria,  was 
managed  by  the  Sisters  from  June,  1918,  to  June, 

The  Marian  Home  for  homeless  girls,  estab¬ 
lished  by  the  Women’s  Association  of  Graz  was 
taken  over  by  the  Sisters  from  September,  1918, 
till  July,  1920.  In  August,  1919,  the  Sisters  took 
oyer  the  kindergarten  founded  by  Baroness  Mayer- 
Melnhof  at  Schloss-Weyer  in  Styria,  and  later  on 
opened  an  industrial  school.  A  branch  was  opened 
in  September,  1919,  at  Koberwitz,  Czechoslovakia, 
where  the  Sisters  nurse  the  sick  in  their  homes, 
and  they  plan  to  open  a  kindergarten  there.  The 
children’s  home  founded  by  the  Children’s  Pro¬ 
tective  and  Aid  Association,  Vienna,  was  taken 
over  by  the  Sisters  in  October,  1919,  with  40  boys. 
The  Sisters  extended  their  sphere  of  activity  in 
November,  1919,  to  Pabjanice,  Russian  Poland, 
where  they  established  a  school  for  girls,  a  kinder¬ 
garten,  and  religious  instruction  in  various  schools. 
Permission  was  received  in  March,  1920,  to  open 
a  secondary  school  at  the  Convent  of  Maria 
Loretto  at  St.  Andra  in  Carinthia.  The  boarding 
school  of  St.  Maria  in  Weltrus,  near  Prague,  was 


DIVINE  PROVIDENCE 


264 


DIVINE  PROVIDENCE 


purchased  30  June,  1921,  to  be  used  as  a  boarding 
school  and  novitiate  for  the  province  of  Czecho¬ 
slovakia.  In  July,  1913,  the  Sisters  withdrew  from 
the  creche  at  Wernstadt  in  Northern  Bohemia, 
where  they  had  been  established  since  1907  and 
where  162  children  were  cared  for.  In  January, 
1919,  the  Sisters  withdrew  from  the  Convent  of 
St.  Anthony  at  Schwarzen,  where  they  had  been 
established  since  1898,  and  since  when  1485  children 
were  taken  care  of  in  the  kindergarten  and  2171 
children  were  instructed  in  the  industrial  school. 
During  the  war  most  of  the  institutions  were  used 
as  hospitals  for  the  sick  and  disabled  soldiers,  of 
whom  about  25,000  were  cared  for. 

At  present  there  are  1005  members  of  the  congre¬ 
gation;  386  members  have  died  since  the  foun¬ 
dation  of  the  order.  The  sisters  own  36  institutions 
and  in  addition  have  31  other  institutions  under 
their  care,  making  a  total  of  67  institutions.  These 
are  training  schools  for  women  teachers,  secondary 
and  elementary  schools,  housekeeping  schools,  com¬ 
mercial  schools,  Sunday  schools,  industrial  schools, 
kindergartens,  day  nurseries,  homes  for  children, 
boarding  places  for  orphans  and  other  girls,  homes 
for  ladies,  homes  and  employment  bureaus  for  poor 
servants,  homes  for  invalided  and  incapacitated 
servants,  and  hospitals  for  sick  and  mentally  defec¬ 
tive  children.  Among  those  under  the  care  of  the 
Daughters  of  Divine  Charity  are  3694  servants,  410 
orphans,  and  9509  school  children.  There  are  163 
commercial  school  students,  1690  industrial  school 
students,  192  boarding  school  pupils,  2454  kinder¬ 
garten  children,  456  private  pupils,  and  372  train¬ 
ing  school  students.  In  the  hospitals  are  103  sick 
and  56  weak-minded  and  crippled. 

Divine  Providence,  Sisters  of.  I.  Sisters  of 
Divine  Providence  (St.  Jean-de-Bassel,  Lorraine; 
cf.  C.  E.,  V-52d). — The  reverting  of  Lorraine  to 
France  at  the  close  of  the  World  War  restored  the 
general  mother-house  of  the  Sisters  of  Divine  Provi¬ 
dence  to  its  mother-country.  During  the  war  the 
common  destinies  of  the  conflict  were  felt  more  or 
less  at  the  mother-house,  but  no  damage  or  ruin 
was  suffered  in  the  property.  Early  in  the  war,  20 
August,  1914,  the  French  and  German  troops  met 
in  sharp  conflict  on  the  grounds  of  the  convent  of 
St.-Jean-de-Bassel ;  those  slain  in  that  engagement, 
116,  are  buried  in  a  common  grave  on  the  convent 
grounds,  while  more  than  800  wounded  in  the  same 
engagement  were  cared  for  by  the  Sisters  in  the 
convent  itself.  In  the  change  from  the  German 
to  the  French  tongue  in  the  school  throughout 
Lorraine  and  Alsace,  the  Sisters  experienced  but 
little  difficulty,  and  everything  has  prospered.  The 
boarding  and  normal  school  in  Pecq,  Belgium,  which 
was  the  most  important  establishment  held  by  the 
congregation  in  that  country,  was  destroyed  com¬ 
pletely  by  the  bombardment  by  the  Allies,  October, 
1918,  in  the  great  drive  to  push  the  Germans  from 
the  country;  the  Belgian  Government  has  since 
rebuilt  the  school,  King  Albert  himself  having  taken 
active  interest  in  its  re-establishment.  There  are 
(1921)  566  professed  Sisters  in  Lorraine,  294  in 
Alsace,  91  in  Belgium.  They  have  charge  of  board¬ 
ing  schools,  industrial  schools,  primary  and  second¬ 
ary  schools,  and  also  nurse  the  sick. 

The  history  of  the  American  Province  of  the  Sis¬ 
ters  of  Divine  Providence  of  St.-Jean-de-Bassel 
since  1909  is  one  of  expansion.  In  that  year  Mother 
Maria  Houlne,  provincial,  was  appointed  superior 
general  of  the  entire  congregation,  with  residence 
at  St.-Jean-de-Bassel,  Lorraine,  and  Mother  Mary 
Lucy  Damidio,  one  of  the  three  original  members 
of  the  American  foundation,  succeeded  to  the  office 


of  provincial.  In  1909  there  were  11  parochial 
schools  in  2  dioceses  and  1  archdiocese;  in  1921 
there  are  24  in  6  dioceses  and  1  archdiocese.  In 
1909  there  was  1  academy;  ten  years  later  there 
are  3,  all  in  the  home-diocese  of  Covington.  St. 
Camillus  Academy,  Corbin,  was  completed  in  1915 
and  named  in  memory  of  Bishop  Maes,  who  had 
strongly  encouraged  its  erection.  The  academy  is 
beginning  to  realize  the  great  hopes  he  had  for 
its  future.  Situated  in  the  heart  of  the  famed 
mountain  region,  which  is  anti-Catholic,  though  the 
people  have  the  kindest  natural  impulses,  the 
academy  trains  the  Catholic  girls  of  the  mountains 
in  new  ideals,  fitting  them  to  return  to  their  people 
to  reshape  conditions  and  assume  the  responsibilities 
of  Catholic  womanhood.  The  majority  of  the 
pupils  enrolled  are  non-Catholics,  and  every  year 
there  are  conversions  to  the  Faith.  The  removal 
of  prejudice,  the  kindly  attitude  of  the  people 
towards  the  school,  and  the  interest  manifested  in 
it  by  all  classes  of  people  are  altogether  admirable. 
The  attendance  approximates  200,  of  whom  48  are 
boarders  and  mostly  Catholics;  only  a  small  per¬ 
centage  of  the  day  pupils  are  Catholics,  for  Corbin 
is  a  small  town  with  few  Catholic  families. 

In  1919  the  provincial  house  of  the  congregation 
was  transferred  from  Newport  to  Melbourne,  Ky. 
The  erection  of  the  new  St.  Anne  Convent  at  Mel¬ 
bourne  was  begun  in  1918,  and  on  11  November, 
1919,  it  was  solemnly  blessed  as  the  provincial  house 
by  Bishop  Brossart  of  Covington.  Mt.  St.  Martin’s 
Convent  at  Newport  was  then  remodeled  and  con¬ 
verted  into  a  young  woman’s  home  with  resident 
chaplain.  The  present  condition  of  the  American 
Province  is  this:  302  professed  Sisters,  7  novices, 
39  aspirants,  3  academies,  24  parochial  schools,  1 
infant  asylum,  the  domestic  departments  of  6  in¬ 
stitutions,  1  home  for  aged  women,  Staten  Island; 

1  home  for  French  emigrant  girls,  New  York  City; 

1  home  for  Catholic  ladies,  Baltimore;  the  Y.  W.  I., 
Mt.  St.  Martin,  Newport,  Ky.  The  Sisters  work  in 
the  Archdioceses  of  Cincinnati,  Baltimore,  and  New 
York,  and  in  the  Dioceses  of  Covington,  Columbus, 
Cleveland,  Toledo,  Providence,  and  Wheeling. 

II.  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence  of  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul  (Rappoltsweiler,  Alsace;  cf.  C.  E.,  V-52b). 
— The  present  superior  general  of  the  congregation 
is  Mother  Josepha  Kleinhans,  who  succeeded  Mother 
Marie  Aimee  Schaeffer  in  1919,  the  latter  being  in 
poor  health.  Mother  Marie  Aimee  was  exiled  dur¬ 
ing  the  World  War  (1917-19)  and  decorated  with 
the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1919.  She  had  been  vicar 
general  from  1905.  The  superior  since  1912  is  Abbe 
Ignace  Fahmer.  The  following  is  a  list  of  institu¬ 
tions  of  the  congregation  with  the  number  of  Sis¬ 
ters  in  each.  In  Alsace :  mother-house  (236  Sisters) 
and  boarding  school  (26  Sisters)  at  Rappoltsweiler; 
boarding  and  day  school,  Colmar  (42  Sisters) ; 
boarding  school,  Hagenau  (20);  industrial  school, 
Herrlisheim  (13);  girls’  orphanage,  Hilsenheim  (19); 
preparatory  school  for  normal  school,  Issenheim 
(11);  day  school,  Mulhouse  (39);  boarding  school, 
Rouffach  (32) ;  boarding  and  day  school,  Strass- 
burg  (45) ;  vacation  and  convalescent  home,  Soultz- 
bach  (10);  boys’  orphanage,  Willerhof  (21);  re¬ 
formatory  for  girls,  Bavilliers  near  Belfort  (16).  In 
Upper  Saone:  reformatory  for  boys  (34  Sisters) 
and  house  of  retreat  (12  Sisters)  at  Frasne-le- 
Chateau.  In  1916  the  Sisters  opened  a  vacation 
and  convalescent  home  at  Marlenheim;  in  1917  ten 
Sisters  undertook  the  direction  of  the  bureau  of 
the  departmental  orphanage  at  Bischwiller;  in  1919 
the  convalescent  home  at  Bennwihr  was  founded. 
The  industrial  normal  school  opened  at  Rappolts¬ 
weiler  in  1913  was  transferred  in  1920  to  the  large 


divind  providence 


DIVINE  PROVIDENCE 


265 


buildings  of  the  Deaf-Mute  Institution  at  Issen- 
heim,  which  were  vacated  when  the  deaf-mutes 
were  transferred  to  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Cross.  In  May,  1921,  the  direction  of  the 
Orphanage  of  St.  Francis  at  Douvaine,  Upper  Savoy 
was  given  to  the  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence.  The 
fibers  direct  314  primary  public  schools  in  Alsace 
and  have  about  44,000  children  under  instruction 
i  he  congregation  numbers  1,740  members.  The  re¬ 
vision  of  the  Code  of  Canon  Law  affects  only  minor 
details  of  the  Constitutions. 

III.  Society  of  Divine  Providence  (Friederichs- 
burg,  Germany;  cf.  C.  E.,  V-52c).— Since  1909  the 
activity  of  this  congregation  has  extended  to  the 
follow  ing  recently  established  works :  management 
of  the  household  of  the  workmen’s  home,  Muenster 
(1911),  6  Sisters;  management  of  the  household  of 
a  boarding  school,  kindergarten,  St.  Joseph’s  House, 
Muenster  (1920),  3  Sisters;  in  Muenster  and  at 
other  places  the  infant  schools  have  been  changed 
into  kindergartens,  and  to  these  have  been  added  in 
Muenster  3  shelters  for  children,  1  crib,  and  2  cook¬ 
ing  schools  (1915),  76  Sisters;  advanced  school  for 
women,  St.  Mauritz  (1920),  8  Sisters;  kindergarten, 

/\e<v ii c f "'c°cv  sck°°b  ambulant  nursing,  Aldenarde 
(1915),  6  Sisters;  kindergarten,  needle-work  school 
™gber  school  for  girls,  school  for  cooking,  Beckum 
(1919),  11  Sisters;  management  of  the  household 
of  the  workmen’s  hospice,  Bochum  (1919),  4  Sisters; 
mgher  school  for  girls,  kindergarten,  needle-work 
school  Borghorst  (1910),  8  Sisters;  young  girl’s 
home,  housekeeping  school,  Cleve  (1919),  8  Sisters- 
management  of  the  household  of  St.  Maurus,  Coes- 
feld  (1918),  3  Sisters;  kindergarten,  needle-work 
school,  Datteln  (1910),  6  Sisters;  kindergarten 
needle-work  school,  boarding  house  for  ladies,  Din- 
slaken  (1912),  5  Sisters;  kindergarten,  needle-work 
school,  Duisburg  Hochfeld  (1911),  6  Sisters;  Sunday 
school,  ambulant  nursing,  Duisburg  St.  Peter;  kin¬ 
dergarten,  needle-work  school,  Emmerich  (1920),  3 
Sisters;  kindergarten,  needle-work  school,  cooking 
school,  Ennigerlok;  kindergarten,  needle-work 
school,  ambulant  nursing,  Erkenschwick  (1913),  4 
Sisters;  kindergarten,  needle-work  school,  work¬ 
womens  society,  Gronan  (1910),  4  Sisters;  man¬ 
agement  of  the  household  of  the  workmen’s 
house  and  Kolping-house,  kindergarten,  needle-work 
-  chddTen’s  shelter,  day  shelter,  lyceum,  Hamm 
(1914),  13  Sisters;  kindergarten,  needle-work  school, 
Hamm  St.  Joseph  (1916),  7  Sisters;  kindergarten, 
needle-work  school,  Haltern  (1915),  6  Sisters;  kin¬ 
dergarten,  needle-work  school,  ambulant  nursing, 
Heefsen  (1915),  5  Sisters;  kindergarten,  needle-work 
school,  Horstermark  (1911),  4  Sisters;  kindergarten, 
needle-work  school,  orphanage,  higher  school  for 
girls,  Lobberich  (1917),  7  Sisters;  kindergarten, 
needle-work  school,  ambulant  nursing,  Marien- 
baum  (1916),  4  Sisters;  kindergarten,  needle-work 
school,  ambulant  nursing,  Mesum  (1910),  6  Sis¬ 
ters,  kindergarten,  needle-work  school,  ambulant 
nursing,  Meerbeck  (1918),  6  Sisters;  kindergarten, 
needle-work  school,  ambulant  nursing,  Moers  (1918) 

4  Sisters;  lyceum,  Osterfeld  (1921);  kindergarten] 
needle-w'ork  school,  cooking  school,  Oelde  (1912), 

5  Sisters;  management  of  the  household  of  the 
workmen’s  house, _  Recklinghausen  Hillerheide 
(1916),  3  Sisters;  kindergarten,  needle-work  school, 
boarding  house  for  ladies,  Recklinghausen  St. 
Paulus  (1913),  5  Sisters;  kindergarten,  needle- 
school,  boarding  house  for  ladies,  Recklinghausen 
St.  Paulus  (1913),  5  Sisters;  kindergarten,  needle- 
work  school,  refuge  for  girls,  Rechlinghausen  Sud 
(1911),  4  Sisters;  kindergarten,  needle-work  school, 
Recklinghausen  Ost  (1921),  4  Sisters;,  kindergarten, 
needle-work  school,  boarding  house  for  ladies,  Rhein- 


berg  (1913),  4  Sisters;  housekeeping  school,  nursing 
/°,r,.S1iC-k  ^lsters>  Telgte  Marienheim  (1913), 
20  Sisters;  kindergarten,  needle-work  school,  nurs- 
mg  home  for  the  aged,  Warendorf  Franz  H.  (1916) 
o  Sisters;  orphanage,  needle-work  school,  cooking 
school,  Sunday  school,  Werne  (1912)  7  Sisters- 

lyceum,  Wesel  (1918),  17  Sisters.  ’ 

At  Steyl,  in  the  Diocese  of  Roermond,  Holland, 
St  Josephs  Convent,  till  now  a  German  boarding 
school  has  become  the  provincial  mother-house  for 
Holland,  with  the  novitiate  and  a  higher  Dutch 
school  establishment,  Mulo  school.  The  provincial 
superior  is  Sister  Vincentia  (Oldemeyer).  Other 
foundations  in  the  Diocese  of  Roermond  are:  nurs¬ 
ing  home  for  the  aged  and  kindergarten,  at  Helden 
Hanmngen;  elementary  schools,  kindergarten,  and 
needle-work  school,  Maasniel  (1913);  elementary 
schools  (8-10  classes),  kindergarten,  needle-work 
school,  Speckholzerheide  (1910),  9  Sisters;  elemen- 
tary  schools  kindergarten,  needle-work  school, 
Velden  (1913),  4  Sisters.  Recent  foundations  in 
the  Diocese  of  Hertogenbosch  are:  elementary 
™o  s>  kindergarten,  needle-work  school,  Bergharen 
(1910),  b  Sisters;  country  housekeeping  school,  ele¬ 
mentary  schools,  boarding  house  for  gentlemen  and 
ladies,  needle-work  school,  nursing  of  the  aged 
kindergarten,  Lierop  (1911),  12  Sisters.  In  gfhe 
Archdiocese  of  Utrecht  works  recently  undertaken 
are-  e^ernentary  schools,  housekeeping  school 
needle-work  school,  boarding  house  for  ladies,  nurs- 
tne  aged,  ambulant  nursing,  Lent  (1910),  14 
oisters;  boarding  house  for  ladies,  Arnheim. 

In  Brazil  the  provincial  mother-house  with 
novitiate  is  the  Convent  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  at 
Ilorianopohs,  where  the  Sisters  also  have  a  board¬ 
ing  school  and  a  higher  school.  The  provincial 
superior  is  Sister  Benvenuta  (Rohling).  Works 
undertaken  by  the  Sisters  in  Brazil  since  1909  are: 
elementary  schools,  needle-work  school,  ambulant 
nursing,  Santo  Amaro  (1910);  elementary  school, 
Faragua  (1917),  3  Sisters;  elementary  school 
needle-work  school,  kindergarten,  Sao  Jose  (1913)  ;’ 
elementary  school,  ambulant  nursing,  Pelotas  (1918)’, 

5  Sisters;  elementary  school,  Tijucas  (1918),  3  Sis¬ 
ters;  elementary  school,  Gaspar  (1920),  3  Sisters- 
management  of  the  hospital,  elementary  school. 
Laguna  (1912),  4  Sisters;  kindergarten,  needle-work 
school,  elementary  school,  Rio  Negro  (1913),  5 

OI0L61 s. 

.  The  total  number  of  members  of  the  congrega¬ 
tion  is  2038,  and  the  total  number  of  houses  156. 
there  are  104  houses  in  Germany,  22  houses  in 
Holland,  and  30  houses  in  Brazil.  Sister  Bertha 
superior  general  for  over  twenty  years,  died  in  1912 
and  was  succeeded  by  Sister  Hildegundis  (Dill- 
mann),  who  died  three  years  later.  The  present 
superior  general  is  Sister  Berthilde  (Engelbert), 
who  was  elected  at  the  general  chapter  in  1916  and 
has  safely  guided  the  congregation  through  difficult 
years. 

IV.  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence  (Mainz  Ger- 
many;  cf.  C.  E.,  V-52d). — The  first  superior  of  this 
order,  Mother  Mary  de  la  Roche,  governed  but 
seven  years,  when  she  was  superseded  by  Mother 
M.  V  mcentia,  who  filled  this  important  office  for 
twenty-fiv  e  years.  Then  followed  in  succession 
Mothers  Walburga,  Athanasia,  and  Sebastian,  the 
last  of  whom  died  recently.  At  present  the  direc- 
taon  of  the  community  is  under  the  guidance  of 

i  i rul ier  J°sepha.  The  Sisterhood  numbers  about 
1,000  members  actively  engaged  in  100  branch 
houses  m  the  diocese  of  Mainz  and  Limburg.  In 
recent  years  several  large  institutions  have  been 
established :  the  Ketteler  Institute,  for  aged  in¬ 
valids;  the  St.  Hildegarde  Hospital,  a  training 


DIVINE  SAVIOR 


266 


DIVINE  SAVIOR 


school  for  nurses.  In  conformity  with  the  revised 
code  of  Canon  Law  the  general  superior  is  elected 
for  a  term  of  six  years,  which  may  be  extended  to 
another  term  only  by  the  consent  of  the  Holy  See. 

Since  1909  the  number  of  members  in  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Province  has  increased  to  300.  The  provincial 
house  is  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  Several  new  branch 
houses  have  been  opened  in  the  last  decade..  The 
activity  of  the  community  consists  mainly  in  the 
education  of  youth.  The  number  of  Sisters  actively 
engaged  in  educational  work  is  about  200,  and  the 
entire  enrollment  of  pupils  is  about  8,000.  In  addi¬ 
tion  to  the  parish  schools  the  Sisters  conduct  a 
boarding  and  day  school  for  young  ladies.  The" 
course  of  instruction  embraces  three  distinct  depart¬ 
ments:  academic,  commercial,  and  industrial.  In 
1916  Toner  Institute,  commonly  known  as  the 
“Seraphic  Home  for  Destitute.  Boys,”  was  taken 
over.  In  recent  years  the  activity  of  .  the  Sisters 
has  been  extended  to  the  care  of  the  sick;  and  at 
present  St.  John’s  General  Hospital,  Northside, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Gadsden  General  Hospital,  Gads¬ 
den,  Ala.,  and  St.  Elizabeth  Hospital,  Granite  City, 
Ill.,  are  the  property  of  the  community.  Since  the 
introduction  of  this  Sisterhood  into  the  United 
States  it  has  been  successively  governed  by  Mothers 
Xavier,  Frances,  Theresia,  and  Aloysia. 

V.  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence  (San  Antonio, 
Texas;  cf.  C.  E.,  V-53b). — The  first  foundation  was 
made  at  Austin,  Texas,  U.  S.  A.,  in  1866,  but  in 
1868  was  removed  to  Castroville,  Texas.  In  1896 
the  mother-house  was  transferred  to  San  Antonio, 
Texas.  The  Constitutions  received  final  papal  ap¬ 
probation  from  Pope  Pius  X,  12  December,  1912. 
The  Sisters,  now  numbering  500,  have  charge  of 
one  college — Our  Lady  of  the  Lake — and  79  schools 
and  academies  in  Texas,  Louisiana,  Oklahoma,  and 
New  Mexico,  attended  by  12,000  pupils.  The  con¬ 
gregation  has  erected  a  house  of  studies  known  as 
Providence  House  of  Studies  on  the  Sisters’  college 
grounds  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

Divine  Savior,  Daughters  of  the  (cf.  C.  E., 
V-54a). — The  congregation  follows  the  Rule  of  St. 
Augustine,  and  is  under  the  direction  of  a  superior, 
Canon  Franz  Kamprath,  the  superior  general, 
Mother  Cecily  Wehner,  and  six  councillors  general. 
The  mother-house  is  at  Vienna  and  has  75  depen¬ 
dencies,  of  which  the  following  are  property  of  the 
congregation:  a  house  of  convalescence,  4  houses 
for  Sisters  who  attend  the  sick  in  their  own  homes, 
4  educational  establishments  (a  seminary  for  female 
teachers,  primary  and  Burger-school,  kindergarten, 
school  for  housekeeping),  3  kindergartens  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  a  needle-work  school  and  private  care  of 
the  sick.  The  Sisters  are  also  active  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  institutions:  15  hospitals  (5  of  which  are  in 
Vienna),  9  houses  for  Sisters  who  attend  the  sick 
in  their  dwellings,  7  poorhouses,  15  kindergartens 
in  connection  with  a  needle-work  school  and  private 
care  of  the  sick,  10  homes  for  children,  8  other 
various  charitable  institutions.  The  congregation 
numbers  1,234  members  who  work  in  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Vienna,  the  Dioceses  of  St.  Polten  and 
Linz  (Austria),  Brun  (Moravia),  Parenzo-Pola 
(Italy),  Trier  (Germany),  Hertogenbosch  (Hol¬ 
land). 

Divine  Savior,  Sisters  of  the  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-53d). 
— On  18  August,  1911,  the  community  received  the 
first  papal  approbation,  the  “Decretum  laudis.”  In 
1912  a  new  novitiate  was  opened  at  Obermais- 
Meran,  Tyrol;  in  1918  another  at  Budapest,  Hun¬ 
gary;  in  1919  one  at  Berlin,  Germany;  and  in  1921 
one  at  Boerwang,  Bavaria.  From  1914  to  1919  the 


Sisters  undertook  the  nursing  of  wounded  soldiers 
in  hospitals  at  Meran,  Munich,  Vienna,  in  Hungary 
and  Jugoslavia.  Mother  Liboria  Hansknecht,  for¬ 
mer  provincial-vicaress  at  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  was 
elected  superior  general  of  the  Congregation  27 
July,  1921,  succeeding  Mother  Ambrosia  Vetter,  who 
had  been  at  the  head  of  the  community  since  the 
death  of  the  first  superior  general,  Mother  Maria 
de  Willenweber,  in  1907.  The  founder  of  the  con¬ 
gregation,  Fr.  Francis  Jordan,  died  8  September, 
1918,  and  was  succeeded  by  Fr.  P.  Pfeiffer.  The 
community  lives  according  to  the  rule  given  them 
by  their  founder.  Since  1909  new  foundations  have 
been  made  in  Italy,  Belgium,  Germany,  and  Aus¬ 
tria.  In  the  United  States  the  Sisters  have  houses 
at:  Milwaukee  (provincial  hoase),  St.  Nazianz, 
Wausau,  Columbus,  and  Portage,  and  conduct 
schools  at  Almena,  Bloomer,  Cross  Plains,  Dickey- 
ville,  Edson,  Sheboygan,  Schoolhill,  and  Cadott. 
The  congregation  has  a  total  membership  of  400, 
with  34  foundations.  The  Sisters  are  in  charge  of 
schools,  kindergartens,  orphan  asylums,  homes  for 
the  aged,  and  hospitals,  and  also  nurse  the  sick 
in  their  homes. 

Divine  Savior,  Society  of  the  (Societas  Divini 
Salvatoris;  Salvatorians;  cf.  C.  E.,  V-53c),  founded 
at  Rome  8  December,  1881,  by  Rev.  John  Baptist 
Jordan  (b.  1848  at  Gurtweil,  Baden,  Germany;  d.  8 
September,  1918,  at  Tavel,  Ct.  Fribourg,  Switzer¬ 
land),  who  took  in  religion  the  name  Francis  Mary 
of  the  Cross,  and  was  superior  general  of  the 
Society  until  his  death.  The  Society’s  original 
name,  “Die  Katholische  Lehrgesell&chaft,”  i.  e., 
Society  of  Catholic  Instruction,  was,  upon  the 
advice  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  for  Religious, 
changed  by  the  founder,  in  1894,  to  its  present  name, 
the  S.  D.  S.  Fr.  Jordan  had  in  his  youth  been 
apprenticed  to  decorative  painting;  he  began  to 
take  up  his  studies  for  the  priesthood  when  about 
twenty  years  old.  Having  been  ordained  in  Frei¬ 
burg  (Baden)  in  1878,  he  continued  to  pursue  his 
studies  in  Rome,  particularly  those  of  Oriental  lan¬ 
guages,  in  which  he  distinguished  himself.  He  was 
more  or  less  acquainted  with  eleven  ancient  and 
twenty-seven  modern  tongues.  Before  definitely 
turning  to  the  founding  of  his  work  he  went,  with 
the  blessing  of  Pope  Leo  XIII,  on  a  pilgrimage  to 
the  Holy  Land,  and  having  returned  thence,  with 
the  same  pope’s  blessing,  he  applied  himself  to  the 
difficult  task  which  he  recognized  as  his  vocation 
and  God’s  holy  will.  The  saintly  man’s  life  was 
one  of  prayer,  struggle,  and  suffering  for  his  life- 
work,  which  he  saw  crowned  by  the  Church  with 
the  seal  of  approval.  The  steadfast  companion, 
firm  support,  and  prudent  adviser  of  Fr.  Jordan 
from  the  first  beginnings  of  the  Society  was  the 
learned  and  saintly  Fr.  Bernard  Luethen,  in  religion 
Fr.  Bonaventure,  who  therefore  may  rightly  be 
called  the  co-founder  of  the  Society  with  Fr.  Jordan. 
He  was  born  at  Paderbom,  Westphalia  (Germany), 
in  1846,  and  ordained  there  in  1872.  Having  left 
his  home  diocese  on  account  of  circumstances  pre¬ 
vailing  in  those  troublous  times  of  the  Kultur- 
kampf,  he  became  chaplain  of  the  Cassianeum  of 
Ludwig  Auer,  at  Donauwoerth,  Bavaria,  and  was 
at  the  same  time  for  several  years  the  able  and 
forceful  editor  of  “Ambrosius,”  an  influential  Cath¬ 
olic  review  for  the  clergy,  which  was  published 
there.  For  the  remainder  of  his  life,  his  thirty 
years  in  religion  (d.  1911),  he  was  the  intimate  asso¬ 
ciate  of  Fr.  Jordan. 

The  Society  of  the  Divine  Savior  is  a  religious 
congregation  with  the  ordinary  three  simple  vows 
of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  which  for  the 


DIVINE  SAVIOR 


267 


DIVINE  WORD 


first  few  years  are  pronounced  as  temporal  vows, 
and  afterwards  in  perpetuity.  The  Society’s  aim 
is  “religious  enlightenment,”  viz.,  to  spread  God’s 
kingdom  on  earth  by  every  possible  means,  both 
in  civilized  countries  and  in  foreign  missions.  The 
distinctive  habit  of  the  Salvatorians  is  a  black  robe, 
Ihe  loose  folds  of  which  are  held  in  place  by  a’ 
girdle  of  the  same  color,  the  ends  of  the  latter 
hanging  down  at  the  side.  The  rosary  is  worn  sus¬ 
pended  from  the  girdle.  This  costume  is  completed 
by  the  clerical  Roman  collar.  When  going  out  an 
upper  garment  consisting  of  a  mantle  with  cape  is 
usually  worn.  The  Society  obtained  its  final  ap¬ 
probation  from  the  Holy  See  in  1911.  At  present 
the  Society  numbers  about  500  members,  of  whom 
about  200  are  priests,  the  others  being  scholastics, 
lay  brothers,  and  novices;  these  are  distributed  over 
32  Salvatorian  houses  and  colleges  in  Italy,  Ger¬ 
many,  Austria,  Czechoslovakia,  Poland,  Rumania, 
Switzerland,  Belgium,  England,  the  United  States 
of  America,  Colombia,  and  Brazil.  The  mother- 
house  of  the  Salvatorians,  where  the  superior  gen¬ 
eral  with  his  staff  resides,  is  in  Rome,  near  St. 
Peter’s.  In  this,  the  greatest  church  of  the  world, 
the  care  of  the  Chapel  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament 
was  entrusted  to  the  S.  D.  S.  in  1920  by  the  cathe¬ 
dral  chapter  with  the  approval  of  the  late  Pope 
Benedict  XV,  by  formally  handing  over  the  keys 
of  the  chapel  to  the  superior  general,  who  appointed 
one  of  the  Fathers  as  chaplain  for  the  time  being. 
The  Society’s  spacious  mother-house  serves  also  for 
the  time  being  the  social  needs  of  both  the  parish 
of  St.  Peter’s  and  another  neighboring  parish,  offer¬ 
ing  accommodations  for  social  gatherings  and  per¬ 
formances.  The  present  superior  general,  successor 
to  Fr.  Jordan,  is  Rev.  Pancratius  Pfeiffer,  S.  D.  S., 
a  native  of  southern  Bavaria,  who  made  all  his 
studies  at  the  Gregorian  University.  Previous  to 
his  present  office  he  had  been  procurator  general 
of  the  Society  for  a  number  of  years.  In  the 
Society’s  fourth  general  chapter,  which  was  cele¬ 
brated  in  Rome  in  1921,  he -was  re-elected  to  the 
office  of  superior  general  for  a  second  term  of  six 
years. 

In  England  the  Society  has  a  mission  center  with 
a  parish  attached  to  it  at  Wealdstone,  Middlesex, 
near  London.  This  house  belongs  to  the  Anglo- 
American  Province  of  the  S.  D.  S.,  the  provincial 
of  which  resides  at  St.  Nazianz,  Wis.,  U.  S.  A., 
where  the  Salvatorian  Fathers  conduct  the  Salva¬ 
torian  College,  a  preparatory  seminary  for  both 
aspirants  to  the  secular  priesthood  and  postulants 
of  the  S.  D.  S.  The  Fathers  there,  besides  doing 
parish  work,  also  publish  a  monthly  for  young  folks, 
the  “Manna,”  the  “Manna  Almanac,”  and  the 
“Apostelkalender,”  this  latter  in  German.  In  the 
German-speaking  countries  of  Europe  the  Society 
is  likewise  doing  its  share  in  the  apostolate  of  the 
press.  Besides  several  books  of  individual  members 
that  have  been  published  on  ascetic,  biographical, 
missionary,  belletristic  topics,  the  Society  is  pub¬ 
lishing  the  “Manna”  (“Ulustrierte  katholische 
Jugendschrift”),  “Der  Missionaer”  (“Ulustrierte 
Monatshefte  fuers  christliche  Haus”),  the  “Apos¬ 
telkalender,”  the  “Manna-Kalender,”  the  “Salvator- 
Kalender.”  The  two  monthlies  are  going  out  in 
about  100,000,  and  the  three  year-books  in  about 
300,000,  copies  from  the  German  center  of  the 
Society’s  press  endeavors,  the  Salvator-Verlag,  in 
Bavaria.  Another  field  of  activity  that  the  Salva¬ 
torians  are  engaged  in  is  social  work.  In  Vienna 
(Austria),  besides  instructing  many  thousands  of 
children  in  the  public  schools  in  Christian  doctrine, 
the  Fathers  conduct  and  foster  various  associations 
and  institutions  for  the  young  and  the  working 


To  the  Rev.  Gregory  Gasser,  S.D.S. 
(d.  1913),  who  spent  his  life  in  this  worthy  cause, 
is  due  the  organization  of  the  “Katholische  Volks- 
bund  in  Austria.  In  Berlin  six  Salvatorian  Fathers 
are  engaged  in  different  branches  of  social  work, 
one  of  them  having  been  appointed  Director  of 
the  “Charity  Association  for  Greater  Berlin.”  He 
also  acts  as  official  Berlin  correspondent  of  the 
National  Catholic  Welfare  Council  News  Service 
of  the  U.  S.  A.  In  Westphalia  the  Salvatorian 
Fathers  and  Brothers  conduct  an  institute  for  home¬ 
less  and  endangered  boys,  to  whom  they  impart  a 
good  school  education  and  whom  they  train  in 
different  trades  and  handicrafts,  thus  placing  them 
on  a  sound  basis  for  an  honest  life  in  human  society. 
The  institution  is  considered  a  model  of  its  kind. 

In  all  their  houses  and  colleges  .the  Salvatorian 
Fathers  exercise  the  care  of  souls,  either  as  their 
main  occupation  or  as  secondary,  viz.,  by  conduct¬ 
ing  parishes  or  doing  parish  work  at  the  place  of 
their  residence  or  in  the  surrounding  neighborhood, 
by  supporting  parish  work,  by  giving  missions  and 
spiritual  retreats  to  both  religious  communities  and 
lay  people,  by  supplementary  parish  work  at  special 
occasions,  or  by  taking  the  place  of  parish  priests 
during  the  time  of  their  absence.  The  first  foreign 
mission  placed  in  charge  of  the  S.  D.  S.  was  the 
Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Assam  (British  India),  then, 
in  1889,  newly  erected.  In  this  promising  vineyard 
there  labored  13  Salvatorian  missionaries,  aided  by 
4  Christian  Brothers  of  Ireland,  6  Loretto  Sisters 
of  Ireland,  4  Missionary  Sisters,  and  46  native 
catechists,  extending  their  activity  over  9  principal 
and  56  secondary  stations  with  23  churches  and 
chapels,  and  as  many  elementary  schools,  1  middle 
English  school,  1  boarding  and  day  school  for  girls, 
1  college,  4  orphan  asylums,  2  homes  for  old  people, 
6  dispensaries.  Several  books  and  one  periodical 
in  the  Khasi  tongue  had  been  published  by  them. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  World  War  all  the  Salva¬ 
torian  Fathers,  Brothers,  and  Sisters  were  obliged 
to  leave  the  mission  on  account  of  their  German 
nationality,  and  were  later  on  deported  to  Europe. 
Neither  were  they  allowed  to  return  to  their  loved 
field  of  labor  after  the  war,  despite  the  entreaties 
of  their  bereft  Christians.  For  this  reason  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  was  forced 
to  transfer  this  mission  to  another  religious  congre¬ 
gation,  and  its  choice  fell  on  the  Salesians  of  the 
Italian  Province.  The  same  Propaganda  has  in  the 
meantime  assigned  the  Salvatorian  missionaries  a 
new  mission  field  in  the  province  of  Fokian,  in 
Southeast  China. 

Divine  Word,  Society  of  the  (Steyl,  Holland; 
cf.  C.  E.,  V-54a). — The  founder  of  the  Society, 
Arnold  Janssen,  died  at  the  age  of  seventy-three,  15 
January,  1909.  He  had  lived  to  see  the  membership 
of  the  organization  number  500  priests  and  600 
brothers.  He  was  succeeded  by  Nicholas  Blum, 
under  whose  efficient  management  new  missions 
were  founded  in  South  America,  the  Philippine 
Islands,  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  and  Japan.  He 
directed  the  society  through  the  adversities  of  the 
war  and  died  29  October,  1919.  The  third  general 
of  the  society  is  William  Gier,  elected  at  the  5th 
general  chapter,  the  most  important  and  far-reach¬ 
ing  assembly  of  the  society.  The  rule  was  here 
made  to  harmonize  with  the  new  Canon  Law,  and 
provisions  were  made  for  greater  expansion  of  the 
mission  work.  New  impetus  is  given  the  work 
among  Greek  Catholics,  in  Ukrania,  missions  are 
contemplated  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  and  a 
new  era  of  prosperity  seems  to  be  dawning  for 
the  society.  Recent  activities  are  given  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  paragraphs. 


DIVINE  WORD 


.268 


DIVINE  WORD 


United  States. — St.  Mary’s  Mission  House. — One 
of  the  last  important  works  blessed  by  the  founder 
was  the  erection  at  Techny,  Ill.,  of  St.  Mary’s  Mis¬ 
sion  House  for  the  training  of  American  boys  for 
the  foreign  missions.  Pope  Pius  X  gave  his  Apos¬ 
tolic  Blessing  to  the  new  foundation,  and  on  2 
February,  1909,  the  mission  house  was  opened  with 
six  boys  in  attendance.  On  26  April  Archbishop 
Quigley,  of  Chicago,  dedicated  the  mission  college. 
The  first  six  boys  were  graduated  from  the  college 
course  on  24  June,  1915.  The  following  fall  saw 
them  ready  to  enter  the  newly  erected  American 
novitiate  of  the  society,  and  on  the  feast  of  Our 
Lady’s  Nativity  they  received  the  habit  of  clerics. 
The  first  scholastics  made  their  vows  on  8  Septem¬ 
ber  1916,  and  the  first  ordination  of  priests  took 
place  1  May,  1921.  After  twelve  years  of  progress 
St.  Mary’s  reports  the  following  figures:  33  priests, 
29  scholastics,  51  Brothers,  20  brother-novices,  7 
postulants,  20  candidates  for  the  brotherhood,  190 
candidates  for  the  priesthood. 

The  society  is  responsible,  to  a  great  extent,  for 
the  present  missionary  spirit  in  the  Middle  West. 
Through  its  Mission  Press  about  5,000,000  mis¬ 
sionary  pamphlets  have  been  printed  and  dis¬ 
tributed  throughout  the  country  within  the  past  ten 
years.  The  “Christian  Family,”  a  monthly  family 
Catholic  magazine,  was  first  issued  in  1906.  It  has 
at  present  more  than  100,000  subscribers.  The  Ger¬ 
man  Catholic  monthly,  “Familienblatt,”  reaches 
about  15,000  subscribers.  The  “Little  Missionary” 
first  appeared  in  September,  1915.  It  is  issued  in 
each  school  month,  and  is  read  by  100,000  school 
children  and  adults.  The  official  organ  of  the 
society  in  the  United  States  is  “Our  Missions,” 
launched  on  15  January,  1921.  It  contains  mis¬ 
sionary  information  from  all  the  fields  of  the 
society,  and  is  sent  to  about  40,000  friends,  bene¬ 
factors,  and  subscribers.  The  society  also  fostered 
the  “Catholic  Students’  Mission  Crusade,”  the  first 
convention  being  held  at  Techny  27—30  July,  1918. 

An  event  of  far-reaching  importance  for  the.  Mis¬ 
sion  House  was  the  sending  forth  of  the  first  mission 
band,  which  sailed  from  Seattle  3  December,  1919. 
The  first  American  missionaries  of  the  society  were 
Rev.  Fred  Gruhn,  Rev.  Clifford  King,  and  Rev. 
Robert  Clark.  The  latter  two  went  forth  as 
scholastics,  and  after  spending  a  year  in  the  semi¬ 
nary  at  Yenchowfu,  S.  Shantung,  were  ordained  to 
the  priesthood  10  October,  1920,  being  the  first 
American  boys  taken  into  the  society  as  priests. 

Sacred  Heart  Mission  House. — In  1912  the  society 
established  its  second  American  mission  house  at 
Girard,  Erie  Co.,  Pa.  The  work  has  progressed 
well.  Reports  of  1921  show:  8  priests,  5  Brothers, 
70  students  preparing  for  the  priesthood. 

Sacred  Heart  Novitiate.—1 The  third  foundation  of 
the  society  is  located  at  East  Troy  in  the  diocese 
of  Milwaukee,  on  the  shores  of  beautiful  Lake 
Beulah.  The  novitiate  was  transferred  from  Techny 
to  East  Troy  8  September,  1921.  At  present  there 
are  10  novices,  with  2  priests  and  2  Brothers. 

Negro  Missions.— At  the  suggestion  of  Archbishop 
Quigley  the  society  undertook  to  work  among  the 
negroes  of  the  South.  Mother  Katherine  Drexel 
came  to  the  aid  of  the  first  missionaries  and  made 
their  pioneer  efforts  a  success.  The  first  mission 
was  opened  at  Vicksburg,  Miss.,  in  1906.  To-day 
there  are  260  Catholic  negroes  in  the  congregation 
and  about  300  children  in  the  well  equipped  school. 
Jackson,  Miss.,  was  the  scene  of  the  second  mission 
in  1909.  Among  a  negro  population  of  11,000  there 
was  not  a  single  Catholic.  In  spite  of  enormous 
difficulties,  the  work  has  made  progress  and  to-day 


120  Catholic  negroes  attend  the  church.  There  are 
350  children  attending  school,  about  80  being  Cath¬ 
olic;  10  Sisters  and  2  priests  are  working  in  this 
mission.  In  May,  1910,  the  mission  at  Meridian 
was  opened.  The  Catholics  number  about  100; 
school  children,  250;  Sisters,  9;  priests,  2.  At  Little 
•Rock,  Ark.,  a  start  was  made  in  October,  1910. 
There  are  2  priests,  8  Sisters,  210  Catholics,  300 
school  children.'  Greenville,  Miss.,  welcomed  the 
missionaries  in  1913.  The  first  Catholic  high  school 
for  negroes  was  opened  in  this  mission  in  1917.  The 
first  seminary  for  negro  priests  is  another  note¬ 
worthy  foundation.  These  negro  priests  will  be 
religious,  affiliated  with  the  Society  of  the  Divine 
Word,  but  having  their  own  specific  work  in  the 
missions  among  their  own  people.  The  seminary 
has  been  transferred  to  Bay  St.  Louis,  Miss.,  and  is 
known  as  St.  Augustine’s  Mission  House.  There 
are  30  candidates  at  present.  In  1917  the  society 
took  charge  of  St.  Monica’s  parish  in  Chicago,  the 
only  parish  for  negroes  in  the  archdiocese.  There 
are  about  250  children  in  the  school,  taught  by  the 
Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  The  number  of 
Catholics  is  difficult  to  estimate,  owing  to  peculiar 
conditions,  and  constant  moving. 

Europe. — In  1906  the  society  had  6  mission  houses 
in  Europe.  The  number  has  grown  to  22,  distributed 
as  follows:  4  in  Holland,  11  in  Germany,  2  in  Aus¬ 
tria,  and  1  in  Poland,  Spain,  Hungary,  Switzerland, 
and  Italy. 

Foreign  Missions. — Philippine  Islands. — On  15 
August,  1909,  the  first  two  missionaries  landed 
in  the  Philippine  Islands  and  opened  a  mission  in 
Abra,  Northern  Luzon.  The  religious  condition  in 
the  province  was  deplorable  at  that  time.  Abra 
was  the  stronghold  of  Aglipayism  and  had  no  Cath¬ 
olic  school.  To  these  difficulties  were  added  the 
severe  poveily  of  the  missionaries,  the  long  journeys 
on  foot,  the  difficult  Ilocano  dialect  that  had  to  be 
mastered,  and  hard  living  conditions.  It  is  not 
surprising  that  five  missionaries  succumbed  in  a 
short  time.  But  the  fruits  of  these  sacrifices  were 
sweet:  Aglipayism  is  all  but  dead  in  Abra,  many 
pagans  have  embraced  the  Faith,  an  effective  sys¬ 
tem  of  Catholic  schools  has  been  established.  The 
report  of  the  mission  for  1920  shows:  28  schools 
wrth  2,007  pupils,  49  teachers,  12  churches  and 
chapels,  15  priests,  8  residences  of  missionaries,  3 
Brothers,  23  Sisters,  50,000  Catholics,  12,500  heathen. 

Nygata,  Japan.— In  1907  the  district  of  Nygata 
was  given  to  the  society.  The  mission  lies  100  miles 
northwest  of  Tokyo.  It  was  erected  into  a  pre¬ 
fecture  apostolic  in  1912  There  is  a  population  of 
6,206,000,  of  whom  only  466  are  Catholics.  A  seminary 
with  10  candidates  has  been  opened.  An  orphanage 
and  hospital  are  successfully  maintained.  Figures 
for  1920  show:  14  priests,  12  Sisters,  10  residences 
of  missionaries,  6  churches  and  chapels.  In  a  new 
territory  assigned  to  the  missionaries  there  is  a 
population  of  5,000,000  and  scarcely  any  Catholics. 
The  capital  of  this  new  district  is  the  famous  city 
of  Nagoya. 

Sonda  Islands ,  Dutch  East  Indies. — The  mission 
is  known  as  the  Endeh-Flores  mission  and  com¬ 
prises  also  the  Dutch  part  of  the  Island  of  Timor, 
besides  many  intervening  groups  of  islands  lying 
to  the  east  of  Java.  The  district  was  taken  over 
from  the  Jesuits  in  1912,  erected  into  a  prefecture 
apostolic  in  1913,  and  to-day  it  is  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  mission  fields  of  the  society.  The  1920 
report  shows:  26  priests,  12  Brothers,  30  Sisters,  10 
catechists,  5653  boys  in  75  elementary  schools,  1151 
girls  in  10  schools,  601  boys  in  4  boarding  schools, 
349- girls  in  2  boajding  schools,  171  teachers,  18 


DIVINE  WORD 


DIVORCE 


269 


churches  and  chapels,  40  oratories,  50,000  Catholics, 
and  4000  catechumens. 

South  Shantung ,  China.— During  the  war  the  mis¬ 
sion  of  South  Shantung  was  in  great  danger.  Eleven 
missionaries  were  deported,  while  the  remaining  52 
were  permitted  to  keep  up  their  work  only  after 
the  Washington  administration  made  a  vigorous 
protest  against  their  deportation.  This  protest  had 
been  induced  by  enterprising  American  Catholic 
prelates.  Three  American  missionaries  were  then 
sent  to  China  and  the  danger  ceased.  In  38  years 
this  mission  has  made  over  98,000  converts.  On 
1  September,  1921,  the  mission  reported  77  Euro¬ 
pean  and  3  American  priests,  20  native  priests,  97 
Sisters,  33  seminarians,  92  collegians  preparing  for 
priesthood,  13  Brothers,  2  hospitals,  13  dispensaries, 
743  orphans  cared  for,  10,800  children  baptized  in 
1921,  of  whom  7700  were  in  articulo  mortis,  6  high 
schools,  98  elementary  schools,  185  prayer  and  724 
winter  schools,  5735  pupils,  98,190  Catholics  and 
43,680  catechumens  in  a  population  of  12,000,000. 
New  mission  fields  have  been  assigned  to  the  society 
in  Kansu,  Hi,  and  Honan. 

Australian  New  Guinea. — The  Prefecture  Apostolic 
of  New  Guinea  has  come  nearest  to  the  self- 
supporting  stage.  Through  large  cocoanut  planta¬ 
tions  a  fair  income  is  assured  to  the  mission.  Figures 
for  1920  show:  27  priests,  22  Brothers,  35  Sisters, 
6467  Catholics,  47  schools,  2170  pupils,  31  chapels, 
23  main  stations  and  23  substations.  On  6  Decem¬ 
ber,  1921,  the  first  American  Sisters  left  San  Fran¬ 
cisco  for  this,  mission.  The  pioneer  band  numbers 
four.  The  first  American  priest  and  Brother  left 
the  United  States  3  March;  the  New  Guinea  mis¬ 
sion  thus  has  6  American  missionaries. 

South  America. — In  the  Argentine  Republic  at 
Buenos  Aires  a  mission  college  has  been  opened  for 


STATISTICS  OF  THE  SOCIETY  OF  THE  DIVINE  WORD 

(March,  1921) 


Countries 

GO 

4-3 

CO 

<D 

•  pH 

Ph 

85 

158 

66 

4 

CO 

o 

•  pH 

4— 1 

CO 

o 

o 

m 

23 

i39 

CO 

O 

•  pH 
> 

O 

£ 

13 

o 

•  H 

u. 

o> 

5 

17 

49 

48 

to 

Sh 

0) 

4-> 

o 

u 

n 

<D 

CO 

CO 

a> 

<4-< 

o 

f-4 

PL, 

248 

173 

83 

l 

'  |  Brother  Novices 

OCaa  | 

tn 

C5 

J3 

3 

+? 

m 

O 

Ph 

u 

<D 

o 

t-, 

« 

43 

25 

23 

Students  (Candidates 
for  Priesthood) 

Brother  Aspirants 

TOTALS 

Holland  . 

Germany  . 

Austria  . 

Hungary  . 

268 

673 

53 

24 

12 

754 

1155 

452 

4 

Poland  . 

3 

3 

Italy  . 

1 

1 

Australia  . 

26 

21 

47 

United  States. . . . 

49 

28 

7 

54 

i3 

9 

157 

7 

324 

Argentina  . 

74 

4 

42 

3 

3 

61 

2 

189 

Chile  . 

35 

6 

41 

Paraguay  . 

5 

6 

11 

Brazil  . 

70 

25 

7 

102 

China  . 

72 

10 

82 

Japan  . 

19 

19 

Philippine  Islands 

12 

3 

... 

15 

Dutch  E.  Indies. 

38 

0 

15 

55 

Togo  . 

1 

.... 

1 

Grand  totals. . . 

718 

192 

125 

686 

| 

167 

103 

1219 

45 

3255 

the  training  of  young  men  for  the  society.  There 
are  100  candidates.  The  missions  report:  185,000 
Catholics,  7  colleges  with  1783  students,  .2  semi¬ 
naries  with  73  seminarians,  73  parochial  schools  with 
4112  pupils,  87  priests,  and  57  Brothers. 

In  Chile  two  colleges  have  been  established  and 
a  parish  erected  at  Osorno  in  1911.  There  are  35,000 
Catholics  in  this  parish.  Of  6000  school  children 


only  600  are  in  school.  The  mission  shows  35 
priests  and  6  Brothers. 

In  the  Indian  missions  of  Paraguay  the  society 
conducts  2  schools  with  24  boys  and  19  girls  in 
attendance.  There  are  2  mission  stations  with  5 
priests  and  6  Brothers.  This  mission  is  a  relic  of 
the  old  Jesuit  Reductions.  It  belongs  to  the  Diocese 
of  Asuncion,  and  the  superior  of  the  mission  is 
the  delegate  of  the  bishop  to  the  Indians.  Diffi¬ 
culties  in .  the  mission  are  numerous,  owing  to  the 
nomadic  instincts  of  the  people. 

The  society  is  working  in  6  dioceses  in  Brazil 
with  the  care  of  200,000  Catholics.  There  are  5 
colleges  with  600  students,  1  seminary  with  40  stu¬ 
dents,  and  a  mission  house  with  17  candidates  of 
the  society.  Some  of  the  parishes  have  as  many 
as  40,000  Catholics.  There  are  70  priests  and  25 
Brothers  working  in  Brazil. 

Statistics.— Figures  for  the  United  States  for  1922 
show  56  priests,  29  scholastics,  11  clerical  novices, 
62  Brothers,  20  Brother  novices,  7  Brother  postu¬ 
lants,  230  students  for  the  priesthood,  15  Brother 
aspirants,  total  430.  The  appended  chart  shows  the 
figures  for  March,  1921,  throughout  the  world. 

Divorce,  Declaration  of  Nullity  (cf.  C.  E., 
V“£>9a) .  Those  who,  are  permitted  to  impugn  the 
validity  of  a  marriage  by  complaint  before  the 
ecclesiastical  courts  are:  (a)  the  married  parties, 
in  all  cases  of  separation  or  declaration  of  nullity, 
unless  they  are  responsible  for  the  impediment; 
(b)  the  promoter  of  justice  when  the  impediment 
is  public  in  its  nature;  all  other  parties  are  re¬ 
stricted  to  denouncing  the  marriage  as  null  to  the 
ordinary  or  promoter  of  justice.  If  from  a  trust¬ 
worthy,  unimpeachable,  authentic  document  it  is 
evident  that  there  has  existed  an  impediment  of 
disparity  of  worship,  orders,  solemn  vow  of  chastity, 
ligamen,  consanguinity,  affinity  or  spiritual  rela¬ 
tionship,  and  it  appears  equally  certain  that  no 
dispensation  has  been  granted  from  the  impedi¬ 
ment,  the  ordinary,  after  citing  the  parties  and 
calling  in  the  defender  of  the  bond,  can  declare  the 
nullity  of  the  marriage  without  the  necessity  of  the 
usual  ecclesiastical  trial.  Unless  the  defender  of 
the  bond  is  certain  that  the  declaration  is  justified 
he  must  appeal,  and  the  judge  of  appeal  having 
heard  him  is  to  decide  whether  to  confirm  the 
declaration  or  send  the  matter  back  to  the  court 
of  first  instance  to  follow  the  regular  procedure. 

Pauline  Privilege  (cf.  C.  E.,  \M>0a) —Before  the 
privilege  can  be  used  the  baptized  convert  must 
ask  the  unbaptized  partner  (a)  whether  he  or  she 
is  willing  to  be  converted  and  to  receive  baptism, 
and  (b)  if  he  or  she,  at  least,  consents  to  live  in 
peace  without  insulting  God.  Usually  these  de¬ 
mands  are  to  be  made  with  the  authorization  of 
the  convert’s  ordinary;  but  they  are  valid  if  made 
privately  by  the  convert,  and  even  licit  if  the  usual 
procedure  cannot  be  followed,  though  they  would 
be  worthless  in  the  external  forum  unless  cor¬ 
roborated  by  at  least  two  witnesses  or  in  some  other 
authorized  manner.  The  convert  would  lose  the 
right  to  marry  again  if  after  baptism  he  or  she 
gave  the  unbaptized  party  just  cause  for  separating. 
The  decrees  regarding  marriage  contained  in  the 
Constitutions  of  Paul  III,  Pius  V,  and  Gregory 
XIII  for  certain  foreign  mission  territories  have 
been  extended  to  the  adjoining  regions.  In  case  of 
doubt  the  law  favors  the  Pauline  privilege.  The 
Code  states  that  the  dissolution  of  a  marriage,  even 
consummated,  between  unbaptized  persons  in  virtue 
of  this  privilege  is  in  favor  of  the  Faith,  that  is  it 
favors  the  liberty  of.  the  baptized  party,  but  it  does 
not  restrict  the  word  baptized  to  Catholics. 


DOCTOR 


270 


DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 


Separation  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-63b)  .—Tacit  condonation 
of  adultery  takes  place  if  the  innocent  party  after 
learning  of  the  sin  freely  continues  relations  with  the 
culprit;  moreover,  condonation  is  presumed  unless 
within  six  months  the  guilty  party  has  been  dis¬ 
missed,  left,  or  duly  accused.  The  Code  does  not 
uphold  the  view  of  certain  theologians  that  if  the 
innocent  party  later  committed  adultery,  he  would 
be  bound  to  receive  back  his  guilty  spouse.  It 
mentions  as  other  causes  for  separation  (a)  adhesion 
to  a  non-Catholic  sect;  (b)  giving  a  non-Catholic 
education  to  the  children;  (c)  leading  an  igno¬ 
minious  or  criminal  life;  (d)  a  grave  danger  to  body 
or  soul  which  can  be  avoided  only  by  separation. 
For  these  and  similar  causes  the  party  may  separate 
with  the  ordinary’s  approval,  or  even  without  it, 
if  there  is  danger  in  delay.  When  the  reason  for 
the  separation  is  at  an  end,  married  life  is  to  be 
resumed,  but  if  the  separation  was  authorized  by 
the  ordinary  for  a  given  or  an  indefinite  time,  the 
innocent  party  need  not  return  until  the  time  ex¬ 
pires  or  until  the  ordinary  tells  him  to  do  so. 

Codex  juris  canonici,  1118-32;  Ayrinhac,  Marriage  Legisla¬ 
tion,  nn.  291-323;  Petrovits,  The  New  Church  Law  on  Matri¬ 
mony  (Philadelphia,  1921),  pp.  386-423;  Vlaming,  Praelectiones 
juris  matrimonii  (Bussum,  1921),  II,  pp.  288-344. 

Djakovo.  See  Diakovu. 

Doctor  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-72). — Those  who  have  ob¬ 
tained  the  degree  of  doctor  are  entitled  to  wear 
a  ring  and  stone,  but  not  at  sacred  functions.  Other 
things  being  equal,  doctors  and  licentiates  are  to  be 
preferred  in  the  collation  of  ecclesiastical  offices  and 
benefices.  Auditors  of  the  Rota  must  be  doctors 
in  both  canon  and  civil  law,  the  chancellor  of  the 
Congregation  of  Rites  a  doctor  of  canon  law,  and 
advocates  and  procurators  in  processes  cf  beatifica¬ 
tions  and  canonizations  before  the  same  congrega¬ 
tion  must  be  doctors  of  canon  law,  and  also  at  least 
licentiates  of  theology.  Honorary  degrees  may  be 
conferred  by  the  Congregation  for  Seminaries  and 
Universities  of  Studies. 

Doctrine,  Christian  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-83). — Priests 
and  other  clerics,  unless  legitimately  prevented, 
must  assist  their  parish  priest  in  teaching  Christian 
doctrine,  and  if  the  local  ordinary  judges  it  neces¬ 
sary  to  utilize  the  services  of  religious,  their 
superiors,  even  if  exempt,  on  being  requested  by 
him,  must  personally  or  by  their  subjects  teach 
the  catechism  especially  in  their  own  churches, 
without  detriment,  however,  to  religious  discipline. 
Exempt  religious,  if  they  teach  non-exempt  per¬ 
sons,  must  observe  the  bishop’s  regulations  con¬ 
cerning  religious  instruction.  Religious  superiors 
should  see  that  the  lay  brothers  and  servants  re¬ 
ceive  a  catechetical  instruction  at  least  twice  a 
month. 

Codex  juris  canonici,  1329-36. 

Domicile  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-103). — Domicile  is  acquired 
by  residence  in  a  parish  or  quasi-parish,  or  at  least 
in  a  diocese,  vicariate  or  prefecture  apostolic;  this 
residence,  however,  should  either  be  conjoined  with 
an  intention  of  remaining  there  permanently  if  no 
reason  for  departing  arises,  and  should  be  continued 
for  a  period  of  ten  years.  Before  the  publication 
of  the  Code  domicile  was  only  parochial,  and  was 
never  acquired  by  residence  alone.  Quasi-domicile 
is  acquired  in  the  same  way  as  domicile,  if  the 
residence  is  either  conjoined  with  the  intention  of 
remaining  for  at  least  the  great  part  of  a,  year,  or 
has  actually  been  prolonged  for  that  time.  By 
quasi-domicile  also  one  acquires  full  parish  rights 
and  a  proprius  parochus.  A  minor  who  has  ceased 
to  be  an  infant,  that  is,  who  has  completed  his 
seventh  year,  can  acquire  a  quasi-domicile  of  his 


own,  as  can  a  wife  not  legitimately  separated  from 
husband;  if  she  is  legitimately  separated,  however, 
she  can  acquire  a  domicile  also.  Those  who  are 
insane  have  necessarily  the  same  domicile  as  their 
guardians,  but  the  Code  does  not  state  what  hap¬ 
pens  wThen  the  guardian  has  only  a  quasi-domicile. 

Though  not  referred  in  the  Code  as  a  domicile 
of  origin,  a  child’s  place  of  origin  is  fixed  by  the 
place  where  his  father  had  his  domicile  or,  in  defect 
of  domicile,  his  quasi-domicile  when  the  child  was 
born,  or  where  the  mother  had  hers  if  the  child 
was  illegitimate  or  posthumous;  if  the  parents  were 
vagi,  it  is  the  place  where  the  child  was  born;  if 
the  child  was  a  foundling,  the  place  where  it  was 
discovered. 

Codex  juris  canonici,  90-94;  Farren,  Domicile  and  Quasi- 
Domicile  (Dublin,  1920);  Vermrsrsch-Creusen,  Epit.  jur.  can., 
164-71;  Kinane  in  Irish  Eccl.  Rec.,  XI  (1918),  217-31. 

Dominican  Republic  (Santo  Domingo;  cf.  C.  E., 
V-llOc,  is  the  eastern  division  of  the  island  of  Haiti. 
The  area  is  estimated  at  19,332  square  miles  and  the 
population  at  1,000,000.  According  to  the  census 
of  1919  the  city  of  Santo  Domingo  had  26,812  in¬ 
habitants  and  the  city  of  Puerta  Plata  7370,  San¬ 
tiago  de  los  Caballeros  14,744,  San  Pedro  de 
Macoris  10,000,  La  Vega  about  8000,  Samana  and 
Sanchez  about  2000  each. 

Education. — The  expenditure  on  education  in 
1919-20  was  $943,880.  In  1920  there  were  972  public 
schools  in  the  Republic  (6  secondary),  with  105,000 
pupils  (51,585  in  1918),  and  1544  teachers.  The 
Professional  Institute  was  formed  by  presidential 
decree  on  29  November,  1914.  A  commission 
appointed  by  the  Government  thoroughly  investi¬ 
gated  the  educational  situation  and  prepared  and 
recommended  the  following  laws,  based  on  its 
findings:  Compulsory  School  Attendance,  School 
Administration,  General  Studies,  University,  Theo¬ 
logical  Seminary,  Organic  Law  of  Public  Education, 
School  Revenues.  The  first  six  laws  were  promul¬ 
gated  in  April,  1918,  and  constitute  the  school  code 
of  the  country.  There  are  also  6  industrial  schools 
for  girls,  2  schools  of  fine  arts,  2  correctional  schools, 
and  the  Central  University  at  the  capital.  The 
country  is  divided  into  six  school  departments  and 
each  department  into  school  districts.  There  is  also 
a  Board  of  Education  in  each  school  district  and 
a  General  Board  of  Education  and  a  General  Super¬ 
intendent  for  the  whole  country.  The  establish¬ 
ment  of  obligatory  education  has  brought  the 
number  of  school  children  from  18,000  to  100,000. 
Prior  to  the  United  States  occupation  there  were 
30  rural  schools;  on  1  January,  1920,  there  were  647 
rural  schools. 

Government. — The  constitution  of  the  Domin¬ 
ican  Republic  provides  for  a  National  Congress, 
consisting  of  a  Senate  of  12  members  and  a  Cham¬ 
ber  of  24  Deputies.  The  executive  power  is  vested 
in  the  president  (chosen  for  six  years,  by  an  elec¬ 
toral  college),  and  in  seven  ministers.  This  system 
of  government  has  been  in  abeyance  since  1916, 
wrhen  a  military  government  by  United  States  naval 
officers  was  proclaimed.  The  military  governor 
combines,  for  the  time  being,  the  functions  of  a 
president  and  Congress.  United  States  naval  officers 
are  administering  the  different  government  depart¬ 
ments. 

Economic  Conditions. — The  foreign  trade  of  the 
Dominican  Republic  reached  a  new  high  record  in 
1920,  amounting  to  $105,257,117,  an  increase  of 
$43,636,09S,  or  71%  over  the  1919  trade,  and  535% 
greater  than  the  trade  in  1913.  The  imports,  valued 
at  $46,768,  258,  came  chiefly  from  the  United  States 
(90%) ;  the  exports,  $58,767,041,  went  chiefly  to  the 
United  States  also  (88%).  Of  the  total  area  about 


DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 


271 


DOYLE 


15,500  square  miles  is  cultivable  and  about  3,000,000 
acres  suitable  for  grazing.  Tobacco  is  grown  in  the 
northern  part,  the  production  in  1918  being  33,- 
439,648  pounds.  The  production  of  sugar  from 
17,000,000  acres  in  1920  was  1,326,438  bags  (320 
pounds  each) ;  of  cocoanut,  about  1,500,000.  The 
railways  of  the  Republic  have  an  extent  of  approxi¬ 
mately  150  miles;  in  addition  there  are  about  255 
miles  of  private  lines  on  the  large  estates.  The 
Dominican  Central  Railway,  which  formerly  be¬ 
longed  to  an  American  company,  became,  by  virtue 
of  a  contract  made  by  the  Government  in  February, 
1908,  the  property  of  the  Republic.  The  vigorous 
continuance  of  the  extensive  road-building  cam¬ 
paign  marks  the  Government’s  chief  attainment  in 
recent  years.  Up  to  the  end  of  1918  the  revenue  of 
the  government  was  derived  chiefly  from  customs 
duties  on  imports  and  exports  and  from  internal 
revenues.  A  property  tax  was  inaugurated  in  1919. 
The  customs  collections  for  1920  were  estimated  at 
$7, 500, 000.  The  national  debt  is  about  $13,100,000. 
A  treaty  between  Santo  Domingo  and  the  United 
States,  ratified  on  8  February,  1907,  authorized  an 
issue  of  $20,000,000  in  5%  bonds,  secured  as  to  prin¬ 
cipal  and  interest  by  a  first  lien  on  the  customs  rev¬ 
enues  of  the  Republic,  the  general  receiver  being  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States.  The 
interest  of  this  has  been  regularly  paid  and  it  is 
expected  that  in  1925  the  whole  debt  will  be  regu¬ 
lated. 

History  (1910-20). — In  1911  President  Ramon 
Caceres  was  assassinated.  The  new  president  was 
forced  by  revolutionary  outbreaks  the  next  year 
to  resign,  and  until  the  constitution  could  be  re¬ 
vised  and  the  general  elections  held,  Archbishop 
Alejandro  Nouel,  Metropolitan  of  the  Republic, 
was  asked  to  serve  as  provisional  president.  He 
resigned,  however,  early  in  1913, ^md  was  succeeded 
by  Jose  Nordas  Valdes.  A  revolution  broke  out  in 
Puerta  Plata  and  was  quelled  by  the  threats  of 
the  United  States  to  refuse  the  payment  of  the 
custom  collections  to  the  rebellious  party.  At  the 
regular  elections  of  1914  Jimenez  was  elected  to 
succeed  Ramon  Baez  (elected  provisional  president 
in  place  of  Valdes,  who  resigned).  He  was  im¬ 
peached  and  on  26  July,  1916,  Francisco  Henriquez 
y  Carvajal  was  chosen  provisional  president.  The 
United  States  would  not  recognize  him  because  he 
refused  to  accept  the  continuance  of  American  con¬ 
trol  over  the  customs  and  the  constabulary.  The 
deadlock  and  disorders  that  followed  caused  the 
intervention  of  the  United  States  and  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  temporary  military  government  for  “the 
purpose  of  restoring  order.”  There  was  desultory 
fighting  between  the  natives  and  the  United  States 
marines,  and  the  latter  finally  reached  Santiago, 
where  on  6  December,  1916,  the  American  flag  was 
raised.  Since  then  order  has  been  maintained  by 
the  American  forces,  numbering  5000  marines. 
There  was  an  American  military  provost  marshal 
in  the  capital  of  each  province,  who  attended  to 
the  policing  of  each  province.  At  the  head  of 
the  administration  was  a  military  governor  and 
rear  admiral  of  the  United  States  Navy.  The  ad¬ 
ministration  continued  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the 
Dominicans,  who  directed  their  school  system,  their 
courts,  and  their  town  governments.  To  the  United 
States  authorities  was  reserved  the  control  of  the 
treasury  and  customs  and  the  appointment  of  the 
governors  of  the  provinces.  On  14  June,  1921,  a 
proclamation  was  issued  by  the  United  States  Mili¬ 
tary  Commission  setting  a  date  eight  months  ahead 
for  the  withdrawal  of  the  American  forces  and  the 
restoration  of  the  national  Dominican  Government, 
but  the  conditions  of  withdrawal  were  such  that  the 
18 


Dominicans  refused  to  accept  them.  In  January, 
1922,  Archbishop  Nouel,  in  answer  to  a  request 
from  the  managing  editor  of  the  New  York 
“Nation,’  stated  that  in  his  opinion,  and  that  of 
prelates  from  all  parts  of  South  and  Central 
America,  the  American  occupation  was  in  no  way 
based  on  any  principles  of  right  and  justice,  and 
the  intervention  was  unjustified. 

Down  and  Connor,  Diocese  of  (Dunensis  et 
Connorensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  V-147b),  in  Ireland,  in¬ 
cludes  Antrim,  the  greater  part  of  Down  and  the 
Liberties  of  Coleraine,  in  Londonderry.  On  20 
September,  1908,  Most  Rev.  John  Tohill  was  con¬ 
secrated  Bishop  of  Down  and  Connor  to  succeed 
Most  Rev.  Dr.  Henry,  who  had  died  in  March  of 
that  year.  Doctor  Tohill,  d.  4  July,  1914,  and  the 
present  bishop,  Most  Rev.  Joseph  McRory,  was 
consecrated  his  successor  14  November,  1915.  Be¬ 
fore  being  appointed  bishop,  Doctor  McRory  was 
professor  of  Sacred  Scripture  and  Oriental  languages 
at  Maynooth  College  irom  1887  and  elected  vice- 
president  of  the  college  in  1912.  A  diocesan  chapter 
was  organized  on  20  December,  1920,  by  the 
authority  of  Pope  Benedict  XV,  but  in  general 
the  growth  of  Catholicity  in  this  diocese  has  been 
retarded  during  the  past  year  by  the  violent  in¬ 
tolerance  of  the  Orangemen  in  Belfast. 

At  the  present  time  (1921)  the  Irish  Catholic 
population  numbers  180,000,  and  the  diocese  com¬ 
prises  60  parishes,  116  churches,  5  monasteries,  2 
convents  for  men  and  16  for  women,  160  secular 
priests  and  22  regulars,  30  lay  Brothers,  160  nuns, 
1  seminary  with  200  seminarians,  7  high  schools 
with  45  teachers  and  attendance  of  1028  boys  and 
379  girls,  1  training  school  with  9  teachers  and 
attendance  of  100,  245  elementary  schools  with  570 
teachers  and  attendance  of  27,154,  2  industrial 
schools  with  10  teachers  and  attendance  of  270. 
Among  the  institutions  of  the  diocese  are :  1  orphan 
asylum,  1  home  for  the  aged,  1  home  for  the  blind, 
Mater  Infirmorum  hospital  in  Belfast,  3  refuge 
homes,  and  1  day  nursery.  Practically  all  the  public 
institutions  allow  the  priests  to  minister  in  them, 
and  the  Catholic  industrial  schools  receive  aid  from 
the  government.  Various  Gaelic  and  temperance 
societies  are  organized  among  the  clergy  and  the 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society  and  Catholic  Truth 
Society  among  the  laity. 

Doyle,  William,  b.  at  Dalkey,  Ireland;  killed 
in  battle  near  Ypres  on  16  August,  1917.  He  made 
his  collegiate  studies  under  the  Rosminian  Fathers 
at  Ratcliffe,  England,  and  became  a  Jesuit  at  Tul- 
labeg,  Ireland,  on  March  31,  1891,  where  his  elder 
brother  was  a  novice.  He  studied  philosophy  at 
Enghien,  Belgium,  and  Stonyhurst,  England,  and 
theology  at  Milltown  Park.  He  followed  the  usual 
course  as  professor  and  prefect  of  discipline  in 
various  colleges,  and  was  a  missionary  for  a  time 
at  Dublin  and  Limerick.  On  November  10,  1914, 
he  offered  himself  as  a  military  chaplain  but  it 
was  not  until  a  year  later  that  he  was  appointed 
to  the  Royal  Irish  Fusileers.  Later  he  was  attached 
to  the  8th  Dublins.  As  a  chaplain  in  the  World 
War  Father  Doyle  attracted  attention  by  his  heroic 
devotion  to  duty,  by  the  holiness  of  his  life  and  by 
the  influence  he  exerted  over  Protestant  as  well  as 
Catholic  soldiers. 

His  biography  by  Alfred  O’Rahilly,  reveals  a 
most  wanning  personality,  and  a  priest  of  great 
holiness  of  life,  but  at  the  same  time  portrays  him 
as  following  a  form  of  asceticism  wrhich  can  scarcely 
be  considered  the  normal  method  of  the  Order 
to  wdiich  he  belonged. 


DREAMS 


272 


DUBUQUE 


Dreams,  Freudian  Theory  of.  See  Psycho¬ 
analysis. 

Drisdale  River  (cf.  C.  E.,  XVI-68b). — A  mission 
in  Australia  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Benedic¬ 
tine  Abbey  of  New  Norcia  (q.  v.).  The  present 
administrator,  Rt.  Rev.  Anselm  Catalan,  O.S.B., 
abbot  nullius  of  New  Norcia,  b.  16  November,  1878, 
professed  24  March,  1895,  ordained  20  September, 
1902,  was  appointed  abbot  of  New  Norcia  30  June, 
1915,  and  appointed  that  same  day  apostolic  ad¬ 
ministrator  of  Drisdale  River. 

Dromore,  Diocese  of  (Dromorensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
V-160c),  in  Ulster,  Ireland,  is  suffragan  of 
Armagh  with  residential  see  at  Violet  Hill,  Newry. 
Rt.  Rev.  Henry  O’Neill,  late  bishop  of  the  diocese 
(b.  3  January,  1843;  d.  9  October,  1915),  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  Most  Rev.  Edward  Mulhern,  b.  29 
January,  1863,  in  the  Diocese  of  Clogher,  studied 
in  the  seminary  of  St.  Macarten,  ordained  priest 
1888,  professor,  then  president  of  St.  Macarten 
Seminary,  rector  of  Bundoran,  canon  of  Clogher, 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Dromore  31  January,  1916, 
which  see  he  still  occupies,  and  under  whose  capable 
administration  the  advancement  in  Catholic  life 
has  been  maintained  and  quickened. 

According  to  an  estimate  made  in  1922  the  diocese 
numbers  a  Catholic  population  of  43,069,  non- 
Catholics  68,905;  there  are  19  parishes,  17  parish 
priests,  2  administrators,  39  curates,  4  regulars,  6 
monks,  76  nuns,  42  public  churches,  1  seminary,  1 
priory,  1  monastery,  and  7  convents.  Under  com¬ 
plete  Catholic  control  are  7  church,  1  technical,  and 
2  industrial  schools,  64  elementary  schools  attended 
by  7113  pupils,  while  religious  education  in  schools 
has  been  modeled  on  a  scheme  which  produces 
satisfactory  results. 

Drummond,  Lister  Maurice,  convert,  b.  in  Eng¬ 
land  1856;  d.  at  Hampstead,  London,  27  February, 
1916;  was  the  grandson  on  his  mother’s  side  of 
the  second  Baron  Ribblesdale.  In  1875  he  was 
received  into  the  Church,  and  for  the  rest  of  his 
life  was  a  most  zealous,  active  Catholic.  He  studied 
law,  in  1879  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner 
Temple,  and  for  several  years  served  as  revising 
barrister  on  the  Southeastern  Circuit.  In  1892  he 
acted  as  secretary  to  the  Irish  Evicted  Tenants’ 
Commission,  and  in  the  same  capacity  in  1906  to 
the  Worcester  Election  Commission.  In  1913  he 
was  appointed  metropolitan  police  magistrate,  a 
position  in  which  his  powers  of  sympathy  and 
practical  kindness  won  him  universal  esteem  and 
affection.  With  his  friend,  Father  Philip  Fletcher, 
Mr.  Drummond  founded  in  1887  the  Guild  of  Our 
Lady  of  Ransom,  a  union  of  intercession  by  prayer 
and  good  works  “for  the  Conversion  of  England 
and  of  individuals;  for  apostates  and  for  those  in 
danger  of  apostasy;  and  for  the  forgotten  dead.” 
For  years  he  was  chairman  of  the  Central  Council 
of  the  Westminster  Catholic  Federation,  and  in 
1913  and  1914  chairman  of  the  Central  Council  of 
the  Catholic  Confederation.  His  favorite  works 
were  tract  distribution  and  lecturing  on  the  Cath¬ 
olic  religion;  for  many  years  he  was  the  Guild’s 
chief  lecturer  in  Hyde  Park  in  the  summer  months. 
In  recognition  of  his  apostolic  work  Pope  Leo  XIII 
presented  him,  in  1901,  with  the  insignia  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Gregory. 

Dublin,  Archdiocese  of  (Dublinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
V-171d),  includes  nearly  all  Wicklow  and  portions 
of  the  Counties  Kildare  and  Wexford  in  Ireland, 
and  has  three  suffragan  dioceses:  Kildare  and 
Leighlin,  Ferns,  and  Ossory.  The  present  year 
(1921)  saw  the  death  of  the  Archbishop  of  Dublin, 


Most  Rev.  William  J.  Walsh  (q.  v.),  who  had  filled 
the  see  from  2  August,  1885,  until  his  death  on  9 
April.  On  27  October,  1920,  the  Most  Rev.  Edward 
J.  Byrne,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Spigaz,  was  consecrated 
auxiliary  to  Archbishop  Walsh,  and  upon  the  death 
of  the  latter  he  succeeded  him  as  Archbishop  of 
Dublin.  Before  his  consecration  as  bishop,  Doctor 
Byrne  had  been  vicar  general  of  the  Irish  College 
in  Rome,  to  which  position  he  was  appointed  in 
1901,  and  later,  upon  his  return  to  Ireland,  he  was 
appointed  to  the  pro-cathedral  in  Dublin,  and  a 
vicar  general  of  the  diocese. 

The  present  records  of  the  diocese  of  Dublin 
show  the  following  statistics:  77  parishes;  193 
churches;  8  novitiates  for  men;  16  convents  for 
men  and  102  for  women;  305  secular  priests  and 
317  regulars;  a  few  lay  brothers  with  each  religious 
community  of  men ;  1  seminary  with  67  seminarians. 
The  various  institutions  under  the  care  of  religious 
orders  are:  2  asylums  for  the  blind;  2  asylums  for 
the  deaf;  10  hospitals;  5  orphanages  for  girls;  6 
orphanages  for  boys;  2  homes  for  the  aged;  1  home 
for  widows;  5  homes  for  working  women;  4  indus¬ 
trial  schools  for  girls  and  3  for  boys;  1  reformatory 
for  boys  and  1  for  girls;  and  4  penitentiaries.  The 
Catholic  population  numbers  434,586. 

Certain  public  institutions :  7  workhouses,  2  lunatic 
asylums,  2  prisons,  and  9  military  barracks  permit 
the  ministry  of  the  priests  of  the  diocese.  The 
Government  assists  in  the  support  of  the  University 
College  and  intermediate  and  primary  schools. 
Among  the  clergy  of  the  diocese  the  Eucharistic 
League  and  the  Priests  Social  Guild  are  organized, 
and  among  the  laity  the  Society  for  the  Propaga¬ 
tion  of  the  Faith,  Society  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary,  Catholic  Truth  Society  of  Ireland,  St.  Vin¬ 
cent  de  Paul  Society,  Aid  Society  for  Catholic 
discharged  male  prisoners,  and  boys  clubs. 

The  brothers  are  very  active  in  the  educational 
work  of  the  diocese,  the  following  orders  being  rep¬ 
resented  throughout  the  diocese:  Christian  Broth¬ 
ers  in  charge  of  19  schools  have  their  novitiate  at 
St.  Mary’s,  Marino;  de  la  Salle  Brothers  in  charge 
of  2  schools;  Carmelite  Brothers  with  2  houses; 
Hospital  Brothers  of  St.  John  of  God  with  1  house 
and  the  Presentation  Brothers  in  charge  of  2 
schools. 

Dubuque,  Archdiocese  of  (Dubuquensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  V-179c),  in  the  State  of  Iowa.  Upon  its  promo¬ 
tion  to  an  Archdiocese  in  1893  Dubuque  was  given 
the  suffragan  sees  of  Davenport,  Lincoln,  Cheyenne, 
and  Omaha.  In  1911  Clinton  County,  comprising 
a  large  Catholic  population  and  many  parishes  and 
schools,  was  taken  from  the  Archdiocese  of 
Dubuque  and  attached  to  the  Diocese  of  Daven¬ 
port. 

The  fourth  bishop  and  second  archbishop  of 
Dubuque,  Most  Rev.  John  J.  Keane,  resigned  from 
the  see  on  account  of  failing  health,  3  April,  1911, 
and  died  22  June,  1918.  He  was  succeeded  by  the 
present  incumbent,  Most.  Rev.  James  John  Keane, 
then  Bishop  of  Cheyenne,  born  in  Pine  Island,  Min¬ 
nesota,  26  August,  1857,  studied  at  St.  John’s  College, 
Collegeville,  Minn.,  and  in  the  Grand  Seminary, 
Montreal,  where  he  was  ordained  in  1882.  For  some 
years  he  was  president  of  St.  Thomas  College,  St. 
Paul,  and  later  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Im¬ 
maculate  Conception,  Minneapolis.  In  1902  he  was 
appointed  to  the  see  of  Cheyenne,  where  he  led  the 
life  of  an  active  missionary  bishop,  traveling  much, 
ministering  to  the  spiritual  needs  of  his  people  and 
even  visiting  various  parts  of  the  country,  giving 
lectures  to  Catholics  and  non-Catholics,  with  the 
proceeds  of  which  he  endowed  his  struggling  dio- 


DUHEM 


273 


DUNEDIN 


cese.  In  Dubuque  he  has  systematized  the  adminis¬ 
trative  work  of  the  archdiocese,  multiplied  its 
schools  and  churches,  and  established  a  diocesan 
paper.  A  persistent  advocate  of  temperance,  he 
was  for  years  president  of  the  Catholic  Total  Ab¬ 
stinence  Lnion  of  America.  His  distinctive  work, 
however,  has  been  the  upbuilding  of  higher  educa¬ 
tion,  and  several  buildings  have  been  added  to  the 
diocesan  college  and  an  adequate  endowment  se¬ 
cured  for  it  through  his  work.  His  leadership  in 
the  Church  is  widely  recognized,  and  he  is  well 
known  as  an  able  speaker.  In  his  public  utterances 
he  has  never  ceased  to  plead  for  the  larger  Catholic 
spirit  that  looks  beyond  local  needs  to  the  interests 
of  the  universal  Church. 

The  (1921)  statistics  of  the  archdiocese  show  176 
parish  churches,  56  mission  churches  and  52  chapels, 
257  diocesan  and  14  regular  clergy,  1  college  for 
men  with  615  students,  2  high  schools  for  women 
with  225  students,  2  high  schools  for  boys  with 
400  pupils,  7  academies  for  girls  with  about  2000 
pupils,  92  parochial  schools  with  over  15,000  pupils. 
Among  the  charitable  institutions  are :  1  orphanage 
with  250  inmates,  10  hospitals  each  accommodating 
from  30  to  150  patients,  1  industrial  home  with  100 
inmates  and  1  Home  of  the  Good  Shepherd.  About 
200  Sisters  of  various  communities  are  engaged  in 
conducting  the  hospitals  and  other  charitable  works, 
and  about  700  are  engaged  in  the  schools.  The 
Catholic  population  of  the  archdiocese  is  111,500, 
out  of  a  total  population  of  700,000.  During  the 
World  War  more  than  5000  Catholic  men  entered 
the  service  from  this  territory  and  six  of  the  clergy 
served  as  chaplains. 


Duhem,  Pierre  Maurice  Marie,  was  b.  in  Paris, 
10  June,  1861;  d.  at  Cabrespine,  France,  14  Sep¬ 
tember,  1916.  He  was  a  pupil  of  the  College 
Stanislas  and  the  higher  Normal  School  of  Paris, 
and  was  connected  with  the  Universities  of  Lille, 
Rennes,  Bordeaux,  and  Louvain.  He  was  also  Cor¬ 
responding  Member  of  many  scientific  societies; 
and  the  author  of  several  voluminous  works  on 
physics.  He  founded  the  Association  of  Catholic 
Students  at  Bordeaux  in  1913,  for  with  him  religion 
and  science  always  went  hand  in  hand.  He  was 
not  merely  a  physicist;  his  purpose  was  to  build 
a  solid  foundation  for  all  science.  His  reputation 
was  world-wide  and  his  confreres  place  him  on  the 
same  plane  as  M.  Henri  Poincare.  He  remodeled 
the  history  of  science.  He  was  profoundly  Catholic, 
and  said  in  his  article,  “Physique  de  croyant” : 
“Assuredly  I  believe  with  my  whole  soul  all  the 
truths  that  God  has  revealed  and  the  Church 
teaches.  I  have  never  concealed  my  faith,  and 
I  trust  from  the  bottom  of  my  heart  that  He  from 
Whom  I  have  received  it  will  prevent  me  from  ever 
being  ashamed  of  it.” 

Questions  Scientifiques  (October,  1922;  January,  1922)  - 
Eymieu,  La  Part  des  Croyants  (Paris,  1920)  I. 


by  Cardinal  Boggiani  8  September,  taking  posses- 
^ls  see  15  November  following.  Born  in 
Kiltimagh,  Ireland,  15  December,  1877,  ordained 
It)  October,  1901,  later  made  master  of  novices 
professor  at  the  House  of  Studies  and  National 
director  of  the  Holy  Name  Society.  He  was  serv¬ 
ing  as  Socius  to  the  Master  General  of  the  Order 

vr  5?I1[ieIat  the  time  of  his  appointment.  Bishop 
McNicholas  immediately  began  an  active  campaign 
ipr  more  priests,  and  at  present  (1922)  50  ecclesias- 
trnal  students  are  preparing  for  work  in  this  diocese. 

Ihe  Cathedral  parish  was  divided  and  plans  for 
a  large  school  and  new  cathedral  in  the  east  end 
of  the  city  are  already  partially  realized.  A  united 
effort  of  all  the  parishes  and  missions  has  been 
successfully  made  to  secure  a  substantial  sum  for 
education  and  the  needs  of  parishes  and  institu¬ 
tions.  Twenty-three  new  parishes  have  been  or¬ 
ganized  since  the  division  of  the  diocese  in  1910 

A  house  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Dominic  has 
been  established  and  is  occupied  by  the  Sisters  of 
Corpus  Christi  Chapter.  These  women  from  the 
English  Province  undertake  any  welfare  work  de¬ 
sired  by  the  bishop  and  teach  catechism  in  missions 
and  stations.  A  boarding  house  for  working  girls 
under  their  direction  has  also  been  established. 

The  Benedictine  Sisters  have  made  extensive  addi¬ 
tions  to  St.  Mary’s  Hospital  and  to  the  mother- 
house  in  Duluth.  The  statistics  of  the  diocese  at 
present  are  as  follows:  Priests,  diocesan  and  reli¬ 
gious,  72;  churches  with  resident  pastors  49;  mis¬ 
sions  with  churches  43;  stations  37;  college  and 
academy  for  young  women  1,  with  130  pupils;  high 
school  for  boys  1,  with  200  pupils;  high  school  for 
girls  1,  with  150  pupils;  parish  schools  11,  with  3304 
pupils;  orphanage  1,  with  117  children;  hospitals  2; 
home  for  the  aged  1,  with  74  inmates;  ecclesiastical 
students  50;  total  number  of  children  under  Cath¬ 
olic  care  3901;  total  Catholic  population  64,215,  of 
whom  3000  are  Slavs,  1520  Indians,  5000  Italians, 
2000  Germans,  4000  Poles,  8000  French  Canadians, 
and  the  remainder  Americans. 


Duluth,  Diocese  of  (Duluthensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
V-188c),  suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Paul’ 
comprises  the  counties  of  Aitkin,  Carlton,  Cass’ 
Cooke,  Crow  Wing,  Itasca,  Lake,  Pine,  Koochiching’ 
and  St.  Louis,  in  the  State  of  Minnesota,  U.  S.  A., 
covering  an  area  of  22,354  square  miles.  In  1910 
part  of  the  original  diocese  was  taken  to  ?rect  the 
Diocese  of  Crookston,  thus  making  possible  a  more 
intensive  cultivation  of  the  field  in  both  jurisdic¬ 
tions.  The  golden  jubilee  of  the  ordination  of 
Rt.  Rev.  James  MeGoldrick,  first  bishop  of  the 
diocese,  was  celebrated  June,  1917,  and  the  following 
year  Bishop  MeGoldrick  died,  2  January.  His  suc¬ 
cessor,  Rf.  Rev.  John.  T.  McNicliolas,  O.  P„  was 
appointed  18  July,  1918,  and  consecrated  in  Rome 


Dunedin,  Diocese  of  (Dun^densis;  cf.  C.  E., 
V-191a),  in  New  Zealand,  Oceania,  comprises  the 
districts  of  Otago,  Southland  and  Stewart  Island, 
and  is  suffragan  of  Wellington.  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph 
Whyte,  the  present  (1922)  administrator  of  the  see, 
b.  in  1868  in  the  Diocese  of  Dublin,  studied  at  St. 
Kieran’s  College,  was  ordained  in  1893,  arrived  in 
New  South  Wales  in  1894,  where  he  became  pro¬ 
fessor  at  St.  Patrick’s  College,  appointed  Bishop  of 
Dunedin  22  April,  1920,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Michael 
Verdon  (b.  31  May,  1839;  d.  22  November,  1918). 

The  diocesan  statistics  for  1922  are:  parishes  24; 
churches  71 ;  stations  45 ;  secular  priests  43,  regular 
28;  Brothers  11;  nuns  240;  1  seminary  with  60 
seminarians;  boarding  schools  and  high  schools  8; 
primary  schools  29;  Magdalen  asylum  1;  industrial 
and  preservation  school  1 ;  orphanage  1 ;  Nazareth 
house  1 ;  girls’  hostels  2 ;  all  under  the  care  of  the 
religious  communities  established  there,  receiving 
practically  no  grants  from  the  Government.  The 
diocese  numbers  a  Catholic  population  of  26,000, 
nearly  all  of  Irish  descent  or  Irish  born. 

In  February,  1921,  the  golden  jubilee  of  the  dio¬ 
cese  was  celebrated,  together  with  the  arrival  of 
the  first  nuns  (Dominicans) ;  Mgr.  Cerretti,  the 
apostolic  delegate,  visited  the  diocese  in  1916,  and 
Mgr.  Cattaneo,  his  successor,  in  November,  1921. 

Societies  organized  in  the  diocese  are:  Eucharistic 
League  among  the  clergy,  and  Hibernian  Society, 
Celtic  Clubs,  Children  of  Mary,  and  Sacred  Heart 
Associations  among  the  laity.  The  diocesan  news¬ 
paper,  “New  Zealand  Tablet,”  established  since 


DUNKELD 


274 


DURAZZO 


1873,  has  done  great  work  in  extending  religious 
and  educational  facilities  among  the  people. 

Dunkeld,  Diocese  of  (Dunkeldensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
V-193d),  in  Scotland.  Since  the  revival  of  this  see 
it  has  been  held  by  five  bishops.  The  third  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Angus  MacFarlane,  d.  24  September,  1912, 
was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Robert  Fraser,  conse¬ 
crated  25  May,  1913.  After  a  very  short  adminis¬ 
tration  Bishop  Fraser  died  28  March,  1914,  and  the 
present  bishop  of  Dunkeld,  Rt.  Rev.  John  Toner, 
was  appointed  to  succeed  him  (consecrated  15  Octo¬ 
ber,  1915). 

The  total  number  of  secular  priests  in  the  diocese 
(1921)  is  37;  regulars  (Redemptorists),  12;  missions 
and  chaplaincies,  17;  churches,  chapels,  and  stations, 
31;  and  parochial  schools,  15.  There  are  two 
monasteries  for  men  (Redemptorists  and  Marist 
Brothers) ;  3  convents  of  women  (Sisters  of 

Mercy,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  and  Sisters 
of  Charity);  the  Catholic  institutions  comprise  a 
home  for  aged  poor,  a  House  of  Mercy  for  servants, 
a  working  girls’  home  and  a  children’s  refuge  in 
charge  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  The  Catholic 
population  of  the  diocese  is  estimated  at  between 
35,000  and  40,000. 

Dunkers  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV-90d). — Although  in  recent 
years  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  unite  the  Pro¬ 
gressives  (officially,  Brethren  Church)  and  the  Con¬ 
servatives  (officially  Church  of  the  Brethren),  on 
the  other  hand  another  sect  of  Dunkers,  The  Church 
of  God  (New  Dunkers),  organized  in  1848,  was  first 
listed  in  the  United  States  reports  in  1916.  It 
has  a  membership  of  less  than  a  thousand.  The 
Church  of  the  Brethren  carries  on  foreign  mis¬ 
sionary  work  in  India,  China,  Sweden,  and  Den¬ 
mark,  reporting  (1916)  19  stations,  66  American 
missionaries,  and  a  membership  of  1803.  The 
Brethren  Church  has  missions  in  Argentina,  and 
in  Central  Africa,  employing  10  missionaries.  The 
body  known  as  “German  Seventh  Day  Baptists” 
affiliates  regularly  with  the  Seventh  Day  Baptist 
General  Conference.  The  five  bodies  of  Dunkers 
reported  in  1921  in  the  United  States  1262  churches, 
3767  ministers,  and  122,932  members. 

Religious  Bodies,  1916  (Washington,  1919) ;  Year  Book  of 
the  Churches  (New  York,  annual). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Dunne,  Sarah  Theresa.  See  Amadeus  of  the 
Heart  of  Jesus,  Mother  Mary. 

Duquesne  University,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  was 
founded  in  1878  and  incorporated  in  1882  under  the 
title  of  “The  Pittsburgh  Catholic  College  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,”  with  power  to  confer  the  usual  col¬ 
lege  degrees.  On  30  March,  1911,  the  charter  was 
amended  and  under  the  title  of  “The  University 
of  the  Holy  Ghost”  it  was  authorized  to  give 
degrees  in  Law,  Medicine,  Dentistry,  and  Phar¬ 
macy.  On  27  May  following  the  title  was  changed 
to  that  of  “Duquesne  University,”  The  present  col¬ 


lege  building  was  dedicated  in  April,  1885,  the  origi¬ 
nal  building  being  abandoned  at  that  time.  In 
1894  a  Gothic  chapel  was  built  adjoining  the  univer¬ 
sity;  the  library  comprises  several  thousand  vol¬ 
umes.  The  schools  of  law,  oratory,  social  service, 
and  accounts  are  conducted  in  a  part  of  the  Van- 
dergrift  Building  awaiting  the  erection  of  new  col¬ 
lege  buildings. 

The  university  is  conducted  by  the  Fathers  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  but  the  faculty 
includes  a  number  of  lay  professors  as  well.  A 
board  of  advisers,  composed  of  business  and  pro¬ 
fessional  men,  chosen  irrespective  of  creed  or  politi¬ 
cal  affiliation,  works  in  conjunction  with  the  uni¬ 
versity  faculty,  and  no  steps  of  importance  are 
taken  without  the  approval  of  this  board.  In  1920- 
21  over  2500  students  were  registered  in  all  depart¬ 
ments  of  the  university.  The  president  is  the  Very 
Rev.  Martin  A.  Hehir,  C.  S.  Sp.  LL.D. 

Durango,  Archdiocese  of  (Duranguenensis;  cf. 
C.  E.  V-208d) ,  in  Mexico.  Bishop  Francesco  Mendoza, 
the  present  (1922)  incumbent  was  born  14  November, 
1852,  in  the  diocese  of  Zamora,  professor  and  rector  of 
the  seminary,  chancellor  and  archdeacon  of  the 
cathedral,  appointed  Bishop  of  Campeche,  11 
December,  1904;  consecrated  2  February,  1905,  pro¬ 
moted  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Durango,  7  August, 
1909,  proclaimed  27  November,  1911,  succeeding 
Mgr.  Santiago  Zuriba  y  Manzanera,  b.  29  Novem¬ 
ber,  1834,  d.  26  January,  1909.  According  to  1920 
census  reports  the  archdiocese  comprises  a  total 
population  of  351,600  of  wffiom  350,000  are  Catholic; 
there  are  50  parishes,  250  churches  or  chapels,  125 
secular  and  9  regular  priests,  3  monasteries  for  men, 
properly  so  called,  with  churches,  Carmelite,  Au- 
gustinian  and  a  Franciscan  monastery  in  Sombrete; 
7  for  women,  1  seminary  with  50  seminarians,  9 
colleges,  4  for  boys  with  10  teachers  and  350  boys, 
5  for  girls  with  25  teachers  and  450  pupils;  the 
charitable  institutions  include,  1  home,  1  hospital 
conducted  by  nuns,  1  asylum.  There  are  several 
societies  organized  among  the  laity,  one  among  the 
clergy.  The  Catholic  press  is  represented  by  three 
periodicals.  The  events  of  special  importance  in 
the  archdiocese  since  1908  are  the  ravages  done  to 
all  ecclesiastical  institutions  by  the  revolutionists, 
the  destruction  of  the  Sagrario,  and  the  beautiful 
church  of  St.  Francis,  as  well  as  other  beautiful 
edifices,  and  the  entire  confiscation  of  church  goods, 
seminaries,  colleges,  etc. 

Durazzo,  Archdiocese  of  (Dyrrachiensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  V-209a),  in  Albania,  is  directly  dependent  on 
the  Holy  See;  it  has  a  total  population  of  nearly 
200,000,  of  whom  12,500  are  Catholics.  The  present 
incumbent,  Most  Rev.  Primo  Bianchi  (b.  16  March, 
1852),  has  occupied  this  see  since  1893.  According 
to  the  (1922)  statistics  the  diocese  numbers  10 
secular  and  7  regular  priests  and  46  churches  and 
chapels. 


E 


Ecuador,  Republic  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-278c). — Owing 
to  the  unsettled  boundary  line,  the  area  of  the 
South  American  republic  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  esti¬ 
mated  at  116,000  square  miles.  The  last  census  was 
in  1903,  when  the  population  was  1,323,590;  the 
latest  estimate  in  1915  gave  a  population  of  2,000,- 
000.  The  chief  towns  are  Quito,  the  capital,  with 
70,000  inhabitants;  Guayaquil,  93,851;  Cuenca, 
50,000;  Riobamba,  18,000;  Ambato,  Loja,  and 
Latacunga,  each  about  10,000;  Bahia,  8000;  Esmer- 
aldas,  4000.  There  has  been  some  discussion  about 
selling  the  Galapagos  islands  (2400  square  miles  in 
area,  population,  about  400).  These  form  the 
Archipelago  of  Galapagos,  officially  called  “Colon.” 

Education. — In  1912  public  instruction  was  im¬ 
proved.  During  the  school  year  1919-20  there  were 
1664  schools  in  operation  in  the  Republic,  1359  of 
which  were  government  schools,  168  municipal,  and 
137  private  schools.  The  total  attendance  in  1919-20 
was  92,512  (50,502  males  and  42,010  females).  The 
attendance  at  the  government  schools  was  63,395; 
at  the  municipal  schools,  16,055;  in  the  private 
schools,  13,062.  The  total  expenditure  on  elemen¬ 
tary  education  in  1920  was  £200,401,  on  secondary 
education,  £90,817,  and  for  the  universities,  £72,435, 
making  a  total  of  £313,707.  The  number  of  students 
at  the  universities  was  744. 

Economic  Conditions. — The  staple  produce  of 
Ecuador  is  cocoa,  the  production  in  1919  being 
22,474  cwts.  The  coffee  exports  in  1919  were  3,729,- 
451  pounds.  The  export*  of  rubber  in  1919  were 
886,373  pounds,  but  are  now  declining,  on  account 
of  the  destructive  methods  used  in  the  collection 
of  the  product.  The  chief  imports  come  from  the 
United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Peru.  According 
to  a  report  made  by  the  director  of  statistics  in 
1920,  the  1918  trade  included  imports  valued  at 
£16,690,720  and  exports  at  £27,449,536.  There  were 
in  1920,  eight  factories  for  cotton  and  woolen  tex¬ 
tiles,  giving  an  annual  production  of  610,000  yards 
of  cotton  cloth  and  100,000  yards  of  woolen  cloth; 
also  13  sugar  works,  flour  mills,  breweries,  and 
chocolate  factories. 

Communications. — In  1918  the  steam  vessels  en¬ 
tering  the  ports  of  Ecuador  numbered  160  with  a 
tonnage  of  195,537;  clearing  153  with  a  tonnage  of 
181,537.  There  is  now  discussion  of  a  proposed 
line  between  Quito  and  the  coast,  which  will  render 
accessible  a  fertile  area  of  some  1,000,000  acres. 
A  concession  of  half  of  the  land  has  been  granted 
the  railway  by  the  Government.  In  1917  Ecuador 
had  365  miles  of  railway  and  4360  miles  of  tele¬ 
graph. 

The  foreign  debt  on  31  December,  1919,  amounted 
to  £3,558,861  and  the  internal  debt  to  £2,262,448, 
making  a  total  of  £5,821,309.  About  70  per  cent  of 
the  revenue  comes  from  customs  duties,  15  per  cent 
from  taxes  on  cocoa,  real  estate,  white  rum,  and 
tobacco;  6  per  cent  from  salt,  and  the  rest  from 
excise,  rents,  and  postal  rates. 

Government. — The  new  constitution  dates  from 
28  December,  1906.  The  executive  power  is  vested 
in  a  president  elected  for  four  years.  The  legislative 
power  is  given  to  a  Congress  of  twTo  Houses,  the 
first  consisting  of  thirty-two  senators,  two  for  each 
province  chosen  for  four  years,  and  the  second  of 
forty-eight  deputies,  on  the  basis  of  one  deputy  for 
each  30,000  inhabitants,  chosen  for  two  years,  both 


elected  by  adults  who  can  read  and  write.  From 
1833  to  1908  Ecuador  had  twenty  presidents.  The 
President  in  1912  was  Gen.  Leonidas  Plaza  Gutierrez, 
who  had  also  been  president  from  1901-05;  in  1916, 
Dr.  Alfredo  Baquerizo  Moreno;  in  1920,  Senor  Luis 
Tamajo. 

Until  October  20,  1918,  most  of  the  Indians  were 
virtually  in  bondage  and  peonage,  and  debt  servi¬ 
tude  in  its  worst  forms  existed  on  the  landed  estates, 
but  by  a  legislative  decree  on  that  date,  peonage 
was  abolished.  Military  service  was  made  com¬ 
pulsory  on  24  May,  1921.  The  boundary  dispute 
with  Colombia  was  settled  by  a  treaty  in  1917; 
that  with  Peru  still  remains  unsettled. 

Religion. — The  State  recognizes  no  religion  but 
grants  freedom  of  worship  to  all.  For  Catholic 
statistics  see  Quito,  Archdiocese  of,  and  its  suf- 
ragans. 

Edmonton,  Archdiocese  of  (Edmontonensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII-329d),  in  the  Province  of  Alberta, 
Canada,  was  formerly  known  as  the  Diocese  of  St. 
Albert.  It  was  divided  first  to  form  the  vicariate  of 
Saskatchewan,  and  again  (30  November,  1920)  to 
form  the  see  of  Calgary.  At  the  same  time  the  remain¬ 
der  of  the  diocese  was  made  an  archdiocese  and  the 
name  changed  to  Edmonton.  The  present  boundaries 
of  the  archdiocese  are  as  follows:  on  the  north  the 
55th  degree  of  latitude,  on  the  east  the  110th  degree 
of  longitude,  on  the  south  the  northern  boundary 
of  Township  30  in  the  province  of  Alberta,  and  on 
the  west  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Rt.  Rev.  Emile  J. 
Legal,  Bishop  of  St.  Albert,  was  made  archbishop  of 
Edmonton  and  filled  the  see  until  his  death,  10 
March,  1920.  He  was  succeeded  7  September  of 
the  same  year  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev. 
Henry  Joseph  O’Leary,  who  had  been  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Charlottetown  22  May,  1913.  Archbishop 
O’Leary  was  born  at  Richibucto,  Diocese  of  Chatham, 
13  March,  1879,  studied  at  the  Seminary  of  Montreal 
and  Canadian  College,  Rome,  was  ordained  21  Sep¬ 
tember,  1901,  and  installed  as  Archbishop  of  Ed¬ 
monton  8  October,  1920. 

At  the  present  time  (1921)  the  archdiocese  has  a 
Catholic  population  of  55,000,  attended  by  93  regu¬ 
lar  and  37  secular  priests.  There  are  61  parishes, 
128  churches,  139  missions,  45  stations,  3  communi¬ 
ties  of  men  and  16  of  women,  with  a  total  of  474 
Sisters,  15  lay  brothers,  14  boarding  schools,  34 
primary  schools,  8  hospitals,  and  2  orphan  asylums. 
The  Royal  Alexandria  Military  Hospital  permits 
the  priests  of  the  diocese  to  minister  in  it.  During 
Archbishop  O’Leary’s  incumbency  a  seminary, 
j  uni  orate  and  college  have  been  established,  and  a 
Catholic  paper,  “The  Western  Catholic,”  has  been 
put  into  circulation.  The  Priests'  League  and 
Knights  of  Columbus  are  established.  During  the 
World  War  many  of  the  French  priests  returned 
to  fight  for  their  native  land,  the  laity  enlisted 
in  large  numbers,  and  the  Knights  of  Columbus 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  C.  A.  H.  Campaign. 

Edmund,  Congregation  of  Saint  (cf.  C.  E., 
V-293b). — The  congregation  is  dedicated  to  St. 
Edmund,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  whose  body 
is  preserved  incorrupt  at  Pontigny  Abbey.  There 
are  about  100  priests.  Before  the  laws  of  spoliation 
in  France  the  mother-house  was  at  Pontigny  Abbey 
and  the  congregation  also  possessed  the  Abbey  of 


EDUCATION 


276 


EGER 


Mont-St  .-Michel  and  colleges  at  Laval,  Chateau 
Gontier,  and  Sens.  The  mother-house  is  now  at 
Hitchin,  Herts,  England.  At  St.  Michael’s  College, 
Hitchin,  there  are  150  students.  St.  Michael’s  at 
Winooski,  Vermont,  U.  S.  A.,  has  200  students. 
There  is  an  Apostolic  School  and  novitiate  at  Swan- 
ton,  Vermont,  and  the  Fathers  also  have  houses  at 
Forsyth  and  St.  Labre’s  Mission,  Diocese  of  Great 
Falls,  Montana,  U.  S.  A.  In  the  United  States  there 
are  15  priests,  4  scholastics  and  novices,  20  juvenists, 
and  2  lay  brothers.  Many  of  the  French  Fathers 
are  working  in  France. 

Education  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-304). — As  the  education 
of  one’s  children  is  a  primary  end  of  matrimony,  giv¬ 
ing  a  child  a  non-Catholic  education  is  a  sufficient 
reason  for  granting  a  matrimonial  separation.  When 
a  matrimonial  separation  is  granted  for  any  cause, 
the  education  of  the  children  is  normally  to  be 
entrusted  to  the  innocent  party ;  if  one  of  the 
parties  is  a  non-Catholic,, it  is  to  be  confided  to  the 
Catholic;  however,  in  either  case  if  the  good  of  the 
children  demand  it,  and  their  Catholic  education  is 
properly  provided  for,  the  ordinary  may  decide 
otherwise.  Catholic  parents  or  guardians  who  know¬ 
ingly  entrust  their  children  to  be  educated  or  in¬ 
structed  in  a  non-Catholic  religion  incur  excom¬ 
munication  latce  sententice  reserved  to  the  ordinary, 
and  are,  furthermore,  suspected  of  heresy. 

Educational  Association,  Catholic,  of  the  United 
States,  a  voluntary  organization  of  Catholic  edu¬ 
cators  and  other  persons  who  have  an  interest  in 
the  welfare  of  Catholic  education  in  the  United 
States  of  America.  The  association  was  formed 
at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in  July,  1904.  In  May,  1898, 
representatives  of  the  seminaries  and  Catholic  col¬ 
leges  of  the  country  met  at  St.  Joseph’s  Seminary, 
Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  for  a  conference  on  the  conditions 
and  problems  of  Catholic  higher  education.  A 
second  meeting  of  these  representatives  was  held 
at  Philadelphia  in  September,  1899.  The  work  of 
this  conference  lapsed  until  April,  1904,  wThen  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  several  seminaries  met  and  decided  to 
revive  the  conference  and  to  hold  a  meeting  in  St. 
Louis  in  July,  1904.  An  Association  of  Catholic 
Colleges  and  Universities  of  the  United  States  was 
formed  in  Chicago,  Ill.,  in  April,  1899.  Annual 
meetings  were  held  and  printed  reports  of  the  pro¬ 
ceedings  and  addresses  of  each  meeting  have  been 
issued.  The  Parish  School  Conference  was  formed 
in  Chicago  in  July,  1902.  A  second  meeting  was 
held  in  Philadelphia,  and  at  this  meeting  a  com¬ 
mittee  was  appointed  and  empowered  to  bring 
about  a  union  of  the  various  educational  con¬ 
ferences  on  a  basis  that  would  preserve  the  purely 
voluntary  character  of  the  movement.  This  result 
was  accomplished  at  St.  Louis  in  1904,  when  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  the  three  conferences  met  and  decided 
to  form  the  Catholic  Educational  Association  of 
the  United  States.  Rt.  Rev.  D.  J.  O’Connell,  D.D., 
was  elected  first  president  general  of  the  associa¬ 
tion,  and  Rev.  Francis  W.  Howard  was  elected 
secretary  general. 

Annual  meetings  have  been  held  since  the  year 
1904.  The  meetings  are  held  at  the  invitation  and 
under  the  patronage  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese 
in  whose  see  the  conference  takes  place.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  are  the  places  and  years  in  which  meetings 
have  been  held:  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1904;  New  York, 
N.  Y.,  1905;  Cleveland,  Ohio,  1906;  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,  1907;  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1908;  Boston,  Mass., 
1909;  Detroit,  Mich.,  1910;  Chicago,  Ill.,  1911; 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  1912;  New  Orleans,  La.,  1913; 
Atlantic  City,  N.  J.,  1914;  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  1915; 
Baltimore,  Md.,  1916;  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  1917;  San 


Francisco,  Cal.,  1918;  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1919;  New 
York,  N.  Y.,  1920;  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  1921;  Phila¬ 
delphia,  Pa.,  1922.  Printed  reports  of  the  proceed¬ 
ings  and  addresses  have  been  issued  each  year  con¬ 
taining  valuable  information  and  discussions  relat¬ 
ing  to  the  important  phases  and  current  problems 
of  Catholic  education,  and  many  pamphlets  and 
reprints  of  papers  read  at  the  meetings  have  been 
circulated. 

The  principal  purpose  of  the  association  is  to 
provide  a  suitable  means  whereby  representative 
Catholic  educators  of  the  country  can  meet  in 
conference  for  the  discussion  of  their  problems. 
While  the  educational  policy  of  Catholics  has  been 
formed  to  a  very  marked  degree  by  the  influence 
of  these  conferences,  there  is  no  binding  force  in 
the  resolutions  of  the  association,  and  it  can  have 
no  legislative  authority  to  enforce  its  recommenda¬ 
tions.  In  the  constitution  the  aims  of  the  associa¬ 
tion  are  stated  as  follows:  “The  objection  of  this 
association  shall  be  to  keep  in  the  minds  of  the 
people  the  necessity  of  religious  instruction  and 
training  as  the  basis  of  morality  and  sound  educa¬ 
tion;  and  to  promote  the  principles  and  safeguard 
the  interests  of  Catholic  education  in  all  its  depart¬ 
ments;  to  advance  the  general  interests  of  Catholic 
education,  to  encourage  the  spirit  of  co-operation 
and  mutual  helpfulness  among  Catholic  educators, 
to  promote  by  study,  conference,  and  discussion  the 
thoroughness  of  Catholic  educational  work  in  the 
United  States;  to  help  the  cause  of  Catholic  educa¬ 
tion  by  the  publication  and  circulation  of  such 
matters  as  shall  further  these  ends.” 

The  association  is  composed  of  three  depart¬ 
ments:  the  Seminary  Department,  the  Department 
of  Catholic  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools,  the 
Parish  School  Department.  Each  department  regu¬ 
lates  its  own  affairs,  but  the  governing  body  of  the 
association  is  the  executive  board,  in  which  each 
department  has  equal  representation.  Each  depart¬ 
ment  may  form  sections  to  care  for  special  phases 
of  its  own  work.  The  general  officers  are  elected 
annually  at  a  general  meeting  of  the  association, 
and  the  executive  board  elects  a  secretary  general, 
who  is  the  executive  officer  of  the  board  and  of 
the  association. 

The  association  has  had  the  good  will  and  gen¬ 
erous  patronage  of  the  bishops  of  the  country,  and 
many  of  its  recommendations  have  been  received 
with  favor  by  them.  Each  year  Catholic  educators 
have  been  honored  and  encouraged  by  a  paternal 
message  from  the  Holy  Father,  and  the  Apostolic 
blessing.  At  the  present  time  (1922)  there  are 
26  members  in  the  Seminary  Department,  106  mem¬ 
bers  in  the  Department  of  Catholic  Colleges  and 
Secondary  Schools,  and  2000  members  in  the  Parish 
School  Department.  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  J.  Shahan, 
D.  D.,  is  now  the  president  general  of  the  associa¬ 
tion.  The  general  office  of  the  association  has 
been  located  at  Columbus,  Ohio,  since  1904.  In 
all  the  years  of  its  existence,  the  association  has 
defended  the  right  of  the  Church  to  found  and 
maintain  her  own  schools,  colleges,  and  seminaries; 
and  through  the  medium  afforded  by  the  association 
Catholic  educators  have  been  able  to  promote  in 
a  substantial  manner  the  thoroughness  of  Catholic 
educational  work  in  the  United  States  in  all  its 
departments. 

Francis  W.  Howard. 

Eger  (Agria,  Erlau,  Jager),  Archdiocese  of  (cf. 
C.  E.,  I-230c),  in  Hungary.  His  Eminence  Cardinal 
Samassa,  who  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Agria 
1873  and  created  a  cardinal  in  1905,  died  20  August, 
1912,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  coadjutor,  Most 


EGYPT 


EGYPT 


Rev.  Louis  Szmrecsanyi,  the  present  (1921)  incum¬ 
bent.  Born  in  the  diocese  of  Cassovia,  1851,  and 
ordained  1873,  Archbishop  Szmrecsanyi  was  ap¬ 
pointed  to  the  titular  see  of  Magydos  14  November, 
1904,  and  made  auxiliary  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Zagrab,  and  on  26  March,  1912,  he  was  promoted 
to  the  titular  see  of  Cvraa  and  made  coadjutor. 
In  1910  there  were  in  this  territory  661,579  Latin 
Catholics,  83,619  Greek  Catholics,  492  Orthodox 
Greeks,  455,205  Protestants,  69,279  Jews;  200 
parishes,  348  secular  and  51  regular  clergy. 

Egypt,  an  independent  sovereign  state  in  alliance 
with  Great  Britain.  The  total  area  of  Egypt 
proper,  including  the  Libyan  Desert,  the  region 
between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Sinai 
Peninsula  (excluding  the  Sudan),  is  about  350,000 
square  miles,  but  the  civilized  area  includes  only 
12,226  square  miles.  Here  the  population  is  12,- 
750,918,  or  1061  persons  to  the  square  mile.  The 
principal  towns  with  their  populations  according 
to  the  census  of  1917  are:  Cairo,  790,939;  Alexandria, 
444,617;  Port  Said,  91,090;  Suez,  30,996;  Damietta, 
30,984.  The  natives  numbered  12,512,257;  English, 
24,356;  French,  21,270;  Italians,  40,198;  Turks, 
30,796;  Greeks,  56,735.  Of  the  population  in  1917, 
4,044,324  were  engaged  in  agriculture  and  fishing, 
489,296  in  industries,  280,561  in  commerce,  142,386 
in  professional  pursuits,  2,579,577  in  domestic  work, 
and  4,302,259  in  unproductive  or  unknown  occupa¬ 
tions. 

Religion— In  1917  the  population  consisted  of 
11,653,148  Moslems,  854,773  Orthodox,  59,581  Jews. 
Of  the  Christians  47,481  were  Protestants,  107,687 
Catholics,  and  14,416  of  various  Christian  creeds. 
Thus  the  Moslems  formed  91.43%  of  the  com¬ 
munity,  and  the  Christians  8.03%.  The  “Egyptian 
Almanac”  for  1917  gives  the  following  data  con¬ 
cerning  the  Coptic  Orthodox  Community:  “The 
head  is  the  Patriarch,  Kyrollos  V,  who  lives  in 
Cairo  and  is  assisted  by  twelve  Mutrans  and  two 
bishops.  There  are  numerous  Coptic  convents, 
among  the  most  important  being  Deir  el  Azra,  Deir 
Amba  Samuel,  Deir  Antonius,  Deir  Amba,  Deir  el 
Azra,  Deir  el  Surian,  Deir  Amba  Bishoi,  Deir 
Makarios  el  Misri,  all  for  men.  There  are  five 
convents  for  women  in  Cairo.  The  Coptic  churches 
in  Egypt  number  about  600,  some  of  them  being 
over  1000  years  old.  The  high  Court  of  the  Com¬ 
munity,  or  MegUs  el  Milli  el  Ala,  is  presided  over 
by  the  Patriarch  and  eight  others  elected  by  the 
Community.  The  Meglis  was  instituted  by  Decree 
of  14  May,  18S3,  and  was  modified  by  Law  No.  3 
of  1912.  It  has  branches  in  all  the  Mutrianias  and 
bishoprics.  There  are  two  other  courts:  a  court 
which  looks  into  the  personal  complaints  of  the 
clergy,  and  an  Assembly  (El  Magma),  whose  mem¬ 
bers  consist  of  the  Mutrans  and  certain  of  the 
higher  clergy  to  amend  the  existing  laws  and  to 
initiate  fresh  legislation.  Ecclesiastical  education  is 
given  in  three  special  schools,  two  of  wThich  (Cairo 
and  Alexandria)  are  for  the  training  of  young  men 
for  the  priesthood,  and  the  third  for  arifs,  or  blind 
young  men  who  desire  to  devote  themselves  to 
the  Church.” 

Education. — The  lack  of  education  among  the  in¬ 
habitants  is  revealed  in  the  illiteracy  statistics  of 
1917,  the  proportion  of  native  Egyptians  able  to 
read  and  to  write  being,  males  120  per  1000,  females 
18  per  1000.  The  effects  of  the  Government  to 
correct  this  state  of  affairs  is  seen  in  the  increase 
in  the  budget  of  the  Ministry  of  Education  from 
£  E.  685,203  in  1919-20  to  £E.  1,013,503  in  1920-21. 
Even  thus  the  budget  still  amounts  to  only  2  per 
cent  of  the  State  budget,  and  further  liberal  in¬ 


creases  are  necessary  in  order  to  cope  with  the 
growing  educational  demands.  In  1921  there  were 
under  the  management  of  the  Ministry  of  Educa¬ 
tion  165  vernacular  schools  and  61  Europeanized 
schools  with  a  total  attendance  of  40,423;  under  its 
inspection  3790  vernacular  schools  and  182  Euro¬ 
peanized  schools,  with  a  total  attendance  of  279,310 
(41,711  girls).  In  1920  there  were  53  provincial 
council*  schools  and  60  private  schools  for  18,174 
primary  pupils;  the  total  attendance  in  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  primary  schools  was  10,749.  The  provincial 
councils  maintain  517  elementary  schools,  and  also 
gave  grants-in-aid  in  1920  to  2714  elementary 
schools  ( maktabs  under  inspections).  There  are 
8  Government  secondary  schools  and  32  private 
secondary  schools,  the  latter  under  the  inspection 
of  the  Ministry  of  Education  and  varying  greatly 
in  efficiency.  Progress  is  being  made  toward  the 
establishment  of  a  state  university  at  Cairo.  Under 
other  Government  departments  are  the  school  of 
law  (353  students),  the  military  school  (90  cadets), 
the  veterinary  school  (19  students),  the  higher 
school  of  agriculture  (99  students),  the  inter¬ 
mediate  school  of  agriculture  (108  students),  the 
police  school  (95  cadets),  and  2  reformatories. 

Government. — The  present  status  of  Egypt 
(1922)  is  that  of  a  sovereign  state  in  alliance  with 
Great  Britain.  To  Great  Britain  are  reserved  for 
its  own  discretion  the  following  matters:  (1)  Se¬ 
curity  of  British  imperial  communications  in  Egypt ; 
(2)  defence  of  Egypt  against  all  foreign  aggression 
or  interference,  direct  or  indirect;  (3)  protection 
of  foreign  interests  and  foreign  communities  in 
Egypt.  The  British  protectorate,  which  was  estab¬ 
lished  in  1914,  has  been  terminated,  and  the  coun¬ 
try  is  left  free  to  work  out  such  national  institutions 
as  may  be  suited  to  the  aspirations  of  her  people. 
There  is  uncertainty  about  the  future  Legislative 
Assembly  of  Egypt.  The  Law  of  1883  created  a 
Legislative  Council,  a  General  Assembly,  and  Pro¬ 
vincial  Councils,  which  were  consultative  rather 
than  legislative.  In  1913  the  first  two  were  amal¬ 
gamated  into  a  new  body  called  the  Legislative 
Assembly.  The  Government,  however,  was  not 
bound  by  the  resolutions  of  the  Assembly,  and 
moreover,  never  called  the  Assembly  after  1913. 

The  Capitulations,  i.  e.,  concessions  or  extra¬ 
territorial  rights  secured  by  resident  foreigners 
from  the  Sultans  of  Turkey,  have  presented  a  hard 
problem  to  the  Egyptians.  The  multiplicity  of 
jurisdictions  arising  out  of  them,  and  the  facilities 
which  they  give  to  men  of  uncertain  nationality  to 
escape  the  local  jurisdiction,  greatly  complicate  the 
problem  of  law  and  order,  while  the  exemption  of 
foreigners  from  direct  taxation,  other  than  land 
and  house  tax,  cripples  the  Government  in  raising 
revenue,  since  in  practice  it  is  impossible  to  impose 
on  Egyptians  taxes  from  which  foreigners  are 
exempt.  The  capitulations  of  Germany  and  Aus¬ 
tria  were  terminated  by  the  recent  Treaties  of 
Versailles  and  St.  Germain;  those  of  Greece  by 
an  agreement  signed  with  Great  Britain  at  Athens 
in  1920. 

Economic  Status. — The  cultivable  area  of  Egypt 
proper  was  estimated,  in  1919,  at  7,691,793  feddans 
(1  jeddan— 1.038  acres),  and  of  this  2,829,215  were 
uncultivated  for  want  of  reclamation.  Forced  labor 
(corvee)  has  been  abolished,  but  the  inhabitants 
may  be  called  out  to  guard  or  to  repair  the  Nile 
banks  in  flood' time.  The  agricultural  population 
(Fellahin)  forms  about  62  per  cent  of  the  whole. 
A  large  proportion  of  them  are  land-holders  on  a 
small  scale,  and  the  others  are  laborers,  the  relation 
between  employer  and  employee  being  hereditary. 
The  economic  prosperity  of  Egypt  is  regulated  by 


EGYPT 


278 


EICHSTATT 


the  demand  for  the  finer  qualities  of  cotton,  and 
to  avoid  any  recurrence  of  the  financial  depression 
that  invariably  follows  when  the  demand  for  the 
product  ceases,  the  Government  took  steps  to 
encourage  the  production  of  foodstuffs  and  to 
restrict  the  cotton  area  to  one-third  of  each  holding. 
In  1919  the  area  and  production  of  cotton  was 
1,574,000  jeddans  and  5,572,000  qantars  (1  qantar= 
99.05  lbs.).  The  area  under  cotton  in  1920  was 
1,827,868  jeddans;  the  area  under  wheat,  1,146,715 
jeddans.  In  1919  the  sugar  exported  amounted  to 
12,689  tons,  valued  at  £  E.  654,656,  and  the  cotton 
exported  to  6,708,906  qantars,  valued  at  £E.  65,- 
441,901.  The  foreign  trade  in  Egypt  in  1920  was 
valued  at  $914,233,898,  an  increase  of  $298,910,281, 
or  of  48  per  cent  over  1919.  The  increase,  how¬ 
ever,  is  due  largely  to  advanced  prices  rather  than 
to  increased  quantities.  The  imports  in  1920  were 
valued  at  $507,701,557.  The  United  Kingdom  comes 
first  in  the  amount  of  trade  with  Egypt,  the  United 
States  a  close  second.  In  1920  the  mineral  produc¬ 
tion  included  110,000  tons  of  phosphate;  in  1918 
282,000  metric  tons  of  petroleum  and  27,000  tons  of 
iron  ore. 

In  March,  1920,  there  were  (exclusive  of  sidings) 
2330  miles  of  rails  wrorked  by  the  State  and  721 
miles  of  rails  of  agricultural  light  railways  owned 
by  private  companies.  In  May,  1918,  Cairo  was 
connected  by  railway  with  the  Palestine  system  by 
the  completion  of  a  swing-bridge  over  the  Suez 
Canal  at  Kantara.  The  working  expense  of  the 
railways  represents  an  average  of  about  72  per  cent 
of  the  gross  receipts.  By  a  decree  of  18  October, 
1916,  the  monetary  unit  of  Egypt  was  made  the 
gold  Egyptian  pound  of  100  piastres.  On  1  April, 
1920,  the  debt  of  Egypt  amounted  to  £93,198,140 
sterling.  Work  is  proceeding  on  the  Blue  Nile 
Weir,  but  is  suspended  on  the  White  Nile  Dam, 
which  was  begun  in  1914,  forty  miles  south  of 
Khartum.  The  raising  of  the  Assuan  Dam  was 
completed  in  1912.  The  dam  was  raised  sixteen 
feet  and  the  thickness  increased  about  an  equal 
amount.  The  capacity  of  the  dam  is  increased 
from  1,000,000,000  cubic  meters  to  2,423,000,000  cubic 
meters,  its  depth  from  65  feet  to  88  feet,  and  the 
extent  of  the  river  affected  from  140  miles  to  185 
miles. 

Recent  History. — Egypt  declared  war  on  Ger¬ 
many  in  August,  1914,  and  with  the  entrance  of 
Turkey  into  the  war,  the  English  replaced  the 
Turkish  suzerainty  by  a  protectorate  placed  over 
the  country.  During  the  struggle  the  borders  of 
Egypt,  especially  around  the  Suez  Canal,  were  the 
scene  of  several  military  conflicts.  In  January,  1916, 
the  Sennusi  along  the  western  border  involved  the 
defenders  of  Egypt  in  several  minor  military  en¬ 
gagements  near  Mersa-Matruh  and  near  Barani.  In 
March  of  that  year  the  British  captured  Solium, 
which  the  Arabs  had  held  since  their  invasion  of 
Egypt  in  1915,  organized  the  conquered  province 
into  a  separate  administrative  area  and  named^  it 
the  Western  Governate.  On  the  eastern  frontier, 
around  the  Canal,  the  Turkish  armies  under  Ger¬ 
man  leadership  were  particularly  active,  engaging 
in  several  encounters  near  Tussum  (2  February, 
1915),  and  at  Quatia  Oases  (23  April,  1916).  At 
Kati  (4  August,  1916)  the  British  troops,  composed 
of  Australians  and  New  Zealanders,  under  Sir  Archi¬ 
bald  Murray,  succeeded  in  inflicting  a  decisive  de¬ 
feat  on  the  Turks.  The  year  1918  witnessed  the 
great  outbreak  of  the  revolutionary  movement 
which  had  been  simmering  in  Egypt  for  several 
years.  Throughout  the  war  Egypt  was  the  training- 
ground  of  the  British  territorial  regiments,  the 
Indian,  Australian,  and  New  Zealand  troops. 


"Egypt  for  the  Egyptians”  became  the  rallying 
cry  even  before  the  war,  which,  on  account  of  the 
obnoxious  protectorate,  enhanced  the  movement 
against  British  dominion.  The  movement  spread 
to  the  Bedouins  of  the  desert,  who  joined  the  towns¬ 
folk  and  fellahan  in  making  trouble  for  the  British. 
The  Egyptians  complained  of  the  cruel  treatment 
of  native  soldiers,  the  prohibition  of  the  meetings 
of  the  Legislature  during  the  war,  harsh  censorship 
of  newspapers  and  political  discussion  in  the  state 
schools,  and  the  suppression  of  nationalistic  activ¬ 
ities.  They  resented  the  increasing  number  of 
British  officials  in  the  Egyptian  Government,  dis¬ 
liked  the  idea  of  the  political  subordination  of  the 
Moslem  to  Christian  rule,  as  contrary  to  the  spirit 
of  Islam,  and  in  view  of  the  scant  consideration 
received  after  the  war,  felt  that  their  nation  had 
made  too  many  sacrifices  during  the  struggle. 
Their  delegates  decided  to  present  their  case  to  the 
Peace  Conference  at  Versailles,  and  after  several 
months  of  delay  caused  by  their  arrest  and  deporta¬ 
tion  by  the  British  officials  were  not  permitted  to 
state  their  case  at  all.  In  the  meantime  the  in¬ 
creasing  disorders  in  Egypt  caused  the  British 
Government  to  send  General  Allenby  as  High  Com¬ 
missioner  to  Egypt  with  full  military  and  civil 
powers  to  restore  order.  He  declared  promptly  that 
the  policy  of  Great  Britain  was  to  develop  the 
autonomy  of  Egypt  under  British  protection.  A 
mission  was  sent  to  the  country  in  1920  under  the 
presidency  of  Lord  Milner  to  formulate  plans  for 
the  practical  application  of  this  policy.  On  28 
February,  1922,  an  announcement  was  made,  declar¬ 
ing  the  British  protectorate  in  Egypt  at  an  end, 
and  on  16  March  Egypt  was  declared  to  be  a  con¬ 
stitutional  monarchy  with  the  Sultan  Ahmed  Fuad 
Pasha  as  King. 

Catholic  History. — In  1921  Mgr.  Andrea  Cassulo, 
titular  Archbishop  of  Leontopolis,  was  appointed 
Apostolic  Delegate  to  succeed  Mgr.  Birante.  There 
are  two  vicariates  apostolic  in  Egypt  for  Catholics 
of  the  Latin  Rite,  the  Vicariate  of  the  Delta  of  the 
Nile  (q.  v.)  and  the  Vicariate  of  Egypt,  erected 
in  1839,  and  comprising  at  the  present  time  Upper 
Egypt  and  the  mission  of  Lower  Egypt.  In  1920  it 
contained  61,117  Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite  and 
17,416  of  other  rites,  1382  of  whom  were  served  by 
missionaries  of  the  Latin  Rite.  Inhere  were  94 
Latin  priests,  245  Brothers,  469  Sisters,  17  parishes, 
8  succursal  parishes,  27  residential  stations,  55 
churches,  and  27  chapels. 

For  statistics  of  the  Uniat  Coptic  Church  see 
Alexandria,  Patriarchate  of;  Alexandria,  Diocese 
of;  Hermopolis,  Diocese  of;  Thebes,  Diocese  of. 

Eichstatt  (Eystadium),  Diocese  of  (Eystel- 
lensis  or  Aystellensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  V-364c),  in 
Bavaria,  lies  north  of  the  Danube  and  is  suffragan 
to  Bamberg.  The  diocese  comprises  about  200,000 
Catholics.  There  are  214  parishes,  488  churches,  10 
mission  stations,  1  abbey  and  8  monasteries  for 
men  and  1  abbey  and  58  monasteries  for  women, 
with  816  Sisters.  The  secular  priests  number 
375,  regulars  43,  of  whom  22  are  in  monasteries. 
There  is  1  seminary  at  Eichstatt,  which  has  a 
philosophico-theological  academy  with  10  professors 
and  66  students.  In  the  diocese  there  are  2  Latin 
high  schools  (V ollgymnasium  with  9  years’  course), 
2  high  schools  ( Hath  gymnasium  with  6  years’ 
course),  5  scientific  high  schools  ( Realschulen ,  150 
to  250  students;  one  has  over  350  students),  1  nor¬ 
mal  school  (6  years’  course,  112  students),  1  normal 
school  for  girls  conducted  by  the  English  Ladies 
(6  years’  course,  96  students).  All  these  schools 
receive  support  from  the  Government.  In  every 


EINSIEDELN 


279 


EL  PASO 


parish  there  are  from  1  to  3  common  elementary 
schools  with  50  to  70  pupils.  In  the  cities  and  in 
outlying  districts  throughout  the  diocese  there  are 
30-40  hospitals  and  16  day  nurseries. 

The  following  societies  exist  among  the  clergy:  1 
diocesan  union,  4  Marian  Congregations,  1  scientific 
association  for  all  Bavaria.  Among  the  laity  there 
is  an  association  for  Catholic  workingmen  in  every 
city,  1  Catholic  Men’s  Association,  8  Journeymen’s 
Associations,  30  boys’  clubs.  Parents’  associations 
for  the  support  of  Christian  schools  have  been  es¬ 
tablished  in  many  places.  Twelve  Catholic  news¬ 
papers  and  periodicals  are  printed  in  the  diocese. 
Since  1907,  9  churches  were  built  and  many  were 
enlarged  and  repaired,  8  parishes  were  founded,  4 
hospitals  erected,  and  10  convents  were  established. 

The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Leo  de  Mer- 
gel,  O.  S.  B.,  b.  at  Rohrbach,  Bavaria,  9  December, 
1847,  ordained  29  March,  1873,  made  president  gen¬ 
eral  of  the  Bavarian  Benedictine  Congregation,  ap¬ 
pointed  to  the  see  of  Eichstatt,  28  October,  1905, 
and  consecrated  27  December  following. 

Einsiedeln,  Abbey  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-367b),  a  Bene¬ 
dictine  monastery  in  the  Canton  of  Schusyz,  Switz¬ 
erland.  Eighteen  of  the  priests  care  for  9  parishes 
which  are  incorporated  in  the  monastery,  14  are 
spiritual  fathers  and  confessors  at  various  convents 
and  institutions,  8  are  custodians  of  the  monastery 
property,  while  those  who  live  in  the  monastery 
are  engaged  in  teaching.  Connected  with  the  mon¬ 
astery  there  is  a  theological  school  for  the  Benedic¬ 
tines,  also  a  gymnasium  with  a  lyceum  (8  classes), 
attended  by  320  students,  250  of  whom  are  boarders. 
Lately  an  agricultural  school  has  been  established. 
The  present  abbot,  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  Bossart,  b.  at 
Altishofen,  near  Lucerne,  16  September,  1858,  was 
ordained  20  April,  1884,  elected  30  May,  1905,  blessed 
11  July,  1905,  and  published  11  December  following. 

Election  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-374). — If  the  right  of  elec¬ 
tion  belongs  to  a  college,  and  the  president  neglects 
to  notify  more  than  one-third  of  the  electors,  the 
election  is  thereby  invalid,  unless  those  who  were 
neglected  have  taken  part  in  it.  Convocation  of 
the  electors  before  the  vacancy  of  an  office  which 
is  to  be  held  for  life  is  null  in  canon  law.  Voting 
by  letter  or  by  proxy  is  forbidden,  unless  there  is 
a  private  law  authorizing  this  procedure.  Voting 
must  be  free,  secret,  and  unconditioned;  no  one 
can  vote  for  himself  validly.  After  each  scrutiny 
or  each  session,  if  more  than  one  ballot  has  been 
taken,  the  votes  must  be  burned.  The  party  elected 
must  signify  his  acceptance  or  refusal  within  eight 
days  after  receiving  notification  of  the  result,  other¬ 
wise  the  election  is  null;  formerly  the  period  al¬ 
lowed  was  one  month.  Unless  common  law  or  a 
private  statute  expressly  declares  otherwise,  the 
decision  of  a  collegiate  body  is  to  be  obtained  as 
follows  in  order  to  have  the  force  of  law:  when 
the  invalid  ballots  have  been  eliminated  an  absolute 
majority  of  the  votes  decides  the  election;  if  two 
polls  have  failed  to  secure  an  absolute  majority,  a 
relative  majority  suffices  at  the  third  poll;  if  that 
has  resulted  in  a  tie,  the  presiding  officer  may  cast 
a  deciding  vote;  if  he  should  be  unwilling  to  do  so, 
the  candidate  among  those  who  have  obtained  the 
highest  vote  and  who  is  senior  in  orders,  or  by  first 
profession,  or  by  age,  is  selected. 

The  election  of  the  mother  superior  of  a  monas¬ 
tery  of  nuns  ( moniales )  is  presided  over  by  the 
local  ordinary  or  his  delegate  with  two  assistants 
to  count  the  votes,  who  must  remain  outside  of  the 
enclosure.  If  the  nuns  are  subject  to  regulars,  the 
regular  superior  presides;  however,  in  this  case 
timely  notice  should  be  sent  to  the  ordinary,  so 


that,  if  he  wishes,  he  may  assist  personally  or  by 
proxy  with  the  regular  superior,  and,  if  he  assists, 
preside.  The  ordinary  confessors  of  the  nuns  may 
not  act  as  the  assistants  referred  to  above.  In  case 
of  the  election  of  a  mother  general  of  a  congrega¬ 
tion  the  local  ordinary  of  the  place  of  election  is  to 
preside  personally  or  by  proxy,  and  may  confirm 
or  rescind  the  election  as  he  thinks  proper  if  the 
congregation  is  diocesan. 

Elizabeth,  Sisters  of  Saint  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-388b).— 
To  facilitate  its  management  the  congregation  was 
divided  into  10  provinces  by  resolutions  of  the  gen¬ 
eral  chapter,  14  November,  1898.  The  principal 
province  has  its  mother-house  and  novitiate  at 
Breslau.  Other  provincial  houses  with  provinces 
are:  Konigsberg  (East  and  West  Prussia);  Halle 
(Saxony  and  Thuringia) ;  Stockholm  (Sweden  and 
Norway) ;  Christiania  (Norway  and  Denmark) ; 
Rome  (Italy);  Berlin  (Brandenburg-Pomerania) ; 
Reinbek  (Schleswig-Holstein);  Posen  (Gnesen- 
Posen);  Neisse  (Upper  Silesia).  The  present 
superior  general  is  Mother  Mercedes  Rother,  ap¬ 
pointed  1  September,  1920.  The  congregation  has 
403  settlements  and  3456  members.  Besides  their 
original  task  of  nursing  the  sick,  the  Sisters  have 
other  spheres  of  activity,  listed  in  the  following 
statistical  record. 

In  1920  they  were  in  charge  of  44  hospitals  and 
infirmaries  with  1006  patients;  39  orphan  asylums 
and  houses  of  refuge  with  1836  inmates;  1  asylum 
caring  for  23  mentally  deficient  girls;  20  homes 
accommodating  1442  working  women;  18  houses  for 
communicants  with  1087  wards;  24  pump-rooms  and 
convalescent  houses  caring  for  2237;  213  kinder¬ 
gartens  with  8631  children;  44  schools  for  house¬ 
keeping  and  needle-work  with  1847  pupils;  61  as¬ 
sociations  of  maid-servants  and  working  women 
with  3060  members;  10  creches  with  359  infants; 
11  day  nurseries  with  780  nursing  infants;  4  milk 
kitchens  caring  for  717  nursing  infants;  30  public 
kitchens  distributing  156,048  meals;  15  primary 
schools  with  3709  pupils;  8  boys’  lunch  rooms,  and 
homes  for  retired  working  men  and  priests,  accom¬ 
modating  437.  The  Sisters  have  charge  of  public 
schools  only  in  the  mission  stations.  Of  the  131,835 
sick  people  cared  for  in  1920,  74,062  were  nursed 
in  their  own  dwellings,  57,773  in  84  infirmaries  and 
5  military  hospitals.  This  required  1,397,685  days 
of  nursing  and  309,282  night-watches.  Dispensary 
help  was  given  to  257,496  persons.  There  were 
587,993  meals  given  to  the  poor  and  poor  sick. 

El  Paso,  Diocese  of  (Elpasensis),  in  Texas,  U. 
S.  A.,  suffragan  of  Santa  Fe,  which  was  erected  by 
Decree  of  3  March,  1914,  covers  an  area  of  68,394 
sq.  miles,  comprising  the  counties  of  El  Paso,  Cul¬ 
berson,  Hudspeth,  Presidio,  Jeff-Davis,  Reeves, 
Brewster,  Terrel,  Pecos,  Crane,  Ward,  Loving, 
Winkler,  Ector,  Andrews  and  Gaines  in  the  State 
of  Texas,  and  the  counties  of  Grant,  Luna,  Dona 
Ana,  Otero,  Eddy,  and  a  part  of  Sierra  and  Lea 
in  the  State  of  New  Mexico. 

The  material  condition  of  the  diocese  is  some¬ 
what  difficult,  owing  to  the  moderate  fortune  of 
the  Catholic  Mexicans.  The  moral  condition  is 
generally  good,  and  greater  progress  is  anticipated 
for  the  future.  The  number  of  priests  has  increased, 
and  their  growth  in  holiness  of  life  gives  confidence 
of  a  bright  future.  During  the  past  five  years  there 
have  been  erected  more  than  45  churches  and 
chapels,  10  parochial  schools,  and  2  orphanages, 
without  increasing  the  diocesan  debt,  due  to  the 
generosity  of  the  people,  who  are  generally  poor. 
Five  years  ago  there  were  only  13  canonically 
erected  parishes;  there  are  now  (1922)  39  parishes, 


ELPHIN 


280 


ENGLAND 


39  churches,  84  missions,  and  about  25  mission 
stations,  28  secular  and  36  regular  priests;  15  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  with  4535  pupils,  3  academies,  1 
training  school  for  nurses,  2  industrial  schools,  2 
orphanages,  and  1  day  nursery;  about  ten  of  the 
public  institutions  admit  the  ministry  of  the  priests. 
The  religious  communities  represented  in  the  dio¬ 
cese  are:  men,  6  (Jesuit  and  Franciscan  Fathers), 
women,  9,  with  110  nuns  in  the  various  communities, 
which  are  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul, 
Sisters  of  Loretto,  Sisters  Servants  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  the  Poor,  Sisters  of  the  Incarnate  Word 
of  San  Antonio,  Texas,  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood, 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  and  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate 
Heart  of  Mary,  all  in  charge  of  the  various  institu¬ 
tions  in  the  diocese.  There  are  two  houses  of 
novices,  one  for  the  Jesuits,  and  the  other  in  Silver 
City  for  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph. 

The  Catholic  population  in  the  confines  of  the 
diocese  is  112,504,  Spanish  and  English-speaking, 
and  they  are  administered  at  present  (1922)  by 
Rt.  Rev.  Anthony  Joseph  Schuler,  S.  J.,  first  Bishop 
of  El  Paso,  b.  20  September,  1869,  in  the  diocese  of 
Erie,  ordained  27  June,  1901,  rector  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  Church  in  Denver,  appointed  bishop  17  June, 
1915,  consecrated  28  October,  1915,  succeeding  Rt. 
Rev.  John  J.  Brown,  preconized  Bishop  of  El  Paso 
22  January,  1915,  resigned  the  same  year.  Events 
of  special  importance  in  the  diocese  since  1915  are: 
the  visit  ad  limina  of  the  bishop,  the  dedication 
of  the  new  cathedral,  and  the  general  building  up  of 
the  diocese.  One  periodical,  “La  Regista  catolica, 
is  published  in  the  diocese. 

Elphin,  Diocese  of  (Elphinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
V-394c) ,  in  Connaught,  Ireland,  includes  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  county  of  Roscommon,  and  a  large 
portion  of  Sligo  and  Galway,  with  cathedral  church 
and  residence  at  Sligo.  Bishop  John  Clancy,  b.  23 
December,  1856,  d.  19  October,  1912,  was  succeeded 
by  Most.  Rev.  Bernard  Coyne,  b.  1854,  educated 
at  Summerhill  and  Maynooth,  ordained  priest  1879, 
rector  of  Boyle  1890,  canon  theologian  of  Elphin 
1896,  vicar  general  1910,  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Elphin,  30  March,  1913.  In  the  census  of  1911  the 
total  population  numbered  122,128,  of  whom  115,262 
Catholics  and  6866  were  non-Catholics.  There  are 
at  present  (1922)  33  parishes,  101  secular  and  4  regu¬ 
lar  priests,  86  churches,  14  chapels,  10  convents,  4 
monasteries,  1  college,  3  intermediate  schools.  Soci¬ 
eties  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  are  organized  through¬ 
out  the  diocese. 

Emesa  (or  Homs),  Diocese  of  (Emesensis),  a 
residential  see  for  the  Greek-Melchite  and  Syrian 
Rites.  It  is  an  archdiocese  of  the  Greek-Melchites 
with  the  united  title  of  Hama  or  Apama  (Apamen- 
sis),  and  the  archbishop  resides  at  Yabrud,  by 
which  name  the  diocese  is  sometimes  called.  The 
present  incumbent  is  Most  Rev.  Flavian  Kfoury, 
born  in  Lebanon,  served  as  Abbot  General  of  the 
Basilians  of  the  Baladite  Congregation,  and  ap¬ 
pointed  bishop  21  November,  1901.  The  1920 
statistics  credit  this  diocese  with  approximately 
7230  Catholics  of  the  Greek-Melchite  Rite,  7000  of 
other  rites,  10,000  Schismatics,  and  180,000  Moham¬ 
medans;  12  secular  and  4  regular  clergy,  12  churches, 
and  8  schools  with  215  pupils. 

It  is  also  an  archdiocese  for  the  Syrian  Rite, 
with  the  united  titles  of  Hama  and  Nebek.  At 
present  (1922)  it  is  administered  by  a  patriarchal 
vicar,  Rt.  Rev.  Theophilus  Joseph  Giorgi,  titular 
Bishop  of  Arethusa.  There  are  2200  Catholics  of 
this  Rite,  4  secular  priests,  and  5  churches  or 
chapels.  Emesa  is  a  titular  see  for  the  Latin  and 
Maronite  Rites;  the  Latin  titular  is  Most  Rev. 


Alberto  Vassallo  di  Torre  Grossa,  appointed  3 
December,  1913,  Internuncio  to  Argentina,  residing 
in  Buenos-Aires.  The  Maronite  titular  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Joseph  Sakr,  consecrated  11  February,  1911,  patri¬ 
archal  vicar  at  Bikorka. 

Emigration  Societies — An  act  to  limit  immigra¬ 
tion  of  aliens  into  the  United  States  was  passed 
19  May,  1921,  by  which  the  number  of  aliens  of 
any  nationality  who  might  be  admitted  during  any 
fiscal  year  should  be  limited  to  3  per  cent  of  the 
number  of  foreign-born  persons  of  such  nationality 
resident  in  the  United  States  as  shown  by  the 
census  of  1910.  This  was  the  culmination  of  the 
agitation  for  restrictive  immigration  that  had  been 
going  on  for  the  previous  decade.  The  law  was 
to  continue  in  force  until  20  June,  1922,  but  it  was 
further  extended  for  two  years  from  that  date. 
This,  with  the  results  of  the  great  World  War, 
during  which  period  the  old  time  immigration  ac¬ 
tivities  almost  ceased,  seriously  impaired  the  tradi¬ 
tional  work  of  the  older  emigrant  aid  societies. 
The  large  number  of  Italians  and  Polish  immi¬ 
grants,  however,  were  well  cared  for  by  their 
respective  societies.  In  1921  the  National  Catholic 
Welfare  Council  established  a  Bureau  of  Immigra¬ 
tion  at  New  York  and  sent  a  commissioner  abroad 
to  develop  the  aspect  of  the  work  which  was  thus 
taken  up  on  an  international  scope. 

Emmet,  Thomas  Addis,  physician  and  writer,  b. 
29  May,  1828,  at  the  University  of  Virginia;  d. 
in  New  York,  1  March,  1919.  He  was  the  son  of 
John  Patten  Emmet,  and  the  grandson  of  the 
Thomas  Addis  Emmet,  physician,  patriot  and  exile, 
and  brother  of  Robert  Emmet.  His  mother  was 
Mary  Byrd  Farley  Tucker.  He  was  educated  in 
St.  Thomas  Hall,  Flushing,  L.  I.,  and  in  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Virginia  and  received  his  degrees  of  M.D. 
and  LL.  D.  in  Jefferson,  Pa.,  in  the  year  1862.  He 
was  the  president  of  various  medical  societies  and 
of  the  Irish  Federation  of  America.  The  medical 
body  of  New  York  regarded  Dr.  Emmet  as  one  of 
their  chief  glories,  though  the  method  he  advocated 
in  obstetrics  was  for  a  long  time  a  subject  of  severe 
criticism,  but  he  lived  to  enjoy  his  complete  vindi¬ 
cation.  He  was  so  intense  in  his  Irish  patriotism 
that  he  found  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  a  pub¬ 
lisher  for  “The  Irish  Under  English  Rule.”  He  be¬ 
came  a  convert  to  the  Faith  by  listening  to  a 
single  sermon  of  a  Redemptorist  missionary  who 
was  explaining  the  necessity  of  submitting  one’s 
intelligence  to  the  authority  of  the  Divine  Teacher 
in  order  that  proper  homage  might  be  made  by 
that  supreme  faculty  to  the  Creator.  He  was  so 
thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  doctrines  of  the 
Faith  that  he  needed  no  instruction,  having  lived 
all  his  life  with  Catholics  and  having  married  a 
Catholic.  He  was  baptized  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
after  hearing  the  sermon  which  swept  away  the 
only  difficulty  that  he  had  about  the  Faith.  His 
“Incidents  of  My  Life”  was  published  in  1911.  His 
last  literary  work  was  the  life  of  his  two  great 
ancestors,  Thomas  Addis  and  Robert  Emmet. 

England  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-431b). — The  area  of  Eng¬ 
land  in  statute  acres  (land  and  inland  water)  in 
1921  was  32,559,868  acres,  of  which  594,185  were 
included  in  the  county  boroughs  and  31,965,683 
in  administrative  counties.  In  1921  the  population 
of  England  was  35,678,530,  of  whom  16,984,087 
were  males,  and  18,694,443  were  females.  The 
increase  in  the  period  between  1911  and  1921  was 
4.8%.  In  1921  Greater  London  had  an  acreage  of 
443,449  statute  acres;  of  this,  74,850  acres  belonged 
to  the  administrative  county  and  City  of  London; 


ENGLAND 


281 


ENGLAND 


368,599  acres  to  the  outer  ring.  The  population 
of  the  administrative  county  and  city  was  4,483,249; 
of  the  outer  ring,  2,992,919,  a  total  of  7,476,168. 
The  other  large  cities  with  their  respective  popula¬ 
tions  are:  Birmingham  919,438;  Liverpool  803,118; 
Manchester  730,551;  Sheffield  490,724;  Leeds  458,- 
320.  Of  these,  Birmingham,  Manchester,  and  Shef¬ 
field  made  the  greatest  gains  in  population  since 
1911.  Blackpool  made  a  gain  of  64%,  its  population 
in  1921  being  99,640.  The  movement  of  the  popula¬ 
tion  of  England  and  Wales  is  seen  in  the  following 
statistics : 


Year 

Estimated 

Population 

Total 

Births 

Illegiti¬ 

mate 

Births 

Deaths 

Mar¬ 

riages 

1910 

1920 

35,791,902 

37,609,600 

896,962 

957,994 

36,635 

44,267 

483,247 

466,213 

267,721 

379,658 

In  1919  the  total  immigration  was  201,504,  com¬ 
pared  with  22,824  the  year  before;  the  total  emi¬ 
gration  in  1918,  was  25,970;  in  1919,  193,601;  in 
1920,  283,705.  The  destinations  of  British  subjects 
leaving  the  United  Kingdom  for  non-European 
countries  in  1920  were  mainly  the  United  States 
(90,429),  British  North  America  (134,079),  Aus¬ 
tralia  (49,357),  British  South  Africa  (20,019),  India 
and  Ceylon  (19,326). 

Education. — The  war  had  important  and  far- 
reaching  effects  on  the  educational  institutions 
and  educational  system  of  Great  Britain,  and  has 
also  led  to  important  measures  for  the  organiza¬ 
tion  and  development  of  educational  methods.  It 
was  estimated  that  500,000  school  children  under 
fourteen  were  employed  before  the  war;  600,000 
others  were  estimated  to  have  withdrawn  from  school 
during  the  first  three  years  of  the  war.  Attendance 
at  colleges  fell  off,  compulsory  school  attendance 
laws  were  suspended,  and  many  school  buildings 
were  taken  over  for  military  purposes.  Reorgani¬ 
zation  was  urgently  needed.  The  matter  was  taken 
over  by  the  Reconstruction  Committee,  later  the 
Reconstruction  Ministry,  which  introduced  a  Bill 
in  May,  1918,  requiring  children  up  to  fourteen 
years  of  age  to  give  full  time  to  school  education 
and  requiring  compulsory  part-time  education  for 
children  between  fourteen  and  eighteen.  According 
to  the  provisions  of  this  Education  Act  of  1918, 
elementary  and  secondary  education  in  England 
and  Wales  is  under  the  control  of  the  Board  of 
Education.  The  local  administration  is  vested  in 
the  councils  of  counties,  of  county  boroughs,  of 
non-county  boroughs  with  a  population  of  over 
10,000,  and  of  urban  districts  with  a  population  of 
over  20,000.  The  local  authorities  maintain  all 
public  schools  and  control  the  expenditure  neces¬ 
sary  for  the  purpose.  “Non-provided”  schools 
simply  furnish  the  building,  but  must  comply  with 
the  directions  for  secular  instruction.  Education 
funds  are  derived  from  State  grants  (to  the  extent 
of  at  least  half  the  net  expenditure  recognized  by 
the  Board  of  Education),  local  rates,  etc.;  the 
education  authorities  have  borrowing  powers.  Ele¬ 
mentary  education  is  free  and  compulsory  for 
those  between  the  ages  of  five  and  fourteen,  which 
may  be  extended  to  fifteen.  All  children  under 
the  age  of  eighteen  must  attend  a  continuation 
school  for  320  hours  in  the  year,  unless  they  have 
received  full  time  education  up  to  the  age  of 
sixteen.  The  student’s  employment  may  be  sus¬ 
pended  during  the  day  on  which  attendance  is 
necessary  at  these  schools.  No  child  under  twelve 
years  of  age  may  be  employed,  and  children  over 
that  age  may  be  employed  on  school  days  only 


after  school-hours  and  before  8  p.  m.  In  schools 
provided  by  them  the  local  authorities  must  not 
pay  for  religious  instruction;  in  schools  not  pro¬ 
vided  by  them,  they  can  neither  forbid  nor  impose 
religious  instruction. 

In  1919  the  elementary  schools  in  England  and 
Wales  numbered  21,473,  and  the  attendance  was 
7,100,000.  In  1920  there  were  12,266  voluntary 
schools  for  ordinary  public  elementary  education 
with  2,730,000  pupils,  and  8705  council  schools 
with  4,355,000  pupils;  total  ordinary  elementary 
schools,  20,971  with  7,085,000  pupils.  The  average 
attendance  at  these  schools  in  1918-19  was  5,108,000 
and  the  number  of  teachers  168,000.  The  higher 
elementary  schools  numbered  44  with  11,550  regis¬ 
tered  pupils.  Of  the  special  schools  57  were  for 
the  blind  (3200  pupils),  50  for  the  deaf  (4600 
pupils),  198  for  the  mentally  defective  (15,500 
pupils),  162  for  physically  defective  children 
(11,400),  and  53  were  “certified  efficient”  schools. 

In  1917-18  1061  recognized  secondary  schools 
(with  238,314  full-time  pupils)  were  on  the  grant 
list;  in  addition  there  were  134  other  secondary 
schools  with  about  26,000  pupils;  10  preparatory 
schools  with  1140  pupils,  and  a  number  of  technical 
institutions,  art  schools,  nautical  schools,  and  part- 
time  schools.  Of  the  continuation  schools,  56  re¬ 
ceived  grants  in  1918-19,  and  the  attendance  was 
21,628.  There  are  also  provisions  for  nursery 
schools,  holiday  and  school  camps,  playing  fields, 
physical  training,  and  the  medical  inspection  of 
places  of  higher  education.  On  31  March,  1919, 
there  were  59  poor-law  schools,  and  in  1920,  87 
training  colleges  for  teachers  for  elementary  schools 
in  England  with  accommodation  for  13,542  students. 
The  following  table  taken  from  the  Statesman’s 
Year  Book  (1921)  shows  the  number  of  students 
and  professors  at  the  Universities  of  England, 
1920-21 : 


Universities 

Professors. 

etc. 

Students 

Oxford  . 

100 

4200 

Cambridge  . 

160 

4360 

Durham  . 

174 

1250 

London  . 

1250 

7000 

Manchester  . 

265 

3000 

Birmingham  . 

187 

1880 

Liverpool  . 

224 

2540 

Leeds  . 

250 

1930 

Sheffield  . 

169 

3100 

Bristol  . 

210 

1006 

Total  . 

2989 

30,260 

The  members  of  the  Board  of  Education  are: 
a  president  appointed  by  the  Crown,  the  lord  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  privy  council,  the  principal  secretaries 
of  State,  the  first  commissioner  of  the  treasury, 
and  the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer.  The  presi¬ 
dent  or  secretary  may  sit  in  Parliament. 

Government. — The  supreme. power  of  the  British 
Empire  is  vested  in  Parliament,  which  is  summoned 
by  the  sovereign,  by  advice  of  the  Privy  Council, 
at  least  twenty  days  before  its  assembling.  Under 
the  Parliamentary  Act  of  1911,  its  duration  is 
limited  to  five  years,  but  during  the  war  it  was 
extended  to  eight  years.  It  consists  of  a  House  of 
Lords  and  a  House  of  Commons.  To  the  House  of 
Lords  belong  the  peers  of  the  realm,  who  hold 
their  seats  by  hereditary  right,  or  by  creation  of 
the  sovereign,  or  by  virtue  of  office  (Law  Lords), 
or  by  election  for  duration  of  Parliament  (Scottish 
peers),  or  by  election  for  life  (Irish  peers).  In 


ENGLAND 


282 


ENGLAND 


1920  the  voting  strength  of  this  house  was  709. 
The  House  of  Commons  consists  of  members  repre¬ 
senting  county,  borough,  and  university  constitu¬ 
encies  in  the  three  divisions  of  the  United  King¬ 
dom.  English  or  Scottish  peers  are  ineligible  for 
the  House  of  Commons,  but  Irish  peers  can  be 
admitted.  Under  the  Parliament  (Qualification  of 
Women)  Act,  1918,  women  are  also  eligible,  and 
the  first  woman  took  her  seat  in  December,  1919. 
Under  the  Parliament  Act  of  1911,  all  money  Bills 
passed  by  the  House  of  Commons,  may  become 
law,  even  without  the  consent  of  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  any  Bill  introduced  by  the  House  of 
Commons  and  passed  three  times  may  become  law 
despite  the  opposition  of  the  House  of  Lords. 
According  to  the  Act  of  August,  1911,  members 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  hithertp  receiving  no 
salary  for  their  services,  now  are  paid. 

The  Representation  of  the  People  Act,  1918,  ex¬ 
tended  the  franchise  so  that  in  1920  over  one-half 
of  the  population  (21,776,000)  qualified  for  regis¬ 
tration,  including  8,856,000  women.  For  every 
70,000  of  the  population,  a  member  is  elected  to 
the  House  of  Commons,  which  now  has  a  total 
membership  of  707.  The  suffrage  is  given  to  all 
male  electors  twenty-one  years  of  age  or  over, 
and  to  women  electors  of  thirty  years  of  age  or 
over.  There  is  also  the  university  franchise  to 
be  qualified,  for  which  a  man  must  be  twenty-one 
and  a  woman  thirty,  and  each  must  have  taken  a 
degree,  or  in  the  case  of  a  woman,  have  fulfilled 
the  conditions  which  would  entitle  a  man  to  a 
degree. 

The  unity  of  the  Cabinet  is  expressed  by  the 
Prime  Minister,  although  it  is  but  a  short  time 
(since  January,  1906),  that  the  existence  of  the 
Prime  Minister  has  been  formally  recognized,  and 
special  precedence  accorded  him.  He  is  usually 
the  leader  of  his  party,  and  the  cabinet  members 
chosen  by  him  are  chosen  for  their  general  political 
importance,  although  each  is  responsible  for  the 
conduct  of  some  department  of  the  State,  and  ready 
to  answer  any  questions  or  give  any  information 
on  any  point  of  its  administration,  in  the  House 
of  Commons  and  the  House  of  Lords.  A  cabinet 
defeated  on  an  actual  vote  of  the  House  of  Com¬ 
mons  must  resign  or  persuade  the  king  to  dissolve 
Parliament.  With  the  approval  of  the  sovereign 
the  Prime  Minister  also  nominates  the  Privy  Coun¬ 
cil,  which  includes  the  following  classes :  All  cabinet 
ministers,  ex-cabinet  ministers,  diplomatic  corps, 
honorary  members,  as  princes  and  bishops,  learned 
and  scientific  men,  the  Lord  Chancellor,  Master 
of  the  Rolls,  Lord  Chief  Justice,  Judges  of  the 
Supreme  Court,  and  Judge  Advocate  General. 
From  it  have  developed  the  Ministry  of  Health 
and  the  Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  Fisheries,  also 
the  Board  of  Trade,  and  the  Board  of  Education. 
The  Privy  Council  possesses  also  judicial  functions, 
being  the  Final  Court  of  Appeals  for  the  Colonies, 
India,  and  the  Ecclesiastical  Courts  of  the  country. 
Its  number  is  unlimited,  at  present  about  300,  but 
at  its  meeting  only  a  few  members  are  present, 
usually  members  of  the  Government.  The  Ministry 
of  Health,  newly  organized  in  1919,  has  charge  of 
the  Poor  Laws,  the  Unemployed  Workingmen’s 
Act,  the  Old  Age  Pensions  Act,  and  sanitary  legis¬ 
lation;  the  National  Treasury  is  under  a  Commis¬ 
sion,  consisting  of  the  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury, 
the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  and  three  Lords 
Commissioners. 

Since  January,  1918,  the  Board  of  Trade  has  been 
organized  in  two  main  divisions:  the  Department 
of  Commerce  and  Industry  and  the  Department 
of  Public  Service  and  Administration.  The  Min¬ 


istry  of  Labor,  created  under  the  Act  of  1916,  com¬ 
bines  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
under  the  Conciliation  Act  (1896),  the  Labor  Ex¬ 
change  Act  (1909),  the  Trade  Board  Act  (1909), 
the  National  Insurance  Unemployment  Acts 
(1911-18),  and  Part  I  of  the  Ministry  of  Munitions 
of  War  Act  (1915).  In  1919  the  Board  of  Agri¬ 
culture  was  reorganized  into  five  departments: 
Intelligence,  Land  and  Supplies,  Finance  and 
Economics,  Fisheries,  and  Welsh.  The  first  three 
form  the  Minister’s  Administrative  Council.  The 
Home  Office  has  five  secretaries:  the  Home  Secre¬ 
tary,  the  Foreign  Secretary,  the  Secretary  for  War, 
the  Secretary  for  the  Colonies,  and  the  Secretary 
for  India,  but  legally  they  all  share  the  same  office, 
and  each  can  perform  the  duties  of  the  others. 
There  must  always  be  one  secretary  in  the  metrop¬ 
olis,  and  all  sit  in  the  cabinet.  The  Charity  Com¬ 
missioners  assist  in  carrying  out  the  War  Charity 
Act  (1916),  and  the  Blind  Persons  Act  (1920).  A 
Ministry  of  Pensions  was  constituted  in  1916  to 
administer  the  pensions  and  grants  awarded  for 
disablement  sustained  in  war  service.  In  1917  it 
took  over  from  the  statutory  committee  the  direct 
administration  of  medical  treatment.  In  1919  a 
Ministry  of  Transport  was  set  up  to  improve  the 
means  of  locomotion  and  transport. 

Under  the  National  Insurance  Acts  (1911  to  1920), 
provision  is  made  for  compulsory  insurance  against 
loss  of  health,  for  the  prevention  and  cure  of  sick¬ 
ness,  and  for  compulsory  insurance  against  unem¬ 
ployment.  The  National  Health  Insurance  Act  is 
administered  by  the  Ministry  of  Health  in  England 
and  Wales,  and  concerns  all  persons  between  the 
ages  of  sixteen  and  seventy,  employed  by  the  time 
or  piece,  and  earning  less  than  £250  a  year,  whether 
or  not  they  are  British  subjects.  In  1919  fifteen 
million  and  a  half  workers  were  insured;  the  total 
income  in  1918-19  was  about  £30,500,000  (including 
£8,500,000  contributed  by  the  state),  and  the  total 
expenditure,  £20,250,000.  The  Unemployment  Act 
is  administered  by  the  Board  of  Trade  through 
Employment  Exchanges,  Trade  Unions,  and 
Friendly  Societies.  By  the  Unemployment  Acts 
of  1920  and  1921  all  persons  insured  under  the 
National  Insurance  Acts  except  agricultural  work¬ 
ers,  domestics,  and  outworkers,  are  compulsory  in¬ 
sured  against  unemployment.  About  twelve  mil¬ 
lion  persons  were  insured  under  these  Acts  (8,500,- 
000  men  and  3,500,000  women).  The  total  income 
(1918-19)  was  £4,600,000  (including  £1,100,000  from 
state  funds) ;  total  expenditure,  £600,000.  Under 
the  Old  Age  Pensions  Acts  (1908-19)  there  were 
in  19-19,  920,198  pensions  payable  in  the  United 
Kingdom;  the  estimated  cost  in  1920-21  was  £25,- 
969,000.  The  Poor  Law,  which  relieves  paupers  in 
their  homes,  or  in  the  workhouses,  or  poorhouses, 
is  administered  by  the  local  government  board 
through  boards  of  guardians.  A  board  of  guardians 
is  elected  for  each  of  the  653  poor  law  unions.  The 
amount  expended  in  1917-18  in  England  and  Wales 
was  £18,423,883. 

For  purposes  of  local  government,  England  is 
divided  into  sixty-two  administrative  counties,  in¬ 
cluding  the  county  of  London.  Each  county  is 
governed  by  justices,  and  a  popularly  elected  coun¬ 
cil,  aided  by  a  prescribed  number  of  aldermen, 
elected  for  six  years.  The  county  councillors, 
elected  for  three  years,  are  also  the  local  educa¬ 
tional  authorities.  The  counties,  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  the  County  of  London,  are  subdivided  into 
county  districts,  which  are  either  urban  or  rural; 
each  has  a  district  council.  In  each  civil  parish  in 
a  rural  district  there  is  a  parish  meeting,  or  if  the 
town  has  over  300  inhabitants,  a  parish  council. 


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In  all  the  great  towns  local  business  is  administered 
by  a  municipal  corporation,  which  derives  its 
authority  from  charters  granted  by  the  Crown. 
There  are  three  kinds  of  boroughs:  county  boroughs, 
quarter  session  boroughs,  and  small  boroughs  of 
special  and  ancient  jurisdiction.  The  first  are  out 
of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  county  councils,  but  all 
have  a  mayor,  aldermen,  and  burgesses.  The 
ecclesiastical  parish  is  now  of  slight  importance  in 
the  sphere  of  local  government.  The  National 
Assembly  of  the  Church  of  England  Act,  however, 
conferred  increased  privileges  on  the  laity  and  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  institution  of  a  Parochial  Church 
Council,  a  Parochial  Church  meeting,  and  a 
National  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  England. 

The  Government  and  the  War. — During  the 
World  War  the  Privy  Council  and  Parliament  both 
played  an  important  part  in  the  conduct  of  affairs. 
The  whole  administration  was  deeply  affected.  Acts 
of  Parliament  were  numerous,  as  well  as  Royal 
Proclamations  and  Orders  in  Council.  Legislative 
action  was  necessary  not  only  to  secure  success  in 
the  field  and  on  the  seas,  but  also  to  preserve  a 
national  life  immune  from  social  and  economic  dis¬ 
turbance.  New  Duties  were  imposed  on  many  old 
established  departments,  and  the  policy  of  other 
departments  considerably  affected.  A  temporary 
mortatorium  was  authorized;  a  Currency  and  Bank 
Notes  Act,  providing  for  the  issue  of  paper  bank 
notes,  was  passed;  also  Acts  for  the  control  of 
foreign  trade,  the  defense  of  the  realm,  trading 
with  the  enemy,  hoarding  of  supplies,  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  prize  courts,  an  increase  of  the  army 
to  one  million  men,  a  new  system  of  registration, 
the  restriction  of  the  sale  of  liquor,  compulsory 
military  service,  and  the  creation  of  new  ministries. 

In  the  meantime  there  was  a  remarkable  series 
of  developments  in  the  British  cabinet  and  ministry, 
involving  not  only  many  changes  of  personnel,  but 
also  fundamental  changes  in  the  constitution  of 
the  cabinet  and  its  relation  to  Parliament.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  two  members  of  the  cabinet 
and  one  under-secretary  resigned  because  of  their 
objections  to  taking  an  active  part  in  the  war.  In 
February,  1915,  action  was  taken  which  emphasized 
the  control  of  the  cabinet  over  the  proceedings  of 
Parliament,  for  the  government  proposed  taking 
the  entire  time  of  the  House  of  Commons  for  the 
discussion  of  its  measures,  formally  taking  away 
from  the  English  Parliament  the  so-called  “Parlia¬ 
mentary  initiative.”  The  new  cabinet  was  reor¬ 
ganized  into  the  new  Coalition  Cabinet,  a  total  of 
twenty-three  members — something  new  in  English 
history.  This,  however,  was  not  satisfactory,  and 
so  there  came  into  existence  the  War  Cabinet  of 
five  members,  which  took  over  the  active  functions 
of  the  old  War  Committee,  and  which  was  the 
superior  deciding  body  over  the  whole  group  of 
ministers.  The  constitution  of  the  “Imperial  War 
Cabinet”  may  be  taken  as  a  formal  recognition 
of  the  equality  of  status  between  the  various  parts 
of  the  British  Empire.  In  July,  1918,  the  prime 
minister  of  each  dominion  was  given  the  right  to 
maintain  a  cabinet  minister,  either  as  a  resident 
or  as  a  visitor  to  London,  to  represent  him  at  the 
meetings  of  the  cabinet  held  between  the  plenary 
sessions.  In  1919  the  “Standing  Committee  of 
Home  Affairs”  (established  in  1918  to  discuss  ques¬ 
tions  of  imperial  policy  and  domestic  questions 
requiring  the  co-operation  of  several  departments) 
and  the  War  Cabinet  was  dissolved,  and  a  full 
cabinet  of  twenty  members  constituted.  A  meet¬ 
ing  of  prime  ministers  was  summoned  for  June, 
1921,  to  act  along  the  lines  of  the  Imperial  War 
Cabinet  and  to  deal  with  pressing  problems. 


Army  and  Navy. — The  land  forces  of  the  United 
Kingdom  consist  of  the  regular  army  and  the  terri¬ 
torial  army.  The  regular  army  is  paid  for  by 
the  imperial  exchequer  (and  by  some  dominions), 
and  serves  both  at  home  and  overseas.  The  terri¬ 
torial  army  serves  only  at  home  in  peace  time,  but 
is  liable  to  service  overseas  in  time  of  war,  subject 
to  the  consent  of  Parliament.  Only  volunteers 
serve.  For  military  purposes  the  kingdom  is  divided 
into  seven  districts  (commands),  and  the  London 
district.  The  land  forces  are  administered  by  an 
army  council  presided  over  by  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  War;  the  territorial  army  to  a  large 
extent  by  county  associations.  The  soldiers  are 
trained  chiefly  at  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  the 
Royal  Military  College,  and  the  Staff  College.  The 
total,  personnel  on  1  March,  1921,  was  341,000,  of 
whom  201,000  were  British  troops,  55,600  emergency 
soldiers,  and  84,200  Indian  and  colonial  troops.  The 
garrison  on  the  Rhine  includes  15,000  men;  9300 
British  soldiers  are  stationed  in  Constantinople, 
18,000  in  Palestine,  77,000  in  Mesopotamia.  The 
home  garrison  numbers  140,500,  the  territorial  army 
100,000.  In  1920  the  estimated  enrollment  in  the 
British  navy  was  127,500,  as  against  415,000  at  the 
date  of  the  armistice  on  11  November,  1918.  The 
administration  of  the  navy  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  a  cabinet  minister. 
In  the  Disarmament  Conference  of  1921-22  at 
Washington,  United  States,  it  was  decided  that  the 
limit  of  Britain’s  navy  should  be  22  major  ships 
with  a  net  tonnage  of  580,458,  but  she  was  given 
the  right  to  construct  two  new  ships,  provided  she 
scrap  four  old  ones,  thus  making  a  total  of  558,950 
tons  to  her  credit  after  the  new  ships  are  com¬ 
pleted.  The  ‘reorganization  of  a  Far  Eastern  fleet, 
the  East  Indian  Squadron,  and  the  Australian, 
Canadian,  and  New  Zealand  navies  is  in  process. 
In  May,  1912,  the  Royal  Flying  Corps  came  into 
existence.  In  1918  an  Air  Ministry  was  formed, 
and  the  control  of  the  air  forces  was  vested  in 
an  Air  Council.  In  April,  1921,  a  separate  Secretary 
of  State  for  Air  was  appointed.  The  Air  Force  at 
that  time  numbered  30,880  men,  and  the  gross 
expenditure  (estimated)  in  1921  was  £19,033,400. 

Justice. — The  different  courts  or  sessions  are 
graded  according  to  the  importance  of  the  case 
writh  which  they  have  to  deal.  In  criminal  matters, 
beginning  with  the  lowest,  the  gamut  runs  through 
petty  sessions,  quarter  sessions,  high  court,  court 
of  criminal  appeal.  Civil  disputes  between  private 
citizens  are  tried  at  the  county  court,  divisional 
court,  the  high  court,  or  the  court  of  appeal. 
Supreme  above  all  other  courts  and  able  to  hear 
appeals  from  all  is  the  tribunal  of  the  House  of 
Lords,  consisting  of  the  Lord  Chancellor,  the  Lord 
Chief  Justice,  ex-Lord  Chancellors,  and  eminent 
peers  holding  life  peerages  only,  and  known  as 
Law  Lords.  There  are  besides  two  other  divisions 
of  the  high  court:  the  Court  of  Chancery,  and  the 
Court  of  Probate,  Divorce,  and  Admiralty.  There 
is  in  addition  the  Bankruptcy  Court,  and  also 
special  commissions  dealing  with  railways  and 
canals. 

Internal  Communications. — The  railway  mile¬ 
age  in  1919  was  23,725;  total  capital  paid  up  at 
end  of  year,  £1,325,000,000;  number  of  passengers 
carried,  1,551,700,000;  working  expenses,  £187,058,- 
000;  net  receipts,  £53,070,000.  The  Government 
control  of  the  railways  as  a  war  measure  lasted 
from  August,  1914,  to  August,  1921.  In  1918-19 
there  were  in  the  United  Kingdom  2720  miles  of 
tramways  and  light  railways  open  for  public  traffic, 
of  which  2647  miles  were  operated  by  electric  trac¬ 
tion.  Of  the  total  mileage  1705  miles  were  worked 


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284 


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by  local  authorities  and  1015  miles  by  companies. 
In  England  and  Wales  the  total  length  of  canals, 
according  to  the  latest  statistics,  was  3641  miles. 

Financial  Status. — The  revenue  in  1920-21  was 
£1,425,984,666  (£=$4.55),  of  which  £134,003,000  came 
from  customs;  £199,782,000  from  excise;  £7,073,000 
from  motor  vehicle  duties;  £47,729,000  from  estate, 
legacy,  succession,  corporation,  etc.,  duties;  £26,- 
591,000  from  stamp  taxes;  £650,000  from  land  taxes; 
£1,900,000  from  house  duties;  £394,146,000  from 
property  and  income  taxes;  £219,181,000  from  excess 
profit  taxes;  £650,000  from  corporation  profits  tax; 
£20,000  from  land  value  duties.  The  total  non-tax 
revenue  was  £394,259,666.  The  total  consolidated 
fund  services,  which  are  mainly  bestowed  on  the 
national  debt,  cost  £378,047,000  in  1921 ;  and  the 
total  supply  services,  including  the  army,  navy, 
and  civil  service,  cost  £817,381,000;  total  expendi¬ 
ture  chargeable  against  revenue,  £1,195,428,000.  In 
the  civil  service  estimates  for  1921-22  the  expendi¬ 
ture  for  public  education  was  £63,518,000;  old  age 
pensions  and  Ministry  of  Pensions,  £137,707,000; 
civil  demobilization  and  resettlement,  etc.,  £18,325,- 
000;  loans  to  dominions  and  allies,  £5,000,000; 
others,  £123,265,000.  The  estimated  expenditure, 
chargeable  against  capital  in  1921-22,  was  £10,- 
472,500.  The  excess  profits  tax,  which  was  50%  in 
1915,  was  increased  to  60%  later,  and  finally  to 
80%,  producing  £223,116,090  in  1917-18,  £283,976,861 
in  1918-19,  and  £289,208,046  in  1919-20.  From  April, 
1915,  to  April,  1920,  incomes  of  and  below  £130  a 
year  were  exempt  from  the  income  tax.  From 
April,  1920,  exemption  is  allowed  to  bachelors  with 
earned  incomes  below  £150  (or  unearned  below 
£135),  and  to  married  person  with  earned  incomes 
below  £250.  The  income  from  the  supertax,  i.  e., 
that  paid  by  persons  with  incomes  exceeding  £2500 
a  year,  in  1919-20  was  £340,000,000,  and  the  esti¬ 
mated  number  of  persons  chargeable  48,000.  On  30 
November,  1920,  the  approximate  national  debt  of 
Great  Britain  was  £7,735,628,000. 

Production  and  Industry. — The  general  distribu¬ 
tion  of  the  surface  of  England  in  1920  was  as 
follows:  mountain  and  heath  grazing  land,  2,732,000 
acres;  permanent  pasture,  12,667,000  acres;  arable 
land,  11,181,000  acres;  woods  and  plantations  (1913), 
2,697,000  acres;  total  surface,  excluding  water,  32,- 
386,000  acres.  The  acreage  and  yield  of  the  prin¬ 
cipal  crops  in  1920  was:  wheat,  1,875,000  acres, 
6,669,000  quarters;  barley,  1,637,000  acres,  6,335,000 
quarters;  oats  2,266,000  acres,  10,746,000  quarters; 
turnips  and  swedes,  988,000  acres,  14,193,000  tons; 
hay,  6,069,000  acres,  8,211,000  tons.  In  1920  the 
live  stock  included  1,884,902  horses  (for  agriculture 
only),  11,770,274  cattle,  23,407,072  sheep,  3,113,314 
pigs.  In  England  and  Wales  in  1920  there  were 
80,737  holdings  between  one  and  five  acres;  194,059 
holdings  between  5  and  50  acres;  129,703  holdings 
between  50  and  500  acres;  and  13,492  holdings  of 
over  300  acres.  Up  to  the  end  of  1914  the  total 
quantity  of  land  acquired  for  small  holdings  by 
the  various  local  authorities  in  England  and  Wales, 
according  *to  the  Small  Holdings  and  Allotments 
Act  (1908),  was  198,104  acres,  let  to  13,327  in¬ 
dividual  tenants  and  5  associations;  and  the  land 
acquired  for  allotments  was  33,522  acres,  let  to 
130,526  individual  tenants  and  52  associations.  On 
1  May,  1918,  there  were  estimated  to  be  about 
1,400,000  allotments  in  England  and  Wales  (500,000 
before  the  war).  The  Board  of  Agriculture  makes 
grants  for  scientific  research  in  agriculture,  under 
the  Development  and  Roads  Improvement  Funds 
Act,  1909  and  1910,  which  provides  for  a  national 
fund  for  the  development  of  agriculture,  forestry, 
fisheries,  and  analogous  resources  of  the  United 


Kingdom.  The  forestry  area  of  England  is  1,720,330 
acres. 

On  31  December,  1918,  there  were  registered  in 
the  United  Kingdom  6857  sailing  boats  and  11,334 
steam  vessels  with  a  total  tonnage  of  10,100,945. 

Textiles. — In  1920  1,560,000,000  pounds  of  cotton 
were  used  in  the  textile  industry,  865,000,000  pounds 
of  wool,  67,000,000  pounds  of  flax.  The  value  of 
the  products  exported  (in  thousands  of  pounds) 
was:  cotton,  401,700;  woolen,  135,000;  linen,  23,900. 
The  home  production  of  wool  in  1920  was  estimated 
at  108  million  pounds,  and  of  flax  at  27  million 
pounds.  The  fall  in  the  price  of  cotton  and  the 
break  in  Far  Eastern  Exchange  had  a  depressing 
effect  on  the  cotton  production;  in  the  year  1920 
the  exports  were  4,436,557  yards  as  against  7,075,252 
yards  in  1913,  but  the  value  of  the  1920  exports 
was  three  times  greater.  The  value  of  the  woolen 
exports  was  five  times  their  value  in  1913.  The 
volume  of  production  in  most  industries  is  below 
that  of  1913,  owing  to  lack  of  foreign  markets, 
shortening  of  hours  of  labor,  government  inter¬ 
ference,  and  other  conditions. 

Commerce. — In  1919  the  imports  free  of  duty  (ex¬ 
clusive  of  bullion,  specie  and  diamonds)  amounted 
to  £1,381,634,807,  84.9  per  cent.  In  1920  the  value 
of  the  exports  was  £1,557,974,984,  of  which  £1,335,- 
569,027  was  the  value  of  British  goods.  In  1913  the 
total  was  much  less,  £634,820,326,  but  values  have 
risen  greatly  since  that  year.  Trade  with  Russia 
has  come  to  a  standstill;  that  with  Germany  has 
been  slowly  increasing.  The  outstanding  feature 
in  the  recent  trade  statistics  has  been  the  heavy 
buying  from  and  the  light  selling  to  the  United 
States. 

The  total  loss  of  United  Kingdom  merchant  ves¬ 
sels  from  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  August,  1914, 
to  the  end  of  October,  1918,  was  9,031,828  tons; 
new  construction  in  that  period  amounted  to  4,342,- 
296  tons;  purchases  abroad,  530,000  tons;  enemy 
tonnage  captured,  716,520  tons,  causing  a  net  loss 
of  3,443,012  tons. 

Mining. — The  recent  miners’  strikes  emphasize 
the  close  connection  of  the  coal  industry  with  the 
industrial  life  of  the  nation.  During  the  war  the 
Government  fixed  the  prices,  guaranteed  a  certain 
amount  of  profits  to  the  mine  owners,  and  retained 
the  remaining  profits.  After  the  war  the  Govern¬ 
ment’s  surplus  was  enormous,  owing  to  the  sale  of 
coal  abroad  at  famine  prices  in  response  to  the 
enormous  demands  of  the  continent.  To  this  the 
miners  objected,  saying  that  it  should  go  into  lower¬ 
ing  the  price  of  coal  and  raising  their  wages.  The 
quarrel  between  the  miners  who  insisted  on  keeping 
the  mines  nationalized  and  the  Government,  which 
desired  a  return  to  normal  conditions,  had  a  decided 
influence  on  the  coal  exports  of  1920,  which  was 
only  25,000,000  tons  as  against  the  yearly  average 
of  73,000,000  tons  in  1909-13.  In  1920  the  produc¬ 
tion  was  58,000,000  tons  less  than  the  production 
of  1913.  However,  the  depreciation  of  mine  equip¬ 
ment,  the  run-down  condition  of  the  coal  transport 
equipment,  and  the  reduction  of  the  working  day 
are  factors  to  be  considered,  as  well  as  the  loss  of 
foreign  markets.  In  1913  5,993,000  tons  went  to 
Russia,  in  1920  only  92,000  tons;  to  Germany, 
4,563,000  tons  in  1913  as  against  13,000  tons  in 
1920;  to  South  America,  6,892,000  tons  in  1913 
compared  with  556,000  tons  in  1920.  The  steel  pro¬ 
duction  of  1920  was  greater  than  that  of  any  pre¬ 
war  year.  In  1920  8,000,000  tons  of  pig  iron  and 
9,055,000  tons  of  steel  ingots  and  castings  were  pro¬ 
duced. 

Religion. — The  Established  Church  of  England 
is  Protestant  Episcopal.  The  King,  as  Supreme 


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285 


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Governor  of  the  Church  of  England,  nominates  all 
the  bishops  and  archbishops.  There  are  three  arch¬ 
bishops  at  the  head  of  the  three  provinces  of 
Canterbury,  York,  and  Wales,  and  43  bishops  and 
39  suffragan  and  assistant  bishops.  The  latest  statis¬ 
tics  give  14,614  civil  parishes.  Of  the  marriages 
celebrated  in  1919,  59.7%  were  in  the  Established 
Church,  5.2%  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  11.5% 
were  Nonconformist  marriages,  0.04%  were  Quaker 
marriages,  0.5%  Jewish,  and  23.1%  civil  marriages 
in  the  Registrar’s  office.  The  Unitarians  have  about 
350  places  of  worship ;  ^  the  Catholic  Apostolic 
Church  about  80;  the  New  Jerusalem  about  75. 
The  Salvation  Army  included  (1919)  about  24,600 
officers  and  employees,  11,170  corps  and  outposts, 
and  71,400  local  officers. 

In  1914  an  act  was  passed  disestablishing  and 
disendowing  the  Church  in  Wales;  it  came  into 
force  31  March,  1920. 

By  Apostolic  Letters  of  Pope  Pius  X,  28  October, 
1911.  the  Catholic  Church  in  England  and  Wales, 
which  had  previously  consisted  of  one  province,  was 
divided  into  three;  on  17  February,  1916,  a  fourth 
province,  that  of  Cardiff,  was  added;  on  22  March, 
1917,  the  new  diocese  for  Essex  was  erected,  receiv¬ 
ing  the  name  of  Brentwood,  on  20  July,  1917.  As 
at  present  constituted  the  dioceses  are  divided  as  fol¬ 
lows  :  Westminster  ( 1850) ,  consisting  of  the  Archdio¬ 
cese  of  Westminster  and  five  suffragans,  Brentwood, 
Northampton,  Nottingham,  Portsmouth,  and  South¬ 
wark;  Birmingham  (1911),  consisting  of  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Birmingham  and  three  suffragans,  Clifton, 
Plymouth,  and  Shrewsbury;  Liverpool  (1911),  con¬ 
sisting  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Liverpool  and  four 
suffragans,  Hexham  and  Newcastle,  Leeds,  Middles¬ 
brough,  and  Salford;  Cardiff  (1916),  consisting  of 
the  Archdiocese  of  Cardiff  and  one  suffragan, 
Menevia..  The  number  of  priests,  secular  and 
regular  in  England,  according  to  the  English 
“Catholic  Directory”  for  1922,  is  3962;  the  number 
of  churches  and  chapels,  1933.  There  are  1196 
Catholic  elementary  schools  with  316,917  pupils,  and 
431  secondary  schools  with  43,695  pupils.  The  Cath¬ 
olic  population  is  approximately  1,931,990.  For 
further  statistics  see  articles  on  the  dioceses  men¬ 
tioned  above. 

England  in  the  World  War. — When  the  World 
War  broke  out  between  Austria-Hungary  and 
Servia,  and  between  Germany,  Russia,  and  France, 
England’s  position  was  uncertain,  until  the  Ger¬ 
mans  commenced  the  invasion  of  Belgium  on  2 
August,  1914,  whereupon  the  British  Foreign  Secre¬ 
tary,  Sir  Edward  Grey,  dispatched  an  ultimatum 
to  Germany,  requiring  assurance  that  Germany 
would  respect  Belgian  neutrality.  Germany  re¬ 
fused  on  the  ground  of  military  necessity,  and 
the  German  Chancellor  rebuked  England  for  mak¬ 
ing  war  for  “a  scrap  of  paper.”  The  next  day  (5 
August,  1914)  war  was  declared  between  Germany 
and  England.  In  September  England,  along  with 
the  great  powers,  France  and  Russia,  mutually  en¬ 
gaged  in  the  Pact  of  London  not  to  conclude  peace 
separately,  nor  to  demand  terms  of  peace  without 
the  previous  agreement  of  each  of  the  others.  As 
soon  as  was  possible  a  British  expeditionary  force 
under  Field  Marshal  Sir  John  French  was  dis¬ 
patched  to  aid  the  French  and  the  Belgians. 
Stationed  north  of  Maubeuge  they  were  forced  by 
the  fall  of  Namur  and  a  hot  contest  at  Mons  to 
retreat  from  Mons  to  avoid  a  flanking  movement 
of  General  Von  Kluck’s  cavalry.  Outflanked  again 
on  26  August,  1914,  they  were  driven  from  Cambrai, 
and  in  two  days  expelled  from  St.  Quentin.  Aban¬ 
doning  Amiens,  Laon,  and  Reims  they  fell  back 
to  the  Marne  on  a  line  extending  from  Soissons 


to  Compiegnc.  The  British  force  sent  to  save 
Antwerp  was  too  small  to  be  of  any  avail,  and  on 
5  October,  1914,  was  forced  to  evacuate  the  city. 

In  the  meantime  the  British  army  was  reinforced 
by  volunteers  from  England  and  a  strong  con¬ 
tingent  from  India,  and  was  moving  up  to  Ypres. 
Determined  to  capture  the  seaport  towns  the  Ger¬ 
mans  fiercely  assailed  the  allied  line  along  the 
Yser  River,  at  Ypres,  at  La  Bassee  and  before  Arras. 
The  German  attempt  failed,  and  the  Battle  of 
Flanders  subsided  into  a  dreary  process  of  trench¬ 
digging  with  intermittent  cannonading.  The  orig¬ 
inal  British  force  of  150,000  was  augmented  until 
it  numbered  750,000  men,  without  counting  the 
colonial  troops,  which  were  arriving  from  Canada, 
Australia,  and  India.  With  its  lines  thus  strength¬ 
ened  the  British  began  a  formidable  offensive  at 
Neuve  Chapelle,  but  from  want  of  ammunition  and 
failure  of  reinforcements  the  first  British  drive, 
in  1915,  turned  out  to  be  a  victory  “that  halted 
half  way  through  lack  of  prompt  support  and  co¬ 
ordination.”  They,  however,  took  part  in  the  great 
offensive  under  Foch,  and  penetrated  the  German 
lines  to  a  depth  of  two  miles.  In  December,  1915, 
Sir  Douglass  Haig  succeeded  Sir  John  French  in 
command  of  the  British  troops  in  France.  Those 
on  the  Somme  front  were  commanded  by  Sir  Henry 
Rawlinson,  who  directed  the  second  British  drive. 
Their  objective  was  now  Bapaume.  In  the  first 
fortnight  of  the  battle  of  the  Somme  they  advanced 
three  miles  and  took  10,000  prisoners.  In  the 
second  phase  of  the  battle  they  joined  the  French 
in  taking  Combles  and  Thiepval.  In  the  battle  of 
Arras  in  1917  they  took  Bapaume,  Peronne,  and 
Chaulnes,  and  shortened  the  line  by  25  miles,  and 
carried  Vimy  Ridge.  Renewing  the  offensive  after 
a  lull  of  several  months  the  British  concentrated 
their  fire  on  Passchendaele  Ridge.  This  battle  of 
Flanders  strengthened  their  hold  on  Ypres,  and 
soon  they  were  engaged  in  the  battle  cf  Cambrai. 
In  March,  1918,  came  the  great  German  offensive 
against  the  British  lines,  which,  owing  to  the  in- 
completed  battles  of  Flanders  and  Cambrai  and 
the  allied  failures  at  St.  Quentin  and  La  Fere  in 
1917,  were  relatively  weaker  and  could  be  out- 
manceuvered  with  superior  forces  of  men  and  muni¬ 
tions.  The  line  extending  from  Arras  to  St.  Quentin 
was  held  by  the  third  British  army  under  Sir  Julian 
Byng,  and  that  from  St.  Quentin  to  the  Oise  by 
the  fifth  army  under  Sir  Hubert  Gough.  The  Ger¬ 
man  Jdea  was  to  drive  a  wedge  between  the  French 
and  British  armies,  a  design  which  was  almost 
realized,  as  Sir  Hubert  Gough’s  army,  outnumbered 
four  to  one,  lost  contact  with  the  French  at  its 
right  and  gave  way  at  several  points.  Retreat 
became  rout,  and  the  Germans  swept  forward,  took 
Peronne  and  Ham,  and  crossed  the  Somme  on  24 
March,  1918.  In  the  north  the  army  of  Sir  Julian 
Byng  was  forced  to  yield  Bapaume  and  finally 
Albert.  On  26  March,  1918,  the  gap  between  the 
French  and  British  lines  was  closed  by  the  arrival 
of  the  French  army  under  General  Fayolles,  who 
joined  the  British'  at  Moreuil,  and  by  the  new 
British  army  improvised  from  sappers,  laborers,  and 
engineers  under  General  Sandeman.  In  this  Battle 
of  Picardy  the  Germans  regained  nearly  all  the 
ground  they  held  at  the  beginning  of  the  Battle 
of  the  Somme  in  1916,  and  besides  gained  an  area 
of  about  1500  sq.  miles.  The  British  losses  were 
severe,  but  their  line  was  intact.  In  April,  1918, 
the  British  were  forced  to  yield  Armentieres,  Mes- 
sines  Ridge,  Merville,  and  to  withdraw  from  Pas¬ 
schendaele  Ridge,  which  they  had  captured  at  such 
tremendous  cost  the  previous  year. 


ENGLAND 


286 


ENGLAND 


In  the  midst  of  the  German  drive  against  the  at  the  Cocos  Islands,  and  the  “Koenigsberg”  was 
British  the  Government  at  London,  on  8  April,  bottled  up  in  the  Rufigi  River  in  German  East 
1918,  passed  a  new  Military  Service  Bill,  imposing  Africa  and  destroyed  on  11  July,  1915. 
military  service  on  every  British  subject  between  In  January,  1915,  the  British  squadron  encoun- 
the  ages  of  eighteen  and  fifty-five,  withdrew  im-  tered  the  German  squadron  on  its  way  to  attack 
munity  from  ministers  of  religion,  and  extended  a  British  port,  sunk  the  “Blucher”  and  drove  off 
the  service  to  Ireland.  In  the  meantime  the  the  remainder  in  a  damaged  condition.  In  Feb- 
Americans  had  arrived  in  France  and  the  allied  ruary,  1915,  the  British  fleet  joined  the  French  in 
advance  began  (August,  1918).  The  British  a  naval  attack  on  the  Dardanelles.  Though  they 
under  General  Rawlinson  attacked  the  Germans  on  succeeded  in  silencing  the  forts  they  lost  three 
the  southern  side  of  the  salient.  Bapaume  was  battleships  by  mine  explosions  and  gunfire.  The 
regained  on  29  August,  Peronne  on  1  September,  British  themselves  lost  their  cruiser  the  ‘‘Lion,” 
and  farther  north  in  Flanders  the  British  army  of  and  the  destroyer  the  “Meteor”  was  temporarily 
General  Plummer  launched  an  offensive  against  the  disabled.  On  4  February  a  proclamation  issued 
salient  between  Arras  and  Ypres,  and  forced  the  by  the  German  Admiralty  declared  all  the  waters 
Germans  to  yield  Mount  Kemmel.  East  of  Arras  surrounding  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  as  a  war 
the  British  broke  the  line  between  Drocourt  and  zone  after  the  eighteenth  of  the  month,  in  which 
Queant.  In  September  St.  Quentin  was  taken  by  every  hostile  ship  would  be  destroyed  by  their 
General  Haig.  Cambrai  was  occupied  by  Generals  submarines.  In  pursuance  of  their  policy  they 
Byng  and  Horne  on  9  October,  Passachandaele  destroyed  many  vessels  and  thousands  of  lives,  in- 
Ridge  was  recovered,  and  Roulers,  Menin,  Courtrai,  eluding  the  Cunard  liner  “Lusitania,”  the  largest 
Valenciennes,  and  Maubeuge  fell  into  British  ship  in  the  Atlantic  service,  sunk  on  7  May,  1915, 
hands.  On  11  November,  1918,  the  last  day  of  with  a  loss  of  1153  lives.  The  submarine  campaign, 
fighting,  the  British  gained  Mons,  the  scene  of  their  however,  failed  to  interrupt  the  commerce  between 
defeat  and  retreat  in  August,  1914.  the  British  Islands  and  the  rest  of  the  world,  or 

The  British  army,  however,  did  not  play  a  merely  to  interfere  materially  with  the  transport  of  troops 
defensive  role  on  the  blood-soaked  plains  of  France  and  supplies  in  the  several  theaters  of  war.  British 
and  Belgium.  It  fought  in  a  dozen  different  places,  submarines,  on  the  other  hand,  succeeded  in  enter- 
in  various  parts  of  Europe,  Africa,  and  Asia.  It  ing  the  sea  of  Marmora  and  the  Baltic  and  destroy- 
conquered  all  the  German  colonies  overseas;  with  ing  hostile  vessels.  In  June,  1916,  the  British 
Russia  out  of  the  war  the  Britishers  had  to  fight  cruiser,  the  “Hampshire,”  with  Field  Marshal  Earl 
the  Turkish  army  single-handed  in  Mesopotamia  Kitchener  on  his  way  to  Russia  with  his  staff,  was 
and  Palestine.  They  helped  rout  the  Bulgarians  in  sunk.  In  that  year  two  British  battleships  and  a 
Macedonia,  they  rushed  to  the  help  of  Italy  when  the  light  cruiser  were  torpedoed.  Foiled  in  the  effec- 
Austrians  broke  the  Italian  front;  they  sent  troops  tive  use  of  commerce  raiders  by  the  British  Grand 
across  northwestern  Persia  to  occupy  Baku  so  that  Fleet,  which  dominated  the  North  Sea  and  had  its 
the  Russians  might  not  make  it  a  base  in  their  pos-  base  in  the  harbor  of  Scapa  Flow,  the  German 
sible  operations  against  India;  in  northern  Russia  authorities  decided  to  risk  their  own  high  seas  fleet 
British  troops  were  landed  to  prevent  Germany’s  in  a  naval  battle  off  Jutland  on  31  May,  1916.  The 
seizure  of  Russia’s  one  gateway  to  the  Atlantic.  British  lost  113,000  tons,  including  the  battle  cruisers 
At  Vladivostock,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  British  troops  “Queen  Mary,”  the  “Indefatigable,”  and  the  “In- 
fought  beside  American,  Japanese,  and  Czecho-  vincible,”  and  eight  destroyers.  The  German  losses 
Slovak  contingents  to  preserve  Siberia.  England’s  were  proportionally  more.  With  the  exception  of 
protectorate  in  Egypt,  declared  in  1914,  was  recog-  a  few  raids,  the  German  fleet  remained  during  the 
nized,  but  in  1922  Egypt  was  declared  a  sovereign  rest  of  the  war  at  anchor  in  Kiel  Canal,  but  the 
state.  Ireland  was  declared  a  free  state  in  the  German  submarine  activity  increased  and  did  great 
same  year.  damage.  With  the  idea  of  curbing  this  submarine 

Naval  Activity. — With  the  entry  of  Great  Britain  activity  by  attacking  the  German  submarine  bases, 
into  the  World  War,  the  command  of  the  seas  a  British  squadron  bombarded  Zeebrugge  on  12 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Allies.  Early  in  the  May,  1917,  and  a  few  months  later  another  made 
war  the  British  fleet  achieved  much.  Although  it  an  attack  on  the  docks  and  harbor  of  Ostend.  In 
could  not  altogether  prevent  the  Germans  from  the  same  year  the  Germans  made  another  unsuc- 
planting  mines  and  torpedoes  along  the  coasts  of  cessful  raid  on  Dover,  and  a  German  submarine 
the  North  Sea  and  bombarding  Russian  ports  in  shelled  Scarborough.  After  the  signing  of  the  armis- 
the  Baltic,  it  compelled  the  German  squadron  to  tice  the  first  division  of  the  German  high  fleet  was 
lie  idle  at  its  moorings  in  Wilhelmshaven,  Cux-  delivered  to  an  Allied  fleet  commanded  by  Admiral 
haven,  and  Kiel.  The  first  encounter  of  any  mag-  Beatty  off  the  Firth  of  Forth;  and  the  German 
nitude  took  place  in  the  Bight  of  Heliogoland  on  submarines,  numbering  122,  were  surrendered  to  a 
28  August,  1914,  and  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  British  squadron  at  Harwich. 

three  German  cruisers  and  two  torpedo  boats.  The  total  loss  of  British  merchant  tonnage  was 
Small  German  squadons  made  flying  raids  on  Eng-  stated  by  the  admiralty  to  amount  to  15,053,386 
lish  ports,  bombarding  Yarmouth  (3  November,  gross  tons,  valued  at  $3,000,000,000.  According  to 
1914),  Scarborough  (16  December,  1914),  Hartle-  this  official  statement  2475  British  ships  were  sunk 
pool,  and  Whitby,  and  killing  a  few  inhabitants,  with  their  crews  and  3147  sunk  and  their  crews  set 
On  3  November  the  British  lost  the  “Mon-  adrift,  and  670  fishing  boats  destroyed.  The  total 
mouth”  and  the  “Good  Hope”  off  the  harbor  of  loss  in  lives  exceeded  15,000.  The  British  losses 
Coronel  in  Chile,  and  took  speedy  revenge  on  the  included  13  battleships,  3  battle  cruisers,  64  de- 
German  ships  by  dispatching  another  squadron  un-  stroyers,  10  torpedo  boats,  50  submarines,  and  27 
der  Admiral  Sturdee,  which  destroyed  four  German  small  craft,  a  total  tonnage  of  550,000.  A.  large 
ships.  The  sole  survivor  of  the  combat  was  the  number  of  British  fast  vessels  were  utilized  in  the 
“Dresden,”  which  was  overtaken  at  Juan  Fernandez  transportation  of  American  troops  to  France,  and 
on  14  March,  1915,  and  sunk.  The  German  cruisers  in  many  cases  these  were  escorted  by  British 
which  remained  at  large  were  able  to  inflict  con-  cruisers  and  destroyers.  The  action  of  the  British 
siderable  damage  on  British  and  allied  shipping,  fleet  was  one  of  the  most  decisive  factors  in  the 
The  “Emden”  was  destroyed  on  9  November,  1915,  war,  as  the  blockade  had  brought  the  Central 


ENGLISH 


287 


ERIE 


Powers  to  the  verge  of  famine  and  deprived  them 
of  the  most  essential  supplies  for  a  continuation 
of  hostilities.  It  also  kept  the  seas  free  for  the 
transportation  of  troops  to  the  important  theaters 
of  war. 

The  loss  of  British  life  from  the  World  War  was 
appalling.  The  whole  number  of  casualties  among 
all  military  forces  and  in  all  theaters  of  war  was 
as  follows: 


Killed 

Wounded 

Officers 

Other 

Ranks 

Officers 

Other 

Ranks 

British . 

Colonials  and 
Indians  .... 
Totals  . 

30,807 

7602 

466,831 

168,703 

76,132 

17,125 

1,532,552 

421,402 

38,409 

635,534 

93,257 

1,953,954 

673,943 

2,047,211 

The  missing  numbered  64,000,  and  those  dead 
from  various  causes  97,000;  these  figures  included 
the  losses  of  the  Royal  Naval  Division  and  of  the 
Royal  Flying  Corps  up  to  1  April,  1918,  making  a 
grand  total  of  casualties  from  all  causes  of  2,882,954. 
The  casualties  due  to  hostile  air  raids  and  bom¬ 
bardments  were  as  follows:  killed,  1570;  injured, 
4041.  The  casualties  in  the  Royal  Air  Forces 
between  1  April,  1918,  and  the  date  of  the  armis¬ 
tice  included:  killed,  1551  officers  and  1129  men; 
wounded,  2357  officers  and  631  men;  missing,  1612 
officers  and  225  men;  interned,  45  officers  and  39 
men. 

English  College,  Rome  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-472c), 
known  as  the  Venerable,  is  composed  of  students 
who  are  admitted  upon  application  from  a  bishop 
of  England  or  the  Colonies  for  the  purpose  of 
training  for  the  English  Missions.  At  the  present 
time  there  a'  e  about  65  students  registered  with 
only  one  for  any  diocese  outside  of  England,  viz., 
the  Archdiocese  of  Malta. 

The  students  are  obliged  to  follow  the  course 
of  studies  prescribed  by  the  Gregorian  University 
and  attend  most  of  their  lectures,  philosophy, 
archeology,  history,  Greek,  Hebrew,  mathematics, 
science,  Scripture,  dogmatic  theology,  asetica  and 
moral  theology,  at  this  university.  This  leaves  only 
the  studies  which  have,  a  practical  bearing  on  the 
missionary  or  parochial  work,  such  as  pastoral 
theology,  ceremonies  or  ritual,  church  music,  etc., 
to  be  given  in  the  English  College. 

The  faculty  of  the  college  consists  of  a  rector, 
at  present  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  A.  Hinsley,  a  vice-rector,  a 
repetitore,  an  ecomus,  and  a  spiritual  director.  The 
college  possesses  a  library  of  40,000  volumes. 

Eperies,  Diocese  of.  See  Prjasev. 

Ephraem,  Saint  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-498a),  was  declared 
a  Doctor  of  the  Universal  Church,  by  pontifical  de¬ 
cree,  5  October,  1920,  and  his  feast  fixed  for  18  June. 

Erdely,  Diocese  of.  See  Transylvania. 

Erdington  Abbey  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-517d).— Due  to 
the  war  the  community  of  Erdington  Abbey  had 
become  so  depleted  that  it  was  impossible  to  re¬ 
store  it.  Therefore,  in  1922  the  community  was 
disbanded,  and  the  work  of  their  mission  taken 
over  by  the  Redemptorists.  This  abbey  was 
founded  in  1876  by  German  Monks  of  the  Beurmese 
Congregation,  and  attracted  to  it  certain  Englishmen 
who  felt  called  to  a  monastic  life  of  more  conventual 
observance  than  was  possible  under  the  conditions 
of  the  time  in  the  houses  of  the  English  Congre¬ 
gation.  High  Mass  and  the  Divine  Office  were 
solemnly  and  beautifully  celebrated  daily,  much 
19 


of  the  pre-Reformation  splendor  of  liturgical  wor¬ 
ship  being  restored  in  the  monastic  church.  Erected 
into  an  abbey  in  1896,  the  first  and  last  abbot  was 
Dorn  Ansgar  Hockelmann.  Attached  to  the  abbey 
was  the  parish  of  Erdington,  in  the  Archdiocese  of 
Birmingham,  with  2300  sbuls  and  2  public  oratories. 
Under  the  stress  of  war  the  enemy  nationality  of 
some  of  the  monks  made  their  position  difficult 
but  by  arrangement  between  the  British  Govern¬ 
ment  and  Cardinal  Bourne  the  community,  in  part 
at  least,  was  able  to  be  kept  together,  until  the 
depletion  of  their  number  made  necessary  their 
disbanding. 

Erie,  Diocese  of  (Eriensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  V-518c), 
comprises  an  area  of  9936  sq.  miles  in  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania,  U.  S.  A.  The  fourth  bishop  of  Erie, 
Rt.  Rev.  John  E.  Fitzmaurice,  died  18  June,  1920, 
after  a  prolonged  illness,  and  the  auxiliary  bishop’ 
Rt.  Rev.  John  Mark  Gannon,  D.  D.,  who  had  been 
consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Nilopolis  6  February, 
1918,  was  appointed  to  succeed  him,  and  installed 
16  December,  1920.  Bishop  Gannon  was  born  and 
received  his  early  education  in  Erie,  finally  com¬ 
pleting  his  studies  at  the  Catholic  University  in 
Washington,  the  University  of  Munich,  and  the 
College  of  S.  Apollinare  at  Rome.  Up  to  the  time 
of  his  consecration  he  was  superintendent  of  the 
parochial  schools  and  has  at  all  times  promoted 
education.  His  most  recent  work  for  this  cause 
was  the  establishment  of  a  Catholic  preparatory 
school  for  boys. 

N  Since  1909  a  new  cathedral  and  3  new  churches 
have  been  consecrated  in  the  city  of  Erie.  During 
the  World  War  the  clergy  of  the  diocese  were  rep¬ 
resented  by  five  chaplains,  three  of  whom  went 
overseas,  while  many  others  acted  as  four-minute 
men.  The  laity  were  equally  active  giving  up 
many  young  men  to  the  service  and  over-subscrib¬ 
ing  every  welfare  loan  ordered  by  the  Government. 

Since  1909  the  diocese  has  lost  many  prominent 
members,  among  them :  Rt.  Rev.  Msgr.  P.  J.  Sheri¬ 
dan,  vicar  general  of  the  diocese  for  nearly  thirty 
years;  Msgr.  Bernard  McGivney,  pastor  at  Du  Bois 
for  over  a  quarter  of  a  century;  Rev.  Joseph  M. 
Cauley,  Rev.  J.  F.  Donnellan,  chancellor  and  secre¬ 
tary  of  the  diocese;  Rev.  B.  J.  Raycroft,  scholar 
and  writer;  Msgrs.  Michael  Decker  and  James 
Dunn;  Deans  Winter  and  Coonan  and  Mr.  Bernard 
Veis,  Mayor  of  the  City  of  Erie;  and  Dr.  and  Mrs. 
M.  C.  Dunnigan. 

The  religious  orders  in  the  diocese  are :  the  Bene¬ 
dictines,  Redemptorists,  Brothers  of  Mary,  Society 
of  the  Divine  Word,  Congregation  of  the  Mission, 
Benedictine  Nuns,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Sisters  of 
Mercy,  Felician  Sisters,  and  Sisters-Servants  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  The  Redemptorists,  who  conduct  a 
seminary  and  college  for  young  men  who  intend  to 
join  their  order,  now  have  240  students. 

The  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  have  charge  of  the  boys’ 
protectory,  the  orphan  asylum,  home  for  the  aged, 

2  hospitals,  Academy  of  Villa  Maria  and  13  paro¬ 
chial  schools.  The  Sisters  of  Mercy  besides  having 
an  academy  at  the  mother-house  in  Titusville,  have 
charge  of  8  parochial  schools,  a  hospital  in  Du  Bois, 
and  a  home  for  working  girls  in  Erie.  The  Sisters 
of  St.  Benedict  are  about  to  found  a  hospital  in 
St.  Mary’s,  in  addition  to  the  academy  which  they 
now  have  there;  they  teach  in  13  parochial  schools. 

There  are  in  the  diocese  110  churches  with  resi¬ 
dent  priests;  55  missions  with  churches  and  12 
chapels;  181  priests,  142  seculars  and  39  regulars; 
46  parochial  schools;  7  academies  for  young  ladies, 
with  an  attendance  of  840;  4  monasteries  for  men; 

5  convents  for  women;  15  lay  brothers;  530  sisters; 


ERITREA 


288 


ERNAKULAM 


27  seminarians;  2  colleges  for  men  with  24  teachers 
and  an  attendance  of  340;  1  high  school  for  boys 
with  6  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  100.  There 
are  3  homes ;  1  orphan  asylum  and  3  hospitals,  two 
of  which  receive  a  small  appropriation  from  the 
government.  Three  societies  are  organized  among 
the  clergy  and  about  ten  among  the  laity.  “The 
Lake  Shore  Visitor”  is  the  diocesan  periodical.  At 
the  present  time  (1921)  the  Catholic  population 
is  estimated  at  114,695,  including  Irish,  Germans, 
Poles,  Slavs,  Lithuanians,  Hungarians,  Italians,  and 
French. 

Eritrea,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of,  comprises  an 
Italian  colony  in  East  Africa.  The  present  vicar 
apostolic  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Francesco  Carrara,  a 
Capuchin  of  the  province  of  Rome,  appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  Agathopolis  and  vicar  apostolic 
7  February,  1911.  Due  to  his  zeal  and  energy  the 
Capuchins,  in  1912,  founded  a  well  equipped  print¬ 
ing  establishment,  where  they  publish  works  in 
Italian  and  native  languages,  which  are  greatly 
appreciated  in  the  colony  and  in  the  different  coun¬ 
tries  to  which  they  are  sent.  The  principal  works 
hitherto  published  are  a  collection  of  books  of 
instruction,  eight  volumes  printed  in  Italian  and 
Tigre,  a  grammar,  dictionary,  and  devotional  books 
in  various  languages  for  the  use  of  the  native  clergy 
and  laity.  In  1921  they  brought  out  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment,  -  printed  in  the  Ghez  language  and  edited  by 
Rev.  Francis  Bassano,  O.  M.Cap.,  in  accordance 
with  the  most  authentic  Ethiopian  code.  The  work 
merited  the  praise  of  Benedict  XV,  and  of  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  Eastern  Churches.  A  Cath¬ 
olic  magazine  called  “Parole  buone,”  which  contains 
mission  news,  is  printed  every  month,  and  is  dis¬ 
tributed  among  the  Italians  of  the  colony.  They 
also  publish  the  lives  of  the  saints  and  pious  stories 
for  the  instruction  of  the  natives. 

There  are  about  3500  European  Catholics  in  the 
colony.  Since  1912  the  native  Catholics  have  in¬ 
creased  from  14,000  to  25,000.  The  majority  belong 
to  the  Bileni  and  Abyssinian  races,  while  a  few 
are  scattered  among  the  Assaortini  and  Cunama 
races.  The  latter  are  fast  becoming  converted  to 
the  Faith.  Among  the  events  of  special  importance 
since  1914  are  the  conversion  of  the  Bileni,  who 
live  in  the  northwest  of  Asmara  among  the  Mussul¬ 
mans,  and  incline  towards  Islamism.  They  are  well 
disposed  toward  the  Catholic  Church,  and  are  eager 
to  become  Christians,  to  build  chapels,  and  to  have 
their  own  native  priests.  During  the  past  six  years 
the  number  of  baptisms  varied  from  800  to  850  a 
year.  A  house-to-house  visitation  was  made  by  the 
vicar  apostolic,  which  in  a  great  measure  con¬ 
tributed  to  their  rapid  conversion.  Fifteen  churches 
and  chapels  have  been  erected,  the  principal  ones 
being  at  Asmara,  and  one  which  was  built  over  the 
tomb  of  the  Venerable  De  Jacobis  at  Elbo.  A 
circulating  library  has  been  established  and  a  young 
men’s  club  at  Asmara,  in  connection  with  which 
there  are  a  gymnasium,  dramatic  society,  music 
hall,  and  theater.  On  3  July,  1912,  the  cornerstone 
of  the  new  church  for  the  white  people  of  Asmara 
was  laid,  an  event  which  was  celebrated  by  the 
civil  as  well  as  the  religious  authorities.  Two 
spacious  and  imposing  school  buildings  for  boys 
and  girls  have  been  erected  at  Asmara,  which  are 
attended  by  nearly  all  the  children  of  that  place. 
At  Asmara  the  custom  has  been  established  to 
dedicate  the  family  to  the  Sacred  Heart. 

In  1921  the  vicariate  apostolic  contained  2  quasi¬ 
parishes  for  the  Italians,  53  quasi-parishes  for  the 
natives,  60  churches,  10  mission  stations,  2  convents 
for  women  founded  by  the  Daughters  of  St.  Ann 


(38  Sisters),  and  the  Pie  Madri  della  Nigrizia  (12 
Sisters),  who  have  charge  of  the  hospital  at  Asmara, 

1  secular  priest  who  is  the  army  chaplain,  20  regu¬ 
lar  priests,  and  9  lay  brothers  (Capuchins),  60 
native  priests,  all  of  whom  belong  to  the  Coptic 
Catholic  Rite,  1  seminary,  and  43  seminarians.  The 
following  educational  institutions  have  been  estab¬ 
lished  in  the  vicariate:  2  secondary  schools  for 
men,  4  teachers,  72  students,  1  secondary  school 
for  women,  4  teachers,  20  students,  2  professional 
schools,  3  teachers,  40  students,  1  elementary  school 
for  the  Italians  with  390  pupils,  40  elementary 
schools  for  the  natives  with  1300  pupils  The  Gov¬ 
ernment  supports  two  schools,  one  at  Saganeiti  for 
the  natives  and  the  other  at  Asmara  for  the  whites. 
The  following  charitable  institutions  exist  in  the 
vicariate:  2  orphanages  for  boys  at  Cheren  and 
Asmara,  3  for  girls  at  Saganeiti,  Cheren,  and 
Asmara,  6  agricultural  schools  for  the  natives,  1 
medical  dispensary,  3  asylums,  1  at  Asmara  for  the 
whites,  1  at  Saganeiti,  and  1  at  Cheren.  Among 
the  natives  the  following  societies  have  been  estab¬ 
lished:  the  Association  of  St.  Michael,  Association 
of  St.  George,  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  and 
Sodality  of  the  Children  of  Mary.  Among  the 
whites  there  are  the:  Societies  of  the  Children  of 
Mary,  of  St.  Aloysius,  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and 
of  the  Blessed  Sacrament. 

Erlau,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Eger. 

Ermland  (or  Warmia),  Diocese  of  (Varmiensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  V-522a),  in  East  Prussia,  is  directly  depen¬ 
dent  on  the  Holy  See.  The  episcopal  residence,  cathe¬ 
dral  and  chapter  are  at  Frauenburg,  as  also  the 
Upper  Seminary  with  60  students  in  1914,  for  the 
last  three  years  of  theology,  1  ecclesiastical  lyceum, 
and  1  hostel  for  university  students. 

Bishop  Andrew  Thiel  (b.  28  September,  1826;  d. 
17  July,  1908),  was  succeeded  by  the  present  (1922) 
incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Augustin-  Bludau,  b.  6  March, 
1862,  ordained  13  March,  1887,  vicar  at  Marienveder 
and  Braunberg,  later  sub-rector  of  the  Upper  Semi¬ 
nary,  1895,  professor  of  Biblical  exegesis  at  Munster 
University,  author  of  numerous  works  of  New  Tes¬ 
tament  exegesis,  appointed  bishop  by  the  chapter, 
26  November,  1909,  consecrated  and  enthroned  20 
June  following.  According  to  1921  statistics  the 
diocese  is  divided  into  17  deaneries  with  118  par¬ 
ishes  and  rectories,  67  vicariates  served  by  171 
rectors  and  98  assistants,  66  other  priests  are  also 
engaged  in  teaching.  There  are  in  all  319  secular 
and  4  regular  clergy.  The  population  of  the  diocese 
includes  327,277  Catholics,  and  1,044,418  non-Catho- 
lics.  There  are  557  Sisters  in  69  houses. 

i 

Ernakulam,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Ernacula- 
mensis)  ,  in  Malabar,  India,  of  the  Syro-Malabar 
Rite.  The  present  (1922)  Vicar  Apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Augustine  Kandathil,  titular  Bishop  of  Arad,  b.  24 
August,  1874,  nominated  Bishop  of  Arad,  and  co¬ 
adjutor  with  right  of  succession  to  the  vicar  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  Ernakulam  29  August,  1911;  consecrated 
3  December  following,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Aloysius 
Pareparambil  (b.  25  March,  1847;  d.  9  December, 
1919).  According  to  the  1920  statistics  the  total 
population  of  this  territory  is  1,029,000,  of  whom, 
by  the  census  of  1919,  113,936  are  Catholics  of  this 
rite;  the  chief  language  spoken  is  Malayalam. 
There  are  9  parish  churches,  6  chapels  with  resi¬ 
dent  pastors,  143  secular  priests,  29  seminarians,  and 
37  Jacobite  churches  with  about  30,000  members. 
Besides  these  there  are  native  Carmelite  Nuns  of 
the  Third  Order  with  198  professed  nuns,  25  postu¬ 
lants,  and  2  catechumenates.  The  various  institu¬ 
tions  include  10  boarding  schools  with  268  pupils, 
1  high  school,  198  primary  and  secondary  schools 


ERROR 


289 


ERZERTJM 


with  6,G32  pupils,  and  1  orphanage  with  12  orphans. 
The  Mar  Louis  Memorial  Press,  which  prints  books 
in  Malayalam,  English,  and  Latin,  was  lately  started 
in  honor  of  the  late  Bishop  Pareparambil.  “The 
Ernakulum  Mission,”  a  diocesan  gazette,  contains 
the  pastoral  letters  of  the  bishop  as  well  as  items 
of  interest  regarding  the  history  and  work  of  the 
mission.  A  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Faith  has  lately  been  organized,  as  well  as  the  St. 
Joseph’s  Provident  Fund,  for  the  benefit  of  aged 
and  infirm  clergy.  The  Syro-Chaldaic  Carmelite 
Congregation  of  Malabar  has  4  convents  and  41 
members  attached  to  this  vicariate. 

Error  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-525) . — Error  may  be  presumed 
about  the  private  acts  of  another  until  the  contrary 
is  proved,  but  as  a  rule  not  about  a  law  or  penalty 
or  about  one’s  own  act  or  another’s  notorious  act. 
A  rescript  containing  an  error  as  to  the  name  of  the 
grantor  or  grantee,  or  of  the  place,  or  of  the  thing 
in  question  is  not  void,  if  the  ordinary  judges  that 
there  is  no  doubt  about  the  identity  of  the  person 
or  thing.  A  dispensation  from  the  impediments  of 
consanguinity  or  affinity  is  valid  even  if  an  error 
about  the  degree  occurred  in  the  petition  or  con¬ 
cession,  provided  the  real  degree  was  more  remote. 
A  single  error  about  the  unity,  indissolubility,  or 
sacramental  dignity  of  marriage,  even  if  it  were  a 
cause  of  the  contract,  does  not  vitiate  matrimonial 
consent  (can.  1084). 

Erythrea,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See  Eritrea. 

Erzberger,  Matthias,  statesman  and  publicist,  b. 
in  the  village  of  Buttenhausen,  Wiirtemberg,  20 
September,  1875;  murdered  by  his  political  ene¬ 
mies  at  Griesbach  in  the  Black  Forest  on  26  August, 
1921.  His  father  was  a  teacher  in  the  village  school’ 
and  Matth  as  determined  to  follow  in  his  father’s 
footsteps.  After  two  years  in  a  training  college 
he  began  his  work  as  a  pedagogue  at  nineteen, 
but  two  years  later  he  was  at  the  university  in 
Fribourg  studying  law  and  economics,  only  to  be 
engrossed  soon  in  journalism  and  politics,  editing 
the  “Deutschen  Volksblatt”  from  1896  to  1903,  when 
he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Center  Party 
as  a  representative  from  Wiirtemberg.  In  1908 
he  removed  to  Berlin  and  took  up  the  editorship 
of  some  of  the  official  publications  of  the  Center. 
His  extraordinary  talents  immediately  made  him 
a  leading  figure  in  the  Reichstag.  His  friends  and 
enemies  called  him  “a  living  volcano,”  because 
of  the  active  perfervid  energy  he  created  around 
him  by  the  vastness  of  the  interest  in  which  he 
was  concerned,  his  abnormal  power  of  rapidly  grasp¬ 
ing  a  situation  in  all  its  aspects,  combined  with 
a  remarkable  fluency  and  facility  in  expressing 
his  views.  He  was  quick  and  certain  in  his  deci¬ 
sions,  fearless  in  facing  difficulties,  and  confident 
in  the  ultimate  success  of  his  plans.  He  kept  the 
House  in  perpetual  amazement  at  the  extent  and 
diversity  of  his  knowledge,  but  he  is  credited  with 
having  thrown  the  Center  into  confusion  by  his 
vanity  and  overbearing  manner  as  well  as  his 
utter  disregard  for  discipline.  He  quarreled  with 
its  leader,  Dr.  Spahn. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  war,  he  was  sure  of  vic¬ 
tory  and  vied  with  the  most  ambitious  Junkers 
in  fixing  the  boundaries  of  the  New  Germany. 
Three  years  later,  he  had  shifted  completely  around, 
and  he  began  a  system  of  German  Propaganda  in 
the  neutral  countries  and  in  Rome.  He  inter¬ 
fered  in  army  affairs  and  Ludendorff  denounced 
him  as  “a  burdensome  busybody.”  His  political 
activities  in  connection  with  the  Orient,  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  Poland,  and  Italy  all  ended  in  failure. 


He  endeavored  to  arrange  terms  of  peace  with 
Belgium  and  at  least  stopped  the  deportation  of 
Belgians.  He  was  a  bitter  opponent  of  the  U-boat 
wart  are,  but  once  it  was  decided  upon  he  multiplied 
the  ships  with  amazing  rapidity.  In  1918  van 
Capelle  announced  the  failure  of  the  submarines 
and  when  Erzberger  let  it  be  known  to  the  public 
he  so  exasperated  the  army  leaders  that  he  nar¬ 
rowly  escaped  imprisonment. 

connection  with  the  Peace  Resolutions  of 
1917  brought ‘him  into  the  greatest  discredit  and 
evoked  a  new  storm  on  the  part  of  the  Junkers. 
All  the  German  authorities  were  agreed  that  hos¬ 
tilities  should  cease  in  that  year,  and  Erzberger 
then  began  a  great  diplomatic  campaign  to  effect 
that  result.  He  won  over  a  majority  of  the  Parlia¬ 
mentarians  to  that  view,  and  a  peace  resolution 
was  introduced  in  the  Reichstag,  but  it  aroused 
such  indignation  that  Erzberger  came  near  being 
tried  for  high  treason.  The  Kaiser  considered 
him  an  erratic,  vulgar  demagogue.”  Count  von 
Hertling,  his  fellow-Catholic  and  colleague,  treated 
him  with  contempt,  but  his  chief  enemies  were 
in  the  military  party.  To  Ludendorff  he  was  “the 
most  unspeakable  of  German  traitors;  the  Ethio¬ 
pian  whom  no  scrubbing  could  wash  white.” 

In  August,  1918,  Ludendorff  was  wondering  how 
he  could  save  his  armies,  though  a  month  before  he 
was  sure  of  victory.  On  1  October  a  war  cabinet 
was  formed  and  Erzberger  appeared  again  in  public 
life  as  a  minister.  Finally,  on  26  October,  Luden¬ 
dorff  gave  up  his  command,  and  a  Commission  with 
Erzberger  as  its  spokesman  was  formed  to  negotiate 
with  the  Allies.  The  Commission  met  Marshal 
Foch  at  Compiegne  on  7  November,  but  Foch 
had  nothing  to  offer  except  what  Erzberger  con¬ 
sidered  inhuman  conditions.”  During  the  discus¬ 
sions,  news  of  the  Kaiser’s  abdication  arrived ;  the 
Red  Flag  had  appeared  at  Berlin,  and  Erzberger 
went  back  to  a  chaotic  Germany  beaten.  When 
at  last  the  German  delegates  went  to  Versailles 
and  were  presented  with  the  conditions  they  were 
struck  mute  with  amazement.  At  Weimar,  Erz¬ 
berger  was  the  only  minister  who  would  sign  them. 
The  Reichstag  was  therefore  dissolved,  and  a  new 
Government  consisting  of  Social  Democrats  and 
the  Centre  was  called  into  existence  and  agreed 
to  sign  the  treaty.  It  aroused  the  country  and  that 
night  an  attempt  was  made  to  murder  Erzberger; 
a  few  nights  later  a  bomb  was  thrown  into  his 
bedroom;  a  third  attempt  equally  unsuccessful 
was  made  later. 

In  the  new  Cabinet  he  was  Minister  of  Finance 
and  succeeded  in  amazing  many  of  the  capitalists 
by  his  attack  on  war  profits  and  his  imposition  of 
a  heavy  tax  on  the  rich.  Those  affected  then  began 
to  attack  his  private  character,  which  was  irre¬ 
proachable,  for  he  was  a  most  practical  Catholic. 
Finally  he  met  his  death,  as  we  have  already 
said,  in  the  Black  Forest  at  Griesbach  on  26  August, 
1921.  He  had  received  Holy  Communion  that 
morning.  The  general  consensus  about  him  is  that 
“he  was  one  of  most  gifted  men  of  his  time,  but 
that  most  of  his  schemes  ended  in  failure.  The 
reason  is  that  he  talked  too  much.  He  claimed  to 
be  a  specialist  in  every  branch  and  was  regarded 
as  being  a  specialist  in  none.  Incessant  airing  of 
his  opinions  caused  him  to  be  regarded  as  a  bab¬ 
bler.  That  he  meant  well  for  his  country  can 
scarcely  be  doubted.  That  his  death  was  a  gain 
or  loss  for  Germany  is  a  matter  for  future  specu¬ 
lation.” 

Erzerum  (or  Garin),  Diocese  of  (Erzerumiensis 
Armenorum),  Armenia,  Asia  Minor,  a  diocese  of 


ESPOUSALS 


290 


ESTHONIA 


\ 

the  Armenian  Rite.  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Melkisedekian, 
b.  22  July,  1848,  ordained  2  April,  1874,  was 
appointed  to  this  see  27  August,  1911,  and  filled 
it  until  his  death,  23  January,  1920.  Froin  1915 
until  1918  he  was  interned  by  the  Turks  atLghm. 
Out  of  a  total  population  of  500,000  inhabitants, 
10,000  are  Catholics.  The  1920  statistics  credit  the 
diocese  with  41  missionary  priests,  2  regular  priests, 
and  66  churches  or  chapels.  The  see  is  at  present 
(1922)  vacant. 

Espousals  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-542)  .—A  promise  of  mar¬ 
riage,  whether  unilateral  or  bilateral,  if  it  is  not  ex. 
conted  as  prescribed  in  the  decree  “Ne  temere,  is 
void  in  both  the  internal  and  the  external  forum. 
The  text  of  the  canon  makes  provision  for  the 
inability  of  either  or  both  of  the  parties  to  write 
whether  that  arises  from  illiteracy  or  from  a 
physical  cause.  A  promise  of  marriage,  even  if 
valid  and  inexcusably  violated,  cannot  be  the  basis 
of  an  action  to  compel  one  to  marry,  though  it 
gives  a  just  claim  for  damages  if  any  resulted. 
Espousals  do  not  now  create  a  matrimonial  impedi¬ 
ment  ;  they  may  be  dissolved  by  mutual  consent, 
or  for  the  reasons  that  sufficed  before  1918. 

Vlaming,  Prael.  juris  matrimonii  (Bussum,  1919),  I,  86-119, 
Petrovits,  The  New  Church  Law  on  Matrimony  (Philadelphia, 
1921),  34-41;  de  Smet,  De  Sponsalibus  et  Matrimomo  (Bruges, 
1920)’,  I,  3-31. 

Esthonia,  an  independent  republic,  formed  from 
the  former  Russian  Estland,  the  northern  part  of 
Livland,  the  northwestern  portion  of  the  Pskoff 
Government,  and  the  islands  of  Saaremaa  (Oesel), 
Hiiumaa  (Dago),  and  Muhumaa  in  the  Baltic  Sea. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Peipus  Lake  and 
Russia,  on  the  south  by  Latvia,  on  the  west  by 
the  Baltic  Sea,  and  on  the  north  by  the  Gulf  of 
Finland.  The  country  is  217  miles  long  and  about 
124  miles  broad,  the  total  area  being  about  23,160 
sq.  miles.  The  population,  about  1,750,000,  is  com- 
posed  of  Esthonians  (95%),  Germans  (Balts,  1%), 
Russians  (9%),  Letts  (0.9%),  Swedes  (.08%),  and 
Jews  (05%).  The  republic  is  divided  into  nine 
districts:  Harju  (Tallinn-Reval) ,  Wiru  (Rakwere- 
Wesenberg),  Jarva  (Paide-Wrisenstein),  Laane- 
Weik  (Hapsal),  Tartu  (Tartu-Dorpat),  Woru, 
Wiljandi  (Wiljandi-Fellin),  Parnu  (Pernau),  Saar- 
emaa-Oesel  (Kuresaare-Arensburg).  The  capital, 
Tallin  (Reval),  was  founded  in  1219  and  has  160,000 
inhabitants.  Parnu,  on  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  has 
23,000,  and  Narva  35,000.  The  Esthonians  (Ehsts) 
in  nationality,  speech,  and  customs  belong  to  the 
Ugro-Finnish  family  and  therefore  to  the  Ural- 
Altaic  branch  of  the  race.  They  first  appear  in 
history  as  a  predatory-piratical  race  in  the  Northern 
Baltic  province,  who  are  supposed  to  have  mi¬ 
grated  from  the  interior  of  Russia  to  the  Baltic 
coast,  in  advance  of  the  two  Finnish  tribes  of 
Tavasti  and  Koreli.  In  physiognomy  the  Esthon¬ 
ians  closely  resemble  the  Finns  of  Tavastland,  a 
Ural-Altaic  Mongolian  type. 

Religion. — When  Esthonia  was  incorporated  with 
Russia  the  whole  population,  German  and  native, 
belonged  to  the  Lutheran  Church,  but  with  the 
government  of  the  Tsar  (1721)  came  also  the  Orth¬ 
odox  Church,  of  which  he  was  the  titular  head. 
He  at  once  granted  religious  freedom,  and  there 
was  henceforward  a  new  religious  influence  which 
tended  to  identify  _  itself  with  the  movement  for 
spreading  Russian  institutions  in  the  Baltic  prov¬ 
inces.  Orthodoxy  and  Lutheranism  competed  for 
the  religious  allegiance  of  the  people,  and  after 
1883  the  Orthodox  Church  was  represented  as  being 
endangered  by  Lutheran  propaganda.  Mixed  mar¬ 
riages  were  prohibited  (1886),  except  when  written 
guarantees  were  given  that  the  children  should  be 


brought  up  in  the  Orthodox  faith,  and  at  the  same 
period  proceedings  were  taken  against  Lutheran 
pastors  who  recognized  converts  from  the  Orthodox 
Church.  Five-sixths  of  the  people  are  Lutherans. 
According  to  the  new  constitution  (15  June,  1920) 
there  is  no  state  religion  in  Esthonia;  freedom  of 
religion  and  conscience  prevails.  Ecclesiastically 
Esthonia  belongs  to  the  archdiocese  of  Mohileff 
(q.v.).  On  11  April,  1919,  the  Holy  See  recognized 
provisionally  the  National  Council  of  Esthonia  as 
an  existing  independent  organization.  In  August 
the  Foreign  Minister  of  Esthonia  asked  for  de  jure 
recognition,  which  was  accorded  by  the  Cardinal 
Secretary  of  State  10  October,  1921. 

Education. — In  1919  there  were  in  Esthonia  1257 
elementary  schools  with  four  years’  course.  Of 
these  1227  were  supported  by  community,  town, 
or  state,  and  30  were  private  schools.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  higher  schools  with  seven  years’  course 
amounted  to  211,  seven  of  which  were  private. 
There  were  also  65  middle-class  schools  for  general 
education;  32  of  these  were  private  schools,  mostly 
supported  by  the  government.  There  are  teachers’ 
seminaries  in  Tallin,  Tartu,  and  Rakwere,  naviga¬ 
tion  schools  in  Tallin,  Kasmu,  Kuresaare,  and 
Parnu,  as  also  commercial  schools,  agricultural 
schools,  and  industrial  schools.  Since  1721  the 
educational  system  of  the  province  has  been  in  the 
hands  of  the  Russian  administration,  and  has  not 
differed  from  that  prevailing  in  other  “Govern¬ 
ments,”  but  the  earlier  period  of  German  domi¬ 
nance  has  left  its  impression  on  higher  education. 
The  University  of  Dorpat,  founded  in  1632  by  Gus- 
tavus  Adolphus,  was  a  center  of  German  culture, 
and  although  it  disappeared  for  a  time  during  the 
wars  of  the  eighteenth  century,  it  was  re-established 
in  1802  by  Alexander  I  on  the  model  of  a  German 
university,  and  the  monopoly  of  the  Germans  was 
not  seriously  challenged  until  the  establishment  of 
the  German  Empire  antagonized  the  Russian  Gov¬ 
ernment.  In  1889  Russian  influence  prevailed  in 
the  university,  and  in  protest  the  Germans  closed 
their  higher  educational  establishments.  After  the 
revolution  of  1905  German  institutions  were  again 
regarded  with  favor,  and  a  German  union  was 
formed  to  found  schools,  German  being  again  recog¬ 
nized  as  a  permissible  language  in  private  schools. 
The  University  of  Dorpat  was  re-opened  on  1 
December,  1919,  as  an  Esthonian  seat  of  learning, 
maintained  by  the  Government.  The  attendance 
in  1920  was  2127.  The  Technicum  at  Tallin  is 
a  higher  professional  school  with  500  students 
(1920). 

Economic  Education. — Even  without  the  com¬ 
plications  brought  about  by  the  European  War, 
the  province  of  Esthonia  was  in  an  extremely  dis¬ 
turbed  state  and  became  the  scene  of  destructive 
revolutionary  struggles.  The  Russian  authorities 
were  trying  to  Russianize  the  country  by  force,  the 
inhabitants  were  struggling  for  land  possession  and 
better  industrial  conditions,  and  the  Germans  were 
aiming  at  industrial  dominion.  At  the  present 
time  industries  of  all  kinds,  as  well  as  agriculture, 
to  a  large  extent,  are  in  a  state  of  suspension. 
Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation,  half  the  area 
of  Esthonia  being  taken  up  by  large  landed  prop¬ 
erties  of  more  than  2000  hectares  each.  An  agrarian 
law,  passed  on  10  October,  1919,  gave  the  Govern¬ 
ment  the  power  to  take  over,  “for  the  purpose  of 
creating  a  land  reserve,”  any  estates  belonging  to 
the  Balt  nobility,  and  any  arable  land,  except  that 
owned  by  charitable  institutions  or  by  farmers,  not 
noble,  holding  less  than  about  400  acres  of  land. 
Compensation  for  the  land  itself  was  to  be  fixed 
later  by  special  legislation.  The  purpose  of  the  law 


ESTHONIA 


291 


ESZTERGOM 


was  to  give  land  to  the  peasants,  to  parcel  them 
out  into  small  farms,  special  preference  being  given 
to  soldiers.  The  theoretical  compensation  for  the 
inventory,  however,  amounted  to  almost  nothing. 
The  arable  land  is  divided  as  follows:  fields 
2,318,004  acres;  meadows  2,408,840  acres;  pastures 
1,671,837  acres.  Twenty  per  cent  of  the  surface  is 
forest  land.  The  principal  crops,  with  acreage  and 
yield,  as  follows:  rye  376,004  acres,  6,435,488 
bushels;  wheat  37,351  acres,  612,930  bushels;  barley 
297,453  acres,  5,968,308  bushels;  potatoes  155,518 
acres,  25,240,705  bushels.  In  1920  Esthonia  had 
363,263  head  of  cattle,  436,259  sheep,  213,002  pigs, 
and  155,262  horses.  Owing  to  the  low  purchasing 
value  of  the  Esthonian  mark  (375  marks  to  the 
dollar  in  1920),  there  is  but  little  foreign  trade. 
The  chief  exports  are  flax,  timber,  cellulose,  and 
meat.  The  trade  in  1920  amounted  to  3,912,394 
poods  (61  poods — one  ton)  of  imports  and  7,675,- 
508  poods  of  exports.  Of  the  total  imports 
1,142,759  poods  came  from  the  United  Kingdom 
and  1,298,670  from  Germany;  of  the  total  exports 
3,531,262  went  to  the  United  Kingdom  and  275,905 
to  Germany. 

Government. — According  to  the  constitution  of 
15  June,  1920,  the  supreme  power  in  the  State  is 
the  people,  who  delegate  its  execution  to  the  Con¬ 
stituent  Assembly,  and  the  legal  representative  of 
the  country  is  the  President  of  the  Assembly.  By 
order  of  the  Constituent  Assembly  the  Government 
exercises  the  supreme  executive  power,  and  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Justice  the  supreme  judicial 
power.  The  people  have  the  power  of  the  initiative 
and  referendum.  The  Government,  consisting  of 
11  departments,  but  no  fixed  number  of  ministers, 
is  the  ir  ^trument  of  the  Constituent  Assembly, 
holds  office  for  one  year  and  must  always  have  a 
quorum  of  fifty  per  cent  of  its  members.  Serfdom 
is  abolished  and  the  peasant  becomes  the  proprietor 
of  his  land  with  the  right  of  sale.  Suffrage  is 
universal,  the  voting  age  for  both  sexes  being 
twenty.  The  death  penalty  and  the  total  confisca¬ 
tion  of  goods  are  forbidden.  There  is  no  censorship. 
The  Assembly  is  composed  of  100  members,  elected 
for  three  years  on  the  basis  of  proportional  repre¬ 
sentation.  The  members  are  not  the  representa¬ 
tives  of  the  districts  which  elect  them,  but  of  the 
whole  nation.  The  Assembly  is  governed  by  a 
Presidium  (one  of  whom  is  chairman)  elected  at 
the  first  meeting  of  the  Assembly,  and  chosen  by  it. 
The  Premier-President  is  head  of  the  State,  repre¬ 
sents  the  republic,  presides  over  meetings,  but 
executive  power  belongs  to  the  Government,  which 
holds  office  at  the  discretion  of  the  Assembly.  The 
Supreme  Court  of  Justice  watches  over  the  execu¬ 
tion  of  the  laws  and  treaties,  and  if  necessary  elects 
the  judges.  Every  Esthonian  citizen  may,  without 
prejudicing  his  right  as  a  citizen,  declare  the 
nationality  to  which  he  considers  himself  to  belong, 
the  four  recognized  nationalities  being  Russian, 
Swedish,  Lettish,  and  German;  he  has  the  right 
to  education  in  his  language,  and  to  the  use  of 
it  in  his  daily  life.  Military  service  is  made  uni¬ 
versal. 

History. — Esthonia  was  conquered  and  Chris¬ 
tianized  by  the  Germans  of  the  Teutonic  Order 
overseas  for  trading  and  missionary  purposes.  It 
was  invaded  in  1558  by  Ivan  the  Terrible,  and 
finally  submitted  to  Sweden.  In  1710  it  was  seized 
by  Russia,  who  confirmed  her  new  position  by  the 
treaty  of  Nystad  in  1721.  In  this  treaty  religious 
freedom  hitherto  denied  was  claimed  for  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  Greek  Church.  Under  Russian  rule 
Esthonia  retained  her  own  laws  (provincial  law) 
and  her  own  special  system  of  administration.  Up 


to  1887  she  enjoyed  a  certain  autonomy,  but  with 
the  advent  of  Alexander  III  (1881-94)  the  policy 
ol  Kussiamzing  the  province  was  introduced,  and 
^e.  Germans  struggled  to  defend  their  privileged 
position  against  the  Russian  Government  and  the 
native  races.  In  1905  a  violent  revolution  broke 
out,  which  assumed  the  form  of  an  anti-German 
war,  directed  against  pastors  and  other  Germans 
as  well  as  the  great  proprietors.  The  outbreak,  put 
down  by  military  force,  resulted  in  the  strengthen¬ 
ing  of  the  German  position,  and  the  representa¬ 
tion  of  the  province  in  the  Duma  (1906-07). 

In  April,  1917,  the  Russian  Provisional  Govern¬ 
ment  promulgated  the  law  of  Esthonian  autonomy 
and  provided  for  local  self-government,  under  a 
JNational  Council,  elected  by  universal,  secret, 
equal  and  proportional  suffrage.  This  council  met 
tor  the  first  time  on  14  July,  1917,  and  Esthonia 
virtually  became  a  federal  state  in  a  Russian  con¬ 
federation.  In  October  Bolshevism  appeared  in 
Esthonia,  and  after  a  coup  d’etat  in  November  the 
National  Council  declared  itself  the  sovereign 
power  in  Esthonia  until  a  Constituent  Assembly 
could  meet.  On  28  January,  1918,  the  Balts  for¬ 
mally  invited  Germany  to  occupy  the  country,  to 
which  after  protesting  the  council  replied  (24 
February)  by  declaring  Esthonia  an  independent 
state,  and  constituting  a  provisional  government 
under  M.  Paets;  the  National  Council  maintained 
itself  by  missions  abroad,  and  was  recognized  as  a 
de  facto  governing  body  by  Britain  (3  May), 
France  (15  May),  and  Italy  (29  May),  a  recogni¬ 
tion  amplified  by  the  British  declaration  of  10 
September.  As  soon  as  the  German  evacuation 
began  the  National  Council  resumed  power,  re¬ 
constituted  the  provisional  government  and  held 
elections  for  the  Constituent  Assemblv  which  was 
opened  on  23  April,  1919,  and  on  19  May  pro¬ 
claimed  Esthonia  an  independent  republic.  A 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  with  Russia  at  Tartu 
(Dorpat)  on  2  February,  1920,  by  which  the  land 
frontiers  of  Esthonia  were  fixed.  Another  treaty 
in  July,  1920,  with  Latvia  fixed  the  southern 
boundaries.  Finland  recognized  the  republic  as  de 
jure  independent,  and  by  7  June,  1920,  de  facto 
recognition  had  been  accorded  by  practically  all 
the  powers. 

Esztergom  (German,  Gran),  Archdiocese  of 
(Strigomensis),  situated  in  Lower  Hungary,  the 
primatial  see  of  that  country.  This  see  is  filled 
by  His  Eminence  John  Cardinal  Csernoch,  born  in 
Szalkolcza,  Hungary,  1852,  ordained  1874,  served 
as  a  pastor  and  chancellor  of  the  archdiocese,  went 
as  a  deputy  to  the  Hungarian  Parliament,  appointed 
Bishop  of  Csanad  16  February,  1908,  transferred  to 
Kalocsa  20  April,  1911,  promoted  to  Gran  13  Decem¬ 
ber,  1912,  and  made  a  cardinal-priest  25  May,  1914. 
He  is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary,  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph 
Medardus  Kohl,  titular  Bishop  of  Samosata.  On 
11  September,  1919,  the  cardinal  received  a  letter 
from  the  Pope  deploring  the  Hungarian  Revolution, 
which  had  despoiled  many  of  the  dioceses  and 
hindered  the  work  of  the  clergy.  He  congratulated 
the  bishops,  priests  and  faithful  on  their  courageous 
resistance  to  the  religious  persecution,  an  impor¬ 
tant  factor  in  the  revolution,  which  was  by  no 
means  entirely  political.  He  assured  them  that  he 
would  take  a  keen  interest  in  Hungarian  affairs, 
and  expressed  his  desire  that  the  Hungarian  bishops 
should  do  the  same.  The  canons  of  the  cathedral 
of  Esztergom  are  prothonotaries  apostolic  ad  instar, 
durante  munere.  The  Catholic  population  is 
counted  at  1,594,515  bv  the  1920  statistics,  as 
against  2456  Schismatics,  329.727  Protestants,  334 


EUCHARIST 


292 


EUROPE 


Oriental  Greeks,  and  258,222  Jews.  The  archdiocese 
is  divided  into  40  deaneries,  480  parishes,  200  second 
class  parishes  and  vicariates,  1024  secular  priests 
and  221  regular  clergy. 

Eucharist  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-572d)  —Under  the  Code 
for  a  grave  cause  a  local  ordinary  or  parish  priest 
may  permit  a  deacon  to  give  Holy  Communion. 
In  case  of  necessity  this  permission  may  be  pre¬ 
sumed.  Provided  there  is  some  one  to  take  care 
of  the  consecrated  host  and  that  Mass  is  celebrated 
regularly  at  least  once  a  week;  (a)  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  should  be  kept  in  a  cathedral,  the  prin¬ 
cipal  church  of  a  vicariate  apostolic,  a  prefecture 
apostolic,  an  abbey  or  prelature  nullius,  in  every 
parish,  or  quasi-parish  church,  and  in  churches  an¬ 
nexed  to  exempt  religious  houses;  (b)  on  the  other 
hand  it  may  be  kept  with  the  principal  public 
or  semi-public  oratory  of  pious  places  or  religious 
houses,  and  of  ecclesiastical  colleges  directed  by  the 
secular  clergy  or  religious.  To  keep  it  in  other 
churches  or  oratories  an  Apostolic  indult  is  re¬ 
quired;  a  local  ordinary,  however,  can  grant  per¬ 
mission  for  it  to  be  reserved  in  churches  or  public 
oratories,  but  only  for  just  cause  and  incidentally. 
No  one  may  keep  the  Blessed  Sacrament  or  bring 
it  with  him  on  a  journey.  The  churches  in  which 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  kept,  particularly  parish 
churches,  should  be  open  to  the  public  for  at  least 
a  few  hours  each  day.  All  privileges  to  the  contrary 
being  revoked,  the  Blessed  Sacrament  cannot  be 
kept  in  religious  or  pious  houses  except  in  the 
church  or  principal  oratory;  nor  can  it  be  kept 
within  the  choir  or  enclosure  of  a  nun’s  monastery. 
It  may  not  be  kept  continuously  or  habitually  on 
more  than  one  altar  in  the  same  church,  and  rectors 
are  to  see  that  this  altar  is  more  adorned  than  any 
other,  so  that  the  faithful  may  be  excited  to  greater 
piety  and  devotion.  It  should  be  kept  in  a  fixed 
tabernacle  in  the  middle  of  the  altar.  The  taber¬ 
nacle  should  be  artistically  constructed,  securely 
closed,  adorned  according  to  liturgical  regulations; 
it  must  contain  nothing  but  the  Blessed  Sacrament, 
and  must  be  guarded  carefully  against  all  danger 
of  profanation.  The  priest  in  charge,  of  the  church 
or  oratory  is  bound  gravely  in  conscience  to  guard 
the  tabernacle  key  most  carefully.  For  grave  reason 
the  Holy  Eucharist  may  be  removed  from  the  altar 
and  kept  during  the  night  with  the  local  ordinary’s 
permission,  in  a  fitting,  safer  place,  in  which  case  it 
is  to  be  laid  on  a  corporal,  and  a  light  must  be  kept 
burning  before  it. 

A  sufficient  number  of  consecrated  hosts  to  meet 
the  wants  of  the  sick  and  the  faithful  are  to  be  kept 
constantly  in  a  solidly  constructed,  tightly  closing 
pyx,  with  a  white  silk  embroidered  cover.  In 
churches  or  oratories  in  which  the  Blessed  Sacra¬ 
ment  is  kept  there  may  be  private  exposition  in 
the  pyx  for  any  just  cause  without  the  ordinary’s 
leave.  In  private  exposition  the  ciborium  is  visible 
in  the  open  tabernacle,  and  is  taken  out  only  for 
the  Benediction.  There  may  be  public  exposition 
in  the  monstrance  in  all  churches  during  the  Masses 
and  continuing  to  Vespers  on  Corpus  Christi  and 
within  the  octave;  at  any  other  time  this  is  for¬ 
bidden  without  a  just  grave  cause,  especially  a 
public  cause,  and  the  ordinary’s  leave,  even  in  a 
church  belonging  to  exempt  religious.  The  Forty 
Hours’  Devotion  is  to  be  held  yearly  in  churches 
in  which  the  Blessed  Sacrament  is  reserved;  if 
for  any  special  reason  this  cannot  be  done  with  due 
reverence  the  local  ordinary  should  arrange  to  have 
exposition  with  greater  solemnity  than  usual  for 
some  hours  on  stated  days. 

EugSnie,  Empress  (Eugenie  Marie  de  Monttjo 


de  Guzman  y  de  Porto-Carrero)  ,  wife  of  Napoleon 
III,  b.  at  Granada,  Spain,  5  May,  1826;  d.  at 
Madrid,  11  July,  1920.  Her  father  Count  de 
Monti  jo,  was  Spanish,  and  her  mother  was  a  Kirk¬ 
patrick  of  Scotch  extraction.  She  married  Napoleon 
III  on  29  June,  1853,  when  he  was  Emperor  of  the 
French  and  the  prince  imperial  was  born  16  March, 
1856.  When  the  war  with  Germany  broke  out  in 
1870  she  was  made  regent,  but  the  Communist 
Revolution,  that  followed  the  defeat  of  the  em¬ 
peror,  forced  her  to  leave  France.  She  repaired 
to  England,  and  was  followed  by  the  prince  and 
emperor.  On  9  January,  1873,  the  emperor  died 
under  a  surgical  operation,  and  six  years  later  the 
prince  was  killed  in  the  war  with  the  Zulus.  After 
that,  her  life  was  passed  in  seclusion. 

Eupen  and  Malmedy,  Diocese  of.  See  Liege. 

Europe  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-607a). — The  result  of  the 
World  War  (1914—18)  in  Europe  has  been  to  sweep 
away  the  old  boundaries  of 'states,  political  parties, 
and  social  classes.  New  states  have  risen,  old  states 
have  changed  their  character,  and  others  are  ex¬ 
periencing  a  national  re-birth.  Among  the  latter, 
the  most  conspicuous  example  in  Poland.  The  new 
states  include  Jugoslavia,  Czechoslovakia,  Latvia, 
Esthonia,  and  Lithuania.  Germany  has  lost  5600 
square  miles  and  nearly  2,000,000  inhabitants  by  the 
recession  to  France  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  in  addi¬ 
tion  to  the  great  Saar  Valley  coal  field.  Fifteen 
years  hence  the  inhabitants  of  the  Saar  Basin  will 
decide  by  plebiscite  who  shall  rule  them.  Belgium 
has  acquired  full  sovereignty  over  Moresnet,  and 
possession  of  Eupen  and  Malmedy,  surrendered  by 
Germany,  and  now  has  an  area  of  11,630  sq.  miles 
and  a  population  of  7,600,000.  Germany  also  gave 
up  to  Poland  an  area  equal  to  30,000  square  miles 
with  a  population  of  6,000,000,  and  in  order  to  pro¬ 
vide  Poland  with  an  outlet  to  the  ocean  surren¬ 
dered  Danzig,  which  became  the  free  city  of  Danzig 
under  the  protection  of  the  League  of  Nations. 
In  addition  to  the  Saar  Basin  six  areas  in  the  Ger¬ 
man  Territory  were  placed  under  plebiscites:  two 
in  East  Prussia  (Marienwerder  and  Allenstein) 
voted  to  stay  with  Germany;  Northern  Schleswig 
to  return  to  Denmark;  Holstein  and  Southern 
Schleswig  to  become  re-incorporated  into  the  Ger¬ 
man  State;  and  Upper  Silesia  was  divided  between 
Poland  (1300  sq.  miles)  and  Germany  (2800  sq. 
miles).  As  a  guarantee  for  the  faithful  execution 
of  her  contracts  under  the  treaty  of  Versailles,  Ger¬ 
many  consented  to  the  military  occupation  of  ter¬ 
ritory  to  the  west  of  the  Rhine,  designated  as 
“Zone  of  Allied  Occupation.”  The  Kiel  Canal  was 
internationalized,  and  Helgoland  dismantled.  Thus 
Germany  is  reduced  to  an  area  of  about  172,000 
sq.  miles  and  a  population  of  about  55,080,000. 
Austria  proper  has  shrunk  from  134,000  sq.  miles 
to  32,000  sq.  miles;  its  population  from  29,000,000 
to  6,500,000.  The  Klagenfurt  district  voted  by 
plebiscite  to  remain  with  Austria.  By  the  loss  of 
Transylvania  (22,000  sq.  miles)  to  Rumania,  and 
Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  portions  of  Banat  to  Jugo¬ 
slavia.  Hungary  was  reduced  from  125,000  sq.  miles 
with  more  than  20,000,000  subjects  to  36,000  sq. 
miles  with  8,000,000  people. 

To  the  Greeks  Bulgaria  renounced  Bulgarian 
Thrace;  to  the  Jugoslavs,  a  strip  of  territory  in¬ 
cluding  the  town  of  Strumitsa,  also  two  fragments 
along  the  West  Bulgarian  front,  one  of  which  con¬ 
tains  the  town  of  Tsaribrod;  a  total  loss  of  about 
2000  sq.  miles  out  of  her  43,000  sq.  miles.  To  the 
Turks  only  a  small  tract  in  Europe  remains,  the 
Chatalja  district,  west  of  Constantinople.  The  Dar¬ 
danelles,  Bosphorus,  and  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Mar- 


EUROPE 


293 


EUTHANASIA 


mora  became  the  “Zone  of  the  Straits,”  controlled 
and  governed  by  an  Inter-Allied  Commission  and 
a  small  area  known  as  the  Suvla  Reservation  was 
set  aside  as  a  cemetery  for  the  Allies  who  fell  in 
the  attempt  to  take  Constantinople.  Greece  re¬ 
ceived  Turkish  Thrace  and  numerous  islands  of  the 
^Egeim  Sea.  After  being  united  to  the  Russian 
Empire  as  an  autonomous  grand  duchy,  Finland 
proclaimed  its  independence  as  a  republic  in  Decem¬ 
ber,  1917.  She  was  awarded  the  Aland  Islands,  by 
the  League  of  Nations  in  1920.  The  three  Baltic 
States  of  Esthonia,  Latvia,  and  Lithuania  declared 
their  independence  under  republican  forms  of  gov¬ 
ernment,  Esthonia  (area,  23,160  sq.  miles;  popula¬ 
tion,  1,750,000),  and  Lithuania  (59,633  sq.  miles; 
population,  4,800,000)  in  February,  1918,  and  Latvia 
(25,000  sq.  miles;  population,  1,503,193)  in  Novem¬ 
ber  of  the  same  year.  Soviet  Russia  with  its  95,000,- 
000  inhabitants  is  still  in  a  chaotic  condition.  The 
reconstituted  Poland,  now  a  republic,  with  its  seat 
of  government  in  the  ancient  capital  of  Warsaw, 
derives  its  territory  from  the  three  powers,  who 
profited  in  the  former  partitions  of  the  country; 
from  Germany  was  acquired  parts  of  Posen,  West 
Prussia,  East  Prussia,  and  Silesia;  from  Austria- 
Hungary,  most  of  Galicia  and  a  part  of  Bukowina, 
and  from  Russia  all  of  Russian  Poland.  The 
probable  area  of  the  republic  is  100,000  sq.  miles. 

The  new  republic  of  Czechoslovakia,  with  an  area 
of  about  52,000  sq.  miles  and  a  population  of 
14,000,000,  includes  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  parts 
of  Silesia  and  Slovakia,  united  in  October,  1918.  At 
the  same  time  the  Kingdom  of  Jugoslavia,  formed 
by  the  union  of  Croatia,  Slovakia,  and  Dalmatia,  was 
proclaimed,  a  total  area  of  101,254  sq.  miles,  with 
a  population  of  about  15,000,000.  By  the  terms 
of  the  Treaty  of  Rapallo  in  1920  Jugoslavia  was 
awarded  the  Dalmatian  coast  and  islands,  while  to 
Italy  fell  the  towns  of  Zara  and  the  islands  of 
Cherso  and  Lagosta.  The  city  of  Fiume  and  the 
outlying  territory  was  declared  internationalized. 
Montenegro  is  no  more,  having  been  absorbed  by 
Jugoslavia.  Albania  (11,000  sq.  miles),  the  bone  of 
contention  in  the  Balkans,  remains  independent, 
Italy,  however,  keeping  the  island  of  Saseno.  Italy’s 
acquisition  of  the  islands  of  the  Adriatic  constitutes 
a  small  part  of  her  territorial  gains  as  a  result  of 
the  war;  the  redeemed  region  of  Trentino,  Gorizia, 
and  Istria  together  with  Trieste,  now  belong  to 
Italy,  and  insure  her  control  of  the  Gulf  of  Venice 
and  all  the  North  Adriatic  littoral.  All  this  area 
constitutes  about  17,000  sq.  miles.  Italy  also  ad¬ 
ministers  the  island  of  Rhodes,  which  in  fifteen 
years  is  to  decide  by  plebiscite  whether  or  not  it  is 
to  be  ceded  to  Greece;  and  also  the  island  of  Kas- 
telorizo,  near  Kekova  Bay,  acquired  by  the  Turkish 
Treaty  of  Sevres. 

By  its  recovery  of  Bessarabia  and  parts  of  Hun¬ 
gary,  mentioned  above,  Rumania  became  the  largest 
of  the  Balkan  States,  with  17,000,000  inhabitants, 
and  122,282  sq.  miles.  To  the  northeast  is  the 
nascent  republic  of  Ukraine,  whose  boundaries  are 
still  vague,  and  which  has  a  probable  area  of  200,000 
sq.  miles  and  a  population  of  30,000,000.  The  most 
recent  change  in  boundary  has  been  in  the  district 
of  Teschen,  Silesia;  in  1921  Teschen  was  awarded 
to  Poland,  but  the  territory  containing  mines  was 
awarded  to  Czechoslovakia.  The  acquisition  of 
new  territories  by  Greece  as  a  result  of  the  Balkan 
Wars  gave  the  country  a  total  area  of  41,933  sq. 
miles  and  an  estimated  population  of  4,821,300; 
add  to  this,  all  of  Greece’s  acquisitions  in  the  World 
War,  the  iEgean  Islands,  Western  Thrace,  and  the 
greater  part  of  the  province  of  Aden  in  Asia  Minor, 
all  that  was  loft  of  Turkey  in  Europe,  west  of  the 


Chataija  lines,  and  the  Dodecanese  Islands,  and  it 
will  be  seen  that  no  nation  has  profited  more  than 
Greece  in  proportion  to  its  pre-war  importance, 
with  its  present  population  of  six  million.  Luxem¬ 
burg,  formerly  a  Grand  Duchy  of  Germany,  has 
placed  herself  under  the  protection  of  Belgium. 

The  following  countries  remained  unaffected  by 
the  World  War  as  far  as  area  is  concerned: 


Country 

Area 

Square 

Miles 

Population 

Holland  . 

12,582 

194,783 

173,035 

35,490 

15,976 

121,633 

125,001 

6,831,231  (1920) 
20,783,844  (1920) 
5,847,037  (1920) 
5,957,985  (1911) 
3,861,508  (1920) 
45,516,259  (1911) 
2,691,855  (1920) 

Spain  . 

Sweden  . 

Portugal  . 

Switzerland  . 

United  Kingdom  . 

Norway  . 

Euthanasia  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-630a),  means  a  good  or 
painless  death.  Its  advocates  would  apply  it  in 
certain  severe  cases  to  (1)  the  sick,  (2)  the  insane, 
and  (3)  the  criminal.  These  three  classes  of  un¬ 
fortunates,  according  to  the  advocates  of  euthanasia, 
are  doomed  to  a  life  of  suffering  and  are  a  useless 
expense  to  the  State,  and  for  these  reasons  should 
not  be  permitted  to  live.  Committees  of  experts 
would  be  appointed  to  visit  the  wards  of  hospitals 
and  to  decide  what  patients  may  possibly  be  cured. 
Those  who  have  no  prospects  of  recovery  and  suffer 
from  severe  maladies  are  to  be  given  some  drug  or 
opiate  which  will  render  them  unconscious  and 
gradually  bring  on  death.  Other  committees  would 
visit  insane  asylums  and  penal  institutions  and 
destroy  the  lives  of  those  who  have  no  chance  of 
a  cure,  or  who  can  in  no  way  become  dependable 
members  of  society.  “Euthanasia  is  just  now  being 
made  the  subject  of  nationwide  discussion  among 
physicians,  ministers,  philanthropists  and  criminolo¬ 
gists.  Efforts  are  being  made  in  New  York,  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  Ohio,  and  Missouri  to  have  it  legalized  by 
law.  Many  physicians  favor  it.  Many  lawyers 
believe  that  as  a  legal  issue  the  state  possesses  the 
moral  and  constitutional  right  to  practice  euthan¬ 
asia”  (Chicago  Inter-Ocean,  16  March,  1913).  “As 
the  author  has  stood  by  the  beds  of  consumptive 
or  syphilitic  children,  he  has  wondered  if  it  were 
kindness  to  keep  life  in  the  pain-racked  body.  Cure 
was  out  of  the  question  so  far  as  medical  science 
now  knows,  and  one  wonders  why  days  of  pain 
should  be  added  to  days  of  pain.  The  same  ques¬ 
tions  recur  as  one  passes  through  the  incurable 
wards  of  an  almshouse,  especially  as  one  studies 
the  cases  of  the  cancer  patients”  (Werner’s  “Amer¬ 
ican  Charities,”  revised  ed.,  p.  26).  George  Ives, 
in  his  “History  of  Penal  Methods,”  concludes  that: 
“All  [criminals]  who  cannot  ultimately  lead  useful, 
human,  tolerably  happy  lives  should  be  destroyed 
as  soon  as  their  condition  has  been  determined.” 

The  principal  objection  to  this  vicious  doctrine 
is  that  God  alone  has  the  supreme  dominion  over 
human  life.  No  committee  of  social  workers  or 
legislators  may  presume  to  trespass  upon  this  right 
of  the  Creator.  God  is  the  author  of  life  and  it  is 
for  Him  to  decide  when  the  service  of  His  creatures 
in  this  world  terminates.  Any  law  authorizing  a 
committee  of  physicians  to  enter  institutions  and 
do  away  with  the  lives  of  inmates  would  be  invalid 
as  it  contravenes  the  higher  law  of  God.  A  second 
argument  against  the  application  of  this  doctrine  is 
+he  mental  anguish  and  fear  which  it  would  bring 
to  the  unfortunate  sick  and  suffering.  Every  in¬ 
mate  of  a  hospital  or  other  institution  for  the  sick 
and  suffering  would  be  in  continual  fear  of  death, 


EVANGELICAL 


294 


EVANGELICAL 


and  the  mental  suffering  thus  brought  about  would 
far  exceed  any  physical  pain  to  which  the  inmates 
are  now  subjected.  It  opens  an  avenue,  too,  for 
all  forms  of  injustice  towards  the  sick  under  the 
plea  of  ridding  them  of  useless  pain.  Doctors  and 
nurses  who  may  become  insane  or  sick  owing  to 
their  devoted  care  to  humanity,  soldiers  wounded 
or  rendered  insane  by  the  terrible  sacrifices  for 
their  country,  civilians  in  every  walk  of  life  who 
have  broken  their  health  by  their  daily  routine  of 
duty;  all  these  would  be  helplessly  in  the  power 
of  the  committee  of  physicians.  No  physician  or 
social  worker  has  any  moral  right  over  life.  They 
are  to  prolong  life,  lessen  human  suffering  and  pro¬ 
mote  the  general  welfare  of  the  community. 
Human  life  is  from  God  and  belongs  to  God.  No 
one  may  under  any  conditions  directly  take  the 

life  of  an  innocent  person. 

Coppens  and  Spalding,  Moral  Principles  and  Medical  Prac¬ 
tice  (New  York,  1921);  Spalding,  Talks  to  Nurses,  (New 
York,  1920).  ^  ^ 

Henry  S.  Spalding. 

Evangelical  Association.  See  Albright  Breth¬ 
ren. 

Evangelical  Church  (in  Prussia;  cf.  C.  E.,  V- 
642d),  has  in  recent  years  continued  to  disintegrate 
internally  and  has  ceased  to  be  a  state  church. 

I.  Internal  Disintegration. — Many  scholars, 
officially  members  of  the  Evangelical  Church,  re¬ 
ject  almost  all  dogmatic  belief  and  deny  the  Divine 
origin  of  the  Bible.  They  have  adopted  and  teach 
some  sort  of  creedless,  Christless  Christianity. 
Owing  to  the  spread  of  their  radical  opinions  and 
to  the  success  of  Socialist  propaganda  the  tendency 
to  secession  has  become  very  pronounced  in  the 
denomination.  Before  the  separation  of  Church 
and  State  was  effected  thousands  seceded  annually 
and  thousands  more  omitted  to  follow  the  same 
course,  merely  owing*  to  the  petty  restrictions  and 
formalities  with  which  the  State  surrounded  the 
proceedings  leading  to  official  secession.  Within 
the  denomination  itself  such  profound  antagonism 
exists  between  the  liberal  and  the  conservative 
element  in  theological  disputes  and  religious  prac¬ 
tice  that  German  Protestantism  seems  to  be  divided 
into  contending  factions.  The  conservatives  insist 
on  the  acceptance  by  all  church  members  of  the 
confessions  of  faith  and  doctrinal  standards  hitherto 
considered  as  authoritative  expressions  of  orthodox 
evangelical  doctrine.  The  rejection  of  these  should, 
according  to  them,  entail  exclusion  from  the  church, 
for  a  church  devoid  of  internal  cohesion  and  held 
together  solely  by  external  means  obviously  con¬ 
stitutes  a  very  peculiar  religious  society.  Briefly, 
the  conservatives  look  upon  creeds  and  other  doc¬ 
trinal  standards  as  binding  on  all  members  of  the 
Evangelical  Church. 

The  Liberals,  however,  emphatically  dissent  from 
this  view.  They  hold  confessions  of  faith  to  be  in 
no  wise  obligatory,  freely  reject  articles  of  belief 
and  nevertheless  refuse  to  give  up  their  church 
membership.  In  their  eyes  creeds  drawn  up  by 
fallible  men  must  yield  before  the  private  inter¬ 
pretation  of  the  Bible  and  no  man  who  has  pos¬ 
sessed  himself  of  a  more  “modern  and  progressive” 
understanding  of  the  Scriptures  can  be  forced  out 
of  the  church  by  an  appeal  to  written  denomina¬ 
tional  tests.  They  pertinently  cite  the  Evangelical 
Union  as  an  instance  where  Calvinists  and  Luther¬ 
ans  were  brought  together  in  one  state  church  and 
conclude  that  Liberals  and  Conservatives  should 
find  it  possible  to  live  together  in  the  same  or¬ 
ganization.  The  Evangelical  church  is,  in  their 
opinion,  not  a  society  whose  members  hold  identical 
beliefs,  but  an  organization  composed  of  persons 


who  follow  the  dictates  of  their  individual  con¬ 
science  and  oppose  the  power  of  the  Church  of 
Rome.  Although,  as  one  of  them  stated,  in 
point  of  belief  it  could  only  be  said  of  them  with 
certainty  that  they  were  not  Catholics,  they  held 
that,  without  their  own  consent,  they  could  not  be 
excluded  from  the  church. 

In  religious  practice  liberal  or  conservative  minor¬ 
ities  in  certain  parishes  took  matters  into  their  own 
hands  to  secure  the  occasional  services  of  ministers 
acceptable  to  them.  The  Liberals  in  certain  pre¬ 
dominantly  conservative  parishes  invited  Liberal 
clergymen  to  conduct  services  in  public  halls  or 
other  secular  buildings.  The  conservative  minority 
took  similar  action  in  some  parishes  to  which  they 
belonged.  The  competent  ecclesiastical  authorities 
either  tolerated  the  innovation  or  protested  without 
success.  These  divisions  led  some  to  the  conclu¬ 
sion  that  the  separation  of  the  Church  from  the 
State  would  be  the  most  practical  solution  of 
existing  difficulties.  The  great  majority  of  Evan¬ 
gelical  Christians,  however,  held  fast  to  the  ex¬ 
isting  union,  because  as  one  Protestant  writer 
frankly  stated,  union  with  the  State  was  the  only 
effective  means  to  preserve  the  Evangelical  Church 
from  dissolution. 

II.  Separation. — The  World  War  seemed  at  first 
to  have  solidified  Protestant  sentiment  in  Ger¬ 
many.  As  it  progressed,  however,  the  bickerings  of 
former  days  were  again  heard.  With  its  issue 
so  disastrous  for  Germany,  separation  from  the 
State  was  suddenly  forced  on  the  Evangelical 
Church.  The  revolution  which  on  9  November, 
1918,  forced  the  abdication  of  the  Kaiser  and  over¬ 
turned  the  imperial  government,  also  suppressed 
the  official  connection  of  the  Evangelical  Church 
with  the  Prussian  State.  Until  then  that  Church 
represented  the  governing  class  of  Prussia  and 
formed  a  constituent  part  of  the  state  organiza¬ 
tion.  It  was  a  denomination  composed  of  govern¬ 
ment  officials  and  out  of  touch  with  the  masses. 
By  the  revolution  the  former  political  protection 
and  financial  assistance  were  withdrawn,  the  Church 
was  thrown  on  its  own  resources  and  its  members 
were  given  complete  freedom  to  secede  from  it. 
According  to  the  constitution  of  the  German  Re¬ 
public  published  on  11  August,  1919,  “there  is  no 
state  religion.  All  inhabitants  enjoy  complete  free¬ 
dom  of  belief  and  of* conscience.  The  free  exercise 
of  religion  is  guaranteed  by  the  constitution  and 
placed  under  the  protection  of  the  State”  (articles 
135,  137). 

These  clauses  have  made  secession  easy  where  it 
was  formerly  difficult;  they  have  removed  con¬ 
straint  so  long  in  use  in  favor  of  the  Evangelical 
Church;  they  have  placed  the  latter  in  legal  matters 
on  a  footing  of  equality  with  other  denominations. 
The  strength  of  the  Church  has  been  immensely 
impaired.  While  there  is  small  likelihood  that 
Evangelicals  will  in  large  numbers  accept  Catholi¬ 
cism,  separation  probably  means  disruption  of  a 
formerly  centralized  body.  The  World  War  and 
consequent  German  revolution  have  eliminated 
the  Prussian  state  as  the  official  protector  of  Prot¬ 
estantism  at  home  a~d  its  unofficial  leader  abroad. 

Since  the  introduction  of  separation  attempts 
have  been  made  in  the  German  states  to  reorganize 
the  Protestant  Church.  In  Prussia  they  have  not 
led  to  definitive  results  at  the  present  writing. 
In  Bavaria  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches, 
after  a  century-old  union,  have  given  themselves 
separate  church  governments.  In  Baden  also  the 
ecclesiastical  reorganization  has  been  completed 
and  the  right  attributed  to  a  sufficiently  numerous 
minority  in  a  parish  to  select  its  own  minister 


EVORA 


295 


EXCOMMUNICATION 


and  hold  separate  services.  In  other  States  a  new 
church  constitution  has  likewise  been  adopted.  A 
curious  feature  of  the  Brunswick  and  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin  constitutions  is  the  institution  of  “bishops’’ 
as  heads  of  these  churches. 

III.  Statistics. — The  German  Empire  had,  in  1914, 
66  million  inhabitants,  of  whom  41  million  were  Prot¬ 
estants  and  over  24  million  were  Catholics.  Owing 
to  the  losses  sustained  in  the  war  and  cessions  im¬ 
posed  by  the  peace  treaty  the  German  Republic 
was  reduced  to  60,900,000  inhabitants,  according  to 
the  census  returns  of  8  October,  1919.  Further 
losses  have  since  been  incurred  by  the  cession  of 
part  of  Silesia  to  Poland  in  accordance  with  the 
decision  of  the  League  of  Nations.  The  population 
of  Germany  is  now  scarcely  60,000,000,  approxi¬ 
mately  39,000,000  of  these  being  Protestants  and 
19,000,000  Catholics.  The  decrease  of  several  mil¬ 
lion  in  the  Catholic  population  is  accounted  for 
by  the  cession  of  predominantly  Catholic  provinces 
to  France  and  Poland  through  the  treaty  of  Ver¬ 
sailles  (1919). 

M’Laren,  Creeds,  Heresy -Hunting  and  Secession  in  German 
Protestantism  To-Day  in  Hibbert  Journal,  XII  (1913-1914), 
721-732;  Kissling,  Der  deutsche  Protestantismus  1817-1917 
(Munster,  1918);  Rade,  The  Present  Situation  of  Christianity 
in  Germany  in  American  Journal  of  Theology,  XXIV,  1920, 
339-367 ;  Rost,  Der  Protestantismus  nach  protestantischen 
Zeugnissen  (Paderborn,  1920) ;  Schneider,  Kirchliches  Jahr- 
buch  (annual) ;  Lempp,  Church  and  Religion  in  Germany  in 
Harvard  Theological  Review,  XIV  (1921),  30-52;  Grisar,  Die 
Neugrilndung  des  Kirchenwesens  im  deutschen  Protestantismus 
in  Allgemiene  Rundschau  (Munich,  January  14  and  21,  1921); 
Idem,  Die  neuen  protestantischen  Landeskirchen,  loc.  cit., 
4  February,  1922.  N  A  Weber 

Evora,  Archdiocese  of  (Elborensis),  in  the 
Province  of  Alemtejo,  Portugal.  This  see  is  filled 
by  Most  Rev.  Manuel  Mendes  Da  Conceigao 
Santos,  b.  in  the  Diocese  of  Lisbon  13  December, 
1873,  chancellor  of  the  cathedral  at  Guarda,  doctor 
of  divinity,  appointed  Bishop  of  Portalegra  9 
December,  1915,  promoted  to  the  titular  metropoli¬ 
tan  see  of  Philippopolis  and  coadjutor  of  Evora 
4  June,  1920.  Upon  the  death  of  Agustin  Eduardo 
Nunez  (b.  31  March,  1849,  d.  14  July,  1920)  he 
succeeded  to  Evora  24  July  following.  In  1921  the 
Portuguese  Government  decorated  him  with  the 
Cross  of  the  Order  of  Christ.  The  census  of  1900 
showed  the  diocese  to  have  a  Catholic  population 
of  206,518,  176  parishes,  and  176  priests,  while  the 
statistics  of  1903  credited  it  with  313  churches  and 
297  chapels. 

Evreux,  Diocese  of  (Ebroicensis),  in  the  de¬ 
partment  of  Eure,  France,  suffragan  of  Rouen. 
Upon  the  death  of  Rt.  Rev.  Philippe  Meunier,  11 
January,  1913,  Rt.  Rev.  Louis-Jean  Dechelette  was 
transferred  to  succeed  him  7  February,  1913.  On  9 
August,  1919,  Bishop  Dechelette  was  named  by  the 
Belgian  king  commander  of  the  Order  of  Leopold. 
He  died  the  following  year,  on  11  April,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Constantin  Chauvin,  born 
in  Cosse-le-Vivien  1859,  made  his  studies  at 
Mayenne,  Laval,  and  St.  Sulpice  in  Paris,  and  was 
ordained  in  1882.  He  served  as  professor  of  Holy 
Scripture  at  the  Seminary  of  Laval,  and  rector  of 
the  lower  seminary,  and  was  named  an  honorary 
canon  in  1900,  a  member  of  the  Biblical  Commis¬ 
sion  in  1903,  titular  chancellor  and  vicar  general  in 
1907,  and  appointed  bishop  30  July,  1920.  The 
1920  statistics  credit  the  diocese  with  323,651  Cath¬ 
olics,  73  parishes,  545  succursal  parishes,  and  41 
vicariates  formerly  supported  by  the  State.  The 
diocese  is  dedicated  to  St.  Taurin,  and  the  cathe¬ 
dral  and  chapter  to  the  Blessed  Virgin. 

Examination  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-673d).— A  local  ordi¬ 
nary  or  religious  superior  wTho  has  granted  a  priest 


a  license  to  preach  after  the  required  examination, 
may  insist  on  a  second  examination  later,  if  a 
doubt  arises  in  connection  with  the  orthodoxy  of 
the  preacher  s  teachings.  Before  appointing  a  priest 
to  a  parish,  the  local  ordinary  should  test  his  knowl¬ 
edge  by  an  examination  held  in  his  own  and  the 
synodal  examiners’  presence;  but,  with  the  synodal 
examiners’  consent,  he  may  dispense  from  the 
examination  in  case  of  a  priest  who  is  known  to  be 
skilled  in  theology;  where,  however,  the  provision 
of  parishes  is  made  by  a  concursus,  that  practice 
is  to  be  continued  until  the  Holy  See  decrees  other¬ 
wise.  If  a  parish  priest  is  transferred  at  the  request 
and  wish  of  the  ordinary,  he  should  be  re-examined ; 
if  the  transfer  is  at  his  own  request,  the  examination 
is  optional;  but  no  examination  is  needed  when 
the  transfer  is  forced.  An  ordinary  may  examine 
anyone  before  confirming  or  instituting  him  in  any 
ecclesiastical  office.  All  priests  must,  unless  ex¬ 
empted  by  the  local  ordinary  for  just  cause,  be 
examined  yearly  in  sacred  science,  for  the  three 
years  following  the  completion  of  their  studies; 
the  matter  for  the  examination  and  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  to  be  held  are  determined  by  the 
ordinary;  priests  in  religious  orders  are  to  be  exam¬ 
ined  similarly  by  some  of  the  fathers  for  a  period 
of  five  years,  after  completing  their  studies,  unless 
they  are  exempted  by  their  higher  superiors  or 
when  they  are  teaching  theology,  canon  law,  or 
scholastic  philosophy. 

Examiners,  Synodal  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-676).— In  each 
diocese  there  are  to  be  not  less  than  four  nor 
more  than  twelve  synodal  examiners,  the  Code 
leaving  the  exact  number  in  each  instance  to  the 
discretion  of  the  bishop.  The  names  of  the  exam¬ 
iners  are  proposed  in  the  synod  by  the  bishop  and 
approved  by  the  synod.  If  any  of  them  should 
die  or  vacate  his  position  in  the  interval  between 
two  synods,  the  bishop,  on  consulting  the  cathedral 
chapter  appoints  a  substitute.  Formerly,  if  the 
number  of  examiners  fell  below  six  more  than  a 
year  after  the  synod  was  held,  the  bishop  had  to 
obtain  leave  from  the  Holy  See  to  fill  the  vacancies. 
After  holding  office  for  ten  years  or  less,  if  a  new 
synod  occurs  sooner,  their  tenure  of  office  ceases, 
but  they  may  complete  any  work  they  have  begun, 
and  may  be  re-appointed.  They  cannot  be  removed 
by  the  bishop,  except  for  grave  cause  and  after 
consulting  the  cathedral  chapter.  The  chief  duties 
of  the  synodal  examiners  are  to  examine  candidates 
for  parochial  benefices,  and  to  assist  the  bishop 
in  the  proceedings  concerning  the  removal  or  trans¬ 
ference  of  parish  priests;  they  may  be  appointed 
also  by  the  bishop  to  conduct  examinations  for 
faculties  and  for  the  recently  ordained  priests.  An 
examiner  may  be  a  parochial  consultor,  but  he 
may  not  act  in  both  capacities  in  the  one  case. 

Excommunication  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-678).— The  sixth 
canon  of  the  Code  of  Canon  Law,  which  came  into 
force  in  1918,  declares  that  all  former  ecclesiastical 
punishments,  whether  spiritual  or  temporal,  medicinal 
or  vindicatory,  latse  or  ferendae  sententiae,  not  men¬ 
tioned  in  the  Code  have  been  abolished.  The 
excommunications  contained  in  the  Constitution 
“Apostolicae  Sedis,”  for  instance,  and  set  forth  in 
detail  in  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  V-686  sqq., 
have  now  lost  their  force,  except  in  as  far  as  they 
have  been  re-enacted  in  the  Code. 

Excommunications  are  now  divided  into  five 
categories,  according  as  they  are  reserved:  (a)  very 
especially  to  the  pope;  (b)  specially  to  the  pope; 
(c)  simply  to  the  pope;  (d)  to  the  bishop;  (e)  to 
no  one.  Of  these  the  first  class,  though  hitherto 


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296 


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admitted  by  canonists,  was  not  formally  recognized 
by  the  law. 

I —  Excommunication  very  specially  reserved  to 
the  pope  is  incurred  by:  (a)  Those  who  throw 
away  the  consecrated  species  or  carry  them  off  or 
retain  them  for  an  evil  purpose  (can.  2320).  This 
is  a  new  excommunication. 

(b)  Anyone  who  lays  violent  hands  on  the  pope  ; 
such  a  culprit  is,  moreover,  by  the  very  fact  of  his 
crime,  an  excommunicate  vitandus  (can.  2343). 
Under  the  Code,  attacks  on  the  person  of  the  pope 
are  punished  more  severely  than  before.  It  may 
be  noticed  also  that  this  is  the  only  case  in  which 
a  culprit  becomes  an  excommunicate  vitandus  (i.  e., 
one  to  be  shunned)  without  a  sentence  or  denuncia¬ 
tion. 

(c)  A  confessor  who  absolves  or  pretends  to 
absolve  an  accomplice  in  a  sin  against  chastity, 
except  when  there  is  a  really  grave  danger  of  death 
(in  articulo  mortis,  at  the  point  of  death,  usually 
so  interpreted  in  this  matter  by  canonists)  and  no 
other  priest  is  present,  even  one  lacking  approba¬ 
tion,  who  could  hear  the  confession  without  great 
danger  of  giving  scandal  or  of  ruining  the  reputation 
of  either  or  both  of  the  culprits,  or  if  the  dying 
person  refuses  to  confess  to  another  priest.  Further¬ 
more,  the  same  penalty  would  be  incurred  if  the 
guilty  priest  heard  the  confession  of  his  accomplice, 
who  at  his  direct  or  indirect  instigation  omitted 
mentioning  the  sin  from  which  he  or  she  had  not 
been  already  absolved  (can.  2367). 

(d)  A  confessor  who  presumes  to  violate  the 
seal  of  confession  directly  (can.  2369).  This  is  a 
new  censure,  enacted  not  to  correct  an  abuse,  as 
violation  of  the  seal  of  confession  has  occurred 
only  extremely  rarely  in  history,  but  to  reaffirm  to 
the  world  the  sanctity  of  the  secret  of  any  penitent 
mentioned  in  the  confessional. 

II —  Excommunication  specially  reserved  to  the 
pope  is  incurred  by:  (a)  All  apostates  from  the 
Christian  faith,  all  heretics  and  schismatics  (can. 
2314).  Those  who  gave  credence  to,  received,  coun¬ 
tenanced,  or  defended  apostates  or  heretics  for¬ 
merly  incurred  this  penalty  expressly;  they  are  now 
immune,  except  in  so  far  as  they  have  incurred 
guilt  as  co-operators.  Though  absolution  from  this 
censure  is  reserved  in  the  forum  of  conscience  to 
the  pope,  yet,  if  the  crime  of  apostasy,  heresy,  or 
schism  has  been  brought  before  a  local  ordinary 
in  the  external  forum  in  any  way,  even  by  volun¬ 
tary  confession,  he  but  not  a  vicar-general  without 
a  special  mandate,  may  by  his  ordinary  power, 
absolve  the  culprit  in  the  external  forum,  and  then 
any  confessor  can  absolve  him  from  the  sin.  Before 
the  local  ordinary  grants  absolution  from  the  cen¬ 
sure  the  culprit  must  abjure  his  error  in  the  presence 
of  the  ordinary  or  of  his  delegate  and  of  at  least  two 
witnesses.  This  power  of  the  bishop  to  absolve 
in  the  external  forum  is  ordinary  and  can  be 
delegated;  in  the  United  States  it  is  customary  to 
delegate  it  to  priests  who  receive  converts  to  re¬ 
lieve  them  from  the  necessity  of  asking  for  faculties 
in  each  case.  If  a  person  is  suspected  of  heresy, 
he  is  to  receive  a  canonical  admonition;  and  if  he 
stubbornly  neglects  the  warning  and  minor  penal¬ 
ties  that  may  be  imposed,  he  is  finally  to  be  deemed 
a  heretic,  and  as  such  he  incurs  this  form  of 
excommunication.  • 

(b)  Those  who  publish  books  written  by  apos¬ 
tates,  heretics,  or  schismatics,  advocating  apostasy, 
heresy,  or  schism — the  censure  is  incurred  only  when 
the  work  has  been  actually  published — and  all  who 
defend  or  knowingly  and  without  due  permission 
read  or  keep  those  books  or  others  prohibited  by 
name  by  Apostolic  letters  (can.  2318).  The  former 


legislation  mentioned  the  printers,  but  not  the 
publishers,  of  these  forbidden  books  as  incurring 
excommunication,  and  made  no  reference  to  writings 
of  schismatics  or  to  works  upholding  apostasy  or 
schism.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  authors  whose 
works  may  not  be  published,  or  knowingly  defended, 
read  or  kept,  in  virtue  of  this  particular  canon 
without  the  incurring  of  excommunication  are  those 
only  who  are  or  have  been  Christians. 

(c)  Anyone  who  not  being  a  priest  pretends  to 
celebrate  Mass  or  hear  sacramental  confession  (can. 
2322) ;  a  new  censure. 

(d)  Those  who  are  guilty  of  certain  crimes  in 
connection  with  papal  elections  referred  to  by 
Pius  X  in  his  Constitution  “Vacante  Sede  Apos- 
tolica”  of  25  December,  1904  (can.  2330).  The  fol¬ 
lowing  persons  are  therein  mentioned  as  incurring 
excommunication:  Cardinals  who  during  the  con¬ 
clave,  if  not  prevented  by  ill-health,  do  not  obey  the 
signal  when  given  for  the  third  time  to  assemble 
for  a  scrutiny  (§37);  any  person  who  sends  into  or 
more  specially  out  from  the  conclave  any  written 
or  printed  matter  which  has  not  been  submitted  for 
examination  to  the  secretary  of  the  Sacred  College 
and  of  the  prelates  in  charge  of  the  conclave;  it  is, 
moreover,  absolutely  forbidden  for  anyone  to  send 
daily  papers  or  periodicals  from  the  conclave  (§50); 
cardinals  or  attendants  present  at  the  conclave  who 
violate  the  obligation  of  secrecy  regarding  the  elec- 
tion-or  what  takes  place  in  the  conclave  or  place 
of  election  (§51);  cardinals  who  reveal  to  their 
attendants  or  anyone  else  matters  relating  directly 
or  indirectly  to  the  voting,  or  to  the  proceedings 
or  decrees  of  the  assemblies  of  the  cardinals  held 
before  or  during  conclave  (§52);  those  who  are 
guilty  of  simony  (§79) ;  any  persons,  even  cardinals, 
who,  during  the  lifetime  of  the  pope  and  without 
his  knowledge,  presume  to  treat  of  the  election  of 
his  successor  or  to  promise  their  vote,  or  who  discuss 
the  matter  or  come  to  any  decision  regarding  it 
at  private  meetings  (§80);  anyone  taking  part  in 
the  conclave  who,  even  as  the  result  of  a  mere 
desire,  has  undertaken  to  propose  the  Veto  on  be¬ 
half  of  any  civil  power  in  any  way  to  any  or  all 
of  the  cardinals  before  or  during  the  conclave;  and 
what  is  said  of  the  Veto  applies  to  every  kind  of 
attempt  by  a  lay  person  or  by  the  secular  power 
to  meddle  in  a  papal  election  (§81) ;  cardinals  who 
agree  or  promise  or  in  any  way  bind  themselves 
to  give  or  refuse  their  vote  to  anyone— this,  of 
course,  does  not  refer  to  the  discussions  that  take 
place  during  the  vacancy  (§82) ;  and  finally,  anyone 
who  dares  to  disregard  letters  written  by  the  pope 
after  his  acceptance  of  office  but  before  his  con¬ 
secration  (§88).  Except  where  there  is  danger  of 
death  absolution  from  the  excommunication  in¬ 
flicted  for  these  offenses  can  be  given  by  the  pope 
alone,  even  the  major  penitentiary  being  without 
faculties  for  granting  it. 

(e)  All  those,  not  excluding  even  sovereigns, 
bishops,  and  cardinals,  who  appeal  from  the  laws, 
decrees,  or  mandates  of  a  reigning  pontiff  t<p  a 
general  council  (can.  2332).  The  new  legislation, 
unlike  the  old,  makes  no  distinction  between  pres¬ 
ent  and  future  councils;  it  may  be  noted,  too,  that 
nothing  is  said  expressly  in  the  canon  about  those 
who  co-operate  by  giving  aid,  counsel,  or  counte¬ 
nance  to  such  appeals. 

(f)  Those  who  have  recourse  to  any  lay  power 
to  impede  the  letters  or  documents  of  the  Holy 
See  or  of  its  legate,  or  who  directly  or  indirectly 
prohibit  their  promulgation  or  execution,  or  who 
on  account  of  these  letters  or  documents  injure 
or  intimidate  those  interested  in  them  or  any  other 
person. 


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297 


EXCOMMUNICATION 


(g)  Those  who  publish  laws,  mandates,  or  de¬ 
crees  against  the  liberty  or  rights  of  the  Church; 
or  who,  directly  or  indirectly,  impede  the  exercise 
of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  in  the  internal  or  ex¬ 
ternal  forum,  having  recourse  for  that  purpose  to 
any  lay  power  (can.  2334).  This  varies  from  the 
former  censure  by  including  mandates;  again,  the 
impeding  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  referred  to 
must  result  from  the  recourse  to  the  civil  authority; 
if  it  resulted  from  threats  or  violence  on  the  part 
of  the  offender  it  would  not  come  under  this  canon. 

(h)  Those  who,  without  due  permission  of  the 
Holy  See,  dare  to  cite  before  a  lay  judge,  a  cardinal, 
a  papal  legate,  or  a  higher  official  of  the  Roman 
Curia  in  matters  pertaining  to  their  own  office,  or 
who  thus  cite  their  own  ordinary  (can.  2341).  There 
are  fewer  persons  protected  by  this  enactment  than 
under  the  old  legislation.  The  censure  may  be 
incurred  not  merely  by  a  plantiff,  but  also  by  a  judge, 
though  the  latter  would  ordinarily  be  immune  as 
having  usually  no  discretion  in  the  matter;  being 
compelled  by  law  to  act  when  requested,  his  action 
would  not  come  within  the  category  of  those  re¬ 
ferred  to  when  the  expression  “dare,”  ausus  fuerit 
is  used. 

(i)  Those  who  lay  violent  hands  on  cardinals, 
legates,  patriarchs,  archbishops  or  bishops,  whether 
residential  or  titular  (can.  2343). 

(j)  Those  who  usurp  or  retain  personally  or 
otherwise  the  property  or  rights  of  the  Roman 
Church  (can.  2345).  While  accomplices  are  not 
mentioned  in  this  canon,  as  they  were  in  the  Con¬ 
stitution  “Apostolicse  Sedis,”  they,  too,  may,  at 
times,  still  incur  this  penalty  (can.  2209;  2231). 

(k)  Those  who  forge  or  falsify  letters,  decrees, 
or  rescripts  of  the  Holy  See,  or  who  knowingly 
make  use  of  such  letters  (can.  2360).  By  forgery 
is  meant  the  fabrication  of  an  entire  document  or 
the  affixing  of  the  official  seal  to  a  document  fabri¬ 
cated  by  another;  falsification,  on  the  other  hand, 
means  the  alteration  of  an  authentic  document  by 
suppression,  erasures,  writing  over,  or  substitution, 
in  a  way  that  notably  modifies  its  meaning.  Under 
the  pre-Code  legislation  forgery  did  not  entail  this 
excommunication,  though  the  publication  of  the 
falsified  letters  did;  on  the  other  hand,  those  who 
knowingly  made  use  of  the  falsified  documents  in¬ 
curred  only  excommunication  reserved  to  the  ordi¬ 
nary. 

(l)  Those  who  directly  or  indirectly  denounce 
a  confessor  to  his  superiors  on  a  false  charge  of 
solicitation  (can.  2363).  This  is  a  new  censure, 
from  which  absolution  cannot  be  given  until  the 
culprit  formally  retracts  the  charge,  makes  all  the 
reparation  possible,  and  accepts  a  severe  penance. 

Ill — Excommunication  simply  reserved  to  the 
pope  is  incurred  by:  (a)  Those  who  traffic  in  in¬ 
dulgences  (can.  2327) ;  formerly  traffickers  in  other 
spiritual  favors  besides  indulgences  were  similarly 
punished. 

(b)  Those  who  join  the  Freemasons  or  other 
associations  of  the  same  kind  that  plot  against 
the  Church  or  the  legitimate  civil  authorities  (can. 
2335) ;  the  penalty  was  formerly  directed  also  ex¬ 
pressly  against  all  who  countenanced  these  sects  in 
any  way  and  all  who  did  not  inform  against  the 
secret  chiefs  or  leaders. 

(c)  Those  who  presume  to  absolve  from  excom¬ 
munications  specially  or  very  specially  reserved  to 
the  Holy  See  without  having  the  requisite  faculty 
(can.  2338). 

(d)  Those  who  help  or  favor  anyone  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  a  crime  for  which  he  was  declared  an 
excommunicate  vitandus,  and  all  clerics  who  know¬ 


ingly  and  freely  communicate  with  him  in  divinis 
and  admit  him  to  the  Divine  offices  (can.  2338) 

(e)  Those  who,  without  leave  of  the  Holy  See, 
dare  to  cite  before  a  lay  judge  a  titular  of  resi¬ 
dential  bishop  (other  than  their  own),  or  an  abbot 

prelate  nullius ,  or  any  ot  the  highest  superiors 
of  religious  orders  approved  or  lauded  by  the  Holy 
See  (can.  2341).  y  y 

(f)  All  persons  of  whatever  kind,  condition,  or 
sex,  who  violate  the  canonical  enclosure  or  cloister 
of  nuns  having  solemn  vows  ( moniales ),  by  pene¬ 
trating  into  their  monasteries  without  lawful  per¬ 
mission,  and  those  who  introduce  or  admit  them ; 
also  all  women  who  enter  the  enclosure  of  a  regular 
older  of  men,  and  superiors  and  all  others  who  in¬ 
troduce  or  admit  them,  or  girls  whatever  their  age 
may  be;  and,  finally,  nuns  with  solemn  vows  who 
leave  their  enclosure  unlawfully,  that  is  even  for  a 
short  time  under  any  pretext,  without  leave  of  the 
Holy  See,  except  when  they  are  in  imminent  danger 
of  death  or  of  some  very  grave  evil  (can.  2342). 
The  wording  of  this  section  varies  slightly  from 
that  of  the  old  law;  the  censure  for  violating  con¬ 
vent  enclosure  was  formerly  incurred  by  those  who 
had  not  attained  puberty;  they  are  now,  however, 
exempt  from  all  censures.  This  canon,  it  may  be 
noted,  refers  to  papal  enclosure  exclusively. 

Those  who  presume  to  usurp  and  convert 
to  their  own  use,  directly  or  indirectly,  church 
property  of  any  kind,  or  who  prevent  those  who 
have  a  right  to  receive  the  income  from  obtaining 
it  (can.  2346).  The  excommunication  cannot  be 
removed  till  the  culprit  restores  the  property  or 
removes  the  obstacle  to  the  reception  of  the  in¬ 
come. 

(h)  Those  who  fight  duels  or  who  challenge  or 
accept  challenges  thereto  or  who  aid  or  countenance 
duelling,  or  who  are  present  designedly  at  such  com¬ 
bats  and  permit  them  to.  take  place  or  do  not  pre¬ 
vent  them  as  far  as  lies  in  their  power  (can.  2351). 

(i)  Clerics  in  major  orders  and  regulars  and  nuns 
having  a  solemn  vow  of  chastity  who  presume  to 
contract  marriage,  even  civilly,  and  also  all  per¬ 
sons  who  presume  to  attempt  marriage  with  them 
(can.  2388);  formerly  this  censure  was  reserved  to 
the  ordinary. 

(j)  Those  who  are  guilty  of  simony  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  any  ecclesiastical  office,  dignity,  or  bene¬ 
fice  (can.  2392). 

(k)  A  vicar  capitular  or  any  other  person  who, 
directly  or  indirectly,  takes  away,  destroys,  con¬ 
ceals  or  substantially  changes  any  document  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  episcopal  curia  (can.  2405) ;  this  is  a  new 
censure. 

IV — Excommunications  reserved  to  the  ordinary 
are  incurred  by:  (a)  Catholics  who,  even  when  a 
Catholic  service  has  preceded  or  is  to  follow,  renew 
or  give  their  matrimonial  consent  personally  or  by 
proxy  before  a  non-Catholic  minister,  unless  when 
for  the  procuring  of  merely  civil  effects  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  the  civil  law  they  go  before  him  purely 
as  a  civil  registrar;  or  who  marry  with  an  explicit 
or  implicit  agreement  to  educate  any  or  all  of  the 
children  outside  the  Catholic  Church;  or  who  know¬ 
ingly  presume  to  offer  their  children  to  non-Catholic 
ministers  for  baptism;  or  parents  or  guardians  who 
knowingly  hand  over  their  children  to  be  educated 
or  instructed  in  a  non-Catholic  religion  (can.  2319). 
Some  of  these  parties  may,  through  stubbornness 
in  their  evil  conduct,  become  suspected  of  heresy 
and  so  ultimately  incur  excommunication  specially 
reserved  to  the  pope  (see  above,  II  [a]). 

(b)  Those  who  manufacture  or  who  knowingly 
sell,  distribute  or  expose  false  relics  for  public 
veneration  (can.  2326) ;  this  is  a  new  censure. 


EXEMPTION 


298 


EXTENSION 


(c)  Those  who  lay  violent  hands  on  religious 
of  either  sex,  or  on  clerics  not  mentioned  above  as 
protected  by  severer  censures  (can.  2350) ;  the  cen¬ 
sure  was  formerly  reserved  simply  to  the  pope. 

(d)  Those  who  efficaciously  procure  abortion,  the 
mother  not  excepted  (can.  2350) ;  the  censure  has 
now  been  extended  to  include  the  mother. 

(e)  Religious  of  lay  or  non-exempt  communities 
who  leave  their  houses  unlawfully  with  the  inten¬ 
tion  of  not  returning  (can.  2385) ;  this  is  a  new 
censure;  if  the  religious  belongs  to  an  exempt  order 
the  censure  is  reserved  to  one  of  his  higher  superiors. 

(f)  Those  who  are  members  of  a  religious  order 
or  congregation  and,  who  being  professed  with  sim¬ 
ple  perpetual  vows  presume  to  contract  even  civil 
marriage;  their  partners  also  incur  excommunica¬ 
tion  (can.  2388) ;  this  is  a  new  censure.  e  . 

V — Excommunication  reserved  to  no  one  is  in¬ 
curred  by:  (a)  Authors  and  publishers  who  have 
books  of  Scripture  or  annotations  or  commentaries 
thereon  printed  without  due  permission  (can.  2318) ; 
formerly  it  was  the  printers,  not  the  publishers,  who 
were  expressly  censured. 

(b)  Those  who  dare  to  order  or  compel  the 
granting  of  ecclesiastical  burial  to  infidels,  apostates, 
heretics,  schismatics  or  any  other  persons  excom¬ 
municated  or  interdicted  by  a  declaratory  or  con¬ 
demnatory  sentence  (can.  2339) ;  formerly  this 
censure  was  imposed  only  in  connection  with  the 
burial  of  notorious  heretics  or  of  persons  excom¬ 
municated  or  placed  under  interdict  by  name. 

(c)  Those  who  knowingly  omit  obtaining  the 
consent  of  the  Holy  See,  when  it  is  required  by  law, 
for  alienating  church  property,  and  all  those  who 
take  part  in  such  a  transaction  by  giving  or  receiv¬ 
ing  the  property  or  authorizing  its  transfer  (can. 
2347). 

(d)  Anyone,  no  matter  how  exalted  he  may  be, 
who  in  any  way  forces  a  person  to  become  a  cleric 
or  to  enter  religion  or  to  make  his  religious  pro¬ 
fession,  whether  simple  or  solemn,  temporal  or 
perpetual  (can.  2352). 

(e)  Anyone  wrho  knowingly  refuses  to  denounce 
to  the  proper  ecclesiastical  superiors  within  a  month 
a  priest  by  whom  he  or  she  has  been  solicited  in 
confession;  absolution  from  this  censure  must  be 
refused  until  the  party  makes  the  formal  charge 
or  at  least  seriously  promises  to  do  so  (can.  2368). 

Under  the  Code  regime  no  excommunicated  per¬ 
son  is  a  vitandus,  that  is,  one  to  be  shunned  or 
boycotted,  unless  he  has  been  excommunicated  by 
name  by  the  Holy  See  and  the  decree  of  excom¬ 
munication  has  been  made  public,  and  unless, 
•further,  the  decree  or  sentence  declares  him  to  be 
a  vitandus.  To  this  there  is  only  one  exception, 
namely,  a  person  who  lays  violent  hands  on  the 
pope  becomes  ipso  facto  excommunicated  and  a 
vitandus.  It  may  be  noted  that  not  merely  the 
reception  of  the  sacraments,  but  also  the  use  of 
the  sacramentals,  such  as  holy  water  or  blessed 
candles,  are  forbidden  to  a  vitandus,  and  even  to 
any  other  excommunicated  person  after  a  con¬ 
demnatory  or  declaratory  sentence. 

Ayrinhac,  Penal  Legislation  (New  York,.  1920);  O’Donnell, 
Crimes  and  Penalties  in  the  New  Code  in  the  Irish  Theol. 
Quart...  XIII  (1918),  33-53;  Noldin-Schonegger,  De  poems 
ecclesiastici  (Innsbruck,  1921). 

Exemption  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-706b;  XII-754b). — All 
regulars,  including  novices,  but  excluding  nuns 
with  solemn  vows  who  are  not  subject  to  regular 
superiors,  together  with  their  houses  and  churches, 
are  exempt  from  episcopal  jurisdiction,  except  in 
the  cases  mentioned  expressly  in  the  Code.  Among 
these  exceptions  we  find  that  the  bishop  is  entitled 
to  pontificate,  confirm  and  preach  in  exempt 


churches;  he  may  investigate  the  moral  and  reli¬ 
gious  teaching  given  in  their  schools  for  externs, 
their  oratories,  and  charitable  or  educational  cen¬ 
ters;  he  consecrates  their  holy  places,  their  bells 
and  their  fixed  altars;  he  acts  as  judge  of  first 
instance  in  suits  between  religious  orders  and  settles 
urgent  questions  of  collegiate  precedence  between 
them.  Exempt  religious  have  to  obey  his  instruc¬ 
tions  regarding  certain  church  matters,  for  instance, 
special  prayers  for  the  public  weal,  catechetical  or 
Gospel  instructions,  public  processions;  they  must 
obtain  his  permission  to  erect  houses,  to  hear  con¬ 
fessions  of  or  preach  to  externs,  to  have  public 
exposition  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  to  erect  pious 
associations,  to  solicit  alms,  to  publish  books  or  to 
write  for  papers.  Finally,  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
bishops  to  examine  all  female  postulants,  novices 
or  temporarily  professed  before  they  take  the  next 
step  in  religion  to  see  if  they  are  acting  freely  and 
if  they  thoroughly  understand  the  obligations  they 
are  about  to  assume.  If  a  regular  who  is  legiti¬ 
mately  outside  of  his  house  returns  after  com¬ 
mitting  an  offense  he  may  be  punished  by  the  local 
ordinary,  if  his  superior  on  being  notified  does 
not  do  so.  A  local  ordinary  must  notify  the  Holy 
See  if  the  superior  of  an  exempt  religious  house 
fails  to  reform  abuses,  after  his  attention  has  been 
drawm  to  them;  if  the  house  is  not  yet  fully  formed 
and  the  abuses  occur  which  cause  scandal  the  local 
ordinary"  may,  pending  the  reply  from  Rome,  inter¬ 
vene  to  correct  them.  In  the  case  of  pontifical 
lay  religious  institutes,  the  local  ordinary  may  and 
should  see  if  the  constitutions  are  enforced,  the  reli¬ 
gious  spirit  upheld,  the  enclosure  observed,  and  the 
sacraments  duly  received.  He  may  and  ought  to 
visit  hospitals,  orphanages,  and  other  such  charit¬ 
able  institutions,  even  if  they  have  been  constituted 
legal  persons  and  granted  exemption,  and,  all  cus¬ 
toms  to  the  contrary  being  reprobated,  he  has  the 
right  to  an  accounting  from  such  institutes,  even 
if  they  are  exempt  from  his  jurisdiction  and  right 
of  visitation  by  the  terms  of  their  foundation  or 
by  prescription  or  apostolic  privilege.  A  cardinal’s 
chapel  is  exempt  from  episcopal  visitation,  as  is  a 
seminary  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  parish  priest. 

Vermeersch-Creusen,  Epit.  jur.  can.,  618-24. 

Extension  Society  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  The  Catholic  Church  (cf.  C.  E., 
XIV-78c),  an  organization  which  collects  in,  and 
confines  its  benefits  to,  the  United  States  of  America 
and  territory  under  the  American  flag,  having  been 
founded  “to  foster  and  extend  the  Catholic  Faith; 
to  develop  the  missionary  spirit  in  the  clergy  and 
people;  to  assist  in  the  erection  of  parish  buildings 
for  needy  places;  to  contribute  to  the  support  of 
priests  living  in  out-of-the-way  localities  •  and 
poverty-stricken  districts;  to  extend  the  comforts 
of  religion  to  pioneers;  to  supply,  altar  plate  and 
vestments  for  poor  missions;  to  circulate  Catholic 
literature;  to  educate  or  assist  in  the  education  of 
students  who  intend  becoming  missionary  priests; 
to  direct  Catholic  colonists  to  suitable  localities.” 

Origin  and  Development. — The  Society  was 
founded  at  a  meeting  held  in  the  archiepiscopal 
residence  in  Chicago  on  18  October,  1905,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  late  Archbishop  Quigley.  Four  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  hierarchy,  nine  priests  and  six  laymen, 
who  had  become  convinced  of  the  necessity  of  an 
organization  which  would  act  as  a  channel  between 
the  charity  of  the  cities  and  the  needs*  of  scattered 
Catholics,  were  present  at  the  inaugural  meeting,  at 
which  the  Archbishop  was  appointed  chancellor,  and 
the  Rev.  Francis  Clement  Kelley,  president.  No 
money  was  available  for  the  purposes  of  establish- 


EXTENSION 


299 


EXTENSION 


ment,  and  the  recto^  at  Lapeer,  Michigan,  where 
Father  Kelley  was  pastor,  became  the  first  head- 
®0C^e^y*  The  late  Bishop  Hennessy, 
of  \\  1  chit  a,  was  the  first  member  of  the  hierarchy 
to  give  his  encouragement  to  the  plan  which  sub¬ 
sequently  developed,  of  which  Rev.  F.  C.  Kelley 
was  the  originator.  His  mission  at  Lapeer  was 
handicapped  by  poverty,  and  in  order  to  support 
jus  work  he  undertook  a  lecture  tour  which  brought 
him  into  touch  with  priests  in  the  West  and  South, 
who  were  struggling  against  even  more  adverse  con¬ 
ditions.  He  saw  that  there  was  no  one  to  plead 
their  cause,  and  that  their  constant  anxiety  con¬ 
cerning  the  problems  of  existence  was  minimizing 
the  effectiveness  of  their  apostolic  labors.  He 
wrote  an  article  on  the  situation,  which  was  pub¬ 
lished  in  the  ‘‘Ecclesiastical  Review,”  and  evoked 
Bishop  Hennessy’s  encouragement,  which  in  turn 
brought  about  the  inaugural  meeting. 

The  Society  met  with  an  immediate  and  generous 
response,  and  at  the  second  meeting  of  officers  it 
was  determined  to  move  the  headquarters  to  Chi¬ 
cago,  where  they  would  be  more  readily  available, 
better  able  to  cope  with  the  increasing  mass  of 
work,  and  where  the  Society  could  claim  serious 
attention  as  a  national  work.  The  president  was 
released  from  parochial  duties  to  devote  his  ex¬ 
clusive  attention  to  the  growth  of  the  Extension 
movement. 

The  Holy  See  gave  recognition  to  the  Society, 
when  it  was  less  than  two  years  old,  in  the  form  of 
a  letter  (7  June,  1907),  addressed  to  its  chancellor, 
and  in  which  Pope  Pius  X  spoke  of  the  work  as 
most  opportune  in  a  country  where,  owing  to  the 
multitudes  of  immigrants  of  various  nationalities, 
a  great  and  extending  field  lies  open  for  the  up¬ 
building  of  the  Kingdom  of  God.  And  the  more 
so  as  the  endeavors  of  associations  hostile  to  the 
Catholic  name  are  so  active  and  so  widespread. 
This  hostile  influence,  unless  coped  with  unceasingly 
and  prudently,  will  do  no  little  harm,  especially 
among  the  simple  folk  of  rural  districts,  to  the 
happy  growth  of  the  Church  in  America.”  The 
Pope  approved  and  ratified  the  Society  and  granted 
perpetually  the  following  privileges  and  indulgences: 

(1)  St.  Philip  Neri  shall  be  the  patron  of  the 
Society;  (2)  a  plenary  indulgence  to  each  member 
on  the  day  of  admission,  on  the  feasts  of  St.  Philip 
Neri,  St.  Francis  of  Sales,  St.  Rose  of  Lima,  the 
Holy  Apostles,  and  at  the  hour  of  death;  (3)  to 
every  member  of  the  Society  an  indulgence  of  seven 
years  and  seven  quarantines  for  every  good  work 
done  in  the  interests  of  the  Society;  (4)  an  indul¬ 
gence  of  300  days  to  all  the  members,  as  often  as 
they  piously  recite  the  formula,  “St.  Philip,  pray 
for  us”;  (5)  the  above  indulgences,  plenary  and 
partial,  may  be  applied  to  the  souls  in  purgatory; 
(6)  priests  who  are  moderators  or  directors  of  the 
Society  may  enjoy  a  privileged  altar  three  times  a 
week;  founders  and  life  members,  six  times  a  week. 

By  an  Apostolic  Brief  (9  June,  1910)  Pius  X 
erected  the  Society  into  a  canonical  institution, 
appointed  a  Cardinal  Protector,  fixed  the  head¬ 
quarters  in  Chicago,  appointed  the  Archbishop  of 
Chicago  the  Society’s  chancellor  ex  officio ,  and  re¬ 
served  to  the  Holy  Father  the  appointment,  every 
five  years,  of  the  Societ}^  president. 

In  a  letter  (12  April,  1919),  signed  by  the  Cardinal 
Secretary  of  State,  Pope  Benedict  XV,  “desiring  to 
give  to  your  Society  a  new  mark  of  his  particular 
consideration  and  esteem,”  granted  the  privilege  of 
the  use  by  the  Society  in  its  official  emblem  of  the 
papal  insignia. 

Organization. — Membership  in  the  Society  and 
participation  in  the  privileges  extended  to  it  are 


secured  by  contributing  to  the  Society’s  funds 
directly,  or  indirectly  b}'  subscribing  to  “Extension 
agazine.  1  he  magazine  was  established  a  year 
alter  the  foundation  of  the  Society,  “to  foster  the 
missionary  spirit,  ’  and  through  it  the  needs  of  the 
missions  and  missionaries  in  America  have  been 
made  known  and,  to  some  extent,  supplied.  In 
addition  to  subscribing  membership,”  the  Society 
has  annual  memberships  ($10  a  year),  life  mem- 
ei ships  ($1,000  in  cash  or  in  ten  equal  annual 
payments),  and  founderships  ($5,000  in  cash  or 
eAua\  annual  payments).  Founderships 
and  life  memberships  may  be  established  through 
wills.  Founderships  bestow  the  privilege  of  mem¬ 
bership  in  the  Board  of  Governors.  The  Society 
has  one  thousand  Masses  offered  annually  for  its 
membeis,  living  and  dead.  ^Extension  Magazine” 
began  as  a  quarterly  and  developed  into  a  monthly. 
Its  circulation  and  influence  increased  steadily,  and 
reached  a  certified  circulation  of 
287,000,  and  employed  nearly  300  circulation  agents 
Auxiliaries  were  formed  in  the  “Order  of  Martha” 
and  the  “Child  Apostles”  to  encourage  personal 
011  ■. of  the  home  missions.  The  “Order 
of  Martha”  is  organized  in  “households,”  and  its 
members  have  been  responsible  for  building  many 
chapels  and  schools,  besides  supplying  vestments 
and  linens  of  home  workmanship  for  the  missions. 
nooo?enmeS  c^^c^ren  have  built  ten  chapels 

A  church  goods  department  was  created  for  the 
collection  of  used  vestments  and  other  church  fur- 
nishings,  and  for  their  distribution  after  suitable 
repair.  In  one  year  (1921)  goods  estimated  at  the 
value  of  $25,000  were  thus  salvaged  for  use  in  poor 
missions. 

A  Mass  intention  department  was  opened  to  sup¬ 
ply  the  machinery  necessary  for  the  passing  of 
surplus  intentions  from  the  city  priests  to  the  poor 
missions  where  they  were  needed,  and  where  they 

aL6’  7eIy  ,often’  fhe  only  means  of  subsistence 
afforded  the  missionaries.  The  Mass  intentions 
which  passed  through  the  Society  in  1921  totaled 
$147,044.14.  In  1919,  in  a  period  of  national  anxiety, 
they  reached  $240,164.10.  Mass  intentions  are  dis¬ 
tributed  through  diocesan  ordinaries  and  through 
provincials  of  communities,  and  no  deduction  ^is 
made  for  administration. 

Extension  Press  was  created  to  meet  the  demand 
for  an  efficient  Catholic  mail  order  house  for  the 
supply  of  books  and  articles  of  devotion.  Of  the 
goods  despatched  95%  are  shipped  to  points  at 
which  there  are  no  Catholic  book  stores.  Extension 
Press  has  published  several  books,  and  prints  illus¬ 
trated  calendar  for  which  the  annual  sale  is  about 
200,000.  The  profits  of  this  department  and  of 
“Extension  Magazine”  benefit  the  Society’s  general 
work. 

Government. — The  Society  is  governed  bv  its 
chancellor  (the  Archbishop  of  Chicago).  A  Board 
of  Governors,  consisting  of  bishops,  priests,  and 
laymen,  for  a  place  on  which  any  member  of  the 
American  hierarchy  is  eligible,  meets  annually  in 
November  to  review  work  and  discuss  policies.  The 
priests  and  laymen  on  the  board  are  chosen  for 
their  representative  character,  and  founders  are  en¬ 
titled  to  membership.  An  executive  committee  is 
elected  at  the  annual  meeting,  and  consists,  besides 
the  chancellor  and  the  president,  who  are  ex  oljicio 
members,  of  one  bishop  and  four  business  men. 
This  committee  alone  has  power  to  allocate  the 
Society’s  funds.  No  member  of  the  board  or  of 
the  executive  committee  receives  remuneration  for 
such  service.  The  immediate  direction  of  the 
Society  and  of  “Extension  Magazine”  is  in  the  hands 


EXTENSION 


300 


EXTREME  UNCTION 


of  the  president,  who  is  assisted  by  priests  and  drawn  during  the  great  war.  Motor  chapels  were 
laymen  The  books  of  the  Society  and  of  the  also  used  experimentally,  but  though  successful  in 
magazine  are  audited  quarterly  by  a  certified  public  their  mission  it  was  found  that  automobiles  were 
accountant,  and  annually  by  an  auditing  committee,  unsuited  to  the  rough  usage  to  which  they  were 
Work  Accomplished. — The  Societj^’s  annual  col-  subjected  by  the  necessity  of  journeying  long  dis- 


lections  were: 

1905  . $  1,934.00  1913 . $282,879.87 

1906  .  34,080.79  1914 .  265,531.08 

1907  .  41,338.93  1915 .  335,899.58 

1908  .  75,481.64  1916 .  343,921.30 

1909  .  121,809.16  1917 .  384,316.97 

1910  .  176,395.20  1918 .  465,360.53 

1911  .  307,967.15  1919 .  530,701.62 

1912  .  268,984.13  1920 .  575,561.18 

These  figures  include  the  Mass  intentions  handled 

by  the  Society.  . 

To  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  of  1921  the  Society 
had  assisted  in  the  building  of  2074  structures,  of 
which  1932  were  churches,  98  schools  and  convents 
for  the  accommodation  of  teaching  Sisters,  and  44 
priests’  houses.  The  Society’s  policy  is  to  assist 
the  local  Catholics  to  help  themselves,  and  to  foster 
in  them  a  spirit  of  responsibility.  Thus  a  portion 
of  the  cost  of  erection  is  guaranteed  by  the  Society 
when  the  need  of  a  structure  has  been  demonstrated, 
and  the  money  is  paid  when  the  roof  is  on  the 
building.  Buildings  assisted  in  this  way  have  been 
erected  in  forty-three  states  of  the  Union,  and  also 
in  the  Philippines,  Porto  Rico,  Alaska,  and  Canada. 
Texas  stands  first  (1921)  with  313,  and  South 
Dakota,  Louisiana,  New  Mexico,  Oregon,  Montana, 
and  Minnesota  have  each  over  one  hundred.  About 
half  of  all  Catholic  churches  erected  in  America  in 
recent  years  have  been  assisted  by  the  Society,  in 
1919,  the  percentage  aided  being  as  high  as  88.04. 
The  reports  of  the  missionaries,  submitted  with  ap¬ 
plications  for  assistance,  show  that  nearly  half  a 
million  Catholics  have  benefited  by  this  construc¬ 
tional  work. 

Mission  schools  have  been  helped  to  some  extent. 
Missionary  grants  have  been  made  to  bishops  for 
the  development  of  poor  dioceses.  Students  for 
the  priesthood  are  being  assisted,  the  method  found 
most  practical  being  that  of  working  through  the 
bishops  of  missionary  dioceses.  Chapel  cars  have 
been  used  with  success  in  the  West  and  South,  the 
plan  being  to  send  the  cars  to  churchless  places, 
where  a  halt  is  made  and  a  mission  given.  Where 
experience  shows  the  need  of  a  chapel,  efforts  are 
made  toward  that  end,  and  dozens  of  chapels  mark 
the  trail  of  the  chapel  car.  The  Society  has  three 
chapel  cars  named  “St.  Anthony,”  “St.  Peter,”  and 
“St.  Paul.”  At  first  they  were  transported  free  bv 
the  railroad  companies,  but  the  privilege  was  with- 


tances.  . 

The  headquarters  officials  of  the  Society  are 
(1922) :  President,  Rt.  Rey.  Msgr.  Francis  C.  Kelley, 
D.  D.,  LL.  D.;  vice-presidents,  Rev.  William  D. 
O’Brien  (general  secretary);  the  Rev.  Eugene  J. 
McGuinness  (director  of  Order  of  Martha  and  Child 
Apostles). 

The  Catholic  Church  Extension  Society  of 
Canada,  which  has  headquarters  in  Toronto,  was 
inspired  by  the  success  of  the  American  movement. 
It  works  on  lines  identical  with  those  of  the  parent 
body,  but  is  autonomous.  Cf.  “The  Story  of  Ex¬ 
tension,”  by  Rt.  Rev.  F.  C.  Kelley,  published 
serially  in  “Extension  Magazine,”  from  May,  1920, 
to  April,  1922. 

Extreme  Unction  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-716).— Any  priest, 
but  only  a  priest,  can  administer  extreme  unction 
validly;  the  ordinary  minister  is  the  parish  priest 
of  the  place  where  the  invalid  is,  but  in  case  of 
necessity  any  priest  can  act  with  the  reasonably 
presumed  leave  of  the  parish  priest  or  local  ordi¬ 
nary,  and,  indeed,  is  bound  in  charity  to  do  so. 
The  chief  cathedral  dignitary  or  canon  available 
is  to  administer  extreme  unction  to  a  sick  bishop; 
a  clerical  religious  superior  is  the  proper  minister 
for  those  who  live  day  and  night  in  his  house,  as  is 
the  confessor  or  his  substitute,  for  nuns  with  solemn 
vows  (rnoniales) ,  but  in  other  lay  communities 
extreme  unction  is  to  be  given  by  the  local  parish 
priest  or  a  chaplain  specially  appointed  by  the 
bishop. 

Extreme  unction  cannot  ( non  potest )  be  repeated 
in  the  same  illness,  unless  the  invalid  after  being 
anointed  rallies  and  later  again  falls  into  danger 
of  death.  It  is  not  lawful  to  neglect  extreme 
unction,  and  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  in 
order  that  the  sick  may  receive  it  while  fully  con¬ 
scious;  it  should  be  administered  unconditionally 
to  those  who  are  unconscious,  if  they  have  pre¬ 
viously  asked  for  it  at  least  implicitly.  In  case 
of  necessity  the  anointing  of  one  sense,  or  more 
correctly  of  the  forehead,  with  the  prescribed  shorter 
formula  is  sufficient,  but  when  the  danger  is  passed 
the  separate  anointings  are  to  be  supplied.  The 
anointing  of  the  feet  may  for  good  cause,  but  the 
anointing  of  the  loins  must  always  be  omitted. 
Except  in  a  case  of  grave  necessity  the  holy  oil 
must  be  applied  by  the  minister’s  hand,  and  not 
by  means  of  an  instrument. 


Fabre,  Jean-Henri-Casimir,  entomologist  and 
natural  historian,  b.  at  St.  Leons,  France,  in  Sep¬ 
tember,  1823;  d.  at  Serignan  11  October,  1915;  son 
of  Antoine  and  Victoire  (Salgnes)  Fabre.  He  re¬ 
ceived  his  elementary  education  at  a  school  in 
his  native  village  kept  by  his  godfather,  and  later 
entered  the  lycee  at  Rodez,  where  he  made  rapid 
progress,  being  especially  attracted  by  Virgil’s 
“Bucolics”  and  “Georgies.”  He  then  proceeded  to 
the  Normal  College  of  Vaucluse,  where  he  received 
his  diploma 'at  the  age  of  eighteen;  a  little  later 
began  liis  career  as  teacher  at  Carpentras.  While 
thus  occupied  he  won  his  licentiate  in  mathematical 
sciences  and  was  appointed  professor  of  physics  and 
chemistry  in  the  lycee  of  Ajaccio.  Fabre  had  dis¬ 
played  a  deep  interest  in  plants  and  animals  from 
his  earliest  youth.  While  in  Corsica  he  met  Esprit 
Requien,  director  of  the  museum  of  Avignon,  and 
accompanied  him  on  his  scientific  expeditions.  By 
Requien  he  was  introduced  to  Horace  Moquin-Tan- 
don,  director  of  the  botanical  gardens  at  Toulouse, 
who  gave  him  his  first  and  only  lesson  in  natural 
history,  and  counselled  him  to  devote  himself  to 
the  study  of  plants  and  animals.  It  was,  how¬ 
ever,  a  pamphlet  by  Leon  Dufour,  the  naturalist 
Les  Landes,  that  led  him  to  devote  himself 
to  the  study  of  insects.  In  1852  he  wras  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  lycee  of  Avignon,  where  his  every 
spare  ^  moment  was  devoted  to  natural  history. 
In  1858  he  won  his  licentiate  in  natural  sciences 
m  the  Faculty  of  Toulouse  and  a  little  later 
the  doctorate.  He  had  hoped  to  win  a  uni¬ 
versity  chair,  but  it  was  not  so  decreed.  In  1870 
mainly  through  the  hatred  of  the  secretaries  and 
the  envious  he  lost  his  position  at  the  lycee,  and 
retired  to  Orange.  In  1879  he  withdrew  to  Serignan, 
where  he  lived  till  his  death,  carrying  on  his  won¬ 
derful  experiments  and  observations,  and  writing 
his  immortal  works.  Fabre,  who  was  mainly  self- 
taught,  had  a  brilliant  mind,  and  was  possessed  of 
wonderful  perseverance,  and  keenness  of  observa¬ 
tion.  Unlike  so  many  scientific  writers,  he  dwelt 
and  conversed  with  nature,  and  read  her  book  in¬ 
cessantly.  As  a  result  his  Catholic  faith  grew  only 
stronger “I  can]t  say  I  believe  in  God,”  he  says: 

I  see  Him.  Without  Him  I  understand  nothing; 
without  Him  all  is  darkness.  Not  only  have  I 
retained  this  conviction,  I  have  aggravated  or 
ameliorated  it,  whichever  you  please.  Every  period 
has  its  manias.  I  regard  atheism  as  a  mania.  It 
is  the  malady  of  the  age.  You  could  take  my  skin 
fr°m  me  more  easily  than  my  faith  in  God.” 

Fabre  speaks  with  great  respect  and  sympathy 
of  Darwin,  who  admired  his  entomological  knowl¬ 
edge;  but  his  theory  of  evolution  he  rejected  em¬ 
phatically  as  mere  theory  incompatible  with  the 
evidence  of  the  facts  he  had  discovered.  He  had 
hoped  to  convert  Darwin,  but  the  great  English 
scientist >  died  before  the  second  volume  of  the 
Souvenirs”  was  published.  Until  1910  Fabre’s 
name  was  little  known  outside  scientific  circles; 
to-day  his  fame  is  worldwide.  In  that  year  Sweden 
^od  France  paid  him  honor  long  due.  He  received 
the  Linnaean  medal  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Sweden;  the  French  Academy  conferred  on  him  its 
literary  award,  the  Nee  prize,  and  France  unani¬ 
mously  recommended  him  for  the  Nobel  Prize,  and 
Rostand  wrote  of  him  as  “one  of  the  purest  glories 


of  France,  the  profound  and  racy  poet,  the  Vir¬ 
gil  of  the  insects,  who  has  brought  us  to  our  knees 

in  the  press . ”  His  hermitage  at  Serignan 

became  a  pilgrimage  for  the  political,  literary  and 
scientific  world,  and  he  was  granted  a  pension  of 
2000  francs  a  year.  His  wife,  who  had  borne  eight 
children,  his  collaborators,  died  in  July,  1912. 

Fabre’s  first  publication  was  a  memoir  in  the 
“Annales  des  sciences  naturelles”  on  the  predatory 
hymenoptera,  which  merited  him  one  of  the  prizes 
of  the  Institute  of  France  and  excited  the  aston¬ 
ishment  of  Darwin  and  Dufour,  and  was  the  fore¬ 
runner  of  many  other  brilliant  essays.  Meanwhile 
he  'wrote  an  enormous  number  of  elementary 
treatises  on  mathematics  and  natural  science.  In 
1879  appeared  the  first  volume  of  his  great 
entomological  masterpiece,  his  “Souvenirs  entimo- 
logiques,”  which  reveal  his  acuteness  of  observation, 
his  vigor  of  thought  and  enthusiasm,  and  wherein 
he  studies  the  insect  living  its  life,  and  examines 
its  instincts,  its  habits,  its  passions,  its  aptitudes, 
and  replaces  the  prevalent  standpoint  of  morphology 
and  physiology  by  that  of  biology  and  psychology. 
Unlike  so  many  moderns  his  method  is  strictly 
experimental,  to  a  large  degree  it  was  original, 
aiKj  J^S  investigating  he  devised  most  delicate 
and  difficult  procedures,  by  which  he  made  the 
insects  reveal  their  secrets.  The  “Souvenirs”  have 
appeared  in  English  in  separate  volumes  under  the 
following  title  “The  Life  of  the  Spider,”  “The 
Life  of  the  Fly,”  “The  Mason-Bees,”  “Bramble 
Bees  and  Others,”  “The  Hunting  Wasps,”  “The  Life 
of  the  Caterpillar,”  “The  Life  of  the  Grasshopper,” 
The  Sacred  Beetle  and  Others”;  “The  Mason- 
Wasps,”  “The  Glow-Worm  and  Other  Beetles”; 
“More  Hunting  Wasps”;  “The  Life  of  the  Weevil”; 
‘Insect  Adventures”  (all  published  by  Dodd  Mead, 
of  New  York). 

1921)BRE’  Tke  Li  e  Jean  Henri  Fabre  Vr.  Miall,  New  York, 

Fabriano  and  Matelica,  Diocese  of  (Fabrianen- 
sis  ET  Mathelicensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  V-744a),  re¬ 
established  and  united  to  the  see  of  Matelica  by 
Pius  VI  8  July,  1785,  situated  in  the  province  of 
Ancona  (Central  Italy),  directly  subject  to  the  Holy 
See.  The  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Louis  Ermini,  b.  in 
Rome  13  December,  1856,  made  a  private  cham¬ 
berlain  27  November,  1903,  prothonotary  apostolic 
supernumerary  25  October,  1905,  coadjutor  canon 
at  the  church  of  St.  John  Lateran,  deputy  to  the 
monasteries  of  Rome  in  1905,  assistant  secretary 
at  the  Council  20  October,  1908;  spiritual  director 
of  the  Pius  Seminary,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Amatha  30  December,  1908,  and  auxiliary  of  Porto 
and  Santa  Rufina,  consecrated  bishop  by  Cardinal 
Respighi  31  January,  1909,  transferred  to  Caiazzo 
4  December,  1914;  proclaimed  22  January,  1915; 
transferred  to  Fabriano  at  the  Consistory  of  30 
June,  1921,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Andrea  Cassulo, 
retired.  There  are  at  present  (1922)  in  the  diocese 
35  parishes,  103  churches,  40  secular  and  10  regular 
priests,  3  monasteries  for  women,  1  abbey,  1  con¬ 
vent  for  men,  10  lay  brothers,  34  Sisters'  1  semi¬ 
nary  with  18  seminarians,  1  elementary  school  with 
120  pupils,  1  asylum  with  180  inmates.  Four  public 
institutions  receive  Government  aid.  Fifteen  asso¬ 
ciations  are  organized  among  the  clergy  and  laity, 
and  a  weekly  journal,  “L’Azione,”  is  published. 


301 


FACULTIES 


302 


FANO 


During  the  World  War  three  chaplains  served  in 
the  army,  one  of  whom  was  decorated ;  war  orphans 
were  cared  for  by  the  clergy  and  laity. 

Faculties,  Canonical  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-748a). — For 
nearly  three  centuries  it  has  been  customary  for 
the  Holy  See,  owing  to  the  distance  of  so  many 
of  the  dioceses  from  Rome,  as  well  as  to  varying 
local  conditions,  to  grant  bishops,  vicars  apostolic, 
and  prefects  apostolic  throughout  the  world,  accord¬ 
ing  to  their  needs,  extra  faculties  or  powers  set  forth 
in  special  forms  or  schedules  and  valid  for  various 
definite  periods.  As  Canon  4  of  the  Code  stated 
that  acquired  rights,  privileges,  and  indults,  hitherto 
granted  to  physical  or  moral  persons  by  the  Apos¬ 
tolic  See,  which  were  still  in  use  and  had  not  been 
recalled,  were  to  remain  in  force  unless  they  had 
been  expressly  withdrawn  in  the  Code,  it  was  con¬ 
cluded  that  the  various  formulae  were  to  remain 
unaffected.  However,  on  25  April,  1918,  a  few  weeks 
before  the  Code  went  into  effect,  the  Congrega¬ 
tion  of  the  Consistory  issued  the  decree  “Proxima 
sacra,”  which  said  that  in  as  much  as  the  general 
law  expressed  in  the  Code  now  conferred  on  ordi¬ 
naries  very  many  of  the  powers  conceded  hereto¬ 
fore  as  a  privilege  through  the  formulae,  sufficient 
certainly  to  meet  the  average  needs  of  a  diocese, 
the  indults  previously  granted  by  the  Holy  See  in 
Brief  or  formulae  for  periods  of  three,  five,  ten,  or 
twenty-five  years,  would  cease  from  18  May,  1918. 
-It  was  provided  the  faculties  granted  to  ordinaries 
for  special  reasons  and  those  given  by  the  Sacred 
Penitentiary  were  not  to  be  affected  by  the  decree. 
Furthermore,  notwithstanding  the  dispensing  power 
granted  by  the  Code  in  regard  to  matrimonial  im¬ 
pediments  when  death  was  imminent  or  in  a  casus 
perplexus,  local  ordinaries  in  America,  the  Philip¬ 
pines,  the  East  Indies,  Russia,  and  Africa,  excluding 
the  Mediterranean  litoral,  were  authorized  to  dis¬ 
pense  during  five  years,  beginning  18  May,  1918, 
from  all  the  minor  and  all  but  two  of  the  major 
matrimonial  impediments  of  ecclesiastical  law,  and 
to  grant  sanationes  in  radice  for  marriages  invalid 
through  any  of  the  impediments  of  minor  grade. 

Gearin,  The  Faculties  of  Ordinaries  in  Eccl.  Review,  LIX 
(Philadelphia,  1918),  337-54;  Ayrinhac,  Marriage  Legislation 
(New  York,  i919). 

Faenza,  Diocese  of  (Faventinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
V-751b),  in  the  province  of  Ravenna,  suffragan  of 
Bologna,  has  a  Catholic  population  of  103,962.  The 
present  (1922)  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Vincenzo  Bacchi,  b.  at 
Castelfranco  dell’  Emilia  in  the  Diocese  of  Bologna 
1  August,  1854,  served  as  Secretary  of  the  episcopal 
council,  archdeacon  of  the  cathedral,  and  pro-vicar 
general,  named  a  prelate  of.  the  pontifical  throne 
1905,  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Myndos.  16 
September,  1906,  proclaimed  6  December  following, 
and  made  auxiliary  at  Bologna,  transferred  to 
Faenza  2  December,  1912,  succeeding  Mgr.  Gioa- 
chino  Cantagalli  (b.  18  August,  1825;  d.  13  August, 
1912),  who  was  dean  of  the  bishops  of  Italy.  The 
statistics  for  1920  credit  the  diocese  with  116 
parishes,  40  seminarians,  20  Brothers,  290  Sisters, 
164  churches  or  chapels. 

Fage,  Antoinette.  See  Assumption,  Little  Sis¬ 
ters  of  the. 

Faguet,  Emile,  author  and  academician,  b.  at 
La  Roche-sur-Yon,  Vendee,  France,  1847;  d.  in 
Paris  in  1916.  He  was  educated  at  the  Lycee 
Charlemagne  and  l’Ecole  Normale.  After  teaching 
for  some  time  at  Bordeaux  and  La  Rochelle  he 
went  to  Paris,  and  in  1890  became  professor  of 
poetry  at  the  university.  In  1900  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy.  He  was  the 
author  of :  “La  Tragedie  au  XVIe  Siecle,”  “Le 


Theatre  Contemporaine,”  “Dixhuitieme  Siecle,” 
“Histoire  de  la  Litterature  frangaise,”  “Tropos  Lit- 
teraires,”  “Les  Prejuges  Necessaires,”  “Monseigneur 
Dupanloup,  un  Grand  Eveque,”  and  others.  He 
directed  his  criticisms  especially  to  the  literatures 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  interest  in  which  he 
did  much  to  revive.  He  also  wrote  on  the  modern 
drama,  politics,  and  philosophy. 

Faith  Movement,  Apostolic.  See  New  Thought. 

Falconio,  Diomede,  Cardinal,  b.  at  Pescocotanzo 
in  the  Abruzzi,  1842;  d.  in  Rome,  17  February, 
1917.  He  became  a  Franciscan  in  Italy  but  was 
ordained  priest  in  the  United  States  and  subse¬ 
quently  became  professor,  vice-president  and  presi¬ 
dent  of  St.  Bonaventure’s  College,  Allegheny,  Pa., 
and  at  a  later  period  diocesan  chancellor  of  Harbor 
Grace,  Newfoundland,  and  administrator.  He  re¬ 
turned  to  Italy  in  1883,  and  was  elected  Provincial 
of  the  Franciscans  in  the  Abruzzi.  In  1889  the 
general  chapter  in  Rome  chose  him  as  procurator 
general  and  in  1892  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Lacedonia  and  three  years  later  was  translated  to 
the  Archbishopric  of  Acerenza.  In  1899  he  was 
sent  as  Apostolic  Delegate  to  Canada  and  received 
a  third  archiepiscopal  title  of  Larissa  and  from 
1902  till  1911  he  occupied  the  post  of  Apostolic 
Delegate  at  Washington,  was  made  cardinal  priest 
in  1911  and  cardinal  bishop  in  1914.  During  his 
stay  in  the  United  States  he  became  a  naturalized 
citizen  of  the  Republic. 

Fall  River,  Diocese  of  (Riverormensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  V-771b),  comprises  an  area  of  1194  sq.  miles  in 
the  State  of  Massachusetts,  U.  S.  A.  On  19  Septem¬ 
ber,  1907,  the  second  bishop  of  the  diocese,  Rt. 
Rev.  Daniel  Francis  Feehan,  was  consecrated,  and 
still  fills  the  see.  During  recent  years  the  diocese 
lost  by  death  several  active  workers  among  its 
clergy:  Rev.  Simon  A.  O’Rourke,  Jr.  Lt.  in  the 
U.  S.  Navy  and  chaplain  of  the  Charlestown  Navy 
Yard,  d.  20  September,  1918;  Chaplain  John  B. 
De  Valles,  d.  12  May,  1920;  and  Rt.  Rev.  Hugh  J. 
Smith,  pastor  of  St.  Lawrence’s  Church,  New  Bed¬ 
ford,  d.  4  February,  1921. 

The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  numbers 
about  177,000,  comprising  a  cosmopolitan  com¬ 
munity,  largely  French  and  Portuguese.  Various 
charitable  institutions  are  conducted:  St.  Ann’s 
hospital  at  Fall  River,  directed  by  the  Dominican 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Presentation;  3  orphan 
asylums  under  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Sisters  of 
Charity  (Grey  Nuns),  and  Sisters  of  St.  Francis 
respectively;  and  a  home  for  the  aged,  as  well  as 
much  charitable  work  done  by  the  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  Society.  There  are  76  parishes,  22  missions, 
2  monasteries,  147  secular  and  24  regular  clergy, 
321  nuns,  2  high  schools,  4  academies  with  an 
attendance  of  600  girls,  and  30  elementary  schools 
with  an  attendance  of  13,215. 

Falsity.  See  Forgery. 

Fano,  Diocese  of  (Fanensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  V-785a), 
in  the  province  of  Pesaro,  Central  Italy,  directly 
subject  to  the  Holy  See.  The  present  incumbent, 
Rt.  Rev.  Giustino  Sanchini,  b.  1  November,  1860, 
in  Saluccio  in  the  Diocese  of  Rimini,  served  as 
professor  of  moral  theology  in  the  seminary,  be¬ 
came  chancellor  and  rector  of  the  Cathedral  at 
Rimini,  appointed  Bishop  of  Citta  di  Castello,  12 
July,  1909,  declined,  and  was  re-elected  Bishop  of 
Fano,  6  June,  1916;  proclaimed  7  December  fol¬ 
lowing,  succeeding  Mgr.  Vincenzo  Franceshini,  b. 
26  December,  1844,  d.  29  March,  1916.  The  dio¬ 
cesan  statistics  for  1920  are  as  follows:  45  parishes, 
101  secular  and  15  regular  clergy,  35  seminarians, 


FARGO 


303 


FAURIE 


20  lay  Brothers,  70  sisters,  144  churches  and 
chapels;  the  Catholic  population  numbers  65,273. 

Fargo,  Diocese  of  (Fargensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  V-786d), 
in  North  Dakota,  suffragan  of  St.  Paul,  formerly 
embraced  the  whole  State  of  North  Dakota.  A 
portion  of  this  territory  was  taken  in  1909  to  form 
the  Diocese  of  Bismarck,  leaving  an  area  of  34,899 
sq.  miles  to  the  Diocese  of  Fargo.  The  first  bishop 
of  the  diocese,  Rt.  Rev.  John  Shanley  (b.  4  January, 
1852,  d.  16  July,  1909),  was  .succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev. 
James  O’Reilly,  b.  10  October,  1857,  ordained  24 
June,  1882,  appointed  bishop  18  December,  1909, 
consecrated  19  May,  1910. 

According  to  1922  statistics  it  has  a  Catholic 
population  of  69,872,  97  parishes,  177  churches,  79 
missions,  57  stations,  111  secular  priests,  1  lay 
brother,  19  seminarians,  5  high  schools  with  503 
pupils,  7  academies,  26  elementary  schools,  1 
orphanage,  5  hospitals;  the  ministry  of  the  priests 
in  public  institutions  is  unrestricted.  The  Indian 
Industrial  School,  in  charge  of  the  Grey  Nuns,  re¬ 
ceives  government  rates.  The  Knights  of  Columbus 
and  various  parish  societies  are  established  in  the 
diocese.  The  men  of  the  diocese  were  well  repre¬ 
sented  in  the  service,  and  102  gave  up  their  lives 
for  the  cause. 

Farley,  John  Murphy,  Cardinal,  Archbishop  of 
New*  York,  b.  at  Newtown  Hamilton,  County 
Armagh,  Ireland,  on  20  April,  1842;  d.  at  New  York 
on  17  September,  1918.  He  emigrated  to  the 
United  States  in  1859,  and  continued  his  education 
at  Saint  John’s  College,  Fordham,  New  York, 
and  at  the  seminary  in  Troy.  In  1867  he  entered 
the  American  College  in  Rome,  and  on  11  June, 
1870,  he  was  ordained  there  to  the  priesthood. 
Upon  his  return  to  the  United  States  that  year  he 
was  appointed  assistant  pastor  at  Saint  Peter’s 
Church,  New  Brighton,  Staten  Island.  Pope  Leo 
XIII  created  him  a  domestic  prelate  in  1884,  and 
seven  years  later  he  wras  made  Vicar-General  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  New  York.  He  was  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Zeugma  and  auxiliary  of  New  York  on 

21  December,  1895,  and  he  was  consecrated  by 
Archbishop  Corrigan  on  21  December,  1895.  He 
succeeded  to  the  archiepiscopal  see,  after  serving 
as  administrator  sede  vacante ,  on  25  September, 
1902,  and  he  was  created  cardinal-priest  with  the 
title  of  Sancta  Maria  super  Minervam  on  27 
November,  1911.  He  wras  the  author  of  “The  Life 
of  Cardinal  McCloskey”  (New  York,  1918),  and 
of  “History  of  Saint  Patrick’s  Cathedral,”  New 
York,  1908  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI-25b). 

Reuss,  Biographical  Cyclopedia  of  the  Catholic  Hierarchy 
of  the  United  States  1784-1898,  p.  40,  Milwaukee  1898;  Cor¬ 
rigan',  Episcopal  Succession  in  the  United  States  in  the  Catholic 
Historical  Review  II,  140;  Guilday,  John  Cardinal  Farley,  in 
the  Catholic  World  cvii,  183-93. 

Faro,  Diocese  of  (Pharaonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
V-789a),  in  the  province  of  Algarve,  Portugal,  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Evora,  has  a  Catholic  population  of 
228,384,  and  50  Jews.  The  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Marcel- 
lino  Antonio  Maria  Franco,  b.  17  April,  1871,  in 
this  diocese,  became  vicar  capitular,  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed  bishop  15  May,  1920,  succeeding  Mgr. 
Antonio  Barbosa-Leas,  transferred  to  the  Diocese 
of  Oporto  in  November,  1919.  There  are  in  the 
diocese  (1920)  66  parishes,  112  priests,  66  churches, 
and  152  chapels. 

Fast  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-789d). — The  law  of  fasting  is 
now  obligatory  on  Ember  days,  the  vigils  of  Pente¬ 
cost,  the  Assumption,  All  Saints’,  and  of  Christmas, 
but  if  the  vigil  falls  on  Sunday  there  is  no  fast, 
nor  is  it  anticipated;  all  days  in  Lent,  except  Sun¬ 
day  and  Holy  Saturday  afternoon.  There  is  no 
fast  on  feast-days  of  obligation,  except  when  they 
20 


occur  during  Lent.  In  addition  to  the  principal 
meal,  at  which,  if  the  day  is  not  one  of  abstinence, 
flesh  may  be  eaten  without  an  indult,  the  law  of 
fasting  allows  some  food  to  be  taken  both  in  the 
morning  and  in  the  evening,  the  quantity  and  kind 
of  food  being  determined  by  the  various  approved 
local  customs;  it  is  lawful  also  to  interchange  the 
time  of  taking  dinner  and  the  light  meal.  Fish 
and  flesh  are  no  longer  forbidden  at  the  same 
meal.  The  changes  introduced  by  the  Code  re¬ 
garding  fasting  do  not  affect  special  indults  or 
obligations  imposed  by  vow  or  by  the  rules  of 
religious  orders  or  of  men  or  women  living  in  com¬ 
munity  without  vows.  There  is  no  mention  of  the 
Advent  fast.  The  Advent  fast,  formerly  observed 
in  certain  countries,  has  been  abolished.  Finally, 
the  law  of  fasting  is  binding  on  those  who  have 
completed  their  twenty-first  year,  but  not  their 
fifty-ninth,  consequently  a  person  would  not  be 
bound  to  fast  on  the  former,  but  would  on  the 
latter  of  those  birthdays. 

Faurie,  Urbain,  missionary  and  botanist,  b.  at 
Dunieres,  Le  Puy,  France,  on  1  January,  1847;  d. 
at  Tai-hoku,  Formosa,  on  4  July,  1915.  In  his  early 
childhood  no  one  suspected  he  would  embrace  the 
priesthood,  as  he  suffered  from  an  apparently  in¬ 
curable  deafness,  but  on  a  pilgrimage  to  La 
Louvesc,  he  was  miraculously  cured  through  the 
intercession  of  St.  John  Francis  Regis.  He  received 
his  elementary  education  from  the  De  La  Salle 
Brothers  and  later  attended  the  petit  seminaire 
of  Monistozol.  He  entered  the  Seminary  of  the 
Foreign  Missions  of  Paris  in  September,  1869,  and 
and  having  been  ordained  in  7  June,  1873,  he  set 
out  for  Japan  on  2  July  following.  His  first  assign¬ 
ment  was  as  a  teacher  in  the  ecclesiastical  college  at 
Tokio.  A  little  later  he  was  deputed  to  aid  in  estab¬ 
lishing  Christiantiy  in  Niigata.  From  the  beginning 
he  was  deeply  interested  in  natural  science,  and 
his  brilliant  work  in  the  then  untrodden  field  of 
Japanese  botany  repeated  once  more  the  proofs 
given  so  often  by  Catholic  missionaries  that  the 
Church,  far  from  being  _  opposed  to  science,  is  its 
mother.  His  frequent  journeyings  in  out  of  the 
way  places  gave  him  unwonted  opportunity  for  col¬ 
lecting  and  he  laid  Japan,  Corea,  part  of  Saghalien, 
Hawaii,  and  Formosa  under  contribution.  He  sent 
specimens  of  many  new  species  to  the  great 
herbariums  in  Europe  and  America;  some  of  these 
bear  the  appelative  Faurici  or  Fauriana;  as  does 
the  Fauria  japonica,  a  new  genus  discovered  on  a 
mountain  near  Aomori.  Faurie  was  recognized  as 
the  father  of  Japanese  botany.  After  his  death  his 
herbarium  at  Tokio  was  presented  by  the  Marianists 
to  the  Imperial  University  of  Kyoto,  which  has 
named  one  of  its  halls  after  him;  and  under  the 
inspiration  of  Dr.  Hayata  of  Tokio,  the  botanists 
of  Japan  have  erected  his  bust  in  bronze  in  Tai- 
hoku.  France  honored  her  missionary  scientist  by 
appointing  him  an  officer  of  the  Academy  and  a 
corresponding  member  of  the  Museum  of  Paris. 

The  salvation  of  souls  was,  however,  Faurie’s 
first  thought.  From  1882  till  1894  he  was  engaged 
in  evangelizing  the  northern  regions  of  Japan- 
Aomori,  Hokkaido  and  the  Kurile  Islands,  seeking 
for  scattered  Christians,  and  undertaking  the 
pioneer  work  that  was  to  facilitate  the  labors  of 
future  apostles  in  these  inhospitable  regions.  His 
perfect  mastery  of  Japanese,  together  with  his  zeal, 
bore  fruit,  £ind  where  in  1882  there  were  only  a 
few  dozens  of  Christians  there  are  to-day  ten  well- 
established  missionary  stations.  In  1895  ill  health 
forced  his  return  to  France.  This  gave  him  an 
opportunity  of  conveying  to  Europe  his  25,000 


FEAR 


304 


FENWICK 


botanical  specimens,  which  he  arranged  while  en 
route  and  during  his  stay  in  his  native  village. 
These  he  presented,  before  leaving,  to  French, 
Swiss,  English,  and  Italian  societies.  He  returned 
again  to  Japan  at  the  end  of  1896.  After  seventeen 
years’  fresh  labors  he  proceeded  to  Formosa,  partly 
to  rest  and  partly  to  complete  his  collection  for 
the  European  societies;  while  he  had  thus  an  oppor¬ 
tunity  of  aiding  the  scattered  Japanese  Catholics, 
thus  relieving  the  Spanish  Dominicans  whose  flock 
was  composed  mainly  of  Formosans  and  Chinese. 
He  had  spent  eighteen  months  on  this  scientific 
and  evangelical  work,  when  he  was  stricken  with 
apoplexy  and  died^  in  the  residence  of  the 
Dominican  Fathers. 

Hayata,  in  The  Botanical  Magazine,  Tokio,  XXX  (1916), 
267-272. 

Fear  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-20). — Any  act  done  as  the 
result  of  grave  fear  unjustly  caused  is  valid  unless 
the  law  provides  otherwise;  if  it  is  valid  it  can, 
however,  be  rescinded  by  judicial  authority.  While 
relatively  grave  fear  excuses  one  for  violating  a 
merely  ecclesiastical  law  it  only  decreases  im- 
putability  if  an  act  is  intrinsically  wrong  or  mili¬ 
tates  against  public  good,  ecclesiastical  authority 
or  the  faith;  in  as  far  as,  however,  the  fear  excuses 
from  imputability  in  the  external  forum,  it  excuses 
likewise  from  penalties  latce  sententice. 

Feasts,  Ecclesiastical  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-21d;  XIV- 
342). — The  only  feast  days  of  obligation  for  the 
entire  Church,  apart  from  Sundays,  are:  the 
Nativity,  Circumcision,  Epiphany,  Ascension  of  Our 
Lord,  the  Immaculate  Conception,  the  Assumption, 
Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  All  Saints, .  Corpus  Christi, 
and  St.  Joseph’s,  the  last  two  being  additions  to 
the  list  announced  by  Pius  X  in  1911.  Where  any 
of  these  feasts  has  been  lawfully  abolished  or  trans¬ 
ferred,  no  change  is  to  be  made  without  consulting 
the  Holy  See.  Local  ordinaries  can  appoint  certain 
days  as  feasts  in  their  own  territories,  but  only 
incidentally;  they  and  parish  priests  can,  in  in¬ 
dividual  cases  and  for  just  cause,  dispense  indi¬ 
viduals  or  a  particular  family  from  the  obligation 
of  observing  feasts;  exempt  clerical  superiors  have 
the  same  power  in  regard  to  those  subject  to  them. 
On  holidays  of  obligation  the  faithful  must  hear 
Mass,  and  abstain  not  merely  from  servile  work, 
but  from  legal  proceedings,  and,  unless  otherwise 
authorized  by  legitimate  custom  or  special  indult, 
from  public  trading. 

Federal  Council  of  Churches  of  Christ  in 

America.  See  Union  of  Christendom. 

Federation  of  College  Catholic  Clubs,  an  Asso¬ 
ciation  established  in  1915  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
whose  object  is  “to  join  together  organizations  of 
Catholic  students  in  non-Catholic  colleges  and  edu¬ 
cational  institutions  for  the  purpose  of  mutual  help¬ 
fulness  and  united  effort  in  promoting  their  re¬ 
ligious,  intellectual,  moral  and  social  standards.” 
It  began  with  seven  Catholic  students’  clubs  from 
Hunter  College,  Columbia  University,  Teachers 
College,  New  York  University,  Adelphi  College, 
the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  Barnard 
College.  It  now  numbers  thirty-one  clubs  in  its 
membership  and  publishes  an  official  organ  called 
the  “Newman  Quarterly.”  Through  the  kindness  of 
the  Archbishop  of  New  York,  the  Federation  now 
has  its  own  quarters  in  the  vicinity  of  Columbia 
University,  with  a  resident  chaplain. 

Felician  Sisters,  O.  S.  F.  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-27c). — 
This  community  was  founded  in  1854  at  Warsaw, 
Poland,  by  Sophia  Truszkowska,  in  religion  Mother 
Mary  Angela,  under  the  direction  of  Father 


Honorat,  O.M.Cap.  Its  members  observe  the  Rule 
of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  with  constitu¬ 
tions  adapted  to  their  special  work.  In  1864  the 
Russian  Government,  owing  to  political  unrest  and 
insurrection  in  Poland,  compelled  the  Sisters  to 
disperse  and  five  years  later  they  established  their 
home  in  Cracow,  where  the  general  mother-house 
is  now  located.  Mother  Mary  Angela,  elected 
general  superior  for  life,  resigned  in  1870  because 
of  ill  health.  She  died  in  1899.  After  a  short  in¬ 
terval  Mother  Mary  Magdalena  was  elected  and 
served  four  successive  terms  of  twelve  years  each. 
Through  her  efforts  the  community  was  first  ratified 
by  Pope  Pius  IX  (Decretum  laudis)  in  1874.  The 
Sisters  were  cloistered,  but  as  there  was  a  general  de¬ 
mand  for  their  services  among  the  poor  they  changed 
their  mode  of  life,  combining  the  active  with  the 
contemplative.  In  1874  they  were  called  to  America 
by  Rev.  Joseph  Dabrowski,  who  labored  here  among 
the  Polish  emigrants,  and  Mother  Mary  Monica 
with  five  companions  established  the  first  school  in 
Polonia,  Wis.  After  many  hardships  and  privations 
a  provincial  house  with  novitiate  was  established  in 
Detroit,  Mich.  (1882),  and  Mother  Mary  Monica 
was  appointed  provincial  superior.  The  community 
grew  in  number  and  (1900)  a  second  province  of 
about  200  members  was  founded  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
The  constitutions  were  ratified  for  the  second  time 
by  Pope  Leo  XIII  in  1899  for  a  trial  period  of  seven 
years.  In  1907  Mother  Mary  Magdalena  went  to 
Rome  to  solicit  a  final  ratification  of  the  constitu¬ 
tion.  This  was  granted,  after  the  constitution  had 
been  revised,  and  the  community  was  definitely 
approved  by  Pius  X.  In  the  last  decade  four  new 
provinces,  each  with  a  novitiate,  have  been  estab* 
lished:  one  in  Milwaukee,  Wis.  (1910),  numbering 
at  present  504  members;  Lemberg,  Poland  (1913), 
205  members;  Lodi,  N.  J.  (1913),  541  members;  and 
McKeesport,  Pa.  (1920),  120  members. 

In  1916  the  community  suffered  a  great  loss 
through  the  death  of  Mother  Mary  Magdalena.  It 
was  during  the  World  War,  and  as  communication 
was  impossible  there  was  a  vacancy  until  1920, 
when  at  the  General  Chapter  held  in  Cracow, 
Mother  Mary  Bonaventura  was  elected  general 
superior.  Novice  mistress  for  many  years  in  the 
province  of  Detroit,  she  had  been  transferred  to 
Cracow  as  one  of  the  general  councillors,  and  sev¬ 
eral  years  later  sent  as  a  commissary  to  the  United 
States,  where  she  remained  until  1920.  The  gov¬ 
ernment  of  each  province  is  vested  in  the  provin¬ 
cial  superior  and  four  councillors,  who  serve  for  a 
term  of  six  years.  Each  province  is  subject  to  the 
mother  general  residing  at  Cracow.  The  novitiate 
lasts  two  years,  after  which  the  Sisters  make  the 
vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience  for  one 
year.  These  vows  they  renew  annually  for  six 
years,  when  they  are  permitted  to  make  simple 
perpetual  vows.  The  Sisters  in  Poland  are  chiefly 
occupied  with  charitable  works;  they  nurse  the  sick 
poor  in  their  homes,  keep  day  nurseries,  provide 
daily  meals  for  hundreds  of  poor  children  and  stu¬ 
dents,  and  solicit  the  help  of  others  for  them.  They 
take  charge  of  retreat  centers  for  the  seculars,  teach 
in  elementary  schools,  and  instruct  girls  in  prac¬ 
tical  arts.  The  Sisters  in  the  United  States  labor 
mostly  in  parochial  schools,  conduct  orphan  asylums, 
homes  for  working  girls,  day  nurseries,  and  several 
private  academies.  In  Poland  the  Felician  Sisters 
number  455,  and  in  the  United  States  there  are 
2021  Sisters  in  charge  of  167  parochial  schools  with 
78,940  pupils,  and  8  orphanages  with  1897  orphans. 

Fenwick,  Edward  Dominic,  Dominican,  first 
bishop  of  Cincinnati,  called  the  Apostle  of  Ohio, 


FENWICK 


305 


FERMO 


b.  19  August,  1768,  St.  Mary’s  County,  Md.,  of 
Col.  Ignatius  Fenwick  and  Sarah  Taney;  d.  at 
Wooster,  Ohio,  26  September,  1832.  The  work 
of  the  exiled  English  Dominicans  at  their  College 
of  the  Holy  Cross,  Bornheim,  Belgium,  whither 
he  went  for  his  humanities  in  the  fall  of  1784, 
inspired  young  Fenwick  with  the  idea  of  founding 
a  similar  institute  in  his  beloved  Maryland.  With 
this  object  in  mind  he  took  the  habit  of  the 
Friar  Preachers  4  September,  1788,  and  became  a 
professed  religious  26  March,  1790.  Though  he 
never  wavered  a  moment  in  his  lofty  design,  more 
than  ten  years  elapsed  since  his  ordination,  23 
February,  1793,  before  the  obstacles  to  his  project 
had  yielded  sufficiently  to  allow  of  his  return  to 
America.  On  his  arrival  there  in  November,  1804, 
with  Fr.  Angier,  O.P.,  one  of  the  three  companions 
he  had  secured  for  the  enterprise,  Bishop  Carroll 
succeeded  in  persuading  him  that  Kentucky,  with 
its  several  thousand  Catholics  and  its  lone  mis¬ 
sionary,  Fr.  Badin,  was  in  more  desperate  need 
of  his  services  than  Maryland.  October,  1805,  saw 
the  arrival  of  the  coveted  decree  of  Pius  VII  ap¬ 
pointing  Bishop  Carroll  delegate  Apostolic  to  es¬ 
tablish  a  Dominican  Province  anywhere  in  his 
diocese.  With  it  came  the  letters  patent  of  the 
Dominican  superior  general,  Most  Rev.  Pius  J. 
Gaddi,  designating  Fenwick  as  head  of  the  Province 
of  St.  Joseph  directly  it  was  founded.  Fathers 
Wilson  and  Tuite,  the  two  other  members  of 
the  little  band  who  had  meanwhile  landed,  were 
immediately  hurried  to  the  field  of  their  future 
labors.  Delay  in  the  sale  of  his  Maryland  estate 
kept  Fenwick  from  joining  his  confreres  till  June, 
1806.  The  proceeds  of  the  sale  were  presently 
sunk  in  the  property  now  known  as  “St.  Rose’s 
Farm,”  near  Springfield,  Ky.,  in  the  heart  of  the 
Catholic  settlement  along  Cartwright  Creek.  The 
convent  and  church  of  St.  Rose  and  St.  Thomas 
College  were  erected  as  quickly  as  the  straitened 
circumstances  of  the  Friars  and  their  parishioners 
would  permit.  The  time  that  could  be  spared  from 
his  duties  as  superior  at  St.  Rose  Fr.  Fenwick  spent 
in  the  saddle,  visiting  the  scattered  families  and 
distant  settlements  that  saw  a  priest  only  at  rare 
intervals.  From  the  day  that  the  burdens  of 
superior  were  shifted  to  Fr.  Wilson’s  able  shoulders 
the  zealous  Dominican  devoted  himself  exclusively 
to  the  missions,  traversing  Kentucky  on  horse¬ 
back  in  every  direction.  He  even  ventured  into 
the  fastnesses  of  the  infant  State  of  Ohio,  to  which, 
touched  by  the  constant  pleading  of  the  settlers 
for  a  priest,  he  made  semi-annual  trips,  seemingly, 
from  1808-16.  In  1816,  the  ordination  of  four 
Dominicans  at  St.  Rose  enabled  him  to  leave  the 
Kentucky  missions,  in  which  he  had  become  such 
a  familiar  and  wrell-loved  figure,  and  to  give  his 
undivided  attention  to  his  Ohio  apostolate.  His 
nephew,  Fr.  Dominic  Young,  O.P.,  was  assigned 
to  assist  him  in  this  formidable  undertaking.  Near 
Somerset,  Ohio,  on  land  donated  for  the  purpose 
by  the  pious  frontiersman,  Jacob  Dittoe,  a  primi¬ 
tive  log-cabin  and  a  crude  church  dedicated  to 
St.  Joseph  were  built.  Making  this  his  headquar¬ 
ters,  Fenwick  began  the  arduous  campaign  for 
Christ  that  has  won  him  the  ^veil-merited  title 
of  Apostle  of  Ohio. 

The  rapidly  developing  State  soon  required  the 
guidance  of  an  ordinary.  At  the  suggestion  of 
Bishop  Flaget  of  Bardstown,  Pius  VII  erected  the 
promising  city  of  Cincinnati  into  an  episcopal  see 
by  the  “Bull  Inter  Multiplices”  (19  June,  1821). 
Fr.  Fenwick  failed  to  escape  the  honor  of  being 
its  first  bishop;  at  the  same  time  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Apostolic  Administrator  of  Michigan  and 


the  Eastern  portion  of  the  Northwest  Territory. 
The  ceremony  of  consecration  was  performed  by 
Bishop  Flaget  13  January,  1822,  in  St.  Rose’s 
Church.  The  new  prelate  took  up  his  residence 
in  the  course  of  the  year  in  Cincinnati  at  the 
corner  of  Ludlow  and  Lawrence  streets  in  a  little 
dwelling  which  had  to  serve  for  some  time  in  the 
double  capacity  of  an  episcopal  palace  and  a  house 
of  worship.  After  the  withdrawal  of  the  city  ordi¬ 
nance  forbidding  the  erection  of  Catholic  churches 
within  the  corporate  limits  of  Cincinnati,  the  cathe¬ 
dral,  a  barn-like  frame  building  on  the  outskirts 
of  the  town,  was  put  on  rollers  and  hauled  to 
the  site  now  occupied  by  the  College  of  St.  Francis 
Xavier.  This  sorry  makeshift  had  to  be  borne 
with  until  the  bishop,  having  borrowed  money 
enough  to  carry  him  to  Europe  in  search  of  aid, 
returned  with  generous  donations  from  the  reigning 
Pontiff,  Leo  XII,  and  the  French  nobility.  With 
the  fund  thus  raised  he  bought  the  property  on 
Sycamore  Street  now  occupied  by  the  Church  of 
St.  Francis  Xavier;  ther  (19  May,  1825),  he  laid 
the  corner-stone  of  the  old  St.  Peter’s  Cathedral 
and  dedicated  it  17  December,  1826.  In  the  spring 
of  1829  the  Athenaeum,  dedicated  to  St.  Francis 
Xavier,  opened  with  four  theological  and  six  pre¬ 
paratory  students.  From  the  printing-press  with 
which  the  bishop  had  been  presented  by  a  European 
benefactor,  came  the  first  edition  (October,  1831), 
of  “The  Catholic  Telegraph,”  one  of  the  oldest 
Catholic  papers  in  the  country. 

But  these  monuments  of  Bishop  Fenwick’s  in¬ 
dustry  in  his  episcopal  city  form  a  very  small 
portion  of  the  efforts  he  made  for  the  welfare  of 
his  diocese.  His  territory  extended  from  the  Ohio 
to  the  Lakes.  To  look  after  his  scattered  flock 
he  traveled  to  the  most  distant  sections  on  horse¬ 
back,  by  boat  or  afoot.  During  the  last  two  years 
of  his  life,  in  spite  of  continued  ill-health,  the 
saintly  man  must  have  journeyed  over  6000  miles 
in  this  way,  and  a  third  of  that  distance  was  cov¬ 
ered  in  the  last  three  months  of  his  earthly  sojourn. 
While  returning  from  a  last  pastoral  visit  to  the 
North  he  was  stricken  with  the  cholera  then  ravag¬ 
ing  his  diocese  and  died  unattended.  The  remains 
were  brought  to  Cincinnati,  11  February,  1833, 
and  laid  in  the  old  cathedral,  from  which  they 
were  transferred  to  the  new  cathedral  in  1846.  On 
23  March,  1916,  they  were  again  moved  to  the 
beautiful  mausoleum  in  St.  Joseph’s  cemetery,  Price 
Hill,  in  which  a  compartment  is  reserved  for  the 
bishops  of  the  diocese. 

O’Daniel,  The  Right  Rev.  Edward  Dominic  Fenwick,  O.  P. 
(Washington,  1920);  Hammer,  Eduard  Dominik  Fenwick,  der 
Apostel  von  Ohio  (Freiburg,  1890). 

Ferentino,  Diocese  of  (Ferentinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 

VI- ^2c),  in  the  province  of  Rome,  Central  Italy, 
immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  with  a  regular 
list  of  bishops  since  721.  The  bishop,  Rt.  Rev. 
Domenico  Bianconi,  b.  in  Piperno,  7  May,  1852, 
was  appointed  19  April,  1897,  succeeding  Mgr 
Facciotti,  deceased.  There  are  in  the  diocese  (1920 
statistics)  45,000  Catholics;  19  parishes,  68  secular 
and  32  regular  clergy,  55  seminarians,  9  Brothers, 
89  sisters,  56  churches  or  chapels. 

Fermo,  Archdiocese  of  (Firmanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 

VII- 43d),  in  the  province  of  Ascoli-Piceno,  Central 

Italy.  The  see  is  filled  by  Most  Rev.  Carlo  Cas* 
telli,  b.  20  March,  1863,  in  the  Diocese  of  Milan, 
ordained  in  November,  1885,  vicar  forane  and  rector 
of  Busto-Arsizio ;  appointed  Bishop  of  Bobbio,  14 
November,  1904;  promoted  10  July,  1906,  to  the 
Archdiocese  of  Fermo,  proclaimed  6  December  fol¬ 
lowing,  succeeding  Mgr.  Papiri,  deceased.  The  dio¬ 
cese  numbered  (1920  )  200,000  Catholics;  147 


FERNANDO  PO 


306 


FERRARI 


parishes,  368  secular  and  86  regular  clergy,  208 
seminarians,  40  Brothers,  189  Sisters,  660  churches 
and  chapels. 

Fernando  Po  (or  Fernando  Poo),  Vicariate  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  (Insularum  Hannobom,  Corsico  et 
Fernando  Poo;  cf.  C.  E.,  XVI-83b),  a  Spanish 
colony,  West  Africa,  is  the  most  important  of  the 
Annabon  Islands  and  covers  an  area  of  695  sq. 
miles,  with  residence  at  Santa  Isabel.  It  is  en¬ 
trusted  to  the  Spanish  Congregation  of  the  Sons 
of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary.  The  present 
(1922)  vicar  Apostolic,  also  titular  Bishop  of 
Ionopolis,  is  Rt.  Rev.  Nicolas  Gonzalez  y  Perez, 
F.  C.  Im.  M.,  b.  3  February,  1863,  in  La  Nuez  de 
Arriba  in  the  Diocese  of  Burgos;  missionary  for 
twenty-five  years,  appointed  bishop  24  August,  1918, 
and  vicar  Apostolic  of  Fernando  Po,  10  September 
of  the  same  year,  consecrated  at  Madrid,  7  Decem¬ 
ber  following,  succeeding  Mgr.  Pedro  Armengaudio 
Coll,  F.  C.  Im.  M.,  the  first  vicar  Apostolic  of  Fer- 
nado  Po.  There  are  in  the  vicariate  (1920)  38 
priests  and  25  Brothers  (F.  C.  Im.  M.),  and  39  native 
catechists,  4  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  12  churches, 
16  chapels,  56  stations,  12  colleges  for  boys  with 
901  pupils,  4  for  girls  with  409  pupils,  1  high  school 
with  40  pupils,  1  professional  school  with  41  pupils, 
54  elementary  schools  with  1250  boys  and  901  girls, 
1  seminary  with  2  seminarians,  4  go-out  hospitals, 
all  the  others  in  charge  of  the  Sisters,  30  Spanish 
Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception;  120,000  in¬ 
habitants.  The  Spanish  government  supports  14 
missions  and  dispenses  an  annual  sum  of  26,000  frs. 
for  the  schools.  “La  Guienea  Espanola”  is  pub¬ 
lished  in  the  vicariate.  Mgr.  Armengol  Coll, 
vicar  Apostolic  died  21  April,  1918,  after  twenty- 
eight  years  of  administration,  helping  the  people 
spiritually  and  materially.  He  invented  an  agri¬ 
cultural  apparatus.  Events  of  importance  are:  the 
internment  of  more  than  20,000  people,  both  Euro¬ 
peans  and  natives  coming  from  German  Kamerun; 
the  dedication  of  the  cathedral  23  January,  1916. 

Ferns,  Diocese  of  (Fernensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VI-45b), 
in  the  province  of  Leinster,  Ireland,  including 
almost  all  of  Wexford  and  a  part  of  Wicklow  coun¬ 
ties,  is  suffragan  of  Dublin,  with  residence  at  Sum- 
merhill,  Wexford.  Rt.  Rev.  William  Codd,  Lord 
Bishop  of  Ferns,  the  present  incumbent,  b.  6  July, 
1864,  studied  at  St.  Peter’s  College,  and  at  the  Irish 
College,  Rome,  ordained  1889,  president  of  St. 
Peter’s  College,  Wexford,  1907;  appointed  bishop  7 
December,  1917,  consecrated  25  February,  1918,  suc¬ 
ceeding  Rt.  Rev.  James  Browne  (b.  28  August,  1842; 
d.  21  June,  1917).  The  diocesan  statistics  for  1921 
are:  41  parishes,  130  secular  and  20  regular  priests, 
92  parochial  and  district  churches,  1  seminary  with 
100  seminarians;  1  college,  higher  schools  for  boys 
and  girls,  150  Catholic  primary  schools,  all  run  by 
the  religious  communities  established  in  the  dio¬ 
cese;  14  convents,  2  orphanages,  1  industrial  school, 
1  refuge.  Five  workhouses  and  1  mental  hospital 
admit  the.  ministry  of  priests,  and  all  the  national 
and  technical  schools  of  the  diocese  receive  govern¬ 
ment  rates.  The  total  population  of  the  diocese 
numbers  106,850,  Catholics  98,134,  non-Catholics 
8816.  The  missionary  work  is  carried  on  by  priests 
living  in  community  for  the  giving  of  missions  at 
home  and  abroad.  The  societies  organized  in  the 
diocese  are  the  Ui  Ceinnsealaigh  Historical  Society, 
and  the  conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  The 
Catholic  press  is  represented  by  “The  Past,”  a 
periodical  published  in  the  diocese.  Canon  Michael 
Kavanaugh  spent  a  substantial  sum  for  the  new 
church,  new  presbyteries  and  schools  in  New  Ross. 


During  the  World  War  four  priests  of  the  diocese 
served  as  chaplains  at  the  front. 

Ferotin,  Marius,  Benedictine  writer,  d.  on  16 
September,  1915;  he  had  been  a  Benedictine  monk 
of  the  Abbey  of  Farnborough,  England,  for  forty 
years.  He  was  highly  esteemed  as  a  historian  and 
his  studies  of  the  mozarabic  liturgy  of  Southern 
Spain  are  considered  to  be  authoritative,  as  are 
those  of  the  cartularies  of  the  Abbey  of  Silos,  which 
form  a  part  of  the  history  he  wrote  of  that  estab¬ 
lishment. 

Ferrara,  Archdiocese  of  (Ferrariensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  VI-46c),  in  Italy,  immediately  subject  to  the 
Holy  See.  From  29  December,  1908,  to  7  July, 
1920,  the  diocese  of  Comacchio  was  united  to  the 
Archdiocese  of  Ferrara,  and  administered  by  the 
Archbishop  of  Ferrara  as  Bishop  of  Comacchio. 
His  Eminence  Cardinal  Boschi,  who  had  filled  this 
see  from  1900,  retired  and  was  transferred  to  the 
see  of  Frascati  3  July,  1919,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Francesco  Rossi, 
b.  at  Thiene  1836,  appointed  Archbishop  of  Cag¬ 
liari  9  April,  1913,  transferred  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
Ferrara  15  December,  1919.  According  to  1922 
statistics  the  diocese  numbers  91  parishes,  159 
churches,  153  secular  and  25  regular  priests,  10  lay 
brothers,  78  Sisters,  1  seminaiy  with  45  seminarians, 
1  university  with  501  students,  4  colleges  for  boys, 
5  for  girls,  1  high  school  with  40  boys,  25  girls,  2 
academies,  1  normal,  1  professional,  100  elementary 
and  2  industrial  schools,  3  homes,  19  asylums,  3 
hospitals,  1  refuge,  1  day  nursery.  Twenty-five 
public  institutions  in  the  diocese  admit  the  min¬ 
istry  of  the  priests.  The  following  institutions, 
academies,  lyceums,  elementary,  technical,  indus¬ 
trial,  commercial,  evening,  music,  drawing,  and 
^normal  schools  receive  government  support.  Two 
associations  are  organized  among  the  clergy,  and 
a  “Circolo  Popolare  Catolica,”  a  Mutual  Aid 
Society,  and  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
among  the  laity.  A  weekly  journal  and  a  monthly 
bulletin  are  published  in  the  diocese.  During  the 
World  War  the  clergy  distinguished  themselves  as 
chaplains,  and  in  the  care  of  the  poor  and  the  war 
orphans  of  the  diocese.  His  Eminence  the  late 
Cardinal  Giulio  Boschi  gave  his  archiepiscopal 
palace  as  a  home  for  the  soldiers,  and  the  citizens 
manifested  their  gratitude  by  erecting  a  commemo¬ 
rative  tablet  to  his  memory.  The  laity  co-operated 
with  the  clergy  in  all  patriotic  works  meriting 
praise  and  decorations. 

Ferrari,  Andrea  Carlo,  Cardinal,  b.  at  Lalatta, 
district  of  Pratopiano  in  the  Diocese  of  Parma, 
Italy,  13  August,  1850;  d.  2  February,  1921,  the 
son  of  Giuseppe  Ferrari  and  Maddalena  Langarini. 
Andrea  Ferrari  studied  at  the  episcopal  seminary 
of  Parma  and  was  ordained  there  20  December, 
1873,  became  vice-rector  of  the  seminary  and  in 
1876  was  made  rector,  in  1878  canon  of  the  cathe¬ 
dral  of  Parma,  elected  Bishop  of  Guastalla  in 
1890,  transferred  to  Como  1891,  promoted  to  be 
metropolitan  of  Milan  21  May,  1894,  received  the 
hat  with  the  title  of  Sant’  Anastasia  21  May,  and 
the  pallium  3  June  following. 

At,  the  conclave  of  1903  Cardinal  Ferrari  was 
one  of  the  Papabili  most  in  view.  During  his  long 
episcopate  the  diocese  conducted  three  diocesan 
synods,  a  Eucharistic  Congress,  a  Catholic  Congress, 
the  Centenary  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo,  and  a 
provincial  council.  Many  churches  and  institutions 
were  constructed  in  the  city  and  diocese.  During 
the  war  the  cardinal  organized  a  committee  of 
Religious  Assistance,  a  Secretariate  for  Soldiers,  a 
Notification  Bureau  for  Prisoners,  and  every  pos- 


FERRATA 


307 


FIESOLE 


sible  aid  for  the  combatants.  He  was  decorated 
with  the  Grand  Cross  of  Sts.  Maurizio  and  Lazarro 
15  October,  1919.  On  November  5  following  he 
celebrated  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  his  en¬ 
thronement  at  Milan,  on  which  occasion  he  was 
presented  with  a  purse  of  330,000  lire,  which  was 
later  increased  to  1,500,000  lire  and  was  devoted 
to  the  founding  of  the  Casa  del  Popido  for  the  peo¬ 
ple  of  Milan.  Shortly  before  his  death  his  long 
dreamed-of  Catholic  University  became  an  actuality. 

In  the  course  of  the  Church’s  history  there  have 
been  few  death-bed  scenes  comparable  to  that  of 
His  Eminence  Cardinal  Ferrari.  Prolonged  for  over 
three  months,  quite  consciously  dying  from  a 
cancer  in  the  throat,  the  successor  of  St.  Ambrose 
and  St.  Charles  received  the  daily  pilgrimage  of 
thousands  of  his  flock.  The  suffering  prelate  would 
allow  no  one  to  be  turned  away.  During  this  ill¬ 
ness  he  wrote  a  pastoral  letter  of  farewell,  many 
instructions,  directions,  replies,  and  he  died  on 
Candlemas  Day,  1921,  leaving  behind  him  two 
monuments  which  show  his  deep  interest  in  reli¬ 
gious  and  social  work,  the  Catholic  University  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  and  his  ■wonderfully  conceived 
Casa  del  Populo,  called  L'Opera  Cardinale  Ferrari. 
Several  books  were  published  by  him  which  will 
perpetuate  the  memory  of  one  of  the  greatest  of 
Italian  cardinals,  including:  “Breve  trattato  della 
religione,”  “Summula  theologise  dogmatic®  gen- 
eralis,”  “Ambrosiana,”  “Dopo  la  visita  pastorale,” 
and  “La  Vita  sacerdotale  secondo  il  vangelo,”  a 
beautiful  manual  of  meditations.  Amid  scenes  of 
extraordinary  emotion  throughout  the  city  and  dio¬ 
cese,  the  cardinal  was  buried  in  the  great  Duomo, 
not  far  from  the  shrine  of  his  predecessor,  St. 
Charles  Borromeo. 

Samuel  Fowle  Telfair,  Jr. 

Ferrata,  Domenico,  Cardinal,  b.  at  Gradoli,  4 
March,  1847 ;  d.  in  Rome,  10  October,  1914,  re¬ 
ceived  his  classical  education  at  the  Jesuit  College 
of  Orvieto  and  from  there  went  in  1860  to  the 
seminary  of  Montefiascone.  In  1867,  he  was  at 
the  Gregorian  in  Rome,  where  he  devoted  himself 
to  theology  and  to  canon  law  at  the  Appolinare. 
He  became  professor  of  canon  law  at  the  latter 
place  in  1876  and  on  the  following  year  at  the  Propa¬ 
ganda,  where  his  eminent  gifts  of  conciseness,  com¬ 
pleteness  and  clearness  made  him  so  famous  that 
in  1877  he  was  made  Consultor  to  the  Congrega¬ 
tion  of  Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical  Affairs.  His 
secretary,  Mgr.  Czaski  soon  perceived  his  unusual 
ability  and  when  sent  as  nuncio  to  Paris  in  1879 
he  took  Ferrata  with  him  as  auditor  and  cameriere 
segreto.  Returning  to  Rome  three  years  later,  Fer¬ 
rata  resumed  his  place  in  the  Bureau  of  the  Secre¬ 
tary  of  State,  meantime  going  on  special  missions, 
the  most  important  of  which  was  that  to  Switzer¬ 
land,  where  he  had  to  rearrange  the  division  of 
dioceses  and  settle  the  political  strife  that  was 
raging  there.  On  his  return  he  was  advanced  to 
other  ecclesiastical  honors  and  in  1885  was  made 
Nuncio  to  Belgium  to  repair  the  damages  done  to 
religion  by  Frere-Orban,  who  had  broken  off  rela¬ 
tions  with  the  Vatican,  was  consecrated  Archbishop 
of  Thessalonica  and  then  passed  four  years  at  Brus¬ 
sels.  We  find  him  next  as  nuncio  at  Paris,  an 
exceptionally  difficult  post  because  of  the  unfriendly 
attitude  of  the  Government,  but  he  met  with  such 
success  that  the  Republic  asked  to  have  him  made 
cardinal.  He  received  the  red  hat  on  22  January, 
1896. 

According  to  Cardinal  Mathieu,  Ferrata  was  the 
cleverest  member  of  the  Sacred  College.  He  had 
a  power  of  grasping  a  subject  which  with  his  mar¬ 
velous  memory  enabled  him  to  present  a  question 


to  the  assembled  cardinals  in  such  a  way  that  it 
was  hard  to  determine  in  which  respect,  he  excelled, 
the  thoroughness  of  his  knowledge  or  the  form  in 
which  it  was  presented.  His  power  of  persuasion 
was  such  that  he  won  his  case  almost  as  soon 
as  he  began  to  speak.  He  was  so  well  known  for 
this,  that  the  postulates  of  the  causes  for  beatifi¬ 
cation  and  canonization  were  always  anxious  to 
have  him  to  defend  their  case  before  the  tribunal. 
His  ability  was  so  marked  that  office  after  office 
was  assigned  to  him  from  1900  to  1913.  No  one 
knows  whether  Cardinal  Ferrata  received  any  votes 
as  successor  of  Pius  X  for  Benedict  XV  kept  the 
proceedings  of  the  Conclave  a  profound  secret.  At 
all  events,  Benedict  chose  him  as  Secretary  of 
State  on  4  September,  1914,  but  death  came  shortly 
after.  The  Cardinal  had  to  undergo  surgical  oper¬ 
ation  for  some  intestinal  trouble  and  in  October  he 
was  in  his  coffin. 

Fianarantsoa,  Vicariate  Apostolic  (de  Fiana- 
rantsoa,  cf.  C.  E.,  XVI-83c),  in  Madagascar,  previ¬ 
ously  formed  the  southern  part  of  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  Central  Madagascar,  but  was  erected 
into  a  separate  vicariate  on  10  May,  1913,  and 
entrusted  to  the  Jesuits.  The  present  (1922)  and 
the  first  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Charles  Givelet, 
S.  J.,  titular  bishop  of  Gindaris,  b.  18  July,  1857,  in 
Reims,  studied  at  Vaugirard  in  Paris,  and  at  the 
lower  seminary  of  Reims,  novice  at  St.  Acheul  in 
1877,  ordained  in  Enghien  Belgium,  8  September, 
1889,  prefect  of  studies,  president  of  various  mis¬ 
sionary  houses  in  1902,  appointed  bishop,  and 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Fianarantsoa  16  May,  1913,  con¬ 
secrated  at  Lugon  2  October  of  the  same  year,  and 
proclaimed  28  May,  1914.  There  are  in  the  vicariate 
(1920  statistics)  110,000  Catholics,  36  missionary 
priests,  12  lay  brothers,  12  Brothers  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Schools  with  2  colleges,  24  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph 
of  Cluny,  637  catechists,  577  stations  with  chapels, 
52  schools  with  5300  pupils,  1  dispensary,  and  1 
leper  hospital. 

• 

Field,  Michael,  the  pseudonym  under  which  two 
noted  English  writers,  Katherine  Harris  Bradley 
and  her  niece,  Edith  Emma  Cooper,  produced  many 
dramatic  works  and  volumes  of  lyrical  poetry,  the 
excellence  of  which  won  the  admiration  and  praise 
of  Browning,  Pater,  and  Meredith.  The  first  fruits 
of  this  literary  partnership  was  the  drama  “Cal- 
lirhoc”  (1884),  which  like  “Brutus  Ultor”  (1887)  is 
based  on  classical  history.  Besides  these,  however, 
Miss  Cooper  and  Miss  Bradley  wrote  romantic 
plays  such  as  “Fair  Rosamund”  and  “William 
Rufus”  on  British  themes.  Among  their  poetical 
works  are  “Long  Ago”  (1889),  “Sight  and  Song,” 
and  “Underneath  the  Bough”  (1893).  In  1907,  like 
so  many  other  women  writers,  the  joint  authors 
entered  the  Catholic  Church.  Thereafter  their 
poetry  revealed  their  deep  religious  spirit,  reflecting 
the  soul  of  the  church  as  appears  in  their  “Poems 
of  Adoration”  (1912),  “Cedar  and  Hyssop,”  and 
“Mystic  Trees”  (191.3),  the  latter  being  almost  en¬ 
tirely  from  the  pen  of  Miss  Bradley.  Miss  Cooper 
died  in  December,  1913,  and  Miss  Bradley  at 
Hawkesyard,  England,  on  26  September  following. 

Fiesole,  Diocese  of  (Fesulanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VI-70b),  in  the  province  of  Florence,  Central  Italy, 
suffragan  of  Florence.  By  a  special  decree  of  the 
Consistory,  24  August,  1917,  the  boundaries  of  the 
diocese  were  modified.  The  bishop  bears  the  title 
of  Count  of  Turicchi;  the  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Giovanni  Fossi,  b.  in  Gambellara  in  the  diocese 
of  Vicenzo,  17  January,  1853,  prothonotary  apostolic 
5  January,  1901,  archpriest  at  Lonigo,  appointed  29 
April,  1909,  consecrated  at  Lonigo,  27  June  of  the 


FIJI  ISLANDS 


308 


FINLAND 


same  year,  succeeding  Mgr.  David  (Jamilli,  b.  15 
January,  1847,  d.  13  February,  1909.  According 
to  1920  statistics  the  diocese  numbers  155,800  Catho¬ 
lics;  254  parishes,  300  secular  and  93  regular  priests, 
90  seminarians,  62  Brothers,  210  Sisters,  329  churches 
or  chapels.  On  26  April,  1914,  the  diocesan  chapter 
was  reorganized  with  archdeacon  and  primicerius. 

Fiji  Islands,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Insulce 
Fidzis),  Central  Oceania.  The  first  and  present 
Vicar  Apostolic  is  the  Right  Rev.  Julian  Vidal,  S.  M., 
Titular  Bishop  of  Abydos,  who  was  elected  on 
the  13  May,  1887,  and  consecrated  27  December 
of  the  same  year.  Right  Rev.  Charles  Joseph 
Nicolas,  S.M.,  Titular  Bishop  of  Panopolis,  was 
elected  Coadjutor  to  Bishop  J.  Vidal,  on  22  August, 
1918,  and  consecrated  on  2  February,  1919.  Mis¬ 
sions  have  been  established  in  all  the  principal 
islands,  Viti  Levu,  Vanua  Levu,  Ovalau,  Taviuni, 
Kadavu,  and  Rotuma.  The* official  residence  of 
the  vicar  apostolic  is  at  Suva,  which  is  the  capital 
of  Fiji,  and  seat  of  the  government. 

The  latest  (1922)  statistics  for  the  vicariate  show: 
27  priests  (Marist  Fathers),  who  tend  20  central 
stations,  and  about  300  villages;  1  lay  brother  of 
the  Society  of  Mary,  who  supervises  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  new  buildings,  schools,  churches,  convents, 
etc.;  14  Little  Brothers  of  Mary  (Marist  Brothers), 
who  have  charge  of  a  large  boarding  and  day 
school  for  Europeans,  a  boarding  and  day  school 
for  half-castes  and  natives, <  at  Suva,  an  English 
school  for  natives  at  Cawaci  and  Rewa;  31  Euro¬ 
pean  and  63  native  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order 
of  Mary,  with  16  houses  (novitiate  for  the  native 
Sisters,  at  Solevu,  Vanua  Levu),  who  conduct  the 
majority  of  schools  for  native  girls;  11  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph  of  Cluny,  who  conduct  at  Suva  a  large 
boarding  and  day  school  for  Europeans,  and  a 
day  school  for  half-castes  and  natives;  14  Sisters 
of  the  Holy  Name  of  Mary  (Marist  Sisters),  who 
have  charge  of  a  boarding  and  day  school  for 
Europeans  and  half-castes,  of  a  day  school  for 
natives,  and  of  an  orphanage  at  Levuka,  schools 
for  natives  at  Cawaci  and  Ba,  20  native  Brothers 
(novitiate  at  Loreto),  in  6  communities.  In  the 
central  stations  Brothers  and  Sisters  (European 
and  native)  teach  about  1000  children,  while  in 
the  villages  230  catechists  give  elementary  instruc¬ 
tion  to  about  1700.  The  churches  and  chapels 
number  67  and  the  Catholic  population  is  about 
12,000  (400  Europeans). 

The  Fiji  Government  (British)  has  established 
in  the  island  of  Makogai  a  lepers’  settlement,  where 
under  the  direction  of  a  European  doctor  8  Euro¬ 
pean  and  6  native  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of 
Mary  nurse  about  350  lepers.  A  chapel  has  Just 
been  built  for  the  lepers.  A  Marist  Father  is  in 
charge  of  the  station  as  chaplain. 

Finland  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-76c),  formerly  a  grand 
duchy  of  the  Russian  Empire,  now  a  republic, 
proclaimed  an  independent  sovereign  state  on  6 
December,  1917.  The  area  of  the  republic  is  129,549 
sq.  miles;  the  population  (1919),  3,331,814.  The 
chief  towns  with  their  population  in  1919,  are: 
Helsinki  (Helsingfors)  with  Sveaborg,  187,544; 
Turku  (Abo),  56,168;  Tampere  (Tammerfors), 
46,353;  Viipuri  (Viborg),  29,753;  Oulu  (Uleaborg), 
21,949;  Pori  (Bjorneborg),  17,603;  Waasa  (Vasa), 
24,776;  Kuopio,  18,106.  Finns  who  amalgamated 
with  the  Swedes  to  form  the  present  population, 
came  from  farther  east;  ethnologists  class  them 
with  the  Hungarians.  About  78  per  cent  are  blue¬ 
eyed  and  about  57  per  cent  are  light-haired.  Of 
this  population  522,608  or  15.69  per  cent  reside  in 
towns,  and  2,809,206  or  84.31  per  cent  in  the  country 


districts;  87.73  speak  Finnish;  11.79  per  cent, 
Swedish. 

Religion.  Vicariate  Apostolic. — In  June,  1920, 
the  vicariate  apostolic  of  Finland  was  erected  from 
territory  taken  from  the  diocese  of  Mohileff  and 
entrusted  to  the  Congregation  of  Picpus.  The  first 
vicar  apostolic  is  Mgr.  J.  M.  Buckx,  appointed  17 
March,  1921.  The  Catholics  number  1000  and  are 
for  the  most  part  Finns;  the  minority  are  either 
Poles,  Germans,  French,  or  Italian.  There  are 
2  secular  and  3  regular  priests  and  1  lay  brother; 

2  parishes;  3  churches;  1  mission.  The  women  have 
an  association  of  St.  Anne  for  work  among  the 
poor.  Other  religious  bodies  in  Finland  in  1917 
numbered:  Lutherans,  3,283,035;  Greek  Catholics 
and  Raskolniks,  56,815;  Baptists,  etc.,  6397. 

Education. — Notwithstanding  the  vast  and  thinly 
populated  areas  of  the  country  Finland  is  well 
advanced  in  the  matter  of  education.  A  Bill  making 
it  compulsory  was  introduced  into  the  Diet  in 
1919.  Every  parish  has  at  least  one  folk-school, 
or  elementary  school.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
1919-20  school  year,  there  were  3639  ordinary  rural 
folk-schools,  of  which  3172  were  Finnish  and  456 
Swedish,  with  4951  teachers.  There  were  also  549 
primary  folk-schools  in  the  rural  districts,  with 
1351  teachers.  The  total  number  of  folk-school 
teachers  was  6302,  of  whom  5448  were  Finnish  and 
839  Swedish;  the  number  of  pupils  in  rural  folk- 
schools  was  173,869  and  in  city  folk-schools, 
42,026,  a  total  of  215,895.  The  amount  spent  by  the 
State  for  folk-schools  in  1919  was  38,390,000  marks 
($2,492,857  at  15.40  marks  to  the  dollar).  Of  the 
55  State  secondary  schools,  37  were  Finnish  and 
18  Swedish.  The  government  expenditure  on  these 
was  16,074,300  marks  ($1,043,786).  There  is  one 
State  University,  which  was  founded  in  Abo  in 
1640  and  removed  to  Helsingfors,  after  having  been 
burned  down  in  1827.  There  is  a  technical  high 
school  in  Helsingfors  and  private  high  schools 
and  academies  in  the  larger  cities.  A  Swedish 
university  was  opened  in  Abo  in  1919.  Since  1918 
the  Finnish  reformatory  and  _  industrial  schools 
have  been  under  the  supervision  of  the  school 
administration;  formerly  the  reformatory  schools 
were  under  the  prison  administration  and  the  indus¬ 
trial  schools  under  the  Senate  civil  administration. 
In  1919  the  State  had  8  reformatory  and  industrial 
schools  for  boys  and  2  for  girls  and  subsidized 
12  privately  owned  institutions  for  boys  and  7  for 
girls;  total  expenditure,  $197,408.  Of  the  75  kin¬ 
dergartens  in  Finland,  4  are  State,  8  communal, 
49  owned  by  associations,  and  14  by  individuals, 
with  a  total  number  of  5932  children  and  an  ex¬ 
penditure  of  $140,140.  In  addition  to  the  homes 
for  war  orphans  which  were  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Ministry  of  Social  Affairs,  there  are  81 
children’s  homes,  21  day  homes  and  work  homes, 
8  reception  homes,  and  30  nurseries,  also  16  schools 
for  the  deaf,  dumb,  and  feeble-minded,  of  which 
11  were  State  schools  and  5  private  schools,  some 
of  which  receive  state  aid.  On  the  special  schools, 
the  state  expenditure  was  $164,338.  The  school  age 
in  the  primary  schools  is  from  seven  to  fifteen 
years. 

Economic  Condition. — The  bulk  of  the  popula¬ 
tion  is  engaged  in  agriculture  and  farming,  leaving 
a  very  small  proportion  employed  in  commerce 
and  industry.  The  following  statistics  show  the 
acreage  sown  and  the  yield  of  the  principal  crop3 
in  1920:  Wheat,  19,275  acres,  7500  tons;  rye,  580,593 
acres,  233,000  tons;  barley,  278,241  acres,  108,000 
tons;  oats,  976,496  acres,  356,500  tons;  potatoes, 
192,888  acres,  486,000  tons;  hay,  2,386,989  acres, 
1,900,000  tons.  The  home  production  of  grain  is 


FINLAND 


309 


FINLAND 


barely  enough  to  meet  one-half  of  the  requirements 
of  the  country,  and  Finland  therefore  is  obliged  to 
import  largely  from  abroad.  In  1920  the  butter 
produced  amounted  to  10,000,000  kilog.  and  the 
cheese  to  2,000,000  kilog. 

The  cultivated  ^rea  of  Finland  covers  only  8.5 
per  cent  of  the  land,  divided  in  1910  into  284,188 
farms.  In  1918  the  Crown  forests  covered  12,540,296 
hectares,  about  33  per  cent  of  the  area  of  the 
country.  Their  maintenance  cost  (1919)  33,250,000 
marks,  and  the  income  derived  from  them  65,690,000 
marks.  In  1915  the  139  sawmills  with  water-motors 
and  510  steam  and  317  motor  mills  gave  occupation 
to  17,661  workers.  In  19T  Finland  had  4389  large 
factories,  employing  an  aggregate  of  178,987  work¬ 
ers,  and  yielding  an  aggregate  product  of  1,458,107,- 
500  marks;  in  1919,  5252  factories,  employing  99,843 
workers,  turning  out  a  product  worth  2,345,200,000 
marks.  The  eight-hour  day  was  instituted  on  17 
April,  1917,  but  previous  to  this  the  working  day 
at  private  factories  and  works  was  nine  and  a  half 
hours.  In  1920  the  imports  amounted  to  3,620,400 
Finnish  marks;  the  exports  to  2,906,600  Finnish 
marks.  The  principal  imports  are  cereals  and  other 
food-stuffs,  textile  materials,  colonial  products, 
metals,  machinery,  and  minerals;  the  chief  exports, 
timber  and  paper  products,  which  constituted  in 
1919  more  than  88  per  cent  of  the  total.  The 
closing  of  the  Russian  markets  have  had  a  detri¬ 
mental  influence  on  dairy  exports. 

The  Finnish  railways  have  always  been  built 
and  owned  by  the  State.  On  31.  December,  1920, 
there  were  2685  miles  of  railway,  all  but  186  miles 
belonging  to  the  State.  There  are  also  19,000  miles 
of  main  roads  and  1250  miles  of  secondary  roads. 
The  total  revenue  from  the  State  railways  in  1919 
was  about  $19,146,500;  the  total  expenditures  were 
$13,770,000.  The  canals  are  also  of  great  importance 
as  means  of  communication  in  Finland,  the  fore¬ 
most  being  the  Saima  Canal,  which  has  28  sluices 
and  is  38  miles  in  length.  This  canal  con¬ 
nects  the  extensive  Saima  Lake  system  with  the 
sea.  Finland’s  debts  are  comparatively  small, 
amounting  to  less  than  2,000,000,000  marks  ($100,- 
000,000  at  the  rate  of  20  marks  to  the  dollar).  The 
national  debts  on  31  May,  1921,  amounted  to  1,812,- 
911,411  marks  ($90,645,571  at  the  rate  of  20  marks 
to  the  dollar). 

Government. — According  to  the  Finnish  Consti¬ 
tution,  ratified  at  Helsingfors  on  21  June,  1919,  the 
legislative  power  is  exercised  by  Parliament,  to¬ 
gether  with  the  president  of  the  Republic,  who 
is  elected  for  a  term  of  six  years,  and  who  has 
the  right  of  initiative  in  formulating  new  legislation, 
also  the  right  of  veto.  The  general  government 
is  entrusted  to  a  Council  of  State,  composed  of 
the  prime  minister  and  a  fixed  number  of  other 
ministers.  The  judicial  power  is  exercised  by  inde¬ 
pendent  courts  of  'ust ice,  chief  of  which  are  the 
Supreme  Court  and  the  Highest  Administrative 
Court.  The  president  is  elected  by  300  electors, 
chosen  by  popular  vote,  and  is  limited  in  power 
by  the  Council  of  State.  The  official  languages 
are  Finnish  and  Swedish,  which  can  be  used  in  the 
national  courts.  The  linguistic,  religious,  and 
minority  rights  of  all  citizens  are  assured;  free 
speech  and  free  assembly  are  granted  under  all 
normal  conditions. 

History. — Finland  was  acquired  by  Russia  from 
Sweden  by  the  Treaties  of  Fredrikshamn  (Septem¬ 
ber,  1809),  which  confirmed  the  decision  of  the  Diet 
of  Barga  a  few  months  earlier.  In  1811  territories 
taken  from  Sweden,  which  had  been  incorporated 
in  Russia  before  1809,  were  added  to  the  State  thus 
constituted.  The  Swedish  constitution  was,  however, 


retained,  dating  from  1772,  but  recast  in  1789,  modi¬ 
fied  in  1869,  and  again  fundamentally  altered  in 
1906.  The  country,  then  an  autonomous  grand 
duchy  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  Czar  of  Russia, 
was  considered  by  the  inhabitants  a  separate  state 
with  inalienable  rights;  but  it  was  the  policy  of 
Russia  to  promise  to  respect  the  national  institu¬ 
tions  of  her  newly  acquired  territories  and  later, 
step  by  step,  proceed  in  her  course  of  centralization 
and  assimilation  without  regard  to  her  agreement. 
That  this  did  not  immediately  happen  in  Finland 
was  due  to  a  strong  insistence  upon  her  rights;  yet 
during  the  period  1899-1914  Russia’s  intention  to 
Russianize  the  country  was  evident. 

By  the  law  of  15  February,  1899,  all  matters  of 
legislation  were  to  be  referred  to  the  Czar  of  Rus¬ 
sia;  again  in  1910  there  were  attempts  to  curtail 
the  power  of  the  Diet;  in  1912  the  Russian  subjects 
were  given  the  same  rights  as  the  Finns  themselves, 
enabling  the  Russians  to  hold  office  in  Finland, 
thus  preparing  the  way  for  Russian  bureaucracy; 
the  Russian  language  was  prescribed  in  the  Finnish 
courts  and  public  offices,  and  the  Russian  courts 
given  jurisdiction  over  political  offenses  committed 
in  Finland.  By  this  time  the  Finnish  constitution 
was  virtually  annulled  and  the  Diet  little  better 
than  a  figurehead. 

When  the  Russian  revolution  broke  out  the  Diet 
decided  on  9  November,  1916,  to  declare  that  as 
the  Provisional  Russian  Government  no  longer 
existed,  the  Diet  entrusted  the  government  to  a 
committee  of  three  persons,  including  a  banker, 
magistrate,  and  privy  councillor.  It  was  considered 
a  free  and  independent  state  in  a  Russian  federa¬ 
tion,  but  at  the  fall  of  Kerensky’s  Government,  it 
declared  itself  a  republic  (9  December,  1917).  Its 
independence  was  recognized  by  Russia,  Sweden, 
Norway,  France,  Spain,  Denmark,  and  Germany, 
with  the  understanding  that  an  arrangement  be 
reached  between  Finland  and  Russia  in  regard  to 
a  formal  separation.  On  9  January,  1918,  the  Rus¬ 
sian  central  executive  committee  of  the  Soviets, 
acting  in  behalf  of  the  Russian  Provisional  Govern¬ 
ment,  unanimously  recognized  the  republic  as  free 
and  independent.  Meanwhile,  the  Red  Guards 
(Bolsheviki)  and  White  Guards  (pro-German) 
were  arrayed  against  each  other  and  civil  war  broke 
out.  It  ended  in  the  triumph  of  the  latter  and 
the  signing  of  the  Brest-Litovsk  Treaty  between 
Germany  and  the  Bolshevist  Government  on  3 
March,  1918.  Four  days  later  Germany  signed  a 
treaty  with  Finland,  having  invaded  Finnish  terri¬ 
tory  and  occupied  the  Aland  Islands  which  she  used 
to  enable  her  soldiers  to  cross  by  ice  to  the  main¬ 
land  of  Finland  to  support  the  White  Guards.  By 
April,  1918,  there  were  40,000  German  soldiers  at 
Helsingfors  and  a  German  squadron  in  the  harbor. 
The  Russian  ships  escaped  to  Kronstadt.  The  Fin¬ 
nish  Landtag  in  October,  1918,  elected  Prince  Fred¬ 
erick  Charles  of  Hesse,  brother-in-law  of  the 
German  emperor,  as  King  of  Finland.  Later,  how¬ 
ever,  Finland  requested  Germany  to  withdraw  her 
troops  from  Finnish  territory,  but  it  was  not  until 
after  the  collapse  of  Germany  that  she  was  able 
to  rid  herself  of  German  influence.  In  December 
a  peaceful  revolution  paved  the  way  to  recognition 
by  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  5  May, 
1919.  First  the  Bolsheviki  were  forced  out  of  the 
country,  then  the  Russian  Reds.  Finland  claimed 
Petchenga,  a  strip  of  land  in  Russian  possession, 
cutting  off  Northern  Finland  from  Varanger  Fiord 
and  Finland’s  natural  outlet  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean; 
also  the  islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  including 
Hogland,.  which  controlled  the  waters  leading  from 
the  Baltic  to  the  Russian  fortress  of  Kronstadt 


FIUME 


310 


FLORIDA 


and  to  Petrograd  (under  the  Czar  these  islands  had 
been  administered  by  Russia  as  a  part  of  the 
Finnish  duchy) ;  and  finally,  Karelia,  a  province 
to  the  north  of  Lake  Ladoga,  where  a  large  Finnish 
population  existed.  These  claims  were  granted  in 
a  treaty  signed  between  Soviet  Russia  and  Finland 
on  14  October,  1920,  at  Dorpat,  Esthonia.  In  1920 
Finland  was  also  given  the  Aland  Islands  by  the 
League  of  Nations.  The  majority  of  the  population 
is  Swedish,  but  the  islands  were  nearer  the  coast 
of  Finland  and  had  been  ruled  by  Russia  as  a  part 
of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Finland.  In  the  same  year 
there  was  a  vain  attempt  at  a  conference  at  -tiel- 
singsfors  to  form  a  Baltic  League  among  the  small 
Baltic  States  as  a  defense  against  Russia. 

Fiume,  an  independent  state  created  by  the 
Treaty  of  Rapallo,  signed  on  12  November,  1920, 
between  Italy  and  Jugoslavia.  The  area  is  8  square 
miles,  and  the  population  49,806.  Article  5  of 
the  Treaty  of  Rapallo  proposes  that  the  area  of 
Fiume  be  delimited  by  a  special  commission  com¬ 
posed  half  of  Italian  and  half  of  Jugoslav  dele¬ 
gates.  Fiume  owes  its  commercial  importance  to 
its  location  at  the  only  real  break  in  the  mountain 
range  running  down  the  eastern  coast  of  the 
Adriatic.  While  it  has  not  a  naturally  fine  harbor, 
its  facilities  have  been  well  developed  by  Hungary 
and  are  susceptible  of  further  improvement,  and 
while  not  logically  serving  the  same  territory  as 
Trieste,  it  is  a  commercial  rival  of  that  city.  In 
1914  the  trade  of  Hungary  found  its  political  and 
natural  outlet  at  Fiume,  and  its  surrounding  coun¬ 
try  and  neighboring  hinterland  was  wholly  Slav. 
If  the  suburb  of  Susak,  which  is  part  of  the  port, 
is  included  in  the  city,  the  Italians,  although  the 
largest  group  in  Fiume,  are  not  a  majority  of  the 
population.  Fiume  wras  not  included  in  the  terri¬ 
torial  gains  of  Italy  promised  by  the  Allies  in  the 
Pact  of  London  in  1915;  nevertheless,  after  the 
World  War  Italy  claimed  the  city,  despite  the 
protests  of  Jugoslavia.  The  Peace  Conference  at 
Versailles  (1919)  refused  to  recognize  Italy  s  de¬ 
mand.  On  13  September,  1919,  Gabriele  D'An¬ 
nunzio,  an  Italian  poet  and  soldier,  at  the  head  of 
a  Volunteer  force  seized  the  city,  negotiations 
for  the  disposition  of  which  were  then  pending. 
His  action  was  disapproved  by  the  Allies,  and 
the  Italian  Government  issued  an  ultimatum 
ordering  his  return  to  Rome;  upon  his  refusal 
the  city  was  declared  blockaded  and  military 
forces  were  sent  to  dislodge  him.  The  blockade, 
however,  was  laxly  enforced,  and  the  troops  sent 
against  him  mutinied.  The  situation  became  so 
grave  that  the  Crown  Council  was  summoned. 
D’Annunzio  reaffirmed  his  intention  of  retaining 
Fiume,  and  declared  himself  to  be  at  war  with 
Jugoslavia,  threatening  to  extend  his  sway  over  the 
entire  Dalmatian  coast,  and  while  the  Italian  popu¬ 
lace  seemed  to  give  him  its  enthusiastic  support, 
the  Government  insisted  that  the  Adriatic  ques¬ 
tion  should  be  adjusted  by  the  Peace  Conference. 
The  question  was  adjusted  in  Rapallo,  Italy,  on 
12  November,  1920,  by  a  treaty  signed  by  Jugo¬ 
slavia  and  Italy.  According  to  its  provisions  Fiume 
was  made  an  independent  city  linked  by  a  “cor¬ 
ridor”  to  Italian  Istria.  Gabriele  D’Annunzio,  the 
self-styled  “Rector  of  the  Regency  of  the  Quarnero,” 
who  on  20  September,  1920,  had  declared  Fiume 
to  be  an  independent  State,  vehemently  denouncea 
the  treaty,  and  declared  war  on  Italy  on  3  Decem¬ 
ber.  Fiume  was  bombarded  by  the  Italian  regulars 
and  D’Annunzio  was  forced  to  leave  the  city.  On 
6  October,  1921,  the  Constituent  Assembly  of 
Fiume  elected  Professor  Riccardo  Zanella  as  Presi¬ 


dent  of  the  Provisional  Government.  In  March, 
1922,  the  city  was  siezed  by  the  Fascisti,  the  Zanella 
Government  overthrown,  and  Deputy  Giurati 
chosen  head  of  the  Government.  To  quell  the 
disturbance,  the  Italian  Government  ordered  the 
occupation  of  Fiume  by  Italian  troops.  President 
Zanella  and  forty-nine  members  of  the  Constituent 
Assembly  continued  to  meet  in  Jugoslavia,  where 
they  had  taken  refuge. 

Flanders.  See  Belgium. 

Florence,  Archdiocese  of  (Florentinensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  VI-105d),  in  the  province  of  Tuscany,  Cen¬ 
tral  Italy.  This  see  is  filled  by  His  Eminence  Car¬ 
dinal  Alfonso  Maria  Mistrangelo,  b.  26  April,  1852, 
entered  the  Congregation  of  the  Clerks  Regular 
of  the  Pious  Schools  at  the  age  of  nineteen, 
preacher,  rector  of  Ovado  College  in  1880,  and  ap¬ 
pointed  19  June,  1899,  taking  possession  17  Decem¬ 
ber  following,  succeeding  Cardinal  Bausa,  deceased. 
He  was  made  superior  general  of  the  Pious  Schools 
in  1900,  named  apostolic  visitor  of  the  order,  and 
created  cardinal-priest  6  December,  1915,  with  the 
title  St.  Mary  of  the  Angels,  of  which  he  took 
possession  11  December  following.  In  the  beginning 
of  1918  he  celebrated  his  episcopal  jubilee  and  re¬ 
ceived  a  letter  of  congratulation  from  the  pope. 

rBy  1920  statistics  there  are  in  the  archdiocese 
500,000  Catholics;  477  parishes,  800  secular  and 
400  regular  priests,  200  seminarians,  150  Brothers, 
1600  Sisters,  1900  churches  or  chapels;  the  chancel¬ 
lors  of  the  cathedral  are  prothonotaries  apostolic 
supernumerary,  durante  munere.  By  a  decree  of 
the  Consistory  of  24  August,  1917,  the  limits  of  the 
archdiocese  were  altered,  and  on  15  January,  1918, 
the  Church  of  Monte  Senario  was  made  a  minor 
basilica. 

Floresta,  Diocese  of.  See  Pesqueira. 

Florida  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-115b). — The  area  of  the 
State  of  Florida  is  58,666  sq.  miles,  of  which  3805 
is  lake  and  river  area.  The  State  is  divided  politi¬ 
cally  into  fifty-two  counties. 

Resources.  Agriculture. — In  1920,  41,051  farms 
were  operated  by  whites;  12,954  by  negroes;  farm 
acreage  in  1920  was  6,046,491,  2,297,271  acres  being 
improved.  The  total  value  of  all  farm  property 
in  1920  was  $330,331,717;  operating  expenses,  $37,- 
071,977;  products,  $80,256,806;  cereal  crops,  $14,528,- 
809;  fruits  crops,  $23,216,209;  live  stock,  $33,304,627. 
The  statistics  of  corn  and  cotton  crops  were :  Cot¬ 
ton,  110,562  acres,  19,358  bales,  value  $3,440,593; 
corn,  811,737  acres,  9,103,549  bushels,  value  $14,528,- 
809.  There  were  3,645,811  orange-bearing  trees, 
producing  5,930,422  boxes,  value  $15,715,618.  Live 
stock  included  38,570  horses,  42,046  mules,  153  asses, 
638,981  cattle,  755,481  swine,  64,659  sheep,  45,890 
goats.  . 

Commerce  and  Industries. — In  1919  there  were  in 
the  State  2582  manufacturing  establishments,  capital 
$206,294,000,  wage  earners  74,400,  wages  $67,581,000, 
value  of  products  $213,327,000.  In  1919  the  value 
of  oversea  exports  was  $72,842,179;  the  value  of 
imports  was  $15,275,615.  The  fisheries  of  the  State 
give  employment  to  over  9000  men  and  yield  an 
annual  product  valued  at  $3,500,000.  _  The  total 
assessed  valuation  of  taxable  property  in  the  State 
for  1920  was  $304,923,946;  State  debt  $601,567.  In 
1917  there  were  nineteen  railroads  with  a  total 
mileage  of  6060,  main  track  3833.  The  Florida  East 
Coast  Railway  Extension  to  Key  West  was  opened 

in  1912.  . 

Population. — In  1920  the  population  was  968,470, 
an  increase  of  28.7  per  cent  since  1910.  Of  this, 
36.7  per  cent  was  urban;  63.3  rural.  The  average 


FLORIDA 


311 


FOGARAS 


number  of  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile  was  17.7 
as  against  13.7  in  1910.  There  are  967  election 
precincts  and  2  military  reservations.  Florida  has 
48  cities,  of  which  Jacksonville  with  a  population 
of  91,558,  is  the  largest.  The  other  large  cities 
are  Tampa  with  a  population  of  51,608;  Pensacola, 
31,035;  Key  West,  18,749.  There  are  638,153  wThites, 
of  whom  43,008  are  foreign  born,  and  329,487 
negroes.  Of  the  native  -whites,  532,295  are  of  native 
parentage,  35,751  are  of  foreign  parentage,  and 
27,099  are  of  mixed  parentage.  The  population  of 
ten  years  of  age  and  over  numbered  751,787,  of 
whom  71,811  were  illiterates  (9.6%).  Of  these,  55,639 
were  negroes  (21.5%).  Most  of  the  foreign-born 
came  from  Cuba,  Spain,  England,  Germany,  and 
the  West  Indies. 

Education.— The  State  school  fund  in  1919  was 
about  $2,000,000.  Statistics  from  the  latest  biennial 
report  (1920)  of  the  State  superintendent  show: 
total  public  schools,  2996;  white,  2128;  colored,  837; 
enrolment,  white,  137,826,  or  70  per  cent  of  school 
population;  colored,  58,579,  or  30  per  cent  of  school 
population;  total  expenditure  for  school  year 
ending  June,  1918,  $4,383,445.  There  are  5062 
white  and  1288  colored  teachers.  Annual  grants 
from  the  Federal  treasury  for  higher  educational 
institutions  aggregated  in  1918  about  $75,000.  The 
faculty  of  the  University  of  Florida  numbers  forty- 
three,  the  experiment  station  staff  seventeen,  enrol¬ 
ment  (1919)  988.  The  Florida  Female  College  has 
54  professors  and  instructors  and  598  students.  The 
colored  normal  school  at  Tallahassee  reports  a 
faculty  of  10.  The  productive  endowment  funds 
of  the  John  B.  Stetson  University,  Deland,  amount 
to  $1,023,000;  its  enrolment  in  1919  -was  649,  faculty, 
32.  The  faculty  of  Rollins  College,  Winter  Park, 
numbers  25,  enrolment,  175;  of  Southern  College, 
Southerland,  20,  enrolment,  258;  of  Columbia  Col¬ 
lege,  Lake  City,  15,  enrolment,  93;  St.  Leo’s  Col¬ 
lege,  St.  Leo,  has  70  students,  the  Sacred  Heart 
College,  Tampa,  125  students.  The  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  have  academies  at  St.  Augustine,  Jackson¬ 
ville,  Loretto,  Orlando,  Palatka,  Miami,  Fernandina, 
and  Ybor  City;  the  Sisters  of  St.  Benedict  at  St. 
Leo;  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  at  Apalachicola;  the  Sis¬ 
ters  of  Perpetual  Adoration  at  Pensacola. 

The  State  laws  relative  to  private  and  parochial 
schools  are  as  follows:  no  school  fund  or  any  part 
thereof  shall  be  appropriated  or  used  for  the  sup¬ 
port  of  any  sectarian  school.  (XII,  13) ;  property 
held  and  used  exclusively  for  religious,  scientific, 
municipal,  educational  or  charitable  purposes  shall 
be  exempt  from  taxation  (XVI,  16).  Bible  reading 
is  neither  permitted  nor  excluded  in  the  public 
schools. 

Religion. — The  Catholic  population  of  the  State 
of  Florida  (1916)  was  24,650.  For  Catholic  statis¬ 
tics  see  St.  Augustine,  Diocese  of  ;  Mobile,  Diocese 
of. 

Of  the  other  religious  denominations  the  Baptist 
National  Convention  has  the  largest  membership : 
69,865 ;  next  comes  the  Southern  Baptist  Conven¬ 
tion,  with  57,732  members;  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  South  comes  third,  and  in  1916  reported 
590  churches  and  155  parsonages;  estimated  mem¬ 
bership  51,500.  The  Episcopalian  denomination  had 
(1916)  10,399  communicants,  95  Sunday  school  or¬ 
ganizations,  and  59  parsonages.  The  Episcopalians 
maintained  132  parishes  and  missions,  8  churches 
and  4  schools  for  colored  people  and  have  an  enrol¬ 
ment  of  315  teachers  and  2491  students  in  their 
Sunday  schools;  their  church  property  is  valued 
at  $728,038.  Presbyterians,  North  and  South,  num¬ 
ber  10,170  with  61  parsonages;  Congregationalists, 
2878.  Among  the  colored  people,  five  distinct 


branches  of  Methodists  report  436  preachers,  1434 
churches,  and  14,821  members. 

Florida  Indians.— Descendants  of  the  few  defiant 
Indians  who  refused  to  withdraw  to  reservations 
after  the  Indian  War  in  1842  were  assigned  a  reser¬ 
vation  by  the  Legislature  in  1917  and  granted 
100,000  acres  near  the  Ten  Thousand  Islands. 

Legislative  Changes. — Armistice  Day,  11  Novem¬ 
ber,  has  been  added  to  the  number  of  legal  holidays. 
The  State  prison  is  now  permanently  located  at 
Bradford  Farms.  The  custom  of  leasing  prisoners 
was  abolished  in  1913,  when  the  Legislature  provided 
for  the  new  prison.  On  1  January,  1917,  there 
were  1620  State  prisoners,  82  per  cent  of  whom  were 
colored,  643  in  prison,  979  employed  outside. 

In  recent  times  the  political  situation  of  Florida 
has  been  marked  by  unfortunate  religious  bigotry. 
Governor  Sidney  J.  Catts  put  through  the  Legis¬ 
lature  a  Convent  Inspection  Bill,  under  the  terms 
of  which  in  every  county  in  Florida,  there  is  a 
committee  of  three  men  and  women,  who  shall 
at  least  once  a  year  visit  and  inspect  all  convents 
and  Catholic  institutions.  He  also  put  through  a 
Compulsory  Education  Bill,  compelling  all  the  chil¬ 
dren  of  school  age  to  attend  the  public  schools. 
Not  satisfied  with  the  feeling  of  bigotry  which  he 
stirred  in  Florida,  he  stumped  the  State  of  Michigan 
in  favor  of  the  anti-parochial  school  amendment  to 
the  State  constitution,  which  later  failed  to  pass. 
In  1921  reports  accusing  Governor  Catts  of  graft 
were  circulated  and  on  16  April,  the  Florida  Senate 
adopted  a  resolution  authorizing  investigation.  In 
May  he  was  indicted  for  peonage  by  the  Grand 
Jury  and  arrested,  but  in  June  he  was  acquitted. 
Florida  ratified  the  Federal  prohibition  amendment, 
14  December,  1918,  the  fifteenth  State  to  do  so. 
The  State  did  not  take  any  action  on  the  Federal 
suffrage  amendment  which  went  into  effect  without 
Florida’s  ratification. 

Fogaras  and  Alba-Julia,  Archdiocese  of  (cf.  C. 
E.,  VI-123a),  of  the  Greek-Rumanian  Rite,  in 
Rumania,  with  residence  at  Blaj.  The  suffragan 
sees  are:  Oradea-Mare  (Grosswardein  or  Nagy- 
Varad),  Gherla  (Armenopolis  or  Armenierstadt  or 
Szamos-Ujvar),  and  Lugoj  (Lugos).  Through  exist¬ 
ing  political  agitation  a  prominent  part  of  the 
archdiocese  was  taken  away  by  the  Hungarian  ele¬ 
ment  in  1912  and  erected  into  the  new  diocese  of 
Hajdu-Dorogh  (q.v.).  On  1  December,  1918,  the 
exertions  of  the  national  union  of  Alba-Julia  in 
bringing  about  the  incorporation  of  the  archdiocese 
into  the  kingdom  of  Rumania  were  crowned  with 
success.  The  present  Archbishop  Basil  Suciu  (b.  at 
Capocel  13  January,  1873)  wTas  elected  in  May,  1918, 
in  succession  to  Archbishop  Victor  Mihalyi  de  Apsa 
(d.  1918),  who  was  a  learned  scholar  and  defender 
of  the  Church,  and  bequeathed  all  his  possessions 
to  the  archdiocese.  During  the  World  War  most  of 
the  clergy  were  subjects  of  Hungary,  and  they 
succeeded  in  confirming  the  people  in  their  hope 
of  a  future  incorporation  in  the  kingdom  of  Ru¬ 
mania.  Some  sought  refuge  within  Rumania  itself, 
and  there  labored  to  bring  about  the  desired  union. 
The  Hungarians  either  imprisoned  or  interned 
many  priests  and  laymen,  and  some  died  during 
their  imprisonment.  Of  special  note  are  the  fol¬ 
lowing  recently  deceased:  Rev.  Johannes  M.  Moldo- 
vanu,  cathedral  provost,  and  Canon  Augustine 
Bunea,  member  of  the  Rumanian  Academy. 

The  Catholic  population  of  500,000  is  Rumanian. 
There  are  570  secular  and  2  regular  priests;  706 
parishes;  1  monastery  for  men  and  1  for  women; 

1  abbey  for  men;  1  convent  for  men;  1  theological 
seminary  with  7  professors  and  75  students;  3  col- 


FOGAZZARO 


312 


FOREIGN  MISSION 


leges  for  boys  with  27  teachers  and  800  students; 

1  college  for  girls  with  14  teachers  and  300  students; 

1  normal  school  with  7  teachers  and  60  pupils;  408 
elementary  schools  with  432  teachers  and  70,245 
pupils;  1  industrial  school  with  3  teachers  and  40 
pupils;  1  orphanage  with  180  orphans.  The  Cath¬ 
olic  institutions  are  supported  by  the  Government. 
Among  the  clergy  there  is  an  organization  for  the 
advancement  of  the  missions;  and  among  the 
women  the  Marian  Congregation.  The  Catholic 
publications  number  two  weeklies,  “Unirea,”  founded 
in  1890,  and  “Unirea  Poporului,”  founded  1919,  and 
a  monthly  review,  “Cultura  Crestina.” 

Fogazzaro,  Antonio,  b.  at  Vicenza,  Italy,  in  1842; 
d.  on  7  March,  1911.  His  name  is  associated  with 
the  Modernist  movement  which  was  condemned  by 
Pius  X  in  his  Encyclical  “Pascendi.”  He  was  a 
writer  of  verse  and  romance,  beginning  his  literary 
career  as  early  as  1874.  His  heroes  in  several  of 
his  novels  are  himself,  notably  in  “II  Santo,”  the 
story  that  brought  him  to  grief  when  it  was  put 
on  the  Index  at  the  time  Modernism,  which  it 
portrayed,  was  condemned.  Fogazzaro  submitted 
to  the  condemnation  and  is  even  said  to  have 
been  exasperated  by  the  defiant  attitude  of  his 
quondam  friends.  He  criticized  them  severely  in 
his  last  novel,  “Leila,”  but  at  the  same  time  did 
not  please  the  opposite  side.  At  last  sickness  over¬ 
took  him  and  that  with  failure  brought  serenity 
of  spirit.  He  died  in  a  hospital  after  a  serious 
surgical  operation. 

Foggia,  Diocese  of  (Fodianensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VI-123b),  in  the  province  of  Foggia  in  Apulia, 
Southern  Italy,  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy 
See.  The  present  (1922)  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Pietro 
Pomaresy  Morant,  a  former  chancellor  and  primice- 
rius  of  the  metropolitan  see  of  Ancona,  named 
private  chamberlain,  25  June,  1909,  appointed  27 
August,  1921,  consecrated  at  Rome  1  November, 
and  proclaimed  21  November  of  the  same  year,  to 
succeed  Mgr.  Salvatore  Bella,  transferred  to  the 
Diocese  of  Aci-Reale,  in  Sicily.  There  are  within 
the  confines  of  the  diocese  98,000  Catholics;  9  par¬ 
ishes,  98  secular  and  13  regular  priests,  45  semi¬ 
narians,  13  Brothers,  72  Sisters,  74  churches  or 
chapels. 

Foley,  John  S.  See  Detroit,  Diocese  of. 

Foligno,  Diocese  of  (Fulginatensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VI-124d),  in  the  province  of  Perugia,  Central  Italy, 
immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  The  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Stefano  Corbini,  b.  in  Siena,  21  May,  1859, 
canon  penitentiary,  appointed  18  June,  1918,  pro¬ 
claimed  10  March,  1919,  succeeding  Mgr.  Carlo 
Sica,  transferred  to  the  titular  see  of  Damascus  in 
Phoenicia.  The  diocese  numbers  56  parishes,  41,000 
Catholics,  71  secular  and  40  regular  clergy,  35  semi¬ 
narians,  135  Sisters,  and  173  churches  or  chapels. 
In  1914  Mgr.  Faloci-Pulignani,  head  of  the  cathe¬ 
dral  chapter,  published  “I  priori  della  cattedrale  di 
Foligno,  Memorie.” 

Forbes-Leith,  William,  Jesuit  writer,  b.  at  Aber¬ 
deen  Scotland,  in  1833;  d.  at  Roehampton,  Eng¬ 
land,  on  30  April,  1921.  He  became  a  Jesuit  at 
Issenheim,  Alsace,  in  1851 ;  studied  theology  in 
France  and  England,  and  was  ordained  at  St. 
Beuno’s  in  Wales.  He  lectured  on  philosophy  and 
literature  in  Paris  from  1865  till  1880,  a  period, 
however,  which  was  interrupted  by  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War,  in  which  he  saw  service  as  chaplain. 
He  is  the  author  of  “The  Scots  Men-at-Arms  and 
Life  Guards  in  France,”  “The  Gospel  Book  of  St. 
Margaret,  Queen  of  Scotland,”  “The  Life  of  St. 


Cuthbert,”  “Historical  Memoirs  of  Scotch  Catholics 
During  the  Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth  Centuries,” 
“Pre-Reformation  Scholars  in  Scotland  During  the 
Sixteenth  Century.” 

Fordham  University  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV-203b),  com¬ 
prises  the  school  of  arts  and  sciences  known  as 
St.  John’s  College,  the  college  of  pharmacy,  school 
of  law,  school  of  social  service,  graduate  school 
and  department  of  education.  The  medical  school, 
founded  in  1905,  was  discontinued  in  1921,  owing  to 
a  deficit  in  the  running  expenses.  The  schools  of 
law  and  social  service  are  conducted  in  the  Wool- 
worth  Building,  New  York  City. 

The  school  of  social  service,  founded  in  1917,  has 
as  its  object  the  training  of  students  for  social  and 
charitable  work  and  occupies  two  academic  years. 
The  training  comprises  field  work  and  actual  case 
work,  as  well  as  lectures,  and  includes  as  its  basic 
course:  family  welfare,  child  welfare,  social  inves¬ 
tigation,  criminology,  medical  social  service,  com¬ 
munity  work  and  industrial  problems. 

The  graduate  school  and  department  of  education 
was  founded  in  1918  and  offers  advanced  courses  in 
philosophy,  history,  literature  and  science  to  per¬ 
sons  who  have  finished  the  normal  college  course 
and  are  desirous  of  continuing  their  studies  along 
these  lines.  Extension  courses  in  connection  with 
this  department  are  given  in  the  Woolworth  Build¬ 
ing. 

The  total  number  of  students  registered  in  the 
university  for  1920-21  was  2184  under  180  professors. 
The  academic  department  registered  502  students 
with  a  faculty  of  31 ;  the  school  of  law,  845  students 
with  a  faculty  of  21 ;  the  school  of  social  service,  94 
students  with  a  faculty  of  21 ;  the  college  of  phar¬ 
macy,  125  students  with  a  faculty  of  19.  In  1916 
the  Rev.  Jos.  A.  Mulry,  S.J.,  succeeded  the  Rev. 
Thomas  J.  McCluskey,  as  president  of  the  univer¬ 
sity,  and  presided  until  1919,  when  he  was  succeeded 
by  the  Rev.  Edward  P.  Tivnan,  S.  J.,  now  president. 

Foreign  Mission  Society  of  America,  Catholic, 

was  approved  by  the  National  Council  of  Arch¬ 
bishops,  Washington,  D.  C.,  27  April,  1911,  and 
authorized  by  Pope  Pius  X  at  Rome  on  the  Feast 
of  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  29  June,  1911.  Maryknoll, 
in  honor  of  the  Queen  of  the  Apostles,  has  become 
the  popular  designation  of  the  Society.  It  was 
founded  by  Fr.  James  Anthony  Walsh  and  Fr. 
Thomas  Frederick  Price  (d.  1919)  for  the  purpose 
of  training  Catholic  missioners  for  the  heathen,  and 
of  arousing  American  Catholics  to  a  sense  of  their 
apostolic  duty.  The  ultimate  aim  is  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  a  native  clergy  in  lands  now  pagan.  The 
priests  of  the  Society  are  secular,  without  vows. 
They  are  assisted  by  auxiliary  brothers  and  by  the 
Foreign  Mission  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic,  more  com¬ 
monly  known  as  the  Maryknoll  Sisters.  In  the 
ten  brief  years  of  its  existence  Maryknoll  has 
achieved  a  remarkable  development.  The  seminary 
and  administration  is  situated  on  the  Hudson,  about 
thirty  miles  north  of  New  York  City,  at  Maryknoll, 
N.  Y.  Students  in  the  seminary  make  the  usual 
six  year  course  in  philosophy,  theology,  Scripture, 
etc.  The  Auxiliary  Brotherhood  of  St.  Michael 
was  established  for  those  who  wish  to  devote  them¬ 
selves  to  foreign  mission  work,  but  are  not  inclined 
to  pursue  higher  studies  or  to  assume  the  responsi¬ 
bilities  of  the  priesthood.  The  general  management 
of  the  Society  and  the  publication  of  its  two 
periodicals,  “The  Field  Afar”  and  “The  Maryknoll 
Junior,”  are  carried  on  at  this  center.  Here,  too, 
is  the  mother-house  of  the  Maryknoll  Sisters. 
Although  not  a  corporate  part  of  the  Society,  the 
Sisters  have  worked  with  it  from  the  beginning, 


FOREIGN  MISSIONS 


313 


FOREIGN  MISSIONS 


first  as  lay  helpers,  and  now  as  recognized  religious, 
known  officially  as  the  Foreign  Mission  Sisters  of 
St.  Dominic,  Inc.  These  Sisters  devote  themselves 
exclusively  to  work  for  foreign  missions.  The  Mary¬ 
knoll  Preparatory  College,  The  Venard,  at  Clark’s 
Summit,  near  Scranton,  Pa.,  admits  to  a  five  year 
classical  course  fmeign  mission  aspirants  who  have 
completed  the  eight  grammar  grades.  Connected 
with  this  institution  is  a  group  of  the  Maryknoll 
Sisters.  Their  convent  is  dedicated  to  Our  Lady 
of  the  Missions.  The  Maryknoll  Medical  Bureau, 
New  York  City,  was  founded  in  1920  to  interest 
the  medical  profession  in  mission  needs,  to  secure 
the  services  of  physicians  and  nurses,  and  to  pro¬ 
vide  medical  supplies  for  hospitals  and  dispensaries 
in  the  missions.  The  Maryknoll  Procure  in  San 
Francisco,  Cal.,  is  the  center  of  Maryknoll  activities 
on  the  western  coast,  and  the  depot  of  supplies 
for  the  missi oners  in  China.  It  is  also  the  head¬ 
quarters  of  the  Maryknoll  Society  of  the  Pacific, 
Inc.  The  Maryknoll  Japanese  Missions  at  Los 
Angeles,  Cal.,  and  Seattle,  Wash.,  are  conducted 
by  the  Maryknoll  Sisters  for  the  education  and 
religious  instruction  of  the  Japanese  in  those  cities. 
The  personnel  of  the  Society  in  1922  consisted  of 
38  priests,  162  students,  23  auxiliary  Brothers  and 
128  Sisters,  of  whom  38  were  professed,  64  novices, 
and  26  postulants,  making  a  total  of  351. 


in  September,  1918.  There  are  now  16  priests  and 
1  auxiliary  brother  in  the  Maryknoll  Mission.  In 
the  fall  of  1921  the  first  mission  group  of  Mary¬ 
knoll  Sisters  arrived  at  their  Chinese  convent, 
Kowloon,  Hongkong.  The  Maryknoll  Procure  at 
Kau-lung  is  the  center  of  communications  and  sup¬ 
plies  for  the  missions  at  Wu-chou,  Yeung-kong, 
Tung-chan,  Kao-chau,  Loting,  Shi-lung,  Tungon, 
Chetung,  Dosing,  and  Ping-nam,  in  the  provinces 
of  Kwang-tung  and  Kwang-si.  Kau-lung  is  on  the 
mainland,  a  few  moments  by  ferry  from  Hong¬ 
kong.  The  mission  was  visited  in  1921  by  the 
founder  and  superior  of  the  Society,  Very  Rev. 
James  A.  Walsh,  who  arrived  in  China  in  Novem¬ 
ber  and  spent  six  weeks  studying  conditions  and 
conferring  on  plans  for  mission  development.  A 
report  for  1921  of  the  mission  gives  a  population 
of  6,000,000  pagans  and  2010  Catholics,  adminis¬ 
tered  to  by  16  American  missionaries,  1  auxiliary 
brother  (American),  6  Sisters  (American),  4  semi¬ 
narians,  50  men  catechists  and  30  women  catechists. 
There  were  2018  catechumens,  111  baptisms  of 
adults,  723  baptisms  of  children,  2196  annual  con¬ 
fessions,  5236  confessions  of  devotion,  2093  annual 
communions,  7008  communions  of  devotion,  7  who 
received  Extreme  Unction,  and  46  marriages.  The 
Maryknoll  missionaries  had  the  following  estab¬ 
lishments:  8  districts  staffed,  70  stations,  7  churches, 


Districts 

Christians 

Catechu¬ 

mens 

Confes¬ 

sions 

Com¬ 

munions 

Adults 

Baptisms 

Infants 

Total 

Yeung-kong  . 

618 

405 

1500 

OA(\A 

549 

566 

Fr.  Ford 

Fr.  Vogel 

Fr.  Taggart 

1  i 

\ 

Kao-chau  . 

807 

395 

997 

972 

OA 

42 

66 

Fr.  Meyer 

Fr.  Paschang 

Tung-chan  . 

432 

302 

2385 

3200 

OK 

28 

63 

Fr.  Dietz 

Fr.  Meehan 

oO 

Loting  . 

43 

408 

258 

oc 

101 

136 

Fr.  McShane 

Fr.  Sweeney 

OO 

Tungon  . 

100 

97 

42 

42 

Q 

o 

o 

Attended  from  Wu-chou 

O 

o 

6 

Wu-chou  . 

10 

107 

50 

50 

Fr.  O’Shea 

Fr.  Donovan 

Ping-nam  . 

96 

(Missic 

>n  opened 

this  year) 

Fr.  Wiseman 

Fr.  Murray 

Shi-lung  . 

208 

Fr.  Hodgins 

2010 

2018 

5232 

7008 

111 

723 

834 

The  work  of  the  Society  is  maintained  and 
developed  by  the  co-operation  of  its  associate  or 
“spiritual”  members.  For  these  members  weekly 
Masses  are  offered  by  the  priests,  and  they  are 
remembered  in  the  communions  and  prayers  of  the 
students  and  Sisters.  The  same  spiritual  benefits 
may,  if  desired,  be  applied  to  departed  souls. 
Spiritual  membership  in  the  Society,  with  a  per¬ 
sonal  share  in  its  good  works  and  merits,  is  secured 
by  all  benefactors  and  by  subscribers  to  the  Mary¬ 
knoll  mission  monthly,  “The  Field  Afar.”  Asso¬ 
ciate  membership  for  one  year  is  fifty  cents;  in 
perpetuity,  fifty  dollars,  payable  on  enrolment  or 
within  two  years. 

A  mission  of  25,000  square  miles  in  South  China 
has  been  assigned  to  the  Maryknoll  Society  by 
the  Sacred  College  of  Propaganda  Fide,  Rome.  The 
first  band  of  Maryknoll  priests  left  for  this  field 


30  chapels,  4  infant  asylums  and  orphanages,  20 
schools  for  boys  with  359  pupils,  8  schools  for  girls 
with  124  pupils,  1  industrial  school,  and  3  dis¬ 
pensaries.  It  is  proposed  that  in  addition  to  the 
industrial  school  Maryknoll  conduct  a  boys’  high 
school  and  a  university  hostel  at  Hong-kong.  A 
catechist  or  normal  school  has  been  opened  re¬ 
cently  at  Kochow,  with  Fr.  Meyer  in  charge.  The 
accompanying  table  gives  the  details  of  the  districts 
assigned  to  the  Foreign  Mission  Society  of 
America. 

Foreign  Missions,  Saint  Joseph’s  Society  for 
(cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-521d). — Besides  St.  Joseph’s  Mis¬ 
sionary  College  at  Mill  Hill  London,  there  are 
three  branch  colleges:  St.  Joseph’s  Missiehuis  at 
Pozendaal,  Holland  (erected  1890) ;  St.  Josef’s  Mis- 
sionhaus  at  Brixen,  Tyrol  (1891);  and  St.  Joseph’s 


FOREIGN  MISSIONS 


314 


FOREIGN  MISSIONS 


Studiehuis  at  Tilburg,  Holland  (1912).  At  Vryland, 
near  Arnhem,  Holland,  there  is  a  sanatorium  for 
old,  sick,  and  disabled  missionaries.  The  superior 
general,  resident  at  Mill  Hill,  is  Very  Rev.  Francis 
Henry.  The  Society  comprises  (1922)  about  260 
priests  and  15  lay  brothers.  About  220  of  these 
priests  are  engaged  as  missionaries,  the  others  as 
teachers  in  the  colleges  or  in  the  sanatorium.  There 
are  10  mission  stations  in  the  Belgian  Congo.  In 
1912  the  Caribbean  mission,  including  San  Andres, 
Old  Providence,  and  Corn  Island,  was  confided  by 
the  Holy  See  to  the  Society,  and  in  1921  the  portion 
of  the  Cameroons  under  British  control. 

Sisters  of  St.  Joseph's  Society  for  Foreign  Mis¬ 
sions  of  the  Third  Order  Regular  of  St.  Fiancis 
have  a  novitiate  at  Patricroft,  Manchester,  England. 
The  Sisters  also  have  establishments  at  Mill  Hill, 
boarding  schools  and  an  orphanage  at  Blackburn, 
where  there  are  10  Sisters  in  charge  of  80  to  100  chil¬ 
dren;  Freshfield  (Liverpool) ;  Waterford  and  Cork 
in  Ireland;  Rozendaal  and  Tilburg  in  Holland.  In 
Borneo  there  are  20  Sisters  at  various  mission  sta¬ 
tions.  The  total  number  of  professed  Sisters  in  the 
congregation  is  200. 

Foreign  Missions  of  Milan,  Society  of,  founded 
in  the  year  1850,  under  the  patronage  of  Pope  Pius 
IX  by  the  late  Father  Angelo  Ramazzotti,  then 
an ’Oblate  Father  of  Rho  (Milan),  who  was  after¬ 
wards  consecrated  Bishop  of  Pavia,  and  subse¬ 
quently  elected  Patriarch  of  Venice.  The  Society 
is  a  “Pious  Association  of  Secular  Priests,”  who 
devote  themselves  freely  to  the  work  of  missionaries 
on  the  mission  field  in  heathen  countries  (India, 
Burma,  and  China),  for  the  conversion  of  infidels. 
They  are  directed  in  their  life  work  by  a  rule 
approved  by  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Propa¬ 
ganda.  At  present  there  are  entrusted  to  this 
Society  seven  large  missions:  the  Dioceses _  of 
Hyderabad-Deccan  and  Krishnagar  and  the  Vica¬ 
riates  Apostolic  of  Eastern  Burma,  Hong-Kong, 
Northern  Ho-nan,  Southern  Ho-nan,  and  Eastern 
Ho-nan. 

The  Fathers  have  under  their  care  about  60,000,- 
000  infidels.  The  mother-house,  to  which  the 
seminary  for  the  students  of  theology  is  attached 
and  where  at  present  there  are  40  students,  is  at 
Milan.  Besides  this  seminary  the  Society  had  an 
apostolic  school  at  Monza  with  33  students  of 
philosophy,  another  at  Genoa  with  37  alumni,  and 
a  fourth  recently  opened  at  Aversa  (near  Naples) 
with  a  few  alumni.  From  the  last  statistics  (1920) 
the  Catholics  in  all  seven  missions  number  141,000, 
besides  36,000  catechumens.  There  are  in  all  247 
churches  and  1001  chapels.  The  missionaries  work¬ 
ing  in  the  missions  at  present  are  121  in  number, 
aided  by  35  native  priests ;  and  with  25  lay  brothers 
on  the  teaching  staff.  There  are  also  528  nuns  of 
different  religious  orders,  who  have  charge  of 
orphans,  of  schools  for  girls,  of  hospitals,  and  other 
charitable  institutions.  There  are  1881  catechists 
and  teachers  in  the  712  colleges  and  schools  of  the 
missions.  In  1920  there  were  29,500  baptisms,  of 
which  7934  were  of  adults. 

Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  Society  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
XIV-79d) .— Part  of  the  vast  territory  in  Japan 
evangelized  by  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions  of 
Paris  has  been  confided  to  other  congregations,  this 
being  necessary  because  of  the  extent  of  territory, 
the  density  of  population,  and  the  diversity  of 
languages.  In  1912  the  Congregation  of  the  Divine 
Word  was  entrusted  with  3  departments  of  the 
Diocese  of  Hakodate  and  two  departments  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Tokio,  but  no  canonical  erection 
of  prefecture  or  vicariate  was  made;  on  12  February, 


1915,  was  erected  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Sap¬ 
poro,  comprising  Hokkaido  (Yezo),  the  Chishima 
islands  (Kruile),  Karafuto  (Sakhalin),  detached 
from  the  Diocese  of  Hakodate  and  confided  to  the 
German  Franciscans  of  the  Province  of  Thuringia; 
finally  the  Jesuits  of  the  German  province  have 
been  assigned  the  departments  of  Yamaguchi, 
Shimane,  Hiroshima,  Tottori,  and  Okayama,  though 
no  canonical  erection  has  yet  been  made  of  an 
ecclesiastical  division.  The  Society  retains  the 
Archdiocese  of  Tokio,  and  the  three  dioceses  of 
Nagasaki,  Osaka,  and  Hakodate,  diminished  m  ex¬ 
tent  by  the  loss  of  the  departments  mentioned. 
The  province  of  Kwang-tung,  which  formed  a  single 
vicariate,  was  divided  in  1914  into  2  vicariates . 
Canton  and  Swatow.  In  1920  the  Vicariate  of  Can¬ 
ton  was  again  subdivided  into  the  2  vicariates  of 
Canton  and  Western  Kwang-tung  and  Hainan. 
These  last  two  vicariates  Apostolic  and  also  Swatow 
remain  under  the  direction  of  the  Society ;  the 
Vicariate  of  Siu-chow  has  been  confided  to  the 
Salesians.  Since  1918  the  American  Foreign  Mis¬ 
sions  of  Mary  knoll  have  labored  in  Yeung-kong 
under  the  authority  of  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Can¬ 
ton,  in  preparation  for  the  erection  of  an  eccle¬ 
siastical  division  under  their  care.  The  Society  of 
Foreign  Missions  of  Paris  at  present  (1921)  has 
under  its  direction  36  dioceses  and  vicariates  apos¬ 
tolic,  of  which  6  are  in  Japan  and  Corea,  11  in 
China,  9  in  Eastern  Indo-China,  4  in  Western  Indo- 
China,  and  4  in  the  south  of  India.  The  Japanese 
missions  are  Tokio,  Nagasaki,  Osaka,  and  Hakodate, 
Seoul  and  Taiku  are  in  Corea.  The  Chinese  ^mis¬ 
sions  are:  Western  Sze-ch’wan,  Eastern  Sze-chwan, 
Southern  Sze-ch’wan,  Kien-chang,  Yun-nan,  Kwei- 
chou,  Canton,  Western  Kwang-tung,  and  Hainan, 
Swatow,  Kwang-si,  Southern  Manchuria,  Northern 
Manchuria,  and  Tibet.  In  Eastern  Indo-China  are: 
Western  Tong-king,  Southern  Tong-king,  Upper 
Tong-king,  Maritime  Tong-king,  Eastern  Cochin 
China,  Western  Cochin  China,  Northern  Cochin 
China,  Cambodia,  and  Laos.  In  Western  Indo- 
China  are  Siam,  Malacca,  Southern  Burma  and 
Northern  Burma.  In  India  are:  Pondicherry, 
Mysore,  Coimbatore,  and  Kumbakonam. 

The  World  War  seriously  affected  the  Society 
and  the  missions.  Among  those  who  enlisted  at 
the  beginning  were  5  directors,  103  Aspirants,  and 
2  lay  brothers  from  the  Seminary  at  Paris,  and 
150  priests  and  1  bishop  from  the  missions.  Of  the 
55  missionaries  in  Eastern  Sze-ch’wan,  _  14  were 
mobilized;  in  Canton,  12  out  of  40;  16  in  Pondi¬ 
cherry;  17  in  Eastern  Cochin  China;  in  Seoul,  13 
out  of  26.  In  the  following  December  there  were 
already  among  these  9  killed,  7  prisoners,  and 
about  20  wounded.  By  the  end  of  the  war,  in 
November,  1918,  46  priests  and  seminarians  had 
given  their  lives  for  France.  To  insure  the  care 
of  souls  the  bishops  reassigned  their  districts,  they 
themselves  undertaking  the  direction  of  one  or 
more  parishes  and  also  teaching  in  the  seminaries, 
so  that  spiritual  needs  might  be  met^  When  the 
war  was  over  the  mobilized  missionaries  returned 
to  their  missions,  where  death  ^  had  left  many 
vacancies  among  the  veterans  of  the  apostolate. 
In  August,  1914,  the  Society  numbered  1385  mem¬ 
bers  and  in  November,  1918,  only  1222,  this  being 
a  loss  of  163  members.  At  the  same  time  financial 
resources  had  greatly  diminished,  due  to  the  depre¬ 
ciation  in  value  of  French  money.  The  high  rate 
of  exchange  affected  charitable  institutions,  such  as 
orphanages  and  hospitals.  Though  far  from  good, 
financial  conditions  are  now  improved. 

In  1918  the  cause  of  the  Martyrs  of  Corea  was 
introduced  at  Rome,  These  were  2  bishqps  (Mgr. 


FOREIGN  MISSIONS  315  FOREIGN  MISSIONS 


Berneux  and  Mgr.  Daveluy),  7  missionaries,  and 
17  faithful  all  beheaded  in  1866,  and  20  Christians 
martyred  in  1860  and  1862.  The  Apostolic  Letter 
“Maximum  Illud,”  issued  by  Benedict  XV  in  1919, 
called  attention  to  the  need  for  native  clergy.  Mgr. 
Petrelli  had  been  sent  to  Japan  as  Apostolic  dele¬ 
gate  in  1916  and  1917  and  Mgr.  Fumasoni-Biondi 
in  1920.  In  1919  Mgr.  de  Guebriant,  of  the  Society 
of  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Canton,  was  named  apostolic  visitor  in  China.  The 
Holy  See  thus  took  a  particular  interest  in  the 
extension  and  cultivation  of  the  missionary  field. 
To  meet  the  needs  of  the  situation,  the  bishops 
of  the  Society,  which  heretofore  had  no  superior 
general,  met  at  Hong-kong  in  April,  1921,  and  elected 
as  first  superior  of  the  Seminary  and  of  the  Society 
of  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  Mgr.  de  Guebriant. 
Born  in  Paris,  11  December,  1860,  ordained  priest 
5  July,  1885,  the  same  year  Mgr.  Jean-Baptiste- 
Marie  Budes  de  Guebriant  went  as  a  missionary 
to  Southern  Sze-ch’wan,  in  1894  was  made  pro¬ 
vicar,  and  in  1910  Bishop  of  Eurcea  and  Vicar  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  Kien-Chang,  in  1916  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Canton  and  in  December,  1921,  Archbishop  of 
Marcianopolis. 

The  missionaries  are  assisted  in  their  labors  by 
the  native  clergy,  the  catechists,  and  religious.  In 
1912  there  were  889  native  priests  in  all  the  missions 
of  the  Society;  in  1915  there  were  984;  in  1918, 
1073;  and  1920,  1109.  In  1912  in  Southern  Tong- 
king  11  priests  were  ordained;  in  1916  in  Western 
Tong-king,  8;  in  1918  in  Eastern  Sze-ch’wan,  4;  in 
1910  in  Siam,  6;  in  1920  in  Western  Cochin  China, 
6.  The  missions  possessing  the  greatest  number  of 
native  priests  in  1920  were:  Western  Tong-king, 
136;  Southern  Tong-king,  127;  Western  Cochin 
China,  91.  According  to  countries  they  may  be 
listed  (1920)  as  follows:  Japan  and  Corea,  62; 
Chian,  251;  Eastern  Indo-China,  660;  Western 
Indo-China,  60 ;  India,  76.  Among  the  native  clergy 
recently  deceased  are:  Fr.  Joseph  Tong  (d.  1913), 
of  Eastern  Sze-ch’wan;  Fr.  Trinn  (d.  1915),  curate 
of  Hanoi  for  thirty-five  years;  Frs.  Andre  Vai 
(d.  1916),  and  Jacques  Ichang  (d.  1916),  of  Man¬ 
churia;  Fr.  Huyen  (d.  1916),  of  Western  Tong-king, 
ninety  years  of  age  and  fifty-eight  years  a  priest, 
the  last  survivor  of  the  great  persecution  of  Tu-duc, 
during  which  he  ministered  to  the  confessors  of 
the  faith  imprisoned  at  Nam  Dinh,  hearing  their 
confessions,  bringing  them  Holy  Communion,  and 
giving  them  final  absolution;  Fr.  Tin  (d.  1918), 
former  confessor  of  the  faith,  imprisoned  during 
the  persecution  of  1859;  Frs.  Doanh  Chan  and 
Chuong  (d.  1918),  of  Northern  Cochin  China;  Frs. 
Duong,  Chinh,  Khu,  Tan,  Duoc,  Qui,  Due,  Van, 
and  Le  (d.  between  1912  and  1916),  of  Western 
Cochin  China;  Frs.  Chien,  Tsung,  and  Vien  (d. 
1918),  of  Western  Cochin  China;  Frs.  Giang  and 
Hoc  (d.  1918),  of  Cambodia;  Fr.  Araya  (d.  1918), 
the  first  priest  of  Hakodate.  In  1912  the  catechists 
numbered  3330;  in  1920  there  were  3449.  Schools 
for  catechists  have  been  founded  at:.  Chang-Chun, 
in  Northern  Manchuria  (1912),  Thai  in  Maritime 
Tong-king  (1913);  Taiku,  in  Corea  (1915)  for 
women  catechists;  Southern  Sze-ch’wan  and  Kwei- 
chou  (1916);  Kai-nhum,  in  Western  Cochin  China 
(1920).  In  1920  Nagasaki  had  578  catechists;  West¬ 
ern  Tong-king,  449;  and  Southern  Tong-king,  215. 
The  native  religious  are  very  few,  not  more  than  a 
hundred  men.  Religious  orders  of  native  women  are 
more  numerous:  in  Eastern  Indo-China  the  lovers 
of  the  Cross  number  over  3000;  in  China  there 
are  many  Christian  Virgins.  In  Eastern  Sze-ch’wan 
in  1912  Fr.  Derouin  established  the  Chinese  con¬ 
gregation  of  the  Servants  of  the  Sacred  Heart  for 


the  instruction  of  young  girls.  In  Manchuria  the 
native  religious  of  the  Holy  Heart  of  Mary  have 
installed  several  convents.  Carmelite  convents 
have  been  founded  at  Hue  (1912),  Pnom-Penh 
(1919),  and  Chung-king  (1920).  The  European 
congregations  have  received  into  their  congregations 
about  1500  natives.  The  religious  orders  of  both 
men  and  women  of  all  nationalities  numbered  7630 
members  in  1920. 

Since  1912  there  has  been  a  total  of  274,333  con¬ 
versions  in  the  missions  confided  to  the  Society  of 
Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  with  an  annual  average 
of  30,482;  in  1920  there  were  28,883.  There  have 
been  (1912-20)  3120  abjurations  of  Protestants; 
1,096,650  baptisms  of  pagan  children  in  articulo 
mortis;  the  number  of  confessions  and  communions 
has  been  very  high.  Of  recent  years  several  asso¬ 
ciations  have  been  organized  and  others  re-estab¬ 
lished,  such  as  the  Confraternity  of  the  Holy  and 
Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary  in  Siam,  the  Children 
of  Mary  at  Pondicherry,  the  Confraternity  of  Chris¬ 
tian  Mothers  at  Kwei-chou.  Nocturnal  adoration 
has  been  organized  at  Maritime  Tong-king.  On  26 
July,  1914,  a  Eucharistic  feast,  in  union  with  the 
international  Eucharistic  Congress  at  London,  was 
celebrated  at  Kien-chang.  The  Enthronement  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  in  the  schools  and  families  has 
been  established  in  Burma,  Cochin  China,  Tong- 
king,  Japan,  Sze-ch’wan.  Pilgrimages,  especially 
that  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  at  La-Vang  in  Northern 
Cochin  China  and  that  of  St.  Anthony  at  Kolar, 
in  Mysore,  are  much  frequented.  Weeks  of  reli¬ 
gious  conferences  and  the  association  called  the 
Catholic  Bond  have  been  organized  in  Burma.  The 
Catholic  Association,  founded  at  Tien-tsin,  has 
spread  throughout  the  Chinese  missions.  The  Soci¬ 
ety  for  Catholic  Youth  is  established  at  Taiku 
in  Corea.  Many  reviews  and  bulletins  are  pub¬ 
lished  such  as  “Le  Semeur,”  “The  Friend,”  and 
“The  Voice”  in  Southern  Burma,  parochial  bulletins 
at  Taiku  in  Corea,  “La  Verite”  published  in  Chinese 
at  Chung-king,  the  “Petit  Messager  Paroissial” 
in  Coimbatore,  the  “Recherche  de  la  Verite”  in 
Northern  Manchuria,  the  “Echo  de  l’Assomption” 
in  Siam. 

In  1912  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions  had  5950 
churches,  oratories,  and  chapels;  in  1920  there  were 
6393.  All  the  older  missions  have  seminaries  and 
some  of  those  recently  created  have  established 
them.  Maritime  Tong-king  opened  its  seminary  in 
1912,  as  did  also  Kien-chang.  Taiku  opened  a 
seminary  in  1914.  In  1920  seminarians  from  Japan, 
Corea,  China,  and  Cochin  China  were  sent  to  Rome 
to  make  their  theological  studies  at  the  College  of 
Propaganda.  The  general  seminary  established 
at  Penang  to  receive  seminarians  from  all  the  mis¬ 
sions  had  74  pupils  in  1912  and  97  in  1920.  Colleges, 
boarding  and  day  schools  of  good  standing  have 
also  been  established.  These  totaled  326  with  19,818 
pupils  in  1912,  and  357  with  24,037  pupils  in  1920. 
Printing  presses  have  been  established  to  supply 
the  necessary  books.  There  were  6  in  1912  and 
since  then  one  has  been  installed  at  Ninh-Binh  in 
Maritime  Tong-king  and  another  at  Ghirin  in 
Northern  Manchuria.  The  largest  printing  press 
of  the  Society  is  at  Hong-Kong.  Nearly  all  the 
missions  have  orphanages  for  boys  in  charge  of 
the  missionaries  and  orphanages  for  girls  directed 
by  nuns.  In  1912  these  numbered  452  with  24,009 
children;  in  1920  there  were  429  with  about  the 
same  number  of  children,  the  decrease  in  the  num¬ 
ber  of  institutions  being  due  to  diminution  of 
resources.  For  the  same  reason  there  were  fewer 
hospitals,  hospices,  leper-hospitals,  and  dispensaries 
(582)  in  1920  than  in  1912  (636).  Most  of  these 


FOREIGN  MISSIONS 


316 


FORLI 


institutions  were  constructed  by  the  missionaries 
from  their  personal  means  or  at  the  expense  ot  tne 
mission,  and  put  under  the  charge  of  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Paul  of  Chartres,  Sisters  of  Providence,  French 
Missionaries  of  Mary,  or  the  Little  Sisters  of  the 
Poor 

Among  notable  members  of  the  Society  recently 
deceased  are:  J.  B.  Guerlach  (b.  1858;  d*  1®  ), 

missionary  in  Eastern  Cochin  China;  Jules 
Lemarechal  (b.  1842;  d.  1912),  missionary  m  Japan 
vicar  general  at  Tokio  in  1888,  author  of  several 

devotional  works  in  Japanese  and*  J5Piq19V 
French  dictionary;  Jean  Bruyere  (b.  1852;  d.  WU), 
missionary  in  Western  Cochin  China,  reformed  and 
developed  the  religious  congregation  o :  the  Lovers 
of  the  Cross;  Francois  Belleville  (b. 1860,  d.  1912), 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Southern  Tong-kmg  m  1911 -and 
Bishop  of  Amisus;  Edouard  Gourdm  (b.  1838,  d. 

1912) ,  missionary  in  Southern  Sze-chwan,  authoi 
of  a  Chinese-French  dictionary  and  other  works; 
Pierre  Cazenave  (b.  1834;  d.  1912),  director  of  the 
seminary  at  Paris  in  1867,  assistant  to  the  superior 
in  1880,  and  procurator  general  at  Rome  fr°m 

till  his  death;  Auguste  Desgodm  (b.  1826;  d  1913), 
missionary  in  Tibet,  explorer  and  geographei,  re¬ 
ceived  academic  honors  for  his  geographic  work, 
one  of  the  compilers  of  a  Tibetan-Latin-French 
dictionary,  author  of  “Le  Thibet”  “Bouddhisme 
d’apres  les  Bouddhistes” ;  Armand  Dessamt  (b. 
1831;  d.  1913),  missionary  in  Mysore,  founder  of 
the  Sisters  of  Pity,  a  religious  community  of  young 
widows,  who,  according  to  the  custom  of  India  are 
not  permitted  to  remarry,  author  and  translator 
of  works  in  Canara  and  of  “A  Manual  of  Medi¬ 
cine”;  Hugues  Bottero  (b.  1837;  d.  1913),  mis¬ 
sionary  in  Pondicherry,  professor  at  the  Colonial 
College  and  the  College  of  St.  Joseph  at  Cuddalore, 
Bishop  of  Kumbakonam  (1889),  conversant  in 
French,  English,  Italian,  Tamul,  Bengalese  and 
Hindoustan,  orator  and  writer,  translator  of  the 
Bible  into  Tamul;  Jacques  Vissac  (b  1848;  d. 

1913) ,  missionary  in  Mysore,  principal  ot  the  Col¬ 
lege  of  St.  Joseph  at  Bangalore;  Jean-Frangois 
Genibrel  (b.  1851;  d.  1914),  missionary  in  Western 
Cochin  China,  director  of  the  printing  press  at 
Tandinh,  composer  of  Annamite-French  dictionaries 
and  lexicon;  Joseph  Grosjean  (b.  1859;  d.  1914), 
missionary  in  Northern  Cochin  China,  professor  at 
the  preparatorv  seminary  where  he  composed  a 
method  of  harmony  in  Annamite,  founder  of  twelve 
mission  stations  in  Quang-tri,  director  of  the  semi- 
narv  at  Paris  (1892),  procurator  general  at  Rome 
(1912);  Henri  Pianet  (b.  1852;  d.  1915),  missionary 
in  Cambodia;  Eugene  Luce  (b.  1863;  d.  1915),  mis¬ 
sionary  in  Southern  Burma,  member  of  the  council 
of  public  instruction,  founder  of  ‘The  Voice, 
a  monthly  review;  Marie  Dunand  (b.  1841;  d. 
1915),  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Western  Sze-ch’wan  m 
1893  and  Bishop  of  Caloe;  Urbain  Faurie  (b  1847; 
d  1915),  missionary  in  Japan,  evangelized  the  dis¬ 
trict  of  Hiroshima,  director  of  the  seminary  at 
Paris,  chaplain  in  the  French  army,  killed  in  action ; 
Joseph- Adolphe  Klinger  (b.  1852;  d.  1916),  mis¬ 
sionary  in  Southern  Tong-king;  defended  over 
2000  faithful  at  Xa-doai  during  the  Annamite  perse¬ 
cution;  Charles-Emile  Lesserteur  (b.  1841,  d.  1916), 
missionary  in  Western  Tong-king,  superior  of  the 
seminary  at  Paris,  author  of  several  works;  Jean 
Darras  (b.  1835;  d.  1916),  missionary  in  Pondi¬ 
cherry,  baptized  over  35,000  m  India,  published 
an  account  of  part  of  his  apostolate;  Marius 
Guiraud  (b.  1876;  d.  1916),  missionary  in  Mysore, 
professor  at  the  seminary  of  Pondicherry,  superior 
of  the  seminary  at  Bangalore,  director  of  the  semi¬ 
nary  at  Paris,  military  infirmarian  during  the  war, 


prisoner  in  Germany  for  a  year,  published  an  ac¬ 
count  of  his  imprisonment  (Paris,  1915),  was  re¬ 
stored  to  liberty  and  returned  to  the  front,  killed 
in  the  Argonne;  Frangois  Bonnetraine  (b.  1843;  d. 

1917) ,  missionary  in  Mysore,  founder  of  orphan¬ 
ages  and  hospitals,  superior  of  the  sanatorium  at 
Wellington;  Jules  Chatron  (b.  1844;  d.  1917), 
Bishop  of  Osaka;  Marius- Antoine-Louis  Caspar  (b. 
1841;  d.  1917),  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Western  Cochin 
China  in  1880  and  Bishop  of  Canatha,  author  of 
several  works;  Paul  Vial  (b.  1855;  d.  1917),  mis¬ 
sionary  in  Yun-nan,  composed  prayers  and  a 
catechism  in  Lolo  and  published  several  works; 
Louis-Philippe  Montmayeur  (b.  1836;  d.  1917), 
missionary  in  Eastern  Cochin  China;  Albert  Pelu 
(b.  1848;  d.  1918),  missionary  in  Japan  in  charge 
of  the  Goto  islands;  Frangois  Guego  (b.  1855;  d. 

1918) ,  missionary  in  Siam,  at  Laos;  Jacques  Drouhm 
(b.  1872;  d.  1918),  missionary  in  Pondicherry; 
Eugene  Murcier  (b.  1880;  d.  1918),  missionary  in 
Pondicherry;  Noel  Rondy  (b.  1848;  d.  1919),  mis¬ 
sionary  in  Coimbatore;  Joseph  Ferrie  (b.  1856;  d. 

1919) ,  missionary  in  Japan,  secretary  and  inter¬ 
preter  of  the  French  legation,  received  honorary 
decorations,  vicar  general  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Tokio;  Yves  le  Page  (b.  1850;  d.  1919),  missionary 
in  Western  Tong-king,  formerly  pontifical  zouave 
at  Rome  and  soldier  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War 
of  1870;  Marie  Aubazac  (b.  1871;  d.  1919),  mis¬ 
sionary  in  Kwang-tong,  author  of  several  works  in 
Chinese  and  of  a  French-Canton  dictionary;  Lucien 
Mossard  (b.  1851;  d.  1920),  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Western  Cochin  China  in  1899  and  Bishop  of  Medea, 
collaborated  with  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Cambodia 
in  the  publication  of  a  directory,  was  sent  to  Rome 
to  look  over  the  rule  of  the  Society;  Joseph  Charge- 
bceuf  (b.  1867;  d.  1920),  missionary  in  Corea, 
superior  of  the  seminary  at  Kyong-wan  (1897), 
later  superior  of  the  seminary  at  Taiku,  evangelized 
the  Mokfo  islands,  author  of  several  works;  Con¬ 
stant  Prodhomme  (b.  1849;  d.  1920)  Vicar  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  Laos  and  Bishop  of  Gerasa. 

Forgery  (cf.  C.  E.  VI-135).— All  those  who  forge 
letters,  decrees  or  rescripts  of  the  Holy  See  incur 
excommunication ;  if  they  are  clerics  they  are  to  be 
further  punished  as  the  ordinary  thinks  fitting, 
even  by  depriving  them  of  their  benefice,  office, 
dignity,  and  ecclesiastical  pension;  if  they  are  reli¬ 
gious  they  are  to  be  deprived  of  their  office  and 
of  active  and  passive  voice,  and  may  be  subjected 
to  other  penalties  provided  by  their  constitutions. 
In  case  of  other  ecclesiastical  documents,  the  ordi¬ 
nary  is  to  inflict  suitable  punishment  on  the  same 
parties,  depriving  the  guilty  one  of  his  office  if  he 
falsified  documents  which  he  was  charged  with 

drawing  up  or  preserving. 

Codex  juris  canonici,  2360-63;  Ayrinhac,  Penal  Legislation, 

320-23. 

Forli,  Diocese  of  (Foroliviensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VI- 
137a),  in  the  province  of  Emilia,  Northern  Italy, 
suffragan  of  Ravenna.  The  present  bishop,  Rt. 
Rev.  Raimundo  Jaffei,  has  filled  this  see  since  1895; 
b.  in  Bagnaia  in  the  diocese  of  Viterbo  I  Novem¬ 
ber,  1847,  ordained  at  Fermo,  appointed  bishop  18 
March,  1895,  and  made  an  assistant  to  the  pon¬ 
tifical  throne  17  April,  1920.  According  to  1922 
statistics  the  diocese  numbers  61  parishes,  102 
churches,  101  secular  and  15  regular  priests,  2  semi¬ 
naries,  1  in  Forli,  1  in  Bologna,  and  26  seminarians; 
1  university  in  Bologna,  1  college  for  men  with  150 
boys,  4  for  women  with  250  girls,  1  normal  school 
with  450  pupils,  4  training  schools,  50  elementary 
schools  with  15,000  pupils,  1  industrial  school,  4 
missionary  organizations,  1  home,  10  asylums,  1 
hospital.  The  gymnasium,  lyceum,  normal,  and 


FORMOSA 


317 


FORUM 


technical  schools  receive  Government  support.  The 
societies  organized  in  the  diocese  include  the 
Mutual  Aid  Society  among  the  clergy,  and  twenty 
different  associations  among  the  laity.  A  diocesan 
synod  was  held  in  April,  1920.  Patriotic  works 
were  organized  in  the  diocese  during  the  World 
War  by  Mgr.  Adamo  Pasini,  and  met  with  zealous 
co-operation  from  both  the  clergy  *and  laity;  war 
orphans  were  cared  for,  an  association  for  soldiers’ 
families  was  formed,  and  a  home  for  soldiers  estab¬ 
lished  in  the  diocese. 

Formosa,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (Insult 
Formosa),  comprises  the  island  of  the  same  name 
and  the  twelve  civil  prefectures  known  as  the 
Pesadores,  subject  to  Japan.  It  was  evangelized 
in  1626,  later  in  1860,  and  by  a  decree  of  19  July, 
1913,  it  was  erected  into  a  prefecture  apostolic  and 
separated  from  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Amoy 
and  entrusted  to  the  Dominicans  of  the  Philip¬ 
pines,  with  official  residence  at  Taipeh.  Rt.  Rev. 
Clemente  Fernandez,  b.  in  Penemdes,  in  the  Dio¬ 
cese  of  Oviedo,  17  October,  1879,  professed  17 
November,  1895,  ordained  priest  8  September,  1903, 
was  appointed  first  Prefect  Apostolic  of  Formosa, 
2  September,  1913.  He  was  succeeded  by  Rev. 
Thomas  de  la  Hoz,  0.  P.,  appointed  1  August, 
1921.  There  were  in  1912  out  of  a  total  population 
of  3,290,978,  3533  Catholics,  10  Spanish  Dominicans, 
31  catechists,  30  churches  and  chapels,  and  3 
Dominican  Sisters. 

Fort-Dauphin,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (de  Fort- 
Dauphin;  cf.  C.  E.,  XVI-83b),  in  Southern 
Madagascar,  with  residence  at  Fort-Dauphin. 
Erected  16  January,  1896,  under  the  name  of  South¬ 
ern  Madagascar,  it  was  changed  to  Fort-Dauphin, 
20  May,  1913;  it  is  entrusted  to  the  Lazarists.  The 
vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Jean-Jacques  Crouzet,  a 
Lazarist,  b.  in  Lansargue  in  the  Diocese  of  Mont¬ 
pellier,  1  April,  1849,  entered  the  Congregation  of 
the  Mission  12  October,  1868,  was  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Zephyrium,  11  September,  1886,  conse¬ 
crated  at  Paris,  28  October,  1888,  named  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Abyssinia  (16  January,  1896),  and  later 
of  Fort-Dauphin.  According  to  1920  statistics  the 
vicariate  has  approximately  800,000  inhabitants, 
20,000  of  whom  are  Catholics;  18  missionary  priests, 
12  churches,  25  schools,  and  15  Sisters  of  Charity. 

Fort  Wayne,  Diocese  of  (Wayne  Castrensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  VI-150c),  in  Indiana,  U.  S.  A.,  suffragan 
of  Cincinnati,  has  a  Catholic  population  of  151,000. 
It  is  at  present  under  the  administration  of  Rt. 
Rev.  Herman  Joseph  Alerding,  born  13  August, 
1846,  in  the  Diocese  of  Covington,  ordained  22 
September,  1868,  curate  at  Terre  Haute,  rector  at 
Cambridge,  and  for  26  years  at  St.  Joseph’s  in 
Indianapolis,  elected  bishop  30  August,  1900,  con¬ 
secrated  30  November  following,  succeeding  Rt. 
Rev.  Joseph  Rademacher  (b.  8  December,  1840; 
d.  12  January,  1900). 

The  diocesan^ statistics  for  1922  are:  138  parishes, 
33  missions,  179  secular  and  152  regular  priests; 
convents  :  men  1,  women  4,  with  2052  in  the  various 
communities;  Holy  Cross  Seminary  with  39  semi¬ 
narians,  1  university  with  90  professors,  1800  stu¬ 
dents;  1  college  for  men  with  20  teachers,  340  stu¬ 
dents;  1  college  for  women  with  434  students;  2  high 
schools,  8  academies  with  450  pupils,  6  normal 
schools,  7  training  schools  for  nurses,  104  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  with  an  attendance  of  25,582  pupils. 

The  different  nationalities  represented  in  the  dio¬ 
cese  with  their  approximate  numbers  are:  American- 
born,  100,000;  Polish,  about  20,000;  Lithuanian, 
30,000;  Slovaks,  8000;  Italians,  1000;  Greeks,  2000; 


Croatians,  5000;  and  others  Spanish,  Mexican,  Hun¬ 
garian,  etc. 

-The  missionary  work  is  carried  out  by  the  Fort 
Wayne  Apostolate.  I  he  charitable  establishments 
include  2  homes  for  the  aged,  2  diocesan  orphan 
asylums,  15  hospitals,  1  settlement  house  (Bishop 
Alerding- Judge  Gory  Settlement  house).  All  pub¬ 
lic  institutions  are  self-supporting,  and  the  priests 
are  never  forbidden  to  minister  in  these  institu¬ 
tions. 

A  weekly  paper,  “Our  Sunday  Visitor,”  founded 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  John  F.  Noll  in  1912,  is  published 
in  the  diocese,  and  has  at  present  a  subscription 
of  more  than  half  a  million.  In  December,  1921 
the  founder  and  editor  was  honored  by  the  Holy 
See  with  the  title  of  domestic  prelate.  A  society 
for  the  relief  of  infirm  priests  is  organized  among 
the  clergy.  During  the  World  War  six  priests 
served  as  chaplains  in  the  army  and  navy,  and 
the  Catholics  in  the  service  held  the  same  propor¬ 
tion  as  in  other  parts  of  the  country. 

Fortaleza  (or  Ceara),  Archdiocese  of  (For- 
talexiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VI-145d),  in  the  State  of 
Ceara,  Brazil,  was  raised  to  metropolitan  rank  10 
November,  1915.  By  decrees  of  20  October,  1914, 
and  10  November,  1915,  the  dioceses  of  Crato  and 
Sobral,  its  suffragans,  were  erected  from  this  ter¬ 
ritory;  the  new  boundaries  established  24  January, 
1919,  include  an  area  of  about  11,882  sq.  miles.  The 
bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Manuel  Da  Silva  Gomez,  b. 
in  Bahia,  14  March,  1874,  studied  in  the  Seminary 
of  Bahia,  was  ordained  15  November,  1896,  pro¬ 
fessor  at  the  seminary  3  February,  1893,  chancellor 
of  Bahia,  15  November,  1899,  appointed  titular 
bishop  of  Mopsuestia  and  auxiliary  at  Fortaleza, 
11  April,  1911,  consecrated  29  October  following, 
transferred  16  September,  1912,  enthroned  8  Decem¬ 
ber,  succeeding  Mgr.  Joachim  Joseph  Vieira.  He 
was  named  first  Archbishop  of  Fortaleza,  10 
November,  1915.  There  are  in  the  diocese  (1920) 
771,120  Catholics,  832  Protestants,  12  Jews,  78  par¬ 
ishes,  106  secular  and  5  regular  priests,  234  churches 
or  chapels. 

Forty  Hours’  Devotion  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-151).— The 

Forty  Hours’  devotion  is  to  be  held  each  year  on 
appointed  days  in  all  the  churches  in  *  which  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  is  kept,  with  greater  solemnity 
than  usual.  If  for  a  grave  reason  this  cannot  be 
done,  the  local  ordinary  is  to  have  solemn  exposi¬ 
tion  for  a  few  hours  at  least. 

Forum  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-153c). — The  following  rules 
are  laid  down  in  the  Code  for  determining  the 
proper  forum  for  ecclesiastical  suits.  The  plaintiff 
is  to  sue  in  the  forum  of  the  defendant,  but  if  the 
defendant  has  several  fora  the  plaintiff  is  entitled 
to  make  the  choice.  Actions  de  spolio  must  be 
tried  before  the  local  ordinary  of  the  place  where 
the  object  is  situated,  as  must  actions  about 
benefices;  administration  suits  come  before  the  or¬ 
dinary  of  the  place  of  administration;  suits  regard¬ 
ing  inheritance  or  pious  bequests  come  before  the 
local  ordinary  of  the  place  where  the  testator  had 
his  domicile.  By  reason  of  his  domicile  or  quasi¬ 
domicile  anyone  can  be  summoned  before  the  local 
ordinary,  who,  moreover,  has  jurisdiction  over  his 
subjects  even  when  they  are  absent.  A  traveler 
who  is  in  Rome  can  be  summoned  there  just  as  if 
it  was  his  home;  but  he  has  the  right  of  going 
home  and  requesting  that  the  suit  be  sent  before 
his  own  ordinary.  If  a  person,  however,  has  been 
in  Rome  for  a  year,  he  may  insist  on  being  cited 
before  the  Roman  courts.  The  proper  forum  of  a 
religious  is  where  his  house  is  situated;  the  forum 
of  a  vagus  is  wherever  he  chances  to  be.  If  an 


FOSSANO 


318 


FRANCE 


action  is  in  rem  the  suit  may  be  brought  before 
the  local  ordinary  of  the  place  where  the  thing  is. 
In  virtue  of  a  contract  one  may  be  cited  before 
the  local  ordinary,  either  of  the  place  where  it  was 
made  or  where  it  is  to  be  executed,  though  the 
parties  may  stipulate  in  a  contract  what  is  to  be 
the  forum  in  case  of  a  dispute.  A  culprit  is  to  be 
cited  in  the  place  where  the  crime  was  committed, 
and  the  local  judge  may  pass  sentence  on  him 
even  if  he  has  left.  If  there  should  be  two  judges 
of  equal  competence,  a  suit  is  to  be  tried  by  him 

who  first  took  cognizance  of  it. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  1559-68. 

Fossano,  Diocese  of  (Fossanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VI-154c),  in  the  province  of  Cuneo,  Northern  Italy, 
a  suffragan  of  Turin.  The  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Quirico 
Travaini,  who  was  archpriest  of  Trecata,  in  the 
Diocese  of  Novara  at  the  time  of  his  appointment, 
16  January,  1919,  was  proclaimed  10  March  follow¬ 
ing,  to  succeed  Mgr.  Giosue  Signori,  transferred 
to  the  Diocese  of  Alessandria  della  Paglia,  23 
December,  1918.  The,  diocese  comprises  (1920) 
36,000  Catholics;  25  parishes,  100  secular  and  20 
regular  priests,  32  seminarians,  9  Brothers,  95  Sis¬ 
ters,  45  churches  or  chapels. 

Fossombrone,  Diocese  of  (Forosemproniensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  VI-154d),  in  the  province  of  Pesaro, 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Urbino.  The  present  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Pascal  Righetti,  b.  at  Cornice  m  the  dio¬ 
cese  of  Brugnato  29  May,  1868,  served  as  vicar 
general,  canon  of  the  archpresbytery  of  Brugnato 
appointed  bishop  19  February,  1914,  consecrated 
14  May  following,  as  successor  to  Rt.  Rev.  Aehille 
Quadrozzi  (b.  22  March,  1846;  d.  5  December, 
1913).  There  are  at  present  (1922)  in  the  diocese 
40  parishes,  71  churches,  51  secular  and  3  regular 
priests,  1  lay  brother,  4  nuns,  1  convent  for  men, 

1  seminary  with  20  seminarians,  2  asylums.  A  civil 
hospital  and  an  orphanage  for  girls  admit  the  min- 
istry  of  the  priests;  several  societies  are  organized 
among  the  laity.  During  the  war  thirteen  clergy¬ 
men  of  the  diocese  served  in  the  army ;  four 
asylums  were  established;  shelter  was  given  to  the 
refugees,  and  relief  work  was  carried  out  by  two 
committees. 

Foundation  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-157c) —Bequests  for 
religious  and  charitable  purposes  are  valid  and 
binding  in  conscience  even  if  they  are  null  accord¬ 
ing  to  civil  law,  and  the  Code  says  that  the  heirs 
are  to  be  admonished  to  fulfil  the  testator’s  wishes. 
“Foundations.”  See  Anglicanism. 

France  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-166b).— Population.— Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  census  of  1921  France  has  39,402,739 
inhabitants,  of  whom  37,852,280  were  French  and 
1,550,459  were  foreigners.  The  chief  departments 
with  their  population  in  1921  are  as  follows:  Seine, 
4,411,691;  Nord,  1,787,918;  Pas-de-Calais,  989,967; 
Rhone,  956,566;  Seine-et-Oise,  921,673;  Seme- 
Inf  erieure,  880,671;  Bouches-du-Rhone,  841,996; 
Gironde,  819,404;  Finistere,  762,514;  Bas-Rhin, 
651,686. 

In  spite  of  the  return  of  Alsace  and  Lorraine, 
France  has  now  400,000  fewer  inhabitants  than  in 
1911.  This  loss  is  due  principally  to  war  casualties, 
to  the  reduction  of  the  birth-rate,  and  to  the 
epidemics  of  influenza.  There  has  also  been  a 
pronounced  movement  to  the  cities  and  a  conse¬ 
quent  increase  in  the  urban  population,  especially 
in  Lyons,  which  showed  an  increase  in  the  last 
decade  of  37,796;  Marseilles,  35,722;  Havre,  27,215; 
Toulouse,  25,858;  Saint-Etienne,  19,311. 

The  largest  cities  with  their  populations  are  as 
follows :  Paris,  2,906,472 ;  Marseilles,  586,341 ;  Lyons, 
561,562;  Bordeaux,  267,409;  Lille,  200,952;  Nantes, 


183,704;  Toulouse,  175,434;  St-Etienne,  167,967; 
Strasburg,  166,767;  Havre,  163,374;  Nice,  155,839; 
Rouen,  123,742;  Nancy,  113,266. 

Vital  Statistics— The  birth  rate,  which  was  3.16 
per  100  during  the  period  1806-1816  and  2.89  dur¬ 
ing  the  period  1831-1841.  fell  to  2.56  per  100  in  the 
period  1872-1882,  to  1.88  per  100  in  1913  and  to 
1.21  in  1918.  In  seventy-seven  departments  the 
total  excess  of  deaths  over  births  for  1914  to  1919 
was  1,490,227.  The  number  of  divorces  was  3668 
in  1916;  5572  in  1917;  8121  in  1918;  and  11,657  in 
1919  (77  departments  only).  To  encourage  the 
growth  of  large  families  an  Act  was  passed  on  14 
July,  1913,  making  the  relief  of  large  families 
obligatory  with  the  parishes  and  the  State,  and 
providing  for  a  bonus  of  60  francs  minimum  or  90 
francs  maximum  for  each  child  after  the  third. 
Owing  to  the  immense  war  losses  the  allowance 
was  supplemented,  in  the  Act  of  28  June,  1918,  by 
an  additional  ten  francs  per  month  for  each  child. 
This  still  being  inadequate,  the  Departmental  Coun¬ 
cil  of  the  Seine  raised  the  annual  allowance  of 
each  child  to  a  minimum  of  240  francs  and  a 
maximum  of  300  francs,  and  moreover,  from  Jan- 
uary,  1921,  offered,  independently  of  the  parish, 
bounties  to  mothers  for  each  child  in  excess  of 
two  still  living,  300  francs  for  the  third  child,  and 
an  increase  of  50  francs  for  each  additional  child. 
In  1921  there  were  in  Paris  and  suburbs  about 
18,000  beneficiaries  receiving  24,000  allowances.  The 
population  of  France  showed  signs  of  recovery 
during  the  first  half  of  1920,  when  the  births  ex¬ 
ceeded  the  deaths  by  67,946,  the  former  numbering 
424,668  and  the  latter  numbering  386,722  in  all  the 
90  departments.  Marriage  is  also  on  the  increase. 
Besides  government  bounties  there  are  the  marriage 
and  child  bonuses  given  by  the  Employers’  Asso¬ 
ciation  of  2  francs  a  day  for  each  married  man  in 
addition  to  his  wages,  and  2  francs  a  day  for  each 
child.  Each  member  of  the  association  contributes 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  his  employees. 

Economics  and  Agriculture. — Of  the  total  area 
of  France  (132,381,447  acres)  in  1912,  24,716,752 
acres  were  under  forests,  9,403,625  acres  were  re¬ 
turned  as  moor  and  uncultivable  land,  and  98,181,- 
070  acres,  of  which  59,127,750  were  arable,  were 
returned  as  under  crops,  fallow  and  grass.  In  1920, 
12,135,000  acres  were  devoted  to  wheat,  8,160,000 
acres  to  oats,  2,022,000  acres  to  rye,  1,512,000  acres 
to  barley.  The  chief  crops  in  that  year  were 
potatoes,  10,315,000  metric  tons;  wheat,  6,271,000 
metric  tons;  oats,  4,223,000  metric  tons;  and  beet 
sugar,  2,055,000  metric  tons.  The  production  of 
wine  in  1920  was  1,310,719,000  gallons.  The  war 
cost  France  many  of  her  farmers,  besides  rendering 
temporarily  useless  some  9,775,000  acres  of  farm 
land,  but  since  the  end  of  the  war  she  has  redeemed 
3,755,920  acres.  By  furnishing  the  farmers  with 
fertilizer,  machinery,  and  seed  the  Office  of  Recon¬ 
struction  has  greatly  assisted  the  economic  recovery 

of  the  country.  .  .  _ 

Industry. — The  effect  of  the  invasion  of  France 
was  to  reduce  the  production  in  the  damaged  area 
in  a  proportion  varying  from  25%  for  machine 
shops  to  74%  for  coal  mines,  81%  for  iron  and  steel 
works,  and  as  high  as  93%  for  some  branches  of 
technical  industry.  Before  the  war  France  con¬ 
sumed  over  63,000,000  tons  of  coal  annually,  of 
which  she  produced,  roughly,  42,000,000  tons,  leav¬ 
ing  21,000,000  tons  to  be  imported.  By  the  terms 
of  the  Peace  Treaty,  France  acquired  control  of 
the  Saar  Basin,  containing  coal  deposits  estimated 
at  12,500,000,000  tons.  Actual  production  from 
these  fields  in  1913  was  17,000,000  tons.  This  new 
source  of  coal  will  supply  the  additional  demand 


FRANCE 


FRANCE 


319 


°n  Franee  from  the  industries  of  Alsace-Lorraine 
and  mli  lessen  the  French  normal  shortage,  but 
it  will  not  onset  the  loss  of  output  in  the  damaged 
mines  of  the  departments  of  Nord  and  Pas-de- 
Calais.  To  make  reparation  for  the  damage  done 
to  the  mines  and  to  other  property,  Germany  was 
to  deliver  approximately  25,000,000  tons  of  coal 
annually  to  1  ranee  for  ten  years.  The  Germans, 
however,  have  not  paid  the  exact  amount.  As  a 
result  of  the  Spa  conference,  held  in  July,  1920, 
of  the  2,000,000  tons  promised  to  the  allies,  begin¬ 
ning  August,  1920,  'France  was  to  receive  1,600,000 
tons  monthly.  1  o  obtain  even  these  shipments 
France  was  obliged  to  pay  Germany  200,000,000 
francs  monthly  for  six  months  for  the  feeding  of 
the  Ruhr  workers.  The  production  of  the  Saar 
Basin  in  1920  was  9,410,433  tons.  This  lack  of  coal 
has  greatly  hampered  production,  especially  that  of 
iron  and  steel,  which  in  the  first  five  months  of 
1920  was  half  the  pre-war  quantity. 

During  the  war  the  French  textile  plants,  how¬ 
ever,  kept  up  production  to  a  remarkable  degree ; 
in  1916  and  1917  the  production  of  cotton  and  silk 
goods  passed  its  pre-war  level.  The  chief  handicap 
of  the  textile  industries  at  present  is  the  lack  of 
raw  materials.  Of  the  456  textile  mills  in  the 
de\  astated  district  of  Lille,  75%  had  resumed  pro¬ 
duction  on  1  March,  1920.  The  return  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  will  double  the  production  of  France,  for 
the  textile  industries  of  Alsace  are  of  great  im¬ 
portance  and  employ  over  78,000  persons.  Silk 
culture  is  carried  on  with  government  encourage¬ 
ment,  most  extensively  in  Gard,  Drome,  Ardeche, 
and  Vaucluse.  By  law  of  23  April,  1919,  an  eight- 
hour  day  prevails  in  France. 

Foreign  Trade. — For  the  five  years  preceding  the 
war  France  had  an  average  annual  unfavorable 
visible  balance  of  trade  of  some  billion  and  a 
half  francs.  This  was  more  than  offset  by  “in- 
\  isible  items,  such  as  the  interest  on  foreign  invest¬ 
ments  accruing  to  France  as  a  creditor  nation. 
During  the  war  the  purchase  of  vast  amounts  of 
war  materials  caused  a  great  increase  in  the  un¬ 
favorable  balance,  which  continued  after  the  war. 
During  1919,  however,  the  exports  reached  the 
record  figure  of  8,713,000,000  francs,  some  2  billions 
above  the  previous  high  figure  in  1913.  Since  1919 
the  exports  have  shown  a  steady  increase.  The 
imports  for  home  use  were  valued,  in  1920,  at 
35,404,000,000  francs;  the  exports  of  French  origin 
22,434,700,000  francs. 

Railways.— In  France  there  are  25,167.8  miles  of 
railway  in  operation.  In  October,  1918,  the  govern¬ 
ment  assumed  control  of  the  railroads  during  the 
war  and  for  a  year  after  its  termination.  In  1920 
the  lines  were  reorganized  and  co-ordinated  to  form 
one  national  system.  Rolling  stock  and  other 
equipment  suffered  during  the  war,  and  a  large 
Part  of  the  lines  on  the  Nord  and  Est  railways 
required  entire  rebuilding.  In  twenty  months  after 
the  signing  of  the  armistice,  1353  miles  of  the  1407 
destroyed  were  put  back  in  service,  and  in  1920, 
as  a  result  of  this  effort,  transportation  in  devas¬ 
tated  regions  was  practically  restored  to  normal. 
Electrification  is  now  receiving  the  attention  of 
the  railway  officials.  In  1921  the  railway  deficit 
amounted  to  1,500,000,000  francs.  There  are  air 
lines  from  Paris  to  Warsaw,  London,  Lausanne, 
Copenhagen,  Brussels,  Bucarest,  and  Havre.  Half 
the  cost  of  the  initial  outlay  for  construction  is 
provided  by  the  Government.  State  subsidies, 
amounting  to  three-fourths  or  four-fifths  of  the 
receipts,  have  been  necessary  to  keep  the  service 
in  operation. 

Education. — French  education  is  divided  into 

21 


three  classes  primary,  secondary,  and  superior  It 
is  directed  by  the  Minister  of  Instruction  aided 

^rshgee£X1TTnVdUCat,°^al  bureaux  and  inspec- 
tors-general  I  he  Superior  Council  of  52  members 

has  deliberative,  administrative,  and  judiciary  func" 
ions,  and  a  Consultative  Committed  IdtiJs  £ 
the  school  system.  For  purposes  of  local  adminis¬ 
tration  France  is  divided  into  17  circumscription 

Councif  CaFCnrS’  e*CA  °{  Which  has  an  Academic 
a  \.Lach  ,1S  under  a  rector  and  each  is  pro¬ 
vided  with  academy  inspectors.  Each  department 

iQiQ  for  primai'y  educational  matters.  In 

1919-20  there  were  in  France  and  Algiers  (exclud- 
^ ^ce-Lorrame)  2063  public  kindergartens  with 
5242  teachers  and  189,762  pupils;  786  private  kinder¬ 
gartens 5  with  999  teachers  and  37,394  pupils;  56,503 

whha?df  Vf12*-  ?nor!toao1  priI?ary  and  hi^her  schools 
of  102  433  teachers  and  3,835,816  pupils 

(3002,666  lay  and  833,150  clerical).  Secondary  edu¬ 
cation  is  given  in  the  State  lycees  or  communal 
col  eges  which  in  1919  had  100,230  boys  and  45,16S 

•  fu  U>lg  •  ed^atlon  supplied  by  the  State 
in  the  16  universities,  divided  into  the  four  tradi- 
tional  faculties:  law,  medicine,  science,  and  letters 
with  an  enrollment  of  about  40,000.  These  figures 
show  that  secondary  education,  which  in  France  is 
not  free,  is  restricted  to  the  minority  of  children 
and  that  a  large  majority  of  the  French  children 
cease  to  go  to  school  altogether  too  early.  In  1919 
a  College  of  the  United  States”  was  established 
in  Pans  for  American  students.  There  are  also 
technical  schools,  dependent  on  the  Ministry  of 
Commerce,  industrial  schools,  municipal  profes¬ 
sional  schools,  schools  of  commerce,  schools  of  arts 
and  trades,  and  schools  of  horology.  By  an  enact¬ 
ment  m  July  1919,  compulsory  physical  education 

bo5h/exes  ,was>  instituted,  for  boys 
Irom  6  to  16,  and  for  girls  during  the  period  of 

£ri?aY  ,  secondary  education.  Out  of  the 
6445  schools  which  existed  in  the  devastated  regions 

,war’  4500  were  destroyed  between  1914 
and  1915  but  since  1918  no  less  than  5345  have 

mnSt/bhsherd'  T,he  1920  frudget  includes  1,176,- 
600,000  francs  for  education. 

Government.— The  executive  power  of  France  is 
vestea  in  a  President  elected  for  seven  years,  and 
a  Ministry;  the  legislative  power  in  the  Chamber 

at  — ef  and  tbe  ^nate.  The  President  chooses 
the  Ministry,  generally  from  the  two  Chambers 
and  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate  can  dissolve 
the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  Each  minister  is  in 
charge  of  an  administrative  department,  and  each 
is  responsible  the  Chambers  for  his  acts,  while 
the  whole  ministry  is  responsible  for  the  policy 
of  the  Government.  The  Chamber  of  Deputies 
is  elected  for  four  years,  by  the  scrutin  de  liste 
with  proportional  representation  (in  elections  in 
which  no  party  list  has  secured  an  absolute  majority 
*  votes  cast),  a  method  adopted  in  the  new 
Electoral  Reform  Bill  of  1919.  There  are  now  610 
deputies  The  Senate,  composed  of  314  members, 
is  elected  for  nine  years,  one-third  retiring  every 
three  years.  The  Council  of  State  is  presided  over 
by  the  Minister  of  Justice,  is  the  last  resort  in 
administrative  units,  and  prepares  the  rules  for  the 
public  administration.  For  administrative  purposes 
France  is  divided  into  90  departments,  385  arrondis- 
sements,  3019  cantons,  and  37,963  communes.  The 
three  new  departments,  Moselle,  Bas-Rhin,  and 
Haut-Rhin,  contain  23  arrondissements,  97  can¬ 
tons,  and  1703  communes.  Three  cantons  and  19 
communes  have  been  erected  since  1911.  Each  de¬ 
partment  is  placed  under  the  prefect,  nominated 
by  the  Government,  and  assisted  by  a  Prefecture 
Council.  Each  commune  has  a  municipal  council, 


PRANCE 


FRANCE 


320 


which  elects  the  mayor.  The  canton,  which  is 
generally  composed  of  12  communes,  is  the  seat 
of  a  justice  of  the  peace,  but  is  not  an  administra¬ 
tive  district.  The  districts  or  arrondissements  have 
an  elected  council,  with  as  many  members  as  there 

11  Justice. — The  Courts  of  lowest  jurisdiction  are 
those  of  the  justices  of  the  peace  in  each  canton. 
The  Correctional  Courts  pronounce  on  all  the 
graver  offences;  each  includes  three  J^ges  belong¬ 
ing  to  tribunals  of  first  instance.  The  Court  of 
Assizes  is  assisted  by  12  jurors  and  dead' es  the 
guilt  of  the  persons  concerned.  The  highest  courts 
are  the  26  Courts  of  Appeal,  and  one  Court  of 
Cassation  for  criminal  cases  In  each  arrondvsse- 
ment  there  is  a  tribunal  of  first  instance, 
commercial  cases  there  are  Tribunals  of  Commerce 
and  Councils  of  Experts.  All  judges  are  nominated 
bv  the  President  of  France  and  can  be  removed 
only  by  a  decision  of  the  Court  of  Cassation. 

Colonies.— The  colonies  and  dependencies  of 
France,  including  Algeria  and  Tunis,  have  an  area 
of  about  5,119,138  sq.  miles,  with  a  population  ot 
about  53,582,905.  Algeria,  however,  is  not  regarded 
as  a  colony,  but  as  a  part  of  uFr^ce.i  and  fT^'s 
and  Morocco  are  attached  to  the  Ministry  oi  hor 
eign  Affairs.  The  administration  of  the  colonies 
is  directed  by  the  Ministry  of  Colonies,  borne 
colonies  have  direct  representation  in  the  hrencn 
Legislature,  but  most  of  them  are  represented  on 
the  Conseil  Superieur  des  Colonies,  by  delegates 
or  deputies  and  other  officials.  Some  colonies  have 
a  revenue  sufficient  for  the  cost  of  administration. 
In  1919  France  spent  on  the  colonial  services  201,- 
835110  francs,  of  which  18,001,210  francs  were  for 
civil  administration,  173,791,000  francs  for  military 
services,  and  10,042,900  francs  for  penitentiary 
services.  The  most  recent  acquisitions  of  France 
are:  the  Niger  Territory,  acquired  in  1912; 
Kamerun  and  Togo,  acquired  in  1919  under  a  man¬ 
date  of  the  League  of  Nations,  the  protectorate 
of  Morocco,  acquired  in  1912,  Mayotte  and  Comoro 
Islands  in  1914.  The  French  Sudan  Territory  was 
made  a  colony  in  1920;  the  Upper  Volta  in  1919; 
Mauritania  and  Chad  in  1920.  In  1918  the  imports 
and  exports  of  the  various  dependencies  of  I  ranee 
showed  a  value  of  2,412,227,827  francs  (imports, 
1,287,276,937  francs;  exports,  1,124,950,890  francs). 
During  the  war  the  colonies  contributed  largely  to 
the  success  of  France,  for  on  1  July,  1918,  they  had 
furnished  1,918,000  men,  of  whom  680,000  took 
active  part  in  the  fighting.  Algeria  conti  lbuted 
510,000,000  francs  toward  the  cost  of  the  struggle. 

By  a  decree  of  29  June,  1919,  the  Ministry  of 
the  Colonies  was  reorganized.  In  1911  the  service 
had  been  divided  geographically,  but  was  found 
inadequate  and  cumbersome.  The  new  decree  of 
1919  removed  the  administrative  services,  attached 
them  to  a  general  agency  of  the  colonies ;  re¬ 
grouped  the  colonies  according  to  the  conditions 
prevailing  in  them  instead  of  geographical  vicinity, 
and  established  new  technical  services  for  banks, 
education,  economic  questions,  merchant  marine, 
and  justice. 

Finance— The  financial  position  of  I  ranee 
(1922)  is  rather  serious.  Expenditure  exceeds 
revenue ;  the  public  debt  is  colossal  and  the  tax 
burdens  are  very  heavy.  Before  the  war  the  public 
expenditure  of  the  State  approximated  5,200,000,000 
francs;  in  1915  it  was  22,804,000,000  francs;  in  1916, 
32,945,000,000  francs;  in  1917,  41,679,000,000  francs; 
in  1918,  54,537,000,000  francs.  Since  the  war  ended, 
the  expenditures  have  increased  slightly.  For  1919, 
49,029,000,000  francs  were  voted  in  appropriations. 
From  1914  to  1917  there  were  no  annual  budgets, 


the  financial  requirements  of  the  country  being  pro¬ 
vided  for  by  votes  of  credit.  lor  1918,  1919,  and 
1920  budgets  were  introduced.  In  1918  the  military 
and  special  expenditure  was  44,047,748,089  francs; 
in  1919,  it  was  35,811,389,662  francs;  the  total  ex¬ 
penditure  in  1918  was  54,537,105,100  francs;  in  1919, 
49,026,587,140  francs.  The  French  budget  of  1922 
provided  for  appropriations  and  revenue  of  24,700, 

000  000  francs,  the  principal  items  of  expenditure 
being  ■  service  of  public  debt,  12,653,000,000  francs , 
military  expenditures,  3,709,000,000  francs;  naval 
expenditures,  844,000,000  francs;’ other  executive  de¬ 
partments,  5,224,000,000  francs;  administration  ot 
monopolies  and  tax  collecting,  2  475,000,000  francs 
The  special  budget  is  estimated  at  14,000,000,000 
francs,  of  which  8,000,000,000  are  to  be  spent  on 
reconstruction,  4,000,000,000  on  pensions,  and  2,000,- 
000,000  on  interest  on  reconstruction  loans,  which 
it  is  the  intention  of  France  to  meet  by  Germany  s 
reparation  payments.  The  principal  items  oi 
revenue  are  as  follows  i  Taxes  and  recepits,  15,boo,- 
000,000  francs;  monopolies  and  state 
2,911,000,000  francs;  war  profits  tax  3,050,000,000 
francs;  and  liquidation  of  war  stocks,  500,000,000 
francs.  On  1  October,  1921,  the  public  debt  stood 
as  follows:  internal  debt,  237,867,000,000  francs 
(paper) ;  and  external  debt,  86,000,000,000  francs 
(paper);  35,525,000,000  francs  (gold).  Of  the  latter, 
29,534,000,000  francs,  gold,  represents  the  political 
debt,  i.  e.,  the  war  loans  by  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States.  To  add  to  the  financial  strain,  the 
Algerian  budget  showed  a  deficit  for  the  first  time 

in  years.  ^  .  .  , 

Recent  History. — When  Germany  declared  war 
on  Russia  in  July,  1914,  she  demanded  to  know 
the  attitude  of  France  in  eighteen  hours,  instructing 
the  German  ambassador  in  the  event  of  the  French 
Government’s  repudiation  of  its  alliance  with  Russia 
to  demand  that  the  fortresses  of  Toul  and  Verdun 
be  handed  over  to  Germany  for  the  duration  of  the 
war.  The  French  Government  gave  a  non-com¬ 
mittal  answer  to  the  German  ultimatum  and  began 
mobilization.  On  3  August,  1914,  Germany  de¬ 
clared  war  on  France.  The  attitude  of  France 
upset  the  calculations  of  her  enemies.  They  had 
counted  on  two  great  causes  of  her  inferiority, 
want  of  artillery,  and  internal  disturbance.  I  he 
first  deficiency  was  remedied  by  the  hasty  produc¬ 
tion  of  howitzers  and  long  range  cannon  in  addition 
to  her  light  artillery  guns,  the  manufacture  of  which 
had  been  carried  on  in  secrecy.  Internal  distur¬ 
bances  disappeared  before  the  common  danger  and 
the  solid  unity  of  the  nation  gave  birth  to  that 
immortal  “spirit  of  France,”  which  was  to  sustain 
her  during  the  fateful  years  ahead.  The  Chambers 
at  once  authorized  the  Government  to  issue  degrees 
in  Council  of  State  opening  the  supplementary  and 
extraordinary  credits  required  for  the  defense  of 
the  nation,  and  decided  to  remain  in  continuous 
session.  The  French  plan  of  defense  had  been 
originally  based  on  the  assumption  that  the  neu¬ 
trality  of  Belgium  and  Luxemburg  would  be  re¬ 
spected.  The  eastern  half  of  the  frontier,  from 
Luxemburg  to  Switzerland  was  defended  by  the 
Vosges  Mountains  and  by  a  line  of  fortified  towns 
from  Verdun  through  Toul  and  Epinal  to  Beliort. 
French  Flanders  was  at  the  very  first  left  unde¬ 
fended.  ,  , 

As  events  proved,  the  Germans  poured  througn 
Belgium  and  Luxemburg,  violating  the  neutrality 
of  the  latter.  Fortunately  for  France,  the  Belgians 
resisted  and  gave  the  French  troops ,  time  to 
mobilize.  The  Germany  army  of  invasion  advanced 
upon  France  in  three  grand  divisions,  the  right 
wing  attempting  to  enter  France  at  Maubeuge, 


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321 


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necessitating  the  crossing  of  Belgium,  the  center 
entenng  at  Sedan,  and  crossing  Luxemburg,  and 
the  left  wing  entering  at  Nancy.  The  right  wing 
was  delayed  longer  than  had  been  anticipated  in 
.,erman  Plans  by  the  resistance  of  the  fortress 
of  Liege  and  after  its  fall  on  7  August,  by  the 
resistance  of  the  Belgian  field  army,  supplemented 
bv  a  small  French  force.  Its  advance  through 
Belgium  was  steady,  however,  Brussels  being  occu- 
P*ec*  on  August.  1  he  invasion  of  France  along 
the  branco-Belgian  border  from  Lille  to  Maubeuge 
was  immediately  attempted,  and  with  complete 
success  the  French  army  which  had  been  re-en¬ 
forced  by  the  vanguard  of  the  British  expeditionary 
4-1C?  /a  mg  back  hastily  toward  the  second  line 
of  defense,  the  inferior  British  forces  on  the  left 
bemg  in  constant  danger  of  envelopment.  Mean¬ 
while  the  German  army  of  the  center,  encountering 

n°j 1  jS1f ^al^ce  *n  Pr.°gress  through  Luxemburg, 
and  defeating  the  inferior  French  forces  which  op¬ 
posed  it,  was  now  in  contact  on  its  right  with  the 
advancing  right  wing,  while  its  left  was  attempting 
to  thrust  itself  between  the  retreating  French  army 
and  Paris.  Menaced  thus  on  both  flanks,  the  allied 
armies  retreated  in  such  haste  as  to  make  im¬ 
practicable  a  firm  stand  on  the  second  line  of  de¬ 
fense.  On  29  August  that  line  was  passed  by  the 
Germans.  Pans  was  now  put  under  martial  law 
and  every  preparation  was  made  for  an  extended 
siege,  the  government  retiring  to  Bordeaux.  South 
of  the  Marne  the  allied  forces  halted,  and  for  the 
first  time  in  the  war  gave  vigorous  battle  to  the 
invaders  over  the  entire  front,  eventually  com¬ 
pelling  the  falling  back  beyond  the  Marne  of  the 
entire  German  line,  pursued  by  the  allied  forces. 
On  13  September  the  Germans  halted  and  en¬ 
trenched  themselves  on  their  right  on  the  line  of 
hills  running  from  Soissons  to  Rheims.  Suddenly, 
in  the  closing  days  of  September  the  city  of  Ant¬ 
werp  fell,  the  major  portions  of  the  Belgian  army 
escaping  to  the  west  where  they  were  re-enforced 
by  the  allied  armies.  The  battle  lines  of  both 
armies  now  extended  to  the  coast,  flanking  opera¬ 
tions  were  at  an  end,  and  the  conflict  along  the 
whole  line  assumed  the  character  of  a  field  siege. 
The  Germans  still  persisted  in  the  offensive  how¬ 
ever  particularly  along  the  Yser  River  and  canal, 
southwest  of  Ostend,  with  the  alleged  object  of 
foremg  the  allied  lines  beyond  Calais,  which  could 
then  be  used  as  a  base  for  naval  and  military 
attacks  on  the  British  Islands. 

south  the  French  had  in  the  beginning 
°u-t  u  war  attemPted  a  vigorous  counter  invasion, 
which  was  for  a  time  successful,  Alsace  and  Ger- 
Lorraine  being  entered  and  Saarburg  and 
Muelhausen  occupied.  The  attack  was,  however 
quickly  repulsed  by  the  German  forces.  Following 
the  battle  of  the  Marne,  the  German  forces  began 
an  attack  on  the  whole  southern  barrier  of  forts, 
known  as  the  Verdun-Toul  barrier,  and  met  with 
varying  success.  The  German  offensive  was  aban¬ 
doned  early  in  December,  1914.  The  French  gov¬ 
ernment  which  had  removed  to  Bordeaux  in  3  Sep¬ 
tember,  1914,  returned  to  Paris  in  December.  The 
next  four  months  witnessed  a  series  of  frontal  at¬ 
tacks,  the  success  of  which  varied.  Deadlock 
continued  through  the  summer.  For  some  reason 
the  long  heralded  Spring  drive  did  not  occur  in 
tyio,  which  seemed  remarkable  because  of  the 
numerical  superiority  of  the  Allies  (the  Germans 
naving  transferred  forces  to  the  eastern  front)  and 
because  of  the  relief  which  a  successful  forward 
movement  would  have  brought  to  the  hard-pressed 
Russians  The  Germans,  indeed,  took  the  initiative 
at  the  close  of  April.  They  directed  against  the 


Ypres  region  an  attack  in  which  massed  artillery 
and  poison  gas  played  a  conspicuous  role.  The 
Bntish,  suffering  from  lack  of  artillery  ammunition, 
had  to  shorten  their  line  by  three  miles  on  3  May. 
In  June  the  brench  made  progress  in  the  country 
north  of  Arras  and  west  of  Lens.  About  a  quarter 
of  a  million  men  were  employed  along  a  front 
of  twenty  miles,  the  assault  being  preceded  by  a 
concentrated  artillery  fire  which  flattened  the  whole 
countryside.  The  highway  between  Arras  and 
Betnune  was  cleared ;  more  prisoners  and  guns  were 
taken  than  on  any  other  occasion  since  the  battle 
of  Marne,  but  the  French  lost  heavily.  As  the 
months  went  on,  the  resources  of  the  Allies  steadily 
augmented.  Large  stores  of  munitions  arrived  from 
America  and  the  reorganized  English  factories. 
By  the  end  of  September,  Sir  John  French  had  a 
million  men  under  his  command.  On  25  Septem¬ 
ber,  1915,  after  the  German  positions  had  been 
neavily  bombarded  for  some  days,  a  vigorous  offen- 

fu  e  /4Vas  se^  *n  The  British,  penetrated 

ttie  German  lines  to  a  distance  of  4000  yards  and 
captured  several  strong  positions,  including  Loos 
and  Hill  70.  lhe  French  made  substantial  gains 
m  Artois  and  in  Champagne  pushed  the  enemy 
back  two  miles. 

Geneial  Joftre,  commander  of  all  the  armies  in 
b  ranee,  was  promoted  on  2  December  to  the 
supieme  command  of  all  the  French  armies  ex¬ 
cepting  those  in  the  colonies  and  in  North  Africa. 

1  his  step  was  taken  in  accordance  with  the  plans 
of  the  Anglo-French  War  Council,  which  met  in 
aris  on  27  March,  and  not  only  made  plans  for 
a  concerted  general  Summer  offensive,  but  also  re- 

on  VeT  t0  estabIish  tlle  stringency  of  the  blockade 
the  Entente  Powers’  Economic  Conference  on  14 
June,  formulated  a  program  which  increased  the 
severity  of  the  economic  measures  against  the  Cen¬ 
tral  Powers  during  the  war  but  also  indicated  a 
determination  to  continue  the  struggle  after  the 
conclusion  of  peace  by  establishing  an  economic 
of  the  Entente  Powers.  General  de  Curieres 
de  Castlenau,  able  commander  of  the  French  armies 
,  center,  was  appointed  chief  commander  of 
the  General  Staff. 

The  winter  of  1916  witnessed  no  major  operations 
on  the  western  front.  Spasmodic  local  events  ad- 
\  anced  the  German  line  at  Hooge  (Belgium),  at 
Vimy  (Artois),  at  Frise  (on  the  Somme),  and  on 
the  Butte-de-Tahure  (in  Champagne).  In  com¬ 
pensation  the  French  won  the  La  Courtine 
entrenchment  in  Champagne  and  the  peak  of  Hart- 
mannsw eilerkopf  in  Alsace.  This  desultory  fighting 
occupied  the  interval  between  the  cession  of  the 
allied  offensive  in  September,  1915,  to  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  terrific  German  assault  on  Verdun, 

21  February,  1916.  Eight  German  army  corps,  un¬ 
der  the  general  command  of  the  Crown  Prince,  and 
enormous  quantities  of  heavy  artillery  were  con¬ 
centrated  against  the  secondary  fortifications  seven 
or  eight  miles  north  of  Verdun.  Then  suddenly 
on  19-20  February  a  bombardment  of  unprece¬ 
dented  intensity  announced  the  beginning  of  the 
greatest  battle  in  the  war.  On  21  February,  under 
cover  of  incessant  artillery  fire,  German  infantry 
in  irresistible  masses  was  hurled  against  the  de¬ 
molished  fortifications.  The  French  line  yielded; 
within  a  week  the  commanding  hill-fort  of  Douau- 
mont  (4  miles  from  Verdun)  had  succumbed  to 
headlong  infantry  and  pulverizing  artillery  attacks. 
During  the  second  week,  the  French  line  east  of 
Verdun  was  crushed  back  to  the  strong  line  of 
the  heights  of  the  Meuse  and  a  savage  struggle  was 
waged  in  the  outskirts  of  Vaux  village.  Then  the 
storm  center  shifted  to  the  west  bank  of  the 


FRANCE 


FRANCE 


322 


Meuse.  Forges,  Regneville,  Malancourt,  Haucourt, 
and  Bethincourt  were  captured  in  rapid  succession, 
but  in  April  the  German  drive  west  of  the  Meuse 
slackened.  Further  progress  was  barred  by  a 
French  salient  of  great  natural  strength,  resting  on 
Hill  304  and  the  bicuspidate  ridge  called  Le  Mort 
Homme  (Hills  265  and  295).  Moreover,  General 
Joffre  was  able  to  stiffen  his  line  with  remfoi  ce¬ 
ments,  since  the  British  had  replaced  the  French 
troops  north  of  the  Somme  River  and  now  held 
ninety  miles  of  the  western  front.  The  arrival 
of  Russian  contingents,  though  numerically  incon¬ 
siderable,  stimulated  confidence.  Consequently  on 
22  May,  1916,  General  Joffre  struck  a  counterblow. 
The  heaviest  fighting  was  around  Fort  Douaumont, 
which  was  taken  and  retaken  by  the  Germans. 
The  opening  of  the  Anglo-French  drive  (battle  ot 
the  Somme)  forced  the  Germans  to  shift  their 
forces  and  the  battle  of  Verdun  flickered  out.  1  he 
great  drive  beginning  on  1  July,  1916,  advanced  the 
French  front  to  a  maximum  depth  of  six  miles 
and  netted  the  French  80  square  miles  of  terri¬ 
tory.  In  the  fourth  week  it  came  to  a  standstill; 
the  summer  w'as  spent  in  series  of  futile  but  furious 
battles  around  the  ruined  villages  of  Thiaumont 
and  Fleury.  The  failure  of  the  Germans  at  Verdun 
proved  that  the  tide  of  war  had  tinned  at  last  in 
favor  of  the  allies.  Henceforth  the  Germans  were 
on  the  defensive,  and  their  line  was  battered  back 
mile  by  mile.  The  battle  of  the  Somme  (1  July 
to  1  November,  1916),  resulted  in  heavy  losses 
for  the  allies,  but  it  had  relieved  Verdun,  worn 
down  German  man-power,  and  created  such  an 
embarrassing  salient  in  the  German  line  that  the 
French  were  tempted  to  make  a  counter-offensive 
at  Verdun.  By  two  brilliant  attacks  in  November 
and  December  General  Nivelle  regained  Forts 
Douaumont  and  Vaux,  and  was  rewarded  by  the 
appointment  to  the  command  of  all  the  French 
forces  in  France  in  succession  to  General  Joffre, 
who  was  retired  with  the  title  of  ‘‘Marshal  of 
France.”  In  Februarv  the  British  advanced  two 
miles,  wiping  out  the  Ancre  salient.  In  Maich  a 
general  retirement  of  the  Germans  to  the  Hin- 
denburg  line  commenced.  About  1000  square  miles 
of  French  territory  were  regained,  but  the  country 
was  devastated,  the  towns  laid  in  ruins,  and  all 
railroads  destroyed.  A  terrific  drive  against  the 
Hmdenburg  Line  near  Arras  (battle  of  Arras)  was 
launched  by  the  British  under  General  Allenby. 
The  French  under  Nivelle  and  Haig  attacked  in 
April  along  the  Aisne  with  remarkable  success. 
In  June,  1917,  a  contingent  of  American  troops  led 
by  General  Pershing  arrived  in  France  to  take  its 
place  with  the  Belgian,  British,  Italian,  Russian, 
and  Colonial  troops  on  the  front.  In  France  a  War 
Council  was  created.  It  repudiated  the  German 
peace  offer,  decided  for  bread-cards,  and  for  the 
minimum  prices  for  dairy  products,  for  the  volun¬ 
tary  calling  of  the  1918  class,  and  industrial 
mobilization.  The  new  war  minister  provoked  un¬ 
usual  opposition  by  his  Bill  providing  for  the  in¬ 
corporation  of  priests  into  the  army.  The  Allied 
advance  continued,  with  remarkable  results,  espe¬ 
cially  at  Chemin-des-Dames,  Passchendaele  Ridge, 
and  Cambrai.  The  Germans  replied  with  their 
great  offensive  on  21  March;  created  an  opening 
between  the  Oise  and  Somme  and  broke  the  English 
front,  which  was  saved  by  the  French  cavalry.  The 
Germans  continued  in  the  direction  of  Amiens. 
Noyon,  Bapaume,  Albert,  and  Montdidier  had  to 
be  evacuated.  The  shattering  of  the  English  Fifth 
Army  compelled  the  French  to  send  re-enforcements 
and  to  extend  their  lines.  On  1  April  the  Germans 
were  within  six  miles  of  the  main  railway  from 


Amiens  to  Paris.  To  meet  the  patent  need  for 
man-power,  General  Pershing  offered  all  his  foice 
to  General  Foch,  who  had  been  appointed  gener¬ 
alissimo  of  the  allied  armies  on  28  March,  and 
when  on  4  April,  the  Germans  renewed  the  con¬ 
flict,  they  were  met  by  unified  command.  With 
the *  aid  of  American  troops  and  French  rein¬ 
forcements,  the  line  became  stabilized,  but  the 
Germans,  after  a  brief  respite  continued  the  ^offen¬ 
sive  until  2  June,  when  they  were  at  Chateau- 
Thierry,  forty  miles  from  Paris.  At  Chateau- 
Thierry  their  advance  was  checked  by  the  Amer¬ 
icans,  who  took  Belleau-Wood  and  Torcy.  On 
15  July  came  the  fifth  German  offensive,  the  in¬ 
fantry  pressing  on  toward  Chalons.  ^  The  Marne 
was  crossed  in  several  places  and  Chateau-Thierry 
occupied.  A  counter-offensive  under  Marshal  Foch 
aimed  to  cut  the  enemy  communications  at  Sois- 
sons,  La  Fere,  and  Fismes.  With  the  aid  of  the 
Americans  he  succeeded  in  clearing  Chateau-Thierry 
of  Germans,  and  in  flattening  out  the  German 
salient  existing  since  the  attack  at  Verdun.  On 
26  September  the  American  army  again  came 
prominently  into  action,  and  aided  General  Gou- 
raud  in  carrying  out  a  great  combined  offensive 
in  the  Argonne.  In  the  north  the  British  Second 
Army  and  the  Belgians  under  the  command  of 
King  Albert  took  Dixmunde,  Passchendaele,  and 
Messines,  after  which  a  deadlock  never  occurred 
again  in  Belgium.  During  October  the  German 
retreat  all  along  the  line  became  a  rout.  St. 
Quentin,  Ostend,  Lille,  Cambrai,  Le  Cateau, 
Bruges,  Valenciennes,  and  Sedan  fell  to  the  allies. 
Meanwhile  negotiations  for  an  armistice  were 
opened,  but  this  did  not  cause  a  halt  in  the  of¬ 
fensives.  The  armistice  was  signed  on  11  Novem¬ 
ber,  1918. 

Never  in  all  its  history  did  the  French  nation 
display  greater  courage  or  unanimity  than  during 
the  wearisome  years  of  war.  Not  only  were  the 
French  troops  engaged  with  the  enemy  in  France, 
but  also  in  Salonika,  Italy,  and  Asia  Minor.  Their 
land  was  ravaged  in  the  north  and  their  loss  in 
men  was  terrific.  One  man  out  of  six  in  the  entire 
population  had  served  in  the  army.  The  French 
army  is  reported  to  have  lost  1,089,700  killed  and 
265,000  missing,  or  16.2%  of  the  immense  mobilized 
force  of  8,410,000.  The  number  of  French  prisoners 
was  446,300.  Naval  losses  included  5421  killed 
and  5214  missing.  The  loss  suffered  by  the  coun¬ 
try  amounted  to  a  total  of  119,801,000,000  francs, 
and  included  damages  to  landed  property,  35,446,- 
000  000  francs;  loss  of  household  effects,  cattle, 
securities,  32,352,000,000  francs;  raw  materials  and 
provisions,  28,861,000,000  francs,  and  loss  to  revenue 
or  trade,  23,242,000,000  francs. 

The  terms  of  the  armistice  which  the  Germans 
were  given  to  accept  or  to  reject  within  seventy- 
two  hours,  when  they  met  Marshal  Foch  and  his 
victorious  army  at  Rethondes,  six  miles  east  of 
Compiegne  were  as  follows:  thp  Germans  were  to 
evacuate  Belgium,  France,  Alsace-Lorraine,  and 
Luxemburg  within  14  days,  and  all  the  territory 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  within  a  month. 
The  allied  troops  were  to  occupy  those  areas  to¬ 
gether  with  the  bridge-heads  at  the  principal  cross- 
ways  of  the  Rhine  (Mainz,  Coblenz,  and  Cologne) 
to  a  depth  of  30  kilometers  on  the  right  bank. 
The  treaties  of  Brest-Litovsk  and  Bukarest  were 
to  be  denounced  and  German  troops  withdrawn 
from  Russia,  Rumania,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Tur¬ 
key.  German  submarines  and  warships  were  to 
be  surrendered,  also  5000  locomotives,  5000  motor 
lorries,  and  150,000  railway  cars.  The  economic 
blockade  of  Germany  was  to  continue.  The  terms 


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of  the  armistice,  originally  agreed  upon  for  thirty 
days,  were  subsequently  renewed  from  time  to 
time  and  remained  in  effect  until  the  signing  of 
the  Treaty  of  Peace  at  Versailles  on  28  June,  1919. 
The  French  entered  Alsace-Lorraine  and  the  terri¬ 
tory  surrounding  Mainz. 

By  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  Ger¬ 
many  yielded  Alsace-Lorraine  to  France  and  by 
way  of  reparation  and  economic  settlement,  ac¬ 
cepted  full  responsibility  for  all  damages  caused 
to  the  allied  and  associated  governments  and  na¬ 
tions,  and  promised  to  reimburse  all  civilian  dam¬ 
age,  beginning  with  an  initial  payment  of  $5,000- 
000,000,  subsequent  payments  being  secured  by 
bonds  to  be  issued  at  the  discretion  of  an  Inter¬ 
national  Reparations  Commission.  Until  repara¬ 
tion  is  made  and  the  treaty  fully  carried  out,  allied 
occupation  of  German  territory  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine  and  of  the  bridge-heads  at  Cologne, 
Coblenz,  and  Mainz,  will  continue.  In  compensa¬ 
tion  for  the  destruction  of  coal  mines  in  Northern 
France,  and  as  payment  on  account  of  repara¬ 
tion,  Germany  surrendered  full  ownership  of  the 
coal  mines  in  the  Saar  Basin,  the  territory  to  be 
governed  by  a  Commission  of  five  appointed  by 
the  League  of  Nations.  After  fifteen  years  a  plebis¬ 
cite  is  to  be  held  by  the  communes  to  decide  as  to 
the  continuance  of  the  existing  regime,  union  with 
France,  or  union  with  Germany.  Germany  also  re¬ 
nounced  all  her  rights  under  the  Franco-German 
agreements  of  1909  and  1911  regarding  Morocco. 

The  provision  in  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  that 
Germany,  subject  to  certain  deductions,  was  to  pay 
£1,000.000,000  (gold)  before  1  May,  1921,  was 
so  remarkably  wide  of  facts  and  possibilities  that  it 
was  totally  abandoned  in  the  London  Agreement 
of  5  May,  1921.  From  11  November,  1918,  to  30 
April,  1921,  however,  Germany  delivered  to  the 
allies  99,334,000  gold  marks,  ships  worth  270,331,000 
gold  marks,  coal  worth  437,160,000  gold  marks,  dye¬ 
stuffs,  36,823,000  gold  marks;  other  deliveries,  937,- 
040,000  gold  marks,  immovable  property  and  assets 
not  yet  cashed,  2,754,104,000,  a  total  of  4,534,792,000 
gold  marks,  or  £284,500,000.  The  immovable  prop¬ 
erty  consists  chiefly  of  the  Saar  coalfields,  surren¬ 
dered  to  France,  State  property  in  Schleswig 
surrendered  to  Denmark,  and  State  property  in  the 
territory  transferred  to  Poland.  Still  the  sums 
received  were  not  available  for  reparation,  as  under 
the  Spa  agreement,  360,000,000  gold  marks  were 
returned  to  Germany  and  the  costs  of  the  Armies 
of  Occupation  had  to  be  paid.  The  situation 
thereby  created  has  been  irritating  to  the  French, 
especially  as  the  financial  schemes  of  France  in 
recent  years  have  been  based  on  the  hope  of  re¬ 
habilitating  the  country  with  German  reparations 
and  easing  the  financial  burdens  of  France,  and 
especially  as  the  tax  per  capita  in  France  is  much 
heavier  than  the  head  tax  in  Germany. 

In  the  various  conferences  which-  have  followed 
the  signing  of  the  treaty,  France  has  always  stood 
for  a  thorough-going  application  of  the  terms  of 
the  Versailles  Treaty,  Italy  for  a  virtual  revision, 
and  England  for  the  adaptation  of  the  terms  to 
the  changing  situation.  The  question  of  repara¬ 
tions  has  been  very  complicated.  As  soon  as 
schemes  are  devised  and  accepted,  for  “making 
Germany  pay,”  there  are  frantic  efforts  to  get 
them  altered.  The  Versailles  Conference  estab¬ 
lished  the  principles  of  reparations  and  determined 
such  sums  to  be  paid,  but  postponed  the  details 
and  regulations  until  a  later  date.  The  problem 
in  all  its  aspects  was  discussed  at  various  con¬ 
ferences,  at  San  Remo  (19  April,  1920),  at  Hythe, 
England  (15  May  and  19  June,  1920),  in  Boulogne 


(21  June,  1920),  Brussels  (2  July,  1920),  the  Spa 
(o-6  July,  1920),  again  at  Boulogne  (16-21  Decem¬ 
ber,  1920),  at  Paris  (24  January,  1921),  at  London 
(1  March,  and  5  May,  1921),  at  Wiesbaden  (6 
October,  1921),  at  Cannes  (6  January,  1922),  and 
at  Pans  (21  March,  1922).  Of  these,  the  Spa, 
Weisbaden,  and  the  last  London  conferences  were 
most  successful.  Under  the  Spa  agreement,  the 
terms  of  the  Versailles  Treaty  regarding  the  deliv¬ 
ery  of  3,400,000  tons  of  coal  per  month  to  the 
allies,  were  found  incapable  of  realization,  and 
the  demand  was  reduced  to  2,000,000  tons  a  month 
from  August,  1920.  The  allies  agreed  to  pay  Ger¬ 
many  something  for  the  coal,  the  sums  thus  re- 
utilized  in  purchasing  from  abroad 
additional  food  for  the  miners.  It  was  also  decided 
to  apportion  the  reparations  made  by  Germany 
as  follows:  France  52%;  Great  Britain  22%;  Italy 
10%;  Belgium  8%;  and  the  rest  to  Japan,  Portugal, 
Jugoslavia,  Greece,  Rumania,  and  other  powers  not 
signatories  to  the  Agreement.  At  the  Boulogne 
Conference  it  was  agreed  to  finance  the  Spa  coal 
agreement  through  the  Reparations  Commission. 
At  the  London  Conference  in  May,  1921,  the  total 
bill  against  Germany  was  fixed  at  132,000,000,000 
gold  marks  ($33,000,000,000),  $12,500,000,000  to  be 
paid  m  bonds  bearing  5%  interest,  $3,000,000,000 
by  1  July,  1921,  $9,500,000,000  by  1  September,  1921. 
To  provide  for  interest  and  sinking  fund  of  1  per 
cent  on  these  bonds,  Germany  was  to  pay  annually 
$500,000,000  (2,000,000,000  gold  marks)  in  two  in¬ 
stallments,  plus  a  levy  of  25%  on  all  her  exports. 
For  the  remaining  $20,500,000,000  Germany  was  to 
turn  over  to  the  Reparations  Commission  blank 
bonds  to  be  issued  by  the  Commission  at  such 
times  as  the  return  from  the  export  tax  should 
warrant.  The  fall  of  the  value  of  the  mark  and 
the  accompanying  economic  disturbances  in  Ger¬ 
many  led  to  the  Wiesbaden  Pact,  which  was  a 
scheme  to  stimulate  payment  of  reparation  in  the 
form  of  actual  materials  for  the  reconstruction  of 
devastated  regions  and  other  raw  material  until 
May,  1936.  At  Cannes  the  French  held  tentatively 
to  the  Wiesbaden  Pact,  arranging  for  the  payment 
by  Germany  of  720,000,000  marks  in  1922,  payment 
in  kind,  not  to  exceed  a  value  of  1,450,000,000  marks 
in  gold  (950,000,000  to  France).  The  agreement  was 
ratified  by  the  allies  but  owing  to  the  sudden  with¬ 
drawal  of  France  from  the  conference,  nothing  was 
done  to  put.  the  scheme  into  operation.  A  limita¬ 
tion  of  the  issue  of  German  paper  money  and  the 
reform  of  German  currency  was  ordered,  and  an 
international  finance  corporation  was  formed,  to 
be  composed  of  two  British,  two  French,  one  Bel¬ 
gian,  one  Italian,  and  one  Japanese  member,  whose 
purpose  was  to  be  the  economic  rehabilitation  of 
Europe.  •  In  the  meantime  there  were  threats  of 
excursions  by  the  French  army  into  Germany  east 
of  the  Rhine.  In  March,  1920,  France  without  the 
approval  of  her  Allies,  occupied  Frankfort  and 
Darmstadt.  In  March,  1921,  Duisburg,  Ruhrort,  and 
Dusseldorf  were  occupied. 

The  war  revealed  the  loyalty  of  the  Royalists, 
conservatives,  and  clericals,  who  had  been  bitterly 
accused  of  enmity  to  the  Republic.  Most  remark¬ 
able  was  the  patriotism  shown  by  thousands  of 
members  of  religious  orders  who  returned  from 
exile  and  promptly  offered  themselves  to  their 
country.  Thousands  of  priests  volunteered,  either 
for  active .  fighting  or  as  chaplains.  There  was  a 
great  revival  of  religious  enthusiasm  not  only 
among  the  women  but  also  among  the  men  who, 
in  the  face  of  death  abandoned  their  religious 
indifference.  Anti-clericals  and  Catholics,  Republi¬ 
cans  and  royalists,  all  formed  a  union  sacree  to 


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324 


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defend  the  country  against  attack.  The  Unified 
Socialists,  who  had  long  opposed  co-operation  with 
the  b  our  geois  parties,  sent  their  leaders,  Guesede 
and  Sembat,  into  a  Coalition  Cabinet  headed  by 
Viviani.  Jaures,  the  leader  of  the  French  Socialists, 
was  assassinated  in  August,  1914,  because  he  had 
opposed  the  three-year  military  law.  The  failure 
of  the  Balkan  campaign  overthrew  the  Viviani 
Ministry,  which  was  succeeded  on  29  October,  1915, 
by  one  headed  by  Briand.  The  administrative  sys¬ 
tem  was  thoroughly  organized  and  a  War  Council 
of  five  members  was  appointed,  with  full  authority 
to  direct  affairs.  In  March,  1917,  Ribot  succeeded 
as  premier,  and  declared  unflinchingly  for  the 
return  of  Alsace-Lorraine.  In  September,  Painleve 
became  premier.  A  German  Peace  propaganda  was 
organized  by  a  financier,  Bolo  Pasha,  who  had  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  bribing  several  newspapers  in  the  interest 
of  Germany.  Caillaux,  former  premier  and  Min¬ 
ister  of  Justice  was  suspected  of  treasonable  cor- 
erspondence  with  Germany.  For  three  years  no 
Government  ventured  to  attack  Caillaux  openly, 
but  in  November,  1917,  Clemenceau  became  premier 
and  succeeding  in  convicting  Bolo  of  high  treason. 
Caillaux  was  found  not  guilty,  but  was  convicted 
of  “dangerous  correspondence  with  the  enemy. 

International.  Relations. — In  the  treaty  of 
Peace  between  France  and  Turkey  (10  August, 
1920),  the  French  protectorates  of  Morocco  and 
Tunisia  were  recognized,  although  the  dispute  over 
the  internationalized  territory  of  Tangier  remained, 
the  French  demanding  in  1922  that  the  sovereignty 
of  the  Sultan  be  extended  over  Tangier,  which  is 
virtually  a  demand  that  the  sovereignty  of  France 
be  recognized,  as  (in  the  Morocco  Agreement  of 
1912)  the  Sultan  had  accepted  the  French  pro¬ 
tectorate.  By  a  decision  of  the  Supreme  Council 
in  March,  1920,  Kamerun  and  Togoland  were 
divided  between  Great  Britain  and  France  as  man¬ 
dataries.  By  an  Anglo-French  agreement  of  15 
September,  1920,  Syria  was  allotted  to  France. 
Cilicia  was  to  be  occupied  by  the  French  but 
they  were  to  abandon  Damascus,  Hama,  Homs, 
and  Aleppo,  these  cities  having  previously  been 
promised  by  Great  Britain  to  the  Kingdom  of 
Hej  az.  On  19  February,  1921,  a  defensive  alliance 
between  Poland  and  France  was  concluded.  An 
amicable  understanding  with  Italy  had  also  been 
reached  in  a  conference  between  the  Italian  and 
French  premiers  at  Aix-les-Bains  in  September, 
1920.  In  July,  1921,  a  defensive  alliance  was  formed 
between  Belgium  and  France,  the  former  reserving 
the  right  to  remain  neutral  in  all  disputes  respecting 
French  colonial  possessions  between  France  and 
other  nations.  England  had  already  agreed  in  the 
treaty  of  Versailles  to  come  to  the  assistance  of 
France,  if  she  were  again  attacked.  In  November, 
1920,  the  world  became  aware  of  an  Italo-Franco- 
British  agreement  for  maintaining  spheres  of  influ¬ 
ence  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  signed  secretly  at  Sevres 
on  10  August,  1920.  It  assigned  to  France  the 
Syrian  and  Cilician  coasts,  the  hinterland  extend¬ 
ing  across  the  middle  reaches  of  the  Euphrates, 
through  southern  Kurdistan  to  the  undefined  fron¬ 
tiers  of  Armenia,  omitting  Mossul.  The  French 
Government  had  the  privilege  of  exchanging  its 
rights  in  the  Bagdad  Railway  for  the  exclusive 
exploitation  of  railroads  within  its  area  of  special 
interest.  The  opposition  of  the  people  in  France 
to  the  maintenance  of  such  a  large  French  army 
in  the  Near  East  and  the  unnecessary  military 
expenditure  induced  the  French  Government  to 
negotiate  a  secret  treaty  with  the  Angora  Govern¬ 
ment,  on  9  March,  1921.  In  return  for  extensive 
economic  concessions  the  French  agreed  to  with¬ 


draw  from  Cilicia,  and  the  boundary  between  Syria 
and  the  Turkish  territory  as  arranged  in  the  Sevres 
Treaty  was  altered.  In  the  Disarmament  Confer¬ 
ence  held  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  the  French  re¬ 
vealed  their  lack  of  faith  in  Germany  and  held 
tenaciously  to  the  maintenance  of  a  large  auxiliary 
fleet  if  their  ratio  of  capital  ships  was  as  low  as 
1.75.  No  decision  as  to  the  auxiliary  fleet  was 
reached,  but  France  was  reduced  to  10  ships  with 
a  total  tonnage  of  221,170.  France  was  also  one  of 
the  participants  in  the  nine-power  treaty  declaring 
for  the  integrity  of  China,  for  equal  opportunity 
in  trade  intercourse,  and  for  the  revision  of  Chinese 
customs,  and  proved  her  faith  by  renouncing  Kwang- 
chau-wan  to  China  from  whom  in  1898  she  had 
leased  it  for  ninety-nine  years. 

The  Church. — The  Catholic  Church  in  France 
faced  the  delicate  work  of  reorganization  attendant 
upon  the  Separation  Laws  with  a  courage  and  a 
tact  that  are  by  degrees  re-establishing  her  moral 
and  spiritual  ascendancy.  During  the  war  Catholics 
gave  splendid  proof  of  their  patriotism,  20,000 
priests  having  served  under  the  flag.  Statistics 
published  by  the  Documentation  Catholique  of 
Paris  show  that  the  number  of  French  religious 
mobilized  was  8928,  the  majority  of  whom  be¬ 
longed  to  congregations  established  outside  of 
France,  who  returned  as  volunteers.  Of  these  1464 
died  in  the  war.  This  number  included  42  As- 
sumptionists,  34  Benedictines,  40  Capuchins,  28 
Dominicans,  280  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schoffis, 
165  Jesuits,  41  Lazarists,  53  priests  of  the  Foreign 
Missions,  81  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  100  Little 
Brothers  of  Mary,  39  Redemptorists  and  54  Trap- 
pists.  Two  hundred  twenty  crosses  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor,  346  military  medals  and  4722  citations 
in  orders  were  won  by  members  of  religious  con¬ 
gregations.  The  Bishops  of  France  took  an  active 
part  in  the  Sacred  Union,  and  conquered  the  respect 
of  associates  of  every  creed.  Since  the  war  there  is 
evidence  of  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the  Govern¬ 
ment  to  be  more  generous  and  just  in  its  dealings 
with  the  Church.  Its  attitude  is  conciliatory,  as 
shown  by  a  return  of  ecclesiastical  properties  seized 
and  held  by  the  civil  authorities  under  the  law 
of  separation.  Some  of  the  Catholic  schools  have 
been  opened  unofficially,  and  many  men  have  real¬ 
ized  the  mistakes  committed  by  the  rabid  secre¬ 
taries  of  the  Left  in  forcing  the  religious 
communities  out  of  the  country,  and  opening  the 
way  to  disruptive  teaching  in  the  State  schools. 
Negotiations  have  been  entered  into  with  the  Holy 
See  seeking  some  arrangement  for  the  congrega¬ 
tions  as  a  measure  of  necessity  and  in  response  to 
the  political  requirements  of  France.  Catholic 
social  service  organizations,  patronages,  etc.,  are 
increasing  in  numbers  and  effectiveness.  Catholic 
artists  have  combined  their  forces  in  organizations 
suggestive  of  the  ancient  guilds  in  the  production 
of  religious  art  for  new  and  rebuilt  churches  and 
Catholics  in  general  are  prominent  pioneers  in 
France’s  reconstruction.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  out  of  the  34,000,000  people  in  France,  outside 
of  Paris  and  its  suburbs,  some  10,000,000  are  prac¬ 
ticing  Catholics  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  word 
as  compared  to  2,000,000  out  of  32,000,000  seventy 
years  ago.  For  Catholic  statistics  see  articles  on 
the  archdioceses  and  dioceses  of  France. 

On  14  March,  1920,  diplomatic  relations  between 
the  Vatican  and  the  French  Government  which 
had  been  broken  in  1904,  were  resumed.  The  sen¬ 
timent  of  France  was  that  the  national  interest 
required  the  resumption  of  such  relations  and  that 
French  diplomacy  must  have  its  official  share  in 
the  discussion  at  the  Vatican  of  questions  involving 


FRANCISCAN  ORDER 


FREIBURG 


QOK 

OtmJLJ 


French  interests;  that  it  could  not  remain  absent 
from  the  seat  of  spiritual  government  at  which 
the  greater  number  of  states  were  careful  to  be 
represented;  that  the  enforcement  of  the  various 
peace  treaties  made  timely  the  resumption  of  these 
relations  with  the  Holy  See.  The  Peace  Treaty 
of  Versailles  presented  problems  that  must  be 
solved,  such  as  the  application  of  the  old  Concordat 
in  Alsace-Lorraine,  the  fate  of  the  former  German 
missions  in  the  colonies  in  Togoland,  Kamerun,  and 
elsewhere,  and  also  the  safeguarding  of  the  Catholic 
religion  in  Morocco. 

When  Alsace-Lorraine  was  given  over  to  France 
in  the  Fall  of  1918,  the  French  Government  was 
faced  with  two  alternatives  of  denouncing  the 
Concordat  governing  the  religious  policy  of  the 
German  Government  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  or  of 
recognizing  it  and  assuming  its  obligations.  There 
are  over  1,400,000  Catholics  there,  opposed  to  the 
French  separatist  regime  and  to  the  anti-clerical 
spirit.  On  22  April,  1920,  the  Government  issued 
decrees,  naming  Mgr.  Ruch  as  Bishop  of  Strasburg 
and  Mgr.  Pelt  as  Bishop  of  Metz.  Such  a  decision 
entailed  negotiations  with  Rome.  There  was  be¬ 
sides  the  desire  to  permanently  remove  the  issue 
of  “clericism”  from  French  politics.  From  the 
formation  of  the  Radical-Socialist  Party  in  1901  to 
November,  1919,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  min¬ 
isters,  the  Government  has  been  in  the  hands  of  the 
parties  of  the  Left,  who  were  united  on  one  issue — 
hostility  to  the  Catholic  Church.  The  result  of 
this  anti-clerical  intolerance  upon  the  political  life 
of  France  has  been  largely  to  remove  the  very 
type  of  men  needed  to  give  stability  and  character 
to  the  Republic. 

Mgr.  Bonaventuro  Ceretti,  titular  Archbishop  of 
Corinth,  was  appointed  nuncio  to  France,  20  May, 
1921,  and  presented  his  letters  of  credit  to  the 
President  of  the  Republic  6  August  following.  He 
was  born  at  Orvieto,  17  June,  1872,  ordained  31 
March,  1895,  and  attached  to  the  Congregation 
of  Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical  Affairs.  In  1904  he 
was  made  a  papal  chamberlain  and  Apostolic  Dele¬ 
gate  to  Mexico;  later  he  was  auditor  of  the  dele¬ 
gation  at  Washington,  and  in  April,  1914,  was 
appointed  titular  Archbishop  of  Philippopolis  and 
Apostolic  delegate  to  Australia,  and  New  Zealand. 
He  was  consecrated  in  St.  Peter’s,  Rome,  by  Car¬ 
dinal  Merry  del  Val,  19  July  and  solemnly  received 
at  Sydney  the  following  year.  In  May,  1914,  he 
was  transferred  to  the  see  of  Corinth.  Recalled 
to  Rome  he  was  appointed  Secretary  of  Extraor¬ 
dinary  Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  1917,  and  the  following 
year  named  Consultor  of  the  Congregation  for  the 
Eastern  Churches.  Mgr.  Cerretti  was  entrusted 
with  very  important  missions  in  the  United  States 
and  Ireland  in  1919,  and  later  in  Paris,  where 
through  his  negotiations  advantages  were  obtained 
for  Catholic  Missions  in  the  Treaty  of  Versailles. 
M.  Charles  Jonnart,  senator,  represents  France  at 
the  Vatican,  having  been  appointed  Ambassador 
Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  18 
May,  1921. 

Franciscan  Order.  See  Friars  Minor. 

Frascati,  Diocese  of  (Tusculanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VI-243a),  in  the  province  of  Latium,  Central  Italy, 
a  suburbicarian  see,  at  present  filled  by  His  Emi¬ 
nence  Cardinal  Giovanni  Cagliero,  a  Salesian,  b. 
11  January,  1838,  in  the  Diocese  of  Turin,  pupil  of 
Don  Bosco,  ordained  14  June,  1862,  missionary  to 
Patagonia  in  1875,  was  appointed  Vicar  Apostolic 
of  Patagonia,  30  September,  1884,  and  titular  bishop 
of  Magydos  13  November  following,  consecrated  at 
Turin  7  December;  promoted  as  titular  archbishop 


of  Sebaste,  24  March,  1904.  He  was  named  Apostolic 
Delegate  to  Costa  Rica,  10  June,  1908.  Created 
cardinal  priest  6  December,  1915,  he  received  the 
hat  and  the  title  of  San  Bernardo  alle  Terme  three 
days  later.  On  16  December,  1920,  he  was  trans¬ 
ferred  to  Frascati,  of  which  he  took  possession  16 
January,  .1921,  to  succeed  His  Eminence  Cardinal 
Cassetta,  appointed  27  November,  1911,  d.  23 
March,  1919.  He  resides  in  Rome.  The  diocese 
comprises  (1920)  35,000  Catholics,  8  parishes,  38 
secular  and  115  regular  clergy,  40  seminarians,  and 
numerous  monasteries  representing  all  the  great 
orders. 

Free  Church  of  Scotland  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-257b)  — 
For  many  years  previous  to  the  World  War  the 
question  of  union  with  the  Established  Church  of 
Scotland  had  been  a  burning  one.  The  war  put 
a  stop  to  the  negotiations,  which  many  thought 
were  on  a  fair  way  to  success,  and  since  then  no 
definite  action  has  been  taken.  On  31  December, 
1919,  the  Free  Church  had  1489  congregations, 
528,000  members  (communicants  and  connections) 
2050  Sunday  schools,  with  21,647  teachers  and 
201,000  pupils.  These  figures  seem  to  indicate  a 
loss  in  most  particulars,  and  a  lack  of  healthy 
growth  in  number  of  members,  when  compared 
with  statistics  taken  from  the  same  source  (States¬ 
man’s  Year-Book),  according  to  which  there  were, 
in  1903,  1675  congregations,  501,000  members,  2475 
Sunday  schools,  with  26,541  teachers  and  344,000 
children.  This  condition  is  due  in  part  to  defec¬ 
tions  to  the  “Wee  Frees,”  who  rose  from  26  con¬ 
gregations  to  150  in  the  same  period. 

Stephens,  The  Presbyterian  Churches,  Divisions  and  Unions 
m  Scotland,  Ireland,  Canada,  and  America  (Phila.,  1910); 
Balfour  An  Historical  Account  of  the  Rise  and  Development 
of  Presbyterianism  in  Scotland  (Cambridge  University,  1911); 
Selbie,  Free  Church  and  Lambeth  Appeal  in  Constructive 
Quarterly  IX  (1921),  645;  Statesman’s  Year-Book  (London, 
annual) ;  Orr,  The  Scottish  Church  Question  in  IJibbert  Jour¬ 
nal,  XII  (1913-14),  306.  n  c 

Gerald  Shaughnessy. 

Freiburg,  Archdiocese  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-264b), 
in  the  former  archduchy  of  Baden,  which  has  been 
a  republic  since  9  November,  1918.  According  to 
the  latest,  census  the  population  of  the  city  of 
Freiburg  is  90,000.  Within  the  city  limits  there 
are  8  parishes  and  3  parochial  curacies,  and  18 
Catholic  churches  and  chapels.  At  the  present  time 
there  are  80  priests  stationed  at  Freiburg,  seven  of 
whom  are  Franciscans..  The  Vincentian  Sisters 
(200)  have  charge  of  21  institutions,  the  Franciscan 
Sisters  (81)  have  5  institutions,  the  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Cross  (180)  have  6  institutions.  During  the 
Summer  term  of  1921  the  University  of  Freiburg 
was  attended  by  3931  students  and  has  a  teaching 
body  of  175.  The  members  of  the  Catholic  theo¬ 
logical  faculty  numbered  14,  and  the  students  of 
theology  379.  Since  1911  the  university  classes  are 
held  in  an  imposing  new  building,  in  which  there 
is  a  so-called  mensa  academica  where  the  students 
can  procure  cheap,  wholesome  meals.  Mention 
should  also  be  made  of  the  Sapienz,  a  residence 
for  priests  who  are  continuing  their  studies,  and  a 
students’  home,  called  “Albertus  burse.”  The  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Freiburg  embraces  Baden  and  the  prop¬ 
erty  of  the  Hohenzollerns  in  Prussia.  The  Cath¬ 
olics  in  the  archdiocese  number  1,340,722.  The 
civil  powers  no  longer  have  a  voice  in  the  appoint¬ 
ment  of  a  bishop.  There  are  in  the  archdiocese 
44  deaneries,  894  parishes,  40  parochial  curacies  and 
14  chaplaincies  with  813  pastors,  37  parochial  ad¬ 
ministrators,  40  curates,  310  vicars  who  are  active 
in  parish  work,  and  161  priests  employed  in  other 
capacities.  The  entire  number  of  secular  clergy 
in  the  archdiocese  is  1472,  of  regulars  120. 


FREIBURG 


326 


FREJUS 


The  following  monasteries  for  men  are  situated 
in  the  diocese:  Beuron  (Benedictine)  65  priests, 
17  scholastics,  12  lay  brothers;  Gorheim  (Sigmarin- 
gen  Franciscans),  13  priests,  17  scholastics,  15 
lay  brothers;  Freiburg  (Franciscans),  7  priests,  3  lay 
brothers;  Sackingen  (Capuchins),  6  priests,  3  lay 
brothers;  Zell  (Capuchins),  5  priests,  1  lay  brother; 
Waghausel  (Capuchins),  5  priests,  3  lay  brothers; 
Bickesheim  (Redemptorists),  3  priests,  4  lay 
brothers;  Birnau  (Cistercians),  8  priests,  4  lay 
brothers;  Bronbach  (Cistercians),  6  priests,  4 
lay  brothers.  Since  1918  male  orders  and  congre¬ 
gations  are  permitted  to  have  foundations  in  Baden 
and  the  following  orders  are  now  established  there: 
White  Fathers  at  Haigerloch  (10  priests,  8  brothers) ; 
Pallotini  Fathers  at  Bruchsal;  Fathers  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  at  Donaueschingen.  There  are  also  Brothers 
of  Charity  at  five  stations.  The  entire  number  of 
monasteries  for  men  in  the  archdiocese,  inclusive  of 
3  missionary  establishments,  is  12,  including  1  abbey 
with  360  regulars  (including  lay  brothers).  The 
total  number  of  lay  brothers  is  114.  The  entire 
.mmber  of  monasteries  and  convents  for  women  is 
8,  situated  as  follows:  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
(40  members),  Benedictines  at  Habstal  (30),  Domin¬ 
icans  at  Constance  (60),  Cistercians  at  Lichtental 
(65),  Ursulines  at  Villingen  (75).  The  total  num¬ 
ber  of  nuns  exceeds  300. 

The  following  congregations  devoted  to  charitable 
works  are  active  in  the  archdiocese :  Sisters  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  mother-house  at  Freiburg,  327 
establishments,  1199  Sisters ;  Sisters  of  St.  Francis 
from  Gengenbach,  317  establishments,  1037  Sisters; 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  from  Ingenbohl  at  Hegne, 
304  establishments,  1134  Sisters;  Sisters  of  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Dominic  at  Neusatzeck,  4  foundations; 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  St.  Mark  (Alsace),  provin¬ 
cial  house  St.  Trudpert,  45  convents,  114  Sisters; 
Sisters  of  St.  Francis  of  Milwaukee,  104  convents, 
400  Sisters,  provincial  house  at  Erlenbad;  Sisters  of 
the  Holy  Redeemer  of  Oberbronn  (Alsace),  pro¬ 
vincial  house  at  Buhl,  68  convents,  574  Sisters; 
Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  mother-house  Stras- 
burg,  12  convents,  75  Sisters;  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  Strasburg-Neudorf,  10  convents,  36  Sisters; 
Sisters  of  St.  Francis  of  Mallersdorf,  Bavaria,  5  con¬ 
vents,  32  Sisters;  Sisters  of  the  Divine  Infant  Jesus, 
Wurzburg  Oberzell,  3  convents,  6  Sisters;  Sisters 
of  Christian  Charity,  Paderborn,  2  convents,  9  Sis¬ 
ters;  Sisters  of  the  Divine  Redeemer,  Wurzburg,  3 
convents,  7  Sisters;  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross, 
Menzingen,  4  convents,  9  Sisters;  Sisters  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  Augsburg,  1  convent,  2  Sisters. 
The  following  institutions  and  charitable  organiza¬ 
tions  are  in  charge  of  the  various  orders  of  Sisters: 
560  homes  for  visiting  nursing  Sisters;  125  hospitals 
in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity;  30  homes  and 
alms  houses;  7  foundling  asylums;  400  day  nur¬ 
series;  20  asylums;  4  refuges  for  wayward  girls; 
1  asylum  for  the  feeble-minded;  2  homes  for  crip¬ 
ples;  several  soup  kitchens;  7  convalescent  homes 
for  children;  1  convalescent  home  for  mothers;  1 
convalescent  home  for  war  veterans;  5  homes  for 
working  women  and  employees ;  1  convalescent 

home  for  priests. 

Aside  from  the  above  mentioned  schools,  educa¬ 
tional  institutions  and  university,  there  are  in  the 
archdiocese  of  Freiburg:  the  University  of  Heidel¬ 
berg  with  2481  students  and  188  professors  and  a 
Protestant  theological  faculty,  an  Institute  of 
Technology  at  Karlsruhe,  an  Institute  of  Commerce 
in  Mannheim,  altogether  43  high  schools,  gymnasia, 
6  obereaJschulen  and  girls’  high  schools,  6  training 
schools,  5  gymnasial  boarding  schools  at  Freiburg, 
Rastatt,  Constance,  Sigmaringen,  and  Tauber- 


bischofscheim ;  3  boarding  schools  for  high  school 
students,  1  home  for  theological,  students  (Col¬ 
legium  Sapientise),  1  home  for  students  (Albertus 
burse),  1  home  for  girl  students  (Hildegardisheim) , 
2  schools  for  the  training  of  women  social  workers, 

1  training  school  for  kindergarten  teachers,  1  caritas 
school,  1  creche,  5  housekeeping  schools,  1187  sew¬ 
ing  and  needle-work  schools.  In  the  archdiocese 
there  are  4  homes  for  shop-girls,  12  for  servants, 
4  for  apprentices,  and  7  for  journeymen. 

Mention  may  be  made  of  the  following  societies 
among  the  clergy:  the  Unio  Apostolica,  the  Unio 
cleri  pro  missionibus,  the  Assecurantia  clericorum, 
and  the  Association  for  the  support  of  sick  priests. 
The  following  societies  and  organizations  are  under 
the  care  of  the  clergy:  Marian  Association  of 
Priests,  St.  Bonifatiusverein  (its  income  during  the 
past  year  was  516,453  m.) ;  Bonifatiusverein  for 
poor  children  and  for  missionary  works  in  the  arch¬ 
diocese;  society  of  the  Holy  Childhood,  St.  Francis 
Xavier  Association,  Marian  Congregation  for  young 
women  (420  branches),  Marian  Congregation  for 
boys  and  young  men  (60  branches),  Marian  Con¬ 
gregation  for  men  (20  branches),  Marian  Congre¬ 
gation  for  students  (3  branches),  Association  of 
Christian  Mothers  (620  branches),  Catholic  Jour¬ 
neymen’s  Unions  (70  branches),  Workingmen’s 
Unions  (120  branches),  boys  and  young  men’s  asso¬ 
ciations  (240  branches),  working  women’s  associa¬ 
tion  (30  branches),  servant  girls’  associations  (35 
branches),  association  for  women  and  civil  service 
employees  (12  branches),  People’s  Union  ( Volk - 
verein,  490  branches),  Borromausvereine,  Catholic 
Women’s  League  (10  branches),  Catholic  Students’ 
League,  Association  of  High  School  Students  of 
New  Germany  (15  branches),  Association  of  Cath¬ 
olic  Social  Workers  (13  branches).  The  confra¬ 
ternities  include  the  Association  of  the  Holy 
Family,  the  Caritas  Association  with  8  bureaux 
and  committees  in  all  parishes,  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  Society  (25  branches),  Elizabeth  Verein,  Girls’ 
Protective  Associations  (14  branches),  Association 
of  asylums  and  day  nurseries. 

There  are  11  periodicals  published  within  the 
limits  of  the  archdiocese,  and  39  Catholic  news¬ 
papers. 

The  following  distinguished  clergymen  have  died 
since  1915:  Most  Rev.  Thomas  Norber,  Archbishop 
of  Freiburg;  Rt.  Rev.  Justus  Knecht,  auxiliary 
bishop  of  Freiburg;  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Lorenz  Werth- 
mann,  founder  of  the  Caritas  Association  for 
Catholic  Germany  and  organizer  of  the  charity 
organizations  throughout  the  country;  Rev.  Theo¬ 
dore  Wacker,  for  many  years  the  distinguished 
leader  of  the  Center  Party  of  Baden. 

Archbishop  Norber,  born  in  Waldstetten  1846, 
ordained  1870,  served  as  vicar  at  Schwetzingen  and 
Mannheim  and  pastor  at  Seckach,  Hardheim  Lich- 
tenthal,  Thiergarten  and  Baden-Baden,  was  ap¬ 
pointed  archbishop  5  September,  1898,  named  an 
assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  9  May,  1900,.  and 
died  27  July,  1920,  having  celebrated  the  golden 
jubilee  of  his  priesthood.  He  was  succeeded  by 
the  present  incumbent,  Most  Rev.  Charles  Fritz, 
born  in  Adelhousen  1864,  appointed  12  October, 
1920. 

Frejus,  Diocese  of  (Forum  Juliensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VI-269d),  suffragan  of  Aix.  The  present  diocese 
comprises  the  territory  of  the  ancient  Diocese  of 
Frejus,  as  well  as  that  of  the  ancient  Diocese 
of  Toulon.  The  most  important  events  which  have 
taken  place  in  the  diocese  since  1909  were  the 
solemn  canonical  coronation  of  the  statue  of  Notre 
Dame  de  Consolation  at  Hveres,  and  the  centenaries 


FRENCH  ACADEMY 


FRIARS  MINOR 


327 


of  the  churches  of  Notre  Dame-des-Graces  and  of 
bt.  Joseph  at  Golignac.  Throughout  the  war  both 
clergy  and  laity  willingly  and  unselfishly  gave  their 
services  for  their  country.  Among  those  who  espe¬ 
cially  distinguished  themselves  was  Abbe  Rodie, 
captain  in  the  artillery,  who  was  awarded  the 
Legion  of  Honor  and  received  the  croix  de  guerre 
with  three  citations.  The  diocese  is  at  present 
administered  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Felix  Guillibert,  b. 
at  Aix,  1  November,  1842,  ordained  24  December, 
1805,  appointed  to  the  see  of  Frejus  21  February, 
1906,  consecrated  at  Rome  25  February  following, 
appointed  inspector  general  of  the  chaplains,  of 
the  French  Navy  30  April,  1918,  named  chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  honor  in  August,  1921,  for  excep¬ 
tional  services  rendered  during  the  war. 

In  1921  there  were  322,945  Catholics  in  the  dio¬ 
cese,  not  including  the  black  troops,  namely,  the 
Senegalese,  Moroccans,  Algerians,  and  Malagasy. 
There  were  179  parishes  with  28  parish  churches 
and  151  succursal  churches,  1  monastery,  1  convent, 

1  abbey  for  men,  2  Carmelite,  2  Dominican,  2  Capu- 
chiness  monasteries  for  women,  1  diocesan  semi¬ 
nary  (60  seminarians),  1  seminary  conducted  by  the 
Dominicans  for  the  training  of  missionaries,  1 
preparatory  seminary  for  boys,  2  colleges  for  boys. 

Throughout  the  diocese  there  are  numerous  pub¬ 
lic  institutions,  including  lyceums,  asylums,  refuges, 
naval  and  civil  hospitals,  day  nurseries,  all  of  which 
admit  the  ministry  of  priests.  Since  the  war  the 
government  has  founded  an  institution  which  edu¬ 
cates  and  cares  for  those  children  who  were  left 
orphans  in  consequence  of  the  war.  Three  Catholic 
periodicals  are  published  in  the  diocese.  Among 
the  clergy  there  is  a  co-operative  association  for 
the  purpose  of  ecclesiastical  vestments.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  societies  among  the  laity  are  the  Association 
chretienne  de  la  jeunesse  catholique  and  the  Cath¬ 
olic  Workingmen’s  Association. 

French  Academy,  The  (cf.  C.  E.,  I-89a),  which 
from  1635  up  till  the  present  day  has  included  many 
faithful  sons  of  the  Church,  now  has  nine  Cath¬ 
olics  among  its  thirty-five  members.  The  list  of 
Academicians  given  in  the  order  of  priority  of  elec¬ 
tion,  with  the  names  of  the  Catholic  members 
italicized,  follows:  le  Comte  d’ H aussonville ;  Pierre- 
Louis  de  Freycinet;  Pierre-Louis  Loti-Viaud;  Ernest 
Lavisse;  Paul  Bourget;  Anatole  France;  Gabriel 
Hanotaux;  Henri  Lavedan;  Paul  Deschanel; 
Frederic  Masson;  Rene  Bazin;  Alexandre  Ribot; 
Maurice  Barres;  Maurice  Donnay;  Jean  Richepin; 
Raymond  Poincare;  Eugene  Brieux;  Rene  Doumic; 
Marcel  Prevost;  Mgr.  Duchesne;  Henri  de  Regnier; 
General  Lyautey;  Etienne  Boutroux;  Alfred  Capus; 
Pierre  de  la  Gorce;  Henri  Bergson;  Marechal  Joff re; 
Louis  Barthou;  Henry  Bordeaux;  Mgr.  Baudrillart ; 
Rene  Boylesve-Tardiveau;  Frangois  de  Curel;  Jules 
Cambon;  Georges  Clemenceau;  Marechal  Foch. 
French  Indo-China.  See  Indo-China. 
Freudianism.  See  Psychoanalysis. 


Friars  Minor,  Order  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-281c;  also 
\I-217a). — By  the  Constitution  “Quo  Magis”  of  23 
October,  1911,  Pope  Pius  X  introduced  important 
changes  into  the  order.  He  also  relieved  Fr.  Schuler 
of  his  responsibility,  making  him  titular  Archbishop 
of  Nazianzus,  and  appointed  Pacificus  Monza  of 
Vicenza  (Venice)  general  of  the  order.  At  the 
general  chapter  in  1915  Seraphine  Cimino  of  Ischia 
(Naples)  became  head  of  the  order,  and  in  1921 
the  general  chapter  elected  Bernardine  Klumper  of 
Amsterdam  (Holland)  minister  general.  The  tenure 
of  this  last  office  was  restricted  by  the  Constitution 
Quo  Magis”  to  six  years;  re-election  for  one  other 
fcrm,  however,  may  be  made  by  a  simple  (absolute) 


majority  of  votes  at  the  general  chapter,  which 
must  now  be  held  every  sixth  year.  By  the  same 
Constitution  the  division  of  the  order  into  cir¬ 
cumscriptions  was  abolished,  and  only  six  definitors 
general  or  counsellors  are  elected  at  the  general 
chapter,  according  to  language  (English,  French 
German,  Hungarian-Slavic,  Italian,  Spanish),  for  a 
term  of  six  years.  The  procurator  general’  holds 
office  for  the  same  length  of  time,  and,  according 
to  the  new  regulations,  he  is  delegatus  a  jure  when¬ 
ever  the  general  is  absent  from  Rome,  and  in  case 
of  the  latter’s  death  or  cessation  from  office  during 
his  term,  the  procurator  ipso  facto  becomes  vicar 
general  of  the  order  and  governs  with  full  authority 
until  the  general  chapter  convenes  at  the  regular 
sexennial  period.  In  Spain  all  the  provinces  of  the 
order  are  governed  by  a  vicar  general  and  four 
mter-provmcial  counsellors  who  are  elected  for  a 
term  of  six  #  years  and  reside  at  Madrid.  The 
congregatio  intermedia  _  for  the  whole  order  and 
the  capitulum  intermedium  in  the  single  provinces 
have  been  abolished.  As  to  head-dress,  custom 
permits  the  use  of  a  hat  with  the  habit  in  many 
provinces  of  the  order,  and  the  great  tonsure  is 
given  only  in  some  countries. 

In  October,  1920,  the  order  had  16,248  members 
of  whom  8891  were  priests  and  2251  clerics*  the 
number  of  provinces  was  99,  with  837  convents  and 
801  residences  (i.  e.,  domus  non  formates).  In  the 
United  States  the  5  provinces  and  2  commissariats 
(Polish  at  Pulaski,  Wisconsin;  Slovenian  and 
Croatian  at  New  York)  of  the  order  (besides  the 
Commissariat  of  the  Holy  Land  at  Washington, 
D.  C.)  comprised  35  convents,  108  residences,  654 
priests,  256  clerics,  and  a  total  membership  of  1236. 
After  the  United  States  and  several  other  countries 
were  removed  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Propa¬ 
ganda  and  thereby  lost  their  status  as  missionary 
countries,  the  number  of  religious  classified  as  mis¬ 
sionaries  was  also  considerably  reduced.  Thus,  in 
October,  1920,  the  statistics  of  the  order  showed 
1120  missionary  priests,  64  clerics,  and  about  200 
lay  brothers  working  in  the  foreign  field.  In  1921 
the  three  Franciscan  cardinals,  Aguirre,  Neto,  and 
Falconio,  who  had  been  raised  to  the  purple  in 
November,  1911,  being  deceased,  the  order  still  in¬ 
cluded  among  its  members  8  archbishops,  34  bishops 
(of  whom  14  are  vicars  apostolic),  and  2  prelates 
nullius  (of  Santarem  in  Brazil  and  Mozambique  in 
Africa),  besides  2  prefects  apostolic  and  3  superiors 
of  the  missions  in  the  Holy  Land,  in  Upper  Egypt, 
and  in  Constantinople.  Among  notable  members 
recently  deceased  are:  David  Fleming  (d.  1915)  ■ 
Agostino  Gemelli,  first  rector  of  the  Catholic  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Milan ;  and  the  celebrated  composer  of 
many  classic  oratorios,  Hartmann  von  An-der-Lan 
Hochbrunn  (d.  1914). 

Owing  to  the  reform  of  the  Breviary  under  Pope 
Pius  X  the  dates  assigned  in  the  calendar  for  the 
feasts  of  several  of  the  saints  and  of  a  number  of 
the  Blessed  have  been  changed.  Since  1909  sixteen 
Friars  Minor  have  been  added  to  the  catalogue  of 
Beati  whose  feasts  are  celebrated  throughout  the 
order,  viz.:  Gerard  Cagnoli,  d.  1342  (2  January); 
Roger  of  Todi,  d.  1237  (28  January);  Giles  of 
Lorenzano,  d.  1518  (28  January) ;  John  Baptist  of 
Fabriano,  d.  1539  (11  March);  Christopher  of 
Milan,  d.  1485  (11  March);  Mark  of  Montegallo, 
d.  1497  (20  March);  Hippolytus  Galantini,  d.  1619 
(20  March);  Gandulphus  of  Binasco,  d.  1260  (3 
April);  Julian  Cesarrelli,  d.  c.  1350  (11  May);  John 
of  Aragon  and  Peter  of  Duenas,  martyred  at 
Granada,  1397  (22  May) ;  Timothy  of  Monticulo, 
d.  1504  (26  August) ;  Bonaventure  of  Barcelona,  d. 
1684  (11  September);  Christopher  of  Romandiola, 


FRIARS  MINOR 


FRIARS  MINOR 


328 


d  1272  (31  October);  Anthony  Bonfadini,  d.  1482 
(i  December);  Nicholas  of  Dalmatia,  martyred  at 

Jerusalem,  1391  (5  December)  .  _ 

Friars  Minor  in  America  (cf.  C.  E.,  Vl-298a). 

On  11  September,  1885,  the  Province  of  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  was  established  under  the  invocation  of  St 
John  the  Baptist.  In  October,  1897,  at  the  request 
of  the  Most  Rev.  Peter  Bourgade,  this  province 
accepted  missions  in  New  Mexico  and  northern 
Arizona  among  the  Navajo  and  Pueblo  Indians, 
and  a  little  later  their  activity  was  als°  extended 
to  the  Mexican  and  Spanish  settlers  of that  terri¬ 
tory  To  -  further  their  work  among  the  Navajo 
tribe,  the  Fathers  made  a  special  study  of  that 
language  and  with  much  difficulty  and  labor  suc¬ 
ceeded8  in  editing  a  “Vocabulary”  in  2  volumes 
and  an  “Ethnologic  Dictionary  of  the  Navajo 
language,  together  with  a  short  catechism  and 
Bible  History  in  the  same  tongue.  With  the  eleva¬ 
tion  of  one  of  their  brethren,  Rev.  Albert  Daeger, 
to  the  Archbishopric  of  Santa  Fe  (consecrated  7 
Mav  1919),  a  new  impetus  was  given  to  their  mis¬ 
sionary  zeal,  and  many  new  parishes  and  missions 
were  undertaken  with  great  success.  At  present  the 
province  numbers  5  monasteries,  43  residences,  1 
bishop,  172  priests,  54  professed  clerics  (22  m 
philosophy  and  32  in  theology),  9  novice  clerics, 
53  professed  lay  brothers,  10  tertiaries  professed, 
and  2  tertiary  novices.  The  Fathers  conduct  a 
preparatory  seminary,  attended  by  96  students,  and 
are  in  charge  of  46  parishes,  143  missions  and 
stations,  including  the  Indian  missions  m  New 
Mexico  and  Arizona,  45  parish  schools  attended  by* 
12  000  pupils,  2  Catholic  Indian  schools,  and  a 
number  of  Indian  Government  schools  are  also 
attended  by  the  Fathers.  Eight  Fathers  on  the 
missionary  band  are  continually  engaged  m  preach¬ 
ing  missions  to  the  people.  The  Friars  of  this 
province  also  publish  “Der  Sendbote,  a  German 
monthly  periodical  for  the  Apostleship  of  Prayer, 
the  “St.  Anthony  Messenger”  for  the  members^ of 
the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  '  The  Sodalist,  a 
monthly  for  the  young  people,  and  the  Franciscan 
Missions  of  the  Southwest,”  an  annual  for  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  Indian  Preservation  Society. 

The  Province  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  with 
provincial  house  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  numbers  219 
priests,  73  clerics,  100  lay  Brothers,  23  Fathers  in 
Indian  missions,  1  in  China,  2  at  the  Catholic  Uni¬ 
versity,  Washington,  D.  C.,  10  monasteries,  23  resi¬ 
dences,  81  parishes,  56  missions,  stations,  and 
institutions,  4  houses  of  studies,  1  college  for 
aspirants  to  the  order,  1  college  with  commercial, 
classical,  and  philosophical  course.  On  7  November, 
1915,  the  convents  and  missions,  which  had  con¬ 
stituted  the  commissariat  of  California,  were 
detached  from  the  Province  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
and  formed  into  a  separate .  province  under  the 
patronage  of  St.  Barbara,  virgin  and  martyr.  lfns 
province  now  embraces  the  Franciscans  in  Cali¬ 
fornia,  southern  Arizona,  southern  New  Mexico 
Oregon,  and  Washington,  with  provincial  resident 
in  San  Francisco.  The  status  of  the  province  is  as 
follows:  99  priests,  17  professed  clerics,  6  novices, 
57  lay  brothers,  1  novice,  14  tertiaries  regular,  5 
monasteries,  10  residences  among  whites,  6  resi¬ 
dences  among  Indians,  21  parishes,  40  mission  sta¬ 
tions  among  Indians,  1  seminary  with  70  students 
for  the  order,  4400  children  in  parochial  schools, 
and  about  400  Indian  children  in  mission  schools. 

The  Province  of  the  Most  Holy  Name,  with 
provincial  house  in  New  York  City,  has  6  monas¬ 
teries,  8  residences,  102  priests,  59  professed  clerics, 
21  novices,  52  lay  brothers.  The  Fathers  have 
charge  of  12  parishes,  31  missions,  4  houses  of 


studies,  1  seraphic  seminary,  1  ecclesiastical  semi¬ 
nary,  1  classical,  commercial,  and  pre-medical  col¬ 
lege  2  high  schools,  11  parish  schools  attended  by 
about  3000  pupils.  They  publish  “The  Franciscan,^ 
a  monthly,  “St.  Anthony’s  Almanac  The  Laurel 
and  “The  Seminary  Year  Book.”  The  Province  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception,  with  provincial  house 
in  New  York,  comprises  3  monasteries,  10  residences, 

48  priests,  13  professed  clerics,  6  novices  6  professed 
lay  brothers,  4  tertiaries  regular,  7  students  for  the 
priesthood,  12  parishes,  1  college  with  25  students, 

6  parish  schools  with  4200  children,  1  asylum  for 

b°The  Polish  Franciscans  in  Wisconsin  constitute  a 
commissariat,  under  the  title  of  the  Assumption  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  composed  of  22  priests, 

20  professed  clerics,  5  novices,  31  professed  lay 
brothers,  2  novices,  11  tertiaries  regular  1  postulant, 

1  monastery,  1  seraphic  college,  2  residences,  and  2 
mission  stations.  On  2  August,  1912,  the  commis¬ 
sariat  of  the  Holy  Cross  was  established  in  New 
York  City  for  Slovenian  and  Croatian  Friars.  It 
embraces  15  priests,  6  professed  clerics,  5  novices 

7  postulants,  7  professed  lay  brothers,  2  novices,  10 
residences,  10  parishes,  and  2  mission  stations. 

The  first  Franciscan  friary  in  Canada  was  founded 
in  Montreal  24  June,  1890,  exactly  275  years  after 
the  first  Mass  celebrated  on  Canadian  land  (24  June, 
1615),  and  that  by  a  Franciscan  Recollect,  Fr.  Joseph 
Le  Caron,  and  more  than  a  century  since  the  last 
Recollet  died  in  Canada.  The  foundator  was  Very 
Rev.  Otho  Ransan  de  Pavie,  Minister  Provincial 
of  the  Province  of  St.  Louis  d’Anjou,  m  France, 
sent  directly  bv  the  Minister  General,  Most  Rev'. 
Aloysius  of  Parma.  He  had,  however,  been  preceded 
by  Rev.  Frederic  of  Ghyvelde  (1881),  who  made  a 
short  stay  in  Canada  where  he  became  very  popular 
and  where  he  returned  in  1888  to  found  the  Com¬ 
missariat  for  the  Holy  Land.  He  died  at  Mon¬ 
treal  in  1916,  and  many  favors  are  attributed  to 
his  intercession.  Until  23  March,  1920,  when  the 
Franciscan  friaries  in  Canada  were  erected  into  an 
independent  commissariat  with  Very  Rev.  ”ean- 
Joseph  Deguire  as  first  commissary  provincial,  the 
Franciscans  in  Canada  had  been  subjects  of  the 
French  provinces  of  the  order.  After  the  expulsion 
from  France  of  religious  orders,  the  provincial  tem¬ 
porarily  took  up  his  residence  in  Montreal.  Ihree 
monthly  reviews  are  published  in  Canada,  two  in 
French,  “La  Revue  Franciscaine”  and  “La  Tem¬ 
perance,”  and  one  in  English,  “The  Franciscan 
Review  and  St.  Anthony’s  Record”;  and  also  a 
yearly  calendar  in  French,  “L’Almanach  Franciscam 
The  Fathers  of  the  province  have  also  published 
many  books  on  all  kinds  of  subjects,  making  a 
total  of  278  for  the  period  1890-1915.  They  are 
the  leaders  of  the  Temperance  League,  for  which 
during  the  first  two  years,  besides  many  single  ser¬ 
mons  and  78  lectures  with  luminous  projections,  160 
triduums  and  retreats  were  preached.  Persons 
known  to  have  taken  the  pledge  number  over 
80,000.  Members  of  the  Third  Order  under  the 
obedience  of  the  Franciscans  in  Canada  number 
over  75,000  with  a  church  of  their  own  in  Montreal, 
six  houses  in  different  places,  and  two  libraries. 

Statistics  for  the  order  in  Canada  are  as  follows: 
70  priests,  46  professed  clerics,  14  novice  clerics,  2 
novice  lay  brothers,  45  professed  lay  brothers,  23 
postulants,  3  Tertiary  Brothers  Regular,  2  parishes, 
3  mission  centers  (New  Brunswick,  Alberta,  and 
Japan),  with  numerous  stations  and  outposts,  5 
monasteries  (guardianates),  4  residences  or  hospices, 
1  college  with  110  seraphic  students.  Another  col¬ 
lege  for  the  education  of  future  missionaries  is  to 
be  founded  as  soon  as  circumstances  permit. 


FRIENDS 


329 


FUNFKIRCHEN 


Friends,  Society  of  (Quakers;  cf.  C.  E.,  VI- 
304d).  I.  Orthodox. — In  recent  years  there  has 
been  a  strong  tendency  toward  greater  unity  of 
effort  in  the  fields  of  home  and  foreign  missions, 
Bible  schools,  education,  evangelistic  work,  phi¬ 
lanthropy,  and  social  reform.  The  Friends  have 
joined  the  Federal  Council  of  the  Churches  of 
Christ  in  America,  and  are  taking  part  in  the  prepa¬ 
rations  for  the  World  Conference  on  Faith  and 
Order.  The  official  position  of  the  Friends  in  the 
World  War  was  practically  the  same  as  that  taken 
in  the  American  Revolution.  Their  position  was 
recognized  by  Congress  in  the  Selective-Draft  Act, 
which  provided  for  assignment  of  drafted  Friends 
to  noncombatant  service.  They  organized  the 
American  Friends  Service  Committee  (participated 
in  by  the  four  branches  of  Friends),  carrying  out 
its  work  as  a  part  of  the  civilian  branch  of  the 
American  Red  Cross,  for  the  purpose  of  furthering 
reconstruction  work  in  France.  They  were  also 
prominent  in  relief  work  in  Central  Europe  after 
the  war. 

II.  Primitive. — Since  1906  the  meetings  of  the 
Primitive  Friends  in  New  England  and  New  York 
have  become  component  parts  of  the  “Wilburite” 
yearly  meetings  in  New  England  and  Canada. 

The  four  bodies  (Orthodox,  Hicksite,  Wilburite, 
and  Primitive)  reported,  in  1921,  1331  ministers, 
985  church  edifices,  and  119,294  members  in  the 
United  States  (Christian  Herald,  7  March,  1921). 

Religious  Bodies,  1916  (Washington,  D.  C.,  1919);  Year 
Book  of  the  Churches,  1920  (New  York,  1920). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Fu-chow,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See  Yii-Kiang. 
Fu-kien,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Fokiensis),  in 
China,  with  residence  at  Fu-ohow.  The  present 
vicar  apostolic  also  is  Rt.  Rev.  Francisco  Aguirre, 
0.  P.,  titular  Bishop  of  Botrys  or  Botra,  b.  22 
February,  1863,  in  Elgaibar  in  the  Diocese  of 
Vitoria,  professed.  14  September,  1883,  ordained 
24  April,  1887,  arrived  in  China,  December  follow¬ 
ing,  provincial  vicar  31  May,  1910,  appointed  13 
December,  1911,  consecrated  at  Buichu,  16  June, 
1912. 


rhere  are  in  the  vicariate  (1920)  a  total  popu- 

ation  of  17,000,000  souls  of  whom  49,160  are  Catho¬ 
lics  25,800  catechumens.  There  are  31  missionary 
2}  +natlve  P|'iests>  175  churches  or  chapels,  and 
112  stations.  The  work  of  the  Holy  Childhood  is 
flourishing  in  this  vicariate,  where  there  are  three 
establishments  run  by  the  Spanish  Dominican  Sis¬ 
ters  of  the  Philippines.  In  1913  they  received  4518 
little  girls  and  more  than  6000  in  1914. 

Fulda,  Diocese  of  (Fuldensis;  cf.  C.  E 
VI-31 3c),  in  Germany.  In  1920  the  Catholics  num¬ 
bered  216,000.  The  diocese  contains  120  parishes, 
40  curacies,  15  deaneries,  245  secular  priests,  216 
of  whom  are  charged  with  the  care  of  souls  and 
39  are  otherwise  occupied.  The  diocesan  institu¬ 
tions  are:  the  episcopal  seminary  at  Fulda  with  8 
professors  of  theology,  a  hospice  at  Fulda  under 
the  care  of  the  bishop  for  students  attending  the 
state  gymnasium  or  the  city  Oberrealschule  (8 
years  scientific  course),  the  episcopal  Latin  schools 
at  Amoneburg,  Geisa,  Hunfeld,  Orb,  and  Grossau- 
heim.  The  present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Adam 
Schmitt,  b.  at  Marbach  22  April,  1858,  ordained 
22  October,  1882,  elected  bishop  29  December,  1906, 
consecrated  and  enthroned  19  March,  1907,  and 
published  18  April  following. 

Funchal,  Diocese  of  (Funchalensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VI-318d),  comprising  the  Madeira  Islands,  the  three 
islands  of  Las  Deserta,  Porto-Santo,  Falcon-Baio, 
and  Selvagern,  a  total  of  about  314  sq.  miles,  is 
suffragan  of  Lisbon.  The  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio- 
Emmanuel  Pereira  Ribeiro,  b.  16  February,  1879, 
doctor  of  theology  and  vicar  capitular  of  Funchal, 
appointed  2  October,  1914,  proclaimed  22  January, 
1915,  succeeding  Mgr.  Barreto,  deceased.  There 
are  no  statistics  later  than  1900.  Charles,  former 
Emperor  of  Austria  and  apostolic  king  of  Hungary 
(born  in  1887)  was  exiled  to  Madeira  and  arrived 
at  Funchal  19  November,  1921,  where  he  died  1 
April,  1922. 


Funeral  Dues.  See  Burial. 


Funfkirclien,  Diocese  of.  See  Pecs. 


G 


Gaboon,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Gabonensis), 
in  Central  Africa,  originally  known  as  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  the  Two  Guineas.  A  part  of  the  terri¬ 
tory  comprised  in  this  vicariate,  the  mission  of  the 
Estuary  of  Mouni,  founded  in  1894,  was  ceded  to 
Germany  by  the  Franco-German  treaty  of  4  Novem¬ 
ber,  1911.  The  mission,  which  at  that  time  counted 
500’  Christians  and  1000  Catechumens,  had  2  priests, 

2  Brothers,  and  1  school.  Gaboon,  which  is  en¬ 
trusted  to  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  has  its 
official  residence  at  Sainte  Marie  du  Gabon.  Ht. 
Rev.  John  Martin  Adam,  who  was  appointed  to 
this  vicariate  16  February,  1897,  retired  7  May, 
1914,  and  was  appointed  auxiliary  at  Bordeaux. 
Rt.  Rev.  Louis  Martrou,  born  in  Riom-es-Mon- 
tagnes,  France,  1876,  entered  the  Congregation  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  1  )7,  and  made  superior  of  the  mis¬ 
sion  of  Gaboon  in  1909,  was  appointed  .titular 
Bishop  of  Corycus  and  coadjutor  to  the  vicar  10 
December,  1911,  and  succeeded  as  vicar  apostolic 
upon  the  resignation  of  Bishop  Adam. 

According  to  1920  statistics  this  territory  has  a 
total  population  of  10,000,000,  of  which  14,939  are 
Catholics  and  4200  heretics.  The  mission  is  served 
by  20  missionary  priests,  26  Brothers,  58  catechists, 

6  stations,  16  chapels,  1  seminary,  25  schools,  12 
hospitals,  and  44  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Concep¬ 
tion  of  Castres. 

Gabriel,  Brothers  of  Saint.  See  Saint  Gabriel, 
Brothers  of. 

Gabriel  Possenti,  Saint  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-330a), 
whose  canonization,  the  first  in  the  reign  of  Bene¬ 
dict  XV,  took  place  on  13  May,  1920.  Present  at 
the  ceremony  was  his  brother,  Dr.  Michele  Pos¬ 
senti,  of  Camerino.  His  feast  is  celebrated  on  27 

April. 

Gaeta,  Archdiocese  of  (Caietanensis),  in  the 
province  of  Caserta,  Southern  Italy,  directly  sub¬ 
ject  to  the  Holy  See.  By  a  pontifical  Decree  of 
21  March,  1921,  the  boundaries  of  this  diocese  were 
slightly  changed,  the  town  of  Vallecorsa  being  in¬ 
corporated  in  the  Diocese  of  Veroli.  Most  Rev. 
Francesco  Niola,  promoted  to  this  see  14  Decem¬ 
ber,  1891,  died  14  August,  1920,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Pasquale  Berardi,  born  in  the  diocese 
of  Trivento  1861,  appointed  Bishop  of  Ruvo  24 
March,  1898,  and  promoted  21  April,  1921.  ibe 
diocese  comprises  a  Catholic  population 
statistics)  of  83,600,  42  parishes,  193  secular  and 
10  regular  clergy,  30  seminarians,  4  Brothers,  oU 
Sisters,  and  97  churches  or  chapels. 

Galatians,  Epistle  to  the  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-336a).— - 
The  historical  setting  and  the  precise  meaning  of 
St  Paul’s  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  continue  to  be 
the  subject  of  interesting  discussion.  We  give  below 
only  the  principal  works  which  have  appeared  since 
Father  Aherne’s  article  in  1909 .  Father  Lagrange, 
whose  commentary  is  the  most  important  contribu¬ 
tion  to  the  recent  literature  of  the  subject-,  defends 
the  North  Galatian  theory  and  the  late  date.  fc. 
a.  d.  53  to  57).  He  is  sure  that  the  “Galatian  coun¬ 
try”  of  Acts  xvi,  6,  and  xviii,  23,  can  only  be  the 
ancient  home  of  the  Gauls  of  Asia,  in  the  horthem 
part  of  the  Province  Galatia;  and  that  St.  raul 
could  not  designate  as  “Galatians”  the  Phrygians 
and  Lycaonians  of  the  southern  part  of  the  province, 

3 


whom  he  and  Barnabas  had  converted  during  the 
first  missionary  journey  (c.  47^49).  “With  the 
immense  majority  of  interpreters,”  he  regards  Gal. 
ii,  1-10,  as  St.  Paul’s  account  of  the  meeting  at 
Jerusalem  related  by  Acts  xv,  written  several  years 
after  it  took  place.  Dom  Hopfl  defends  similar 
views  in  his  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament. 

So  does  Father  Prat  in  his  recent  revision  of  his 
“Theologie  de  St.  Paul.”  On  the  other  hand, 
Fathers  Levesque  and  Keogh,  with  Sir  W.  M. 
Ramsay,  contend  that  the  Epistle  was  addressed 
to  the  Churches  of  Antioch,  Iconium,  Lystra,  and 
Derbe,  in  South  Galatia,  before  the  Council  of 
Jerusalem.  It  would  be  the  earliest  of  St.  Paul’s 
Epistles,  written  c.  a.  d.  49.  Professor  Burton 
favors  the  South  Galatian  theory,  but  agrees  with 
Father  Lagrange  concerning  the  date  of  the  Epistle. 

In  the  interpretation  of  the  Epistle  Fathers  La¬ 
grange  and  Levesque  maintain  that  the  opponents 
of  St.  Paul  in  Galatia  advocated  circumcision  and 
the  observance  of  the  Mosaic  law  as  necessary 
for  salvation,  as  did  the  Judaizers  of  whom  St. 
Luke  tells  us  in  Acts  xv.  Like  the  Pharisees,  they 
would  have  counted  on  the  works  of  the  law  as 
a  principle  of  justification,  so  attributing  to  human 
efforts  effects  which  belonged  exclusively  to  Gods 
mercy  and  the  merits  of  Christ’s  death.  It  is, 
indeed,  hard  to  understand  on  any  other  supposi¬ 
tion  St.  Paul’s  arguments,  his  emotions,  his  fear 
for  his  converts,  his  denunciation  of  those  who 
disturb  them.  The  Judaistic  teachers  are  accused 
of  perverting  the  Gospel ;  those  who  accept  cir¬ 
cumcision  are  said  to  cut  themselves  off  from 
Christ.  St.  Paul  would  not  so  speak  of  the  obser¬ 
vance  of  the  Mosaic  law  if  it  were  not  based  on  a 
subversive  error.  It  is  obvious  that  this  view  of 
the  Judaizers’  error  should  incline  one  to  think 
of  the  Epistle  as  written  before  the  Council  of 
Jerusalem.  After  it  the  Judaizers  could  not  appeal 
to  the  authority  of  Pete;  and  James;  nor  could 
they  wield  such  dangerous  authority  over  the 
.Galatians,  who  were  clearly  desirous  of  persevering 
in  the  doctrine  of  the  Apostles.  Writing  after  the 
Council  St.  Paul  would,  we  should  think  have 
simply  told  the  Galatians  that  the  thesis  defended 
by  the  Judaizers  had  been  submitted  to  the  Apos¬ 
tles  and  Elders  at  Jerusalem  and  there  condemned 
promptly,  solemnly,  and  decisively.  Father  Prat, 
however,  still  holds  as  more  likely  that  the  Judai¬ 
zers  only  advocated  circumcision  as  a  means  of 
becoming  more  perfect  Christians;  and  so  much 
can  be  said  in  favor  of  this  view  and  in  favor  of 
bringing  together  in  point  of  time  the  Epistle  to 
the  Galatians  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  that 
no  consensus  of  opinion  may  be  expected  among 
the  doctors  in  the  near  future. 

Williams,  The  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Galatians 
in  Cambridge  Bible  for  Schools  and  Colleges  (Cambridge 
1911);  Ramsey,  The  Date  of  the  Galatian  Letter  in  Ihe 
Expositor  (1913)  pp.  127  ff. ;  Loisy  L  Epitre  ™xGalate*_ 
(laris,  1916);  Lagrange,  Epitre  aux  Galates  m  Etudes  Bib 
liques  (Paris,  1918);  Idem,  A propos  des  destmataires  de 
VEpitre  aux  Galates  in  Revue  Pratique  d  Apo/o£feaQue  (Aug  , 
1920);  Revue  Biblique  (1922),  p.  148;  Levesque  Les  desjtna- 
taires  de  VEpitre  aux  Galates  loc.  cit.,  (Jan  and  Feb.  1920^, 
1  Aug.,  1921);  Prat,  La  Theoloque  de  S.  Paul  (W20),  Blr  *  , 
The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  in  In t emotional  Critical  (r° 
mentary  (New  York,  .1920) ;  Keogh,  The  EjnsOe  to  ^ 
tians  in  The  Westminster  Version  o/  the  Sacred  Scriptures 
(1920);  Hopfl,  Introductio  Specialis  in  Libros  Novi  lesta 
menti  (Subiaco,  1922). 


30 


GALGANI 


331 


GALELLI-NTJORO 


Galgani,  Gemma,  Stigmatic,  b.  at  Camigliano 
in  Tuscany  on  12  March,  1870;  d.  11  April,  1903. 
On  her  mother’s  side  she  was  descended  from  the 
noble  family  of  the  Landi.  Unfortunately,  there 
was  consumption  in  the  whole  family  and  for 
that  reason,  when  Gemma  was  two  years  old 
she  was  cared  for  by  two  pious  women  named 
Vallini  and  remained  with  them  till  she  was  six. 
At  the  age  of  nine  she  made  her  First  Com¬ 
munion  and  from  that  time  her  life  was  one  of 
continual  suffering.  At  the  age  of  twenty  the 
death  of  her  father  left  her  and  the  rest  of  the 
children  in  absolute  destitution.  She  was  at  this 
time  at  the  point  of  death  but  was  miraculously 
saVed  from  the  grave  by  the  apparition  of  the 
Blessed  Gabriel  Possenti  (canonized  1920).  She 
was  then  taken  into  the  household  of  a  pious 
woman  in  spite  of  the  menace  to  its  members  on 
account  of  her  tuberculous  condition.  Her  occu¬ 
pations  were  mostly  of  a  menial  character  and 
entailed  considerable  mental  as  well  as  physical 
suffering,  all  of  which  contributed  to  her  sanctifi¬ 
cation.  She  was  the  recipient  of  wronderful  spiritual 
illuminations,  ecstacies  and  visions,  and  on  8  June, 
1899,  was  marked  with  the  stigmata  of  the  Passion 
on  the  hands,  feet,  head  and  heart,  not  perma¬ 
nently  but  at  various  intervals.  Thenceforth  her 
sufferings  increased  in  intensity  until  her  death. 
The  cause  of  her  beatification  was  introduced  on 
20  April,  1920. 

Galla,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Africa  inter 
Populos  Galla),  embraces  the  territory  of  the  Galla 
or  Ormo  tribes,  in  Abyssinia,  Northern  Africa. 
Founded  in  1846,  the  limits  of  this  vicariate  were 
somewhat  changed  in  1906,  and  by  a  Decree  of  28 
April,  1914,  a  portion  of  its  territory  was  taken 
to  form  the  prefecture  apostolic  of  Jibuti  (q.v.). 
The  vicariate  of  Galla  is  entrusted  to  the  Capuchins 
with  the  official  residence  at  Harar.  The  present 
vicar  is  Rt.  Rev.  Andre-Marie-Elie  Jarosseau,  born 
in  the  diocese  of  Lugon,  France,  1858,  entered  the 
Congregation  of  Capuchins  in  1876,  and  appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  Savatra  4  April,  1900.  This  terri¬ 
tory  embraces  a  population  of  8,017,608  (1920 
statistics),  of  whom  about  17,608  are  Catholics, 
2,000,000  Schismatics  and  Monophysites,  and  most 
of  the  remainder  Mohammedans.  The  mission  is 
served  by  20  Capuchin  and  8  native  priests,  21 
churches,  23  chapels,  an  upper  and  lower  seminary 
with  41  students,  12  schools  for  boys  and  4  for 
girls,  4  orphanages,  7  Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel,  and 
16  Franciscan  Sisters  of  Calais.  On  6  March,  1919, 
one  of  the  missionaries,  Rev.  Julien-Marie,  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  this  mission  since  1902,  was  assassinated  by 
a  band  of  Abyssinian  brigands,  at  Minne  among 
the  Aroussis  tribes. 

Galle,  Diocese  of  (Gallensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VI-349d), 
in  Ceylon,  has  been  making  steady  progress  under 
its  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Van  Reeth,  who 
was  consecrated  19  March,  1895.  At  the  present 
time  (1921)  the  total  population- is  about  1,037,086, 
of  whom  12,853  are  Catholic.  The  number  of  con¬ 
fessions  has  risen  from  6381  (1897)  to  46,065,  and 
the  number  of  communions  from  7196  to  183,868. 
In  1897  only  335  boys  and  376  girls  attended  the 
14  Catholic  schools;  there  are  now  some  3039  boys 
and  1930  girls  in  39  schools.  St.  Aloysius  College, 
under  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  now  has  an  attendance  of 
500,  and  the  Belgian  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Jesus 
and  Mary  have  erected  a  third  convent  in  the  dio¬ 
cese  at  Kegalla.  Attached  to  each  convent  is  a 
room  for  lace-making.  There  are  now  10  parishes, 
27  churches  and  32  chapels,  5  secular  priests  and  22 
Jesuit  Fathers,  4  lay  brothers,  48  Sisters,  36  of  whom 


are  Europeans  and  12  natives.  The  Government 
assists  in  the  support  of  all  the  schools,  and  various 
clubs,  sodalities,  and  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  are  organized  in  the  diocese. 

In  1918  and  1919  the  mission  lost  two  zealous 
workers  by  the  deaths  of  Rev.  Joseph  Cooreman, 
S.J.,  who  joined  the  Ceylon  mission  16  October’ 
1895,  and  was  later  made  vicar  general  of  the  dio¬ 
cese,  d.  suddenly  in  Calcutta  1  March,  1918;  and 
Rev.  Paul  Cooreman,  S.J.,  parish  priest  of  Ham- 
bantota,  who  joined  the  mission  5  December,  1899, 
d.  stricken  by  cholera  while  ministering  to  the  sick 
8  July,  1919. 

Gallipoli,  Diocese  of  (Gallipolitana;  cf.  C.  E., 
VI-366d),  in  the  province  of  Lecce,  Southern  Italy, 
is  under  the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop 
Muller,  b.  in  Naples  1850,  and  appointed  to  this 
see  29  July,  1898.  During  the  World  War  all  the 
clergy  of  this  diocese  from  the  bishop  down  per¬ 
formed  numerous  patriotic  works,  particularly  in 
the  hospitals,  which  were  filled  with  the  English 
and  French  wounded. 

At  the  present  time  (1921)  the  diocese  counts 
7  parishes,  24  churches,  1  monastery  for  men,  1 
convent  for  men,  35  secular  and  2  regular  clergy, 
2  colleges  for  women  with  45  students  and  2450 
children  in  elementary  schools.  One  technical 
school  with  13  professors  and  a  student  body  of  300 
is  supported  by  the  Government.  Among  the 
charitable  institutions  are  1  poorhouse,  1  infant 
asylum,  1  home  for  the  aged,  1  hospital  and  1 
orphan  asylum  and  work-house.  Eight  societies 
are  established  among  the  laity.  The  Catholic 
population  numbers  approximately  25,000. 

Galloway,  Diocese  of  (Gallovidian a;  cf.  C.  E., 
VI-370a),  underwent  an  interesting  change  in  its 
educational  system  when,  in  1918,  a  law  was  placed 
in  the  statutes  of  Great  Britain  whereby  all  the 
Catholic  schools  of  Scotland  were  incorporated  in 
every  respect,  financial  and  otherwise,  in  the  Scot¬ 
tish  National  system  of  education.  At  the  same 
time  a  guarantee  was  given  to  the  effect  that 
Catholics  should  have  separate  schools  with  Cath¬ 
olic  teachers  and  supervised,  with  regard  to  reli¬ 
gious  education,  by  Catholic  authorities. 

On  19  January,  1914,  Rt.  Rev.  William  Turner, 
who  had  filled  the  see  from  1899,  died,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  James 
McCarthy,  consecrated  9  June,  1914. 

The  diocesan  statistics  for  1921  show  a  Catholic 
population  of  16,469;  40  priests,  39  secular  and  1 
regular;  42  churches  and  chapels;  22  missions  and 
17  stations;  1  college  under  the  Marist  Brothers; 

2  charitable  institutions ;  25  congregational  schools 
with  an  attendance  of  3285. 

Various  religious  orders  of  women  are  represented 
in  the  diocese:  the  Benedictines,  Poor  Sisters  of 
Nazareth,  Sisters  of  Charity,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
Sisters  of  the  Most  Holy  Cross  and  Passion,  and 
the  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary. 
Among  the  laity  the  following  societies  are  or¬ 
ganized  :  Children  of  Mary,  Young  Men’s  Society, 
societies  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Holy  Angels, 
Mount  Carmel,  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  and 
Sacred  Heart  and  Needle-work  Guild. 

Galtelli-Nuoro,  Diocese  of  (Galtellinensis 
Norensis),  in  Sardinia,  Italy,  suffragan  of  Cagliari. 
This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Luca  Canepa,  born 
in  Cagliari  1853,  appointed  15  February,  1903.  He 
resides  at  Nuoro.  The  1920  statistics  credit  the 
diocese  with  66,300  Catholics,  25  parishes,  66  secular 
and  3  regular  priests,  16  seminarians,  and  213 
churches  or  chapels. 


GALVESTON 


332 


GARNIER 


Galveston,  Diocese  of  (Galvestoniensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  VI-372b).— This  diocese  lost  its  fourth  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Nicholas  Aloysius  Gallagher,  on  21  Jan¬ 
uary,  1918,  after  an  incumbency  of  thirty-six  years. 
Born  in  Temperanceville,  Ohio,  19  February,  1846, 
he  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Canopus  30 
April,  1882,  and  succeeded  as  Bishop  of  Galves¬ 
ton  16  December,  1892.  His  successor  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Christopher  Edward  Byrne  (b.  in  Byrnesville,  Dio¬ 
cese  of  St.  Louis,  21  April,  1867),  who  was  appointed 
to  the  see  8  July,  1918,  and  consecrated  by  Arch¬ 
bishop  Glennon  in  St.  Louis,  10  November,  1918. 
During  the  past  few  years  the  Catholic  population 
of  the  diocese  has  increased  from  56,000  (1909)  to 
98,178  in  1922.  St.  Mary’s  Seminary  at  La  Porte 
has  been  taken  over  by  diocesan  priests  (1911)  and 
new  buildings,  of  a  modern  and  complete  sort, 
erected  (1919).  Also  a  House  of  the  Good  Shep¬ 
herd  has  been  founded  at  Houston  and  a  day 
nursery  opened  at  Austin,  while  throughout  the 
diocese  Holy  Name  societies  have  been  organized. 
On  March  14,  1922,  the  diocese  of  Galveston  cele¬ 
brated  its  diamond  jubilee  at  St.  Mary’s  Cathedral, 
Archbishop  Shaw  of  New  Orleans,  pontificated,  Arch¬ 
bishop  Glennon  of  St.  Louis  delivered  the  sermon, 
and  many  prelates  from  other  dioceses  attended 
the  ceremonies. 

For  the  duration  of  the  war  Rev.  Marius  S. 
Chataignon  was  chaplain  and  liaison  officer  of  the 
36th  Division,  U.  S.  Army.  The  religious  com¬ 
munities  of  men  in  the  diocese  are:  the  Jesuits, 
who  have  charge  of  St.  Mary’s  University,  Galves¬ 
ton;  the  Basilians  (from  Canada),  managing  St. 
Thomas  College,  Houston;  the  Fathers  of  the  Con¬ 
gregation  of  the  Holy  Cross  at  Austin ;  the  Paulist 
Fathers  at  Austin;  the  Oblate  Fathers,  and  the 
Josephite  Fathers.  The  religious  communities  of 
women  are:  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Incarnate 
Word,  Sisters  of  Charity  (Emmitsburg),  Sisters  of 
St.  Dominic,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross,  Sisters  of 
St.  Mary,  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence,  Ursuline 
Sisters,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family,  Sisters  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament. 

Statistics  for  1922  show  the  diocese  to  have  66 
parishes,  79  missions,  145  churches,  32  stations,  86 
secular  and  35  regular  priests,  5  lay  brothers,  495 
nuns  and  Sisters,  1  seminary  with  31  seminarians,  1 
university  with  9  professors  and  115  students,  3  col¬ 
leges  for  men  with  20  teachers  and  437  students, 
10  academies  with  198  teachers  and  2607  pupils, 
5  training  schools  with  90  teachers  and  275  pupils, 
43  elementary  schools  with  197  teachers  and  7928 
pupils,  1  home  for  the  aged,  1  orphanage,  6  hos¬ 
pitals,  1  refuge,  and  1  day  nursery.  There  are  one 
organization  ■  among  the  clergy  and  twenty-seven 
among  the  laity,  and  one  Catholic  periodical  is 
published. 

Galway  and  Kilmacduagh,  Diocese  of  (Gal- 
viensis  et  Duacensis),  in  County  Connaught,  Ire¬ 
land-  has  the  perpetual  administration  of  Kilfenora 
(Fenaborensis).  Rt.  Rev.  Francis  MacCormack  re¬ 
tired  from  this  see  in  1909,  and  was  succeeded 
by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  O’Dea, 
transferred  from  Clonfert  29  April,  of  the  same 
year.  Born  in  Clonfert  in  1858  he  was  appointed 
bishop  of  that  diocese  10  June,  1903,  and  conse¬ 
crated  30  August  following.  On  21  May,  1921, 
Bishop  O’Dea  appointed  a  diocesan  chapter  of 
twelve  on  the  authority  of  the  Holy  See.  The  reli¬ 
gious  orders  of  men  established  in  this  diocese  in¬ 
clude  the  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  Augustians, 
Jesuits,  Christian  Brothers,  and  Patrician  Brothers; 
of  women :  Presentation  Sisters,  Sisters  of  Charity, 
of  Mercy,  Poor  Clares,  and  Dominicans.  By  the 


1911  census  the  total  population  of  these  united 
dioceses  is  68,703,  of  whom  67,271  are  Catholic. 
The  latest  statistics  (1922)  credit  them  with  30 
parishes,  79  secular  and  22  regular  priests,  53 
churches,  4  houses  of  regular  clergy,  16  convents, 

2  colleges,  3  monasteries,  and  2  homes  of  mis¬ 
sionaries.  The  charitable  institutions  include  5 
workhouses,  1  infirmary,  1  hospital,  2  industrial 
schools,  and  1  asylum. 

Gap,  Diocese  of  (Vapincensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VI- 
378a),  suffragan  of  Aix,  includes  the  department  of 
Hautes-Alpes  (France).  The  retreat  for  the  clergy 
of  the  diocese  is  a  famous  place  of  pilgrimage, 
Notre  Dame  du  Laus.  The  Catholic  population 
numbers  87,000  and  is  bound  together  with  many 
organizations  for  both  clergy  and  laity.  For  the 
former  there  is  the  Association  of  Priestly  Per¬ 
severance,  a  society  for  mutual  aid  called  Mutualite 
ecclesiastique,  and  an  Association  for  Priestly  De¬ 
fence.  Among  the  laity  in  practically  every  parish 
there  are  pious  societies  of  divers  sorts,  including 
the  Sodality  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  Confra¬ 
ternity  of  the  Holy  Rosary,  Christian  Mothers,  etc. 

Rt.  Rev.  Prosper-Amable  Berthet,  born  at  Heres 
in  Diocese  of  Gap,  17  February,  1838,  ordained 
23  June,  1861,  elected  Bishop  of  Gap  27  May,  1889. 
While  visiting  the  wounded  in  the  military  hos¬ 
pital  Bishop  Berthet  caught  cold  and  died  25 
October,  1914.  His  successor  was  Rt.  Rev.  Gabriel 
de  Llobet,  born  at  Perpignan  19  January,  1872, 
student  at  French  Academy  in  Rome,  where  he 
was  ordained  30  May,  1896,  and  elected  Bishop  of 
Gap  at  the  consistory  of  22  January,  1915.  Mobil¬ 
ized  as  an  “auxiliary,”  Bishop  de  Llobet  was  made 
a  military  chaplain  at  his  own  request  and  was  sent 
to  the  front  in  March,  1916.  Cited  in  orders  of 
1  November,  1918,  awarded  croix  de  guerre  (2  cita¬ 
tions),  made  chevalier  of  Legion  of  Honor  4  Sep¬ 
tember,  1918,  nominated  with  Mgr.  Ruch,  Bishop 
of  Strasbourg,  by  decree  of  consistory  of  19  Novem¬ 
ber,  1917,  as  inspector  of  chaplains  and  mobilized 
clerics.  The  bishop  was  dismissed  from  the  army 
and  re-entered  his  own  diocese  in  January,  1919. 

Since  the  war  only  “La  croix  des  Hautes-Alpes” 
has  been  published,  besides  the  religious  bulletin 
issued  twice  a  month  by  the  bishop.  There  are 
23  parishes  in  the  diocese,  with  23  churches,  221 
missions,  221  stations,  3  convents  for  women  with 
280  religious,  195  secular  priests,  2  seminaries  (upper 
and  preparatory),  the  upper  having  14  seminarians 
and  the  lower  45,  8  free  elementary  schools  with 
25  teachers  and  500  pupils,  1  home  for  the  aged, 
1  orphanage,  and  3  hospitals.  In  the  colleges  at 
Gap,  Embrun,  and  Briangon  a  priest  with  the  title 
of  chaplain  is  stationed  to  give  religious  instruction. 

Garanhuns,  Diocese  of  (Garanhunensis  or 
Geranhunensis),  in  the  State  of  Pernambuco, 
Brazil.  This  diocese  was  erected  by  a  Consistorial 
decree  of  2  August,  1918,  which  took  the  southern 
part  of  the  diocese  of  Olinda  for  the  new  diocese, 
making  it  suffragan  of  Olinda  and  giving  it  fifteen 
parishes.  The  church  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua  at 
Garanhuns  was  made  the  cathedral,  and  the  diocese 
was  given  the  privilege  of  sending  two  clerics  to 
the  Latin-American  College  in  Rome.  Rt.  Rev. 
Joao  Tavares  de  Moura,  born  in  the  diocese  of 
Olinda  1863,  was  appointed  the  first  bishop  3  July, 
1919.  No  statistics  are  yet  published. 

Garcia,  Anne.  See  Anne  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
Blessed. 

Gamier,  Charles  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-388c). — The 
cause  of  his  beatification  was  introduced  at  Rome, 
9  August,  1916. 


GARROLD 


333 


GEORGETOWN 


Garrold,  Richard  Philip,  English  Jesuit  and 
writer,  b.  2  February,  1874,  at  Hereford,  England,; 
d.  7  Jul}',  1920.  He  was  educated  at  Hereford 
Cathedral  School  and  Pope’s  Hall,  Oxford,  and 
became  a  Catholic  in  1896.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  following  popular  stories  for  boys:  “The  Man’s 
Hands  and  Other  Stories,”  “The  Boys  at  St.  Batts,” 
“A  Fourth  Form  Boy,”  and  “The  Black  Brother¬ 
hood,”  several  of  which  have  been  translated  into 
French  and  German.  He  served  as  a  chaplain  with 
the  British  forces  in  the  World  War. 

Garzon,  Diocese  of  (Garzoi^ensis),  in  the  Re¬ 
public  of  Colombia.  This  diocese,  erected  in  1900, 
comprises  the  provinces  of  Neiva  and  Sur,  and  is 
suffragan  of  Popayan.  It  is  under  the  administra¬ 
tion  of  its  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Esteban  Rojas,  born 
in  Hato,  Colombia,  1859,  made  his  studies  at  the 
Latin-American  College  at  Rome,  was  ordained  in 
1883,  appointed  Bishop  of  Tolima  (since  suppressed) 
18  March,  1895,  and  transferred  20  May,  1900.  No 
statistics  are  published. 

Gatard,  Augustine,  Benedictine  scholar,  b.  at 
St.  Brevin,  near  Nantes,  France,  18  May,  1852; 
d.  at  London,  England,  22  November,  1920.  He 
was  educated  at  the  petit  seminaire  of  Guerande, 
St.  Sulpice,  and  the  Institut  Catholique  of  Paris, 
and  was  ordained  at  Nantes  in  1886.  After  teach¬ 
ing  for  some  years  in  the  Enfants  Nantais  he  was 
professed  at  Solesmes  in  1894,  and  the  following 
year  he  assisted  in  founding  St.  Michael’s  Abbey, 
Farnborough,  England.  Dom  Gatard  was  a  zealous 
exponent  of  religious  music,  in  particular  of  the 
Solesmes  method  of  plainsong,  which  he  introduced 
at  the  Southwark  Diocesan  Seminary  and  West¬ 
minster  Cathedral.  He  took  part  in  the  Gregorian 
Congress  at  Rome  and  Strassburg,  and  was  director 
of  the  Congress  held  at  New  York  in  1920.  Dom 
Gatard  is  the  author  of :  “Manual  of  Gregorian 
Chant,”  “A  Primer  of  Plainsong,”  “La  musique 
gregorienne,”  and  “Plain  Chant,”  a  technical  and 
historical  treatise,  published  after  his  death.  In 
addition  he  was  a  contributor  to  the  “Dictionnaire 
de  theologie  catholique”  and  “Dictionnaire  d’arch- 
eologie  et  de  liturgie.” 

Gavin,  Michael,  Jesuit,  b.  at  Kilpeacon,  Lim¬ 
erick,  Ireland,  on  5  January,  1845;  d.  at  Rochamp- 
ton,  England,  on  28  June,  1919;  son  of  Michael 
and  Eliza  (Galhvey)  Gavin.  After  preliminary 
studies  at  Astleknock  College,  Ireland,  and  Stony- 
hurst  College,  England,  he  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus  at  the  novitiate  of  Saint  An,drea,  Rome,  on 
23  April,  1864.  He  studied  philosophy  at  Stony- 
hurst  and  theology  at  Montauban  (France),  and 
St.  Bueno’s  in  Wales,  where  later  he  held  a  chair 
of  theology  from  1878  to  1881.  After  his  tertianship 
he  was  appointed  to  the  Jesuit  church  at  Farm  St., 
London,  where  he  spent  the  remaining  thirty-five 
years  of  his  active  life,  highly  esteemed  as  a 
preacher  and  spiritual  director,  being  in  charge  of 
the  men’s  Sodality  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
for  a  quarter  of  a  century.  Among  his  publications 
are  “The  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,”  “The  Memoirs  of 
Fr.  Galhvey,  S.  J.,”  and  a  collection  of  sermons. 

Gennari,  Casimiro,  Cardinal,  b.  at  Maratea,  20 
December,  1839;  d.  in  Rome,  31  January,  1914.  He 
was  ordained  in  1863  and  then  employed  in  minis¬ 
terial  work  in  the  diocese  of  Conversano.  In  1875 
he  founded  the  monthly  review  “II  Monitore  Eccle- 
siastico,”  whose  purpose  was  to  make  known  the 
various  legislative  enactments  and  judicial  pro¬ 
nouncements  in  the  life  of  the  Church  and  also  to 
give  the  solutions  and  moral  and  canonical  cases 
which  were  of  especial  interest  in  that  part  of  the 


Peninsula.  This  publication  became  very  popular 
all  through  Italy  and  revealed  the  editor  as  an 
accomplished  theologian  and  canonist.  He  was 
made  Bishop  of  Conversano  13  May,  1888,  and  in 
1897  was  promoted  to  Rome  by  Pope  Leo  XIII, 
who  made  him  titular  Bishop  of  Lepanto  and  As¬ 
sessor  of  the  Holy  Office.  He  was  promoted  to  the 
cardinalate  in  1900  and  in  1908  was  chosen  as 
Prefect  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Council,  a  post 
which  he  occupied  until  his  death.  He  was  the 
forty-fifth  cardinal  who  died  during  the  pontificate 
of  Pius  X. 

Genoa,  Archdiocese  of  (Januensis),  in  the  prov¬ 
ince  of  Liguria,  Northern  Italy.  This  archdiocese, 
which  was  the  birth  place  of  the  late  pope,  Benedict 
XV,  was  especially  honored  by  him  on  1  November, 

1920,  when  he  delegated  the  archbishop,  Cardinal 
Boggiani,  to  crown  the  statue  of  Our  Lady  de 
Vineis  with  a  crown  of  gold.  The  Madonna  was 
crowned  in  1616  by  Cardinal  Spinola,  who  decreed 
that  every  centenary  of  the  crowding  should  be 
celebrated.  However,  in  1916  the  war  prevented 
the  celebration  of  the  feast  and  so  the  Holy  Father, 
born  in  the  parish,  and  baptized  in  the  shrine 
church,  ordered  the  feast  to  be  celebrated  four 
years  later,  and  granted  special  indulgences  to  those 
who  assisted  at  the  crowning.  On  29  April,  1912, 
Most  Rev.  Andrea  Caron  was  promoted  to  this 
see  and  filled  it  until  he  retired,  23  December,  1914. 
The  Italian  government  refused  to  give  its 
exequatur  to  this  appointment  until  17  December, 
1914,  and  as  a  result  the  diocese  was  forced  to 
remain  practically  under  interdict  for  almost  two, 
years.  Archbishop  Caron  was  succeeded  by  Most 
Rev.  Lodovico  Garotti  22  January,  1915,  who  died 
three  years  later  23  December,  1918.  His  Eminence 
Pio  Tommaso,  Cardinal  Boggiani,  was  then  pro¬ 
moted  to  fill  the  see  10  March,.  1919.  Born  in 
Bosco-Marengo,  1863,  he  entered  the  Dominican 
Order  in  1878,  served  as  a  missionary  in  Con¬ 
stantinople,  became  prior  of  Raguse  189i,  professor 
in  the  Seminary  of  Genoa,  administrator  of  the 
diocese  1908,  named  apostolic  visitor  of  the  dioceses 
of  Northern  Italy,  and  appointed  Bishop  of  Adria, 
16  October,  1908.  In  1910,  upon  the  occasion  of 
the  transfer  of  the  archives  and  curia  of  Adria 
to  Rovigo,  he  was  the  victim  of  a  riot  in  which 
he  was  seriously  wounded.  On  9  January,  1912,  he 
was  promoted  to  the  titular  metropolitan  see  of 
Edessa  and  made  apostolic  delegate  to  Mexico, 
10  January  following,  and  two  years  later  he  was 
named  apostolic  administrator  of  Genoa,  assessor 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Consistory  and  secre¬ 
tary  of  the  Sacred  College,  attending  the  Conclave 
which  elected  Benedict  XV.  He  was  created  a 
cardinal-priest  4  December,  1916,  and  in  August, 

1921,  he  retired  from  Genoa  and  now  lives  in  Rome. 
The  see  is  now  (1922)  filled  by  Most  Rev.  Giosue 
Signori,  born  in  Commenduno,  1859,  made  an  hpn- 
orary  chamberlain  in  1901  and  again  in  1903,  ap¬ 
pointed  Bishop  of  Fossano,  15  April,  1910, 
transferred  to  Alessandria,  23  December,  1918,  and 
promoted  21  November,  1921.  He  is  assisted  b}r 
an  auxiliary,  Rt.  Rev.  Giacomo  Maria  de  Amicis, 
titular  Bishop  of  Sinope.  According  to  1920  statis¬ 
tics  Genoa  counts  470,900  Catholics;  200  parishes, 
956  secular  and  270  regular  priests,  250  seminarians, 
110  Brothers,  1100  Sisters,  and  400  churches  or 
chapels. 

Georgetown  University  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-458b), 
Washington,  District  of  Columbia,  made  an  impor¬ 
tant  addition  to  its  various  departments,  when  on 
25  November,  1919,  the  School  of  Foreign  Sendee 
was  included  among  the  established  departments 


GEORGIA 


334 


GERALDTON 


of  the  university.  Convinced  that  foreign  service 
is  to  dominate  the  new  American  era,  and  that 
to  be  properly  fitted  for  such  service  a  man  should 
have  a  systematic  training,  Georgetown  University 
launched  a  provisional  semester  of  the  new  school, 
opening  on  17  February,  1919,  and  ending  on  17 
June,  1919.  The  trial  gave  such  promise  of  ulti¬ 
mate  success  that  the  establishment  of  the  school 
followed  immediately,  with  all  the  customary  rights 
and  privileges,  particularly  that  of  presenting  can¬ 
didates  for  academic  degrees.  The  first  graduation 
took  place  on  14  June,  1921,  the  degree  “Bachelor 
of  Foreign  Service”  being  conferred  for  the  first 
time  in  the  history  of  education  in  the  United 
States  on  18  candidates,  and  certificates  of  pro¬ 
ficiency  awarded  to  64. 

The  school  was  established  under  the  direction 
of  Rev.  John  B.  Creeden,  S.J.,  who  was  appointed 
President  of  the  University  in  1919,  succeeding 
Revs.  Joseph  J.  Himmel,  S.J.,  1909-12,  and  Al- 
phonsus  J.  Donlan,  S.J.,  1912-19. 

The  number  of  students  registered  at  present 
(1921)  is:  college,  445;  medical,  172;  dental,  163; 
law,  1153;  foreign  service,  427;  total,  2360.  The 
faculties,  including  officials,  professors,  special  lec¬ 
turers,  assistants,  and  associates  are  distributed  as 
follows:  college,  117;  medical  school,  9;  dental 
school,  13;  school  of  law,  40;  school  of  foreign 
service,  51.  The  hospital  staff  numbers  8  physicians- 
in-chief,  15  associates,  and  16  assistants. 

Decrees  have  been  conferred  from  1817-1920  in¬ 
clusive  as  follows:  Doctors:  D.  D.,  27;  LL.  D.,  137; 
Ph.D.,  52;  Litt.D.,  3;  Sc.  D.,  2;  M.D.,  1151;  DD.S., 
336;  Phar.  D.,  3;  Mus.  D.,  7;  total,  1718.  Licen¬ 
tiates:  Ph.L.,  1;  LL.  M.,  1143;  L.  D.  M.,  395;  A.M., 
458;  M.S.,  5;  total,  2002.  Bachelors:  LL. B.,  3895; 
A.B.,  1152;  Ph.B.,  32;  Phar.B.,  6;  B.S.,  19; 
Mus.  B.,  1;  B.S.  in  Med.,  34;  total,  5139. 

Georgia  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-460b). — The  area  of  the 
State  is  59,265  sq.  miles.  In  1920  its  population 
■was  2,893,601,  as  compared  with  2,609,121  in  1910. 
Savannah,  the  largest  city,  had  a  population  of 
83,252.  The  State  is  divided  into  12  congressional 
districts,  44  senatorial  districts,  and  155  counties. 
In  1919  Georgia  produced  1,730,000  bales  of  cotton, 
10,800,000  bushels  of  oats,  69,890,000  bushels  of  corn, 
and  2,520,000  bushels  of  wheat.  In  the  same  year 
the  value  of  its  products  of  manufacture  was  $80,- 
510,749,  the  capital  employed  being  about  $96,061,709. 
The  value  of  foreign  commerce  is  estimated  at 
$247,079,176,  In  1918  the  mileage  of  Georgia  rail¬ 
roads  was  7,404.22. 

Education. — In  1919  the  State  University  at 
Athens  had  71  instructors  and  1131  students;  Atlanta 
University  at  Atlanta  had  29  instructors  and  521 
students ;  Clark  University  at  Atlanta,  18  instructors 
and  536  students;  Morris  Brown  College  at  Atlanta, 
24  instructors  and  305  students;  Emory  College  at 
Oxford,  143  instructors  and  509  students;  Shorter 
College  at  Rome,  26  instructors  and  275  students; 
the  Wesleyan  Female  College  at  Macon,  31  in¬ 
structors  and  496  students.  In  the  common  schools 
of  Georgia  there  were  enrolled,  in  1918,  937,742 
pupils  and  15,054  teachers. 

Recent  Legislative  Changes. — The  Legislature 
of  1907  enacted  an  amended  suffrage  law  which 
had  the  effect  of  practically  eliminating  the  negro 
vote  in  the  state.  In  1917  the  establishment  and 
maintenance  of  two  agricultural  schools,  a  home 
guard  or  state  constabulary,  and  primary  election 
by  candidates  for  certain  offices  by  county  unit  sys¬ 
tem  wrere  provided  for.  In  1918  Cook  County  was 
created,  a  budget  system  provided,  and  tipping  was 
declared  illegal.  The  Torrens  system  of  registering 


land  titles,  known  as  the  “Land  Registration  Act,” 
became  effective  in  Georgia  1  January,  1918.  State¬ 
wide  prohibition  went  into  effect  in  1916.  In  1919 
a  Department  of  Fish  and  Game,  also  a  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  and  a  Department 
of  Insurance  were  created.  The  sale  of  habit¬ 
forming  drugs  is  prohibited. 

Excise  and  Wills. — The  inheritance  tax  is  1% 
on  bequests  to  parents,  husband,  child,  lineal 
descendants,  brother,  sister,  daughter-in-law,  $5000 
exempt;  on  others  5%.  In  the  year  1916  1339 
divorces  were  decreed.  In  that  year  the  divorce 
rate  per  100,000  was  54,  as  compared  to  26  in  1900. 

Religion. — For  Catholic  statistics  see  Savannah, 
Diocese  of.  Anti-Catholic  bigotry,  encouraged  by 
a  certain  section  of  the  press,  the  Watson  publica¬ 
tions,  has  been  particularly  virulent  in  Georgia. 
As  a  consequence  the  state  passed  a  convent  in¬ 
spection  bill  in  1916,  which,  with  the  bitter  attacks 
made  on  the  Church,  led  to  the  formation  of  the 
Catholic  Laymen’s  Association  (q.v.)  “for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  maintaining  the  civil  rights  of  all  persons 
regardless  of  their  religious  belief.” 

Recent  History. — In  1915  the  Frank  case  took 
on  a  national  interest.  Leo  Frank,  a  Jew,  was 
convicted  of  murder  and  sentenced  to  death.  It 
was  charged  that  the  atmosphere  outside  and  inside 
the  court-room  was  so  hostile  that  a  fair  and  im¬ 
partial  verdict  was  impossible,  and  the  prisoner 
was  absent  by  request  when  the  verdict  was  an¬ 
nounced.  An  appeal  was  taken  to  the  U.  S. 
Supreme  Court,  which  refused  a  writ  of  habeas 
corpus.  Frank’s  sentence,  however,  was  commuted 
to  life  imprisonment,  barely  twenty-four  hours  be¬ 
fore  execution.  He  was  removed  to  the  State  Farm 
at  Milledgeville,  from  which  he  was  kidnapped  later 
by  a  posse,  taken  to  a  nearby  town,  and  hanged. 

Georgia’s  contribution  of  soldiers  to  the  European 
War  was  85,506,  or  2.28  per  cent  of  the  U.  S.  Army. 
Many  of  her  soldiers  were  quartered  with  the  1st 
Division  at  Wheeler,  Georgia  (National  Guard 
Camp),  or  with  the  82d  Division  of  the  National 
Army  at  Gordon,  Georgia.  Of  all  the  Georgia  men 
who  went  with  the  Expeditionary  Force,  85  officers 
and  1445  men  died,  8  officers  and  36  men  were  taken 
prisoners,  and  223  officers  and  2628  men  were 
wounded. 

Georgia,  Republic  of.  See  Armenia. 

Gerace,  Diocese  of  (Hieraciensis),  in  the 
province  of  Reggio-Calabria,  Italy,  suffragan  of 
Reggio.  On  4  May,  1910,  Pius  X  accorded  the  title 
of  domestic  prelate  to  the  rector  of  the  Sanctuary 
of  Santa-Maria  de  Polsi,  in  this  diocese.  Benedict 
XV  wishing  to  do  something  further  to  honor  this 
ancient  shrine,  which  was  founded  in  1144  by  Roger 
I,  king  of  the  Normans,  after  an  apparition  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  re-established  the  abbatial  title 
which  existed  under  the  Basilians,  and  accorded 
to  the  abbot  the  power  to  confer  under  certain 
conditions,  the  sacrament  of  confirmation.  His 
privileges  are  defined  in  six  articles,  the  last  of 
which  states  that  if  the  abbot  confirms  without 
the  permission  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  the 
act  is  invalid.  Rt.  Rev.  Giorgio  Delrio,  appointed 
to  this  see  6  December,  1906,  was  transferred  to 
Oristano,  16  December,  1920,  and  the  diocese  is 
now  under  the  direction  of  an  administrator,  Rt. 
Rev.  Antonio  Galati,  Bishop  of  Oppido-Mamertina. 
In  1920  this  diocese  counted  135,000  Catholics;  70 
parishes,  20  vicariates,  250  secular  and  3  regular 
clergy,  25  seminarians,  and  80  churches  or  chapels. 

Geraldton,  Diocese  of  (Geraldtonensis),  in  Aus¬ 
tralia,  suffragan  of  Perth.  The  first  bishop  of  this 
diocese,  Rt.  Rev.  William  Bernard  Kelley,  born 


GERARD 


GERMANY 


335 


in  the  W  est  colony  of  Australia,  1855,  and  appointed 

the  erection  of  the  see,  21  March, 
1898,  died  28  December,  1920;  his  successor  has 
not  yet  been  appointed.  The  Presentation  Nuns 
and  bisters  of  St.  Dominic  conduct  schools  in  the 
diocese.  By  the  latest  statistics  (1922)  it  comprises 
Id  districts,  28  churches,  11  priests,  85  religious, 
5  boardmg  and  14  elementary  schools  with  an 
attendance  of  845  children. 


,.,G^ard’  Jesuit  scholar,  b.  in  Edinburgh, 

30  May,  1840;  d.  at  London,  13  December,  1912. 
lie  was  the  son  of  Colonel  Archibald  Gerard  of 
Lanarkshire.  He  was  educated  at  Stonyhurst  and 
?LoL0nd?n  Unr versity;  was  ordained  a  priest  in 
18/3,  and  was  twice  editor  of  “The  Month,”  from 
1894  to  1897  and  later  from  1900  to  1912.  Between 
these  two  periods  he  had  been  superior  of  the 
Lnglish  Province.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
books,  among  them  “The  Old  Riddle  and  the  New¬ 
est  Answer,”  a  reply  to  Haeckel  (q.v.). 

Germany  (cf.  C.  E„  VI-484d),  a  republic, 
bounded  on  the  west  by  France,  Belgium,  and 
Holland;  on  the  south  by  Switzerland,  Austria, 
and  Czechoslovakia;  on  the  east  by  Czechoslovakia 
and  Poland;  on  the  north  by  the  North  Sea,  the 
rialtic  oea  and  Denmark.  According  to  the  returns 
of  the  census  of  8  October,  1919,  the  area  of  the 
German  Republic  is  about  183,381  sq.  miles,  and  the 
population  60,900, i97  (29,012,000  males  and  31,888,- 
197  females).  The  largest  towns  with  their  respec- 
tive  populations  m  1919  are:  Berlin  1,902,509,  Ham¬ 
burg  985,779,  Munich  630,711,  Leipzig  604,380, 
Dresden  529,326,  Cologne  633,904,  Breslau  528,260, 

S?^l°rt"°n"Main  433’002-  In  1917  there  were 
308,446  marriages,  939,938  births,  1,082,334  deaths 
(exclusive  of  military  casualties).  The  number  of 

inn  non S-  'u  .in  1914  was  17,740  (26.2  per 

100,000  inhabitants) ;  in  1917  (exclusive  of  Alsace- 

Lorraine),  11,603  or  17.3  per  100,000  inhabitants. 

Lducati°n.— Education  in  imperial  Germany  was 
an  affair  of  the  State.  The  German  “system”  was 
usually  the  Prussian  system  which  other  states 
adopted  In  the  new  Germany  there  is  a  national 
system  of  education,  m  the  establishment  of  which 
tne  states  and  local  communities  co-operate.  The 
schools  are  free  to  all,  taught  by  teachers  who  are 
state  officials  and  supervised  by  technically  trained 
officials  with  administrative  ability.  This  last 
phrase  reveals  the  end  of  clerical  supervision.  The 
great  difference  between  the  education  of  the 
classes  and  the  education  of  the  masses  is  also  a 
thing  of  the  past.  For  the  classes  there  were  the 
V  or schule  (preparatory  school),  then  one  of  the 
three  types  of  the  secondary  school  ( Gymnasium , 
Kealgyrnnamim,  and  Oberreolschule) ,  and  finally 
the  university.  The  masses  went  to  a  Volkschule. 
or  if  they  were  able  to  afford  the  fees,  to  a  Mittel- 
scniue.  lo  the  graduates  the  various  vocational 
and  con.muation  schools  were  open,  but  the  sec¬ 
ondary  schools  and  the  universities  were  closed  to 
•  10imj  new, change  in  the  educational  system 
includes  the  establishment  of  an  intermediate  and 
higher  school  system.  The  exclusive  private  pre- 
paratory  schools  (V  orschulen)  are  abolished. 

v\  ithin  the  local  communities  public  schools,  to  ac¬ 
cord  with  a  certain  belief  or  philosophy  of  life,  can 
be  established  by  the  parents,  provided  they  con¬ 
form  in  organization  to  the  public  school  system, 
in  all  schoo  s,  except  the  secular  schools,  religion  is 
to  be  taught  according  to  the  principles  of  the 
religious  denominations  concerned,  but  parents  have 
the  right  to  withdraw  their  children  from  school 
during  the  period  of  religious  instruction.  Physical 
education  has  been  deprived  of  its  military  char- 

2  3 


tp'!cher/n|nrfeiQSK9teChniral/Schools  there  were  929 
reacners  and  19,862  pupils  (summer  of  1920) 

n  imuriliCtlon,  in  agriculture  there  are  Agri- 

192n7aH;Kl  Scho?iLf  £erlin  <662  students  in 
11 920),:,  Hohenheim  (599),  Bonn-Poppelsdorf  (652) 

and  Weihenstephan  (358).  In  1920  there  were  Agri¬ 
cultural  Institutes  at  eight  of  the  universities,  fnd 

Jehnok'°t9K  the  o  ’1,ub  lp  there  were  various  farming 
schools  (26  in  Prussia),  agricultural  winter  schools 

architL t.,r.USSlaa  Is  f,hools  of  mining,  15  schools  of 
cmtecture  and  building,  4  academies  of  forestry, 

27  schools  °f  art  and  art-industry,  429  commercial 
schools,  100  textile  schools,  11  public  music  schools, 
9  navigation  schools,  11  naval  architecture  schools' 
and  numerous  other  trade  schools.  There  are  also 
M  German  universities,  besides  the  various  lyceums 
Agriculture.— The  chief  crops  in  1919,  with  their 
acreage  and  total  yield  in  metric  tons,  were  as  fol¬ 
lows:  wheat  2,828,150  acres  and  2,169,169  metric 
tons;  rye  10  789  235  acres  and  6,100,144  metric  tons; 

toV  7  acres,and  1.91°.363  metric  tons; 
.its  7, 48-, 197  acres  and  4,453,688  metric  tons;  pota- 

toes  o,451,98w  acres,  21,449,688  metric  tons.  In  1921 
the  area  under  beets  was  273,826  hectares,  and  the 
number  of  mills  was  270. 

Industries.— In  1920  Germany  produced  97,465 
z}nc’  17,255  metric  tons  of  copper, 
and  54,400  metric  tons  of  lead.  The  source  of  a 
considerable  part  of  Germany’s  mineral  wealth  was 
m  the  regions  lost  in  the  war,  especially  Luxemburg 
and  Lorraine.  The  highest  producing  capacity  of 

1 9nnn onna  + ^  Ste^  -plants  left  to  Germany  is  about 
12,000  000  tons  of  iron  or  about  8,000,000  tons  less 

than  her  former  output.  The  eight-hour  day  has 
i  educed  the  coal  miner’s  shift  to  seven  or  seven 

^  bouFs-  The  total  production  of  coal 
for  19i9  was  only  108,000.000  tons,  or  57  per  cent 
of  the  former  output  (1913).  Moreover,  according 
to  the  bpa  agreement,  Germany  must  deliver  to 
the  A1  hes  24,000,000  tons  of  coal  a  year.  Owing 
to  the  lack  of  coal,  German  industries  are  carried  on 
at  halt  speed,  although  in  some  cases  the  output  has 
increased,  as  in  the  glass  industry  which  during  the 
war  was  restricted  to  about  40  per  cent  of  its  pre¬ 
war  activity  and  since  then  has  increased  its  output 
50  per  cent.  In  1913  there  were  23,339  breweries  in 
Germany  a  number  which,  at  present  has  been  re¬ 
duced  to  7500.  The  lack  of  coal  and  the  eight-hour 
day  have  also  reduced  production  in  the  paper  and 
textile  industries.  Thus  Germany  is  forced  to  make 
reparations  in  such  a  way  as  to  diminish  her  ulti¬ 
mate  capacity  for  full  payment.  (See  France.) 

Finances— The  German  government  financed  the 
war  chiefly  by  issuing  loans.  Owing  to  the  blockade 
customs  brought  in  very  little,  and  owing  to  the 
scarcity  of  goods,  consumption  could  not  be  fairly 
taxed.  The  result  was  a  huge  increase  of  the 
debt,  winch  rose  from  22,000,000,000  marks,  Reich 
and  States  combined,  to  247,000,000,000  marks  for 

^nnnSf1Gh,i  More  than  half  of  this  debt>  132,000,- 
000,000,  is  short— termed  floating  debt,  which  cannot 

be  funded  at  present,  as  there  is  little  chance  of  plac¬ 
ing  a  big  loan  with  the  public.  On  30  August,  1920, 
the  total  paper  circulation  was  over  72,000,000  000 
marks  including  over  14,000,000,000  marks  in  loan 
certificates.  It  is  still  increasing  rapidly,  since  public 
income  does  not  meet  public  expenditures  and  also 
because  of  the  necessity  forced  upon  the  bank  of 
buying  foreign  bills  of  exchange  for  payment  of 
foreign  debts.  The  value  of  the  imports  in  1919 
32,000,000,000  marks,  that  of  the  exports, 
10,000,000,000  marks,  leaving  an  unfavorable  balance 
of  over  22,000,000,000  marks  to  settle.  In  1920  the 
unfavorable  balance  was  still  greater.  The  value 
of  the  mark  which  was  $23,797  per  100  marks  before 


GERMANY 


336 


GERMANY 


the  war  (March,  1913),  has  fallen  as  low  as  29 
cents  per  100  marks  (March,  1922).  On  1  March 
1919,  the  total  funded  debt  of  Germany  amounted 
to  92,396,411,300  marks,  of  which  76,275,230,500 
marks  bear  interest  at  5  per  cent;  1,126,230,  iUU 
marks  at  4  per  cent;  1,622,554,200  marks  at  3 
per  cent;  the  Treasury  bills  amounted  to  2,315,- 
137,000  marks  at  5  per  cent;  9  093  001,500  mai^s 
at  4V2  per  cent.  There  is  also  a  debt  of  63,696,000  - 
000  marks  free  from  interest.  On  1  March,  1921, 
the  total  debt  amounted  to  300, 000, 000, 0(K)  marks. 
Between  4  August,  1914  and  31  March,  1920  Ger¬ 
many  issued  loans  to  the  total  value  of  222,151,- 
465,980  marks.  On  30  November,  1920,  ^he  floating 
debt  was  165,918,235,629  marks.  The  budget  tor 
1920-21  included  a  revenue  of  90,612,306,340  marks 
and  an  expenditure  of  57,501,670,140  marks 

Railways. — On  1  April,  1920,  all  the  German 
railways  were  transferred  to  the  Central  Goa  em¬ 
inent.  The  total  length  of  railway  line ,  on  31 
December,  1918,  was  38,809  miles,  of  which  36,006 
miles  were  state  lines.  Though  the  railway  rates 
have  been  raised  to  nearly  six  times  their  toimer 
standard,  the  systems  are  worked  at  a  loss,  as  tne 
high  rates  have  reduced  traveling  and  the  cost  ot 

operating  is  rising  rapidly.  .  , 

Army.— The  terms  of  the  Armistice  required  the 
surrender  by  Germany  of  5000  guns,  25,000  machine 
guns,  3000  trench  mortars,  and  1700  aeroplanes  but 
did  not  specify  the  size  of  the  German  a rmy  or 
the  degree  of  demobilization.  In  1919  the  Prudent 
was  authorized  by  the  Reichstag  to  disband  the 
existing  army  and  to  raise  a  provisional  national 
defense  army  pending  the  creation  of  a  permanent 
defense  force.  On  8  May,  1919,  the  demobilization 
of  the  German  army  was  completed  and  the  deiense 
force  came  into  being.  By  the  terms  of  the  treaty 
of  Versailles,  the  number  of  effectives  was  to  be 
reduced  to  100,000  men;  universal  compulsory 
service  is  abolished,  also  the  German  Great  General 
Staff  and  all  similar  organizations  The  Public 
Safety  Police  (50,000),  Emergency  Volunteers  (150,- 
000)/ and  Civic  Guards  (350,000)  formed  m  1919 
on  the  claim  that  they  were  needed  to  maintain 
order,  were  ordered  disbanded,  as  being  contrary 
to  the  terms  of  the  Versailles  Treaty.  In  January, 
1921,  30,500  guns  had  been  surrendered,  6000  guns 
in  process  of  manufacture  had  been  destroyed, 
10,000  trench  mortars,  63,100  machine  guns,  and 
2,524,000  rifles  had  been  surrendered. 

Navy. — As  a  fighting  force  the  German  navy 
ceased  to  exist  under  the  terms  of  the  Armistice 
and  the  Treaty  of  Versailles.  Only  a  navy  re¬ 
cruited  and  maintained  on  a  volunteer  basis  is 
allowed  to  Germany,  the  total  personnel  not  to 
exceed  15,000,  including  a  maximum  of  1500  officers 
and  warrant  officers.  The  naval  expenditure _m  1921, 
including  mine-sweeping,  is  estimated  at  221,000000 
marks.  All  the  capital  ships  of  the  former  IP? 
Fleet  of  Germany  left  afloat  have  been  or  will  be 

broken  up.  ^ 

Recent  History.— In  Germany  during  the  years 

1911-1914  the  chief  internal  issues,  outside  regular 
financial  measures,  were  concerned  with-  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  the  increase  in  the  German  army,  the  Bag¬ 
dad  Railway,  and  the  continued  opposition  of  the 
Socialist  Party  to  the  Government.  Since  its  annex¬ 
ation  to  Germany  Alsace-Lorraine  had  proved  a 
continual  embarrassment  to  the  Government,  the  in¬ 
habitants  in  the  western  part  being  strongly  French 
in  sympathy,  and  thwarting  every  effort  of  Germany 
to  placate  them.  In  1911  it  was  granted  a  constitu¬ 
tion  with  universal  suffrage  and  the  privilege  of 
sending  three  members  to  the  Bundesrath.  In  1912 
the  forced  acknowledgment  by  Germany  of  the 


French  protectorate  in  Morocco  in  return  for  part  of 
the  French  Congo  made  many  Germans  feel  that 
her  diplomatic  defeat  was  due  to  lack  of  a  sufficient 
military  strength  to  overawe  France,  and  led  to 
a  prompt  increase  of  the  German  army  to  870J)00 
men.  In  an  agreement  signed  m  August,  1911, 
Russia  withdrew  its  opposition  to  the  completion 
of  the  Bagdad  railway  and  agreed  to  link  up  the 
German  line,  when  finished,  to  the  Persian  lines 
in  the  Russian  sphere  of  influence;  and  Germany 
in  return  recognized  Russia’s  predominant  inter¬ 
ests  in  Northern  Persia  and  pledged  herself  not  to 
seek  concessions  therein.  In  May,  1913,  Great 
Britain  recognized  the  German  economic  and 
financial  control  of  the  railway  as  far  as  Bagdad, 
and  made  tentative  plans  for  the  extension  sout  - 
ward  to  Bassona  under  international  control, 
with  both  German  and  British  members  on  the 
governing  board.  The  growth  of  German  mui- 
tarism  was  vigorously  combated  by  the  Socialist 
party  in  Germany  but  militarism  meant  a  greater 
Germany  and  had  the  absolute  approval  and  en¬ 
couragement  of  the  Kaiser.  ...  , 

European  War. — When  Austria  declared  war  on 
Servia  (28  July,  1914),  Russia  immediately  mobil¬ 
ized  her  armies  against  Austria,  and  Germany 
commenced  mobilizing  against  Russia  and  prance. 
On  1  August  Germany  declared  war  against  Russia. 
Germany  then  asked  of  France  a  statement  ot 
her  attitude  and  demanded  the  fortresses  of  Verdun 
and  Toul  as  pledge  of  her  neutrality.  Frances 
reply  was  such  that  Germany  felt  sure  that  she 
would  support  her  ally,  Russia,  and  declared  war 
against  her  on  3  August,  1914.  Germany  planned 
to  crush  France  by  a  swift  march  on  Pans  before 
Russia’s  armies  were  ready  for  an  attack  m  the 
east;  France  crushed,  she  would  then  turn  on 
Russia  with  all  her  forces.  Belgium  was  promptly 
invaded  and  German  armies  were  on  their  way 
to  France.  The  route  taken  by  the  German  armies 
in  1870  was  so  strongly  fortified  all  the  way  from 
Verdun  to  Belfort  as  to  make  a  rapid  march  in 
this  direction  impossible.  In  Belgium  they  first 
attacked  Liege,  which  surrendered  in  three  days. 
The  Belgian  army  made  a  desperate  stand  at 
Louvain,  but  this  place  was  taken.  On  20  August 
the  Germans  entered  Brussels  without  firing  a 
shot.  The  road  to  France,  however,  was  not  yet 
open;  the  Belgians  were  joined  by  the  French 
and  by  an  expeditionary  force  of  British  under 
General  Sir  John  French,  who  together  opposed 
the  German  forces.  At  Namur  and  again  at  Mons 
(22  August,  1914),  the  Allies  were  defeated  by 
General  von  Kluck,  the  commander  of  the  German 
forces,  and  were  compelled  to  retreat  from  Mons 
to  the  main  French  line.  Nothing  seemed  to  stop 
von  Kluck’s  march  to  Paris.  City  after  city  was 
taken,  and  at  one  time  the  Germans  were  only 
fifteen  miles  from  the  capital.  A  new  French  army 
was  suddenly  launched  at  the  German  right  flank. 
Bv  this  time  the  Germans  were  across  the  Marne 
River  Von  Kluck  turned  back  to  meet  the  new 
attack  and  at  the  same  time  the  French  General 
Foch  drove  back  the  center  of  the  German  line. 
The  battle  of  the  Marne  which  followed  (6  Sep¬ 
tember)  was  a  severe  defeat  for  the  Germans,  who 
retired  to  the  Aisne  River.  Having  dug  themselves 
in  trenches  and  fortified  their  line,  the  Geimans 
now  finished  the  conquest  of  Belgium,  taking 

Antwerp  on  9  October.  - 

The  Russian  mobilization  was  very  rapid,  lhc 
first  army  invaded  East  Prussia,  where  it  gained  sev¬ 
eral  victories.  A  large  German  army  under  the  com-l 
mand  of  General  von  Hindenburg  was  sent  to  meet 
it.  On  29  August  the  great  Battle  of  Tannenberg 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


337 


was  fought,  which  resulted  in  victory  for  the  Ger¬ 
mans.  The  invasion  of  Galicia  by  the  Russians 
vas  more  successful.  Lemberg  was  captured  on  20 
August  and  the  Austrians  were  forced  to  yield 
Galicia  by  March,  1915.  To  relieve  the  Russian 
pressure  on  the  Austrians  the  Germans  began  a 
counter-offensive  by  invading  Poland.  Warsaw  fell 
on  4  August,  1915.  The  Germans  prepared  to  march 
?V°  Retrograd  (St.  Petersburg)  but  they  were 
halted  by  the  Russian  trenches  in  front  of  Riga. 
Under  General  von  Mackensen  the  Russians  were 
driven  out  of  Galicia  during  May-June,  1915 
.°.n  th®  western  front  the  repulse  of  the  Germans 
at  the  Marne  was  followed  by  a  period  of  unre¬ 
mitting  trench  warfare.  The  battle  line,  six  hun¬ 
dred  miles  long,  seemed  impregnable,  but  the 
Germans  decided  on  another  great  effort  to  break 
it.  1  or  six  months  the  Crown  Prince  and  his 
troops  struggled  m  vain  to  take  Verdun.  In  July 
19i5  a  counter-offensive  on  the  part  of  the  Allies 
on  the  Somme  relieved  the  pressure  on  Verdun. 

In  the  east  the  Russians  were  attempting  to  re- 
tneve  some  of  their  losses  by  a  "drive”  under  Gen¬ 
eral  Brusilov  and  though  they  conquered  Bukowina 
they  were  unable  to  do  more  than  push  the  Teu- 

;wCt?  ie  baclf  ff01,n  twenty  to  fifty  miles.  Now 
that  Bulgaria  had  declared  war  against  Servia  (14 

October,  191o),  Servia  was  invaded  from  two  sides 
by  Germans  and  Austrians  under  von  Mackensen 
and  by  Bulgarians.  Her  conquest  was  soon  com¬ 
plete,  and  nearly  all  her  army  captured.  The  route 
irom  Berlin  to  Constantinople  was  now  open  Tur¬ 
key  having  in  November,  1914,  cast  her  lot  with 
Germany.  In  March,  1916,  Germany  declared  war 
against  Portugal  because  the  latter  had  seized  Ger¬ 
man  ships  interned  in  her  harbors.  Upon  Rumania’s 
declaration  of  war  on  Austria  on  27  August,  1916, 
le  Gei  mans  and  Austrians  retaliated  by  a  prompt 
invasion  of  the  country  under  von  Mackensen  and 
\on:  ^mkenhayn.  In  three  weeks  Rumania  was  at 
them  feet.  In  1916  occurred  the  long  drawn  out  Bat¬ 
tle  of  the  Somme  on  the  western  front  between  the 
British  under  Haig,  and  the  Germans  under  Hin- 
denburg.  It  resulted  in  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Germans  to  the  Hindenburg  line  and  the  surrender 
ot  a  thousand  square  miles  of  devastated  French 
territory  During  April-June,  1917,  the  Germans 
i ought  all  the  British  offensives  by  a  series  of 
counter  offensives.  In  February,  1915,  the  Germans 
declared  that  the  waters  around  the  British  Isles 
constituted  a  war  zone,  wherein  enemy  merchant- 
men  would.be  subject  to  destruction.  What  German 
ships  remained  on  high  seas  after  the  withdrawal  of 
the  fleet  to  Kiel  Canal  were  either  destroyed  or 
sunk,  off  the  coast  of  Chile  in  November,  1914  and 
oiGai'irtbe  Falkland  Islands,  in  December,’ 1914.’  On 
31  May,  1916,  the  German  High  Seas  Fleet  under 
Admiral  von  Scheer  slipped  out  of  Kiel  Harbor  and 
vas  met  by  the  British  battle-cruiser  squadron 
under  Admirals  Jellicoe  and  Beatty.  Losses  were 
®1(Uon  b°ffi  sides  and  the  Germans  returned  to 
Kiel  Harbor.  Deprived  of  the  opportunity  to  use 
their  navy,  the  Germans  were  forced  to  watch  the 
seizure  of  the  German  colonies  in  West  Africa,  Togo 
and  Kamerun  without  much  opposition.  Japan  had 
on  23  August,  1914,  ordered  Germany  to  give  up 
Kiau-chau  which  she  had  leased  from  China,  and 
upon  the  refusal,  bombarded  the  port,  forcing  the 
German ,  force  to  surrender  in  November,  1914. 
Lngland  s  naval  blockade  was  returned  by  a  Ger¬ 
man  blockade  of  the  English  coast  by  the  sub¬ 
marine.  1  he  unremitting  German  submarine 
warfare  led  to  the  entrance  of  the  United  States 
into  the  war  (6  April,  1917). 

In  the  meantime  there  was  revolution  in  Russia. 


bJv1  °  K  Ialcb/  19fJ>  tbe  Tsar  abdicated  and  on  22 

Gov4n^entSkThBepame  head  of  the  Visional 
boumment,.  I  he  Germans  took  advantage  of  the 

isorders  that  followed  to  capture  Riga  on  2  Sep¬ 
tember  without  striking  a  blow.  The  Kerensky 

who6  oTTfi  naS  TrthrOWn,  by  the  Bolsheviks 
who  on  16  December  signed  an  armistice  with 

Germany  at  Brest-Litovsk.  While  the  negotiations 

were  going  on,  the  Russian  armies  were  being  2e! 

mobilized;  the  Germans  on  the  other  hand,gcon- 

tinued  their  advance  in  Russia  and  on  19  February, 

918,  occupied  Dwinsk.  On  9  February  they  signed’ 

a  treaty  of  peace  with  Ukraine.  They  overran 

Livonia  and  were  marching  on  Petrograd,  when  the 

on  S4March  1918®  ““  Tleaty  °f  Brest-Lito^k 

On  the  western  front  in  November,  1917  the 
British  made  a  counter-attack  on  the  German  line 
n  the  direction  of  Cambrai,  but  before  they  could 
consolidate  their  positions,  the  Germans  launched 

f, ' cou2t^"aftack  and  the  British  had  to  yield  more 
than  half  the  territory  which  they  had  won. 

On  6  May  1918,  Rumania  signed  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  Austria  and  Germany.  The  peace 
on  the  eastern  front  gave  Germany  a  free  hand 
in  fae  west,  and  the  Germans  decided  to  break 
through  the  allied  line  before  America  had  time 
to  send  large  armies  to  France.  Their  object  was 
to  split  the  British  and  French  forces,  to  capture 
the  Channel  ports,  and  force  the  French  to  make 
peace  In  the  battles  of  Flanders,  of  the  Aisne, 

a?d  °f  tbe  0ls.G  they  gamed  1130  square  miles 
ot  French  territory,  and  again  approached  the 
Maine.  Again  they  were  hurled  back  by  the 
trench  aided  by  the  Americans.  In  the  French 
counter-offensive  they  were  forced  to  retire  and 
m  the  battle  of  St.  Mihiel,  lost  many  men  and 
much  booty  to  the  American  army.  The  Hin¬ 
denburg  line  was  now  broken  and  a  general  retreat 
trom  France  and  Belgium  began.  Austria,  over¬ 
whelmed  at  the  Piave,  sued  for  peace.  Germany 
now  stood  practically  alone  in  her  fight.  Turkey 
was  suing  for  peace  (31  October,  1918),  and  the 
following  nations  had  declared  war  on  Germany 
?niCofC  tt23  November,  1916),  Guatemala  (21  April, 
J918  ’  ??a,ytl,o(o12AJuly’  1918)’  Honduras  (19  July, 
J918)>  (28  August,  1916),  Liberia  (4  August, 

i917  im ??ai?a  (7  Apn1’  1917),  Portugal  (23  Novem- 
ber  1914)  Sema  (9  August,  1914),  United  States 
April  1917).  Bolivia  severed  diplomatic  rela- 

h0nSTVTn  \4  Apnl>  1917  J  Brazil  11  April,  1917;  China 
14  March,  1917;  Ecuador  7  December,  1917; 
Guatemala  and  Nicaragua  19  May,  1917;  Peru  5 
October ,1917;  Uruguay  7  October,  1917.  With 
her  line  broken  and  the  conquering  Allies  marching 
rapidly  towards  Germany,  the  only  course  was  to 
negotiate  for  peace.  The  negotiations  lasted  until 
5  November,  when  President  Wilson  informed  the 
Germans  of  the  readiness  of  Marshal  Foch  to 
conclude  an  armistice  with  accredited  German 
agents,  and  that  the  allies  were  ready  to  make 
peace.  The  armistice  wassignedon  11  November,  1918. 

In  the  meantime  there  were  rumblings  of  a  ’revo¬ 
lution  in  Germany.  The  Kaiser  hurriedly  left 
Berlin  and  sought  refuge  at  Spa.  News  came  that 
Liebnecht  and  the  Minority  Socialists  were  openly 
inciting  to  rebellion  and  that  mutinies  were  occur- 

rin^in  t,he  navy-  0n  8  November  the  Socialists 
at  Munich  under  Kurt  Lisner  deposed  King  Ludwig, 
and  transformed  Bavaria  from  a  monarchy  into  a 
republic.  The  next  day  saw  the  flight  of  the 
Kaiser  into  Holland,  on  9  November,  1918,  the 
German  Imperial  Chancellor  announced  the  ap¬ 
pointment  of  Friedrich  Ebert  as  Chancellor  and 
the  plans  for  a  German  Constitutional  Assembly. 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


338 


The  flight  of  the  Kaiser  was  followed  by  the 
abdication  or  deposition  of  practically  all  the  rulers 
of  the  sovereign  states  of  Germany,  control  passing 
in  most  cases  peaceably  into  Socialist  hands.  Un 
28  November,  1918,  the  Kaiser  signed  at  Amerongen 
a  formal  abdication  of  the  crowns  of  Prussia  and 
the  German  Empire,  and  the  Crown  Prince  Fred¬ 
erick  William  at  Wieringen  in  Holland  on  1  Decem¬ 
ber  definitely  renounced  all  claims  to  the  suc¬ 
cession.  The  legislative  power  of  the  new  #  pro¬ 
visional  government  was  vested  in  a  Soldiers  ana 
Workmen’s  Council  until  a  constituent  Assembly 
should  be  summoned,  and  the  executive  power  in 
a  cabinet  with  Friedrich  Ebert  as  Prime  Munster. 
The  cabinet  of  six  was  composed  chiefly  ol  Majority 
and  Independent  Socialists.  A  movement  ot  the 
Spartacides  headed  by  Karl  Liebknecht  and  Rosa 
Luxemburg  was  started  to  prevent  the  meeting 
of  the  National  Assembly  (see  Spabtacus  Group). 
On  15  January,  1919,  the  leaders  were  killed  and 
after  desultory  fighting,  the  uprising  subsided. 
Weimar  was  chosen  as  the  seat  of  the  National 
Assembly  which  convened  6  February,  1919.  A 
provisional  constitution  was  adopted  and  Ebert  was 
chosen  as  the  first  president.  A  smouldering  reac¬ 
tionary  revolt  in  Bavaria  was  fanned  into  flame  by 
the  assassination  of  Kurt  Eisner,  Bavarian  Premier. 

In  Saxony  the  Spartacans  launched  a  movement 
to  overthrow  the  bourgeois  Government.  A  Soviet 
Republic  was  even  set  up  in  Munich  on  6  April, 
but  the  new  government  was  short-lived.  Attempted 
revolts  in  Baden,  Brunswick,  Dresden,  and  other 
centers  were  crushed.  A  similar  attempt  was  made 
in  the  Rhenish  provinces  to  establish  a  Rhine 
republic  under  the  protection  of  the  French  troops. 
Unsupported  by  the  overwhelming  German  popula¬ 
tion,  the  movement  collapsed. 

The  Peace  Treaty  of  Versailles,  signed  by  Ger¬ 
many  on  28  June,  1919,  and  ratified  by  the  German 
Assembly  on  7  July,  1919,  revolutionized  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  Germany  territorially,  economically,  and 
militarily.  By  the  terms  Germany  ceded  Alsace- 
Lorraine  to  France,  Eupen  and  Malmedy  to  Bel¬ 
gium,  Memel  to  Lithuania,  and  a  large  part  of 
the  provinces  of  Posen  and  West  Prussia  to  Poland, 
to  Poland,  moreover,  she  agreed  to  cede  Upper 
Silesia,  the  southern  part  of  East  Prussia,  and  a 
strip  west  of  Vistula,  if  in  a  plebiscite  to  be  con¬ 
ducted  under  international  auspices,  the  popula¬ 
tion  of  these  districts  should  express  the  desire 
for  incorporation  within  the  Polish  Republic;  and 
in  order  to  provide  Poland  with  a  convenient  ac¬ 
cess  to  the  Baltic,  she  consented  to  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  Danzig  (q.v.)  as  an  internationalized  free 
city.  Furthermore,  she  was  willing  to  acquiesce 
in '  the  cession  to  Denmark  of  such  districts  of 
Schleswig  as  should  vote  accordingly  in  a  plebiscite, 
and  likewise  she  would  submit  for  fifteen  years  to 
the  economic  exploitation  by  France,  and  the 
political  control  by  an  international  commission  of 
the  rich  Saar  Basin,  and  would  abide  by  the  decision 
reached  by  popular  plebiscite  at  the  end  of  fifteen 
years  as  to  whether  the  Saar  region  should  belong 
to  Germany  or  to  France. 

Germany  also  surrendered  all  her  overseas 
colonies  and  protectorates,  her  lease  of  Kiao-Chou 
and  her  Shantung  privileges  to  Japan,  Samoa  to 
New  Zealand,  her  other  Pacific  possessions  south 
of  the  Equator  to  Australia,  German  Southwest 
Africa  to  the  British  Union  of  South  Africa,  Ger¬ 
man  East  Africa  to  Great  Britain;  Kamerun  and 
Togoland  were  partitioned  between  Great  Britain 
and  France,  generally  under  mandates.  Besides, 
Germany  renounced  all  special  rights  and  privileges 
in  China,  Siam,  Liberia,  Morocco,  and  Egypt. 


Politically,  Germany  recognized  the  complete  inde¬ 
pendence  and  sovereignty  of  Belgium,  likewise  of 
German  Austria,  Czechoslovakia,  and  Poland;  ana 
denounced  the  treaties  of  Brest-Litovsk.  Mili¬ 
tarily,  she  promised  to  reduce  her  army  to  100,000 
men,  to  raze  all  forts  fifty  kilometers  east  of  the 
Rhine  and  to  abolish  conscription;  also  to  demolish 
fortifications  at  Heligoland,  to  open  the  Kiel  Canal 
to  all  nations,  to  refrain  from  building  forts  on 
the  Baltic,  and  to  surrender  her  fourteen  submarine 
cables.  She  agreed  to  the  trial  of  the  ex-Kaiser 
for  violation,  of  tho  laws  and  customs  of  war.  By 
way  of  reparation  and  economic  settlement,  she 
accepted  full  responsibility  for  all  damages  caused 
to  the  allied  governments,  agreed  to  pay  shipping 
damage  on  a  ton-for-ton  basis  by  cession  of  her 
merchant,  coasting  and  river  fleet,  and  new  con¬ 
struction,  to  aid  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  devastated 
area,  to  return  the  works  of  art  taken  from  Belgium 
and  France  as  well  as  the  manuscripts  and  prints 
equivalent  in  value  to  those  destroyed  at  Louvain. 
Until  reparation  was  fully  made  the  allied  troops 
were  to  occupy  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  evacu¬ 
ating  the  regions  gradually,  as  Germany  fulfilled 

her  obligations.  ,  .  , 

In  the  negotiations  of  the  Supreme  Council  which 
followed,  Germany  assumed  a  passive  attitude, 
except  in  the  matter  of  reparations.  The  sum 
demanded  by  the  allies  was  too  great  to  be  given 
up  by  Germany  in  such  a  brief  space  of  time, 
and  to  make  matters  worse,  the  allies  demanded 
coal  by  way  of  reparations,  thus  crippling  the  in¬ 
dustrial  ability  of  Germany  to  pay. 

In  July,  1921,  a  separate  peace  treaty  was  nego¬ 
tiated  with  China,  in  which  Germany  renounced 
all  her  treaty  rights  in  that  country.  On  25  August, 
1921  a  treaty  of  peace  between  Germany  and 
the  United  States  was  signed  which  was  ratified 
by  both  countries  11  November,  1921. 

The  war  losses  of  Germany  were  astounding. 
Of  the  11,000,000  men  mobilized,  1,611,104  were 
killed,  3,683,143  were  wounded,  772,522  were  taken 
prisoners  or  missing,  the  total  casualties  being 
6,066,769.  The  losses  of  the  German  navy  were 
very  small,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  greater  part 
of  her  fleet  remained  in  port  during  the  war  and 
as  she  had  no  mercantile  marine  at  sea  the  service 
of  scouting  vessels  and  patrol  boats  to  protect  her 
shipping  was  unnecessary.  The  total  loss  m  tons 

was  only  350,000.  c  ~ 

Government. — The  new  constitution  ot  Ger¬ 
many,  adopted  by  the  National  Assembly  at  Wei¬ 
mar'  on  31  July,  1919,  and  promulgated  on  11 
August,  1919,  declares  that  the  new  German  Gov¬ 
ernment  is  a  Republic,  and  that  the  power  of  the 
state  is  derived  from  the  people.  The  head  ot 
the  Government  is  the  President.  The  legislative 
branches  are  the  Reichstag  and  the  National  Coun¬ 
cil,  or  Reichsrat.  The  real  authority  of  the  state  is 
vested,  however,  in  the  Reichstag,  subject  to  the 
direct  control  of  the  people.  The  President  is 
elected  by  the  people  for  seven  years,  and  appoints 
a  Chancellor,  and  at  his  suggestion,  other  ministers, 
through  whom  the  Government  is  administered. 
The  President  represents  the  nation  in  its  foreign 
relations,  but  his  acts  require  the  approval  of  the 
Reichstag ,  and  war  can  be  declared  and  peace  made 
only  by  a  national  law.  The  Reichstag  consists 
of  delegates  chosen  for  four  years  by  the  people 
on  the  principle  of  proportional  representation.  The 
National  Council  ( Reichsrat )  is  a  body  in  which 
the  various  German  states  ( Lander )  have  represen¬ 
tation  according  to  size.  Each  has  at  least  one  vote 
and  the  larger  ones  have  one  vote  for  each  million 
inhabitants.  They  are  represented  through  mem- 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


bers  of  their  respective  governments.  All  Bills  re¬ 
quire  the  assent  of  the  Reichsrat  before  they  are 
introduced  into  the  Reichstag.  There  is  provision 
for  a  budget  system,  which  is  compulsory,  and  for 
referendum  elections.  All  Germans  are  declared 
equal  before  the  law  and  all  privileges  or  disadvan¬ 
tages  of  birth,  class,  or  creed  are  abolished.  Free¬ 
dom  of  speech  and  of  the  press  and  religious  liberty 
are  guaranteed.  The  State  church  is  abolished. 
Labor  power  is  placed  under  the  special  protection 
of  the  nation  and  the  right  of  combination  for  the 
defense  and  promotion  of  labor  and  economic  con¬ 
ditions  is  guaranteed.  A  comprehensive  system  of 
labor  insurance  is  provided  for— health/ mother¬ 
hood,  unemployment,  old  age,  and  industrial.  A 
National  Economic  Council  is  established  to  pass 
on  drafts  of  social,  political,  and  economic  political 
laws  of  fundamental  importance.  Each  state  ob¬ 
tains  a  republican  constitution. 

During  1920  the  German  Assembly  worked  on  the 
new  constitution,  while  the  state  was  swept  by 
serious  political  and  economical  disturbances.  A 
counter-revolutionary  movement  under  the  leader¬ 
ship  of  Dr.  Wolfang  von  Kapp  took  the  Govern¬ 
ment  by  surprise  on  13  March,  1920,  when  the  revo¬ 
lutionists  marched  into  Berlin  and  took  possession 
of  all  the  public  buildings,  forcing  President  Ebert 
to  flee.  The  coup  failed,  however,  owing  to  the 
resistance  of  the  Socialists.  Elections  took  place  in 
accordance  to  the  new  franchise  bill  providing  for 
one  member  of  the  Reichstag  for  every  60,000  votes 
cast,  on  the  basis  of  proportional  representation. 
In  February,  1920,  Coburg  was  united  to  Bavaria, 
and  the  new  federal  State  of  Thuringia  (includ¬ 
ing  Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach,  Saxe-Meiningen-Reuss, 
Saxe-Altenburg,  Saxe-Gotha,  Schwarzburg-Rudo- 
stadt,  and  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen),  was  recog¬ 
nized  on  24  April,  1920.  Northern  Schleswig  voted  to 
join  Denmark,  Southern  Schleswig  to  remain  German. 
The  plebiscite  in  Upper  Silesia  on  20  March,  1921, 
resulted  in  716,408  votes  for  Germany  and  471,406 
for  Poland.  The  peculiar  distribution  of  the  votes 
caused  the  question  to  be  submitted  to  the  League 
of  Nations,  which  partitioned  the  country  so  that 
Poland  obtained  the  eastern  part,  the  frontier  line 
being  east  of  the  German  towns  of  Beuthen, 
Glewitz,  Ratibor,  Guttentag,  Tost,  and  Gr.  Strehlitz. 

In  the  Reichsrat,  1922,  Prussia  has  22  representa¬ 
tives,  Bavaria  7,  Saxony  5,  Wiirttemberg  3,  Baden 
3,  and  the  other  states  15.  According  to  the  elec¬ 
tions  of  6  June,  1920,  the  Reichstag  is  composed  of 
113  Majority  Socialists,  81  Independent  Socialists, 
69  Center  Party,  66  German  National  People’s 
Party,  62  German  People’s  Party,  45  German 
Democratic  Party,  20  Bavarian  People’s  Party,  and 
10  minor  parties;  total,  466. 

The  Church. — The  Constitution  of  the  new  Re¬ 
public  of  Germany  provides  for  entire  liberty  of 
conscience  and  for  complete  equality  among  all 
religious  denominations.  According  to  a  statistical 
survey  for  1920,  published  by  the  Bureau  of 
Statistics  of  Cologne  and  covering  Germany,  in¬ 
cluding  Polish  Upper  Silesia  but  excluding  the  Saar 
District,  the  total  Catholic  population  was  20,822- 
503.  To  provide  for  the  spiritual  wants  of  this 
great  number  there  were  19,076  secular  priests,  or 
one  priest  for  every  1346  Catholics.  There  were 
258,366  Catholic  marriages,  and  29,658  mixed  mar¬ 
riages,  in  11,436  of  which  the  husbands  were  Cath¬ 
olic.  The  number  of  children  baptized  in  the 
year  was  538,248,  of  whom  38,241  were  born  of 
mixed  marriages.  The  children  born  of  Catholic 
mothers  and  non-Catholic  fathers  numbered  22,903, 
and  those  of  Catholic  fathers  and  non-Catholic 
mothers  15,338.  A  total  of  476, 3S9  children  received 


O  t 

their  First  Communion,  an  increase  of  17,132  com¬ 
pared  with  the  preceding  year.  The  total  number 
of  communions  for  the  year  was  189,072,854.  About 
12,000,000  Catholics  made  their  Easter  duty,  or 
moie  than  i5  per  cent  of  all  those  under  obligation 
to  do  so.  Conversions  numbered  9351,  which  was 
1552  in  excess  of  those  reported  in  1919.  The  Saar 
District,  now  under  French  control,  has  142  parishes 
with  21  cuiacies,  293  secular  priests,  and  a  Catholic 
population  of  507,831. 

It  is  an  undeniable  fact  that  in  Germany  since 
the  war  there  has  been  a  marked  movement  towards 
the  Catholic  Church.  Since  the  downfall  of  the 
empire  Protestantism  has  no  official  head,  and  sin¬ 
cere  Protestants  feel  the  lack  of  any  supreme  and 
final  authority.  (See  Evangelical  Church.)  The 
disinterested  motives  and  impartial  conduct  of  the 
Sovereign  Pontiff  in  endeavoring  to  secure  peace, 
the  close  contact  brought  about  by  the  war  between 
the  Catholic  army  chaplain  and  the  Protestant 
minister,  the  devotion  of  the  priests  to  all,  whether 
they  were  their  own  spiritual  children  or  not,  have 
dissipated  anti-Catholic  prejudices  that  were  cen¬ 
turies  old.  Many  of  the  old  religious  orders  and 
congregations  excluded  under  the  imperial  regime 
are  returning.  In  some  instances  they  are  even 
recovering  their  former  buildings;  the  Cistercians, 
for  example,  have  regained  their  monastery  in 
Bamberg,  and  the  old  barracks  at  Ingolstadt, 
originally  the  Jesuit  College,  founded  by  Blessed 
Peter  Canisius  in  his  great  work  of  the  Counter- 
Reformation,  are  to  be  restored  to  their  former 
purpose.  On  the  other  hand  the  situation  of  the 
German  nursing  Sisters  is  most  disquieting.  There 
are  33,000  in  Germany  engaged  in  hospitals,  homes 
for  the  sick,  and  dispensaries.  Many  of  them  are 
dying  of  tuberculosis,  owing  to  the  hard  conditions 
of  their  service  and  the  inadequate  pay  they  receive. 
In  one  community  in  Southern  Germany  having 
160  nuns,  70  are  sick  and  there  is  an  average  of 
two  deaths  a  month.  There  is  a  tendency  to  replace 
them  with  high-salaried  secular  nurses.  Several  im¬ 
portant  diplomatic  and  political  posts  have  been 
and  are  held  by  Catholics,  amongst  them  Matthias 
Erzberger  (q.v.),  Count  von  Hertling  (q.v.),  and 
Dr.  Andreis  Hermes,  Minister  of  Food  and  Acting 
Minister  of  Finance  in  the  cabinet  of  Dr.  Joseph 
Wirth,  also  a  Catholic.  In  spite  of  the  split  in  the 
Center  Party  caused  by  the  formation  of  the 
Bavarian  Popular  Party,  the  former  retains  much 
of  its  power.  Though  Catholics  are  still  deprived 
of  many  of  the  rights  taken  from  them  by  the 
German  Nationalists  under  Bismarck,  they  hope  to 
regain  them  in  the  near  future.  There  is  a  splendid 
spirit  of  organization  amongst  Catholic  young 
people. 

In  1920  Germany  was  given  the  rank  of  Apostolic 
nunciature  with  Mgr.  Pacelli,  titular  Archbishop  of 
Sardes,  as  nuncio.  The  Ambassador  Extraordinary 
and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  representing  Ger¬ 
many  in  Rome  is  Dr.  Jacobus  von  Bergen.  The 
embassy  was  formerly  the  Prussian  legation.  For 
Catholic  statistics  see  articles  on  the  archdioceses 
and  dioceses  of  Germany. 

Germany,  Northern  Missions  of,  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-529a).— In  the  broad 
sense  the  jurisdiction  of  this  Vicariate  Apostolic 
covers  the  free  and  Hanse  towns  of  Bremen,  Ham¬ 
burg,  Lubeck,  the  Oldenburger  free  state  of  Liibeck, 
the  free  state  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Mecklen- 
berg-Strelitz,  Schaumburg-Lippe,  and  the  Apostolic- 
Prefecture  of  Schleswig-Holstein.  The  bishop  of 
Osnabriick  is  also  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  Northern 
Missions,  and  prefect  Apostolic  of  Schleswig-Hol- 


GERONA 


340 


GHENT 


stein.  The  vicariate  Apostolic  has  a  Catholic  popu¬ 
lation  of  113,945.  There  are  29  parishes,  39  mission 
stations,  63  secular  priests  and  7  regulars.  In  1921 
the  following  orders  and  congregations  had  founda¬ 
tions:  Jesuits  at  Hamburg;  Sisters  of  Mercy  of 
St.  Charles  Borromeo  at  Hamburg;  Franciscans 
(mother-house  in  Munster),  at  Bremen  and  Bremer- 
haven;  Franciscans  (mother-house  in  Ihuine),  at 
Bergedorf  (2),  at  Bremen  (3),  also  at  Bremerhaven, 
Neustrelitz,  Niendorf,  and  Rostock;  Sisters  of  St. 
Elizabeth  (Grey  Nuns)  at  Eutm,  Hamberg  (8), 
Liibeck  (2),  Schwerin  and  Wismar;  Ursulmes  at 
Hamburg  and  Eutin.  The  prefecture  Apostolic 
contains  48,752  Catholics,  24  parishes,  32  missaon 
stations,  35  secular  priests  and  3  regulars.  _  The 
following  orders  are  represented :  Franciscans 
(mother-house  in  Aix-la-Chapelle),  at  Flensburg 
and  Causlund;  Franciscans  (mother-house  in 
Thuine),  at  Wordstrand,  Oldesloe  and  Ottenser; 
Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth  (Grey  Nuns)  at  Altona, 
Kiel,  Neumiinster  and  Reinbeck.  _ 

In  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  and  in  the  prefecture 
Apostolic  together  there  are  614  nuns.  The  Ursu- 
lines  have  a  lyceum  and  a  realschule  (6  years  scien¬ 
tific  course)  at  Hamburg  and  at  Eutin.  There  are 
22  institutions  of  various  kinds,  including  8  hos¬ 
pitals,  4  homes  for  children,  1  reformatory,  2  day 
nurseries,  several  asylums  and  preparatory  institu¬ 
tions  for  first  communicants.  There  is  one  Catholic 
periodical. 

Gerona,  Diocese  of  (Gerundensis),  in  Spain, 
suffragan  of  Tarragona.  Rt.  Rev.  Francisco  de 
Pablo  Mas  y  Oliver,  appointed  to  this  see  10  April, 
1915,  to  succeed  Bishop  Pol  y  Baralt,  died  16 
April,  1920,  and  the  see  is  now  vacant.  This  ter¬ 
ritory  which  extends  over  1916  sq.  miles,  com¬ 
prises  390,000  Catholics;  386  parishes,  6  archpriests, 
985  priests,  386  churches,  593  chapels  and  176  con¬ 
vents  with  176  religious,  and  1754  Sisters. 

Gerrard,  Thomas  John,  author,  b.  at  Wigan, 
England,  in  1871;  d.  in  Southhampton  on  14 
December,  1916.  He  began  his  studies  for  the  Bar 
but  on  becoming  a  Catholic  in  1891  he  entered 
Oscott  College  and  was  ordained  in  1896.  He 
served  on  the  missions  of  Chelsea  and  Southalt 
in  the  Archdiocese  of  Westminster,  and  later  owing 
to  ill  health  he  acted  as  assistant  chaplain  to  the 
Canonesses  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  at  New  Hall, 
Essex.  Father  Gerrard  collaborated  in  the  Catholic 
Encyclopedia  and  also  contributed  frequently  to 
Catholic  periodicals,  his  writings  whether  spiritual, 
philosophical,  or  literary  being  of  a  high  standard. 
His  principal  published  works  are:  “The  Way¬ 
farer’s  Vision,”  “The  Cult  of  Mary”;  “Marriage  and 
Parenthood,”  “The  Church  and  Eugenics”  and 
“Bergson:  an  Exposition  and  Criticism.” 

Gezireh,  Diocese  of  (Jazirensis),  the  seat  of  two 
Catholic  residential  sees,  one  Chaldean,  the  other 
Syrian,  in  Mesopotamia.  The  Chaldean  diocese  has 
been  vacant  since  26  August,  1915,  when  the  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Philip  Abraham,  together  with  the  Syrian 
bishop  and  ten  Chaldean  priests,  were  shot  to  death 
by  the  Turks,  in  the  prison  of  Gezireh.  At  the 
same  time  about  5000  of  the  faithful  were  massacred 
out  of  hatred  of  the  Catholic  Faith.  In  1920  there 
were  in  this  diocese  about  6400  Chaldean  Catholics; 
17  priests,  14  churches  or  chapels,  1  station,  and  7 
schools. 

Since  the  massacre  of  the  Syrian  bishop,  Rt. 
Rev.  Flavian  Michael  Malke,  this  see  has  also 
been  vacant.  Born  near  Mardin  in  1856,  of  Jacobite 
parents,  Bishop  Malke  entered  the  Jacobite  convent 
of  Zapharan  in  1876,  and  had  become  a  deacon, 


when  in  1877  he  embraced  the  Catholic  Faith. 
He  then  studied  at  the  seminary  of  Charfet,  where 
he  was  ordained  in  1883  by  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch. 
He  served  in  a  number  of  different  missions  con¬ 
verting  many  Jacobites,  was  named  patriarchal 
administrator  of  Mardin  in  1910,  and  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Gezireh,  14  September,  1912.  For  the 
Syrians  the  diocese  comprises  1300  Catholics,  7 
secular  priests,  and  7  churches  or  chapels. 

Ghardaia  in  Sahara,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
(Ghardaiensis  in  Sahara),  in  the  French  Sahara. 
This  territory  was  formerly  known  simply  as 
Ghardaia,  but  a  Decree  of  Propaganda,  10  January, 
1921,  added  the  words  “in  Sahara”  to  its  title. 
In  1920,  by  a  consistorial  Decree  of  2  July,  somi 
important  changes  were  made  in  the  prefecture, 
giving  it  a  portion  of  the  territory  (Geryville  and 
A'in-Sefra),  formerly  belonging  to  the  Diocese  of 
Oran.  The  same  year  two  new  stations,  at  Laghouat 
and  Djelfa  in  Southern  Algiers,  were  created  at  the 
suggestion  of  the  military  authorities,  who  wished 
to  have  the  White  Fathers  established  in  these 
regions.  In  Laghouat,  with  the  exception  of  the 
soldiers,  there  are  few  Europeans,  the  region  being 
chiefly  populated  with  natives  and  nomadic  tribes. 
Rev.  Henri  Bardou,  of  the  White  Fathers,  ap¬ 
pointed  prefect  apostolic  of  this  territory  3  January,  • 
1911,  retired  in  1919,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rev. 
Gustave  Joseph-Marie  Nouet,  born  in  the  Diocese 
of  Nantes,  1878,  appointed  8  April,  1919.  The 
natives  of  this  territory  are  all  Mohammedans 
and  number  about  300,000.  Conversions  are  very 
difficult  and  most  of  the  Catholics  at  the  present 
time  are  Europeans,  chiefly  soldiers.  In  1920  the  mis¬ 
sion  had  14  priests,  3  churches,  3  stations,  3  schools, 

3  orphanages,  1  hospital,  and  12  White  Sisters. 

Ghent,  Diocese  of  (Gandensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VI- 
542d),  comprises  the  Belgian  province  of  East 
Flanders.  The  cathedral  chapter  is  the  beautiful 
church  of  St.  Bavon,  whose  famous  altarpiece,  “The 
Adoration  of  the  Lamb,”  is  the  work  of  the  Van 
Eyck  brothers.  The  side  panels  of  this  triptych, 
which  had  been  in  museums  of  Berlin  and  Brussels, 
were  returned  to  Ghent  in  1920  amid  great  rejoicing. 

Rt.  Rev.  Antoine  Stillemans,  born  at  St.  Nicholas, 
10  December,  1832,  ordained  in  1858,  was  elected 
Bishop  of  Ghent  30  December,  1889,  assistant  at 
the  papal  throne  14  November,  1901,  received  the 
personal  privilege  of  the  pallium  12  May,  1910,  in 
1915  celebrated  his  diamond  jubilee  of  priesthood 
in  St.  Bavon.  Bishop  Stillemans  was  the  dean  of 
the  Belgian  bishops  and  the  second  to  die  (4 
November,  1916)  during  German  occupation.  In 
1914  Bishop  Stillemans  was  given  an  auxiliary, 
Rt.  Rev.  Eugene  Van  Rechem,  chevalier  of  the 
Order  of  Leopold,  b.  at  Audenarde  8  April,  1858, 
named  Bishop  of  Carpasia  26  March,  1914,  and 
consecrated  at  Ghent  17  May  following.  The  suc¬ 
cessor  of  Bishop  Stillemans  is  Rt.  Rev.  Emile-Jean 
Seghers,  licentiate  in  theology  and  chevalier  of  the 
Order  of  Leopold,  born  at  Ghent  3  September,  1855, 
elected  twenty-fifth  bishop  of  Ghent  22  March,  1917, 
and  consecrated  there  1  May,  1917. 

The  diocese  is  divided  into  28  deaneries,  with 
329  parishes  and  1,142,347  inhabitants.  There  is  a 
seminary  at  Ghent  and  a  preparatory  one  at  St. 
Nicholas.  The  episcopal  college  of  Saint-Lievin  at 
Ghent  and  7  similar  schools  in  the  diocese,  also  7 
institutes  for  technical  education,  take  care  of  the 
higher  education.  There  are  numerous  schools,  hos¬ 
pitals,  homes  and  refuges  maintained  by  the  reli¬ 
gious  of  the  diocese,  several  of  these  orders,  such 
as  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Childhood  of  Jesus,  having 
been  founded  there  for  the  relief  of  misery. 


GHERLA 


341 


GILLOW 


Gherla  (Hungarian,  Szamos-Ujvar;  Lat.,  Szamos- 
Ujvariensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I-739d),  a  diocese  of  the 
Greek  Rumanian  Rite,  formerly  known  as  Arme- 
nierstadt,  embracing  the  northern  part  of  Transyl¬ 
vania,  suffragan  of  Fagaras.  Rt.  Rev.  John  Szabo, 
who  came  to  this  see  in  1879,  died  2  May,  1911,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Basil  Hosszu,  appointed 
15  December,  1911,  d.  13  January,  1916.  The  present 
incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  John  Hosszu,  succeeded  him 
in  January,  1919.  By  1920  statistics  the  total  popu¬ 
lation  of  this  territory  is  683,314,  of  whom  432,915 
are  Greek  Catholic  Rumanians,  41,116  of  the  Latin 
Rite,  1500  Armenians.  There  are  502  parishes,  500 
secular  and  3  regular  priests,  and  685  churches  or 
chapels. 


m.  England,  1871,  studied  at  College 

0  •  s^ln*  Rome,  and  became  prefect  of 

studies  in  the  College  of  St.  Augustine  in  Ramsgate, 
appomted  to  the  see  of  Gibralter,  10  November, 
1910.  In  1920  there  were  15,600  Catholics  in  this 
diocese  out  of  a  total  population  of  25  760-  19 

chapels  27  regUkr  Clergy’  and  7  churches’and 


Gibail  and  Batrun,  Diocese  of  (Gebailensis  et 
Botryensis  Maronitarum),  a  residential  see  of  the 
Maronite  Rite  in  Syria.  It  is  a  patriarchal  diocese 
of  the  Maronites  with  residence  at  Bekorki, 
Lebanon,  where  the  Maronite  Patriarch  of  Antioch 
resides.  At  present  (1922)  the  see  is  filled  by  His 
Excellency  Mgr.  Elie-Pierre  Hoyek,  born  in  Le¬ 
banon,  1842,  studied  at  the  colleges  of  Ghazer,  and 
Propaganda  in  Rome,  ordained  in  1870,  served  as 
secretary  general  of  the  patriarchate  and  conse¬ 
crated  titular  archbishop  of  Area  and  named 
patriarchal  vicar  14  December,  1889,  became  director 
of  the  Maronite  College  in  Rome  in  1897,  and 
was  appointed  patriarch  6  January,  1899.  By  latest 
statistics  (1920),  the  three  districts  of  Gitail, 
Batrun,  and  Jubbe  count  85,000  Maronite  Catho¬ 
lics;  470  priests,  277  churches  and  chapels,  5  semi¬ 
naries  at  Batrun,  Ai'n-Warca,  Mar-Habda-Harharaia, 
Reyfoun,  and  Roumie,  12  monasteries  of  Baladites 
with  177  Monks,  2  monasteries  of  Aleppines  with 
30  Monks,  2  monasteries  of  Antonians  of  St.  Isaias 
with  9  Monks,  1  monastery  of  Baladite  Nuns  with 
18  religious,  and  2  convents  of  native  Sisters  of 
the  Holy  Family  with  21  religious. 


Gigot,  Francis  Ernest,  biblical  scholar,  b. 
at  Lhuant,  Indre,  France,  on  21  August,  1859; 
ch  at  Yonkers  New  York,  on  14  June,  1920;  son  of 
Denis  Wenceslas  and  Madeleine  (Pelletier)  Gigot 
He  studied  in  the  Petit  Seminaire  of  Le  Dorat 
( Haute-Y  ienne) ,  the  Grand  Seminaire  of  Limoges 
and  the  Catholic  Institute  of  Paris.  He  was  or- 
darned  in  1883,  and  passed  his  remaining  years, 
alter  a  brief  tenure  of  chairs  of  dogmatic  theology 
and  philosophy,  in  teaching  Hebrew  and  the  Sacred 
scriptures  in  American  seminaries  at  Boston  Balti¬ 
more  (1899-1904)  and  St.  Joseph’s  Seminary,  Yonkers, 
from  1904.  Gigot,  who  collaborated  in  Vigouroux’s 
Dictionnaire  de  la  Bible”  and  contributed  many  of 
the  Scriptural  articles  in  The  Catholic  Encyclo¬ 
pedia  is  the  author  of  “Causes  which  Entailed  the 
Multilations  of  St.  Mark’s  Gospel” — an  essay  crowned 
by  the  Catholic  Institute,  Paris;  “General  Introduc¬ 
tion  to  the  Study  of  Holy  Scripture”  (1900),  “Special 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Old  Testament” 
(2  vols.,  1901,  1906) ;  “Christ’s  Teaching  Concerning 
Divorce  in  the  New  Testament,”  and  “Outlines  of 
New  Testament  History.”  He  is  the  author  also  of 
the  translation  of  the  Apocalypse  in  the  Westminster 
Version  of  the  Bible. 


Gibbons,  James,  Cardinal,  Archbishop  of  Balti¬ 
more,  b.  there  on  23  July,  1834;  d.  there  on  24 
March,  1921.  He  received  his  early  education  in 
Ireland,  but  returned  to  the  United  States  and 
was  ordained  priest  30  June,  1861.  He  was  Arch¬ 
bishop  Spalding’s  secretary,  and  subsequently  made 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  North  Carolina  and  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Adramytum  16  August,  1868,  and  on 
30  July,  1872,  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Rich¬ 
mond.  On  25  May,  1877,  he  was  named  Bishop  of 
Junopolis  and  made  coadjutor  of  Baltimore,  suc¬ 
ceeding  to  the  archbishopric  at  the  death  of  Mgr. 
Bayley,  3  October,  1877.  He  occupied  a  conspicuous 
place  in  American  public  life,  and  was  constantly 
looked  for  as  a  mediator  in  labor  troubles.  His 
episcopal  life  synchronizes  with  an  enormous  growth 
of  the  Church  in  the  United  States.  When  he 
,was  Bishop  of  Richmond  he  was  rejoiced  in  the 
fact  that  there  were  5,000,000  Catholics  in  the 
United  States,  with  67  bishops,  6500  churches,  and 
1700  schools  with  500,000  pupils.  Before  his  death 
he  saw  a  hierarchy  with  a  Delegate  Apostolic,  2 
cardinals,  15  archbishops,  100  bishops,  and  6048 
schools  with  1,774,448  pupils.  He  is  the  author  of 
three  widely  read  books,  “The  Faith  of  Our 
Fathers,”  “Our  Christian  Heritage,”  and  “The  Am¬ 
bassador  of  Christ.” 


Gilbert,  Lady,  better  known  to  the  world  at 
large  as  Rosa  Mulholland  than  by  the  title  which 
her  marriage  to  Sir  John  T.  Gilbert  brought  her 
in  1891;  b.  in  Belfast,  Ireland;  d.  at  Blackrock, 
Dublin,  in  April,  1924.  Her  literary  contributions 
were  always  welcome  to  the  Catholic  public.  They 
were  mostly  stories,  but  we  find  in  the  list  a  volume 
of  poems  entitled  “Spirit  and  Dust,”  besides  a  Life 
of  her  husband,  Sir  John  Gilbert. 


Gilbert  Islands,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Gil- 
bertinen sis  Insulensis),  comprises  the  group  of 
that  name,  and  the  islands  of  Ellice  and  Panapa, 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Geographically  these  islands 
cover  about  390  miles,  but  the  length  of  the  in¬ 
habited  islands  is  only  about  279  miles.  They  have 
a  population  of  about  40,000,  of  whom  14,200  are 
Catholics.  The  vicariate  is  entrusted  to  the  Con¬ 
gregation  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Issondun,  the 
present  (1922)  vicar  being  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Leray, 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Remesiana,  27  July, 
1897.  From  1888  until  1917  this  mission  averaged 
about  20,000  baptisms  and  300  conversions  annually. 
There  are  now  22  priests  in  the  vicariate,  20 
churches  or  chapels,  14  Brothers,  18  Sisters  of  Our 
Lady  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  105  catechists  and  96 
primary  schools  teaching  1549  boys  and  2576  girls. 


Gibraltar,  Diocese  of  (Giblatariensis),  com¬ 
prising  the  English  Colony  of  Spain,  directly  sub¬ 
ject  to  the  Holy  See.  This  territory,  erected  into 
a  vicariate  apostolic  in  1806,  was  raised  to  a  diocese 
by  a  Decree  of  19  November,  1910.  It  is  under 
the  administration  of  its  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev. 
Henry  G.  Thompson,  O.S.  B.,  of  Monte  Cassino. 


Gillow,  Joseph,  historian  and  biographer,  born 
in  1850;  died  at  Hale,  England,  on  17  March,  1921. 
He  was  the  son  of  Joseph  Gillow,  justice  of  the 
peace  of  Preston  and  Ribby,  and  was  educated  at 
Sedgeley  Park  and  Ushaw  College,  and  in  1878 
married  Miss  Ella  McKenna,  of  Dunham  Massey. 
On  completing  his  education  Gillow  devoted  himself 
to  the  history  of  the  English  Catholics  from  the  time 
of  Henry  VIII.  As  the  fruit  of  his  herculean  energy 
and  undaunted  perseverance  he  has  given  us  a 
monumental  “Biographical  Dictionary  of  English 
Catholics,”  in  five  volumes,  the  first  of  which  ap¬ 
peared  in  1885  and  the  last  in  1902.  His  record  of 
those  who  labored  for,  wrote  for,  and  suffered  for 


GIOVINAZZO 


342 


GNIEZNO-POZNAN 


the  Faith  in  England  has  won  Gillow  the  title 
of  “Plutarch  of  the  English  Catholics”— and  justly 
so.  Interested  in  the  cause  of  education  he  was 
twice  elected  a  member  of  the  Manchester  School 
Board.  He  assisted  in  founding  the  Catholic  Record 
Society  (of  England)  and  was  chosen  as  its  honorary 
recorder.  In  addition  to  his  magnum  opus  Gillow 
published  “The  Tyldesley  Diary,”  “The  Haydock 
Papers,”  “St.  Thomas’  Priory,”  “The  Story  of  a 
Staffordshire  Mission,”  "Lancashire  Recusants, 
“A  Catalogue  of  the  Martyrs  in  Englande  for  Pro¬ 
fession  of  the  Catholique  Faith  since  the  Yeare  of 
Our  Lord  1535,”  and,  in  collaboration  with  R. 
Trappes-Lomax,”  “The  Diary  of  the  Blue  Nuns  of 
Paris.” 

Giovinazzo,  Diocese  of.  See  Molfetta,  Terlizzi 
and  Giovinazzo. 

Girgenti,  Diocese  of  (Agrigentinensis),  in 
Sicily,  suffragan  of  Monreale.  This  diocese,  the 
richest  in  Italy,  is  under  the  administration  of  lit. 
Rev.  Bartolomeo  Maria  Lagumina,  born  m 
Palermo,  1850,  appointed  28  April,  1898.  ^  In  1920 
it  counted  a  Catholic  population  of  415,043;  67 
parishes,  485  secular  and  50  regular  priests,  138 
seminarians,  115  Sisters,  and  369  churches  and 
chapels. 

Giustini,  Filippo,  Cardinal,  b.  at  Cinete  Romano, 
8  May,  1852;  d.  in  Rome,  17  March,  1920.  He  was 
professor  of  Canon  Law  at  the  Roman  Seminal  v 
in  1878;  then  prefect  of  studies  at  the  Apollinare. 
He  was  made  Auditor  of  the  Rota  20  February, 
1S97,  secretary  of  the  Congregation  of  Bishops 
and  Regulars  1902,  Secretary  of  the  Holy  Office  in 
the  same  year,  and  of  the  Council  and  the  Com¬ 
mission  of  Canon  Law  in  1904,  which  office  he 
retained  until  1917.  He  was  created  cardinal  deacon 
25  May,  1914.  On  14  October,  1914,  he  was 
appointed  prefect  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
the  Sacraments,  and  presided  as  pontifical  legate 
at  the  seventh  centenary  celebration  of  St.  Francis 
Assisi  in  the  Holy  Land.  While  there  he  visited 
all  the  missions  of  Palestine  and  Egypt. 

Glasgow,  Archdiocese  of  (Glasguensis). — On  the 
death  of  Archbishop  John  Aloysius  Maguire,  14 
October,  1920,  the  affairs  of  the  diocese  were  ad¬ 
ministered  by  the  Administrator-Apostolic  Rt.  Rev. 
John  Toner,  Bishop  of  Dunkeld,  until  the  appoint¬ 
ment  (22  February,  1921),  of  Rt.  Rev.  Donald 
Mackintosh,  rector  of  the  Scots  College,  Rome, 
since  1913.  Bishop  Mackintosh  was  born  at  Glas- 
nacardoch,  Inverness,  Scotland,  in  1877,  studied  at 
Blairs  College,  the  Paris  lower  seminary  and  the 
Scots  College,  where  he  was  ordained  in  1900.  He 
was  made  a  privy  chamberlain  in  1907  and  a  domestic 
prelate  in  1914.  The  archdiocese  lost  its  coadjutor 
upon  the  death  of  the  Most  Rev.  Donald  Aloysius 
Mackintosh,  8  October,  1919.  During  the  World 
War  practically  all  the  men  of  the  diocese  under 
forty,  served  in  some  capacity  and  ten  of  the  clergy 
served  as  military  chaplains,  two  of  them  giving 
up  their  lives,  one  at  the  front,  the  other  by  drown¬ 
ing  from  a  hospital  ship. 

The  1921  statistics  for  this  diocese  show:  94 
quasi-parishes,  94  churches,  18  mission  stations,  9 
religious  houses  for  men,  20  convents  for  women, 
265  secular  priests  and  48  regulars,  500  nuns,  1 
diocesan  seminary  wfith  40  seminarians,  1  training 
college  for  women  with  12  teachers  and  an  attend¬ 
ance  of  200,  14  high  schools  with  148  teachers  and 
an  attendance  of  4233,  2  academies  with  an  attend¬ 
ance  of  726,  2  training  schools,  96  elementary  schools 
with  1504  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  16,927,  and 
3  industrial  schools  with  12  teachers  and  an  at¬ 


tendance  of  690.  The  various  charitable  works 
carried  on  in  the  diocese  include  the  Apostleship 
of  the  Sea,  4  homes,  3  orphanages,  1  hospital,  and 
2  refuges.  All  but  one  or  two  of  the  public  institu¬ 
tions  permit  the  ministry  of  priests  and  all  the 
schools  are  supported  by  the  Government.  There 
are  3  organizations  established  among  the  clergy, 
and  several  among  the  laity,  such  as  the  Knights 
of  Columbus;  the  only  periodicals  published  in 
the  diocese  are  the  diocesan  calendar  and  parish 
magazines. 

Glasgow  University  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-578c) .— One 
of  the  most  striking  developments  of  modern  times 
in  Glasgow  University  is  the  steady  growth  of  the 
women’s  department,  known  as  Queen  Margaret 
College.  The  college,  founded  in  1883,  now  shows 
a  record  *of  2103  graduates,  of  whom  1627  have 
obtained  the  degree  of  M.A.,  82  that  of  B.Sc.;  1 
that  of  B.D.;  2  that  of  B.L.;  1  that  of  LL.B.;  358 
graduated  M.B.;  C.M.;  26  are  now  M.D.;  5  are 
D.  Sc.;  and  1  D.Litt.  During  1920-21  a  woman 
took  a  degree  in  agriculture  for  the  first  time  in 
Glasgow.  This  same  year  the  number  of  students 
registered  in  the  college  was  1132,  of  whom  565 
were  students  in  the  faculty  of  arts,  124  in  that  of 
science,  432  in  medicine,  5  in  law,  and  6  in  educa¬ 
tion. 

The  medical  department  has  also  had  a  remark¬ 
able  growth,  the  number  of  students  registered  in 
1919  being  3420  as  against  a  registration  of  only 
1600  in  1914. 

In  1912  a  change  was  made  in  the  regulations 
governing  the  degree  of  B.  L .,  when  an  ordinance 
was  passed  making  it  compulsory  for  a  candidate 
for  the  degree  to  possess  a  degree  in  arts,  science 
or  economics,  or  to  have  passed  an  examination 
in  arts,  or  such  other  examination  as  the  board  of 
examiners  might  accept. 

The  university  library  includes  some  very  valu¬ 
able  collections,  among  them  the  Hunterian,  Hamil¬ 
ton,  and  Euing  collections;  the  Hunterian  Museum, 
a  storehouse  of  treasures,  is  also  one  of  the  pos¬ 
sessions  of  the  university. 

Among  the  numerous  societies  and  clubs  formed 
in  the  university  are  the  Catholic  Students  Sodality 
and  the  Ossianic  Society.  The  first  named  was 
founded  in  1911  with  the  object  of  providing  for 
its  members  opportunities  of  social  intercourse  as 
well  as  to  promote  interest  in  literary,  scientific,  and 
sociological  subjects.  The  Ossianic  Society  is  one 
of  the  oldest  in  the  university,  as  well  as  one  of 
the  most  successful.  The  objects  of  this  society 
are  the  discussion  of  subjects  bearing  on  the  lan¬ 
guage,  literature  and  customs  of  the  Highlands,  and 
the  promotion  of  social  enjoyment  among  the  High¬ 
land  students.  The  meetings  are  conducted  entirely 
in  Gaelic,  and  the  society  has  numbered  many  dis¬ 
tinguished  Gaels  among  its  members. 

Sir  Donald  MacAlister  is  the  present  head  of  the 
university. 

Glastonbury  Abbey  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-579b). — The 
ruins  of  Glastonbury  Abbey  were  purchased  in  1907, 
on  behalf  of  a  body  of  Anglican  trustees,  and  in 
1921  the  “Abbot’s  Kitchen”  was  also  acquired  by 
them.  Recent  excavations  have  laid  bare  the  foun¬ 
dations  of  the  cloister,  on  the  south  side  of  the 
abbey  church,  and  also  of  some  chapels  attached 
thereto,  but  nothing  of  special  architectural  or 
historical  importance  has  been  found. 

Gnesen-Posen,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Gniezno- 
POZNAN. 

Gniezno-Poznan,  Archdiocese  of  (Gnesnensis 
et  Posnaniensis),  in  Poland.  This  see  carries 


GOA 


GONAIVES 


343 


with  it  the  titles  of  Primate  and  Legatus-Natus  of 
roland  and  the  privilege  of  wearing  cardinalitial 
vestments  without  the  hat.  It  is  now  filled  by  His 
Eminence  Edmund  Cardinal  Dalbor,  born  in 
Ostrowo,  Poland,  1869,  ordained  1893,  made  a  pre¬ 
late  of  the  Holy  See  23  November,  1914,  served 
as  chancellor  and  vicar  general  of  Poznan,  and 
was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Gniezno-Poznan,  30 
June,  191o,  and  consecrated  21  September  follow- 

succeed  Rev.  Edward  Likowski,  died 

20  February,  1915.  He  was  created  a  cardinal  priest 
15  December,  1919.  In  1916  Cardinal  Dalbor  pub¬ 
lished  a  stirring  pastoral  letter,  on  the  occasion  of 
the  Dine  hundred  and  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  into  Poland,  in  which 
he  spoke  of  it  as  the  anniversary  of  the  historical 
and  political  as  well  as  the  religious  birth  of  the 
country,-  and  his  sentiments  met  with  an  immediate 
and  enthusiastic  response  from  the  people  and  the 
national  press  During  the  pontificate  of  Pius  IX 
the  Canons  of  the  two  chapters  of  Gniezno  and 
iroznan  were  accorded  the  privilege  of  wearing 
the  soutane  and  violet  mantelletta,  and  Leo  XIII 
gave  them  the  right  to  the  ring. 

A  national  council  of  all  the  bishops  of  Poland 
was  held  in  Gniezno  in  1919,  presided  over  by 
Cardinal  Dalbor. .  After  the  closing  session  all  the 
members  went  in  an  impressive  procession,  to 
v  enerate  the  relics  of  St.  Adelbert,  patron  of  Poland 
preserved  in  the  cathedral.  The  cardinal  is  as- 
sisted  by  two  auxiliaries,  Rt.  Rev.  William  Kloske, 
titular  Bishop  of  Theodosiopolis,  and  Rt.  Rev. 
Stanislas  Rostka  Lukomski,  titular  Bishop  of  Sicca- 
venena.  The  former  lives  in  Gniezno,  the  latter 
in  Poznan,  where  the  cardinal  also  resides.  There 
are  two  cathedrals,  one  in  each  of  these  cities,  two 
upper  seminaries,  and  three  hostels  for  collegians, 
the  third  being  at  Ostrowo.  By  1920  statistics  the 
diocese  comprises  43  deaneries,  554  parishes,  200 
vicariates  and  auxiliary  parishes,  44  posts  of  admin¬ 
istration  or  teaching,  550  pastors  and  200  curates 
besides  44  other  priests,  making  a  total  of  837 
+  ' V  Brothers  °f  Christian  Charity  are  es¬ 

tablished  here  with  60  houses,  as  well  as  6  congre- 
gations  of  religious  women.  The  latest  census 
(1914)  credits  the  diocese  with  1,392,692  Catholics 
and  about  750,000  non-Catholics. 


Valencia,  pro-vicar  apostolic  and  founder  of  two 
orphanages  died  and  also  Fathers  Tomas  de  Ori- 

heroL^v  for  the  °c  ^  Pinarejf°’  who  had  worked 
neroicaliy  for  the  conversion  of  the  Indians  of  the 

Sierra  Nevada  in  Colombia.  Four  orXnLes  in 

sine?  1M9.°  T^e^f»cificationUof^nativesrin  ^a'terrf 

milSesniorn^V°r-llSe  of  ,autos  and  auto-trucks  25 
miles  Jong  has  improved  commerce  a  great  deal 

twc^^erfl  1  <^he  ?bcTe  +  ,imProvements  a  hospital  and 
,  °deges  for  both  sexes  have  been  constructed 
at  the  expense  of  the  Capuchin  mission, 
lwo  periodicals,  “Ecos  de  la  Mision”  and  “Hoiita 

rCEarfrW'  a“d  fifty  organizations 
TaJf  been  smarted  among  the  laity.  About  4000 
Inchans  have  become  Catholics,  2800  since  1909 
1^,7  vicariate  there  are  20  parishes,  30  churches, 
12  stations,  4  secular  and  14  regular  priests  11  lav 
brothers,  26  Sisters  2  colleges  for  ^oys  ’with  5 
eachers  and  200  students,  2  colleges  for  girls  with 

WWnT  80  ?lldents>  4d  elementary  schools 
with  40  teachers  and  2500  pupils,  and  1  hospital. 

Gobmeau,  Joseph  Arthur,  Count  de,  ethno¬ 
grapher  and  philosopher,  b.  at  Ville  d’Avray,  near 
Pans,  on  14  July  1816;  d  at  Turin,  on  13  October" 
1882.  He  entered  the  French  diplomatic  service 
and  was  successively  minister  to  Persia,  Greece 
Brazil,  and  Sweden.  He  is  the  author  of  “Religious 
et  philosophies  de  l’Asie  centrale,”  “Traite  des 
mscnptions  cuneiformes,”  and  “Histoire  des  Perses” 

(Fna-  ?rSaii  ir  meSTallte  des  races  humaines” 
(Eng.^tr  by  Collins,  London,  1915),  “La  Renais- 

sance  (tr  Cohn,  1913),  and  “Les  Pleiades" 
are  particularly  noteworthy  as  having  had  an 

Stewnrf  rh  N'et?s?he  and  .writers  like  Houston 
Stewart  Chamberlain,  votaries  of  the  Germanic 

superman.  Gobmeau  attributes  the  progress  and 

no£a;thpf  n^10ns  ?ot  to  theory  of  the  milieu 

even  Pbr;«rtl0Il  °fu  T°/a  1  forces  and  ideals— not 
stocks^ Tstiamty— but  to  the  mingling  of -particular 
f;°ChUr  Tie  Predominance  of  the  Aryan  and  par¬ 
ticularly  Germanic  blood  means  progress,  decay 

unde?  When  the  Alyan  eIement  is  being  driven 


Goa,  Archdiocese  of  (Goanensis),  Patriarchate 
of  the  East  Indies,  the  chief  see  of  the  Portuguese 
dominions  in  the  East.  The  archbishop  of  this 
see  bears  the  honorary  titles  of  Primate  of  the 
East  and  Patriarch  of  the  East  Indies.  The  see 
is  filled  by  His  Excellency  Mgr.  Mateo  de  Oliveria 
Xavier,  born  in  Valle  da  Urra,  Portugal,  1858,  ap¬ 
pointed  Bishop  of  Cochin,  11  October,  1897,  and 
promoted  26  February,  1909.  The  territory  com¬ 
prised  in  the  diocese  covers  an  area  of '1449  sq 
miles  and  embraces  a  total  population  of  2,349  110 

3f?,(lno  are  Catholics.  The  1920  statistics 
cred,t  !t  with  102  parishes,  23  missions,  131  churches, 
364  chapels  349  confraternities,  322  pious  associa- 
!qiq  Vi?n<l-3105  chlJdren  in  Catholic  schools.  In 
J91?  bne  diocese  was  divided  into  12  districts,  and 
had  629  priests,  more  than  119  of  whom  were  in 
Portuguese  India,  and  58  convents. 

„n(?oajira’  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C  E  VI- 
^  V5  a  peninsula  belonging  to  Colombia  and 
entrusted  to  the  Capuchins  for  spiritual  care. 

AtanaS10  Maria  Vincenzo  Soler-Royo, 
O  M.  Cap  appointed  18  April,  1907,  as  vicar  apos- 
hc  and  titular  Bishop  of  Citharizum,  and  Rev. 
Bienvenido  de  Chilches  as  pro-vicar,  are  in  charge 
ot  twelve  Capuchin  priests  who  are  working  among 
the  Indians.  In  recent  years  Very  Rev.  Antonio  de 


CLI xmli  m-Uo!d  SupC7"RaCe  in  Th*  D^Un  Review, 

Gold  Coast,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Littoris 

coa  st  ’nfOT\F Fses  af  English  colony  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  African 
missionaries  of  Lyons  and  has  its  episcopal  resi- 
dence  at  Cape  Coast.  The  present  vicar  is  Rt. 

Ig»tlus  Pummel,  born  in  Sufflenheim,  Ger- 
manj^,  1870  ordained  1896,  joined  the  mission  at 

f  re#T  0f,th®  Niger>  and  was  ap- 
d  titular  Bishop  of  Trapezopolis,  6  March, 

n!!f/?iidne-VSr  apostolic.  This  territory 
counts  2,130  000  inhabitants,  of  whom  28,500  are 

Catholics  and  23,805  catechumens,  according  to  the 
latest  statistics  (1920).  The  mission  is  served  by 

+lLPoStS’  J-5  rehglo\,s.  of  0ur  Lady  of  the  Apos¬ 
tles,  265  native  catechists,  234  churches  or  chapels 
8  principal  stations,  316  secondary  stations,  and  82 
schools  with  4715  pupils. 

Gonaives  Diocese  of  (Gonayvesensis),  com- 

of1SAtnTnn  i  ann0t  G°naive"  and  the  government 
♦tiff*6*  U  ereCted  m  186L  suffragan  of 
the  Archdiocese  of  Port-au-Prince,  and  has  never 

had  a  residential  bishop  of  its  own,  but  is  adminis- 
tered  by  the  archbishop  at  present  the  Most  Rev. 
Julian  Comm  Through  the  agreement  signed  on 
4  August,  1914,  between  the  Archbishop  of  Port-au- 
Innce  and  the  Haitian  Government,  a  number  of 


GONZAGA  UNIVERSITY  344 


CORIZIA 


primary  schools,  supported  by  the  Government  and 
under  its  inspection,  have  been  added  to  the  dio¬ 
cese.  A  beautiful  church,  built  at  St.  Mark  and 
paid*  for  partly  by  the  Haitian  Government  and 
partly  through  the  generosity  of  the  faithful,  was 
completed  during  the  present  year  (1921). 

Owing  to  the  general  mobilization  during  the  war, 
the  total  number  of  priests  and  religious  has 
diminished  noticeably  since  1911.  Seven  of  the 
priests  of  the  diocese  entered  the  service  during 
the  war,  and  of  these  two  were  killed,  two  received 
the  croix  de  guerre ,  and  three  others  received  other 
citations.  At  present  the  diocese  includes  9  parishes 
and  13  priests,  and  charitable  and  educational  work 
is  carried  on  by  the  two  religious  orders,  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Brothers  and  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny. 
The  former  conduct  2  government  primary  schools, 

1  at  Gonaives  and  1  at  St.  Mark,  and  have  m  all 
8  Brothers  and  700  pupils.  Under  the  direction  ol 
the  Sisters  there  are  2  hospitals  and  4  government 
primary  schools  for  girls.  In  all  there  are  1500  chil¬ 
dren  in  Catholic  schools. 

Gonzaga  University  is  situated  in  the  city  of 
Spokane,  Washington,  and  conducted  by  members 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  It  originated  in  1881  when 
the  Rev.  Joseph  Cataldo,  superior  of  the  Jesuit 
Missions  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  bought  a  half¬ 
section  of  land  from  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad 
Co.,  and  in  1883  began  the  erection  of  the  first 
Gonzaga  building.  It  was  formally  opened  on  15 
September,  1887,  and  incorporated  on  22  April, 
1894,  and  empowered  to  grant  literary  honors  and 
confer  degrees.  The  rapid  growth  of  the  city  so 
increased  the  value  of  the  land  that  the  sale  of 
portions  of  it  made  possible  the  erection  of  new 
buildings  in  1898  and  1903.  _  . 

The  system  of  education  is  substantially  that  ot 
all  universities  conducted  by  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
It  includes  the  following  departments:  graduate 
school  of  philosophy  and  science,  school  of  com¬ 
merce  and  finance,  law  school,  college  of  arts  and 
sciences,  including  pre-engineering  and  pre-medical 
courses,  and  the  preparatory  high  school.  For  the 
year  1920-21  the  school  of  philosophy  and  science 
registered  121  students,  law  school  40,  arts  &nd 
sciences  102,  and  the  high  school  721.  The  Rev. 
John  A.  McHugh,  S.J.,  is  president  of  the  uni¬ 
versity. 

Good  Hope,  Eastern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
the  Cape  of  (Districtus  Orientalis  Promontorii 
Bon^i  Spei),  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  original 
vicariate  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  divided  in 
1847.  The  bishop  resides  at  Port  Elizabeth.  It  is 
at  present  administered  by  Rt.  Rev.  Hugh 
McSherrv,  born  in  Loughgilly,  Ireland,  1852  ap¬ 
pointed  titular  Bishop  of  Justinianapolis,  2  June, 
1896,  and  made  coadjutor  to  the  vicar  of  Eastern 
Good  Hope,  whom  he  succeeded  1  October,  1896. 
The  population  of  this  territory  numbers  163,210  of 
European  origin  and  432,270  natives :  about  13,295 
of  these  are  Catholics  and  466,621  Protestants. 
The  1920  statistics  credit  the  vicariate  with  27 
secular  and  15  Jesuit  priests,  besides  2  missionaries 
of  Marianhill,  74  churches  and  chapels,  20  houses 
of  religious,  43  Brothers,  407  Sisters,  and  48  schools 
with  3400  pupils. 

Good  Hope,  Western,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
the  Cape  of  (Districtus  Occidentals  Promontorii 
Bon,®  Sepi),  one  of  the  two  vicariates  in  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  official  residence  is 
at  Cape  Town.  It  is  at  present  administered 
by  Rt.  Rev.  John  Rooney,  born  in  Edenderry, 
Ireland,  1844,  and  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 


Sergiopolis  and  coadjutor  to  the  vicar  apostolic  of 
Western  Good  Hope,  29  January,  1886,  succeeding 
as  vicar  19  February,  1909.  He  is  also  administrator 
apostolic  of  the  prefecture  of  Central  Cape  .of 
Good  Hope.  The  total  population  of  the  ter¬ 
ritory  according  to  1920  statistics,  numbers 
209,580,  of  whom  are  6500  Catholics.  The  mission 
is  served  by  25  secular  priests  and  6  Salesian 
Fathers,  8  Salesian  and  12  Marist  Brothers,  78 
Dominican  Sisters,  48  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross 
and  16  Sisters  of  Nazareth,  46  churches  or  chapels, 
and  32  schools. 

Good  Samaritan,  Sisters  of  the  (cf.  C.  E., 
VI-647a),  founded  by  Archbishop  Polding,  O.S.B., 
in  Sydney,  Australia,  2  February,  1857.  In  1902 
the  Decree  of  Praise  was  granted  by  Pope  Leo 
XIII.  In  1920  the  constitutions,  haying  been  re¬ 
vised  in  accordance  with  the  prescriptions  of  Canon 
Law,  were  confirmed  by  Pope  Benedict  XV.  The 
institute  is  governed  by  a  mother  general  and  her 
council,  who  are  elected  every  six  years.  The 
mother-house,  to  which  is  attached  a  training  col¬ 
lege  for  teachers,  is  in  Sydney,  N.  S.  W.  The 
novices  and  postulants  are  trained  in  one  central 
novitiate  house,  which  is  also  in  the  Archdiocese 
of  Sydney.  The  Sisters  devote  themselves  to  works 
of  charity,  such  as  education,  the  care  of  penitent 
women  and  orphans,  and  the  visitation  of  the  sick. 
There  have  been  17  new  foundations  since  1909. 
The  present  number  of  members  is  440,  with  a  total 
number  of  46  foundations,  of  which  24  are  in  N.  S. 
Wales,  12  in  Queensland,  8  in  Victoria,  2  in  South 
Australia.  The  Sisters  have  under  their  care  the 
following  institutions :  2  homes  for  penitent  women, 

1  orphanage,  1  domestic  training  school,  62  schools. 
In  the  homes  200  women  are  provided  for.  In  the 
orphanage  there  are  at  present  80  children,  but  an 
additional  building,  which  will  accommodate  200,  is 
being  erected.  The  children  attend  school  until 
they  are  fourteen  years  of  age,  after  which  they 
are  taught  domestic  work,  needlecraft,  or  trades. 
In  the  domestic  training  school  30  poor  girls  are 
boarded,  receive  religious  instruction,  and  are 
trained  in  domestic  work  and  needlecraft.  The 
schools  include  boarding  schools,  secondary  and 
primary  day  schools.  The  pupils  number  over 
12,000.' 

Gorizia,  Archdiocese  of  (Gorz;  cf.  C.  E.,  VI- 
6540). — Gorizia  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
Austrian  crownland  of  Gorz  and  Gradisca,  which 
province  is  now  the  extreme  northeastern  part  of 
Italy.  The  archbishop  has  the  title  of  prince  and 
his  archdiocese  is  composed  of  the  united  sees  of 
Gorizia  and  Gradisca,  and  has  for  its  suffragans 
the  dioceses  of  Parenzo  and  Pola,  Trieste  and 
Capo  d’lstria,  and  Veglia.  The  prince  archbishop 
is  Most  Rev.  Francesco  Borgia  Sedej,  born  at 
Cerkno,  10  October,  1854,  elected  21  February,  1906, 
to  succeed  Mgr.  Andreas  Jordan,  deceased.  The 
war  between  Austria  and  Italy  which  broke  out 
in  1915  devastated  all  the  countries  bordering  on 
the  Isonzo  River;  43  churches  were  totally  de¬ 
stroyed,  42  more  or  less  damaged.  The  inhabitants, 
including  the  clergy,  dispersed  throughout  Austria 
or  were  interned  by  the  Italians.  According  to  the 
Treaty  of  Rapallo,  the  archdiocese  of  Gorz  was 
annexed  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  The  new  cir¬ 
cumscription  gives  to  the  archdiocese  three  rural 
deaneries,  those  of  Lubiano  and  Klagenfurt  with 
an  addition  of  60,000  inhabitants.  During  the  war 
the  clergy  by  their  zeal  and  unselfishness  made 
themselves  much  beloved  by  the  Government  and 
the  people.  While  in  exile  in  Austria  and  Italy 
they  shared  the  hardships  of  the  faithful,  adminis- 


GORZ 


GOYAU 


tcrcd  to  their  spiritual  needs  and  assisted  the  local 
priests  wherever  possible.  They  received  a  testi¬ 
mony  of  commendation  from  the  ordinaries  of  the 
various  places. 

The  archdiocese  has  a  Catholic  population  of 
260,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  two-fifths  are  Italians 
and  three-fifths  Slovenes.  It  contains  86  parishes, 
44  curacies,  63  vicariates,  78  chaplaincies,  316 
churches,  1  mission  station,  8  monasteries  for  men, 
6  for  women  with  180  Sisters  and  47  lay  sisters, 
263  secular  priests,  35  regulars  and  66  lay  brothers. 
There  is  a  diocesan  seminary  with  18  students.  The 
latter  institution  is  destitute,  which  accounts  for 
the  small  number  of  students.  Two  colleges  for 
women  with  18  teachers  and  280  students  have  been 
established  in  the  archdiocese.  All  the  schools  and 
institutions  are  in  the  hands  of  the  Government 
and  religious  instruction  is  prohibited  in  private 
schools.  There  exists  four  associations  among  the 
clergy  and  220  among  the  laity.  The  following 
charitable  institutions  have  been  founded:  4  or¬ 
phanages,  2  shelters,  3  asylums,  3  hospitals,  4 
hospices.  The  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  have  left  Gorizia  and  have  been  replaced  by 
the  Sisters  of  Providence  of  St.  Cajetan,  who  have 
charge  of  the  orphan  asylum  at  Contavalle.  The 
Sisters  of  Mercy  of  the  Holy  Cross  are  no  longer 
in  charge  of  the  domestic  management  of  the 
archiepiscopal  seminary,  but  minister  to  the  sick 
in  their  homes. 


Gorz,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Gorizia. 

Gotti,  Girolamo  Maria,  Cardinal-Prefect  of 
Propaganda,  b.  at  Genoa  on  29  March,  1834;  d.  at 
Rome  on  19  March,  1916.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
dock-laborer  of  Genoa,  and  after  his  ordination  as 
a  Carmelite  he  taught  mathematics  and  the  sciences 
at  the  Genoa  Naval  Academy.  His  knowledge  of 
theology  may  be  appreciated  by  the  fact  that  he 
was  at  the  Vatican  Council  as  theologian  of  the 
General  of  his  Order,  to  whose  place  he  succeeded 
in  1881,  and  by  special  dispensation  was  reelected 
to  the  same  post  in  1889.  He  was  given  charge  of 
the  Oriental  Missions,  and  was  consecrated  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Petra  in  1892,  when  he  was  sent  as  Inter¬ 
nuncio  to  Brazil.  In  1895  he  was  elevated  to  the 
cardinalate.  Subsequently  he  was  Prefect  of  the 
Institute  of  Simple  Vows,  which  was  composed  of 
members  of  unusual  learning  and  experience;  he 
also  presided  over  the  Congregation  of  Relics  and 
Indulgences  which,  under  his  direction,  issued  a 
series  of  decrees  of  the  utmost  importance.  In  1899 
he  passed  to  the  Congregation  of  Bishops  and 
Regulars,  and  while  there  settled  the  very  grave 
controversy  between  Annecy  and  Bourges,  which 
might  have  had  grave  consequences  in  the  Church. 
At  the  death  of  Cardinal  Ledochowski  he  was 
given  the  prefectship  of  the  Propaganda,  and  it 
was  probably  he  who  induced  Pius  X  to  withdraw 
England,  the  United  States,  and  Canada  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  Propaganda.  Amid  all  his  ecclesias¬ 
tical  dignities  he  remained  preeminently  a  friar, 
observing  the  rules  of  his  Order  almost  as  if  he 
were  in  a  monastery.  He  received  a  certain  num¬ 
ber  of  votes  as  the  successor  of  Leo  XIII,  who 
indeed  expressed  the  wish  that  the  conclave  would 
so  decide,  but  some  of  the  cardinals  feared  that 
the  austerity  of  his  life  might  show  itself  too 
strongly  in  his  government  of  the  Church. 

Goulburn,  Diocese  of  (Goulburnensis),  in 
Australia,  suffragan  of  Sydney.  The  limits  of  the 
diocese  were  somewhat  changed  by  a  decree  of 
the  Consistory  28  July,  1917,  which  cut  off  fifteen 
parishes  to  form  the  new  diocese  of  Wagga-Wagga. 


The  see  is  now  filled  (1922)  by  Rt.  Rev.  John 

March  ' 'ri8Q?r] V?  ,Cast£lb^  appointed  29 

March,  1895,  titular  Bishop  of  Adrassus  and 

coadjutor  at  Goulburn,  where  he  succeeded  Bishop 

t-ihlifhcd  13  ^hG>  i900,  The  reliSious  orders  es- 
uithpr!dr  thG  diocese  include  the  Passionist 
bathers,  Congregation  of  the  Most  Holy  Redeemer 
Christmn  Brothers,  De  La  Salle  Brothers,  Sisters 
of  Mercy,  Presentation  Nuns,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph 
^rsing  S.ters  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Nursing  Sisters 
of  St  John  of  God,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  Sisters  of  St.  Brigid,  of  Charity  and 
of  the  Good  Samaritan  of  the  Order  of  St.  Bene- 
clict.  By  latest  statistics  the  diocese  is  divided 
into  30  districts,  and  comprises  113  churches,  54 
secular  and  12  regular  clergy,  21  Brothers,  374  Sis¬ 
ters,  7  novitiates,  2  secondary  schools,  8  girls’ 
boarding  schools,  7  superior  day  schools,  76  primary 
schools,  3  orphanages,  and  2  hospitals.  The  total 

?cll$9nr  C,hlId^en,  rGCeiving  Catholic  education 
is  o/zv  out  of  a  Catholic  population  of  43,077  (1911 
census / . 

Goupil,  Rene  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-684b). — The  cause 
ot  ms  beatification  was  introduced  at  Rome  9 
August,  1916. 

Goyau,  Lucie  Felix- Faure,  author  and  lecturer, 
b.  at  Amboise  in  Touraine,  France,  in  1866*  d.  at 
Paris  in  June,  1913.  She  was  the  daughter  of  a 
modest  merchant  who  had  settled  in  Havre  but 
who  later  became  President  of  the  French  Repub¬ 
lic  She  received  a  very  careful  private  education 
and  soon  revealed  her  two  most  striking  character- 
lstics,  a  deep  religious  instinct  and  a  love  of  letters. 

e„  agGj  °Jk  was  enchanted  with 

Esther  and  Athahe.  In  1881  her  father  was 
appointed  assistant  secretaiy  of  the  Foreign  Office 
arid  this  brought  her  to  Paris,  where  she  studied 
the  ancient  Classics  and  the  chief  modern  tongues 
of  Europe,  gaining  a  deep  knowledge  of  their  lead¬ 
ing  writers.  Her  favorite  authors  were  Shakespeare, 
Pascal,  Dante,  and  a  Kempis.  She  traveled  through 
Europe  and  with  her  father  visited  Algeria,  Egypt, 
Palestine,  and  Greece.  Her  impressions  are  partly 
recorded  m  “Une  excursion  en  Afrique,”  “Prome¬ 
nades  florentines,”  “Mediterranee”;  her  visit  to 
Greece  inspired  her  “Melancholie  de  Nausicaa  ”  a 
romance  founded  on  the  seventh  canto  of  ’the 
Odyssey.  In  1895  her  father  became  president,  and 
she  utilized  the  new  opportunities  offered  to  engage 
m  social  work.  Felix  Faure  was  assassinated  in 
-February,  1899,  and  his  daughter  for  nearly  three 
years  lecorded  her  inner  life  in  her  “Journal  intime  ” 
In  writing  her  “Newman,  sa  vie,  ses  ceuvres”  (1900) 
and  in  meetings  connected  with  the  patriotic  and 
social  League  des  enfants  de  France ,  she  made  the 
acquaintance  of  M.  Georges  Goyau,  the  distin¬ 
guished  Catholic  publicist  and  historian  of  modern 
Germany,  whom  she  married  in  1903.  Later  she 
wrote  “Les  femmes  dans  Poeuvre  de  Dante”  and 
a  volume  of  poetry,  “La  vie  nuancee”  (1905) 
After  her  marriage  Mme  Goyau  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  Continental  feminist  movement,  which 
she  inspired  with  Christian  principles;  she  delivered 
numerous  conferences  dealing  with  family  life  and 
woman  under  Christianity:  such  (e.g.)  as  “La  cul¬ 
ture  de  la  femme  au  moyen  age,”  “Les  femmes 

A?  La.-,?e,"als!rance’”  ,“,Sainte  Gertrude”  “Sainte 
Mechtilde.  Her  conference  “Sainte  Radegonde” 

was  the  first  delivered  by  a  woman  in  the  Institut 
Cathohque  of  Paris.  In  1908  she  wrote  “Ames 
paiennes,  ames  chretiennes,”  a  little  book  in  praise 
of  the  despised  Christian  virtues  of  obedience, 
humility ,  patience,  and  self-denial,  which  was  very 
well  received.  In  1910  she  published  “La  vie  et  la 


GOYAZ 


GRAND  ISLAND 


346 


mort  de  fees,”  a  charming,  excellent  history  of  the 

sa  vie  et  see  vuvres 

(Paris,  1918). 

Goyaz,  Diocese  of  (Goyasensis),  includes  the 
state  of  the  same  name  and  a  part  of  the  state  o 
Minas,  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Marianna.  A  Part 
the  original  territory  of  this  diocese  was  separated 
from  it  by  a  Decree  of  29  September,  1907,  to 
form  the  new  Diocese  of  Uberaba.  It  now  comprises 
about  288,160  sq.  miles.  Rt.  Rev.  Prudencio  Gome 
da  Silva,  appointed  to  this  see  17  November,  1907, 
died  19  September,  1921,  and  his  successor  has  not 
vet  been  appointed.  The  population  is  chiefly 
Catholic  counting  300,748  Catholics  against 

Protestants  and  10,000  infidels.  Th^10“!?  £“OT39 
ing  to  1920  statistics,  comprises  36  P^hes,  39 
secular  and  38  regular  priests,  and  158  ohmches 
and  chapels.  The  secular  clergy  are  gradually  dis 
appearing  owing  to  the  great  difficulty  in  obtaining 

&  to  maintain  the  seminary,,  and  now  more  ton 

half  of  the  parishes  are  administered  by  priests  o 
religious  orders. 


Gozo,  Diocese  of  (Gaudisiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VI- 
687c),  comprising  the  Island  of  Gozo  m  the  Med  - 
ranean.  The  present  bishop  is  Giovanni  Maria 
Camilleri  (b.  1843),  elected  1889  succeeding  the 
late  Rt.  Rev.  Pietro  Pace  (b.  9  April,  1831 ,  d.  2y 
July  1914).  Educated  at  Rome  Bishop  Pace 
there  took  first  honors  in  theology  and  canon  law. 
Ordained  priest  in  1853,  he  was  at  one  time  secre¬ 
tary  to  the  Cardinals  Vincenzo  Santucci  and  An 
tonio  Panebianco.  He  became  vicar  general  and 
administrator  of  Gozo  m  1864,  and  was  created 
bishop  of  that  diocese  by  PwsIX  m  1877.  in 
1889  he  was  appointed  by  Leo  XIII,  Archbishop  of 
Malta,  where  he  had  at  one  time  been  pro  es 
in  the  university  and  seminary.  Made >  a  Knight 
of  Malta  he  was  decorated  with  the  Order  of  Vic¬ 
toria  bv  King  Edward  VII  of  England.  He  m 
creased  the  teaching  faculty  and  the  number  of 
students  at  the  seminary  opened  houses  for  nuns, 
and  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  ie 
stored  in  its  entirety  the  orphan  asylum,  after  add¬ 
ing  a  nursery.  He  purchased  from  the  Government 
the  episcopal  residence  and  lands,  and  provided 
for  daily  communication  with  the  Sisters  of  the 

diocese.  ,  •  ^ 

The  spiritual  needs  of  the  Catholic  population  oi 

23,000  are  looked  after  by  a  total  of  180  secular 
and  18  regular  priests,  assisted  by  14  lay  brothers 
There  are  13  parishes  and  42  churches,  14  convents 
for  men  and  6  for  women,  1  seminary  with  14  pro¬ 
fessors  and  instructors,  100  boarders  and  100  day 
students,  1  college  for  girls  with  20  students  taught 
by  7  Sisters  of  Charity,  1  high  school  for  boys  with 
2  teachers  and  40  students,  9  normal  schools  for 
boys  with  6  teachers  and  196  students,  and  9  for 
girls  with  10  teachers  and  240  students,  1  college 
with  7  missionary  priests,  1  orphan  asylum,  the 
120  boys  and  50  girls  in  the  kindergartens  are  m 
charge  of  4  teachers.  Some  of  the  priests  enlisted 
in  the  services  of  the  army  during  the  World  War, 
and  many  soldiers  of  the  diocese  were  decorated. 

Gran,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Esztergom. 

Granada,  Archdiocese  of  (  Gran  aten  sis),  in 
Spain.  This  see  was  filled  by  Most  Rev  Jose 
Meseguer  y  Costa  from  27  March,  1905,  until  his 
death  9  December,  1920.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Most  Rev.  Vicente  Casanova  y  Marzol,  born  in 
Borja,  Spain,  1854,  served  as  a  pastor  and  visitor 
of  the  religious  communities,  appointed  Bishop  oi 


v 

Almeiria,  19  December,  1907,  promoted  7  March, 
1921  In  1919  he  was  appointed  a  corresponding 
member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  History.  Tim 
Church  of  St.  John  of  God  was  erected  into  a  minor 
basilica  20  December,  1916,  and  granted  special  in¬ 
dulgences  12  June  following.  The  archdiocese  com¬ 
prises  an  area  of  about  3261  sq.  miles  and  a  Catho¬ 
lic  population  of  454,000.  The  1920  statistics  credit 
it  with  246  parishes  divided  among  16  archpriests 
and  450  priests,  247  churches,  312  chapels  or  sanc¬ 
tuaries,  66  convents  with  180  religious  and  935 
Sisters,  1  university  and  1  seminary  founded  by  bt. 
Ccecilius  in  1492,  with  150  pupils,  and  a  seminary 
of  theologv  and  canon  law  at  the  Abbey  of  bacro 
Monte  (founded  in  1610),  with  150  students. 

Granada,  Diocese  of  ( Gran aden sis),  in  the  Re¬ 
public  of  Nicaragua,  Central  America,  is  dependent 
on  Managua.  On  2  December,  1913,  the  diocese 
of  Nicaragua,  hitherto  dependent  on  Guatemala, 
was  dismembered  and  three  dioceses  and  a  vicariate 
apostolic  were  formed,  one  of  which,  comprising 
four  civil  provinces,  was  Granada,  where  the  epis¬ 
copal  seat  is  situated  in  the  province  of  the  same 
name.  The  first  bishcp  of  Granada  was  Rt.  Rev. 
Jose  Candida  Pinol  y  Batres,  b.  in  Guatemala  2 
February,  1878,  elected  10  December,  1913,  resigned 
and  transferred  10  July,  1915,  and  published  9 
December  following  as  titular  bishop  of  Phaselis. 
The  second  and  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Canuto 
Jose  Reyes  y  Balladares,  b.  at  Leon,  Nicaragua, 
24  September,  1863,  ordained  in  1887,  and  elevated 
to  the  bishopric  12  July,  1915.  .  ,  .. 

There  are  twenty-five  parishes,  three  of  which  lie 
in  the  episcopal  citv  and  which  include  the  church 
of  St.  Francis,  in  use  as  a  temporary  cathedral 
while  the  cathedral  proper  is  being  erected  There 
are  no  permanent  missions  established,  but  the 
Jesuit  Fathers  hold  missions  in  those  places  where 
there  is  no  parish  priest.  There  are  4  houses  for 
religious  communities  of  men,  the  Jesuits  having 
2,  the  Salesians  1,  and  the  Capuchins  1.  There 
are  5  convents  for  women,  2  of  the  Sisters  of  Our 
Lady  of  Help,  and  3  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph 
of  Mexico.  There  are  a  diocesan  seminary  and  5 
colleges,  2  for  boys,  one  of  which  is  conducted  by 
the  Jesuits  and  the  other  by  the  Salesians, .  and 
3  for  girls,  2  of  which  are  in  charge  of  the  Sisters 
of  Our  Lady  of  Help,  and  1  of  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  of  Mexico.  There  are  2  hospitals,  1  in 
Granada  and  1  in  Rivas.  The  Government  con¬ 
tributes  to  the  support  of  some  of  the  Catholic 
schools  and  institutions,  especially  the  colleges. 
Practically  all  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  diocese  are 
Catholics,  except  a  few  Protestants,  who  have  come 
from  other  places.  There  are  4  religious  organiza¬ 
tions  among  the  laity  and  4  monthly  papers  are 
published,  one  of  which  has  as  its  aim  the  fostering 
of  religious  vocations. 


Grand  Island,  Diocese  of  (Insulae  Grandis), 
was  erected  as  the  Diocese  of  Kearney  27  January, 
1913,  out  of  a  portion  of  the  Diocese  of  Omaha. 
Owing  to  the  lack  of  a  suitable  railroad  center  for 
the  episcopal  see,  and  to  apportion  more  equally 
the  scattered  Catholic  population,  the  boundaries 
of  the  diocese  had  to  be  extended,  and  in  May, 
1916  the  Holy  See  decreed  that  the  mother  diocese 
should  cede  four  additional  counties  (Arthur, 
Wheeler,  Greeley,  and  Howard),  including  the  city 
of  Grand  Island.  This  was  made  the  see  city  in¬ 
stead  of  Kearney,  and  the  name  of  the  diocese 
was  changed  to  Grand  Island.  It  is  still  adminis¬ 
tered  by  the  first  bishop,  the  Rt.  Rev.  James  Albert 
Duffy,  who,  while  still  resident  at  Kearney,  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  erecting  a  parochial  school  there,  through 


GRAND  RAPIDS 


347 


GREAT  FALLS 


offerings  from  Cardinals  Gibbons  and  Farley  and 
several  bishops  and  congregations  of  other  dioceses. 

On  5  July,  1918,  the  diocese  lost  one  of  its  oldest 
clergy  by  the  death  of  Rev.  Dean  Wunibald  Wolf, 
pastor  of  St.  Mary’s  Church  in  Grand  Island  for 
over  thirty  years.  During  the  World  War  the  laity 
were  creditably  represented  in  military  service,  and 
one  of  the  small  number  of  clergy,  the  Rev.  James 
P.  McMahon,  gave  his  services  as  a  chaplain.  The 
women  of  the  diocese  worked  enthusiastically  for 
the  Red  Cross,  and  all  patriotic  appeals  for  funds 
were  met  with  a  generous  response. 

By  the  present  (1921)  statistics  the  Catholic 
population  of  the  diocese  numbers  22,000,  of  whom 
about  4000  are  Polish  and  3000  Mexicans,  scattered 
over  an  area  of  some  40,000  sq.  miles.  It  com¬ 
prises  45  parishes,  46  missions  and  22  stations,  91 
churches,  49  secular  priests,  128  Sisters,  5  high 
schools  with  23  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  358, 
3  academies  with  23  teachers,  1  normal  school,  12 
elementary  schools  with  50  teachers  and  an  attend¬ 
ance  of  1374.  Charitable  work  is  carried  on  by 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  who  have  two  hospitals, 
and  the  Holy  Name  Society  and  Knights  of  Colum¬ 
bus  are  organized  in  the  diocese. 


with  126  teachers  4  academies,  2  normal  schools, 
92  elementary  schools,  1  industrial  school.  The 

o  atitndclnCe  °Lf,  W1!8  111  Catholic  schools  is 
21,olo.  1  he  charitable  institutions  comprise :  1  home 

for  the  aged  conducted  by  the  Little  Sisters  of  the 
Poor,  with  148  inmates,  1  House  of  the  Good  Shep¬ 
herd,  2  orphan  asylums  with  315  children,  1  home 
lor  infants,  find  7  hospitals.  The  priests  are  per¬ 
mitted  to  minister  in  many  of  the  public  institu- 
tions  The  Holy  Name  Society  is  established  in 
this  diocese. 


Grand  Rapids,  Diocese  of  (Grandormensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  VI-726c),  comprises  a  portion  of  the  lower 
peninsula  of  the  State  of  Michigan,  U.  S.  A.,  an 
area  of  22,561  sq.  miles. 

Rt.  Rev.  Henry  Joseph  Richter,  D.D.,  first  bishop 
of  the  diocese,  after  an  administration  of  thirty- 
three  years,  died  26  December,  1916,  known  as  a 
very  careful  administrator  and  a  particularly  active 
promotor  of  the  parochial  school  system.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  coadjutor,  Rt.  Rev.  Michael 
Gallagher,  D.  D.,  who  was  in  charge  until  his  trans¬ 
fer  to  Detroit,  18  November,  1918.  The  present 
bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Edward  D.  Kelly,  D.  D.,  appointed 
16  January,  1919,  assumed  charge  of  the  diocese 
20  May  following.  Bishop  Kelly  was  consecrated 
in  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan,  26  January,  1911,  by  the 
late  Cardinal  Gibbons,  titular  Bishop  of  Cestra  and 
Auxiliary  to  the  Bishop  of  Detroit,  and  was  admin¬ 
istrator  of  the  diocese  of  Detroit  after  the  death 
of  Bishop  Foley  until  the  arrival  of  his  successor. 
Immediately  upon  his  arrival  in  this  diocese  he 
instituted  a  building  program  and  within  eighteen 
months  opened  a  new  preparatory  seminary, 
churches,  schools,  hospitals,  and  has  under  way  a 
college  for  young  women  which  will  be  under  the 
direction  of  the  Sisters  of  Saint  Dominic  of  the 
diocese.  A  Catholic  weekly,  the  “Catholic  Vigil,” 
was  founded  by  him  in  1919. 

During  the  World  War  the  following  priests  of  the 
the  diocese  served  as  chaplains:  Revs.  A.  Golden, 
Joseph  Kaminski,  J.  A.  Mulvey,  J.  F.  Drew,  F.  W. 
Ryan,  A.  M.  Fitzpatrick,  D.  D.,  J.  D.  Kenny.  For 
his  works  in  the  Knights  of  Columbus  activities  Mr. 
Martin  H.  Carmody,  a  prominent  layman  of  the 
diocese.  A  Catholic  weekly,  the  “Catholic  Vigil,” 
diocese,  W'as  knighted  by  His  Holiness,  Benedict 
XV. 

A  convent  of  Discalced  Carmelite  Nuns,  refugees 
from  persecution  in  Mexico,  was  established  in  1916 
by  Bishop  Richter. 

The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  (1921) 
is  149,919,  comprising  besides  the  American-born, 
Irish,  Germans,  Poles,  Canadian-French,  Hollanders, 
Belgians,  and  Indians.  There  are:  119  parishes,  230 
churches,  111  missions,  35  stations,  1  monastery  for 
women  (Carmelite),  4  convents  of  women,  143  secu¬ 
lar  and  26  regular  clergy,  2  lay  brothers,  834  Sis¬ 
ters;  1  seminary,  126  seminarians,  21  high  schools 


Gravma  and  Montepeloso  (or  Irsina),  Diocese  of 
(GRAViNENsm  et  Montis  Pelusii),  in  the  province 
of  Ban,  Southern  Italy,  directly  subject  to  the  Holy 
See.  Rt.  Rev.  Nicola  Zimarino,  born  in  Casaboldino 
Italy,  1847,  was  transferred  to  this  see  6  December’ 
1906,  and  filled  it  until  his  death  in  July,  1920’. 
His  successor  has  not  yet  been  appointed.  The 
latest  statistics  of  1920  credit  Gravina  with  22  000 
Catholics  and  Montepeloso  with  8000.  Gravina  has 
5  parishes,  40  secular  priests,  39  Sisters,  and  25 
churches  and  chapels;  Montepeloso  counts  4  par¬ 
ishes  15  secular  priests,  6  Sisters,  and  10  churches 
or  chapels. 

„  Gr®?t^Fa\ls’  Diocese  of  (Greatormensis;  cf.  C. 

JrLVr~7 , c)’  ^  under  the  administration  of  the 
hist  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Mathias  Clement  Leni- 
han  D.  D.,  who  has  filled  the  See  since  1904.  Since 
1909  the  number  of  priests  and  hospitals  and  the 
Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  has  been  doubled, 
^  ooinber  of  Catholic  schools  and  teachers  tripled 
while  the  number  of  churches  and  missions  has 
giown  to  four  times  its  previous  size.  On  account 
of  the  salubnous  climate,  the  millions  of  irrigated 
farms,  the  natural  mineral  resources  and  the  ex¬ 
haustless  coal,  gas  and  oil  lands  that  are  being 
v  oi Ted  there  is  every  prospect  of  greater  prosperity 
and  a  rapid  growth  of  Catholicity. 

On  13  April,  1917,  the  chancellor  of  the  diocese 
Rev.  James  Molyneux  died  at  Glasgow,  Montana’ 
and  on  2  June,  1920,  the  diocese  lost  one  of  its 
most  prominent  citizens  by  the  death  of  Dr.  Francis 
J.  Adams,  prominent  citizen  and  United  States  sur¬ 
geon  at  Fort  Assiniboine  for  six  years.  He  had 
served  as  a  major  in  the  Spanish-American  War 
and  the  World  War  and  was  on  the  staff  of  General 
Otis  at  Manila.  During  the  World  War  another 
member  of  the  diocese,  the  Rev.  Wm.  P.  Callahan, 
served  as  a  United  States  Army  chaplain  and  went 
overseas  as  a  lieutenant,  while  each  parish  gave  its 
quota  of  young  men  to  the  service. 

At  the  present  time  the  Catholic  population  of 
the  diocese  is  33,000,  made  up  of  Americans,  Irish, 
Austrians,  Poles,  Germans,  and  a  few  hundred  Ital¬ 
ians  and  Bohemians.  It  includes  86  parishes;  146 
churches;  124  missions  with  159  stations;  46  secular 
and  17  regular  clergy;  6  lay  brothers;  237  nuns;  22 
ecclesiastical  students;  1  college  for  women  with  26 
teachers  and  an  attendance  of  306,  4  high  schools 
with  48  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  180  boys 
and  508  girls,  1  normal  school  with  8  teachers  and 
attendance  of  32,  13  elementary  schools  with  117 
teachers  and  attendance  of  2843,  and  4  Indian  Mis¬ 
sion  schools.  The  various  charitable  institutions  are : 
St.  Thomas  Orphans’  Home  under  the  direction  of 
23  Sisters  of  Providence  with  206  orphans,  8  hos¬ 
pitals  and  8  maternity  homes.  The  state  industrial 
school  for  boys  and  girls  at  Miles  City,  permits  the 
ministry  of  the  priests  of  the  diocese  and  St.  Labre’s 
Indian  School  is  supported  by  the  Government  from 
the  tribal  funds  of  the  Cheyenne  Indians.  Among 
the  clergy  the  Priests’  Eucharistic  League,  and 
among  the  laity  the  Association  of  the  Holy  Child¬ 
hood  and  the  Apostleship  of  Prayer,  the  Sodality 


GREECE 


348 


GREECE 


of  the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  B.  V  M., 
Women’s  Catholic  Order  of  Foresters  St.  Anns 
Altar  Society,  St.  Mary’s  Aid,  Men’s  Catholic  Order 
of  Foresters,  Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians,  and  K. 

of  C.  are  organized.  .  „  . 

The  Great  Falls  “Catholic  Monthly  Magazine  is 

published  in  the  diocese. 


Greece  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-735b).-The  present  coun¬ 
try  of  Greece  includes  Old  Greece  (25,014  sq. 
miles),  which  comprises  contmentalGreece  the 
Peloponnesus  to  the  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Connth, 
the  AEgean  Island  of  Euboea,  the  Cyclades, 
Sporades,  and  islands  in  the  Ionian  Sea,  including 
Corfu,  Zante,  Santa  Maura,  and  Cephaloma;  New 
Greece  (16,919  sq.  miles),  which  comprises  Mace¬ 
donia,  Epirus,  Crete,  and  the  other  /Egean  Islands; 
and  the  territorial  acquisitions  of  the  recent  war, 
which  according  to  the  Treaty  of  London  and  of 
Athens,  30  May,  1913,  are  all  those  iEgean  Islands 
occupied  by  Greece  during  the  war,  except  lm- 
bros,  Tenedos,  and  Castellonzzo,  and  according 
to  the  Treaty  of  Sevres,  1  May,  1920  all  that  was 
left  of  Turkey  in  Europe  west  of  the  Cnatalja 
lines  western  Thrace,  and  the  Dodocanese  Islands. 

The  Ministry  of  National  Economy  has  given  the 
following  estimates  of  population  (31  March,  1921) . 
Population  of  Old  Greece  2,897,000 ;  of  new  prov¬ 
inces  acquired  in  1913,  2,110,000;  of  Thrace  acquired 
in  1920,  600,000;  total  5,607,000  No  figures  for 
the  Smyrna  district  are  given  in  the  return.  Den- 
nite  figures  for  the  following  important  towns  have 
been  obtained  in  the  census  of  December,  19 J). 
Athens  300,462;  Pirseus  130,082;  Salomca  158,000 
(District  396,958);  Adnanople  145,490;  Crete 
96,309;  Patras  46,500.  In  1918-19  the  number  of 
emigrants  to  the  United  States  was  813.  Ihe 
number  would  have  been  larger,  but  for  the  pro¬ 
hibition  of  the  departure  of  men  of  several  classes 
of  the  reserve,  and  also  on  account  of  the  political 
situation.  Emigration  constitutes  an  asset  in  Greek 
finance  on  account  of  the  large  remittances  sent 

annually  to  Greece.  ,  .  „  . 

Education.— Greek  education  has  been  chieny  in 
tliG  hands  of  the  ecclesiastical  authonties  and  yet 
has  tended  to  be  of  a  too  practically  commercial 
type.  At  the  present  time  the  Ministry  of  Public 
Education  recognizes  three  classes  of  schools 
(a)  Demotic  or  Primary  Schools;  (b)  Hellenic  or 
Intermediary  Schools;  (c)  Gymnasia,  or  Superior 
Schools.  For  purposes  of  administration  the  coun¬ 
try  (Old  Greece)  is  divided  into  twelve  school  dis¬ 
tricts,  with  a  chief  inspector  of  education  in  each 
center.  All  inspectors  are  appointed  by  the  Min¬ 
ister  of  Education.  School  attendance  is  compul¬ 
sory  for  all  children  between  the  ages  of  six  and 
twelve.  In  1917-18  there  were  6799  primary  schools 
with  8641  teachers  and  476,695  pupils  (174,805  girls). 
For  secondary  education  there  were  76  high 
schools,  425  middle  schools,  having  55,408  pupils 
(50,997  boys).  There  are  two  agricultural  schools 
in  Greece,  besides  a  Trade  and  Industrial  Academy 
and  Government  Commercial  Schools  in  Athens, 
Volo,  Salonica,  and  Patras;  also  two  universities  at 
Athens,  the  National  University  and  the  Capodis- 
tria  University  and  a  Polytechnical  Institute.  The 
cost  of  primary  education  is  borne  by  the  State 
and  amounts  to  about  10,000,000  drachmai  annually. 
The  Ministry  of  Education  is  also  charged  with 
the  Service  of  Antiquities,  managed  by  an  Archeo¬ 
logical  Council,  which  is  responsible  for  the  con¬ 
servation  and  repair  of  ancient  monuments.  The 
British  School  of  Archeology  in  Athens  has  been 
responsible  for  the  excavations  at  Knossos  in  Crete, 
Milo,  Sparta,  and  Thessaly.  There  are  also  similar 


French,  American,  Italian,  Austrian,  and  German 

institutions.  '  _ 

Economic  Conditions. — Within  a  decade  Greece 
has  trebled  her  area  and  population  and  the  ques¬ 
tion  naturally  arises  as  to  whether  she  is  in  a 
position  economically  to  incorporate  the  new  ter¬ 
ritory  and  to  develop  it  culturally.  In  Greece 
proper,  owing  to  the  increasing  despoliation  of 
the  forests,  which  have  almost  entirely  disappeared, 
the  soil  cannot  retain  water  and  the  agricultural 
yield  suffers  severely  from,  drought.  For  this 
reason  large  districts  remain  uncultivated.  Large 
estates  are  in  the  hands  of  peasant  proprietors 
and  metayer  farmers.  In  1918,  37,346,770  metric 
tons  of  wheat  were  produced  on  1,104,608  acres; 
31,738,560  metric  tons  of  new  wine  on  411,130  acres; 
15,803,250  metric  tons  of  barley  on  418,435  acres, 
16423,500  metric  tons  of  maize  on  423,807  acres. 
About  717,500  acres  of  olives  were  under  cultiva¬ 
tion;  the  production  of  olive  oil  was  31,702,800 
gallons.  In  1919  the  nut  crops  were  estimated  at 
4,486,185  tons.  There  are  now  in  force  about 
35  mining  concessions,  embracing  a  total  area  of 
nearly  20,000  acres.  Under  the  pressure  of  war 
every  effort  was  made  to  develop  lignite  deposits. 
In  1915  the  output  was  39,745  tons;  in  1916, 
116,946  tons;  in  1917,  157,956  tons;  and  in  1918, 
208,797  tons.  As  an  industrial  nation,  Greece  is  at  a 
disadvantage,  since,  owing  to  the  despoliation  of 
her  forests,  water  power  is  lacking  and  lumber 
is  inadequate.  In  1917  the  country  had  2213 
factories,  employing  36,124  hands,  and  valued  at 
260,363,647  drachmai.  The  imports  in  1919  (valued 
at  1,608,324,000  drachmai  (1  drachma  =  .193  normal 
exchange)  came  for  the  most  part  from  England, 
France,  and  the  United  States,  while  the  exports 
(valued  at  726,536  drachmai)  also  went  to  those 
countries.  The  staple  article  of  export  is  currants. 
In  1920  the  Greek  mercantile  marine  comprised 
228  steamships  and  1048  sailing  vessels.  In  1920 
the  railway  mileage  totaled  1507  miles.  Before 
the  war  with  Turkey  (1912-13),  Greece  was  com¬ 
pletely  isolated  by  land  from  the  rest  of  Europe, 
but  on  8  May,  1916,  the  railway  was  completed 
between  Gida  on  the  Salonica-Monnstir  line  and 
Papapuli  on  the  Thessalian  frontier,  a  distance  of 
fifty-six  miles,  whereby  Greece  was  linked  with 
the  European  railroads.  The  railway  system  has 
been  extended  by  the  inclusion  of  the  lines  m 
Western  and  Eastern  Thrace.  The  Government, 
has  also  purchased  from  England  for  2,000,000 
francs  the  Salonica-Angista-Stavros  line,  seventy- 
five  miles  long,  which  was  built  by  the  British 
during  the  war.  All  the  lines  are  State-owned  and 

State-controlled.  ,  , 

Finance. — After  the  national  bankruptcy  in 
1898  an  International  Finance  Commission  was  ap¬ 
pointed,  without  whose  permission  the  country 
could  issue  no  uncovered  notes  and  no  loans.  The 
result  was  that  the  currency  came  into  compara¬ 
tively  good  order.  The  last  wars  and  the  Asia 
Minor  Expedition,  however,  caused  such  huge 
demands  to  be  made  on  the  treasury  that  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  found  itself  compelled  to  borrow  500,000,- 
000  drachmai  from  the  National  Bank  against 
Treasury  Bills.  The  unfavorable  trade  balance  and 
the  serious  depreciation  of  currency  have  increased 
the  financial  stringency.  On  10  February,  1918,  the 
Governments  of  Great  Britain,  the  United  States, 
and  France  agreed  to  advance  to  the  Greek  Gov¬ 
ernment  credits  as  follows:  Great  Britain  £14,700,- 
000,  France  410,000,000  francs,  and  the  United  States 
$48  239, 267.  The  control  of  the  fund  thus  created 
was  lodged  in  an  Interallied  Financial  Commis¬ 
sion  and  an  Interallied  Military  Commission  sitting 


GREECE 


349 


GREECE 


at  Athens.  In  1920-21  the  estimate  of  revenue  was 
597,011,196  drachmai ;  expenditure,  2,005,303,578 
drachma i,  leaving  a  deficit  of  1,408,292,382  drachmai 
(over  £28,000,000).  According  to  the  Minister  of 
Finance,  the  Greek  public  debt  on  31  December,  1920, 
was:  internal  debt  1,821,834,247  drachmai;  foreign 
debt  2,241,676,806  drachmai;  loan  made  to  the 
Greek  Government  for  the  purchase  of  the 
Salonica-Constantinople  Railway  144,752,500  drach¬ 
mai;  total,  4,208,263,553  drachmai.  With  an  esti¬ 
mated  total  Greek  population  of  about  6,000,000, 
this  represents  an  average  per  head  of  about  drs. 
702,  which  cannot  be  considered  as  excessive. 

Army  and  Navy. — Military  service  in  Greece  is 
compulsory  and  universal  with  a  few  exemptions. 
In  1918  the  approximate  strength  of  the  army  was 
200,000  men,  organized  in  four  army  corps  and  a 
reserve.  Demobilization  has  not  been  completed 
on  account  of  the  large  number  of  troops  engaged 
in  Asia  Minor.  The  navy  consists  of  two  warships 
of  13,000  tons  each,  one  of  10,118,  three  of  5000 
each,  and  one  of  2600  tons,  besides  thirteen  de¬ 
stroyers,  two  submarines,  and  miscellaneous  craft. 

Government. — Greece  is  a  constitutional  mon¬ 
archy,  hereditary  in  the  male  line,  or  in  case  of  its 
extinction  in  the  female  line.  The  Legislative 
Chamber  of  the  Bide  consists  of  316  representa¬ 
tives  elected  by  manhood  suffrage,  one  for  every 
16,000  inhabitants,  for  four  years.  The  new  con¬ 
stitution  of  1911  re-established  the  Council  of 
State  whose  functions  are  the;  examination  of 
projets  de  loi  and  the  annulling  of  official  de¬ 
cisions  and  acts  which  may  be  contrary  to  law. 
About  this  time  the  quorum  necessary  for  the 
transaction  of  business  by  the  Buie  was  reduced, 
reforms  of  procedure  introduced,  the  electoral  law 
widened,  and  future  revision  of  the  non-funda¬ 
mental  provisions  of  the  Constitution  facilitated. 
The  king  or  heir  apparent  must  belong  to  the 
Orthodox  Greek  Church.  For  administrative  pur¬ 
poses  Greece  is  divided  into  nomoi  (provinces), 
each  under  a  nomarches,  an  officer  whose  position 
corresponds  to  a  French  prejet,  and  demoi  and 
koinotetes  (communes)  with  demarchoi  and 
poedroi,  or  mayors.  In  Old  Greece  there  are  16 
nomoi;  in  the  territory  acquired  by  the  Balkan 
Wars  fourteen.  The  nomarches  are  appointed  by 
the  Minister  of  the  Interior. 

Recent  History  (1908-1921).— On  7  October, 
1908,  the  Greek  population  in  Crete  repudiated  all 
connection  with  Turkey  and  declared  for  union 
with  Greece.  An  executive  committee  of  five  per¬ 
sons  was  appointed  to  carry  on  the  government 
provisionally  in  the  name  of  the  King,  until  his 
officials  took  it  over.  The  interference  of  the 
powers  and  the  prolonged  opposition  of  Turkey 
produced  a  strong  feeling  of  disgust  and  the  young 
officers,  convinced  that  the  national  interests  had 
been  sacrificed  to  the  exigencies  of  party  politics, 
began  to  form  a  “Military  League,”  in  1909,  mak¬ 
ing  it  the  organ  of  the  people  in  their  struggle 
against  the  politicians.  They  demanded  radical 
reforms,  the  reorganization  of  the  army  and  navy, 
the  exclusion  of  the  royal  princes  from  their  mili¬ 
tary  commands,  and  the  bestowal  of  the  Ministries 
of  War  and  Marine  upon  officers.  At  this  moment 
a  new  and  powerful  figure  arrived  upon  the  stage 
°f  Greek  politics,  M.  Venizelos,  a  native  of  Crete. 
The  political  adviser  of  the  League,  he  proposed 
the  summons  of  a  National  Assembly  to  revise 
the  Constitution.  Upon  the  resignation  of  M. 
Dragoumes,  after  the  opening  of  the  National  As¬ 
sembly,  he  became  prime  minister  to  King  George. 
The  “Second  Revisionary  National  Assembly” 
which  met  on  21  January,  1911,  adopted  the  re¬ 


vised  Constitution  on  11  June.  From  this  time  the 
regeneration  ol  the  country  is  dated.  Venizelos 
inio  31u1u^^lt  about  the  Greco-Bulgarian  treaty  in 
1J12  and  in  the  same  year  a  declaration  of  war  on 
iurkey.  The  Greeks  obtained  a  victory  at 
barantaporon  in  Southern  Macedonia  on  22  Octo¬ 
ber,  took  Preveza,  Metsovo,  and  Khimara  in 
Kpirus,  hoisted  the2r  flag  over  Mount  At.hos  and 
prevented  the  Turkish  fleet  from  leaving  the ’Dar¬ 
danelles  and  the  Turkish  transports  from  crossing 
They  also  took  possession  of  most  of 
Vi®  urklsh  ,  islands  in  the  ^Egean,  including 
Mytilene  and  Chios,  but  not  ol  the  Southern 
bporades  (Dodecanese).  Samos  declared  its  union 
with  Greece.  A  two  days’  struggle  at  Yenitsa 
ended  in  another  Greek  victory.  On  8  November 
1912,  the  Greeks  anticipated  the  Bulgarians  bv 
entering  Salonica  and  ending  the  Turkish  domina- 
tion  of  482  years  over  the  city.  Even  after  her 
three  allies  signed  the  armistice  at  Chatalja  on 
3  December,  Greece  continued  hostilities,  although 
participating  in  the  Balkan  Conference  at  London. 
Outside  the  Dardanelles  the  Greeks  defeated  the 
1  urkish  fleet;  in  Epirus  they  took  Parga.  Finally 
Yanina  surrendered  to  them.  The  Greek  forces 
occupied  Samos  and  entered  Argyrokastron.  In 
the  midst  of  these  triumphs  King  George  was 
assassinated  at  Salonica,  18  March,  1913,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  eldest  son,  Constantine. 

By  the  treaty  of  London  (30  May,  1913)',  Greece 
obtained  all  the  Turkish  territories  west  of  the 
Enos- Midi  a  line,  except  Albania  and  Crete.  The 
dissatisfaction  caused  by  the  division  of  spoils  led 
to  a  renewal  of  the  war  (30  June)  by  simultaneous 
Bulgarian  attacks  on  the  Servians  and  the  Greeks, 
with  the  object  of  separating  the  two  allies  who 
on  1  June  had  signed  the  treaty  of  alliance,  ac¬ 
companied  by  a  military  convention  which  King 
Constantine,  subsequently  violated  during  the 
European  War.  The  general  staff  ordered  the  Bul¬ 
garian  troops  garrisoning  Salonica  to  lay  down  their 
arms  and  upon  their  refusal  besieged  their  houses. 
A  three  days  battle  ended  in  a  complete  defeat  of 
the  Bulgarians.  Advancing  further,  the  Greeks 
took  Doiran  and  Strumitsa  and  entered  Seres,  while 
their  navy  took  Kavala  and  sent  up  a  detachment 
to  Drama.  Soon  Macedonia,  wfith  a  large  strip 
of  the  Thracian  coast,  including  Dedeagatch,  Makri, 
and  Porto  Lagos,  was  in  their  hands.  The  Treaty 
of  Bukarest  in  1913  made  the  mouth  of  the  Mesta 
the  eastern  frontier  of  Greece,  thus  securing  for 
her  Kavala  but  leaving  Xanthi  for  Bulgaria. 
By  the  decision  of  a  commission  appointed  by  the 
Powers,  Greece  lost  part  of  northern  Epirus,  in¬ 
cluding  Santi  Quaranta,  Khimara,  Delvino,  Premeti 
Argyrokastron,  and  Koritsa,  captured  by  the  Greeks 
during  the  first  Balkan  War,  together  with  the  islet 
of  Saseno  in  the  Bay  of  Valona,  which  had  be¬ 
longed  to  Greece  since  1864.  The  Powers  recog¬ 
nized  Greek  sovereignty  over  the  captured  islands 
(except  Tenedos,  Imbros,  and  Castellorrizo,  which 
were  to  be  restored  to  Turkey)  and  those  still 
occupied  by  the  Italians,  contingent  upon  the  evac¬ 
uation  of  the  south  of  the  new  Albanian  princi¬ 
pality  by  the  Greek  forces.  The  northern  Epirots, 
however,  declared  themselves  autonomous,  and 
formed  a  separate  government.  Although  the 
Greek  troops  evacuated  northern  Epirus  before 
the  end  of  April,  fighting  continued  between  the 
Albanians  and  the  autonomous  forces.  Finally  a 
convention  was  signed  on  17  May,  1914,  entrusting 
the  administration  of  the  two  provinces  of 
Argyrokastron  and  Koritsa  to  the  International 
Commission  of  Control  for  Albania. 

The  opening  of  the  European  War  found  Greece 


GREECE 


350 


GREECE 


in  the  throes  of  a  nationalistic  feeling,  hoping  that 
by  her  timely  aid  she  might  be  rewarded  by  the 
Greek-speaking  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  then  oppressed 
by  Turkey.  During  the  critical  time  at  the  Dar¬ 
danelles,  however,  when  the  Allies  would  have 
welcomed  the  addition  of  Greek  troops  and  ships, 
she  hesitated,  being  dissatisfied  with  the  promises 
of  the  Allies.  Venizelos  was  ardently  in  favor 
of  the  Entente  and  eager  to  enter  the  war.  On 
the  other  hand  King  Constantine,  the  husband  of 
Queen  Sophia,  sister  of  the  German  emperor,  de¬ 
clined  to  cede  any  territory  to  Bulgaria  to  satisfy 
the  Bulgarian  demand  from  the  Allies  and  parted 
with  his  premier  (15  March,  1915).  In  August, 
however,  Venizelos  came  into  power,  for  the  ques¬ 
tion  now  concerned  Servia,  who  was  being  over¬ 
whelmed  by  Mackensen’s  forces,  and  to  whom 
Greece  was  under  treaty  obligations.  The  Allies 
landed  at  Salonica  150,000  troops  ready  to  strike 
at  the  Bulgarians.  But  Venizelos  had  reckoned 
without  his  king  and  was  for  the  second  time 
forced  to  resign.  Armed  neutrality  was  proclaimed. 
Throughout  October  and  November  the  Allies  con¬ 
tinued  to  bargain  with  King  Constantine  and  his 
puppet  ministers.  In  November  the  king  dissolved 
his  troublesome  pro-Venizelos  Parliament.  The 
armed  neutrality  made  the  situation  of  the  Allies 
at  Salonica  very  precarious,  situated  as  they  were 
between  the  Bulgarian  troops  and  the  uncertain 
Greek  forces.  Finally  the  Allies  resorted  to  coer¬ 
cion  and  seized  the  Greek  telegraphs  and  postal 
system,  the  navy  being  seized  in  October  by  the 
French,  who  landed  troops  at  Pirseus.  Greece  was 
blockaded.  Venizelos  repudiated  his  king,  estab¬ 
lished  a  provisional  government  in  Crete  and  Mace¬ 
donia  and  on  his  own  account  declared  war 
against  Bulgaria  (1916).  In  June,  1917,  French 
and  British  troops  entering  Thessaly  occupied  Volo 
and  Larissa  and  seized  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth. 
On  11  June  Charles  Jonnart,  formerly  French  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Algeria  and  now  named  high  commis¬ 
sioner  of  Greece,  demanded  the  immediate  abdica¬ 
tion  of  King  Constantine  and  the  renunciation  of 
the  Crown  Prince’s  right  of  succession.  And  so 
on  12  June  Constantine  abdicated  the  throne  of 
Greece  in  favor  of  his  second  son,  Alexander,  and 
later  Venizelos  became  Prime  Minister.  In  July 
all  diplomatic  relations  between  the  Central  Powers 
were  ruptured,  and  the  Greek  army  stood  ready 
for  the  great  advance  from  Salonica.  In  September 
the  troops  attacked  Bulgaria,  seized  Strumitza,  and 
opened  the  way  to  the  triumphant  Allies.  Bul¬ 
garia  suddenly  sued  for  peace.  The  attention  of 
the  Greeks  was  now  turned  to  national  unity.  At 
the  Peace  conference  at  Versailles  in  1919  the 
Greek  claim  to  the  greater  part  of  Aidin,  includ¬ 
ing  Smyrna  in  Asia  Minor,  was  recognized  and 
Greek  troops  were  landed  at  that  port  with  the 
approval  of  the  powers.  To  her  were  also  given 
the  Dodecanese  Islands  which  voted  for  union 
with  Greece.  With  the  consent  pf  the  Powers 
she  has  occupied  part  of  Bulgarian  (Western) 
Thrace. 

The  treaty  of  Sevres  which  was  handed  to  the 
Turkish  delegates  at  Paris  on  1  May,  1920,  added 
greatly  to  Greek  territory,  as  the  Turks  were  to 
cede  Thrace  to  Greece,  except  the  sanjak  (dis¬ 
trict)  of  Chatalja  and  the  Derkos  water-supply 
area,  together  with  Tenedos  and  Imbros;  to  recog¬ 
nize  as  Greek  those  islands  in  the  iEgean  at 
present  occupied  by  Greece;  to  abandon  the  ad¬ 
ministration  of  a  considerable  area  in  Asia  Minor 
comprising  Smyrna,  Tireh,  Odemish,  Manisa, 
Akhissar,  Bergama,  and  Aivali  to  Greece.  The 
territory  in  question  was  to  have  a  parliament  of 


its  own  and  could  annex  itself  to  Greece  after  five 
years,  a  plebiscite  to  be  held  after  two  years.  The 
Nationalists  under  Mustapha  Kemal  refused  to  sub¬ 
mit  to  the  treaty  in  any  form  ’and  drove  the 
French  out  of  Cilicia.  So  grave  did  the  situation 
become  that  a  Greek  army,  supported  by  French 
and  British  fleets,  undertook  to  suppress  the  Turks 
in  Asia  Minor.  The  Allies  refused  to  alter  the 
Treaty  of  Sevres  and  gave  the  Turks,  under  threat 
of  ejection  from  Europe,  ten  days  in  which  to  sign 
it.  The  period  was  further  extended  because  of  the 
differences  between  Greece  and  Italy  over  Albania, 
Adalia,  and  the  islands  of  the  Dodocanese.  In 
1919  the  two  countries  had  entered  into  a  con¬ 
vention  defining  their  aspirations  with  regard  to 
the  Balkans  and  the  Orient.  If  either  failed  to 
realize  her  aspirations,  the  convention  was  to  be 
void.  When  Greek  troops  crossed  into  Adalian 
territory,  on  22  July,  1919,  Italy  was  aroused  and 
denounced  the  convention.  The  matter  was  settled 
by  the  appointment  of  a  special  commission  to 
delimit  the  Adalian  boundary.  Another  conven¬ 
tion  signed  on  10  August,  1920,  between  Italy  and 
Greece,  the  two  designated  the  Dodocanese  as 
Greek  with  the  exception  of  Castellorizzo  and 
Rhodes,  possession  of  which  would  be  determined 
by  a  plebiscite  at  the  end  of  fifteen  years.  Al¬ 
though  the  treaty  of  Sevres  was  signed  by  Greece 
on  the  same  day,  the  dissatisfaction  which  it  caused 
was  so  profound  that  the  Allies,  together  with 
delegations  from  Greece  and  the  rival  governments 
of  Turkey,  met  in  London  on  21  February,  1921, 
to  consider  the  advisability  of  revising  the  treaty. 
Their  proposal  to  give  the  Sultan  sovereignty  over 
Smyrna  on  condition  that  he  respect  its  rights  and 
liberties  and  grant  local  autonomy  to  each  nation¬ 
ality  in  its  population  and  allow  the  Greeks  to 
retain  a  garrison  in  the  town,  was  spurned  by 
Greece  who  in  March,  1921,  launched  a  new  of¬ 
fensive  in  Asia  Minor  in  a  single  handed  effort 
to  force  the  Turks  to  conform  to  the  terms  of  the 
original  treaty  of  Sevres.  She  was  unsuccessful 
and  the  war  still  continues,  with  hardly  a  hope 
of  a  military  decision.  The  theater  of  war  is  so 
vast  and  so  ill-provided  with  means  of  communica¬ 
tion,  compared  with  the  maximum  forces  and  trans¬ 
port  that  either  side  can  muster  that  there  is  little 
prospect  that  either  will  be  able  to  defeat  its 
opponent  Greece  is  waging  war  overseas,  plunging 
herself  deeper  into  debt  in  order  to  purchase  sup¬ 
plies  for  her  army,  while  the  Turks  are  fighting 
for  their  home  and  living  off  the  land  for  their 
supplies. 

Events  in  Greece  during  1920  revolved  about 
dynastic  and  imperialistic  problems.  The  attempted 
assassination  of  M.  Venizelos  in  Paris  (12  August, 
1920),  which  was  part  of  a  scheme  to  restore  Con¬ 
stantine  to  the  throne,  led  to  severe  rioting  in 
Greece.  On  25  October,  1920,  King  Alexander  died 
as  a  result  of  a  bite  from  a  monkey.  His  younger 
brother  Paul  was  designated  as  his  successor,  but 
he  refused  the  throne,  much  to  the  consternation 
of  the  Allies  and  of  Premier  Venizelos,  who  was 
driven  from  power  in  the  new  elections.  On  5 
December  the  Greek  people  voted  overwhelmingly 
for  the  return  of  Constantine,  their  exiled  king. 
The  Allies,  especially  France  and  Italy,  chagrined 
at  the  turn  of  events,  promptly  cut  off  their  financial 
support  from  Greece  with  the  idea  of  throttling 
the  nation.  In  1922  Italy  and  France  withdrew 
from  Asia  Minor,  leaving  Greece  alone  in  the  field. 

Constitution  of  the  Church  of  Greece. — The 
organization  of  the  Greek  Church  is  at  present 
in  a  transitional  state,  since  there  has  not  yet 
(1922)  been  time  or  opportunity  to  adapt  or  to 


GREECE 


351 


GREEN  BAY 


modify  its  Constitution,  as  suited  to  the  country 
before  1912,  to  meet  the  requirements  of  a  popula¬ 
tion  nearly  twice  as  numerous  and  less  homogeneous. 
According  to  the  revised  Constitution  of  1911,  “the 
religion  prevailing  in  Greece  is  the  religion  of  the 
Orthodox  Eastern  Church.  Toleration  is  extended 
to  all  other  recognized  forms  of  worship;  their 
services  may  be  held  freely  and  will  enjoy  the 
protection  of  law.  Proselytism  and  all  other  activi¬ 
ties  .  detrimental  to  the  prevailing  religion  are 
forbidden.'’  An  addition  was  made  to  Article  2, 
forbidding  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  without 
the  consent  of  the  Church  in  Greece  and  the 
(Ecumenical  Patriarch. 

For  some  years  past  the  bishops,  in  pursuance 
of  a  policy  of  raising  the  social  and  intellectual 
standard  of  the  clergy,  have  been  slow  to  ordain 
new  priests.  A  fund  for  ecclesiastics  was  established 
in  1910,  and  receives  steadily  increasing  contribu¬ 
tions  toward  securing  a  regular  salary  for  parochial 
clergy  and  since  the  accession  of  the  new  Metro¬ 
politan  of  Athens  (1918)  no  candidate  is  eligible 
for  ordination  unless  he  has  a  diploma  from  a 
theological  school,  of  which  four  now  exist  in 
Greece.  Parish  priests  must  be  married  and  are 
not  as  a  rule,  eligible  to  the  higher  offices  of  the 
Church,  which  are  filled  from  the  monastic  or 
celibate  orders. 

The  addition  of  Macedonia,  Epirus,  Crete,  and 
the  Asiatic  Islands  to  Greece  has  seriously  affected 
the  religious  conditions  of  the  State.  In  the  new 
p^  inces  about  18  per  cent  were  Moslems  and 
5  per  cent  Jews,  the  latter  mainly  in  Salonica. 
Ot  the  76  per  cent,  who  belonged  to  the  Orthodox 
Church  a  considerable  portion  in  Macedonia 
acknowledged  the  Bulgarian  Exarch  and  were  sub¬ 
let  to  Exarchist  bishops;  while  others,  the  Koutso- 
V  achs  were  claimed  by  the  Rumanian  Church. 

1  he  \  lachs  were  recognized  by  the  Turks  in  1905 
as  forming  a  separate  millet,  or  religious  nationality, 
and  had  schools  and  churches  of  their  own.  On 
the  other  hand  those  who  belonged  to  the  Greek 
Church  were  under  the  (Ecumenical  Patriarch  at 
Constantinople.  The  relation  of  these  to  the  Greek 
rUv,0je^a^0US  Church  in  Greece  is  not  finally  estab¬ 
lished,  nor  has  any  complete  assimilation  taken 
place  The  provinces  added  after  the  Balkan  Wars 
brought  the  total  number  of  dioceses  up  to  seventy- 
four.  During  the  war  instead  of  a  single  synod 
there  were  two  Synods  working  independently  at 
Athens  and  Salonica,  besides  the  independent 
Metropolitan  of  Crete. 

.commiss^on  of  clergy  and  laymen  was 
established  in  1914  ‘‘for  revising  and  collating  eccle¬ 
siastical  legislation,”  and  published  “a  Draft  of  a 
Constitution  for  the  Orthodox  Church  of  Greece.” 
By  this  draft  the  members  of  the  Synod  which 
administers  the  Greek  Church  were  increased  from 
81  j  twelve,  the  dioceses  were  remodeled  and 
reduced  from  seventy-four  to  forty-six,  the  powers 
^  (oe  loyal  Commissioner  to  the  Synod  were 
denned  so  as  to  obviate  friction,  and  various  other 
reforms  were  indicated,  but  further  action  was  de¬ 
lated  by  the  Great  War.  Additional  confusion 
was  caused  by  the  dissension  between  the  two  pro¬ 
visional  Synods,  that  of  Athens,  under  the  influence 
of  the  King  Constantine,  having  excommunicated 
and  cursed  M.  \  enzileos,  while  that  of  the  new  prov¬ 
inces,  meeting  at  Salonica,  upheld  the  Venizelirt  Pro¬ 
visional  Government,  After  the  deposition  of  Con¬ 
stantine,  the  Metropolitan  of  Athens  and  other 
members  of  the  Synod  were  relegated  to  monas¬ 
teries;  and  the  unusual  step  was  taken  of  appoint¬ 
ing  as  successor  of  the  Metropolitan  the  Bishop 


<>i  Kit  ion,  who  belonged  to  the  distinct  auto¬ 
cephalous  Church  of  Cyprus. 

In  August,  1920,  the  Preliminary  Meeting  of 
the  World  Conference  on  Faith  and  Order  was 
held  at  Geneva,  and  rendered  eventful  by  the  offi¬ 
cial  participation  of  the  Eastern  Churches  in  its 
sessions.  For  the  first  time  after  centuries  of  isola- 
^jnn  they  came  in  contact  with  the  Anglican 
churches  and  the  Protestant  denominations  and 
labored  with  them  on  the  problem  of  the  restora¬ 
tion  of  Christianity.  The  Greek  Orthodox  Churches 
were  represented  by  seven  bishops,  monks,  and 
laymen.  The  document  on  the  relations  between 
the  Eastern  and  Anglican  churches  issued  by  the 
three  delegates  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  Patriarchate 
°  u-  ifXan<^r^a  ^ves  an.  idea  of  the  conditions  under 
vhich  an  understanding  among  the  churches  is 
possible;  in  the  actual  reunion  of  Christianity  they 
seem  to  see  a  problem  belonging  to  a  far-distant 
future.  They  advocate  a  League  of  Churches,  the 
very  conditions  of  which  onty  emphasize  the  irrec¬ 
oncilable  barriers  and  the  radical  differences  that 
preclude  any  union  other  than  a  theoretical  one. 
I  o  them  the  reunion  of  the  churches  requires  a  re¬ 
turn  to  the  ancient  beliefs  rather  than  a  hare- 
bramed  adhesion  to  new  and  unsound  systems, 
t  he  League  of  Churches,  by  leaving  untouched 
theological  problems,  could  foster  feelings  of  mutual 
friendship  among  the  churches  and  make  them  useful 
to  one  another  in  social  works,  but  it  will  not  in 
the  slightest  degree  promote  the  solution  of  the 
problem  of  reunion. 

The  Catholic  Church  in  Greece. — Greece  in¬ 
cluded  (1922)  the  Catholic  Archdiocese  of  Athens 
directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See;  the  Archdiocese 
of  Corfu  to  which  the  suffragan  see  of  Zante  and 
Cephalonia  was  united  in  1919;  the  archdiocese  of 
Naxos  and  Tinos  with  its  suffragans  Santorin 
(Thera),  and  Syra,.  and  Chios  in  Asiatic  Turkey; 
the  diocese  of  Candia  in  Crete,  suffragan  of  Smyrna. 
In  1919  the  sees  of  Tinos  and  Myknos  were  united 
to  the  archdiocese  of  Naxos.  Thie  Catholics  in  the 
country  number  44,265  (1921).  For  detailed  statis¬ 
tics  see  articles  on  dioceses  mentioned  above. 

Green  Bay,  Diocese  of  (Sinus  Viridis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VI-777a),  is  now  under  the  administration  of  its 
sixth  bishop  Rt.  Rev.  Peter  Paul  Rhode,  D.  D.,  who 
was  transferred  to  the  diocese  on  5  July,  1915,  upon 
the  retirement  of  Bishop  Fox.  Bishop  Rhode  was 
consecrated  29  July,  1908,  when  he  was  given  the 
title  of  Bishop  of  Barca  and  appointed  auxiliary 
Bishop  of  Chicago.  He  was  born  in  the  village 
of  Wejherowo,  Poland,  on  16  September,  1871,  and 
was  brought  to  the  United  States  when  only  nine 
years  old.  He  received  his  early  education  at  St. 
Stanislaus  parochial  school,  Chicago,  finishing  at  St. 
Mary’s  College,  St.  Mary’s,  Kv.,  St.  Ignatius  Col¬ 
lege,  Chicago,  and  St.  Francis  Seminary. 

The  religious  communities  located  in  the  diocese 
of  Green  Bay  are:  men:  Capuchins  Fathers, 
Franciscans,  Premonstratensians,  Alexian  Brothers, 
Fathers  of  the  Society  of  the  Divine  Saviour,  and 
Oblate  Fathers  of  Mary  Immaculate;  women:  Sis¬ 
ters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of  Misericorde,  Sis¬ 
ters  of  St.  Francis,  Franciscan  Sisters  of  Christian 
Charity,  Felician  Sisters,  Sisters  of  the  Sonwful 
Mother,  and  Sisters  of  the  Divine  Saviour.  The 
diocese  comprises  an  area  of  11,583  sq.  miles  and 
has  a  Catholic  population  of  149,675.  The  present 
(1921)  statistics  show:  174  parishes;  44  missions; 
218  churches;  4  monasteries  for  men  and  4  for 
women;  198  secular  and  58  regular  clergy;  800  nuns; 

2  colleges  for  men  with  30  teachers  and  an  attend- 


GREENE 


352 


GREY  NUNS 


ance  of  400,  1  academy  for  girls  with  18  teachers 
and  attendance  of  225,  1  Indian  school  with  20 
teachers  and  attendance  of  225,  109  parochial  schools 
with  800  teachers  and  attendance  of  22,000.  The 
various  charitable  institutions  are:  the  McCormick 
Memorial  House  for  Aged,  3  orphan  asylums,  9 
hospitals,  1  refuge,  the  Allouez  Community  House, 
and  1  day  nursery. 

Greene,  Edward  Lee,  botanist,  b.  at  Hopkinton, 
Rhode  Island,  on  20  August,  1843;  d.  at  Washing¬ 
ton,  D.  C.,  on  10  November,  1915;  son  of  William 
M.  and  Abby  (Crandall)  Greene,  descendants  of 
the  original  white  settlers  in  Massachusetts.  About 
1856  his  family  moved  West  and  settled  at  Janes¬ 
ville,  Wisconsin,  when  he  came  under  the  scientific 
influence  of  Knure  Kumlein,  the  Swedish  botanist. 
After  serving  in  the  Civil  War  in  the  63d  regiment 
of  Wisconsin,  he  graduated  in  arts  from  Albion 
College  and  in  philosophy  from  Jarvis  College, 
Denver.  Brought  up  a  Baptist,  he  embraced  the 
Episcopal  Church  about  this  time  and  entered  its 
ministry  in  1871,  continuing  meantime  his  botanical 
studies.  Deep  study  of  the  history  of  the  collapse 
of  Luther’s  scheme  of  religion  led  him  into  the 
Catholic  Church  on  5  February,  1885.  The  repu¬ 
tation  he  acquired  by  his  botanical  review 
“Erythea,”  founded  in  1883,  won  for  him  a  place  in 
the  faculty  of  natural  science  in  the  University  of 
California.  In  his  writings  Greene  established  indis¬ 
putably  that  the  real  founder  of  modern  scientific 
botany  was  not  Linnaeus,  but  the  Italian  Cesalpino, 
who  preceded  Linnaeus  by  more  than  a  century. 
In  1887  he  published  his  “Manual  of  Botany  for  San 
Francisco  Bay,”  and  the  first  volume  of  his  “Pit- 
tonia”  (completed  in  5  vols.  in  1903).  In  1894 
he  was  made  chairman  of  an  international  com¬ 
mission  for  the  reform  of  botanical  nomenclature; 
in  his  researches  he  himself  had  discovered  and 
named  more  than  5000  new  species.  He  taught 
at  the  Catholic  University  of  America  from  1895 
till  1904,  when  he  became  an  associate  in  the  Smith¬ 
sonian  Institution.  Among  his  many  other  notable 
writings  may  be  mentioned:  “Some  West  American 
Oaks,”  “Flora  Franciscana,”  “Leaflets  of  Botanical 
Observation,”  and  his  “Landmarks  in  Botanical 
History,”  only  partly  completed  when  he  died. 
Downing,  in  The  Catholic  World,  CVI  (1918),  12-24. 

Greenland  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI-777d),  a  colonial  pos¬ 
session  of  Denmark,  has  an  area  of  46,740  sq.^miles 
and  a  population  (census  of  1911)  of  13,459,  of 
whom  384  were  Europeans.  Under  Danish  rule 
the  population  has  more  than  doubled  in  the  last 
100  years.  The  affairs  of  the  colony  are  in  the 
hands  of  the  Royal  Greenland  Board  of  Trade,  a 
Government  department,  whose  privileges  were 
defined  by  a  royal  statute  18  March,  1776,  which 
also  closed  the  western  coast  to  foreign  ships  from 
latitude  60  to  73.  The  object  was  to  prevent  the 
ruin  of  the  natives  through  the  introduction  of 
infectious  diseases  and  the  importation  of  spirituous 
liquors  and  like  goods.  Strangers,  including  Danes, 
unless  they  are  employed  in  the  country,  are  for¬ 
bidden  to  land  without  special  permission  from  the 
Danish  Government,  which  is  granted  only  to 
applicants  for  scientific  purposes.  The  country  is 
divided  into  two  provinces,  North. and  South  Green¬ 
land,  each  presided  over  by  an  inspector,  the  one 
for  North  Greenland  residing  at  Godhavn  on  Disko 
Island,  and  the  other  at  Godthaab.  These  provinces 
are  subdivided  into  districts,  the  chief  towns  of 
which  are  called  kolonier,  where  directors  reside 
who  are  at  the  same  time  the  political  chiefs  of 
the  districts  and  trade  managers.  There  are  also 
district  councils,  which  are  composed  of  the  mis¬ 


sionary  of  the  chief  station,  officials  of  the  trade 
and  mission,  and  members  elected  by  the  people. 
They  meet  twice  a  year  and  look  after  the  needy 
poor,  for  whom  they  raise  a  fund  by  a  tax  of  one- 
sixth  on  goods  purchased  from  the  natives  within 
each  district.  Almost  all  the  natives  can  read  and 
write,  and  besides  other  elementary  subjects  .they 
are  taught  the  Danish  language,  in  which,  how¬ 
ever,  few  are  proficient,  the  majority  adhering  to 
their  own  Eskimo  tongue  with  a  few  Danish  words 
added.  There  is  only  one  church  in  Greenland, 
the  Lutheran  Church  of  Denmark,  which  is  sup¬ 
ported  by  grants  of  £2000  a  year  from  the  Greenland 
Board  of  Trade  and  £880  from  the  Danish  Govern¬ 
ment.  It  has  churches  and  schools  all  over  the 
colony  and  at  Angmagsalik,  and  a  station  has  been 
established  at  Melville  Bay.  All  the  Greenland 
Eskimos,  except  the  Arctic  Highlanders  m  the 
northwest,  are  nominally  members  of  the  Lutheran 
Church.  As  fishing  is  the  chief  industry,  the  ex¬ 
ports  consist  largely  of  fish,  although  cryolite  figures 
largely  (3,573,900  kilograms  valued  at  1,009,000 
kronen  in  1919).  The  total  imports  in  1920 
amounted  to  3,229,000  kronen;  the  total  exports, 
in  1919,  to  2,358,000  kronen.  The  entire  trade  of 
Greenland  is  a  government  monopoly,  and  with  the 
exception  of  cryolite  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Royal 
Greenland  Board  of  Trade.  In  1921  King  Christian 
of  Denmark  visited  Greenland  in  commemoration 
of  the  two  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  landing  of 
Hans  Egede,  the  Norwegian  missionary,  on  its  coast 
in  1721,  where  he  founded  the  first  colony  of  the 
second  Scandinavian  occupation  in  that  country. 
This  was  the  first  royal  visit  to  Greenland. 

Grenoble,  Diocese  of  (Gratianapolitanensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  VII-26b),  in  the  department  of  Isere, 
France,  suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Lyons.  This 
see  was  filled  by  the  present  Archbishop  of  Lyons 
and  Primate  of  Gaul,  His  Eminence  Louis-Joseph 
Cardinal  Maurin,  from  1  September,  1911,  until 
his  promotion  1  December,  1916.  He  was  the 
eightieth  bishop  of  Grenoble,  and  the  second  to 
pass  from  this  see  to  the  primatial  see  of  France. 
His  successor  was  appointed  in  the  person  of  Rt. 
Rev.  Alexander  Caillot,  22  March,  1917.  Born  in 
Doyet,  France,  1861,.  he  studied  at  the  College  of 
Izeure  and  the  upper  seminary,  was  ordained  in 
1884,  served  as  a  professor  in  the  lower  seminary 
of  Paris,  chaplain  of  the  general  hospital,  inspector 
and  director  of  liberal  teaching  and  vicar  general, 
and  archdeacon  of  Moulins  and  La  Palisse.  By 
1920  statistics  the  population  of  the  diocese  is 
555,911,  of  whom  77,438  are  in  Grenoble  proper; 
there  are  51  first-class  parishes,  530  succursal  par¬ 
ishes  and  130  vicariates  formerly  supported  by  the 
state. 

Grey  Nuns  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-31b) .— The  mother- 
house  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Hopital 
General  of  Montreal,  called  Grey  Nuns  because 
of  the  color  of  their  attire,  shelters  981  inmates, 
and  is  composed  of  the  community,  the  novitiate, 
a  home  for  the  indigent  poor,  and  industrial  school 
for  young  girls,  and  a  nursery  for  foundlings  or 
abandoned  children,  where  hundreds  of  infants  are 
received  yearly.  There  are  also  in  the  city  of 
Montreal  nineteen  charitable  institutions  under 
the  care  of  the  Grey  Nuns,  namely  orphanages, 
infant  schools,  homes  for  the  aged  and  infirm,  hos¬ 
pitals  with  training  schools,  working  girls’  homes, 
and  an  academy  for  the  blind.  They  have  houses 
in  nine  different  parishes  outside  the  city  of  Mon¬ 
treal,  and  nine  others  in  different  parts  of  the 
United  States  as  follows:  Boston,  Lawrence  Cam¬ 
bridge,  Worcester  (Mass.) ;  Nashua  (N.  H.) ;  Toledo 


GREY  NUNS 


353 


GUADALAJARA 


(Ohio);  New  Brunswick  (N.  Y.) ;  Fort  Totten 
(N.  D.)  In  Northwestern  Canada  they  have  nine 
houses  in  Manitoba;  six  in  Alberta;  six  in 
Saskatchewan;  two  in  Ontario;  four  in  North¬ 
western  Territories.  These  include  orphanages, 
hospitals  with  training  schools,  and  parochial,  board¬ 
ing,  and  industrial  schools.  The  present  number 
?f  foundations  under  the  Grey  Nuns  of  Montreal 
is  64,  with  a  membership  of  1166  Sisters.  The 
Grey  Nuns  of  Quebec,  of  Ottawa,  of  St.  Hyacinthe, 
of  Nicolet,  who  are  independent  of  the  Montreal 
Institution  (headquarters),  have  under  their  con¬ 
trol  141  houses  with  a  membership  of  2734  Sisters. 

Grey  Nuns  of  the  Cross  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-31d).— 
Since  1910  the  educational  and  charitable  work  of 
the  congregation  has  increased  notably,  and  build¬ 
ing  space  is  not  sufficient  to  accommodate  the 
aged  poor  and  orphans.  Some  21,000  patients  yearly 
receive  treatment  in  the  hospitals,  to  several  of 
which  are  attached  training  schools  for  nurses. 
In  a  dispensary  attached  to  the  mother-house, 
three  Sisters  daily  serve  meals  and  give  out  bas¬ 
kets  of  food  and  clothing;  they  also  make  a 
daily  visitation  of  the  sick  and  poor  in  their 
homes.  There  are  20,045  pupils  in  the  schools 
taught  by  the  Sisters.  The  congregation  is  adminis¬ 
tered  by  a  mother  general,  mother  assistant,  and 
three  councillors.  The  present  Mother  General 
is  Mother  St.  Albert,  elected  in  March,  1918. 
Among  distinguished  members  deceased  are- 
Mother  Teresa  Hagan  (b.  1828;  d.  1912),  the  first 
postulant  of  the  Grey  Nuns  at  Ottawa  (then  By¬ 
town),  professed  1847,  teaching  until  1869,  when 
she  was  appointed  Superior  of  the  educational 
institute  on  Rideau  Street,  golden  and  diamond 
jubilarian;  Sister  St.  Teresa  (d.  1914),  for  twenty- 
six  years  Superior  of  the  City  Orphanage  in  Ogdens- 
burg,  established  the  present  hospital  in  that  city; 
Sister  Mary  Camper  (d.  1915),  educator,  founded 
the  dlouville  Reading  Circle  at  Rideau  Street 
convent  and  organized  the  alumnae;  Sister  Rocque 
(d.  1915),  principal  of  the  French  parochial  schools 
in  Ottawa;  Mother  Demers  (d.  1920),  fifth  Gen¬ 
eral  Superior;  Sister  Stanislaus  (d.  1921),  Superior 
of  Bishop  Conroy’s  schools  in  Ogdensburg,  N.  Y, 
and  founder  of  d’Youville  College,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
At  present  there  are  1112  members,  with  47  foun¬ 
dations.  The  Sisters  educate  young  girls  free  of 
charge  and  train  them  in  household  work;  they 
board  young  boys  going  to  college  or  Brothers’ 
schools  and  assist  them  in  many  ways.  In  the 
houses  of  refuge  and  orphanages  more  than  three- 
fourths  are  not  able  to  defray  their  expenses;  the 
Government  of  Ontario  gives  seven  or  ten  cents 
a  day  for  the  board  and  clothing  of  the  inmates, 
and  charitable  societies  lend  a  helping  hand.  The 
Sisters  have  under  their  charge  9  boarding  schools, 

7  academies,  1  normal  school,  4  industrial  schools, 

60  parochial  schools,  1  bilingual  model  school,  9 
hospitals,  4  homes  for  the  aged,  and  3  orphanages. 

Gronberger,  Sven  Magnus,  research  worker  in 
anthropology  and  zoology,  b.  at  Soderkoping, 
Sweden,  19  August,  1864;  d.  in  Washington,  24 
April,  1916.  He  was  the  son  of  a  highly  cultured 
iamily,  all  the  members  of  which  knew  several 
languages  and  in  W’hich  French  was  familiarly  used. 
He  received  a  broad  education  at  home,  but  being 
ambitious  to  get  on  he  came  to  America  when 
about  twenty.  He  worked  for  his  living  in  a  drug 
store,  but  proceeded  with  his  studies  and  took  up 

f  ‘  i.  i  e  that  vocation  was  in  the  line 
o;  scholarship  and  research,  so  he  accepted  a  posi¬ 
tion  on  the  library  staff  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti¬ 
tution,  Washington,  where  his  knowledge  of  the 


Scandinavian  languages  as  well  as  French,  German, 
Latin,  and  Greek  made  him  very  valuable.  While 
working  as  librarian  he  devoted  his  leisure  hours 
o  research  work  in  science.  He  wrrote  an  exhaus- 
tive  monograph  on  “The  Frogs  of  the  District  of 
Columbia,  and  another  on  “Palearctic  Birds  of 
Greenland  His  own  experience  as  a  librarian  and 
student  of  the  sciences  enabled  him  to  write  a 
very  valuable  paper  on  “The  Use  of  Museums  for 
Popular  Education,”  which  attracted  wide  attention 
and  had  much  to  do  with  giving  fresh  impetus  to 
the  naovement  for  taking  advantage  of  our  museums 
lor  educational  purposes.  He  became  very  much 
interested  in  the  origins  of  modern  civilization  and 
wrote  a  lengthy  monograph  on  “The  Origin  of 
the  Goths.  I  he  value  of  his  work  was  recognized 
by  the  scientific  groups  conected  with  the  Govern- 
ment  institurions  in  Washington,  and  he  himself 
felt  the  need  of  further  education,  so  he  devoted 
himself  to  graduate  work.  He  was  just  about  to 
receive  his  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  from 

George  Washington  University  when  he  died  of 
cancer. 

In  his  early  years  in  America  he  had  been  drawn 
to  f he  Catholic  Church,  in  spite  of  the  very  deep 
piejudices  which  he  had  inherited  in  his  native 
Sweden.  The  life  and  example  of  a  Catholic  em¬ 
ployer  who  had  been  extremely  kind  to  him  and 
had  taken  almost  a  paternal  interest  in  him  while 
he  was  working  as  a  drug  clerk,  had  led  him  to 
study  the  history  and  dogmas  of  the  church  with  a 
rather  open  mind.  The  final  impulse  to  his  con¬ 
version  came  while  he  was  ill  at  St.  Catherine’s 
Hospital  m  Brooklyn,  wffiere  the  unfailing  kindness 
of  the  Dominican  Sisters,  as  he  himself  told,  fairly 
won  his  heart.  In  the  midst  of  his  scientific  work 
his  faith  instead  of  being  weakened  was  strength¬ 
ened,  and  he  felt  that  the  greatest  consolation  in 
life  come  to  him  as  the  result  of  his  conversion. 
As  a  f  oi  m  of  thank-offering  for  this  benefit  he  wrote 
a  lengthy  sketch  of  the  life  of  one  of  the  patron 
saints  of  his  native  country,  St.  Bridget  of  Sweden 
As  the  Bngitmes,  founded  by  St.  Bridget,  had  a 
number  of  foundations  in  England  in  the  pre- 
refoimation  days,  the  subject  of  the  sketch  was 
especially  interesting  for  English  speaking  people. 

I  he  sketch  was  published  with  some  preliminary 
notes  on  Gronberger’s  life  in  the  “American  Catho¬ 
lic  Quarterly  Review”  (January,  1917),  and  re¬ 
printed  in  the  Publications  of  the  Writers’  Club  of 
Washington  (Vol.  I,  ii). 

Science  (1916);  Walsh,  Sven  Magnus  Gronberger  in  Are 
Marie,  1 8 - 25  November,  1916;  Idem,  Americal  Catholic  Quar¬ 
terly  Review,  January,  1917. 

James  J.  Walsh. 

Grosseto,  Diocese  of  (Grossetanensis),  in  Tus¬ 
cany,  Central  Italy,  suffragan  of  Siena.  Rt. 
Rev.  Ulysses  Bascherini,  born  in  Corvaia,  Italy 
1844,  and  appointed  to  this  see  8  July,  1907,  retired 
and  was  transferred  to  the  titular  see  of  Amathonte, 

8  March,  1920.  He  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Gustavo  Matteoni,  born  in  Santa-Maria  della 
Inercia,  Italy,  1877,  served  as  vicar  general  of  San 
Mmiato,  and  was  appointed  to  this  see  8  March, 
1920.  The  1920  statistics  credit  Grosseto  with  30.250 
Catholics;  26  parishes,  42  secular  priests,  13  Sisters, 

19  seminarians,  and  57  churches  or  chapels. 

Grosswardein,  Diocese  of.  See  Nagy-Varad. 


Guadalajara,  Archdiocese  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-42c; 
Guadalaxara),  in  the  state  of  Jalisco,  Mexico.  The 
metropolitan  has  as  its  suffragan  sees  the  dioceses 
of  Aguas  Calientes,  Colima,  Tepic,  and  Zacatecas. 
The  present  archbishop  in  Francisco  Orozco  y 
Jimenez,  b.  in  Zamora  18  November,  1864,  studied 


GUADALAJARA 


GUAM 


354 


at  the  Latin-American  College,  Rome,  ordained  17 
December,  1887,  elected  bishop  of  Chiapas  29  May, 
1902,  promoted  at  the  Consistory  of  2  December, 
1912’  to  succeed  Mgr.  Ortiz  at  Guadalajara,  ihe 
archbishop  was  forced  to  go  into  exile  in  1914  when 
the  Revolution  put  a  price  on  his  head.  His  cathe¬ 
dral  was  profaned,  his  palace  converted  into  a  bar¬ 
racks  and  135  priests  were  imprisoned  and  later 
freed  at  the  cost  of  200,000  crowns.  In  1917,  in 
a  pastoral  letter,  he  addressed  a  vigorous  protest 
against  the  new  Mexican  constitution  which  seized 
property  of  the  Church.  The  Mexican  .bishops 
were  allowed  to  return  to  their  dioceses  in  1919, 
where  they  were  well  received,  and  events  m 
Guadalajara  are  gradually  returning  to  their  old 
status.  Since  then  a  Catholic  workingmans  con¬ 
gress  has  been  held  there  for  live  days.  . 

Mgr.  Francisco  Uranga  y  Saenez,  b.  in  Santa 
Cruz  de  Rosales,  Chihuahua,  14  November,  1863, 
ordained  5  March,  1886,  elected  Bishop  of  Sinaloa, 

25  June,  1903,  resigned  and  transferred  18  Decem¬ 
ber,  1919,  is  auxiliary  to  the  archbishop. 

In  the  archdiocese  there  are  1,350,000  inhabitants; 
a  cathedral  chapter  of  18;  106  parishes,  10  in  the 
capital;  539  secular  and  37  regular  priests;  350 
churches.  There  is  a  large  seminary  in  Guadalajara 
which  in  1914  had  1200  seminarians,  two  prepara¬ 
tory  seminaries  at  Zapotlan  and  San  Juan  de  los 
Lagos,  besides  4  auxiliary  ones  founded  by  the 
present  archbishop.  Many  of  the  churches  have 
old  and  miraculous  images  which  are  venerated 
by  the  faithful,  some  of  which  have  been  crowned 
by  papal  authority;  the  sanctuary  of  Our  Lady 
of  San  Juan  de  los  Lagos  is  to  have  a  collegiate 
church  erected  there.  There  are  7  hospitals  in 
Guadalajara  (1  under  care  of  Hospitallers  of  St. 
John  of  God  and  6  under  Sisters),  and  2  m  neigh¬ 
boring  towns.  Among  the  Catholic  social  organiza¬ 
tions  are  the  Catholic  Association  of  Mexican  Youth 
and  the  Association  of  Catholic  Ladies,  both  of  which 
played  such  a  brilliant  role  during  the  last  revolu¬ 
tion  and  which  have  centers  in  almost  every  parish. 
There  are  also  the  National  Association  of  Fathers 
of  Families  with  28  centers,  the  Court  of  Honor 
of  Our  Lady  of  Guadeloupe,  and  the  Order  of 
Knights  of  Columbus.  There  are  other  social  orders 
and  many  pious  ones  throughout  the  arch¬ 
diocese.  Among  the  Catholic  papers  published  are 
“La  Epoca,”  “Restauragion,”  “El  Obrero,”  La 
Mujer  Catolica,”  “La  Voz  de  Maria,’;  “La  Sernilla 
Eucaristica,”  and  various  others,  besides  the  bul¬ 
letins  of  the  different  associations. 

The  religious  communities  of  men  in  the  arch¬ 
diocese  are  the  Franciscans  with  5  houses, 
Augustinians,  1;  Hospitallers  of  St.  John  of  God, 
2  hospitals;  Jesuits,  Institute  of  Sciences  in  Jalisco 
and  Church  of  San  Felipe;  Josephites,  1;  Salesian 
Fathers,  1;  Marist  Brothers,  2  colleges. 

The  religious  communities  of  women  are  Adora- 
trices  2  convents;  Sisters  of  Perpetual  Adora¬ 
tion  1;  Discalced  Carmelites  1;  Carmelites  de  la 
Hoguera  1;  Dominicans  2  convents;  Sisters  of 
Divine  Providence  1 ;  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of 
Guadeloupe  2;  Josephites  2;  Salesians  1;  Minims 
1 ;  Religious  of  the  Orfanatorio  de  la  Luiz  1 ; 
Reparatrices  1;  Sisters  without  vows  in  3  hospitals; 
Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  of  Sayula  1; 
Servants  of  the  P<Dor  11;  Servants  of  Mary  1; 
Servants  of  Jesus  in  the  Blessed  Sacrament  11; 
Third  Order  Regular  of  St.  Francis  4;  Third 
Order  Regular  of  Carmel  1;  Teresians  1;  Sisters 
of  the  Incarnate  Word  1 ;  Sisters  of  the  Eucharistic 
HcRit  1 

The  Catholic  colleges  are  (1914):  School  of 
Jurisprudence  of  Catholic  Society ;  normal  schools 


(1  for  boys  and  7  for  girls),  6  elementary  night 
schools  for  adults  (3  for  men  and  3  for  women), 
and  1  day  school  for  girls;  7  private  colegios tor 
boys  and' 14  for  girls;  3  mixed  colegios;  1  school 
of  trade  and  business  attached  to  an  orphanage 
for  boys,  4  orphanages  for  girls;  and  other  various 
asvlums  and  orphanages  for  both  girls  and  boys. 
Before  the  Revolution  each  parish  had  a  primary 
school,  all  of  which  were  closed  during  the  Revolu¬ 
tion  but  most  of  them  have  been  reopened,  many 
new  schools  have  been  founded,  including  a  Teresian 
colegio,  in  which  girls  of  the  upper  classes  are 
educated. 


Guadeloupe  (or  Basse-Terre),  Diocese  of 
(Guadalupensis;  Im^  Telluris),  in  the  West 
Indies,  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  with  resi¬ 
dence  at  Basse-Terre.  This  diocese  comprises  four 
islands  and  the  French  portions  of  the  islands  of 
St.  Martin  and  St.  Bartholomew.  The  see  is  now 
(1922)  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Pierre  Genoud,  C.S.bp., 
born  in  Douvain,  France,  in  1860,  studied  at  Evian- 
les-Bains,  served  as  professor  of  theology  in  the 
colonial  seminary  in  Paris,  then  as  master  of  novices 
at  the  Scholasticate  at  Chevilly,  and  was  appointed 
31  May,  1912.  By  a  Brief  of  10  November,  1919, 
the  canons  of  the  diocese  were  authorized  to  wear 
a  gold  pectoral  cross  suspended  on  a  red  ribbon. 
The  diocese  comprises  a  population  of  212,430 
(1920  statistics),  37  parishes,  1  chaplaincy,  2  chapels 
of  ease,  13  alms  houses,  61  priests,  and  38  churches. 

Guadix,  Diocese  of  (Gaudicensis),  in  the 
province  of  Granada,  Spain,  suffragan  of  Granada. 
Rt.  Rev.  Timoteo  Hernandez  y  Mulas,  born  m 
Morales  del  Vino  1856,  and  appointed  to  this  see 
19  December,  1907,  died  19  March,  1921,  and  his 
successor  has  not  yet  been  appointed.  The  diocese 
covers  an  area  of  about  1828  sq.  miles  and  com¬ 
prises  a  Catholic  population  of  189,098.  The  1920 
statistics  credit  it  with  80  parishes,  5  archpriests, 
160  priests,  62  churches,  88  chapels  and  10  convents 
with  11  religious  and  110  Sisters. 

Guam,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
IX-660d,  Mariana).  The  island  of  Guam  is  the 
largest  and  most  populous  of  the  Mariana  group 
discovered  by  Magellan  in  1521.  As  a  result  of 
the  Spanish  War  Guam  was  ceded  to  the  United 
States  and  has  since  been  used  as  a  naval  station 
with  naval  commander  serving  as  governor,  while 
Spain  sold  the  other  islands  in  the  group  to  Ger¬ 
many  (1899).  The  island  is  thirty  miles  long  and 
from  four  to  eight  miles  wide.  Situated  in  the 
Bay  of  Apia,  latitude,  N.  13°  26'  22";  longitude, 
E. '  144°  39'  42" ;  Guam  is  3428  miles  from  San 
Francisco,  1506  miles  from  Yokohama.  The  aver¬ 
age  temperature  is  81°  F.,  varying  only  slightly, 
with  the  highest  point  at  90°  and  the  lowest  72  . 
The  natives  are  called  Chamorros  and  are  of 
Malayan,  Tagal,  and  Spanish  blood.  They  are  a 
peaceful,  amicable  people,  respectful  towards  strang¬ 
ers  and  apt  in  learning  the  arts  and  sciences.  The 
inhabitants  number  14,090  natives  and  498  Ameri¬ 
cans  and  foreigners.  The  capital,  San  Ignacio  de 
Agana,  has  about  10,000  inhabitants. 

The  principal  agricultural  products  are  the  coco¬ 
nut  which  serves  many  purposes,  maize,  suni  (sweet 
potato),  bananas,  federico  from  which  they  extract 
starch,  and  manga,  a  delicious  fruit. 

Since  March,  1911,  Guam  has  constituted  a 
vicariate  apostolic,  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
Spanish  Capuchins.  Formerly  the  island  was  part 
of  the  vicariate  Apostolic  of  the  Mariana  Islands, 
but  owing  to  the  difference  of  nationality  since 
the  Spanish  War,  and  to  avoid  future  dissensions, 


GUARDA 


355 


GUAYAQUIL 


the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Guam  was  created.  The 
vicariate  has  been  taken  from  the  Apostolic  Dele¬ 
gation  of  Australasia  and  added  to  that  of  the 
Philippines,  20  October,  1921. 

The  first  vicar  apostolic  was  Rt.  Rev.  Francisco 
Xavier  Ricardo  Vila  y  Maten,  O.M.Cap.,  born 
in  Arenys  a  Mar,  Spain,  elected  titular  Bishop  of 
Adraa  and  vicar  Apostolic  of  Guam,  25  August, 
1911,  died  5  January,  1913.  His  successor  was  Rt. 
Rev.  Augustin  Bernaus  y  Serra,  O.M.  Cap.,  born 
at  Artesa  de  Segre,  16  August,  1863,  missionary  in 
Costa  Rica  in  1906,  elected  titular  Bishop  of 
Milopotamus  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Guam,  9  May, 
1913,  and  transferred  to  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
Bluefields  in  October,  1914.  The  present  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Guam  is  Rt.  Rev.  Joachim  Felipe 
Olaiz  y  Zabalza,  O.M.  Cap.,  born  in  Pampluna, 
6  June,  1S72,  elevated  to  the  titular  bishopric  of 
Docimum,  and  made  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Guam,  20 
July,  1914,  and  consecrated  30  November  following. 

Rev.  Jose  Palomo  Tones,  a  native  of  Agana  and 
son  of  one  of  the  principal  Chamorra  families, 
exercised  the  functions  of  the  priesthood  there  for 
fifty-seven  years.  He  was  pastor  at  Agana  and 
during  his  long  priesthood  he  was  called  upon  to 
defend  the  Faith  against  the  dangers  of  Protestant 
heresies,  showing  his  zeal  for  the  faith  and  his  care 
of  his  flock  in  such  a  manner  that  Pope  Pius  X 
*  rewarded  him  with  the  title  of  Monsignor.  Re¬ 
spected  by  natives  and  foreigners,  especially  the 
Americans,  whom  he  served  in  many  ways,  Mgr. 
Palomo  died  in  July,  1918.  Governor  Smith  ex¬ 
pressed  his  thanks  to  the  bishop  for  the  aid  ren¬ 
dered  by  the  missionaries  in  the  activities  of  the 
government  during  late  war.  In  Guam  there  are 
6  parishes,  10  churches,  6  stations,  8  regular  priests, 
and  4  lay  brothers.  Six  Sisters  are  expected  to 
take  a  parish  school  in  Agana.  Practically  all 
the  14,000  natives  are  Catholics,  as  well  as  most 
of  the  500  Spaniards,  Americans,  and  Japanese. 


vicariate,  with  metropolitan  at  Managua.  San  Sal- 
created  an  archdiocese  on  11  February 

1913,  Honduras  was  divided  2  February,  1916,  with 
metropolitan  at  Tegucigalpa;  finally  Costa  Rica 
on  16  February,  1921,  was  divided  into  two  dioceses 
whh  metropolitan  at  San  Jose  de  Costa  Rica 

Ricardo  Casanova  y  Estrada,  born  in  Guatemala, 
10  November,  1844,  studied  civil  law,  canon  law 
and  medicme,  ordained  1876,  was  elected  Archbishop 
ol  Guatemala,  primate  of  Central  America  25 
January,  1886,  and  died  14  April,  1913.  His  suc¬ 
cessor  Was  Julio  Ramon  Riveiro  y  Jacinto,  O.P 
born  at  Coban,  Guatemala,  17  February,  1854,  ex¬ 
pelled  fr°n?  the  convent  where  he  studied  7  June 
18/2,  ordained  1877,  elected  archbishop  8  April' 

1914,  consecrated  in  Rome,  10  May  following  and 
resigned  in  1921.  The  present  archbishop  of  Guate¬ 
mala  is  Rt.  Rev.  Aloysius  Munoz,  S.  J.,  who  was 
born  m  Guatemala  in  1859  and  elevated  to  the 
archbishopric  30  July,  1921. 

^  capital  city  of  Guatemala  there  are  a 
cathedral  and  22  churches.  In  the  entire  country 
there  are  115  parishes  with  125  secular  and  7  regular 
priests,  the  scarcity  of  clergy  causing  nearly  40 
parishes  to  be  vacant.  The  population  of  about 
two  million  is  almost  entirely  Catholic.  The  Church 
maintains  a  preparatory  seminary,  4  colleges  for 
boys,  7  for  girls,  1  high  school,  1  normal  school, 
6  professional  schools  and  some  elementary  schools. 
Besides,  there  are  4  asylums  and  3  hospitals. 

There  are  two  societies  organized  among  the 
clergy  and  many  among  the  laity,  while  five 
periodicals  and  reviews  are  published  under  ecclesi¬ 
astical  auspices.  There  is  no  aid  from  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  in  any  ecclesiastical  work  and  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  monastic  and  conventual  institutions 
has  been  prohibited  since  1872,  when  much  church 
property  was  confiscated  and  disestablished. 


Guarda,  Diocese  of  (/Egitaniensis  or  ^Egitianen- 
sis),  in  Portugal,  suffragan  of  Lisbon.  Rt.  Rev. 
Manoel  Vieira  de  Mattos,  appointed  to  this  see  26 
June,  1903,  was  promoted  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
Braga,  1  October,  1914,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Jose  Alves  Mattoso,  born  in  Coja,  Portugal, 
1870,  served  as  chancellor  of  Coimbre  and  named 
bishop  3  October,  1914.  The  1920  statistics  credit 
the  diocese  with  289,774  Catholics,  357  parishes, 
531  priests,  and  936  churches  or  chapels. 

Guastalla,  Diocese  of  (Guastallensis),  in  the 
province  of  Reggio-Emelia,  Northern  Italy,  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Modena.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Agostmo  Cattaneo,  born  in  Crema,  1853,  served  as 
secretary  and  episcopal  chancellor,  then  professor  of 
theology  in  the  seminary  of  Crema  and  vicar  gen¬ 
eral,  was  made  a  private  chamberlain  21  Septem¬ 
ber,  1901,  and  appointed  bishop  15  March,  1910, 
to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Andrea  Sarti,  transferred  to 
Pistom  and  Prato,  29  April,  1909.  According  to 
1920  statistics  the  diocese  comprises  65,000  Catho¬ 
lics;  26  parishes,  75  secular  priests,  51  Sisters,  25 
Seminarians,  and  58  churches  and  chapels. 

Guatemala,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancta  Jacobi 

majoris  de  Guatemala;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII-54a) _ 

Since  16  December,  1743,  the  diocese  of  Guatemala 
nas  been  raised  to  metropolitan  rank,  having  four 
suffragans  assigned  to  it.  T  o-day  the  metropolitan 
bas  no  suffragans,  the  dioceses  of  Nicaragua,  Hon¬ 
duras,  Costa  Rica,  and  San  Salvador  having  been 
raised  to  metropolitan  rank.  On  2  December  1913 
Nicaragua  was  detached  as  suffragan  from 
Guatemala  and  divided  into  three  dioceses  and  a 


Guaxupe,  Diocese  of  (Guaxupensis),  erected  3 
February,  1916,  from  the  northern  part  of  the  dio¬ 
cese  of  Pouso  Alegre  in  the  state  of  Minas  Geraes, 
jZtx  V  Pushes  °f  Poqos  de  Caldas,  Campestre, 
and  Machado  form  the  southern  boundary.  It  com¬ 
prises  an  area  of  9432.4210  sq.  miles,  and  has  300,000 
inhabitants.  The  first  bishop  was  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio 
Augusto  de  Assis,  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Sura 
and  auxiliary  of  Pouso  Alegre  in  1907,  succeeding 
to  the  see  of  Pouso  Alegre  in  1909,  and  transferred 
to  Guaxupe  in  1916.  He  resigned  in  1919,  and  was 
succeeded  3  July,  by  Antonio  Correa,  the  present 
Bishop  of  Guaxupe. 

Within  the  diocese  there  are  300,000  Catholics, 
37  secular  and  12  regular  priests;  50  churches,  10 
convents  for  women,  2  colleges  for  men  with  10 
teachers  and  90  students,  8  colleges  for  girls  with 
50  teachers  and  600  students,  2  high  schools  with 
12  teachers  and  70  pupils,  7  homes,  about  70  organi¬ 
zations  or  societies  for  the  laity,  and  three  Catholic 
periodicals.  A  seminary  is  at  present  under  con¬ 
struction.  By  special  legislation  of  the  state  of 
Minas  Geraes  the  priests  are  permitted  to  teach  the 
Catholic  religion  in  their  own  homes  to  the  pupils 
of  the  public  schools,  commonly  called  “Grupos 
Escolares.”  About  10,000  pupils  of  these  schools  are 
thus  receiving  Catholic  instruction. 

Guayaquil,  Diocese  of  (Guayaquilensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  VII-54d),  suffragan  of  Quito,  in  Ecuador,  South 
America.  The  diocese  contains  208.000  inhabitants, 
including  93,370  Catholics  and  2000  Protestants,  34 
parishes,  52  churches  and  chapels,  30  secular  priests, 
and  2S  regulars.  In  the  city  of  Guayaquil  there  are 
80,000  inhabitants,  5  city  parishes,  7  rural  parishes, 

6  rural  deaneries.  The  following  orders  of  men 
and  women  have  foundations  in  the  diocese: 


GUBBIO 


356 


GUIANA 


Dominicans  (1  house),  Franciscans  (1),  Augustmians 
(1),  Fathers  of  Mercy  (1),  Jesuits  (1),  Lazarists 
(1),  Christian  Brothers  (1),  Sisters  of  Charity  (8 
houses  in  Guayaquil,  1  at  Babahoyo,  1  at  Macha  a), 
Sisters  of  Providence  and  of  the  Immaculate  Con¬ 
ception  (1  house),  Sisters  of  Marie  Auxiliatrice 
(1),  Sisters  of  the  National  Congregation  of  Blessed 
Mariana  of  Jesus  (1  house  at  Guayaquil,  1  at 

The  present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Andres 
Machado,  S.J.,  b.  at  Cuenca,  16  August,  JL850,  en¬ 
tered  Society  of  Jesus  19  July,  1866,  provincial  of 
Ecuador,  elected  bishop  of  Riobamba  12  Novem¬ 
ber  1907,  published  19  December  following,  trans¬ 
ferred  to  Guayaquil,  26  April,  1916  published  4 
December  following.  He  succeeded  Rt.  Rev  Juan 
Maria  Riera,  O.P.,  who  administered  the  diocese 
1912-1915.  At  the  present  time  Mgr.  Machado,  like 
Bishop  Riera  before  him,  is  administrator  of  the 
diocese  of  Porto-Viejo. 

Gubbio,  Diocese  of  (Eugubinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VII-55b),  in  the  province  of  Perugia,  in  Umbria 
(Central  Italy).  This  diocese  was  originally  directly 
subject  to  the  Holy  See,  but  in  1563  became  a  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Urbino.  In  1918  Gubbio  reverted  to  the 
direct  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See.  . 

In  1907  Giovanni  Battista  Nasalli-Rocca,  b.  m 
Piacenza,  27  August,  1872,  was  elevated  to  the 
bishopric  of  Gubbio.  On  7  December,  1916  Mgr. 
Nasalli-Rocca  was  appointed  titular  Archbishop  oi 
Thebes  and  succeeded  by  Carlo  Tacetti,  b.  in  San- 
niniatello,  19  November,  1861,  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Gubbio  on  22  March,  1917.  Mgr.  Tacetti  died 
6  April,  1920,  and  was  succeeded  by  Leonardo 
Navarro  Pio,  b.  in  Segni,  22  September,  1877,  who 
was  elevated  to  the  bishopric  16  December,  1921. 

During  the  years  of  the  war  a  casa  del  soldato 
was  founded  in  Gubbio  and  both  clergy  and  laity 
were  always  foremost  in  assisting  and  organizing 
the  various  undertakings  that  arose  from  needs  of 
war.  The  most  notable  event  of  the  diocese  in 
recent  years  was  the  translation  in  1919  of  the 
incorrupt  body  of  the  diocesan  patron,  Saint  Ubaldo, 
from  his  church  on  Mount  Ingino  to  the  cathedial, 
the  restoration  of  the  church  on  the  mountain  and 
the  conferring  of  the  title  of  basilica  by  Pope  Bene¬ 
dict  XV.  On  21  August,  1919,  the  body  of  Saint 
Ubaldo  was  again  solemnly  translated  to  his  church, 
just  as  it  had  been  moved  there  725  years  before, 
and  was  buried  under  the  new  main  altar. 

The  see  has  65  parishes,  43,606  souls,  1  monastery 
for  men,  1  abbey  for  men,  4  convents  for  men,  79 
secular  priests,  16  regular  priests,  7  monasteries  for 
women,  7  convents  for  women,  97  nuns,  4  lay  broth¬ 
ers,  259  churches,  1  seminary  with  15  seminarians,  1 
college  for  men,  2  colleges  for  women,  and  4  ele¬ 
mentary  schools.  The  missionary  work  of  the  dio¬ 
cese  includes  2  homes,  3  asylums,  and  5  hospitals. 


Guiana,  British  (or  Demerara),  Vicariate  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-62d),  comprises  British 
Guiana  and  Barbados  and  is  under  the  care  of  the 
Jesuits.  Rt.  Rev.  Compton  Galton,  S.J.,  titular 
Bishop  of  Petenissus  and  vicar  Apostolic  since 
1901-1902,  resides  at  Georgetown. 

The  Catholic  population,  numbering  about,  25,000 
(1922),  is  composed  of  British,  Portuguese,  blacks 
mixed,  East  Indians,  Chinese,  and  aboriginal 

Indians.  , 

Gregorio  Bettencourt,  great  benefactor  to  the 
cathedral,  Knight  of  St.  Gregory,  died  in  1919.  Rev. 
Paul  Miller,  S.  J.,  head  master  of  St.  Stanislaus  Col¬ 
lege  died  in  1921  and  Rev.  Francis  O’Donnell,  S.J., 
who  had  been  laboring  for  thirty-two  years  in  the 
missions  died  in  1921. 


In  1910  a  mission  was  started  among  the  Macushi 
Indians  in  the  far  interior.  That  year  the  Vicar 
Apostolic  visited  the  Indian  missions  in  the  interior. 
The  cathedral  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1913.  In 
1915  the  foundation  stone  of  the  new  cathedral  was 
laid  and  by  1921  a  portion  of  the  edifice  was  opened 
for  service  on  Passion  Sunday.  The  priests  of  the 
vicariate  are  admitted  to  minister  in  the  three 
public  hospitals,  Leper  and  Lunatic  Asylums  Gov¬ 
ernment  Industrial  Schools  and  the  Penal  Settle¬ 
ment'.  Twenty-eight  elementary  schools  are  aided 
by  the  government  and  also  the  girls’  orphanage. 
Three  conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  have  been 
organized  among  the  laity,  and  a  periodical  1  he 
Catholic  Standard  of  British  Guiana”  is  published. 

The  vicariate  has  12  parishes,  3  missions,  37 
churches,  10  stations,  4  secular  priests,  17  regular 
priests,  10  convents  for  women,  40  nuns,  30  sisters, 

1  high  school  with  60  boys  attending, 
elementary  schools  with  135  teachers  and  5237 
pupils.  There  are  two  orphanages,  one  for  boys 
and  one  for  girls. 

Guiana,  Diocese  of.  See  Saint  Thomas  of 
Gihana. 

Guiana,  Dutch  (or  Surinam),  Vicariate  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-63a) ,  has  a  spiritual  jurisdic¬ 
tion  over  20,900  Catholics  under  the  charge  of  Rt. 
Rev.  Theodore  Van  Roosmalen,  C.  SS.R.,  titular 
Bishop  of  Antigone,  who  resides  in  Paramaribo. 
Bishop  Van  Roosmalen,  born  at  Bois-le-Duc,  27 
July,  1875,  and  elevated  23  August,  1911,  was  ap¬ 
pointed  by  decree  the  following  November  to  suc¬ 
ceed  Bishop  Meeuwissen,  C.  SS.R.,  who  had  resigned 
and  retired  to  a  convent  at  Amsterdam.  The  colony 
is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Redemptorists  and 
the  schools  and  other  Catholic  institutions  receive 
government  support.  Among  the  laity  the  Asso¬ 
ciation  of  the  Holy  Family  has  been  organized  with 
194  men  and  766  women  members;  also  the  Asso¬ 
ciation  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  with  626  mem¬ 
bers,  the  Confraternity  of  the  Living  Rosary  with 
1057  members;  the  Sodality  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
with  1517  members,  and  the  Confraternity  of  Our 
Lady  of  Perpetual  Help  and  St.  Alphonsus  with 
1795  members.  In  the  vicariate  two  periodicals  are 
published,  “De  Surinamer,”  which  is  issued  twice 
a  week  and  “De  Katholiche  Waarschuwer,”  every 

two  weeks.  4  .  , 

In  the  city  of  Paramaribo  there  are  4  parishes 
and  outside  of  the  city  4  quasi-parishes.  In  the 
whole  vicariate  there  are  10  convents  for  men  and 
6  for  women,  53  churches  and  chapels,  8  stations, 
33  regular  priests,  35  lay  brothers,  109  Sisters,  2 
high  schools  with  21  teachers  and  624  students,  2 
normal  schools  with  6  teachers  and  10  students,  29 
elementary  schools  with  90  teachers  and  3680  stu¬ 
dents,  2  industrial  schools  with  5  teachers  and  134 
pupils,  1  home  for  the  aged,  2  orphanages,  1  asylum, 
and  9  schools  for  the  poor  with  675  pupils. 


Guiana,  French  (or  Cayenne),  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of  (Guyan.e  Gallic^®  seu  Cayenne), 
in  South  America.  This  territory  was  entrusted 
to  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  1816,  but 
owing  to  the  hostility  of  the  Government  they 
were  forced  to  abandon  it.  A  large  portion  of  the 
Catholic  population  are  convicts,  as  Cayenne,  the 
residence  of  the  prefect  apostolic  is  a  penal  set¬ 
tlement,  no  longer  used  for  white  convicts  however, 
owing  to  the  frequency  of  yellow  fever.  Rev. 

Fabre  was  named  prefect  apostolic  in  January,  1914, 
after  having  served  as  administrator  apostolic.  The 
Catholics  number  about  36,000,  of  whom  12,000  are 
convicts,  and  the  remainder  of  the  population  is 


GUINEA 


357 


GYOR 


made  up  of  8000  to  10,000  pagans  (Indians,  Red¬ 
skins,  and  Negroes),  and  4000  to  5000  heretics. 
The  mission  is  served  by  21  priests,  there  being 
15  churches  with  resident  priests  and  15  without 
priests,  26  stations  and  9  schools  with  1300  pupils. 

Guinea,  French,  Vicariate  Apostolic  op 
(Guine.e  Gallicae),  comprises  a  French  colony  of 
the  same  name  in  Western  Africa.  By  a  Decree 
of  17  April,  1920,  this  territory  was  raised  from  a 
prefecture  apostolic;  it  is  entrusted  to  the  Fathers 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Rt.  Rev.  Raymond-Rene  Le 
Rouge  being  vicar  apostolic.  Born  in  Chaise- 
Baudouin,  France,  1876,  he  came  to  French  Guinea 
in  1901,  was  made  prefect  apostolic  in  1911,  pro¬ 
moted  to  be  first  vicar  apostolic  and  consecrated 
titular  Bishop  of  Selga,  22  April,  1920.  He  re¬ 
sides  at  Konakiy,  which  has  developed  into  one 
of  the  most  important  cities  of  the  western  Coast 
of  A.frica,  connected  by  railway  with  Niger  and 
the  Sudan,  and  ranking  among  the  first  commercial 
cities  of  that  country.  Mohammedanism  was 
brought  into  this  country  many  centuries  ago,  but 
numerous  Fetishist  tribes  remain,  among  the  most 
important  of  which  Christianity  has  been  estab¬ 
lished.  Bishop  Le  Rouge  has  been  largely  instru¬ 
mental  in  the  religious  progress,  but  he  is  handi¬ 
capped  by  the  lack  of  a  church  in  Konakry  in 
keeping  with  the  importance  of  the  city  and  the 
colony,  however  he  hopes  to  accomplish  this 
soon.  One  of  the  great  difficulties  that  has  to  be 
overcome  by  the  missionaries  in  this  country  is 
the  diversity  of  language,  where  every  tribe  and 
every  village  has  a  different  dialect.  In  spite  of 
the  war  the  missionaries  have  founded  a  new  station 
at  Kurussa  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  vicariate, 
a  position  of  great  importance.  The  native  city 
is  divided  into  clans,  each  under  a  Mussulman  mas¬ 
ter.  Their  captives,  according  to  the  Koran,  are  not 
allowed  to  practice  the  religion  of  Islam,  and  con¬ 
sequently  many  thousands  of  these  pagans  will  be 
given  to  the  Christians  if  the  masters  can  be  com¬ 
pensated.  The  remainder  of  the  territory  served 
by  this  new  station,  the  region  between  Baffa  and 
Boke,  includes  more  than  200,000  souls,  the  tribes 
of  Baga,  entirely  Fetishist  and  the  Fulah  Mussul¬ 
mans. 

According  to  latest  statistics  there  are  2,000,000 
people  included  in  this  vicariate  and  of  this  number 
5600  are  Catholics,  4127  catechumens,  700  heretics, 
300,000  mussulman,  and  700,000  pagans.  The  mis¬ 
sion  comprises  9  principal  stations,  5  secondary 
stations,  65  posts  of  catechists,  and  319  Christianized 
villages;  it  is  served  by  22  priests,  66  native 
catechists,  6  stations,  14  French  schools,  1  school 
of  catechists,  12  orphanages,  1  lower  seminary,  3 
.agricultural  schools,  3  industrial  schools,  7  phar¬ 
macies,  1  village  of  freedmen,  3  Brothers,  9  Euro¬ 
pean  Missionary  Sisters,  and  4  native  Sisters. 


Guiney,  Louise  Imogen,  poet  and  essayist,  b. 
Boston,  Mass.,  7  January,  1861;  d.  at  Chipping 
Campden,  England,  2  November,  1920.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  Gen.  Patrick  Robert  Guiney,  a 
soldier  in  the  Lhiion  Army  during  the  American 
Civil  War,  and  was  educated  at  a  private  school 
in  Boston  and  at  the  Convent  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
Elmhurst,  Providence,  R.  1.,  from  which  she  was 
graduated  in  1880.  Her  earliest  literary  work 
appeared  in  the  Boston  ‘Tost”  and  the ‘  Boston 
Courier.”  In  1887  she  was  a  contributor  to 
Harper’s,”  “Scribner’s,”  and  “The  Atlantic  Monthly.” 
The  last  sixteen  years  of  her  life  were  spent  at 
Oxford,  England.  Among  her  best  known  writings 
are  Patrins,”  “The  White  Sail,”  “Monsieur  Henri,” 
“Edmund  Campion,”  and  “Robert  Emmet.”  She 


edited  the  works  of  Mathew  Arnold,  Mangan, 
Henry  Vaughan,  and  other  writers.  Her  poetry  was 
delicate  and  elevated,  and  yet  virile,  and  her  prose 
had  a  rare  distinction  of  thought  and  diction 
Guisasoia  y  Menendez  Victoria™,  Cardinal, 
Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  Patriarch  of  the  East 
Indies  b.  at  Oviedo,  Spain,  April  21,  1852;  d.  at 
Madrid  on  2  September,  1920.  He  was  first  a 
lawyer  and  then  a  priest,  and  was  appointed  secre¬ 
cy  j  ,  e  Bisliop  of  Orihuela  and  head  of  the 
cathedral  school  of  the  diocese.  In  1884  he  was 

5an°to^f  ,Compostella;  in  1893  Bishop  of  Osina. 
In  .1897  he  was  transferred  to  Madrid,  then  to 
Valencia,  and  finally  to  the  Archbishopric  of 
loledo.  He  was  created  cardinal  in  1914,  receiving 
the  biretta  at  the  hands  of  Alphonso  XIII;  the 
hat  was  conferred  later  (8  September).  He  was 
the  cardinal  of  the  factory-lands  and  country-folk 
and  devoted  himself  especially  to  them,  founding 
a  number  of  guilds  for  their  spiritual  and  material 
betterment.  As  he  was  the  national  chaplain  of 
the  Spanish  army  he  was  buried  with  military 
honors. 

Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Sm us  San cn  Laurentii),  in  Canada,  suffragan 
of  Quebec.  This  territory  first  erected  into  a  pre¬ 
fecture  apostolic,  in  1882,  was  entrusted  to  the 
Eudists  in  1903  and  raised  to  a  vicariate  apostolic 
12  September,  1905.  The  official  residence  is  at 
Seven  Islands,  Saguenay  County,  Canada,  but  as 
yet  no  vicar  has  been  appointed  to  succeed  Rt. 
Rev.  Patrice-Alexandre  Chiasson,  who  was  ap¬ 
pointed  titular  Bishop  of  Lydda  and  vicar  apostolic 
10  March,  1919,  and  transferred  to  the  diocese  of 
Chatham,  9  September,  1920.  This  vicariate  covers 
an  area  of  54,000  sq.  miles  and  comprises  a  total 
population  of  11,000,  of  whom  9650  are  Catholics, 
including  2000  Indians.  According  to  1920  statis¬ 
tics  it  counts  19  regular  priests,  12  stations  with 
resident  priests,  28  stations  without  priests,  19 
chapels,  19  oratories,  950  children  in  Catholic  schools, 
and  19  religious  of  the  Infant  Jesus. 

Gurk,  Diocese  of  (Gurcensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VII-88c),  a  prince-bishopric  of  Carinthia,  Austria, 
suffragan  of  Salzburg,  with  residence  at  Klagenfiirt. 
This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Adam  Hefter,  born 
m  Prien,  Bavaria,  1871,  appointed  5  Februaiy,  1915, 
succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Balthazar  Kaltner,  promoted 
to  Salzburg,  25  May,  1914.  According  to  1921 
statistics  the  diocese  comprises  a  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  376,051;  19,668  Protestants,  244  Jews,  and 
596  of  other  religions;  200  parishes,  380  secular  and 
128  regular  clergy. 

Gyor  (German  Raab),  Diocese  of  (Jaurinensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  \TI-94c). — The  diocese  of  Gyor,  suffragan 
to  the  Archdiocese  of  Esztergom,  lies  in  the  former 
Kingdom  of  Hungary  with  two  cathedral  chapters, 
one  at  Gyor  and  the  other  at  Sopron.  By  the 
treaty  of  St.  Germain  the  Odenburg  or  Sopron  dis¬ 
trict  was  lost  by  Hungary  to  Austria,  and  to-day 
the  diocese  is  divided  between  the  two  Govern¬ 
ments,  with  a  cathedral  chapter  in  each  country. 

During  the  late  war  twenty-seven  priests  and 
most  of  the  clergy  were  called  to  the  colors,  some 
were  chaplains  for  the  troops  on  the  front,  others 
cared  for  the  wounded  in  hospitals,  and  some  took 
up  arms  for  the  defence  of  the  country.  Those  who 
remained  at  home  worked  for  those  at  war,  con¬ 
soled  widows  and  orphans,  and  nursed  the  wounded 
and  sick.  Ladislaus  Prince  Batthany-Strattmann 
and  Prince  Elemer  Lonyay  during  the  whole  time 
of  the  war,  and  the  cathedral  chapter  of  Gyor,  for 
a  year  and  a  half,  with  their  own  resources  sup¬ 
ported  a  hospital  for  wounded  and  sick  soldiers. 


GYOR 


358 


GYOR 


The  bishop  supported  in  the  Szany  orphanage 
twelve  orphans,  whose  fathers  died  for  the  country. 

During  the  Communistic  dictatorship  the  press 
of  the  diocese,  although  not  strictly  Catholic,  bound 
the  various  Christians  together  in  defense  against 
the  common  foe  and  the  leading  papers,  especially 
the  “Dunantuli  Hirlap”  of  Gy  or  and  the  “Soproni 
Hirlap”  presented  a  united  Christian  opinion  against 
the  dangers  of  Communism. 

Rt.  Rev.  Nicholas  Szechenyi,  born  at  Sopron,  6 
January,  1868,  elected  Bishop  cf  Gyor,  16  Decem¬ 
ber,  1901,  was  transferred  to  the  diocese  of  Nagy- 
Varad,  20  April,  1911,  and  on  18  June,  1911,  Rt. 
Rev.  Leopold  Arpad  Varady,  bom  in  Temeswar, 
Diocese  of  Csanad,  18  June,  1865,  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Gyor  in  the  cathedral,  which  post  he 
held  until  25  March,  1914,  when  he  was  promoted 
to  be  Archbishop  of  Kalocsa.  After  a  few  months 
Rt.  Rev.  Anthony  Fetser,  born  at  Nagy  Karolydior, 
in  the  Diocese  of  Szathmar,  14  January,  1862, 
elected  titular  Bishop  of  Paleopolis  and  auxiliary 
at  Nagy-Varad  was  transferred  20  April,  1911,  to 
the  diocese  of  Gyor.  Under  Bishops  Szechenyi  and 
Varady  (1907-1913)  the  greater  part  of  the  cathe¬ 
dral  at  Gyor  was  restored.  A  new  seminary  for 
the  clergy  of  the  diocese  was  erected  in  1910. 

On  21  October,  1913,  Rt.  Rev.  Ernest  Kutoratz, 
titular  Bishop  of  Martiana  and  auxiliary  of  Gyor, 
born  at  Siglo  in  the  diocese  and  elevated  to  the 
bishopric  19  April,  1897,  died.  Nicholas  Prince 
Esperhazy,  patron  of  81  parishes  in  the  diocese 
and  leader  of  the  noblemen  of  Hungary,  who 
had  always  labored  for  the  Church  and  had  been  a 
good  example  to  all  Christians,  died  in  Sopron  in 
1920.  His  wife,  born  Countess  Margarita  Czuraky, 
who  died  in  1910,  a  real  mother  of  the  poor  and 
patron  of  the  Church,  is  still  remembered  with 
benediction.  In  1914  occurred  the  death  of  Anthony 
Ruschek,  titular  abbot  and  canon  of  the  cathedral 
of  Gyor,  and  in  1916  that  of  Anthony  Mobl,  bishop- 
elect  of  Serbia;  both  were  the  authors  of  many 
books  and  translations.  During  the  days  of  the 
Communist  strife  in  Hungary  two  priests  perished. 
Anthony  Szemelliser,  pastor  of  Fiiles,  was  shot  9 
April,  1919,  and  Francis  Wohlmuth,  pastor  of 
Csaszar,  was  hung  5  June,  1919,  martyrs  to  the 
Catholic  religion  and  to  their  country. 

The  diocese  includes  241  parishes  with  379 
churches  and  296  chapels.  There  are,  however,  in 


the  diocese  48  Lutheran  churches,  27  Calvinists 
churches,  35  Jewish  synagogues,  and  1  Greek  Ortho¬ 
dox  church.  The  religious  orders  of  men  include: 

1  congregation  of  Premonstratentians,  2  monasteries 
of  Benedictines,  2  houses  of  the  Order  of  Pious 
Schools,  1  convent  of  Dominicans,  2  convents  of 
Franciscans  (O.F.  M.),  1  convent  of  Capuchins,  1 
convent  of  Discalced  Carmelites,  1  convent  of 
Servants  of  Mary,  1  convent  of  Hospitallers  of 
St.  John  of  God.  The  religious  orders  of  women 
have:  2  monasteries  of  Ursulines,  1  convent  of 
Discalced  Carmelites,  10  houses  of  Daughters  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  1  house  of  Franciscan  Sisters, 

1  house  of  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross,  26  congrega¬ 
tions  of  Daughters  of  the  Divine  Redeemer,  with 
a  mother-house  in  Sopron  and  1  house  of  Sisters 
of  the  Divine  Savior.  There  are  82  regular  and 
390  secular  priests,  20  lay  brothers,  147  nuns,  and 
307  Sisters.  The  number  of  Catholics  is  495,000, 
of  whom  the  greater  part  are  Hungarians,  although 
about  150,000  speak  German,  50,000  Croatian  and 
4000  Slovakian. 

There  are  in  the  diocese  2  seminaries  with  72 
seminarians,  379  normal  or  elementary  schools  with 
511  laymen,  147  laywomen,  and  96  religious  in¬ 
structing  67,900  pupils.  There  are  so-called  public 
schools  for  girls  with  25  teachers  and  660  pupils; 
5  preparatory  schools  in  which  teachers  are  trained 
for  work  in  elementary  and  public  schools  and 
taking  care  of  children  with  41  ecclesiastical  in¬ 
structors  and  380  scholars;  5  gymnasia,  two  for 
boys  under  the  Benedictines,  two  for  boys  under 
the  Order  of  Pious  Schools,  and  one  for  girls  under 
the  Ursulines  with  48  religious  as  instructors  and 
1470  scholars.  There  are  27  day  nurseries  in  charge 
of  the  Sisters,  who  also  conduct  10  hospitals  and 
orphanages. 

The  elementary,  public,  and  preparatory  schools 
supported  by  the  Government  come  under  the  rule 
of  a  local  board,  whose  members  are  nearly  always 
pastors  or  other  priests,  so  that  in  this  way  the 
clergy  have  influence  in  the  schools.  Moreover  in 
the  gymnasia,  normal  and  business  schools,  sustained 
by  the  Government,  the  pupils  are  instructed  by 
catechists  named  by  the  bishop,  who  are  either  en¬ 
tirely  supported  or  receive  some  salary  from  the 
Government.  Two  ecclesiastical  papers,  “Evan- 
gelium,”  a  theological  paper,  and  “Eucharistikus 
Ertesito,”  are  published  in  the  diocese 


H 

yn%  sSfegfn  of  .KS  ofmrecht  S^f^  “ 

in  Holland.  Augustin  Joseph  Callier,  bom  at  Fles-  and  vicar  apostolic  of  Temiskaming  1  October*  1908* 
singue  m  this  diocese  20  May  1849,  for  eleven  consecrated  30  November  following,  transferred  to 

KGaiSiin5ar  ??n?ra ’  ^asre Ic<;tcd  £lshop  11  Septem-  Haileybury  17  January,  1916.  In  May  1919  the 
ber,  1J03.  Bishop  Callier  had  been  instrumental  Diocese  of  Haileybury  was  divided  and  a  portion 
for  many  years  m  the  erection  of  the  new  cathedral,  of  it  erected  into  the  Vicariate  Apostlic  of  Northern 
which  is  the  glory  of  the  diocese  of  Haarlem.  The  Ontario.  nern 

Sth^Jdwl- J3S?.  areT‘wVemi-  At  the  present  time  (1921)  the  Catholic  popula- 
nanes  witn  1ZU  and  300  students.  The  diocese  tion  of  the  diocese  is  nrinrovimatoKr  ai  rqq  a ; a  a 

count*  (1921)  261  parishes  290  churches  60  convents  as  follows:  French-Canadian  37 945 •  English  speak 
for  men,  195  for  women,  584  secular  and  187  regular  ine-  3731  •  TnrHnrvs  id07-  ’  +i  ’  sP-(7. 

priests,  two  colleges  with  1091  students  37?  ele-  500  The  dkTcese  lost  a 

mentary  schools  with  84,490  pupils,  184  training  the  death  of  the  Abbe  Wdfrid  CaLi  wh  by 

an  Catarnbutes  to  the  —  °f 

Haeckel,  Ernst  Heinrich,  zoologist  and  phi-  nar^ans»  8  secondary  schools  for  girls  with  90  teach- 
losophic  writer,  b.  at  Potsdam,  Prussia,  on  16  Feb-  ers  and  800  PPPds,  .1  academy  for  boys  with  13 
ruary,  1834;  d.  at  Jena  on  9  August,  1919.  He  ^a^ers  an^  800  pupils,  115  elementary  schools  with 
studied  in  Berlin  and  Wurzburg  under  Virchow,  ®  .  *  pupds;  some  of  these  elementary  schools  re- 
Kolliker,  and  Miiller,  graduating  in  medicine  in  ^eive  a  small  appropriation  from  the  Government. 
Berlin  in  1857.  After  practicing  medicine  for  a  the  charitable  institutions  are  4  hospitals 

short  time  he  gave  himself  up  to  natural  history  and  ^  orphanages  and  all  the  public  institutions 
and  in  1861  was  appointed  lecturer  in  zoology  at  a*^  open  to  the  priests. 

Jena,  and  full  professor  in  1865.  The  fruit  of  a  Haiti  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-114b)  a  republic  embrac- 

6  ^?ejSma  ^jjXS  a '  mon°graph  on  radiolaria  ing  the  western  portion  of  the'  island  of  Haiti  has 

which  attracted  considerable  attention.  Among  the  an  estimated  area  of  10,204  sq.  miles  and  a  n’oou- 

thpT  fiClentlflC  dp|dl,f  by  Haeckel  may  be  cited  lation  of  about  2,000,000,  ninety  per  cent  of  whom 

°?  DeeP"Sea  are  negroes.  The  largest  city,  pSrt-au-Prfnce  hZ 
Medusae,  Padiolana,  Siphonophorse,”  and  an  estimated  population  of  101,272-  Cap  Haitien 

»  Pafx210  000yeS  12’00°;  G°DaiVeS  Xfi0°!  P°rt-de- 

s 

^896  Haeckel,  wandering  ImmThe  realm*  brofog“  «“o"bSi; 

\hich  was  welcomed  by  the  free-thinkers  and  the  no  provision  was  made  for  the  Department  of 
mass  of  untrained  readers  This  atheistic  attack  Education  as  there  was  for  the sanitary and  enet 

Gemrd°mSP  jt  ^The  Old  Riddle  ^n/rt^NT  ^  ^tments.  Although  education  is  com- 

Wr  In  mw  o?  Ip  S’«  the  Newest  pulsory,  there  is  insufficient  money  to  maintain  an 

Answer.  in  many  ol  Haeckel  s  writings  his  dis-  efficient  system  of  education.  The  Catholics  are 

f.ar^;  f°r  truth  led  bim  to  manipulate  facts  to  the  most  frequent  benefactors  and  are  doing  by 
suit,  his  theories  and  in  this  way  he  succeeded  in  far  the  greater  part  of  the  work  of  education  in 

ffifl!S!Zpdg  ^1S  heOTy  °f  ,Evoll!tlon-  Eut  because  the  way  of  private  schools  under  religious  or  part.i- 
s  ha  tied  was  reseived  for  religion,  because  his  religious  supervision.  In  1918  there  were  854  public 
forgei  les  were  favorable  to  atheism  and  free-  primary  schools  with  61,956  pupils  29  secondarv 
thought  because  he  denied  free-will  and  yet  advo-  schools  with  4816  pupils,  1  normal  school  a  school 
cated  the  emancipation  of  man  from  the  fetters  of  of  law  and  one  of  medicine  with  102  students 
dogma  and  morality,  his  dishonest  methods  were  Economic  Conditions— The  revenue  of  Haiti  is 
condoned  by  the  universities  and  the  press  in  derived  almost  exclusively  from  customs  mid  in 

Ge  many,  England  and  America.  There  was  a  American  gold  on  exports  and  imports.  On  1 

}i5  \  however,  to  this  prostitution  of,  science  in  January,  1920,  the  debt  of  Haiti  consisted  of  gold 
°f  a  few  scientists,  and  finally  loans  amounting  to  149,894,087  francs;  the  internal 

Wasmann  f Q  Th  “7c,lIessly  ^Pfsed  by  Erich  debt  amounted  to  $2,918,080.  The  total  interest 
•  «ix  A  ,  expose  of  his  deceit  is  of  the  foreign  debt  now  due  is  28,417,632  francs. 

in,  Haeckel  s  Frauds  and  Forgeries,”  by  In  1918-19  the  revenue  amounted  to  $5,115,930- 
A^smuth  and  Hull.  the  expenditure  to  $2,918,080.  From  1  October, 

Haileybury,  Diocese  oe  (HATTFVRTTRr'M'-'ToV  ^  dline»  1920,  the  foreign  trade  of  the  re- 

Canada,  is  suffragan  to  the  gof* m 

y  e  aiocese,  ±tt.  Kev.  Elie-Amcet  stitution  dating  from  12  June,  1918.  The  legisla- 

359 


HAITI 


360 


HAITI 


tive  power  is  vested  in  a  Chamber  of  Deputies  on 
the  basis  of  one  member  for  each  60,000  inhabitants, 
the  42  members  being  chosen  for  two  years  by 
direct  popular  vote,  and  in  a  Senate  of  15  mem¬ 
bers,  chosen  for  6  years,  also  by  popular  vote.  Ihe 
president  is  elected  for  four  years  by  the  two 
Chambers,  and  receives  an  annual  salary  oi  $2_4’U,UU: 
Under  the  protectorate  established  by  the  United 
States  in  November,  1915,  there  is  an  armed  con¬ 
stabulary,  both  urban  and  rural  (established  m 
1916)  which  is  drawn  from  the  United  States  Marine 

History  (191 1 — 1921). — From  the  establishment  of 
the  Dominican  Republic  in  1843  to  1914  Haiti  was 
the  scene  of  constant  revolutions.  Corrupt  politics, 
incompetency  and  bad  faith  in  public  business 
brought  about  a  deplorable  state  of  affairs.  *maJly> 
in  1915  a  new  revolution  occurred  in  which  the 
government  of  Davilmar  Theodore  was  overthrown 
and  General  Vilbrun  Guillaume  was  elected  presi¬ 
dent.  Civil  war  broke  out  again  in  a  few  months, 
the  president  fled  to  the  French  Legation,  where 
he  was  killed,  and  150  political  prisoners  were  put 
to  death.  The  United  States  intervened,  landing 
the  United  States  Marine  Corps  to  preserve  order. 
In  November,  1915,  a  convention  was  signed 
between  the  United  States  and.  Haiti,  and  a  re¬ 
ceivership  of  customs  and  Haitian  resources  lor 
ten  years  was  established  under  the  control  of  the 
United  States,  and  a  native  constabulary  under 
United  States  officers  was  formed. 

Ecclesiastical  History.— Ecclesiastically  the  Re¬ 
public  of  Haiti  is  divided  into  the  Archdiocese  of 
Port-au-Prince  and  the  dioceses  of  Gonaives,  Cayes, 
Cap  Ha'itien,  and  Port-de-Paix.  Gonaives  is  admin¬ 
istered  by  Archbishop  Conan  of  Port-au-Prmce ; 
Cayes  is  administered  by  Archbishop  Pichon,  aux¬ 
iliary  of  Archbishop  Conan;  and  Port-de-Paix  is 
administered  by  Bishop  Kersuzan  of  Cap  Haitien. 
The  Holy  See  is  represented  in  Haiti  by  Mgr. 
Frederico  Fioretti,  charge  d’affairs  since  the  papal 
nuncio  was  transferred  to  Belgrade  in  192(1 

The  Church  has  been  the  one  creative  force  in 
Haiti  since  the  signing  of  the  Concordat  with 
Rome  in  1860.  In  a  country  hampered  by  poverty, 
illiteracy,  and  an  unstable  administration,  the  Cath¬ 
olic  Church  has  striven  for  education  and  progress. 
The  clergy  and  religious  have  suffered  great  hard¬ 
ships  due  to  the  system  of  graft  prevalent  in  the 
republic,  and  the  extreme  poverty  of  the  people. 
In  the  years  1906  to  1919  fifteen  Christian  Brothers 
died  from  starvation  or  its  effects,  because  they  had 
received  no  salaries  and  had  no .  means  of  sub- 
gistence.  Frequently  the  destruction  of  churches 
and  schools  by  fire  has  been  due  to  revolutionary 
incendiarism.  In  spite  of  these  obstacles  great 
strides  have  been  made.  This  is  evidenced  by 
statistics  for  Port-au-Prince  in  1864,  giving  14 
parishes,  1  annex,  and  9  priests,  and  m  1920  giving 
28  parishes,  28  priests,  and  a  Catholic  population  of 
736  920  Throughout  the  republic  there  are  now 
KM)’  parishes  and  350  chapels.  These  chapels  have 
no  resident  priest,  but  are  served  about  once  every 
month  by  the  parish  priest,  or  one  of  his  assistants, 
who  spend  one  to  two  weeks  instructing  the  people. 
To  about  100  chapels  are  attached  rural  schools. 
Churches  are  built  by  an  appropriation  of  the  gov¬ 
ernment,  and  furnished  by  the  clergy,  which  last 
is  a  difficult  task  in  the  face  of  great  poverty. 
Masses  are  said  at  four  o’clock  and  at  eight,  the 
former  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  poorer  people, 
and  the  latter  for  the  higher  classes.  The  clergy 
are  held  in  great  respect  by  the  people.  A  semi¬ 
nary  established  at  Petionville  for  native  clergy 
has  been  turned  to  other  ecclesiastical  uses,  as 


there  were  no  students,  but  Archbishop  Conan  is 
now  conducting  a  theological  school  for  nativ  es  and 
has  educated  Haitian  priests.  _  0 

Tho  minister  of  education  of  the  Haitian  (jrov- 
ernment  estimates  illiteracy  at  80  per  cent,  and 
only  8  per  cent  of  the  population  of  school  age 
attend  school.  Against  this  condition  the  Catholic 
Church  has  labored  unceasingly.  The  Christian 
Brothers  opened  their  first  school  at  Port-au-Prince 
in  1864;  of  the  300  boys  who  applied  for  admission 
only  150  could  be  accommodated.  A  second  school 
was  opened  at  Jacmel  in  1866,  in  which  year  the 
school  at  Port-au-Prince  was  burned  down.  Another 
school  opened  in  1867  was  also  destroyed  by  fire. 
The  Brothers  were  obliged  to  abandon  their  educa¬ 
tional  work  in  Haiti  until  1871,  when  a  school  was 
again  opened  at  Jacmel.  This  was  followed  by 
foundations  at  Port-au-Prince  and  elsewhere,  until 
in  1881  there  were  46  Brothers  teaching  12  schools 
with  an  average  attendance  of  2700  boys.  By  1887 
they  were  assisted  by  9  native  teachers.  Meantime 
the  Brothers  were  suffering  untold  hardships  from 
lack  of  food,  clothes,  and  books,  and  many  had 
died  from  yellow  fever  and  other  causes.  But  the 
work  of  education  continued.  In  1897  there  were 
98  Brothers  teaching  5467  boys.  A  succession  of 
hardships,  such  as  incendiarism  and  entire  lack  of 
funds,  required  the  closing  of  many  schools  from 
1902  to  1912,  when  the  St.  Louis  de  Gonzague 
College  and  chapel  were  partly  wrecked  in  the 
blowing  up  of  the  National  Palace.  In  1914,  26 
Brothers  of  military  age  enlisted  in  the  World  War. 
In  1917  there  were  57  Brothers,  assisted  by  23 
native  teachers,  conducting  8  Government  schools 
and  the  St.  Louis  de  Gonzague  attended  by  3078 
boys.  After  the  armistice  (1918)  6  schools  were 
reopened.  According  to  a  convention  signed  by 
the  Brothers  and  the  Haitian  Government  in  1921 
and  approved  by  the  financial  adviser  under  the 
treaty  of  1915,  the  Brothers  are  now  receiving  a 
salary  of  $50  a  month,  which  will  enable  them  suc¬ 
cessfully  to  condnue  their  work.  There  are  three 
Catholic  colleges  in  Haiti:  Our  Lady  of  Perpetual 
Help  at  Cap  Haitien;  Little  Seminary  and  College, 
of  St.  Martial;  and  St.  Louis  de  Gonzague  at  Port- 
au-Prince.  There  are  12  schools  for  boys,  11  sup¬ 
ported  by  the  Government,  and  the  primary  de¬ 
partment  of  St.  Louis  de  Gonzague  for  pupils  wl^o 
pay  for  tuition.  These  schools  are  conducted  by 
about  80  Christian  Brothers  and  31  laymen.  The 
average  attendance  at  the  colleges  is  1100  to  1200; 
Christian  Brothers  schools  from  2900  to  3000. 

The  Sisters  conduct  45  schools.  Under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny  are  21 
schools  and  3  Government  hospitals.  The  Daugh¬ 
ters  of  Wisdom  have  23  schools  and  5  Government 
hospitals.  The  Daughters  of  Mary  conduct  2 
domestic  science  schools.  The  average  attendance 
at  the  girls  intermediate  or  high  schools  is  1000  to 
1100;  Sisters’  schools  from  4000  to  4100.  General 
ecclesiastical  statistics  for  the  Republic  of  Haiti 
are:  secular  clergy  152,  priests  and  Brothers  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  19,  priests  and 
Brothers  of  the  Company  of  Mary  18,  Christian 
Brothers  73,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny  171, 
Daughters  of  Wisdom  203,  Daughters  of  Mary  8. 

An  event  of  recent  interest  was  the  testimony 
of  Fr.  Louis  Marie  Le  Sidaner,  rector  of  Thoma- 
zeau,  before  the  hearings  of  the  Senate  Committee 
2  December,  1921.  He  testified  against  the  occupa¬ 
tion  of  Haiti,  and  cited  numerous  incidents  of 
importance.  The  temporary  chaplain  of  the  U.  S. 
Navy  and  Marine  Corps  in  Haiti  (of  whom  one- 
third  are  Catholic)  is  Fr.  Marcas,  C.  S.Sp.  General 
religious  statistics  give:  Episcopalians  2500,  Wes- 


HAJDU-DOROGH 


361 


HAMBURG 


ley  a  ns  2o00,  Baptists  2000,  Methodists  1500,  Seventh 
Day  Adventists  300. 


Hajdu-Dorogh,  Diocese  of  (Hajdu-Doroghensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XV  I-35d),  Greek  Rite,  suffragan  of 
Esztergom,  Hungary.  The  episcopal  see  is  at 
Hajdu-Dorogh,  but  the  residence  is  at  Debreczin; 
the  liturgical  language  is  ancient  Greek.  The  first 
and  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Stephen  Miklossy, 
b.  at  Rakoez,  22  August,  1857,  ordained  1884,  pastor 
of  Satoraljanjhely,  diocese  of  Munkacs,  dean  of 
the  countslnp  of  Zenplen,  elected  bishop  23  June, 

1913,  and  consecrated  the  following  October.  In 

1914,  an  assault  having  been  made  upon  the  bishop 
he  transferred  his  residence  to  Nyiregyhaza.  In  1913 
there  were  m  the  diocese  73,225  Catholics,  of  whom 
14,220  were  Rumanians. 


Diocese  of  (Hacodatensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
'r  rn  i  •a'>  ^  ^aPan»  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese 
of  Tokio.  On  12  February,  1915,  this  diocese  ceded 
part  of  its  territory  to  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
Sapporo  and  part  to  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
Nygata.  It  now  (1921)  comprises  1  province  and 
4  departments;  Oshima,  of  which  province  Hako¬ 
date  is  the  capital,  Aomori,  Iwate,  Niyugi,  and 
I ukushima,  and  extends  from  37°  to  42°  north  lati¬ 
tude,  and  from  139  to  142°  east  longitude  The 
total  population  numbers  4,500,000,  all  Japanese 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  families  of  Russian 
refugees  and  a,  few  foreign  business  representatives 
•  u®  j.no  abongines>  who  were  originally  found 
in  this  diocese,  belonged  to  the  territory  which  is 
now  a  part  of  the  Prefecture  of  Sapporo  The 
present  incumbent  and  first  bishop  of  Hakodate, 
Rt.  Rev.  Alexander  Berlioz,  member  of  the  Society 
of  foreign  Missions,  to  whose  care  this  diocese  is 
entrusted,  was  born  in  the  Diocese  of  Chambery 
France,  1852,  ordained  1875,  went  as  a  missionarv 
to  Japan,  18/9,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Calinda 
and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Hakodate  24  April  1891 
and  made  bishop  of  Hakodate  15  June  following’ 
consecrated  at  Tokio,  25  July,  1891. 

The  two  principal  events  of  the  diocese  during 
recent  years  have  been  the  return  of  the  mis¬ 
sionaries  who  were  mobilized  during  the  World 
V\  ar,  and  the  visit  of  the  papal  delegate,  Mgr. 
humasom-Biondi,  in  August,  1920.  This  event  hap- 
pily  coincided  wfith  the  celebration  of  the  tercentary 
.of  the  sending  of  Hasekura  Tsunenega  in  1620 
as  envoy  from  the  Japanese  court  to  the  courts 
oi  Spain  and  the  Vatican,  where  he  was  baptized, 
the  papal  delegate  was  invited  by  the  civil  authori- 
to  participate  in  this  celebration,  which  was 
religious  as  well  as  patriotic,  since  the  seventeenth- 
century  hero  thus  honored  was  called  upon  to  pub¬ 
licly  defend  the  Faith,  and  his  son  died  for  it 
A  most  prominent  member  of  this  mission,  and 
a  noted  botanist  as  well,  Rt.  Rev.  Urbain  Faurie 
(q.v.),  d.  in  the  Island  of  Formosa,  4  July,  1915.  He 
was  one  of  the  pioneers  in  the  study  of  Japanese 
plant  life  and  was  held  in  high  esteem  by  the 
personnel  of  the  Botanical  Garden  of  Tokio,  as  well 
as  in  other  countries  to  which  he  sent  specimens 
the  religious  communities  established  in  this  dio- 
cese,  in  addition  to  the  members  of  the  Society 
of  the  Foreign  Missions,  are:  the  Trappists  with  54 
rehgious,  Trappistines  with  60  religious,  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Raul  of  the  Cross  with  18  religious,  and  the 
Cistercians  with  60  religious;  all  of  these  orders 
have  a  number  of  native  members.  By  present 
statistics  the  Catholics  of  the  diocese  number  2718 
showing  a  slight  diminution  since  1919,  owing  mostly 
to  emigration  caused  by  the  poverty  in  this  terri¬ 
tory.  There  are  17  parishes,  17  distinctly  Chris¬ 


tian  districts,  but  in  general  the  Christians  are 
scattered,  20  churches  and  chapels,  17  of  which 
are  blessed,  1  preparatory  seminary,  2  seminarians, 
21  European  and  3  native  priests.  The  State  re¬ 
serves  all  jurisdiction  over  primary  schools,  and 
obliges  all  other  schools  to  teach  the  classics,  but 
the  universities  are  allowed  comparative  liberty. 
How  e\  er,  there  is  1  Catholic  school  for  boys  w’hich 
is  tolerated  because  of  the  almost  deserted  region 
m  which  it  is  located,  and  in  this  there  are  12 
pupils.  There  are  three  schools  for  girls  under 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Paul  of  the  Cross,  which  follow 
the  official  program  and  which  are  practically  self- 
supporting;  1  of  these  schools  is  situated  at  Hako¬ 
date  with  162  pupils,  1  at  Morioka  with  230  pupils 
1  at  Sendai  with  220  pupils.  Various  charitable 
institutions  include,  1  orphanage  under  the  Trappist 
Fathers  with  14  children,  1  under  the  Trappistines 
with  3o  children,  3  dispensaries  conducted  by  the 
F*atil  of  the  Cross  which  cared  for 
46,224  cases  in  1921,  and  two  farms.  During  the 
past  year  (1921—22)  there  were  in  this  diocese  116 
baptisms  of  pagans,  78  of  whom  were  at  the  point 
of  death,  146  baptisms  of  infants  at  the  point  of 
death  67  Christian  children,  1128  first  confessions 
and  1111  first  communions. 


Halicz,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Lwow. 


Halifax,  Archwocese  of  (Halifaxiensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  yll-117c),  comprises  the  peninsula  of  Nova 
Scotia,  with  the  exception  of  three  counties,  and 
the  Bermuda  Islands.  There  are  300,000  inhabi¬ 
tants,  55,000  Catholics,  74  secular  priests,  26  regu¬ 
lars,  32  seminarians,  37  parishes,  86  churches,  10 
chapels,  2  congregations  of  men  and  4  of  women 
300  religious,  and  4000  children  in  the  Catholic 
schools  The  present  archbishop  is  Most  Rev. 
Edward  J.  McCarthy,  consecrated  1906.  On  15 
December,  1920,  was  celebrated  the  centenary  of 
the  diocese;  the  actual  date  of  erection  was  1842, 
but  the  Acadian  territory  was  separated  from 
Quebec  in  1817,  and  the  first  vicar  apostolic,  Mgr. 
Burke,  was  consecrated  in  1818. 


Hamburg  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-121b).-A  city  in  the 
former  empire  of  Germany  and  now  called  the 
Free  City  of  Hamburg  in  the  Republic  of  Hamburg. 
According  to  the  census  of  1919  there  were  1,064,000 
inhabitants  in  the  state  and  999,000  in  the  city. 
In  1910  there  were  51,200  Catholics  and  19,500  Jews 
m  the  state.  The  state  of  Hamburg  consists  of 
the  Hanseatic  Free  City  itself  and  4  Landherren- 
schaften:  1  Landherrenschaft  der  Geestlande,  2 
Landherrenschaft  der  Marschlande,  3  Landherren- 
schaft  Bergedorf,  4  Landherrenschaft  Ritzelbuttel. 
I  he  Protestant  population  is  divided  into  5  church 
districts  with  33  parish  churches,  6  chapels  and  about 
100  clergymen.  The  Catholics  in  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  number  50,000.  There  are  8  Catholic 
parishes,  the  oldest  of  which  is  St.  Ansgar,  which 
dates  from  the  seventeenth  century  and  is  generally 
known  as  Little  St.  Michael’s.  Next  comes  St 
Boniface’s  Church,  dating  from  1910.  About  25 
priests  are  engaged  in  caring  for  the  needs  of  these 
cniirclies.  Until  1920  the  State  refused  to  support 
the  Catholic  schools.  According  to  the  new  consti¬ 
tution  the  state  is  compelled  to  contribute  to  their 
maintenance,  which  it  does  in  a  considerable  meas¬ 
ure,  the  deficiency  being  made  up  by  the  Catholics 
of  the  vicariate. 

There  are  altogether  173  elementary  or  public 
schools  (  V olkschulen) ,  and  of  these  11  are  Catholic 
parochial  schools.  The  secondary  schools  include 
I  Catholic  high  school  for  boys,  1  Hohere  Schule 
(9  year  curriculum,  mainly  classics,  for  boys);  1 


HAMILTON 


362 


HARRISBURG 


Realschule  (Latin,  science,  and  modern  ianguages) 

1  Progymnasium  (6  year  classical  course).  Among 
the  50  girls’  high  schools  one  is  Catholic,  and  is 
conducted  by  the  Ursuline  Sisters.  A  Catholic 
lyceum  has  been  opened  at  Holzdamm.  Hambu  g 
belongs  to  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the  Northern 
Missions  under  the  Bishop  of  Osnabruck  (q.v.). 


Hamilton,  Diocese  of  (Hamiltonensxs;  cLC.  E., 
VII-123a) ,  in  Ontario,  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese 
of  Toronto,  is  under  the  administration  of  its  f ourt 
bishon  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  Joseph  Dowling,  D.D. 
Bishop  Dowling  has  filled  the  see  since  1889,  having 
been  transferred  from  Peterborough,  where  he  was 
consecrated  in  1887.  On  account  of  >s  great  num¬ 
ber  of  years  in  the  episcopate  he  is  Dean .  ol  the 
Canadian  bishops,  and  on  the  occasion  of  the  gol¬ 
den  jubilee  of  his  priesthood  m  1914  he  was  made 
an  assistant  at  the  Pontifical  Throne. 

During  the  World  War  the  scarcity  of  priests  in 
the  diocese  was  so  great  that  a  number  had  to  be 
borrowed  from  London.  Only  one  of  the  euhsted 
priests,  however,  was  sent  overseas,  but  the  Oatr  o- 
lics  of  the  diocese  went  far  beyond  their  percentage 
in  enlistments,  the  number  from  the  Cathedral 
parish  alone  being  676  before  conscription  went  into 
effect,  and  all  the  other  parishes  show  similar 

1COn9May,  1918,  the  diocese  lost  its  vicar  general 
by  the  death  of  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr  John  M.  Maho¬ 
ney  D.C.L.,  and  domestic  prelate.  He  was  one 
of  Ontario’s  most  distinguished  priests  and  a  well 
known  authority  on  school  law  as  well  as  a  public 
spirited  citizen,  active  in  charitable  and  patriotic 

WThe  present  statistics  of  the  diocese  (1921)  show 
50  parishes,  93  churches,  43  missions  with  10  sta¬ 
tions,  1  convent  of  Christian  Brothers,  12  convents 
for  women,  56  secular  and  20  regular  clergy  200 
nuns,  21  seminarians,  1  college  for  men  with  15 
teachers  and  attendance  of  250,  1  high  school  ' with 
10  teachers  and  attendance  of  250  (110  boys  and  140 
girls)  2  academies  with  18  teachers  and  attendance 
of  300  50  elementary  schools  wfith  700  teachers  and 
attendance  of  8000.  The  various  charitable  institu¬ 
tions  of  the  diocese  are :  1  Infants  Home  at  Ham¬ 
ilton,  1  orphanage  at  Hamilton  and  1  at  fet.  Agatha, 
1  hospital  at  Hamilton  and  1  at  Guelph,  1  refuge 
home  at  Dundas,  1  at  St.  Agatha,  and  1  at  Guelph. 
All  the  public  institutions  admit  the  priests  ol  the 
diocese  to  minister  in  them  and  a  government  grant 
is  made  to  the  Catholic  hospitals,  homes  and  or¬ 
phanages.  Among  the  clergy  the  Priests  Eucha¬ 
ristic  League  is  organized,  and  among  the  laity  the 
Holy  Name  Society  and  the  Catholic  Womens 
League.  The  “Catholic  Magazine”  is  published 
monthly  in  the  diocese. 


have  been  published  widely  in  America,  as  serials 
in  secular  weeklies,  and  are  representative  of  Hans- 
iacob’s  style  and  his  charmingly  original  method 
in  the  village  story.  The  Dorjgeschichte -  was  per¬ 
haps,  first  introduced  by  Jeremias  Gotthelf  and 
Alexander  Weill,  and  later  made  popular  by  the 
great  success  of  Berthold  Auerbachs  Schwarz- 
waelder  Dorfgeschichte”  (1843)  and  now  has  its 
most  original  representative  m  Heinrich  Hansjacob, 
whose  striking  and  entertaining  character  sketches 
of  Das  Volk,  in  which  he  excels,  are  always  from 
life  and  in  their  real  names  and  locations,  these 
sketches  are  so  remarkable  in  the  simple  straight¬ 
forward,  good  humored  manner  of  the  people  he 
describes,  and  are  so  reliable,  that  they  have  ger^ed 
as  sources  of  information  to  students  of  the 
sociology  and  political  economy  of  the  romantic 
Schwarzwald.  Hansjacob  follows  no  school  of  writ¬ 
ing  and  recognizes  no  principles  of  narration.  He 
will  have  none  of  the  “gray  theory”  of  books  of 
rhetoric,  but  insists  that  he  will  follow  only  life 
and  custom  as  he  finds  them  among  the  people. 
His  point  of  view  is  consistently  idealistic,  but  m 
his  treatment,  which  is  so  personal  as  to  be  almost 
universally  biographical,  he  is  an  unerring  realist. 
The  restraint  and  dignity  of  his  language,  and  his 
chaste  and  unembellished  sentences,  are  suggestive 
of  the  classics.  Hansjacob  represents,  as  perhaps 
no  other  living  writer,  the  very  soul  of  the  people 

of  the  German  highlands.  .  ,  _  ,  T  . 

A.  Geiger,  Das  Badner  Land  in  Das  Lit eransche  Echo,  1,  co  . 
871  ff. ;  Roedder,  Introduction  (in  English)  to  Schwarzwaldeut 
(New  York,  1913);  Bischoff  ,  Heinrich  Hansjacob,  derSchwarz- 
w adder  Dorfdichter,  Eine  literansche  Studie  (Stuttgart) , 
Hansjacob,  Der  Theodor,  Einleitung  von  Heinrich  Bischoff, 
with  portrait  of  author  (Leipsig,  1918). 

Vincent  Henry  Huck. 


Harbor  Grace,  Diocese  of  (Portus  Gratis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  VII-133c),  suffragan  of  St.  John’s,  New¬ 
foundland,  comprises  the  northeast  portion  of  the 
Island  of  Newfoundland,  and  Labrador.  The  Indian 
missions  in  the  interior  of  Labrador  are  attended 
from  Harbor  Grace.  There  are  23  secular  priests 
in  the  diocese,  40  churches,  94  stations,  5  convents 
(3  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Presentation  and  2  of  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy),  2  academies,  and  a  total  of  115 
schools  with  129  teachers.  The  Catholic  population 
is  24,000,  and  the  Protestant  population  is  74,000. 
The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  John  March,  con¬ 
secrated  1906. 


Hansjacob,  Heinrich,  writer  of  Black  Forest 
village  stories  ( Schwarzwaelder  Dorfdichter),  b.  at 
Haslach,  Baden,  19  August,  1836;  ordained  priest 
at  twenty-six;  for  fifteen  years  pastor  at  Hagnau, 
a  small  village'  on  the  Bodensee;  transferred  to 
Freiburg,  1884,  where  he  has  since  remained  as 
Stadtpjarref  in  charge  of  Saint  Martins.  Eiom 
1871  to  1881,  Hansjacob  was  a  member  ol  the 
Landtag  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  and  twice, 
in  1870  and  in  1873,  suffered  imprisonment  because 
of  his  staunch  defense  of  liberty  during  the  Baden 
Kulturkamp.  His  writings  comprise  over  thirty 
volumes,  mostly  narratives  and  memoirs,  with 
travels  and  two  historical  novels.' The  most  . pop¬ 
lar  are  “Ausmeiner  Jugendzeit”  (Heidelberg,  1880) , 
“Wilde  Kirschen”  (1888);  “Schneeballen  (3 1vol., 
1892-93),  and  “Waldleute”  (Stuttgart,  1897).  These 


Harrisburg,  Diocese  of  (Harisburgensis;  cf.  C. 
E.  VII-143a),  ceded  three  of  its  original  counties, 
Fulton,  Center,  and  Clinton,  to  the  Diocese  of 
Altoona,  which  was  formed  in  1901.  It  now  com¬ 
prises  15  counties  with  an  area  of  7565  sq.  miles, 
and  where  it  originally  contained  25,000  Catholics 
with  22  priests  and  40  churches,  it  now  contains  a 
Catholic  population  of  80,252,  comprising  English- 
speaking  people,  German,  Croatian,  Polish,  Slovak, 
Magyar,  Lithuanian,  and  Italian. 

After  seventeen  years  m  the  See  ol  Harrisburg, 
the  Rt.  Rev.  John  Walter  Shanahan,  third  bishop 
of  the  diocese,  died  on  19  February,  1916.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  the  number  of  parishes  had  in¬ 
creased  to  74  and  120  priests  were  administering 
to  approximately  80,000  Catholics.  Bishop  Shana¬ 
han  was  succeeded  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Philip  R. 
McDevitt,  consecrated  21  September,  1916.  He  was 
born  in  Philadelphia  on  12  July,  1858,  and  was 
superintendent  of  the  parish  schools  of  that  diocese 
from  1899  to  1916.  On  30  January,  1917,  occurred 
the  death  of  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  John  Jos.  Koch,  D.D., 
vicar  general  of  the  diocese,  pastor  of  St.  Edward  s 
Church,  Shamokin,  and  for  fifty-three  years  a  pio¬ 
neer  missionary  in  Central  Pennsylvania.  Born  in 


HARTFORD 


363 


HARTMANN 


the  province  of  Lorraine,  France,  on  5  February, 
1840,  he  came  to  America  early  in  1862,  after  com¬ 
pleting  his  preparatory  studies  in  the  college  of 
Pont-a-Mousson  and  the  Grand  Seminaire  of  Nancy. 
He  received  minor  orders  from  Mgr.  Darboy,  after¬ 
wards  Archbishop  of  Paris,  and  later  assassinated 
in  the  time  of  the  Commune,  and  after  completing 
his  studies  at  St.  Charles  Borromeo  Seminary, 
Philadelphia,  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  bv 
Bishop  Wood  27  February,  1863. 

On  29  September,  1918,  the  golden  jubilee  of  the 
diocese  was  celebrated,  and  a  memorial  to  Bishop 
Shanahan  erected  in  the  cathedral  was  unveiled  by 
the  Most  Rev.  John  Bonzano,  D.  D.,  Apostolic 
Delegate.  During  the  World  War  the  diocese  gave 
four  chaplains  and  two  auxiliary  chaplains  to  the 
service,  and  the  laity  responded  promptly  to  all 
patriotic  calls. 

Religious  in  the  diocese  of  Harrisburg  include: 
Men:  Franciscans,  Minor  Conventuals,  Fathers  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  Redemptorists,  Irish  Capuchins, 
and  Friars  Minor;  Orders  of  women:  Sisters  of 
Mercy,  Sisters  Servants  of  the  Immaculate  Heart 
of  Mary,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  of  the  Holy  Cross, 
of  Charity  (of  Mt.  St.  Aincent),  of  Christian 
Charity,  of  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  of  St.  Fran¬ 
cis,  O.M.C.,  Felician  Sisters,  O.S.  F.,  of  Sts.  Cyril 
and  Methodius,  of  St.  Casimir,  and  Sisters  Adorers 
of  the  Most  Precious  Blood.  Priests  number  103 
secular  and  20  regular'  ecclesiastical  students  37; 
churches  with  resident  priests  75;  missions  18; 
parish  schools  48  with  12,450  pupils;  orphan  asylums 
3  with  297  inmates ;  hospital  1 ;  academies  3  with 
243  pupils,  2  high  schools  with  8  teachers  and 
attendance  of  144  (51  boys,  93  girls),  2  training 
schools  with  11  teachers  and  attendance  of  43.  All 
public  institutions  admit  Catholic  priests.  Among 
the  Clerical  Purgatorial  Association  and 
the  Priests’  Eucharistic  League  are  organized,  and 
among  the  laity  the  K.  of  C.,  A.  O.  H.,  K.  of  St. 
George,  Blessed  Virgin’s  Sodality,  Holy  Name 
Society,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  and  Altar  Guilds 


Hartford,  Diocese  of  (Hartfordiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
^I~144a). — John  J.  Nilan,  the  seventh  and  present 
Bishop  of  Hartford,  was  born  at  Newburyport., 
1  August,  1855.  lie  received  his  early  education 
in  the  elementary  and  high  schools  of  his  native 
town,  made  his  classical  studies  at  Nicolet,  Canada, 
and  his  course  of  philosophy  and  theology  at  St. 
Joseph’s  Seminary,  Troy,  New  York,  where'  he  was 
ordained  21  December,  1878.  He  exercised  the 
sacred  ministry  in  several  parishes  of  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Boston,  where  his  zeal  and  efficiency  won 
m  a  Prom°tiori  to  the  permanent  rectorship 
of  St.  Joseph’s  Church  in  Amesbury.  It  was  during 
his  pastorate  in  Amesbury  that  he  was  chosen  to 
fill  the  vacancy  in  the  see  of  Hartford.  He  was 
consecrated  in  the  cathedral  at  Hartford  on  28 
April,  1910,  the  diocese  having  been  vacant  since 
the  death  of  Bishop  Tierney  (5  October,  1908). 

From  the  very  outset  of  his  episcopal  career  he 
^  idence  of  that  zeal  and  energy  which  always 
characterized  his  work  in  the  sacred  ministry. 
Lnder  his  leadership  and  direction  the  diocese  has 
been  enriched  by  1  large  infant  asylum,  2  academies 
for  young  ladies,  40  parishes,  17  parochial  schools, 
and  splendidly  equipped  additions  to  4  hospitals. 
He  established  a  Diocesan  Bureau  of  Social  Sendee, 
with  headquarters  in  Hartford  and  branches  in 
several  of  the  large  industrial  centers,  and  he  has 
infused  new  life  and  vigor  into  the  Holy  Name 
and  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Societies.  He  applied  for 
an  auxiliary  in  1919  and  received  Rt.  Rev.  John 
Gregory  Murray,  D.D.,  titular  Bishop  of  Flavias, 


who  had  been  his  chancellor  for  nine  years.  Bishop 

H^ay^Wol  bT?rin  at  Waterbury  in  the  diocese  of 
Haitford,  26  February,  1877,  student  at  Louvain, 

'™re,  hw  ,was  °r(^ined , 14  April,  1900,  and  was 
3  ected  bishop  18  December,  1919,  and  consecrated 
at  Hartford  by  Mgr.  Bonzano  28  April,  1920. 

Present  Condition  of  the  Diocese.— Within  the 
limits  of  the  State  of  Connecticut  there  are  at 
present  _  545,147  Catholics,  while  the  non-Catholic 
population  is  859,924  (1921).  They  are  ministered 
to  by  450  priests.  The  number  of  parishes  in  the 
diocese  is  211;  of  these  157  are  English-speaking 
churches,  13  French,  6  German,  2  Hungarian,  10 
Italian,  6  Lithuanian,  1  Maronite,  19  Polish,  4 
olovak,  1  Slovenian.  There  are  also  missions  for 
the  Syrians  and  Chaldeans.  There  is  a  preparatory 
seminary  with  163  students,  while  150  students  are 
making  their  course  of  philosophy  and  theology  in 
Canada,  Europe,  and  the  United  States.  The  reli¬ 
gious  orders  of  men  are  represented  by  the  Domin- 
lca? _  Friars  at  New  Haven,  Franciscan  Friars  Minor 
at  Winsted,  Franciscan  Conventuals  at  Bridgeport, 
Jesuits  at  South  Norwalk,  Missionaries  of  La  Salette 
at  Hartford  and  Danielson,  Fathers  of  the  Congre¬ 
gation  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo  at  New  Haven, 
Vmcentian  Fathers  at  Derby  and  New  Haven,  and 
me  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  at  Darien  and 
Ridgefield.  There  are  two  seminaries  of  religious 
orders  with  54  students. 

There  are  1680  religious  women  in  the  diocese, 
representing  24  communities.  The  Sisters  of  Mercy 
(721  in  community)  conduct  2  academies,  37 
parochial  schools,  1  infant  asylum,  1  orphan  asylum, 
and  1  home  for  the  aged.  They  care  for  arid  in¬ 
struct  22,900  persons.  The  Sisters  of  Charity  of 
Our  Lady  Mother  of  Mercy  (105  in  community) 
conduct  1  hospital,  1  academy,  and  4  parochial 
schools.  The  total  number  of  people  under  their 
care  is  2954.  The  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Emmitts- 
burg  (46  in  community)  have  the  care  of  1  hos¬ 
pital,  1  day  nursery,  and  3  parochial  schools;  they 
care  for  2010  persons.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph 
(243  m  community)  have  charge  of  2  hospitals,  1 
academy,  1  school  for  boys,  and  8  parochial  schools; 
they  are  responsible  for  the  care  of  3700  persons. 
The  Sisters  of  the  Congregation  de  Notre  Dame 
have  1  academy  in  which  they  train  200  pupils. 

1  he  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic  conduct  1  academy  and 
1  parochial  school,  having  under  their  charge  333 
pupils.  The  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor  maintain 
1  home  for  the  aged  poor,  which  has  accommoda¬ 
tion  for  168  inmates.  The  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  (168  in  community)  conduct  2  homes  for 
working  girls  and  8  parochial  schools.  They  also 
care  for  the  sick  poor  in  their  homes.  They  are 
responsible  for  the  care  of  about  4000  people.  The 
Daughters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  conduct  1  hos¬ 
pital  and  1  day  nursery.  The  Sisters  of  the  Good 
Shepherd  have  charge  of  1  house  of  correction  for 
wayward  girls.  The  Missionary  Apostolic  Zelatrices 
Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  conduct  1  orphanage 
and  2  day^  nurseries,  in  which  they  care  for  and 
instruct  265  children.  Other  religious  communities 
which  furnish  teaching  staffs  for  parochial  schools 
in  the  diocese  are:  the  Felician  Sisters  of  St. 
Francis,  Sisters  of  SS.  Cyril  and  Methodius,  Sisters 
of  Divine  Charity,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  of 
Nazareth,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  ‘  and  of' the 
Seven  Dolors,  Sisters  of  the  Assumption,  Schools 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  Polish  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
Sisters  of  the  Resurrection,  and  Sisters  of  St. 
Francis. 

Hartmann,  Felix  von,  Cardinal,  b.  in  Westphalia 
15  December  ;  d.  at  Cologne  on  11  November,  1919; 
he  was  ordained  priest  in  1874,  and  then  became 


HAURAN 


HEALY 


364 


chaplain  of  Santa  Maria  dell’Anima  in  Rome  In 
1880  lie  was  Vicar  at  Havizbech  and  then  private 
secretary  of  Mgr.  Dingelstadt  at  Emmerich  and 
subsequently  Vicar  General,  Dean  and  Prothonotary 
in  1907,  and  consecrated  Bishop  of  Munster  6  June, 
1911.  In  1913  he  succeeded  Cardinal  Fischer  m  the 
see  of  Cologne,  receiving  the  Grand  Cross  of  Ma 
in  1914.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Prussian  House 

of  Lords  in  1916,  and  was  created  Cardinal  Priest 

25  May,  1914,  with  the  title  of  St.  John  at  the 
Latin  Gate.  He  died  on  the  first  anniversary  of 
the  signing  of  the  armistice. 

Hauran,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Bostra  and 
Hauran. 

Havana  (San  Cristobal  de  la  Habana),  Diocese 
of  (Avanensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII-153c),  suffragan  of 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  comprises  the  provinces  of ^  La 
Habana  and  Matanzas,  with  an  area  of  2818  square 
miles.  The  Catholic  population  is  500,000  and 
there  are:  100  secular  priests,  80  regulars,  8  col¬ 
leges  for  boys  with  1730  pupils;  14  boarding  schools 
for  young  girls  with  2200  pupils;  5  asylums,  includ¬ 
ing ‘l  home  for  old  people;  1  hospital;  2  houses  of 
the  Good  Shepherd;  60  schools  for  catechumens, 

57  parishes;  and  55  churches  and  chapels,  i 
present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev  Pedro  Gonzales  y 
Estrada,  born  in  Havana,  1865,  appointed  16  Sep¬ 
tember,  1903,  and  consecrated  28  October  following. 

Hawaii,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
XIII-438a),  formerly  known  as  Sandwich  Islands 
(Sandwigiensis  in  Oceania),  comprises  the  Ha¬ 
waiian  Islands  which  now  belong  to  the  United 
States.  According  to  the  last  census  the  entire 
population  numbered  approximately  256,912,  com¬ 
prising  native  Hawaiians,  Portuguese,  Spamaids, 
Porto  Ricans,  Filipinos,  Chinese,  Koreans  Japanese, 
Caucasians.  About  50  per  <  cent  of  the  native 
Hawaiians  are  Catholic  and  in  all  there  are  from 
70  000  to  75,000  Catholics  in  the  vicariate.  _ 

At  the  present  time  (1921)  the  vicariate  is  under 
the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Libert  Hubert 
Boeynaems,  consecrated  25  July,  1903.  The  Church 
is  constantly  gaining  ground  in  this  territory,  bu 
the  many  different  tongues  spoken  on  the  islands 
is  one  of  the  greatest  handicaps.  On  20  November, 
1921,  word  was  received  that  the  pope  had  approved 
the  transfer  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  by  the  Con¬ 
gregation  of  the  Propaganda  to  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Apostolic  Delegation  at  Washington.  ihe 
islands  were  formerly  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Apostolic  Delegation  of  Australia,  Since  1912 
the  vicariate  has  lost  many  zealous  workers  fromthe 
ranks  of  the  clergy.  Among  these  _  was  Rev. 
Wendelin  Moeller,  of  the  Congregation  ot  the 
Sacred  Hearts,  successor  to  Father  Damien  m  the 
Leper  Settlement,  born  in  Germany  21  March, 
1850,  ordained  in  Paris  26  May,  1877,  transferred 
to  Hawaiian  Islands  1884,  died  1  Septembei,  1914. 
During  the  World  War  many  of  the  citizens  were 
drafted  and  one  of  the  priests  of  the  territory 
served  as  their  chaplain,  but  none  of  these  men 
were  sent  overseas.  However,  numbers  of  the  men 
volunteered,  and  of  these  many  gave  up  their  lives. 

In  all  there  are  30  churches  and  about  95  chapels 
and  missions,  attended  by  39  Fathers  of  the  Sacred 
Hearts  and  1  priest  of  the  Society  of  Mary.  W  orks 
of  education  and  charity  are  conducted  by  the 
Brothers  of  Mary  (from  Dayton,  Ohio)  numbering 
58,  Franciscan  Sisters  (from  Syracuse,  N.  Y.)  num¬ 
bering  about  24,  and  7  Brothers  of  the  Sacred 

JJeartS 

Very  marked  progress  has  been  made  in  educa¬ 
tion  in  recent  years,  and  now  St.  Louis  College 
in  Honolulu,  under  the  Brothers  of  Mary,  has  an 


enrollment  of  1015  boys,  their  school  m  Hilo 
(Island  of  Hawaii)  has  319  boys,  and  in  Wailuku 
(Island  of  Maui)  359  boys;  under  the  Sisters  of 
the  Sacred  Hearts  there  are,  in  Honolulu  a  tree 
school  for  the  poor  and  a  select  school  and  board¬ 
ing  department  with  552  girls;  in  Kaimuki  an 
academy  with  250  girls;  under  the  Franciscan  Sis¬ 
ters  a  school  for  girls  in  Hilo  with  325  children. 
Among  the  charitable  institutions  there  ai  e .  2 
orphanages,  the  Kapiolani  Home  for  non-leprous 
girls  the  Bishop  Home  in  Molokai  for  leprous  girls 
and  women,  and  the  Baldwin  Home  for  boys  and 
men  on  the  same  island,  the  Father  Louis  Home 
for  boys  in  Hilo,  and  the  Malulam  Hospital 
(County  Hospital).  In  addition  to  these  institu¬ 
tions  there  is  a  colony  in  Honolulu  of  55  girls,  bom 
of  leper  parents  but  not  themselves  afflicted,  under 
the  care  of  the  Franciscan  Sisters,  and  m  Hilo 
Rev.  Father  Aloys  has  gathered  together  some  53 
orphan  or  suffering  boys.  All  the  public  institutions 
admit  the  priests  and  they  are  permitted  to  give 
religious  instruction  to  the  Catholic  children  mthe 
public  schools  after  classes  are  dismissed.  ihe 
government  gives  financial  support  to  the  leper 
homes  and  the  home  for  children  of  leper  parents. 

The  Apostleship  of  Prayer,  Confraternities  of  the 
Holy  Rosary  and  Holy  Scapular  Sodality  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  Society 
of  the  Holv  Childhood,  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis, 
Columbus  'Welfare  Club,  Ytmng  Men’s  and  Young 
Ladies’  Institutes,  Holy  Name  Society  and  Catholic 
Ladies  Society  are  established  in  the  islands. 


Healing  Associations.  See  Christian  Science; 
New  Thought. 

Healy,  John,  Archbishop  of  Tuam,  historian,  b. 
at  Ballinafad,  Sligo,  Ireland,  on  14  November,  1841 ; 
d.  at  Tuam  on  16  March,  1918.  He  entered  the 
diocesan  college  at  Summerhill,  Athlone  in  1860, 
and  proceeding  thence  to  Maynooth  for  philosophy 
and  theologjq  was  ordained  in  1867.  He  next  taught 
for  two  years  at  Summerhill,  and  then  spent  seven 
years  in  pastoral  work.  In  1879  he  qualified  for 
the  chair  of  classics  and  the  chair  of  theology  at 
Maynooth  College;  selecting  the  latter  he  lectured 
there  till  1883,  when  he  was  appointed  prefect  ot 
the  Dunboyne  Establishment.  The  following  years 
he  was  made  titular  Bishop  of  Macra  and  coadjutor 
to  Dr  Duggan  of  Clonfert,  whom  he  succeeded  in. 
1896-  and  in  1903  he  was  transferred  to  Tuam. 
Archbishop  Healy,  who  was  only  less  interested  m 
the  temporal  than  in  the  spiritual  welfare  of  e 
Irish  people,  was  an  able  administrator.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  commission  that  reported  to 
Parliament  on  the  Irish  University  question,  and 
it  was  largely  due  to  him  in  conjunction  with  Arch¬ 
bishop  Walsh  that  a  solution  of  that  problem,  satis¬ 
factory  to  Catholics,  was  reached.  #  He  was  also  a 
member  of  the  Senate  of  the  National  Univeisity 
of  Ireland,  a  Governor  of  University  College,  Cal- 
way,  vice-president  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries 
of  Ireland,  a  member  of  the  Irish  Board  of  Agricul¬ 
ture  and  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.  Brought  in 
touch  with  nature  in  its  wild  and  varied  moods  m 
Connaught,  his  natural  gift  of  oratory  rendered  him 
a  charming  extempore  speaker,  while  some  of  his 
studied  addresses,  like  his  speech  on  the  occasion 
of.  Edmund  Burke’s  centenary  and  his  address  at 
the  Eucharistic  Congress  in  London  were  brilliant. 

From  his  boyhood  Archbishop  _  Healy  had  an 
enthusiastic  devotion  for  St.  Patrick,  and  to  this 
love  we  owe  his  excellent  “Life  and  Writings  of 
St.  Patrick,”  and  the  revival  of  the  ancient  pil¬ 
grimage  to  the  summit  of  Croaghpatiick,  ov  erlook¬ 
ing  the  Atlantic,  where  St.  Patrick  prayed  and 


HEART  OF  MARY 


365 


HEART  OF  MARY 


fasted  forty  days  and  nights  (cf.  C.  E.,  509-10).  In 
addition  he  is  the  author  of  “Ireland’s  Ancient 
Schools  and  Scholars,”  a  work  which  has  enjoyed 
great  popularity;  “A  Record  of  the  Maynooth  Cen¬ 
tenary  Celebrations,”  and  a  volume  of  “Papers  and 
Addresses.”  His  “Irish  Essays,  Literary  and  His¬ 
torical,”  contain  invaluable  information  about  Ire¬ 
land’s  ruined  monasteries  and  shrines.  Though  he 
was  conservative  in  his  politics,  as  in  his  theology, 
one  of  his  poems,  “Red  Hugh’s  Address  to  his 
Soldiers  before  the  Battle  of  the  Curlew  Moun¬ 
tains,”  is  so  full  of  patriotic  fervor  that  the  chil¬ 
drens  reader  in  which  it  was  printed  was  banned 
from  the  National  Schools  by  the  authorities.  Arch¬ 
bishop  Healy,  as  the  founder  and  president  of  the 
Catholic  Truth  Society  of  Ireland,  did  excellent 
work  in  helping  to  popularize  good  healthy  litera¬ 
ture  in  his  country. 


Heart  of  Mary,  Congregations  of  the — 

Congregation  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary 
(Congregation  of  Scheutveld;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII-167c). 

The  Constitutions  of  the  Congregation,  approved 
ad  experimentum  in  1888,  were  definitively  approved 
by  papal  decree,  20  July,  1900.  The  Congregation 
came  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Sacred  Congre- 
gation  of  Propaganda,  18  March,  1921.  Yen. 
Theophile  Verbiest,  founder  of  the  order,  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  Mgr.  Vranckx,  who  remained  at  the  head 
of  the  Congregation  until  1888.  The  general  supe¬ 
riors  since  1888  are:  Van  Aertselaer  (1888-98);  Van 
Hecke  (1898-1908) ;  Albert  Botty  (1908-09) ;  Florent 
Mortier  (1909-20);  Joseph  Rutten  (1920-  ).  The 
Congregation  now  numbers  680  members.  There 
are  171  Fathers  in  the  Vicariates  Apostolic  of  Cen¬ 
tral,  Eastern,  and  Southwestern  Mongolia  and  in 
the  \icariate  Apostolic  of  Northern  Kansu  and  the 
Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Southern  Kansu,  China. 
They  are  assisted  by  46  native  priests  and  in  charge 
of  122,904  Catholics  and  44,201  catechumens,  469 
churches  and  chapels,  and  733  elementary  schools 
with  18,297  children.  The  three  Vicariates  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  Mongolia  have  each  a  seminary  with  a 
total  of  195  seminarians.  There  are  5  normal  schools 
with  202  aspirant-teachers,  and  10  colleges  and 
boarding  schools  with  373  pupils. 

.  In  Africa,  in  Belgian  Congo,  the  Congregation  is 
m  charge  of  the  three  Vicariates  Apostolic  of  Leo¬ 
poldville,  New  Antwerp,  and  Kassai,  where  114 
priests  and  47  lay  brothers  attend  157,716  Catholics 
and  155,372  catechumens.  There  are  270  schools 
with  7,381  children  and  39  churches  and  chapels. 
At  the  hospital  in  Kangu  250  sick  people  are  at¬ 
tended  daily,  and  33  lazarets  are  established,  espe¬ 
cially  for  those  afflicted  with  the  sleeping  sickness. 
In  1907  the  first  band  of  Scheut  Fathers  landed 
in  Manila,  Philippine  Islands.  They  were  on  their 
way  to  the  Mountain  Province,  to  start  the  evan¬ 
gelization  of  the  pagan  tribes.  They  now  number 
45  priests  and  7  lay  brothers  in  charge  of  about 
10,000  Christians  and  500  catechumens  from  the 
hill  tribes,  and  also  of  about  92,000  Catholics  con¬ 
verted  by  the  Spanish  Friars  and  living  in  the 
lowlands  in  some  parishes  around  Manila  and  in 
the  Dioceses  of  Nueva  Segovia  and  Tuguegarao  in 
Northern  Luzon.  They  have  75  churches  and 
chapels  and  56  schools  with  an  attendance  of  7,654 
pupils.  At  the  end  of  1919  the  Congregation  sent 
a  missionary  to  the  Indians  on  the  Mississippi;  two 
Fathers  are  established  at  Philadelphia,  in  the 
Diocese  of  Natchez,  Miss.;  and  a  procurator  of 
the  Congregation  is  living  in  New  York  City. 

During  the  war  many  Fathers  and  students  took 
refuge  in  England,  and  devoted  themselves  to  the 
spiritual  care  of  the  numerous  Belgian  refugees. 


At  the  invitation  of  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of 
u  estminster  three  Fathers  have  remained  in  Eng- 
land  and  do  some  parish  work  among  the  Belgians 
of  London.  In  recent  years  the  Congregation  lost 
two  of  its  distinguished  members :  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop 
Bermyn  (d.  1915),  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Southwest 
Mongolia  and  immediate  successor  of  the  martyred 
Bishop  Hamer;  and  Rev.  Albert  Botty  (d.  1919) 
former  superior  general.  The  organ  of  the  Congre¬ 
gation  is  edited  in  Flemish  (“Missien  van  Scheut”) 
and  in  French  (“Missions  de  Scheut”). 

Daughters  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary 
(cf.  C.  E.,  VII-167b). — This  association  is  resident 
in  six  or  seven  small  communities  at  Peunes, 
France. 

Daughters  of  the  Most  Holy  and  Immaculate 
Heart  of  Mary  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-167b).— Founded  2 
July,  1848,  at  Olot  in  the  Diocese  of  Gerona,  Spain, 
by  Very  Rev.  Joaquin  Mosmitja  y  Puig,  for  the 
Christian  education  of  young  girls,  and  approved 
by  the  Holy  See  in  1849.  The  community  pros¬ 
pered  and  houses  were  established  in  the  Diocese 
of  Gerona.  In  1870  Rt.  Rev.  Thaddeus 
Amat,  C.  M.,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Monterey  and  Los 
Angeles,  in  quest  of  a  teaching  sisterhood  for  his 
diocese,  visited  Gerona  and  appealed  to  the  vener¬ 
able  founder  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate 
Heart.  In  the  summer  of  the  following  year  a 
party  of  ten  Sisters  left  Spain,  and  in  August  of 
that  same  year  began  their  work  in  California 
at  Gilroy,  the  northernmost  parish  of  Monterey 
and  Los  Angeles.  The  congregation  achieved  great 
success  in  the  educational  field  and  now  numbers 
about  125  members  in  California,  conducting  the 
Immaculate  Heart  College  in  Hollywood,  to  which 
the  mother-house  is  attached,  two  academies,  one 
at  San  Luis  Obispo  and  the  other  at  San  Ber¬ 
nardino,  the  cathedral  high  school  and  seven 
parochial  grammar  schools  in  Los  Angeles  and 
vicinity,  the  total  enrollment  in  all  being  about 
5,000. 

Handmaids  of  the  Most  Pure  Heart  of  Mary, 
a  congregation  of  colored  Sisters  founded  by  Fr. 
Ignatius  Lissner  in  1916.  In  September  of  that 
year  Fr.  Lissner  gathered  together  a  few  pious 
young  women,  gave  them  a  little  house  next  to  St. 
Benedict’s  School  in  Savannah,  and  instructed  and 
directed  them  in  the  missionary  work  intended  for 
them.  Three  years  later  he  drafted  a  permanent 
constitution  which  received  the  approval  of  Bishop 
Keily  of  Savannah,  12  March,  1919.  The  Sisters 
follow  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine,  adapted  to  their 
works  of  charity  and  mercy.  Their  occupation  is 
the  practical  education  of  colored  children,  visiting 
the  sick  and  assisting  them  in  every  way  if  they 
are  in  need.  They  carefully  watch  over  unprotected 
children,  and  provide  work  and  employment  for 
them,  to  enable  them  to  become  self-supporting. 
The  Sisters  at  present  teach  children  at  St.  Mary’s 
School  and  St.  Anthony’s,  West  Savannah.  The 
community  numbers  6  professed  Sisters,  4  novices, 
and  3  postulants.  Mother  Mary  Theodore  is  the 
first  Superior. 

Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary  (cf.  C.  E., 
VII-167d). — The  Sisters’  houses  in  Portugal  were 
vacated  by  order  of  the  Government  in  1910.  Three 
new  foundations  replaced  these  in  1911:  two  in 
Brazil  (at  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Ciudad  D’uba)  and 
one  at?  Tuy  in  Spain.  All  are  flourishing  academies. 
The  nuns  who  had  been  secularized  re-entered  their 
convent  at  Oporto  in  October,  1920,  and  at  Braga 
in  May,  1921.  A  foundation  was  made  at  Cambrai 
in  France,  October,  1913,  and  on  1  October,  1921, 
an  academy  was  opened  in  London.  A  Marymount 
Annex  is  in  process  of  construction  in  Paris  and  is 


HEART  OF  MARY 


366 


HELPERS 


to  be  opened  1  October,  1922.  The  Sisters  have 
under  their  care  colleges,  finishing  schools,  acad¬ 
emies,  training  schools  for  teachers,  technical 
schools,  parochial  schools,  and  orphanages.  The 
terms  of  office  of  general  and  local  superiors  are  in 
accordance  with  the  new  Code  of  Canon  Law. 

Heart  of  Mary,  Sisters  Servants  of  the  Im¬ 
maculate. — See  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary,  Sis¬ 
ters  Servants  of  the. 

Heart  of  Mary,  Holy,  Congregation  of  Augus- 
tinians  of  the.  See  Letellier,  Victoire. 

Hebrews,  Epistle  to  the  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-181c). — 
On  24  June,  1914,  the  Pontifical  Biblical  Commis¬ 
sion  issued,  on  the  subject  of  the  authorship  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  a  decision  which,  whilst 
reaffirming,  on  the  one  hand,  the  canonical  char¬ 
acter  of  this  epistle,  declares,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  it  ought  to  be  held  as  the  genuine  work  of 
St.  Paul.  The  reasons  adduced  in  some  quarters, 
namely,  the  absence  of  the  apostle’s  name  and 
customary  introduction,  the  remarkable  purity  of 
diction  and  elegance  of  style,  the  manner  of  quot¬ 
ing  and  arguing  from  the  Old  Testament,  and  the 
alleged  differences  of  doctrine  with  the  well  authen¬ 
ticated  letters  of  St.  Paul,  afford  no  solid  basis 
to  a  denial  of  the  Pauline  authorship;  they  are, 
moreover,  outweighed  by  far  by  the  striking  simili¬ 
tude  of  the  teaching  and  its  wording  and  of  the 
warnings  and  exhortations,  nay  even  by  the  close 
resemblance  in  the  wording  and  sentences  with 
those  of  the  other  Pauline  writings.  To  say  that 
St.  Paul  is  the  author  is,  of  course,  to  attribute  to 
the  apostle  under  Divine  inspiration  the  concep¬ 
tion  and  expression  of  all  the  ideas;  but  not  neces¬ 
sarily  the  elaboration  of  the  outward  form  of  the 
epistle. 

Acta  Apostolicae  Sedis,  VI  (1914),  417-418;  Jacquier,  Etudes 
de  critique  et  de  philologie  du  Nouveau  Testament  (Paris, 
1920). 

Hedley,  John  Cuthbert,  Bishop  of  Newport,  b. 
at  Morpeth,  England,  15  April,  1837 ;  d.  at  Llan- 
ishen,  near  Cardiff,  11  November,  1915.  He  was 
the  son  of  Edward  A.  Hedley,  a  physician,  and 
at  the  age  of  thirteen  was  sent  to  the  Benedictine 
College  at  Ainpleforth  in  Yorkshire.  On  the  com¬ 
pletion  of  his  college  education  he  joined  the 
English  Congregation  of  Benedictines  and  was 
professed  at  St.  Lawrence’s  Abbey,  Ainpleforth,  on 
10  November,  1855.  Sevea  years  later  he  was  raised 
to  the  priesthood  (19  October,  1862),  and  shortly 
afterwards  he  was  sent  to  lecture  in  the  house  of 
studies  at  Belmont.  On  29  September,  1873,  he 
was  consecrated  by  Archbishop  Manning  as  Bishop 
of  Csesaropolis  in  partibus  as  auxiliary  to  his  fellow- 
Benedictine,  Dr.  Brown,  Bishop  of  Newport  and 
Menevia,  whom  he  succeeded  on  18  February,  1881. 
In  1891  he  was  appointed  assistant  at  the  papal 
throne,  and  in  1896  was  named  president  of  the 
Catholic  University  Board;  to  him  is  largely  due 
the  approval  given  to  Catholics  attending  Oxford 
and  Cambridge.  Bishop  Hedley’s  influence  on  the 
Catholic  life  of  England  was  important,  for  his 
advice  was  constantly  sought  by  the  members  of 
the  English  hierarchy.  He  was  sympathetic  with 
those  whose  modern  ways  of  thought  rendered  reli¬ 
gious  belief  difficult.  His  great  openness  of  mind 
is  attributed  by  Wilfrid  Ward — whose  predecessor 
he  had  been  for  a  time  as  editor  of  the  “Dublin 
Review” — to  the  influence  of  Newman’s  works. 
“It  needs  a  very  rare  and  very  sympathetic  imag¬ 
ination  to  realize  without  personal  contact  an  in¬ 
tellectual  world  wholly  dissimilar  to  that  in  which 
you  live.  It  is  one  of  Bishop  Hedley’s  triumphs 


that  he  did  so  to  a  remarkable  extent.”  Dr.  Hed¬ 
ley’s  sermons,  which  he  was  accustomed  to  deliver 
by  reading,  are  real  literature;  they  have  been 
published  in  three  volumes  under  the  titles  “Our 
Divine  Saviour,”  “The  Light  of  Life,”  and  “The 
Christian  Inheritance.”  Among  the  most  memorable 
of  his  addresses  are  the  funeral  panegyrics  on 
Cardinals  Manning  and  Vaughan,  and  his  oration 
at  the  opening  of  the* Central  Seminary  of  Oscott. 
The  treatise  “Lex  Levitarum,”  as  a  commentary 
of  the  Regula  Pastoralis  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great, 
is  of  interest  chiefly  to  religious,  but  “The  Holy 
Eucharist”  and  “The  Retreat”  seem  destined  to 
enjoy  a  continued  popularity  among  the  laity  as 
well. 

Heidelberg,  University  of.  See  Freiburg,  Arch¬ 
diocese  of. 

Hej  az.  See  Arabia. 

Helena,  Diocese  of  (Helenensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VII-203c),  suffragan  of  Oregon,  comprises  an  area 
of  51,922  square  miles  and  is  one  of  the  two  sees 
in  the  State  of  Montana,  U.  S.  A.  Rt.  Rev.  John 
P.  Carroll,  the  second  bishop,  was  consecrated  21 
December,  1904.  He  was  born  at  Dubuque,  Iowa, 
22  February,  1864,  and  ordained  7  July,  1889.  Under 
Bishop  Carroll’s  direction  the  St.  Helena  Cathedral 
has  been  built  (1908-1914),  Mount  St.  Charles  Col¬ 
lege  and  Preparatory  Seminary  has  been  erected 
and  rapidly  grown  (1909-1921)  and  Catholic  central 
high  schools  have  been  established  in  all  important 
centers.  The  Jesuits  who  were  pioneer  priests  in 
this  territory,  have  several  missions  for  Indians  in 
this  diocese. 

During  the  late  war  Rev.  J.  G.  Tongas  and  R,ev. 
J.  H.  Ready  rendered  splendid  service  as  chaplains. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  percentage  of  vol¬ 
unteers  exceeded  that  of  other  faiths  and  many 
men  from  the  Diocese  of  Helena  died  on  the 
battlefields.  The  State  of  Montana  allows  the 
ministry  of  priests  in  its  public  institutions,  which 
are  attended  by  a  chaplain.  There  is  a  St.  John’s 
Ecclesiastical  Society  for  infirm  priests  in  the  dio¬ 
cese  and  many  organizations  among  the  laity.  Vari¬ 
ous  parishes  publish  parish  monthlies,  and  the 
college  has  a  paper,  the  “Prospector.”  The  House 
of  the  Good  Shepherd,  the  Orphans’  Home  and  the 
Infant  Home  receive  compensation  from  the  State 
for  some  of  their  inmates. 

The  communities  of  men  in  the  Hele.na  diocese 
are  the  Jesuits  and  the  Premonstratentians,  while 
the  orders  of  women  are  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the 

B. V.  M.,  Ursulines,  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of 
St.  Dominic,  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  of  Perpetual 
Adoration,  Sisters  of  Mercy  and  Sisters  of  the  Good 
Shepherd.  The  diocese  counts  50  parishes,  48  mis¬ 
sions,  96  churches,  140  stations,  36  convents  for 
women,  85  secular  and  15  regular  priests,  8  lay 
brothers,  330  nuns  and  sisters,  1  college  and  prepara¬ 
tory  seminary  with  12  priests  and  5  laymen  as 
professors,  27  seminarians  and  126  students,  6  high 
schools  with  54  teachers  and  1038  pupils,  4 
academies,  1  training  school  for  nurses,  20  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  with  5649  pupils,  1  orphan  home,  1 
House  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  1  Infant  Home,  8 
hospitals. 

Helpers  of  the  Holy  Souls,  Society  of  the  (cf. 

C.  E.,  VII-213a). — The  Helpers  offer  up  for  the 
Holy  Souls  all  the  satisfactory  part  of  their  works 
of  mercy  among  the  poor,  their  vows  and  prayers, 
as  well  as  indulgences  applicable  to  themselves. 
Their  chief  work  of  merc}^  is  visiting  and  caring 
for  the  sick  poor.  They  also  have  numerous  other 
works  of  zeal  and  charity,  such  as  religious  in- 


HEMPTINNE 


HERBERMANtf 


367 


struction  for  children  and  adults,  and  sewing  classes 
from  which  the  girls  are  allowed  to  take  home  the 
garments  they  have  made.  In  1921  over  84,000 
general  instructions  were  given  to  these  sewing 
classes  in  New  York.  Here  a  modern  settlement 
house  was  erected  in  1914  on  the  site  of  the  three 
old  dwelling  houses  formerly  used  for  the  work  in 
East  85th  Street.  There  is  a  consequent  enlarge¬ 
ment  of  activities.  The  Marian  Club  for  girls  was 
organized  in  1919  and  now  (1922)  numbers  500 
■  i — ,  .  1 ^  the  new  convent  and  chapel 

in  East  86th  Street  were  erected.  In  San  Fran¬ 
cisco  they  have  a  hew  convent  oh  Haight  Street. 
In  the  past  ten  years  new  foundations  have  been 
made  at  Glasgow  in  Scotland,  Bergamo  in  Italy, 
Lyons,  Valence,  and  Rennes  in  France,  Cheli  in 
China. 

A  novitiate  for  England  has  been  established 
at  Marnhull,  Dorset,  and  for  Belgium  at  Overysche, 
near  Brussels.  An  Italian  novitiate  has  also  been 
opened  at  San  Remo,  and  the  year  1922  will  prob¬ 
ably  ^  witness  the  beginnings  of  an  American 
novitiate  in  the  Diocese  of  New  York.  The  Helpers 
do  not  engage  in  institutional  work  of  any  kind, 
although  throughout  the  World  War  they  operated 
ambulances  in  France  and  Belgium,  and,  as  in  1870, 
ministered  untiringly  to  the  wounded  as  long  as 
necessity  required.  At  the  general  congregation  of 
1921  Rev.  Mother  Mary  of  St.  Magdalen  of  Pazzi 
was  re-elected  superior  general  of  the  Society  for 
a  term  of  twelve  years.  The  revised  Code  of  Canon 
Law  required  few  changes  except  a  lengthened 
probation  for  postulants,  six  months  being  now  the 
term  instead  of  three  as  formerly.  At  present  (1922) 
the  Helpers  have  43  houses  in  various  parts  of  the 
world,  with  about  1000  members  composing  their 
communities. 


Hemptinne,  Hildebrande  de,  first  Abbot  Primate 
of  the  Benedictines,  b.  at  Ghent  on  10  June,  1849; 
d.  at  Beuron  on  13  August,  1913.  After  serving  in 
the  papal  army  as  a  lieutenant  of  the  Zouaves,  he 
joined  the  sons  of  St.  Benedict  and  was  professed 
in  the  Abbey  of  Beuron  on  15  August,  1870.  He 
was  ordained  in  June,  1872,  and  eighteen  years  later 
was  elected  Abbot  of  Maredsous,  receiving  the 
abbatial  blessing  at  Monte  Cassino  on  5  October, 
1890.  Six  years  later  he  was  appointed  by  Leo 
XIII  primate  of  his  order  with  the  title  of  Abbot 
of  San  Anselmo  de  Urbe,  with  his  residence  in  the 
new  Benedictine  international  house  on  the  Aven- 
tine,  Rome.  He  was  named  consultor  of  several 
of  the  Sacred  Congregations,  procurator  of  the 
Greek  College  de  Urbe  and  representative  at  Rome 
of  the  Greek  Melchite  patriarch  of  Antioch. 

Herbermann,  Charles  George,  teacher,  author, 
and  editor,  b.  at  Saerbeck,  Westphalia,  Germany, 
8  December,  1840;  d.  in  New  York  24  August,  1916. 
His  father  was  George  Herbermann  of  Glandorf, 
Hanover,  the  proprietor  of  the  general  country 
store  at  Saerbeck,  and  his  mother  was  Elizabeth 
Stipp,  born  at  Osnabriick,  Hanover.  At  the  age  of 
nine  Charles  had  completed  the  course  at  the  local 
school,  taught  by  a  young  priest,  Vicar  Hermes, 
and  had  commenced  the  study  of  Latin.  To  better 
the  economic  condition  of  the  family,  his  father 
decided  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  accordingly  he  emigrated  with  his  family  from 
Bremerhafen  on  1  November,  1850,  taking  passage 
on  the  ship  “Agnes.”  The  family  landed  in  New 
xork  on  21  January,  1851.  During  the  unusually 
severe  and  protracted  voyage  the  two  youngest 
children  had  died.  Charles  was  sent  to  the 
parochial  school  of  St.  Alphonsus  in  Thompson 
Street,  which  had  been  established  by  the  Re- 


demptonst  Fathers  for  German-speaking  Catholics. 
On  17  April,  1853,  he  enrolled  as  a  student  at  the 
Jesuit  College  of  Saint  Francis  Xavier  in  West 
Fifteenth  Street,  New  \ork  City.  On  the  com¬ 
pletion  ol  the  classical  course  in  July,  1858,  he  was 
awarded  the  degree  of  A.B.,  not  by  St.  Francis 
Xavier  College  which,  founded  only  in  November 
1850%  had  not  yet  received  its  charter,  but  bv  St! 
Johns  College,  Fordham.  From  185$  to  1869  he 
was  a  member  of  the  teaching  staff  of  his  Alma 
Mater.  His  duties  were  first  with  the  commercial 
department,  in  which  instruction  in  arithmetic 
bookkeeping,  English,  French,  secondary  mathe- 
inatics  and  physics  Was  given.  Later  he  also  taught 
the  Classics.  He  had  a  splendid  baritone  voice 
which,  together  with  a  considerable  love  for  music, 
caused  him  to  become  a  member  of  the  choir  of 
the  Church  of  Saint  Francis  Xavier  and  at  times 
to  take  part  in  the  public  recitals  of  the  Men¬ 
delssohn  Union,  a  notable  organization  composed 
chiefly  of  amateur  musicians.  He  studied  and  re¬ 
ceived  the  degree  of  A.  M.  from  St.  John’s  in  1860 
and  that  of  Ph.D.  from  St.  Francis  Xavier  in  1865. 
In  later  years  he  often  spoke  of  his  association 
with  the  distinguished  members  of  the  college 
faculty,  Fathers  de  Luynes,  Durthaller,  Loyzance, 
Daubresse,  Monroe,  and  Thebaud. 

On  20  October,  1869,  Dr.  Herbermann,  then 
barely  twenty-nine  years  of  age,  was  appointed 
Professor  of  the  Latin  Language  and  Literature  at 
the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York.  The  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  college  at  that  time  was  General  Alex¬ 
ander’  S.  Webb,  who  had  distinguished  himself 
on  the  field  of  Gettysburg.  On  1  November,  1869, 
Professor  Herbermann  began  his  duties  which  were 
to  last  lor  forty-five  years  and  to  bring  honor  both 
to  himself  and  to  the  college.  As  a  teacher  in  the 
classroom,  as  an  administrator  of  a  department, 
and  as  a  councillor  in  the  faculty,  he  was  success¬ 
ful  from  the  beginning.  In  1873  he  added  to  his 
other  tasks  the  congenial  one  of  librarian  of  the 
college.  The  regard  in  which  he  was  held  by  his 
‘boys,”  men  of  different  races  and  different  creeds, 
many  of  whom  had  won  distinction  in  professional 
or  business  life,  was  evidenced  by  a  complimentary 
banquet  tendered  to  him  at  the  Hotel  Astor  on 
12  January,  1911,  at  which  his  portrait  in  oil  was 
presented  to  the  college.  Dr.  Herbermann  was  a 
founder  and  the  first  president  (1863)  of  the 
Xavier  Alumni  Sodality.  He  was  also  president 
of  the  Xavier  Alumni  Association,  the  Catholic 
Club,  which  he  helped  to  establish,  and  of  the  Ger¬ 
man  Catholic  Congress,  convened  at  Newark,  New 
J ersey,  in  1892.  He  lectured  on  German  Literature  at 
the  Catholic  Summer  School,  Cliff  Haven,  New 
York,  in  1896,  and  again  on  the  Kulturkampf  in 
1910.  The  United  States  Catholic  Historical  Society, 
projected  by  prelates  and  laymen  attending  the 
Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore,  had,  after  the 
death  of  John  Gilmary  Shea,  suspended  activity. 
In  1898  a  group  of  zealous  Catholics  undertook 
the  restoration  of  the  Society.  Dr.  Herbermann 
became  president  and  also  editor  of  the  series  of 
monographs  and  of  the  “Historical  Records  and 
Studies.”  Both  of  these  positions  he  occupied 
until  his  death.  Under  his  presidency  the  Society 
grew  and  under  his  editorship  it  made  important 
contributions  to  the  field  of  Americana,  such  as 
the  “Unpublished  Letters  of  Charles  Carroll  of 
Carrollton,”  and  to  the  Church  History  of  America. 

In  January,  1905,  Dr.  Herbermann  was  called  to 
the  editorship-in-chief  of  The  Catholic  Encyclo¬ 
pedia,  to  be  “an  international  work  of  reference  on 
the  constitution,  doctrine,  discipline,  and  history 
of  the  Catholic  Church”  in  fifteen  volumes  with 


HERBERMANN 


368 


HERESY 


an  index.  To  the  performance  of  this  task  he 
brought  a  scholarship  broad  in  content,  often  called 
“old-fashioned”  on  that  account,  and  modern  in 
method.  His  specialties  were  the  classical  Latin 
language  and  literature.  He  was  learned  in  the 
English,  French,  German,  and  Greek  literatures 
and  in  history,  both  civil  and  ecclesiastical.  He 
had  a  good  knowledge  of  philosophy,  art,  music, 
and  general, science.  From  11  January,  1905,  to 
19  April,  1913,  he  presided  over  approximately  one 
hundred  and  thirty-four  formal  sessions  of  the 
Board  of  Editors.  He  himself  was  in  direct  charge 
of  the  departments  of  literature,  archaeology,  art, 
civil  history  and  civil  law,  music,  national  topics, 
and  science.  The  first  volume  of  the  Encyclopedia 
appeared  in  the  spring  of  1907,  and  the  fifteenth 
volume  was  copyrighted  in  1912.  The  index  volume 
was  issued  in  1914.  Afflicted  with  glaucoma,  Dr. 
Herbermann  had  suffered  partial  and  finally  com¬ 
plete  loss  of  eyesight.  His  daughters,  assisted  some¬ 
times  by  their  brothers  and  occasionally  by  a  friend, 
performed  the  task  of  readers  and  amanuenses  for 
him  in  his  labor  as  editor-in-chief. 

Many  academic  and  other  honors  were  conferred 
on  Dr.  Herbermann  in  the  course  of  his  years  of 
activity  as  a  scholar.  In  1882  his  Alma  Mater 
bestowed  on  him  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws 
and  in  1906  Holy  Cross  College  of  Worcester, 
Massachusetts,  made  him  a  Doctor  of  Letters,  an 
honor  repeated  by  the  Catholic  University  in  1915. 
He  received  the  Lsetare  Medal  from  the  University 
of  Notre  Dame  in  1913.  He  was  twice  honored  by 
the  Holy  Father,  Pius  X;  in  1909,  when  he  was 
invested  with  Knighthood  in  the  Order  of  Saint 
Gregory  and,  upon  the  completion  of  the  Catholic 
Encyclopedia  in  1913,  when  he  received  the  medal 
Pro  Ecclesia  et  Pontifice. 

In  July,  1873,  he  married  Miss  Mary  Theresa 
Dieter,  a  native  of  Baltimore.  She  died  in  1876, 
leaving  two  little  daughters,  the  older  of  whom 
died  in  1887.  In  1880  he  married  Miss  Elizabeth 
Schoeb  of  New  York  City,  a  native  of  Marburg  in 
Hesse.  She  became  the  mother  of  seven  children, 
one  of  whom  died  in  early  childhood.  She  died 
in  1893. 

In  September,  1914,  while  teaching  a  class  at  the 
college,  Dr.  Herbermann  was  stricken  with  an 
attack  of  aphasia.  Although  he  quickly  recovered 
from  this,  he  was  unable  again  to  resume  his 
academic  duties,  and  he  was  made  professor 
emeritus  on  1  February,  1915.  He  still  continued 
to  study  in  his  library,  to  take  his  habitual  daily 
walks  with  his  children  or  friends,  to  contribute 
articles  on  American  Church  history  to  the  “His¬ 
torical  Records  and  Studies.”  He  took  pleasure  in 
the  visits  of  his  friends,  many  of  whom  were  asso¬ 
ciates  of  a  lifetime,  and  he  enjoyed  the  constant 
care  and  companionship  of  his  children  and  the 
caresses  of  his  little  grandchildren.  An  attack  of 
bronchial  pneumonia,  in  January,  1916,  left  him 
in  an  enfeebled  condition.  He  died  fortified  by 
the  rites  of  the  Church. 

Dr.  Herbermann  was  the  author  of  many  papers, 
chiefly  on  educational  and  historical  topics,  which 
appeared  in  various  magazines,  including  the 
“Catholic  Quarterly  Review,”  “Catholic  World,” 
the  “Messenger,”  “America,”  and  the  “Catholic 
Historical  Review.”  He  edited  nine  volumes  of 
“Historical  Records  and  Studies”  issued  by  the 
U.  S.  Catholic  Historical  Society  (New  York,  1898- 
1916).  For  the  Society  he  also  wrote  numerous 
articles  (see  index  to  Vol.  XI  of  “Historical  Records 
and  Studies”  for  a  partial  list),  translated  Torfa- 
son’s  “History  of  Ancient  Vinland”  (1888,  “Catholic 
Historical  Magazine”),  and,  as  editor,  brought  out 


the  following  monographs:  “Unpublished  Letters  of 
Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton”  (New  York,  1902), 
Thebaud’s  “Three-Quarters  of  a  Century,”  in  three 
parts  (New  York,  1904,  1912,  1913),  “Historical 
Sketch  of  St.  Joseph’s  Provincial  Seminary,  Troy, 
N.  Y.”  (New  York,  1905),  Waldseemiiller’s  “Cos- 
mographiae  Introductio”  (New  York,  1907),  Lord 
Russell’s  “Diary  of  a  Visit  to  the  United  States” 
(New  York,  1910).  He  was  the  author  of  “Business 
Life  in  Ancient  Rome”  (New  York,  1880).  He 
edited  Sallust’s  “Bellum  Jugurthinum”  (New  York, 
1886),  and  “Bellum  Catilinse”  (Boston,  1890).  He 
wrote  “The  Sulpicians  in  the  United  States”  (New 
York,  1916).  He  was  editor-in-chief  of  the  Cath¬ 
olic  Encyclodedia  (New  York,  1907-1914). 

United  States  Catholic  Historical  Society,  Historical 
Records  and  Studies,  Vol.  X  (New  York,  1917);  City  College 
Quarterly,  Vol.  XII,  No.  4  (New  York,  1916). 

Paul  H.  Linehan. 

•  Heresy  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-256a). — In  the  Code  of 
Canon  Law  the  term  heretic  means  a  baptized  per¬ 
son  who,  while  retaining  the  name  of  Christian, 
stubbornly  denies  or  calls  in  doubt  any  truth  which 
is  to  be  accepted  on  Divine  and  Catholic  Faith. 
All  heretics  incur  ipso  facto  excommunication 
specially  reserved  in  the  internal  forum  to  the 
Holy  See;  furthermore,  unless  they  repent  after 
being  admonished,  they  are  to  be  deprived  of  any 
ecclesiastical  benefices,  dignities,  pensions  or  offices 
they  have;  they  are  to  be  declared  tainted  with 
infamy,  and,  if  they  be  clerics,  after  a  further 
fruitless  warning  they  are  to  be  degraded.  Again, 
a  similar  excommunication  is  incurred  by  those 
who  publish  books  written  by  heretics  upholding 
and  commending  heresy,  and  by  all  who  defend 
or  knowingly  and  without  due  permission  read  or 
keep  these  or  any  other  books  prohibited  by  name 
by  letters  Apostolic.  Formerly  this  censure  was 
directed  not  against  the  publishers,  but  the  printers. 
A  “book”  here  means  a  volume  of  a  certain  size 
and  unity  (cf.  III-524c) ;  the  word  “knowingly” 
implies  the  knowledge  that  the  book  is  by  a  heretic 
in  defense  of  heresy  and  that  it  is  prohibited; 
“letters  Apostolic”  means  documents  emanating 
directly  from  the  pope,  but  not  decrees  of  Roman 
Congregations,  even  if  approved  by  the  pope.  Ex- 
communication  is  no  longer  incurred  by  those  who 
receive  favor,  or  defend  heretics.  Those  who  favor 
heresy  incur  excommunication,  which  is,  however, 
reserved  to  the  Catholic  ordinary  and  not  as 
formerly  reserved  specially  to  the  Holy  See;  they 
are:  Catholics  (a)  who  personally  or  by  proxy  go 
through  the  marriage  ceremony  before  a  non-Cath- 
olic  minister,  whether  after  or  before  the  Catholic 
service,  except  where  the  minister  is  acting  merely 
as  a  civil  official,  and  the  civil  formality  must  be 
complied  with  and  the  parties  intend  merely  a 
civil  effect;  (b)  who  marry  with  an  agreement  ex¬ 
pressed  or  implied  to  bring  up  any  of  the  children 
as  non-Catholics;  (c)  who  knowingly  presume  to 
hand  over  their  children  to  a  non-Catholic  for 
baptism;  and  (d)  who  knowingly  send  their  chil¬ 
dren  or  wards  to  be  educated  in  a  non-Catholic 
religion.  The  suspicion  of  heresy  is  attached  (1)  to 
the  groups  (b),  (c),  and  (d)  just  mentioned,  also 
to  those  (2)  who  knowingly  and  willingly  aid  in 
propagating  heresy  or  who  communicate  with 
heretics  in  non-Catholic  rites — for  instance,  joining 
in  the  singing  of  prayers  at  a  Protestant  service; 
merely  passive  or  material  presence,  e.  g.  at  funerals, 
may  be  tolerated  for  grave  cause,  as  a  mere  act  of 
courtesy  or  civil  respect.  Non-Catholics,  of  course, 
are  admitted  to  all  Catholic  services,  but  not  to  the 
reception  of  the  sacraments,  or  (3)  who  desecrate 
the  Sacred  Species;  or  (4)  who  appeal  from  the 


HERMOPOLIS  MAGNA 


369 


HEXHAM 


decrees  of  the  reigning  pope  to  a  general  council; 
or  (5)  who  obstinately  remain  for  a  year  under 
excommunication;  or  (6)  who  are  guilty  of  simony 
in  administering  or  receiving  the  sacraments.  If 
persons  who  are  suspected  of  heresy  on  being 
warned  do  not  remote  the  grounds  for  suspicion 
they  are  incapacitated  from  performing  canonical 
‘‘legal  acts,”  and  if  they  be  clerics  and  do  not  heed 
a  fresh  warning  they  are  to  be  suspended  a  divinis; 
when  six  full  months  have  passed  after  they  have 
been  penalized,  if  they  are  still  recalcitrant,  they 
are  to  be  deemed  heretics  and  punished  accordingly. 

Heresy  renders  a  person  irregular  ex  delicto;  it 
is  an  impediment  to  marriage  with  a  Catholic,  and 
where  such  a  marriage  has  been  allowed  by  dis¬ 
pensation  the  offspring  would  be  prohibited  by  law 
from  receiving  orders  as  long  as  the  parent  re¬ 
mained  in  his  or  her  error — though,  of  course,  this 
prohibition  could  be  removed  by  dispensation.  It 
also  renders  one  incapable  of  acting  as  sponsor,  or 
of  receiving  ecclesiastical  burial  or  of  acquiring 
or  retaining  the  right  of  patronage. 

Hermopolis  Magna,  Diocese  of  (Hermopoli- 
tanensis  Coptorum;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII-289b),  a  see  for 
the  Coptic  Rite,  erected  in  1895,  with  residence  at 
Minieh  in  Upper  Egypt.  There  are  in  the  diocese 
11  parishes,  11  churches,  2  missions,  3  stations,  3 
convents  of  religious  orders  of  men,  3  convents 
of  nuns,  15  secular  priests,  7  regulars,  5  lay  broth¬ 
ers,  12  seminarians  in  the  national  seminary  at 
Tahta,  16  elementary  schools  with  38  teachers  and 
1130  pupils.  The  schools  receive  no  government 
aid.  There  are  two  associations  among  the  laity. 
The  Catholic  population  is  7565,  of  whom  5000 
are  Catholic  Copts  and  2565  Catholics  of  other 
rites.  Mussulmans  number  2,046,377;  Orthodox 
Greeks  182,289,  Protestants  10,258,  Jews  826,  other 
non-Christian  sects  660,  other  Christians  1589.  The 
first  and  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Maxime 
Sedfaoui,  bom  in  Akmim,  1863,  studied  at  Bey¬ 
routh,  and  was  ordained  1889,  served  as  a  pastor, 
professor  at  the  College  of  St.  Francis  Xavier  at 
Alexandria,  and  appointed  6  March,  1896;  named 
vicar  general  of  the  Patriarchate  of  Alexandria  in 
1908.  This  see  is  titular  for  the  Latin  Rite  and  the 
present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  George  Glossauer,  aux¬ 
iliary  Bishop  of  Prague,  consecrated  8  September, 

1917. 

Hertling,  Georg  F.,  Count  von,  Catholic  phi¬ 
losopher  and  Chancellor  of  the  German  Empire, 
b.  at  Darmstadt  on  31  August,  1843;  d.  at  Ruhpold- 
ing,  Bavaria,  on  4  January,  1919;  son  of  Jakob 
and  Antonie  (von  Guaita)  Hertling.  After  study¬ 
ing  in  Munster,  Munich,  and  Berlin,  he  passed  some 
time  in  Italy,  and  in  1869  married  Anna  von 
Biegeleben.  He  obtained  a  lectureship  and  later  a 
professorship  in  philosophy  in  Bonn,  and  in  1880 
was  called  to  a  similar  position  in  Munich.  From 
1875  till  1890  and  again  in  1896  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Reichstag.  In  1909-11  he  was  leader  of  the 
Center  Party,  and  in  1912  he  was  appointed  first 
Centrist  president  of  the  Bavarian  ministry.  He 
refused  the  imperial  chancellorship  when  von  Beth- 
mann  Holhvcg  fell  during  the  war,  but  after  the 
failure  of  Michaelis  he  accepted.  His  appointment 
was  an  innovation,  as  the  preceding  German  chan¬ 
cellors  had  all  been  Prussians  and  Protestants.  In 
his. initial  speech  he  discussed  President  Wilson’s 
“fourteen  points,”  and  professed  Germany’s  readi¬ 
ness  for  a  peace  of  reconciliation  based  on  a  recog¬ 
nition  of  the  integrity  of  the  empire.  Having 
failed  to  persuade  the  Allies  to  negotiate  on  terms 
of  equality,  he  resigned  his  office  on  30  September, 

1918.  He  was  active  in  the  promotion  of  Catholic 


interests  and  social  legislation  in  Germany,  and 
secured  the  establishment  of  a  Catholic  theological 
faculty  in  Strasburg.  He  was  a  founder  and  later 
president  of  the  Gorres  Gesellschaft  and  the  Ger¬ 
man  Society  of  Christian  Art,  and  was  a  member 
2*  the  Bavarian  Academy  of  Science  from  1899. 
With  Clemens  BHumker  ho  founded,  the  Beitrnge 
zur  Geschichte  der  Philosophic  dcs  M.A.  Among 
von  Hertling’s  writings  the  following  are  note¬ 
worthy:  “Materie  und  Form,  und  die  Definition 
der  Seele  bei  Aristoteles”  (1871),  “Uber  die  Grenzen 
der  median.  Naturerklarg”  (1875),  “Hvpothese 
Darwins”  (1879),  “Albertus  Magnus”  (1880),  “Aus- 
satze  und  Reden  sozialpolit.  Inhalts”  (1884),  “John 
Locke  und  die  Schul'c  von  Cambridge”  (1892), 
“Descartes’  Beziehungen  zur  Scholastik”  (1897-99)! 
“Das  Prinzip  des  Katholizismus  und  die  Wiss,” 
“Augustin”  (1902),  and  “Erinnerungen  aus  meinen 
Leben.” 

Hesse  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-298c),  a  free  state  in  the 
Republic  of  Germany,  has  an  area  of  2968  sq. 
miles,  and  a  population  of  about  1,291,249  (1919). 
The  largest  cities  are  (1919):  Mayence  (Mainz), 
with  a  population  of  107,930;  Darmstadt,  the  capi¬ 
tal,  82,368;  Offenbach  75,380;  Worms  44,290;  Gies¬ 
sen  33,409. 

Education.— In  1920  there  were  979  public  ele¬ 
mentary  schools,  with  4282  teachers  and  204,709 
pupils;  the  continuation  schools  had  28,259  pupils. 
Hesse  had  11  gymnasia,  3  progymnasia,  3  realgym- 
nasia,  9  oberrealschulen,  18  realschulen,  1  agricul¬ 
tural  college,  and  22  incomplete  realschulen,  7 
higher  girls’  schools  with  4408  pupils,  and  49  private 
schools  with  5029  pupils.  The  University  of  Giessen 
had  2143  students  and  the  Technical  High  School 
at  Darmstadt  2206  students. 

Economics  and  Agriculture. — Of  the  area  63.4% 
is  under  cultivation;  31.5%  is  forests;  5.1%  is  un¬ 
cultivated.  Arable  land  occupies  923,403  acres; 
meadows  and  pastures  252,602  acres;  vineyards 
36,087  acres,  and  forests  599,790  acres.  Of  the  lat¬ 
ter,  186,382  acres  belong  to  the  State,  123,155  acres 
to  the  communes.  In  1919  rye  was  the  principal 
crop,  with  a  yield  of  99,717  tons  from  135,070  acres. 
The  33,245  acres  under  vines  yielded  7,388,480  gal¬ 
lons  of  wine  valued  at  213,021,796  marks. 

Recent  History. — Hesse  with  the  other  terri¬ 
tories  acquired  by  Prussia  in  1866  formed  the  Prus¬ 
sian  province  of  Hesse-Nassau  until  1918,  when 
after  the  overthrow  of  the  Empire  it  was  pro¬ 
claimed  a  State  ( lander )  in  the  Republic  of  Ger¬ 
many.  Its  constitution  was  adopted  on  20 
December,  1919,  and  provides  for  a  Landtag  of  70 
members.  For  administrative  purposes,  the  repub¬ 
lic  (state)  is  divided  into  3  provinces,  18  circles, 
and  983  communes. 

Religion. — Ecclesiastically  Hesse  belongs  to  the 
Diocese  of  Mainz  (q.v.). 

Hexham  and  Newcastle,  Diocese  of  (Hagul- 
stadensis  et  Novocastrensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII-318c), 
comprises  the  counties  of  Northumberland,  Dur¬ 
ham,  Cumberland,  and  Westmoreland,  in  the  North 
of  England.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Richard  Collins,  born  in  Newbury,  England,  1857, 
studied  at  Ushaw  and  was  ordained  in  1885,  served 
in  various  missions  and  was  made  administrator 
of  the  cathedral  at  Newcastle  in  1895,  chancellor 
of  Hexham  in  1897,  and  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Selenus  and  auxiliary  bishop  1905,  elevated  to 
the  see  1909;  the  episcopal  residence  is  at  New- 
castle-on-Tyne.  The  total  population  of  the  diocese 
(1911  census)  is  2,396,380,  and  the  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  is  227,486.  The  Benedictines,  Dominicans, 
and  Redemptorists  are  established  in  the  diocese, 


HIJAZ 


370 


HILGARD 


as  are  also  the  Carmelites,  Daughters  of  Wisdom, 
Daughters  of  the  Cross,  Dominican  Nuns,  Faithful 
Companions  of  Jesus,  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shep¬ 
herd,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Poor  Clares,  Poor 
Sisters  of  Nazareth,  Sisters  of  Charity,  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  St.  Paul,  Sisters  of  Marie  Reparatnce, 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  Sisters  of  St.  Thomas  of  Villanova, 
Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary, 
Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  and  Ursulines.  St. 
Cuthbert’s  College  is  at  Ushaw,  and  St.  Cuthbert  s 
Grammar  School  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne.  There  are 
boarding  schools  for  girls  at  Darlington,  West  Hastle- 
pool,  Berwick-on-Tweed,  Sunderland,  and  Newcastle. 
The  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  conducts  a  train¬ 
ing  school  for  teachers  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
The  Central  School  at  Jarrow  is  under  the  Daugh¬ 
ters  of  the  Cross.  There  are  in  the  diocese  270 
clergy,  of  whom  221  are  secular  priests  and  49 
regulars;  188  churches;  46  convents;  2  industrial 
schools  for  boys;  1  industrial  school  for  girls;  1 
poor-law  school  for  girls  from  workhouses;  29 
elementary  schools  for  girls  conducted  by  re¬ 
ligious;  119  public  elementary  schools  receiving 
government  grant;  2  secondary  schools  for  boys; 

9  secondary  schools  for  girls;  1  hospital  conducted 
by  Dominican  Sisters;  2  houses  of  mercy  in  charge 
of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy;  1  orphanage  for  boys  con¬ 
ducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity;  1  orphanage  for 
girls  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Nazareth;  2 
refuges  for  penitents;  3  homes  for  the  aged  poor 
under  the  care  of  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor. 
The  following  associations  are  represented  in  the 
diocese:  Catholic  Needlework  Guild,  Catholic 

Women’s  League,  Catholic  Truth  Society,  Society 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  and  Society  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul. 

Hijaz.  See  Arabia. 

Hildesheim,  Diocese  of  (Hildesheimensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  VII-353b),  in  Germany.  Since  1915  the 
see  has  been  administered  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph 
Ernst,  b.  at  Grossalgermissen  8  November,  1863, 
ordained  2  August,  1886,  elected  26  May,  1915,  con¬ 
secrated  26  September  following.  In  1920  there 
were  213,850  Catholics  in  the  diocese  and  2,000,000 
inhabitants  who  belonged  to  other  denominations. 
It  contains  120  parishes,  16  deaneries,  27  curacies, 
230  churches  and  chapels,  230  secular  priests,  10 
regulars,  of  whom  3  are  Augustinians,  and  7  Fran¬ 
ciscans.  The  Ursulines  have  convents  at  Duder- 
stadt,  Hildesheim,  and  Hanover,  with  49  professed, 
27  lay  nuns,  and  9  novices;  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  have  53  establishments 
(mother-house  at  Hildesheim),  with  475  Sisters 
and  35  novices. 

Hilgard,  Eugene  Woldemar,  pioneer  in  scientific 
agriculture  in  the  United  States,  b.  in  Bavaria  in 
1833;  d.  in  California  in  1916.  The  youngest  of  a 
family  of  four  sons  and  five  daughters  he  came  to 
this  country  with  his  father,  Judge  Hilgard,  at 
the  age  of  three,  when  they  settled  on  a  farm  near 
Belleville,  St.  Clair  County,  Illinois.  _  So  many 
Germans  of  good  education,  which  included  a 
knowledge  of  Latin,  had  settled  there  that  it  was 
called  “the  Latin  settlement.”  Eugene  and  his 
brothers  received  their  early  education  from  their 
father,  who  prepared  them  for  entrance  to  the  uni¬ 
versity.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  Eugene  went  to  the 
University  of  Heidelberg.  When  just  past  twenty 
he  graduated  there,  receiving  the  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Philosophy  with  honor  summa  cum  laude.  This 
degree  was  reissued  to  him  in  1903  as  a  “golden 
degree”  in  recognition  of  a  half  century’s  good  work 


for  science.  He  made  some  graduate  studies  at  the 
University  of  Zurich  and  at  Freiberg  in  Saxony. 
After  this  he  spent  nearly  two  years  in  Spain,  and 
then  returned  to  America  at  the  age  of  twenty-three 
to  take  up  scientific  work  here.  He  had  specialized 
in  geology  and  chemistry,  and  accepted  the  position 
of  assistant  State  geologist  of  Mississippi  1856. 
He  remained  in  the  South  but  for  two  years,  but 
his  genius  for  observation  impressed  itself  deeply 
on  the  geology  of  the  region,  and  he  laid  the 
foundation  upon  which  is  built  the  knowledge  of 
Gulf  Coastal  Plain  Geology.  Professor  E.  A.  Smith, 
State  Geologist  of  Alabama,  says  that  Doctor  Hil¬ 
gard  “laid  the  foundation  on  which  most  subse¬ 
quent  work  in  the  ‘Mississippi  Embay ment,’  as  he 
named  it,  securely  rests.”  Later  He  was  to  come 
back  to  the  study  of  this  region  when  he  was  put 
in  charge  of  the  Cotton  Culture  Reports  of  the 
tenth  census.  This  for  the  first  time  introduced 
scientific  principles  into  cotton  growing,  and  his 
reports  are  still  consulted  with  confidence  by  those 
who  are  interested  in  the  subject.  His  favorite 
subject  was  chemistry,  however,  so  when  offered 
the  position  of  chemist  in  charge  of  the  laboratory 
of  the  Smithsonian  at  Washington  he  accepted  and 
spent  some  two  years  there.  During  this  time  he 
became  a  convert  to  the  Catholic  Church,  and  re¬ 
mained  ever  after  an  ardent  Catholic. 

During  the  Civil  War  he  was  employed  as  a 
chemist  in  charge  of  certain  work  required  by  the 
Southern  Confederacy,  and  immediately  after  the 
war  he  was  offered  the  position  of  State  geologist 
of  Mississippi  and  professor  of  science  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  that  State.  He  spent  some  six  years 
there,  when  his  growing  reputation  led  to  an  invita¬ 
tion  to  teach  at  the  University  of  Michigan,  where 
better  opportunities  for  research  were  afforded  him 
at  a  much  higher  salary.  Here  he  developed  the 
department  of  agriculture  and  became  the  pioneer 
exploiter  of  the  doctrine  that  agricultural  studies 
must  count  correspondingly  to  other  subjects  in  the 
university  curriculum.  From  Michigan  he  went  to 
the  newly  organized  agricultural  department  of  the 
University  of  California,  where  he  spent  all  the 
rest  of  his  life.  He  made  a  series  of  most  important 
investigations  on  the  soils  of  that  State  in  con¬ 
nection  with  their  native  vegetation  and  the 
prospect  they  provided  for  the  growth  of  other 
plants.  He  published  a  book,  “Soils  of  Arid  and 
Humid  Regions,”  and  came  to  be  the  recognized 
expert  in  the  United  States  on  “alkali  soils,”  and 
especially  on  their  reclamation.  Through  him  the 
regions  that  used  to  be  set  down  in  the  geographies 
of  two  generations  ago  as  desert  regions  were  trans¬ 
formed  into  fertile  lands  and  the  so-called  Great 
American  Desert  disappeared. 

He  was  a  very  broadly  educated  man,  knowing 
Latin  and  Greek  as  well  as  most  of  the  modem 
languages  very  well.  He  kept  closely  in  touch  with 
foreign  work  in  his  specialty  and  related  scientific 
investigations.  He  was  looked  up  to  as  the  most 
distinguished  authority  in  scientific  agriculture.  The 
universities  of  Mississippi,  Michigan,  and  California, 
in  recognition  of  his  work  in  those  states,  as  well 
as  Columbia,  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Laws  for  agricultural  science.  The  Royal  Acad¬ 
emy  of  Sciences  of  Munich  awarded  him  the  Liebig 
medal.  The  International  Exposition  at  Paris 
(1900)  awarded  him  a  gold  medal.  During  a  long 
life  of  successful  devotion  to  science  there  was 
only  one  rival  in  his  interest,  and  that  was  his 
devotion  to  the  Church,  of  which  he  was  a  very 
faithful  member  and  to  which  he  gave  considerable 
time,  for  charitable  and  other  religious  interests. 
He  declared  toward  the  end  of  his  life  that  nothing 


HILGERS 


371 


HISTORICAL 


had  given  him  more  satisfaction  than  his  member¬ 
ship  in  the  Church. 

Science  (1916);  Walsh  in  Ave  Marin  (1916);  Who’s  Who 
in  Science  in  America. 

James  J.  Walsh. 


Hilgers,  Joseph,  theological  writer,  b.  at  Kuck- 
hoven,  Rhenish  Province,  Germany,  on  9  Septem¬ 
ber,  1858;  d.  at  Rome  in  1918;  son  of  Joseph  and 
Josephine  Hilgers.  He  was  educated  in  the  German 
College  in  Rome,  and  wron  his  doctorates  of  phi¬ 
losophy  and  theology.  He  wras  ordained  in  1882, 
and  a  year  later  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
After  teaching  for  ten  years  he  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  writing,  being  an  authority  on  indul¬ 
gences  and  the  Index.  He  was  a  frequent  con¬ 
tributor  to  the  “Stimmen  aus  Maria-Laach,”  “Linzer 
theologische  Quartalschrift,”  “Civilita  Cattolica,” 
“Zentralblatt  fur  Bibliothekswesen,”  and  collabo¬ 
rated  on  Herder’s  “Kirchenlexikon”  and  “Konver- 
sationslexikon,”  and  the  “Catholic  En cyclopedia  ” 
Among  his  most  notable  works  are  “Der  Index  der 
verbotenen  Bucher”  (1904),  “Maria  der  Weg  zu 
Christus”  (1907),  “The  Roman  Index  and  Its  Latest 
Historian,”  “Das  Goldene  fur  Priester  und  Volk,” 
“Die  katholische  Lehre  von  den  Abliissen”  (1913); 
lie  succeeded  Beringer  in  publishing  “Die  ablasse,” 
his  last  edition  of  which  contains  a  valuable  history 
of  indulgences. 


Historical  Societies,  Catholic,  the  United 
States. — So  far  as  is  known,  eight  such  Societies 
have  been  organized  since  1884,  with  the  object  of 
making  better  known  the  Catholic  past  of  the 
L  nited  States.  They  are :  The  American  Catholic 
Historical  Society,  founded  at  Philadelphia  in  1884; 
the  United  States  Catholic  Historical  Society, 
founded  in  New  York  in  1884;  the  Ohio  Valley 
Catholic  Historical  Society,  founded  in  1884— now 
disbanded ;  the  Brooklyn  Catholic  Historical 
Society,  founded  in  1901— now  disbanded;  the  New 
England  Catholic  Historical  Society,  founded  in 
1901  inoperative;  the  Catholic  Historical  Society 
of  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  founded  in  1905;  the  Maine 
Catholic  Historical  Society,  begun  in  1913;  the 
Catholic  Historical  Society  of  St.  Louis,  founded 
in  1917.  All  these  societies  limit  the  field  of  their 
study  to  American  History. 

American  Catholic  Historical  Society  of  Phila¬ 
delphia.— This  Society,  the  oldest  Catholic  historical 
society  in  the  United  States,  was  established  on 
22  July,  1884,  at  the  hall  of  the  Cathedral  Total 
Abstinence  Beneficial  Society.  The  call  for  the 
organization  of  the  Society  was  dated  4  July,  and 
was  signed  by  the  Rev.  P.  A.  Jordan,  S.J.,  the 
Rev.  John  J.  Elcock,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Thomas  Middle- 
ton,  O.S.  A.,  the  Rev.  Ignatius  F.  Horstmann,  D.D., 
P.  Beresford,  Charles  N.  A.  Esling,  Francis  T. 
Furey,  W.  J.  Campbell,  M.D.,  J.  Carroll  McCaffery, 
F.  N.  Reuss,  John  H.  Campbell,  and  Martin  I.  J. 
Griffin.  A  charter  was  granted  to  the  Society  on 
26  December,  1885,  by  Judge  Russell  Thayer.  Pope 
Leo  XIII  extended  his  blessing  to  the  Society  on 
10  January,  1886,  and  on  6  September,  1886,  Arch¬ 
bishop  Ryan  gave  it  his  formal  approbation.  The 
Society’s  first  public  meeting  was  held  on  30  April, 
1885,  with  Archbishop  Ryan  presiding. 

Early  in  1887  came  the  first  fruit  of  the  Society’s 
promise  to  publish  Catholic  historical  papers,  volume 
I  of  its  “Records”;  the  year  1889  saw  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  the  second  volume,  and  1891  brought  the 
third  volume— in  all,  up  to  that  time,  over  1200 
pages  of  American  Catholic  historical  sources.  With 
volume  IV  the  “Records”  became  a  quarterly  pub¬ 
lication,  and  in  1921  it  completed  its  thirty-second 
volume.  Meantime,  in  1913,  the  Society  took  over 


and  combined  with  its  “Recoids”  the  “American 
Catholic  Historical  Researches,”  which  had  been 
started  by  Dr.  A.  A.  Lambing,  of  Scottdale,  Pennsyl- 
vama,  in  1884,  and  which  had  been  issued  by  Martin 
1.  J.  Griffin  from  1886  to  the  time  of  his  death. 
Sets  of  the  Records”  have  been  placed  in  nearly 
all  the  reference  libraries  of  the  United  States  thus 
preserving  against  loss  and  making  available  for 
students  of  history  a  great  wealth  of  American 
Catholic  chronicles  and  documents  theretofore 
unpublished. 

Until  early  in  1889  the  Society’s  work  was  carried 
on  in  a  small  room  of  the  Philadelphia  Philopatrian 
Institute.  These  quarters  were  then  found  inade¬ 
quate,  and  the  Society  migrated  to  the  Athenaeum 
Building,  where  it  occupied  the  room  which  for 
forty  years  had  been  the  abode  of  the  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  Historical  Society.  Within  six  years  the 
Catholic  Historical  Society  had  again  outgrown  its 
quarters  and  in  1895  moved  into  a  home  of  its  own 
at  715  Spruce  Street,  a  spacious  old  Colonial  struc- 
tuie  of  many  historical  associations.  The  occasion 
was  celebrated  by  a  reception  to  His  Excellency, 
Archbishop  Satolli,  first  Apostolic  Delegate  to  the 
United  States.  Each  of  the  four  succeeding  Apos¬ 
til1?  delegates  has  been  publicly  received  at  the 
Society’s  headquarters  and  presented  to  the  promi¬ 
nent  people,  Catholic  and  non-Catholic,  of  the  city 
and  State. 

The  Library  and  Cabinet  of  the  American  Cath- 
one  Historical  Society,  housed  in  its  own  building, 
is  reputed  to  be  among  the  foremost  collections 
of  Catholic  Americana.  It  contains,  besides  books, 
many  valuable  manuscripts  and  documents  bearing 
on  the  early  history  of  America  and  the  contribu¬ 
tion  of  Catholics  and  Catholicity  to  our  best 
American  traditions  and  civilization.  It  has  also 
a  cabinet  of  historical  relics  of  interest  to  Cath¬ 
olics,  and  prints  and  paintings  of  kindred  value. 
The  library  is  in  part  classified  and  catalogued 
and  available  for  research  work.  The  reading-room 
is  open  to  the  public,  who  have  access  there  to  a 
rich  file  of  Catholic  newspapers  and  magazines. 

Many  activities  akin  to  its  immediate  Catholic 
historical  purposes  have  been  sponsored  by  the 
Society.  In  1892  it  led  the  movement  for  the  cele¬ 
bration  of  the  quadricentennial  of  the  discovery 
of  America,  in  which  all  the  organizations  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Philadelphia  took  part.  In  1895  a 
course  of  illustrated  Catholic  historical  lectures  were 
given  under  the  Society’s  direction  in  the  Academy 
of  Music,  Philadelphia’s  ranking  public  hall.  Other 
series  of  lectures  by  leading  European  and  American 
scholars  have  been  given  by  the  Society  in  its  own 
hall  or  in  the  Academy  of  Music.  In  1896  the 
Society  established  an  archivist  in  Rome  in  the 
person  of  the  Rev.  F.  Kittell,  who  copied  for  pub¬ 
lication  in  the  “Records”  a  series  of  invaluable  State 
and  Vatican  papers  bearing  on  the  foundation  and 
development  of  the  Church  in  America.  This  im¬ 
portant  work  had  to  be  suspended  on  account  of 
the  Society’s  inadequate  resources.  In  1906  the 
president  and  board  of  managers  lodged  a  vigorous 
and  scholarly  protest  against  the  use  of  certain 
mural  paintings  in  the  capitol  at  Harrisburg,  on 
the  ground  of  the  historical  misrepresentations  of 
the  pictorial  decorations. 

In  its  constitution  the  Society  states  its  object 
to  be  the  preservation  and  publication  of  Catholic 
American  historical  documents,  the  investigation  of 
American  Catholic  histoiy,  especially  that  of  Phila¬ 
delphia,  and  the  development  of  interest  in  Catholic 
historical  questions.  Its  accomplishments  may  be 
categorically  enumerated  as  follows:  first,  it  has 
created  the  nucleus  of  a  reference  library  and 


HISTORICAL 


372 


HISTORICAL 


cabinet;  second,  it  has  established  and  published  a 
Catholic  historical  magazine;  third,  it  has  en¬ 
couraged  the  foundation  of  similar  societies  by  its 
example;  fourth,  it  has  maintained  the  idea  of 
American  Catholic  history  in  concrete  form  before 
the  world;  fifth,  it  has  stimulated  the  production 
of  Catholic  literature. 

The  list  of  presidents  of  the  American  Catholic 
Historical  Society,  with  their  term  of  office,  follows : 

Very  Rev.  Thomas  Cooke  Middleton,  D.  D., 
O.S.A.,  1884,  1885,  1886,  1887,  1888,  1889,  1890; 
Rev.  Ignatius  F.  Horstmann,  D.  D.,  1891-1892;  Dr. 
Lawrence  F.  Flick,  1893,  1894,  1895,  1896.  The  Rt. 
Rev.  Mgr.  Hugh  T.  Henry,  Litt.  D.,  1897-1898;  Mr. 
Walter  George  Smith,  1899-1900 ;  Mr.  Samuel  Cast- 
ner,  Jr.,  1901 ;  The  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  H.  T.  Drumgoole, 
1902-1903;  Mr.  Francis  A.  Cunningham,  1904-1905; 
Mr.  William  V.  McGrath,  Jr.,  1906-1907;  Mr. 
Ignatius  J.  Dohan,  1908-1909;  The  Right  Rev. 
Philip  R.  McDevitt,  D.D.,  1910,  1911,  1912;  Dr. 
Lawrence  F.  Flick,  1893,  1894,  1895,  1896;  The  Rt. 
J.  Lallou,  1915-1916;  Mr.  James  M.  Willcox,  1917- 
1918;  Mr.  Edward  J.  Galbally,  1919,  1920,  1921; 
The  Rev.  John  E.  Flood,  LL.  D.,  1922. 

Catholic  Historical  Society  of  St.  Louis. — The 
Church  of  the  Middle  West,  centering  in  St.  Louis, 
has  an  eventful  history,  but  the  whole  story  of 
toil,  sacrifice  and  glorious  achievement  has  yet  to 
be  told.  The  historical  archives  of  the  Archdiocese 
of  St.  Louis  hold  a  rich  and  varied  treasure  of 
material  for  the  making  of  that  story.  With  these 
things  in  mind,  the  Most  Rev.  John  J.  Glennon,  on 
February  7,  1917,  suggested  the  foundation  of  an 
historical  society  and  invited  the  following  clergy¬ 
men  of  the  diocese  to  become  charter  members  of 
the  new  association:  Right  Rev.  Mgr.  J.  A.  Con¬ 
nolly,  V.  G.,  Right  Rev.  Mgr.  J.  J.  Tannrath,  Right 
Rev.  Mgr.  Patrick  W.  Tallon,  Very  Rev.  M.  S. 
Ryan,  C.  M.,  Revs.  Charles  L.  Souvay,  C.  M.,  Francis 
Gilfillan,  Joseph  Wenker,  F.  G.  Holweck,  John 
Rothensteiner,  F.  X.  Wilmes,  E.  J.  Lemkes,  Joseph 
Selinger,  J.  T.  Shields,  and  Henry  Hussman.  The 
proposition  met  with  unanimous  and  enthusiastic 
support.  Within  a  few  weeks  the  organization  of 
the  Catholic  Historical  Society  of  St.  Louis  was 
perfected,  with  Archbishop  Glennon  as  president, 
and  Revs.  Dr.  Charles  L.  Souvay  and  F.  G.  Hol¬ 
weck  librarians  and  archivists. 

The  object  of  the  Society  is:  “To  collect  and 
preserve  materials  of  all  kinds,  such  as  books, 
pamphlets,  papers,  manuscripts,  maps,_  documents, 
pictures,  and  other  objects  of  historical  interest 
relating  to  the  Catholic  history  of  the  Diocese  of 
St.  Louis  and  of  whatever  territories  and  places 
were  at  any  time  associated  with  St.  Louis  in  the 
same  ecclesiastical  division;  to  institute,  carry  on 
and  foster  historical  research  on  subjects  pertaining 
to  the  field  of  inquiry  above  described  and  dis¬ 
seminate  such  information.”  Any  person  of  good 
character,  in  sympathy  with  the  work  and  aims  of 
the  Society,  is  eligible  to  membership  on  payment 
of  $5.00  annual  dues,  or  $100  for  life  membership. 
In  its  sixth  year  the  Society  has  94  members,  of 
whom  2  are  life  members.  Regular  meetings  of 
the  Society  are  held  in  January,  March,  May, 
September,  and  November.  At  these  meetings 
original  papers  on  historical  subjects  are  read  and 
discussed.  As  the  Society  has  no  building  of  its 
own  at  present,  the  archives  are  kept  at  the  diocesan 
chancery,  209  Walnut  Street,  where  a  fire-proof 
filing  cabinet  has  been  provided  for  the  documents, 
letters,  and  other  manuscripts. 

In  order  to  promote  the  objects  of  the  Society 
it  was  decided  to  issue  an  historical  publication 
quarterly,  and  in  1918  the  Rev.  Dr.  Charles  L. 


Souvay  was  elected  editor-in-chief  of  the  “St.  Louis 
Catholic  Historical  Review.”  The  first  number  of 
the  “Review”  appeared  October,  1918.  Each  num¬ 
ber  devotes  space  to  some  constructive  historical 
essays  on  subjects  appertaining  to  the  special  field 
of  the  Society.  Under  the  general  caption  of 
“Notes,”  historical  news,  current  events  of  interest 
to  readers,  and  the  recent  activities  of  the  Society 
are  chronicled.  To  this  set  of  “Notes”  another  is 
added,  strictly  bibliographical,  in  the  form  of  an 
index  of  historical  items  and  articles  on  subjects 
written  within  the  Society’s  sphere,  published  in 
current  literature. 

“Documents”  from  the  archives  of  the  Society 
complete  each  number.  These  documents  are  given 
in  their  original  text,  with  an  English  translation. 
Volume  I  of  the  “Review”  contains  a  catalogue 
of  the  more  important  documents,  petitions  and 
letters  in  the  historical  archives  of  the  Archdiocese  of 
St.  Louis,  which  His  Grace  the  Archbishop  placed  in 
the  care  of  the  Society.  The  series  of  letters 
exchanged  between  Bishop  Dubourg  and  the  Con¬ 
gregation  of  Propaganda  is  published  in  the  first 
three  volumes  of  the  “Review.”  This  series  is 
being  followed  by  the  publication  of  Bishop  Rosati’s 
“Diary,”  in  which  daily  events  in  the  prelate’s  life 
are  recorded  for  more  than  fourteen  years. 

Illinois  Catholic  Historical  Society. — This 
Society  was  established  in  Chicago  28  February, 
1918,  and  wTas  indirectly  inspired  by  the  celebration 
that  year  of  the  one  hundredth  anniversary  of  the 
admission  of  the  State  of  Illinois  into  the  Union. 
For  this  event  the  Illinois  Centennial  Commission, 
appointed  by  the  governor,  prepared  a  series  of 
celebrations  and  a  six  volume  original  history  of 
the  State.  In  this  history,  which  was  in  preparation 
for  several  years,  the  achievements  of  Catholics 
and  the  Church  were  conspicuous  principally  by 
their  absence,  although  for  the  first  hundred,  years 
of  Illinois  history  Catholics  were  pioneers  ana  later 
played  a  prominent  part  in  the  development  of 
the  State.  Rev.  Frederic  Siedenburg,  S.J.,  and 
Judge  Thomas  F.  Scully,  both  of  Chicago,  were 
members  of  this  commission,  and  found  that  due  to 
the  scarcity  of  Catholic  historical  material  and  the 
inaccessibility  of  documents  it  was  impossible  to  give 
adequate  representation  of  Catholic  achievement. 

By  accident  it  was  learned  that  Mr.  Joseph  J. 
Thompson  of  Chicago  had  in  preparation  a  “Cath¬ 
olic  History  of  Illinois,”  and  after  several  con¬ 
ferences  with  him  it  was  proposed  to  organize  an 
historical  society,  with  the  chief  purpose  of  publish¬ 
ing  a  quarterly  review  which  would  collect  docu¬ 
ments  and  publish  monographs  and  encourage  Cath¬ 
olic  Illinois  history.  With  the  approbation  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Chicago  and  the  suffragan  bishops 
the  Society  was  organized  in  the  School  of  Sociology 
of  Loyola  University,  and  Mr.  William  J.  Onahan 
was  elected  the  first  president  of  the  Society,  and 
Mr.  Joseph  J.  Thompson  was  chosen  the  first  editor 
of  the  “Illinois  Catholic  Historical  Review.” 

The  Society,  although  only  in  its  fourth  year, 
has  over  600  members  and  has  already  made  a 
permanent  contribution  in  the  historic  field  of  the 
old  Illinois  country,  inasmuch  as  it  has  stimulated 
original  .research  and  prompted  the  conservation 
and  publication  of  reliable  historic  data  and  records. 
It  has  also  begotten  a  new  interest  and  appreciation 
among  Catholics  for  their  own  history.  Up  to 
April,  1922,  the  Society  published  four  volumes  of 
528  pages  each,  concerned  primarily  with  the  earlier 
periods  of  the  Illinois  country.  At  the  present 
time  Rev.  Frederic  Siedenburg,  S.J.,  is  president 
of  the  Society,  with  offices  in  the  Ashland  Block, 
Chicago. 


HOBART 


373 


HOLLAND 


^  Hobart,  Archdiocese  of  (Hobartiensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  \III-380d),  comprises  Tasmania,  Bruni  Island, 
Maria  Island,  and  the  islands  in  Bass  Straits.  The 
present  archbishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Patrick  Delany,  b. 
at^  Tonacor,  Ireland,  1  February,  '1853,  ordained 
1879,  left  for  Australia  1885,  elected  titular  bishop 
of  Laranda  and  coadjutor  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Hobart  15  June,  1893,  succeeding  to  the  see  29 
December,  1907.  Increased  labors  caused  the  arch¬ 
bishop  to  petition  the  Holy  See  for  a  coadjutor, 
and  in  August,  1919,  Most  Rev.  William  Barry,  b. 
in  Middleton,  Ireland,  1  January,  1872,  ordained 
1898,  elected  7  April,  1919,  titular  bishop  of  Pes- 
sinus,  was  consecrated  in  Syndey. 

The  population  of  Tasmania  is  estimated  at 
218,000,  and  the  Catholics  number  about  35,000. 
The  archdiocese  is  divided  into  22  parishes  with  72 
churches  and  39  stations.  Besides  the  archbishop 
and  his  coadjutor  there  are  29  secular  and  2  regular 
(M.S.H.)  priests,  13  Irish  Christian  Brothers,  and 
169  nuns.  There  are  2  colleges  in  charge  of  the 
Christian  Brothers,  St.  Virgil’s  at  Hobart  with  157 
students,  St.  Patrick’s  at  Launceston  with  120  stu¬ 
dents,  1  boarding  school  for  boys  and  3  for  girls, 
4  superior  day  schools  and  25  primary  schools  with 
3450  children,  1  orphanage  with  51  children,  1  Mag¬ 
dalen  Home  under  the  care  of  Sisters  of  the  Good 
Shepherd  with  130  inmates.  Two  convents  are 
registered  for  the  training  of  teachers.  The  com¬ 
munities  of  Sisters,  who  have  charge  of  every 
school  but  one,  are  Sisters  of  Charity,  Order  of  the 
Presentation  B.V.  M.,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Sisters 
of  Mercy,  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  and  Sisters 
of  the  Sacred  Heart. 

The  “Catholic  Standard,”  the  official  organ  of 
the  archbishop,  is  Tasmania’s  Catholic  paper.  The 
Government  does  not  support  the  Catholic  schools, 
which  are  subject  to  inspection  and  examination 
by  State  school  inspectors,  and  every  school  and 
teacher  must  be  registered.  State  endowments  to 
religion  were  withdrawn  in  1869,  but  sums  of  money 
were  voted  according  to  the  number  of  adherents 
to  the  churches,  and  that  set  aside  for  Catholics 
yields  about  £1400  a  year.  Allowance  is  made  for 
children  sent  to  the  orphanage  by  the  Government. 
The  usual  sodalities  are  organized  among  the  laity 
and  several  societies,  including  the  Hibernian,  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  and  Catholic  Federation.  One 
priest  went  to  war  as  a  chaplain,  and  the  Catholics 
had  more  than  their  proportion  of  volunteers  and 
active  men  in  the  service.  Monsignor  Gillevan, 
vicar  general  for  many  years,  died  in  1919,  and 
Archpriest  Henneboy,  who  arrived  in  1866,  died  in 
1921.  The  Catholics  are  mostly  of  Irish  origin,  but 
native  born,  but  there  are  also  some  English  and 
Scotch. 

Hogan,  Edmund  Ignatius,  historian  and  Gaelic 
scholar,  b.  near  Cobh,  Ireland,  23  January,  1831; 
d.  at  Dublin  on  26  November,  1917.  Entering  the 
Society  of  Jesus  at  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was 
ordained  nine  years  later.  Endowed  with  a  phe¬ 
nomenal  memory,  a  keen  historical  sense,  and  un¬ 
tiring  energy  he  devoted  himself  to  the  history, 
antiquities,  and  language  of  Ireland.  He  was  one 
of  the  small  body  of  brilliant  scholars,  grouped 
around  Eugenne  O’Curry  and  John  O’Donovan, 
who  laid  a  scientific  foundation  for  the  present-day 
revival  of  the  Irish  language  and  culture,  the 
source  of  inspiration  of  Ireland’s  recent  fight  for 
independence.  As  the  youngest  of  these  savants, 
Edmund  Hogan  wras  the  connecting  link  between 
them  and  the  twentieth  century  workers  who  are 
now  holding  up  a  rigorous  Gaelic  culture.  After 
teaching  in  the  Sacred  Heart  College,  Limerick 
(of  which  he  was  one  of  the  original  staff),  from 


1859  to  1865,  he  went  to  Rome  to  gather  material 
for  the  story  of  the  Jesuits  in  Ireland  in  the  penal 
days.  For  twenty  years  he  filled  the  chair  of  Irish 
in  the  Royal  University  of  Ireland,  and  for  three 
years  he  delivered  the  Todd  Memorial  Lectures 
in  the  Royal  Academy  of  Ireland,  of  which  he  was 
a  council  member  and  honorary  secretary  of  foreign 
correspondence.  He  was  likewise  an  original  gov¬ 
ernor  of  the  School  of  Irish  Learning,  and  was  one 
of  the  commissioners  for  the  publication  in  the 
Rolls  Series  of  the  Brehon  Laws,  the  ancient  laws 
and  institutes  of  Ireland.  In  the  linguistic  field 
Hogan’s  most  notable  achievement  was  probably 
his  contribution  to  our  knowledge  of  neuter  nouns 
in  Old  Irish,  of  which  he  identified  more  than 
three  thousand,  at  a  time  when  they  were  almost 
unknown  to  scholars.  Hogan’s  writings,  "which  all 
relate  to  Ireland,  are  authoritative  and  are  the  fruit 
of  deep  research.  His  magnum  opus  is  his  in¬ 
valuable  “Onomasticon  Gcedelicum  Locorum  et 
Tribuum  Hiberniae  et  Scotia,”  a  dictionary  of 
Gaelic  names  of  places  and  tribes,  compiled  from 
all  the  old  Irish  manuscripts  and  published  early 
texts,  with  identifications  based  on  the  citations 
from  the  texts.  On  this  work  he  spent  the  last 
ten  years  of  his  active  literary  career.  Among  his 
other  writings  (a  bibliography  of  which  is  given  bv 
John  MacErlean  in  “Studies,”  1917,  pp.  668-671) 
may  be  mentioned  as  specially  interesting  and  im- 
important :  “Ibernia  Ignatiana,  seu  Ibernorum 
Societatis  Jesu  Patrum  monumenta”  (1880),  “Life, 
Letters  and  Diary  of  H.  Fitzsimon,  S.  J.,”  “Dis¬ 
tinguished  Irishmen  of  the  Sixteenth  Century” 
(1894),  “Irish  Phrase  Book”  (1891),  “A  Handbook 
of  Irish  Idioms”  (1898),  “Outlines  of  the  Grammar 
of  Old  Irish”  (1900),  “Luibhleabhran”  (1900),  a 
dictionary  of  Gaelic  names  of  herbs,  plants,  etc., 
“History  of  the  Irish  Wolf  Dog”  (1897),  “The  Irish 
People:  Their  Height,  Form  and  Strength”  (1899), 
and  his  editions  of  “Vita  Sancti  Patricii”  (1882), 
from  the  Book  of  Armagh,  “Cath  Ruis  na  Rig  for 
Borim”  (1892),  and  “The  Irish  Nennius”  (1895). 

An  Craoibhin  (Douglas  Hyde),  A  Great  Irish  Scholar  in 
Studies,  VI  (1917),  661-68. 

Holland  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-386d).— The  area  of  Hol¬ 
land  is  12,582  sq.  miles,  and  according  to  the  census 
taken  in  December,  1920,  the  population  was  6,841,- 
155.  The  largest  towns  with  their  populations  on  31 
December,  1919,  are:  Amsterdam  647,120;  Rotter¬ 
dam  506,067;  the  Hague  359,610;  Utrecht  138,334; 
Groningen  89,030.  In  1919  there  were  164,447  births, 
89,646  deaths,  58,270  marriages.  In  the  same  year  the 
emigration,  mostly  to  North  America,  was  2439.  On 
14  June,  1918,  a  law  was  passed  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  a  new  province  by  the  draining  of  the 
Zuiderzee  to  the  extent  of  523,000  acres,  a  work 
which  is  expected  to  take  fifteen  years  and  to  cost 
66,250,000  florins  (1  florin=$0.402  normal  exchange). 

Government. — Holland  is  a  constitutional  mon¬ 
archy,  with  executive  power  vested  in  the  sover¬ 
eign,  Queen  Wilhelmina,  and  legislative  power  in 
the  Sovereign  and  the  Parliament  or  States-General, 
which  consists  of  two  chambers,  the  upper  chamber 
having  50  members  elected  for  nine  years  by  the 
states,  and  the  second  or  lower  chamber  of  100 
deputies  elected  directly  for  four  years.  The  Elec¬ 
toral  Reform  Act,  passed  12  December,  1917,  pro¬ 
vides  for  universal  suffrage  and  proportional 
representation.  According  to  the  electoral  reform 
act,  passed  9  August,  1919,  the  members  of  the 
lower  house  directly  elected  by  citizens  of  both 
sexes  who  are  Dutch  subjects  not  under  twenty- 
three  years  old.  It  was  stipulated,  however,  that 
until  further  regulations  are  introduced,  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  second  chamber  will  be  elected  only 


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374 


HOLLAND 


by  the  male  citizens  of  the  kingdom  who  are  dependent  entirely  on  imports  conditioned  on  an 
twenty-live  years  of  age.  The  Government  and  exchange  of  exports  and  was  generally  viewed  with 
the  second  chamber  only  may  introduce  new  Bills,  suspicion  by  the  opposing  nations.  Within  her  bor- 
the  function  of  the  upper  chamber  being  restricted  ders  unscrupulous  profiteers  did  not  hesitate  to  sell 
to  approving  or  rejecting  them  without  the  power  available  food  stocks  to  foreign  buyers  to  an  extent 
of  inserting  amendments.  The  executive  authority,  that  threatened  depletion  and  famine.  There  are 
vested  in  the  sovereign,  is  exercised  by  a  responsible  four  principal  railroad  lines  in  Holland,  all  pri- 
Council  of  Ministers.  There  is  a  State  Council,  vately  operated  and  owned,  with  the  exception  of 
Raad  van  State,  of  fourteen  members  appointed  by  one  which  is  Government  owned  but  operated  by 
the  sovereign,  of  which  the  sovereign  is  president  a  private  company.  A  movement  is  now  on  foot  to 
and  which  is  consulted  on  all  legislative  and  a  great  consolidate  all  four  roads  in  one  organization,  to  be 
number  of  executive  matters.  The  territory  is  publicly  supervised  but  privately  operated.  In 
divided  into  11  provinces  and  1110  communes.  1919  the  total  mileage  was  1830,  and  the  revenue 
Each  province  has  its  own  representative  body,  the  amounted  to  36,606,000  guilders. 

Provincial  States,  the  members  of  which  are  elected  Finance.— In  1919  the  total  revenue  was  760,- 

for  four  years  directly  from  among  the  Dutch  091,000  guilders;  the  total  expenditure,  1,024,- 
inhabitants  of  the  province.  The  provinces  are  676,000  guilders.  It  is  estimated  that  the  deficit  of 
allowed  to  make  ordinances  concerning  the  welfare  the  Netherlands  budget  will  be  approximately 
of  the  people  and  to  raise  taxes,  but  the  ordinances  250,000,000  guilders  in  1922,  some  20,000,000  higher 
must  be  approved  by  the  Crown.  Each  commune  than  the  deficit  in  1921.  In  1921  the  total  funded 
has  a  council.  national  debt  was  about  2,575,000,000  guilders;  a 

Education. — The  new  educational  provisions  of  little  over  half  of  this  amount  arises  from  direct 
the  constitution  which  have  recently  come  into  and  indirect  war  costs,  called  “crisis  expenditures.” 
force  in  Holland  provide  that  private  general  ele-  Recent  History. — During  the  World  War  the 
mentary  education  shall  be  paid  for  by  public  position  of  Holland  as  a  neutral  nation  was  ex¬ 
money  on  the  same  basis  as  public  education,  and  tremely  difficult.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in. 
that  the  freedom  of  private  education  in  the  choice  August,  the  Government  issued  a  proclamation 
of  books  and  equipment  and  the  appointment  of  of  neutrality  and  mobilized  its  army  of  125,000  men 
teachers  shall  be  respected.  Thus  the  private  church  in  order  to  be  ready  for  any  emergency  that  might 
schools  are  placed  on  a  par  with  the  State  schools,  arise.  Thousands  of  Belgian  refugees  poured  across 
The  law  of  1917  forbids  school  children  under  six-  the  frontiers  into  Holland,  and  with  22,000  interned 
teen  years  of  age  to  do  any  farm  work  between  Belgian  soldiers  and  1560  British  Marines  to  sup- 
9  in  the  evening  and  5  in  the  morning.  The  school  port,  the  Government  was  involved  in  great  ex¬ 
age  is  from  six  to  thirteen.  In  1918-19  there  were  pense.  Holland’s  shipping  losses  were  large,  and 
3424  public  elementary  schools  with  19,757  teachers  her  trade  suffered  greatly  during  the  World  War 
and  620,737  pupils;  2466  private  elementary  schools  due  to  the  system  of  control  exercised  by  Great 
with  14,795  teachers  and  443,258  pupils;  208  pub-  Britain,  the  United  States  and  Germany.  England 
lie  kindergartens  and  1147  private  kindergartens,  stopped  all  Dutch  vessels  carrying  contraband,  de- 
Besides  there  are  6  universities,  and  34  classical  manded  that  they  be  used  in  certain  ways.  Ger- 
(public)  schools,  525  schools  for  working  people,  13  many  retaliated  by  refusing  safe-conduct  to  Dutch  ' 
navigation  schools,  and  139  middle  class  schools,  vessels  which  conformed  to  English  rules  and 
Economic  Conditions. — Production. — In  1919  the  when  the  United  States  entered  the  war,  she  backed 
total  cultivable  and  forest  area  was  6,078,947  acres;  England  in  taking  drastic  steps  to  prevent  the  im- 
there  were  141,340  acres  under  wheat,  with  a  pro-  portation  of  cereals  in  order  to  prevent  Germany 
duction  of  774,918  quarters;  under  rye  502,676  acres  from  obtaining  any  food  during  the  blockade.  Most 
with  1,296,293  quarters;  barley,  57,784  acres  and  of  the  present  trade  consists  of  goods  on  transit 
311,833  quarters;  oats  380,270  acres  and  2,388,823  from  and  to  Germany,  notably  the  imports  of  silk 
quarters.  Owing  to  lack  of  coal  to  operate  the  goods  and  metal  goods.  In  1919  relations  between 
factories,  in  1919  the  output  of  beet  sugar  was  only  Holland  and  Belgium  became  strained  when  the 
175,000  tons,  compared  with  259,550  tons  in  1916-17.  latter  demanded  that  Limburg,  Zeeland,  and  a 
The  coal  output  in  1919  was  3,401,346  tons,  valued  part  of  Staats  Vlaanderen  be  surrendered  to  it. 
at  70,909,000  guilders  (1  guilder  =  $0,402,  normal  This  demand  was  finally  presented  to  the  Peace 
exchange).  Most  of  the  mines  belong  to  the  State.  Conference  and  was  refused.  At  the  same  time  the 
On  24  October,  1920,  a  law  went  into  effect  estab-  Dutch  ships  which  had  been  seized  in  the  United 
fishing  as  the  legal  maximum  of  labor  45  hours  States  during  the  war  were  returned, 
a  week,  an  eight-hour  day  with  half  holiday  on  In  April,  1915,  the  International  Congress  of 
Saturdays.  Sunday  labor  is  permitted  only  by  order  Women  to  denounce  war  and  to  demand  peace  was 
of  the  government  and  the  employment  of  chil-  held  at  the  Hague.  After  the  Revolution  in  Ger- 
dren  under  the  age  of  thirteen  is  prohibited.  The  many,  Holland  became  the  refuge  of  the  abdicating 
result  has  been  to  curtail  production.  Industry  has  Emperor  Wilhelm  II.  On  15  January,  1920,  the 
suffered  also  from  the  fall  in  foreign  exchange,  Supreme  Council  demanded  that  the  former  Em- 
German  competition,  and  excessive  wages.  The  peror  of  Germany  be  surrendered  to  the  Allies  for 
total  imports  of  the  country  (not  including  the  trial,  in  accordance  with  the  Versailles  Treaty, 
transit  trade)  had  in  1920  a  value  of  $1,122,490,600  Holland  firmly  refused,  on  the  ground  of  the  inter- 
as  compared  with  $1,318,434,000  in  1919  (including  national  law  of  asylum  for  political  refugees,  and 
the  transit  trade).  The  total  exports  had  in  1920  said  that  she  would  take  necessary  precautions  to 
a  value  of  $582,837,800  (not  including  the  transit  prevent  the  ex-Kaiser  from  endangering  the  world’s 
trade).  The  imports  of  the  country  in  the  past  four  peace. 

years  have  reached  a  total  of  7,730,954,200  guilders,  Colonial  Empire. — Holland’s  colonial  possessions 
and  its  exports  only  4,313,219,600  guilders,  leaving  include  the  following:  Java  and  Madura,  51,000 
an  adverse  balance  of  3,417,734,600  guilders,  or  at  square  miles;  Sumatra,  163,000  square  miles;  Dutch 
normal  exchange,  $1,459,189,800.  During  the  war  Borneo,  214,000  square  miles;  Celebes  Islands, 
Holland  held  geographically  the  position  of  lying  73,000  square  miles;  Molucca  Islands,  44,000  square 
across  the  path  of  traffic  between  the  belligerent  miles;  Timor  Archipelago,  154,000  square  miles; 
countries  and  the  world’s  food  resources.  She  was  other  islands,  27,000  square  miles.  The  colonies  are 


HOLLAND 


375 


HOLY  CHILD 


administered  in  the  name  of  the  ruler  of  Holland 
b}r  a  Governor-General,  who  has  his  headquarters 
in  Java.  He  has  both  legislative  and  executive 
Powers  but  is  subject  to  the  acts  of  the  States 
General  and  the  regulations  and  instructions  of  his 
home  Government.  In  1916  was  created  the 
Peoples  Council  ( Volksraad )  of  39  members,  of 
whom  19  are  nominated  by  the  Governor  General 
and  the  others  elected  by  members  of  local  coun¬ 
cils.  For  administrative  purposes  the  colonies  are 
divided  into  2  sections :  Java  with  Madura  and  the 
outlying  islands.  Dutch  enterprise  has  for  three 
centuries  benefited  enormously  from  the  island  em¬ 
pire;  the  sale  of  the  products  of  Government  indus¬ 
try  yielding  a  handsome  surplus  over  the  expenses 
of  administration,  but  the  withdrawal  of  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  from  business,  the  cost  of  native  wars,  and 
the  necessity  of  carrying  out  public  works  and  in¬ 
troducing  reforms  have  converted  a  profit  into  a 
loss  which  has  to  be  made  good  by  the  tax-payer. 

The  Church  in  Holland.— On  20  May,  1915, 
Premier  Cort  Van  den  Linden,  realizing  the  impor¬ 
tance  of  the  Pope  as  a  political  and  international 
power,  presented  to  Parliament  a  project  for  tem¬ 
porary  representation  to  the  Holy  See,  which  was 
approved  the  following  month  and  Jonkheer  Octave 
Van  Nispen  Tot  Sevenave,  member  and  former 
president  of  the  Second  Chamber  of  the  States 
General  was  appointed  Envoy  Extraordinary  and 
Minister  Plenipotentiary  to  the  Holy  See.  Later 
the  representation  was  made  permanent  and  in 
May,  1921,  Mgr.  Roberto  Vincentini,  titular  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Eleonopolis,  was  sent  as  internuncio  to 
Holland. 

In  the  general  election  of  1918,  held  for  the 
first  time  on  the  principle  of  proportional  repre¬ 
sentation,  the  Catholics  were  numerically  the 
strongest  faction  in  the  Second  Chamber  and  were 
called  upon  to  form  a  Cabinet,  in  which  five  out  of 
nine  members  are  Catholic.  They  have  proved 
themselves  skilful  leaders  and  statesmen  of  high 
purpose  and  have  made  many  economic  reforms. 
To-day  in  Holland  those  who  fifty  years  ago  were 
treated  as  social  and  political  outcasts  are  now 
counted  as  the  strongest  props  of  law  and  order 
and  the  most  resolute  defenders  of  constituted 
authority. 

The  passage  of  the  new  Education  Law  30  June, 
1920,  marked  for  Catholics  the  end  of  a  struggle 
for  equality  before  the  law  that  had  lasted  for 
fifty-two  years,  and  that  was  won  by  tenacity  of 
purpose,  firm  convictions,  and  prayer.  Slight  gains 
had  been  made  in  1905  and  1912,  and  by  the 
provisions  of  the  new  De  Visser  Law  no  handicap 
of  whatever  sort  exists  for  private  denominational 
schools,  which  are  to  receive  the  same  support  as 
the  State  schools.  A  day  of  thanksgiving  for  the 
favorable  outcome  of  this  fight  for  children’s  souls 
was  appointed  by  the  archbishop  of  Utrecht.  Three- 
quarters  of  the  expenses  of  private  high  schools  are 
to  be  borne  by  the  State,  and  Catholics  are  now 
turning  their  resouroes  to  the  founding  of  a  Catho¬ 
lic  University,  for  which  large  sums  are  already 
pledged  and  which  is  to  be  situated  at  Nymegen. 
The  project  has  been  blessed  by  the  Holy  Father. 
Another  evidence  of  the  progress  of  the  Church  in 
^Holland  is  the  splendid  organization  of  Catholic 
laboring  men,  who  instead  of  falling  a  prey  to  Social¬ 
ism  are  carefully  organized  in  exclusively  Catholic 
unions,  and  are  thus  in  the  main  safeguarded  from 
radicalism.  The  Dutch  League  of  Peasants,  estab¬ 
lished  to  champion  the  cause  of  the  farmer  and 
owing  its  prosperity  largely  to  the  priests,  attends 
to  every  aspect  of  the  peasants’  well-being.  The 
League  banks  number  1147,  with  deposits  in  1918 


of  $189,596,000;  there  are  co-operative  dairy  plants 
and  the  co-operative  marketing  of  produce,  pur¬ 
chasing  of  seeds,  farm  implements,  cattle-feed, 
breeding  stock,  and  insurance  of  all  kinds.  In 
August,  1921,  4000  delegates  from  all  the  active 
sodalities  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  in  Holland  held 
a  Congress  at  Maestricht,  celebrating  at  the  same 
time  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  Workingmen’s 
Sodality  of  Maestricht,  which  has  1800  members. 
There  is  an  effort  being  made  in  Holland  to  develop 
Catholic  missions  in  her  overseas  possessions. 
Though  she  has  935  missionary  priests,  391  Brothers, 
and  971  Sisters  in  the  foreign  mission  field,  only 
about  200  of  them  are  ministering  in  her  own 
colonial  possessions,  owing  to  Calvinisitic  bigotry  on 
the  one  hand  and  Masonic  hatred  of  all  things 
Catholic  on  the  other,  which  have  never  ceased  to 
antagonize  the  Church  and  in  spite  of  the  broad¬ 
minded  spirit  animating  the  home  Government 
continue  to  do  so.  Prominent  among  the  Catholic 
statesmen  of  Holland  is  Mgr.  Nolens,  who,  the 
acknowledged  leader  of  a  political  party,  brought 
together  the  strongest  and  best  coalition  ministry 
Holland  has  ever  known.  He  was  a  delegate  to 
the  International  Labor  Conference  in  Washington, 
1919,  and  brought  about  the  triumph  of  sane  demo¬ 
cratic  claims  when  the  Conference  seemed  about  to 
break  up  without  reaching  any  practical  conclusion. 
Later  he  was  the  preponderant  influence  as  Hol¬ 
land’s  delegate  to  th&  Sailors’  International  Confer¬ 
ence  in  Genoa.  In  the  death  (1922)  of  Father  De 
Groot,  O.  P.,  saintly  priest,  brilliant  orator,  director 
of  the  Catholic  intellectual  elite  of  his  country,  and 
professor  of  Thomistic  philosophy  at  the  University 
of  Amsterdam,  the  Church  in  Holland  sustained  a 
severe  loss.  From  his  lecture  hall  as  well  as  from 
his  cell  he  exercised  a  fruitful  apostolate,  especially 
amongst  the  youth  of  his  country.  One  of  his  most 
recent  converts  was  Dr.  Frederic  Van  Eeden,  well- 
known  physician,  novelist,  poet,  playwright,  lec¬ 
turer,  and  socialist  leader.  For  Catholic  statistics 
see  articles  on  the  Archdiocese  of  Utrecht  and  its 
suffragans. 

Holy  Child  Jesus,  Society  of  the  (cf.  C.  E., 
VII-400c). — The  work  of  the  Society  in  the  past 
decade,  both  in  England  and  America,  has  been 
more  on  the  line  of  consolidation  than  of  expan¬ 
sion,  owing  to  the  changes  in  educational  programs 
and  the  pursuit  of  studies  for  the  reception  of 
degrees.  The  succession  of  the  general  superiors 
since  the  death  of  the  foundress  in  1879  has  been 
as  follows:  Mother  Angelica  Croft,  under  whom  the 
rules  and  constitutions  were  approved  and  con¬ 
firmed  (1893) ;  Mother  Gonzaga  Snow,  who  founded 
the  house  of  Cherwell  Edge,  Oxford,  intended  as  a 
house  of  studies  for  Catholic  women;  and  the 
present  superior,  Mother  Mary  Tolhurst.  The 
houses  opened  since  1910  are  as  follows:  Portland, 
Oregon;  Waukegan,  Ill.;  Holy  Child  College,  Rose- 
mont,  Penn,  (established  1921).  The  present  num¬ 
ber  of  foundations  (1921)  is  twent}^.  Of  these  eight 
are  in  England:  Mayfield  (mother-house),  St. 
Leonards-on-Sea,  Mark  Cross,  London,  Oxford, 
Preston,  Blackpool,  Harrogate.  The  twelve  houses 
in  the  United  States  are  in  Pennsylvania,  New 
York,  Massachusetts,  Illinois,  Wyoming,  and  Oregon. 
There  are  300  members  of  the  Society  in  England 
and  271  in  America. 

In  addition  to  the  work  of  education  in  parochial 
schools,  high  schools,  and  academies,  the  Sisters 
have  undertaken  evening  classes  for  domestic  science 
and  needlework,  and  extension  courses  for  those 
otherwise  engaged  during  the  day.  They  also  have 
Sodalities  of  Children  of  Mary,  Alumnae  Societies, 


HOLY  CHILDHOOD 


HOLY  COMMUNION 


37 

and  Christ  Child  meetings,  while  their  alumnae  in 
both  countries  have  undertaken  settlement  work 
in  London  and  New  York.  With  regard  to  college 
work,  the  first  woman  in  Oxford  to  receive  her 
M.A.  was  one  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Child 
Jesus,  while  the  first  B.A.  was  a  student  of  their 
Oxford  house.  A  great  loss  to  the  Society  in 
America  was  the  death,  in  1903,  of  Mother  Mary 
Walburga  White,  first  provincial  in  the  United 
States.  Two  young  sisters  gave  their  lives  nursing 
the  sick  in  their  homes  and  in  hospitals  during  the 
epidemic  of  influenza  in  1918.  They  were  Mother 
Marie  Aloysia  and  Sister  Mary  Immaculata. 

Holy  Childhood,  Association  of  the  (cf.  C.  E., 
VIl-299d). — Three  years  after  its  foundation,  that 
is,  in  1846,  the  Holy  Childhood  was  introduced 
into  New  Orleans  and  Baltimore,  from  which  cities 
it  slowly  branched  out  and  took  root  in  a  number 
of  other  places  in  the  United  States.  In  the  in¬ 
terests  of  this  Association  the  founder,  Bishop 
Forbin-Janson,  traveled  and  lectured  in  France,  Bel¬ 
gium,  and  in  England,  but  not  in  the  United  States, 
though  he  may  have  had  this  in  mind,  for  he 
died  unexpectedly  at  his  home  near  Marseilles  12 
July,  1844,  at  the  age  of  fifty-nine  years.  In  1866 
Rev.  Theodore  Thiry,  S.J.,  was  appointed  by  his 
superiors  to  undertake  to  extend  the  Association 
in  the  United  States.  At  this. time  he  was  attached 
to  St.  Francis  Xavier’s  Church,  New  York  City.  He 
succeeded  in  introducing  the  society  in  many  new 
parishes,  edited  the  “Annals,”  made  the  annual  re¬ 
ports,  and  accounted  for  the  money  received  and 
transmitted  to  the  Paris  headquarters.  Associated 
with  him  were  Rev.  B.  Piott,  of  Baltimore,  Rev. 
Edward  Joos,  V.G.,  of  Michigan,  Mgr.  Henry 
Muehlsiepen,  V.  G.,  of  St.  Louis,  and  Rev.  Andrew 
Daniel,  Agent  for  the  Sulpician  Fathers  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  The  total  amount  col¬ 
lected  by  Fr.  Thiry  during  the  twenty-three  years 
that  he  supervised  the  work  was  $162,601.85.  His 
last  work  was  to  compile  the  report  of  the  Holy 
Childhood  for  the  year  1888.  He  died  in  New  York 
City,  13  March’,  1889,  at  the  age  of  sixty-six  years. 
After  his  death  a  number  of  centers  continued  the 
work,  but  as  they  lacked  leadership  and  inspira¬ 
tion,  interest  began  to  wane  and  the  receipts  greatly 
diminished.  At  the  urgent  request  of  the  director 
general  of  the  Association,  Mgr.  Demimuid,  Very 
Rev.  Joseph  Strub,  C.  S.  Sp.,  undertook  to  reor¬ 
ganize  the  work  in  1889.  In  February,  1890,  he 
appointed  Rev.  Anthony  J.  Zielenbach,  C.S.  Sp., 
director  of  the  German  branches.  He  was  assisted 
in  an  executive  capacity  by  Mr.  Charles  J.  Jaegle, 
who  later  in  1916  was  knighted  by  Pope  Benedict 
XV  for  his  services  to  the  Church  and  the  Catholic 
press.  With  the  appointment  Fr.  Zielenbach,  Pitts¬ 
burgh  became  the  central  bureau  of  the  Association 
in  America.  Rev.  Andrew  Daniel,  S.S.S.,  remained 
director  for  Canada  and  the  English  branches.  In 
1893  the  entire  work  was  entrusted  to  the  Holy 
Ghost  Fathers.  In  August,  1897,  Rev.  John  Wilms, 
C.S.Sp.,  succeeded  Fr.  Zielenbach.  He  extended 
the  society  to  32  dioceses,  had  it  incorporated  in 
New  York  City  in  1912,  and  raised  during  his 
directorship  over  $417,900.  He  died  3  January, 
1914.  The  work  was  continued  by  Rev.  Francis 
Retka,  C.S.Sp.,  until  the  following  October,  when 
Rev.  Edward  J.  Knaebel,  C.S.Sp.,  was  placed  in 
charge.  He  greatly  extended  the  sphere  of  the 
Holy  Childhood  and  put  system  into  its  manage¬ 
ment.  During  the  six  years  of  his  directorship  he 
raised  $664,888.95.  The  work  increased  so  rapidly 
that  in  1920  an  assistant  director  became  necessary, 
and  Rev.  Joseph  Rossenbach,  C.  S.  Sp.,  was  ap- 


6 

pointed.  He  continues  to  labor  in  this  capacity. 
In  1920  Fr.  Knaebel,  wishing  to  labor  directly  in 
the  missions,  resigned  the  directorship  and  departed 
for  old  Calabar,  Nigeria,  B.W.A.  Rev.  Lawrence 
A.  Farrell,  C.S.Sp.,  succeeded  him  in  office  in 
October,  1920,  but  owing  to  ill  health  had  to  resign 
the  following  year.  In  September,  1921,  Rev.  Wm. 
F.  Stadelman,  C.S.Sp.,  succeeded  to  the  national 
directorship.  The  work  is  now  established  in  55 
dioceses  in  the  United  States,  and  the  membership 
is  over  500,000.  The  amount  collected  from  March, 
1921,  to  March,  1922,  amounted  to  $168,005.70. 

It  is  estimated  that  at  the  present  time  there  are 
enrolled  in  the  Association  throughout  the  world 
about  20,000,000  Catholic  children.  The  total  num¬ 
ber  of  pagan  infants  rescued  and  baptized  from 
1843  to  1921  is  24,411,701.  The  total  amount  con¬ 
tributed  for  this  noble  purpose  by  the  children  of 
all  countries  for  the  same  period  is  194,125,435.03 
francs,  which  at  pre-war  rate  of  exchange  amounted 
to  $38,825,087.  In  the  various  heathen  countries 
285  missions  are  assisted,  1550  orphanages  are  main¬ 
tained,  and  11,750  workshops  are  operated.  During 
1913  the  last  normal  year  before  the  war,  there  was 
collected  in  the  whole  world  $862,094.12.  In  1914 
the  amount  dropped  to  $295,363.13.  During  the 
war  (1914-19)  Germany  and  Austria  discontinued 
to  contribute,  which  in  part  explains  the  decrease. 
In  1920  the  total  sum  collected  in  the  whole  world 
was  8,001,441.71  francs,  which  at  the  rate  of  pre-war 
exchange  amounted  to  $1,600,288,  but  in  reality  was 
less  on  account  of  the  fluctuating  values  of  French 
money.  Of  this  there  were  contributed  in  francs 
by:  North  America,  2,347,013.20;  France,  1,547,- 
806.69;  Germany,  1,030,080;  Holland,  670,483.48; 
Belgium,  633,022.74;  Italy,  427,048.14;  Switzerland, 
327,037.76;  South  America,  233,760.93;  Ireland,  228,- 
285;  Spain,  154,494.55;  England,  108,625;  Scotland, 
104,500;  Asia,  68,011.79;  Oceania,  57,855.80;  Malta, 
28,976.25;  Africa,  18,920.34;  Denmark,  6320;  Portu¬ 
gal,  4375.75;  Norway,  3201.29;  Greece,  1623. 

On  17  December,  1913,  Pius  X  said  of  the  Asso¬ 
ciation:  “We  desire  greatly  that  all  Catholic  chil¬ 
dren  join  the  pious  and  beneficial  Association  of 
the  Holy  Childhood.  This  would  contribute  much 
to  their  education,  and  bring  upon  them  and  their 
homes  Heaven’s  choicest  gifts.  We  heartily  bless 
them  and  their  beloved  parents.”  On  13  September, 
1914,  Benedict  XV  said:  “Like  our  regretted  pre¬ 
decessors  of  blessed  memory,  we  are  anxious  to  see 
the  membership  of  the  Holy  Childhood  increased.” 
And  Pius  XI  likewise  encouraged  and  blessed  the 
Association. 

Holy  Communion  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-402).— Any 

Driest  may  bring  Holy  Communion  to  a  sick  per¬ 
son  privately  with  the  leave — at  least  presumed — 
of  the  priest  who  has  care  of  the  Blessed  Sacra¬ 
ment.  Holy  Communion  should  be  given  under 
the  form  of  unleavened  or  leavened  hosts  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  lUte  of  the  minister,  except  in  case 
of  necessity,  when  there  is  no  priest  of  the  proper 
Rite  present;  under  such  circumstances,  however, 
the  minister  is  to  observe  the  ceremonies  of  his 
own  Rite.  Secret  sinners  who  desire  to  receive 
Holy  Communion  privately  are  to  be  refused  if 
the  minister  knows  they  are  unrepentant,  but  not 
if  they  approach  publicly  and  cannot  be  passed  by 
without  scandal.  All  those  who  have  reached  the 
use  of  reason  are  obliged  to  receive  Holy  Com- 
their  spiritual  director  for  just  reasons  tells  them 
munion  at  least  about  Easter  each  year,  unless 
to  refrain  temporarily..  This  Easter  precept  is  to 
be  fulfilled  between  Palm  Sunday  and  Low  Sun¬ 
day,  but  the  local  ordinary  may  extend  the  time 


HOLY  CROSS 


3 

from  the  fourth  Sunday  of  Lent  to  Trinity  Sunday, 
if  circumstances  so  demand.  The  Paschal  Com¬ 
munion  may  be  received  in  any  parish,  but  prefer¬ 
ably  in  the  recipient’s;  those  who  receive  it  out¬ 
side  of  the  parish  should  tell  their  pastor  that  they 
have  fulfilled  their  duty.  If  for  any  reason  the 
Paschal  Communion  has  not  been  receive^  within  the 
proper  time,  the  obligation  of  going  to  communion 
still  remains;  the  precept,  of  course,  is  not  fulfilled 
by  a  sacrilegious  communion.  The  faithful  may  re¬ 
ceive  Holy  Communion  according  to  any  Rite,  but 
it  is  desired  that  they  should  fulfil  the  Easter 
precept  in  their  own  Rite.  Holy  Communion, 
which  may  be  distributed  only  during  the  hours 
may  now  be  received  by  the  faithful  on  Holy 
Saturday,  but  only  during  Mass  or  immediately 
after.  A  priest  saying  Mass  must  not  give  Holy 
Communion  during  Mass  to  persons  at  such  a 
distance  that  he  cannot  see  the  altar;  it  may  be 
given  wherever  it  is  permitted  to  say  Mass,  even 
in  a  private  oratory,  unless  the  local  ordinary  for 
just  causes  prohibits  that  in  particular  cases. 

Holy  Cross,  Congregation  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII- 
403a). — The  history  of  the  congregation  during  the 

Holy  Cross,  Congregation  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII- 
403a). — The  history  of  the  congregation  during  the 
second  decade  of  the  twentieth  century  is  a  story 
of  continuous  development  and  gratifying  progress. 
In  the  province  of  Eastern  Bengal  there  has  been 
a  notable  increase,  both  in  the  number  of  mis¬ 
sionaries  engaged  in  the  work  and  in  the  material 
resources  upon  which  that  work  largely  depends. 
A  monthly  magazine,  “The  Bengalese,”  published 
in  Washington,  D.  C.,  is  successfully  enlisting  the 
sympathy  of  thousands  of  readers  in  behalf  of  the 
missionaries  and  their  flocks;  and  a  foreign  mission 
seminary,  soon  to  be  established  in  Detroit,  Mich., 
will  have  for  its  exclusive  end  the  training  of  youth¬ 
ful  Americans  for  service  in  Bengal.  In  the  prov¬ 
ince  of  Canada  the  outstanding  feature  of  the 
decade  has  been  the  somewhat  remarkable  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  “Oratory  of  St.  Joseph”  at  Mount 
Royal  Ward,  Montreal.  The  crypt  of  a  proposed 
magnificent  basilica  has  been  completed  at  a  cost 
of  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  million  dollars,  the 
gift  of  thousands  of  pilgrims  to  the  shrine  made 
famous  by  hundreds  of  miracle-like  cures,  which 
have  been  secured  through  the  intercession  of  St. 
Joseph,  invoked  by  his  devoted  client,  Brother 
Andre.  The  work  of  the  Oratory  has  the  fullest 
approbation  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities;  and, 
as  a  place  of  pilgrimage,  St.  Joseph’s  shrine  on  the 
flank  of  Mount  Royal  already  bids  fair  to  rival  the 
Canadian  shrine  par  excellence,  Ste.  Anne  de 
Beaupre.  Development  in  the  province  of  the 
United  States  has  taken  the  form  of  an  increase 
in  the  number  of  high  schools  conducted  by  the 
Brothers  of  Holy  Cross,  and  the  establishment  of 
Moreau  Seminary  at  Notre  Dame,  Indiana.  The 
severest  blow  to  fall  upon  the  congregation  for  the 
past  quarter  of  a  century  was  the  death,  in  1921, 
of  the  Very  Rev.  Andrew  Morrissey,  Coadjutor- 
General  of  the  Congregation.  Father  Morrissey  had 
been  president  of  the  University  of  Notre  Dame 
for  a  dozen  years,  and  Provincial  Superior  of  the 
province  of  the  United  States  for  a  subsequent 
period  of  a  decade  and  a  half.  His  lamented  death 
occurred  less  than  a  year  after  his  appointment  as 
Coadjutor-General  by  the  General  Chapter,  held 
at  Notre  Dame,  Indiana,  in  1920.  At  this  same 
General  Chapter,  the  rules  and  constitutions  of 
Holy  Cross  were  thoroughly  revised  and  brought 
into  complete  harmony  with  the  New  Code  of 
Canon  Law.  The  members  of  the  congregation  in 


1  '  HOLY  CROSS 

the  opening  year  of  the  century’s  third  decade  in- 
elude  some  240  priests,  140  professed  seminarians 
and  ecclesiastical  novices,  375  professed  brothers, 
and  50  novice  brothers. 

Holy  Cross,  Sisters  of  the  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-405c). 
—The  work  of  the  Holy  Cross  Sisters  is  chiefly 
educational,  but  they  also  devote  themselves  to 
the  care  of  orphanages  and  hospitals  for  the  sick. 
They  had  charge  of  military  and  naval  hospitals 
during  the  Civil  War,  and  cared  for  the  soldiers 
in  the  camps  during  the  Spanish-American  War. 
On  30  November,  1919,  with  appropriate  ceremonies 
marble  markers,  ordered  by  the  Federal  Govern¬ 
ment,  were  placed  on  the  graves  of  the  Sisters 
who  had  been  nurses  during  the  Civil  War.  On  22 
December,  1920,  Mile.  Louise  d’Orbessains,  in  reli¬ 
gion  Sister  M.  Eugenie,  C.S.  C.,  professor  of  French 
language  and  literature  at  St.  Mary’s,  was  declared 
a  member  of  the  French  Academy  by  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Public  Instruction  and  Fine  Arts  of  the 
French  Republic.  Commandant  G.  E.  Dubreuil, 
military  attache  of  the  French  Embassy  at  Wash¬ 
ington,  D.  C.,  presented  her  with  the  decoration, 
awarded  26  June,  1921. 

The  Sacred  Congregation  of  Religious  approved 
of  the  changes  made  in  the  constitutions  in  con¬ 
formity  with  the  revised  Code  of  Canon  Law,  28 
April,  1921.  The  mother-house  of  the  community 
is  St.  Mary’s  College  and  Academy,  Notre  Dame 
P.  O.,  near  South  Bend,  Indiana.  The  present 
Superior  General  is  Mother  M.  Aquina,  elected  25 
July,  1919,  succeeding  Mother  Perpetua  (1901-19), 
Mother  Annunciata  (elected  1895;  d.  1900),  Mother 
Augusta  (1882-95),  and  Mother  Angela,  the  virtual 
foundress  of  the  order  in  the  United  States.  Fifty 
seven  Sisters,  of  whom  38  are  dead  and  19  living, 
are  Jubilarians,  having  lived  fifty  years  after  their 
religious  profession.  There  are  1055  Sisters  working 
in  the  Archdioceses  of  Baltimore,  Chicago,  Cin¬ 
cinnati,  Dubuque,  New  York,  Oregon  City,  Phila¬ 
delphia,  San  Francisco,  Santa  Fe,  and  in  the  various 
dioceses.  They  conduct  74  institutions,  including 
1  college,  2  normal  schools,  19  boarding  schools,  44 
parochial  schools  with  13,290  pupils,  7  hospitals 
with  14,662  patients,  and  4  orphan  asylums  with 
169  orphans. 

Holy  Cross,  Sisters  Marianites  of  the  (cf.  C. 
E.,  VII-405b). — This  congregation,  with  mother- 
house  and  novitiate  in  New  Orleans,  La.,  numbers 
150  Sisters,  who  are  in  charge  of  2  orphanages,  1 
home  for  boys,  19  academies  and  schools  in  the 
Archdiocese  of  New  Orleans  and  in  the  Diocese  of 
Natchez,  and  have  under  their  care  5500  children. 
Attached  to  the  mother-house  in  France  is  the 
novitiate  in  New  York,  in  which  archdiocese  there 
are  70  professed  Sisters  and  1  novice,  in  charge  of 
5  schools  with  832  pupils. 

Holy  Cross  College — The  oldest  Catholic  college 
in  New  England  was  founded  in  the  year  1843,  by 
the  Rt.  Rev.  Benedict  Joseph  Fenwick,  second 
bishop  of  Boston.  The  bishop  was  aided  by  the 
Rev.  James  Filton,  who  in  1838  had  established 
the  Seminary  of  Mt.  St.  James  on  the  hill  which 
now  bears  that  name,  but  was  then  known  as 
Pakachoag,  “Hill  of  Pleasant  Springs.”  Father 
Filton  presented  this  institution  to  the  bishop  in 
1842,  and  on  2  November,  1843,  classes  were  or¬ 
ganized  in  what  was  still  known  as  the  Seminary 
of  Mt.  St.  James,  and  on  13  January,  1844,  the 
first  college  building  was  completed. 

The  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  were  invited 
by  the  bishop  to  organize  the  courses  of  study 


HOLY  FAMILY 


378 


HOLY  FAMILY 


according  to  the  curriculum  of  their  college  at 
Georgetown.  Bishop  Fenwick  died  10  August,  184b, 
and  was  buried  in  the  college  cemetery.  A  few 
days  before  his  death,  however,  on  6  August,  he 
had  ceded  full  control  and  possession  of  the  in¬ 
stitution  with  buildings  and  grounds  free  of  incum¬ 
brance  to  the  Fathers. 

On  14  July,  1852,  a  fire  destroyed  the  entire  cen¬ 
tral  building,  and  the  very  existence  of  the  institu¬ 
tion  was  threatened  by  this  serious  loss.  However, 
the  Rt.  Rev.  John  B.  Fitzpatrick,  then  Bishop  ot 
Boston,  determined  that  the  college  should  not 
perish,  and  on  3  October,  1853,  it  was  ready,  en¬ 
larged,  and  remodeled  to  receive  students.  JNever- 
theless,  the  effect  of  the  calamity  on  the  young 
institution  is  evident  in  the  interruption  of  graduat¬ 
ing  classes  from  1852  to  1858.  . 

The  new  college  encountered  difficulties  m  ob¬ 
taining  a  charter,  and  although  the  petition  was 
presented  in  1849  the  charter  was  not  granted  until 
1865,  when  the  influence  of  the  Civil  War  had 
caused  all  differences  of  opinion  regarding  it  to  be 
set  aside.  However,  during  this  period  the  stu¬ 
dents  were  not  deprived  of  the  benefits  of  gradua¬ 
tion,  as  Georgetown  College  conferred  degrees  on 
all  who  were  graduated  from  1849—52  and  from 
1858-65.  In  1895  a  new  building  was  completed 
containing  a  thoroughly  equipped  gymnasium,  and 
in  1905  and  1913  two  more  buildings  were  added 
to  the  college.  The  graduates  of  the  college  from 
1849  to  1920  inclusive  number  2165,  and  in  1920-21 
the  college  registered  733  students.  The  Rev.  James 
J.  Carlin,  S.J.,  president  of  the  college,  is  assisted 
by  a  faculty  of  54  members. 

Holy  Family,  Congregation  of  the  (cf.  C.  E.; 
VII-407d) .— This  institute,  founded  by  Abbe 
Noailles  in  1820,  now  comprises  three  branches 
which  have  their  own  government  and  their  own 
life.  They  are:  (1)  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  whose 
special  aim  is  the  adoption  and  education  of  young 
orphans.  This  congregation,  which  has  at  all  times 
met  with  the  warmest  sympathy  from  all  classes 
of  society,  directs  orphanages  in  France  and  Spam. 
The  mother-house  is  in  Bordeaux.  (2)  Sisters  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception,  whose  principal  work 
is  the  education  and  instruction  of  youth  of  the 
different  classes  of  society.  In  France,  Spain,  Eng¬ 
land,  Belgium,  Asia,  and  Africa  they  direct  houses 
of  higher  education,  boarding  schools  for  the  middle 
class,  high  schools,  elementary  and  kindergarten 
schools,  houses  of  refuge,  and  workrooms.  In  some 
localities  they  visit  the  sick  and  the  poor.  The 
mother-house  is  in  Bordeaux.  (3)  Sisters  of  Hope, 
whose  chief  end  is  the  nursing  of  the  sick,  either 
in  their  homes  or  in  hospitals  and  clinics.  To 
these  chief  works  is  added  another  entirely  charit¬ 
able  work:  the  Sisters  visit  the  sick  poor,  nurse 
them,  and  watch  by  them  as  far  as  the  case  requires. 
In  populous  centers  they  associate  with  themselves 
charitable  ladies  whose  co-operation  enables  them 
to  help  a  greater  number  of  poor.  They  are  estab¬ 
lished  in  the  chief  towns  of  France,  Spain,  England, 
Italy,  Ceylon,  South  Africa,  and  the  two  Americas. 
The  mother-house  is  in  Bordeaux. 

The  last  establishment  of  the  founder  was  the 
work  of  the  Solitary  Sisters,  devoted  to  contempla¬ 
tion.  He  founded  them  with  a  view  to  setting  up 
a  living  and  permanent  votive  offering  of  thanks¬ 
giving  for  the  great  Eucharistic  miracle  of  3  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1822.  On  this  date  the  officiating  priest  at 
Benediction  in  the  Convent  of  the  Ladies  of  Loreto, 
at  Bordeaux,  beheld  an  apparition  of  Our  Lord 
within  the  monstrance  which  held  the  Sacred  Host, 
this  miraculous  appearance  being  testified  to  by  the 


altar-boy,  the  superioress  of  the  house,  and  the 
majority  of  those  present  during  Benediction. 
The  Sisters  keep  up  perpetual  adoration  and  recite 
every  day  in  Latin  the  liturgical  office  of  Our  Lady. 
By  their  life  of  piety  and  solitude  they  constitute 
the  praying  portion  of  the  Holy  Family,  which  is 
a  wholly  active  congregation. 

In  communities  requiring  it,  lay  Sisters,  designated 
by  the  name  of  Sisters  of  St.  Martha,  are  especially 
devoted  to  manual  labor.  They  share  in  all  the 
privileges  of  the  religious  state  and  of  community 
life  in  the  same  way  as  all  the  members  of  the 
Holy  Family. 

To  supply  these  works  with  subjects  qualified  to 
secure  the  aim  the  founder  had  in  view  in  institut¬ 
ing  them,  novitiates  are  established  at  Talence, 
near  Bordeaux;  Hortaleza,  near  Madrid;  Rock 
Ferry,  England;  Rome,  Italy;  Bellair,  Africa;  and 
in  Canada.  As  a  consequence  of  persecution  and 
war,  a  certain  number  of  houses  having  been  closed 
in  France,  the  institute  has  at  present  (1921)  202 
houses  with  3618  Sisters  in  charge  of  30,000  children 
and  15,000  poor  and  sick. 

Holy  Family,  Little  Sisters  of  the  (cf.  C.  E., 
VII-408b).— This  congregation,  with  mother-house 
at  Sherbrooke,  P.  Q.,  Canada,  numbers  44  missions, 
794  professed  Sisters,  49  novices,  and  21  postulants. 
There  are  8  establishments  in  the  United  States. 

Holy  Family,  Sisters  of  the  (New  Orleans; 
cf.  C.  E.,  VII-408a). — This  congregation  of  colored 
Sisters,  with  novitiate  at  New  Orleans,  La.,  con¬ 
ducts  establishments  in  the  Archdiocese  of  New 
Orleans  and  the  Dioceses  of  Galveston,  San 
Antonio,  and  Mobile.  There  are  145  Sisters,  11 
novices  and  2  postulants  with  3100  pupils  under 
their  instruction. 

Holy  Family,  Sisters  of  the  (San  Francisco; 
cf.  C.  E.,  VII-408c),  founded  in  San  Francisco  in 
1872  by  Miss  Elizabeth  Armer,  who  became  in  reli¬ 
gion  Sister  M.  Dolores,  under  the  guidance  of  the 
Most  Rev.  J.  S.  Alemany,  then  Archbishop  of  San 
Francisco,  and  the  Very  Rev.  J.  J.  Prendergast.  The 
special  work  of  the  Sisters  is:  the  catechetical  in¬ 
struction  of  public  school  children,  the  assisting  of 
pastors  in  Sunday  schools,  the  seeking  out  of  children 
of  neglectful  or  indifferent  parents  to  induce  them  to 
attend  classes  of  Christian  Doctrine,  and  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  day  homes  for  the  care  of  little  children 
whose  mothers  are  obliged  to  work  during  the  day. 
At  the  present  time  the  Sisters  have  under  their 
spiritual  care  thousands  of  children.  They  assist 
in  23  Sunday  schools  in  the  city  and  suburbs  of 
San  Francisco,  besides  conducting  several  large  day 
homes.  Houses  were  established  in  San  Jose  in 
1907  and  in  Oakland  in  1911.  The  Los  Angeles 
foundation  in  1921  is  the  first  established  in 
Southern  California. 

Holy  Family  of  Nazareth,  Sisters  of  the  (cf. 
C.  E.,  VII-408a). — The  mother-house  of  this  con¬ 
gregation  is  at  Rome,  Italy,  and  the  provincial 
house  for  America  is  at  Des  Plaines,  Ill.  In  the 
United  States  the  Sisters  conduct  institutions  in 
the  archdioceses  of  Boston,  Chicago,  and  Phila- 
.  delphia,  and  in  the  dioceses  of  Brooklyn,  Cleveland, 
Columbus,  Detroit,  Erie,  Fort  Wayne,  Hartford, 
Peoria,  Pittsburgh,  Scranton,  Springfield,  and  Syra¬ 
cuse.  There  are  in  the  United  States  1030  pro¬ 
fessed  Sisters,  75  novices,  and  40  postulants,  in 
charge  of  57  parochial  schools  with  50,000  pupils, 
2  orphanages,  2  hospitals  caring  for  186  patients 
daily  and  4957  during  the  year,  1  academy  with 
32  boarders  and  307  day  scholars,  and  1  day  nursery. 


HOLY  GHOST 


379 


HOLY  SAVIOR 


Holy  Ghost,  Congregations  of  the. — I.  Congre¬ 
gation  of  the  Holy  Giiost  and  of  tile  Immaculate 
Heart  of  Mary  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-416d). — The  mother- 
house  and  house  of  general  administration  of  the 
congregation  is  at  Paris,  where  the  superior  general 
lesides.  Mgr.  Le  Roy,  Archbishop  of  Alinda,  has 
been  superior  since  1896.  At  Rome  the  Fathers  direct 
the  French  Seminary.  The  congregation  numbers  six 
provinces:  France,  Ireland,  Germany,  Portugal,  the 
United  States,  and  Belgium-Holland,  and  the  vice¬ 
province  of  England.  The  dioceses,  vicariates  apos¬ 
tolic,  and  prefectures  apostolic  confided  to  it  number 
25.  They  are,  in  Africa:  Angola  and  Congo,  Lower 
Congo,  Senegal  and  Senegambia,  Sierra  Leone, 
Zanzibar,  Upper  Cimbebasia,  Lower  Niger,  Loango, 
Gaboon,  Kamerun,  Ubanghi,  French  Guinea,  Baga- 
moyo,  Ubanghi-Shari,  Kilima-Najaro,  Southern 
Katanga ;  near  the  African  continent :  Diego 
Suarez  (Northern  Madagascar),  Mayotte  Islands 
and  Nossi-Be  and  Comoro,  Reunion,  Port  Louis 
(Mauritius);  in  America:  Saint-Pierre  and  Mique¬ 
lon,  Guadeloupe,  Martinique,  French  Guiana,  and 
Teffe.  The  congregation  also  has  important  col¬ 
leges  near  Ottawa,  Canada,  at  Port  au  Prince,  Haiti, 
and  at  Port  of  Spain,  Trinidad,  and  directs  at 
Pittsburgh,  Penn.,  the  Duquesne  University  with 
more  than  2000  students.  In  the  United  States 
the  Fathers  are  established  in  15  dioceses  and  have 
38  houses,  of  which  16  are  especially  devoted  to 
work  among  the  colored  people.  The  preparatory 
college  is  at  Cornwells  Heights,  Penn.,  and  the 
novitiate  is  at  Ferndale,  Conn.  According  to  the 
latest  statistics  (1921)  the  congregation  comprises 
2888  members,  of  whom  1726  are  professed  and  1162 
aspirants,  with  a  total  of  272  houses.  In  March, 
1922,  the  Holy  Ghost  Order  was  officially  recognized 
by  the  Colonial  Office  of  the  British  Government. 

II.  Congregation  of  the  Daughters  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-417d). — At  the  death 
of  Mother  Saint  George,  Superior  General  from 
1913  to  1919,  her  predecessor,  Mother  Marie-Alvarez, 
was  re-elected  and  actually  governs  the  congrega¬ 
tion.  Previous  to  the  publication,  in  1918,  of  the 
new  Code  of  Canon  Law,  the  Daughters  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  made  perpetual  vows  after  having  completed 
two  years  of  religious  novitiate.  Now  the  duration 
of  the  probation  is  one  year,  at  the  completion  of 
which  they  make  temporary  vows  for  three  years 
and  then  perpetual  vows.  The  number  of  members 
is  over  2000. 

III.  Missionary  Sisters,  Servants  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-418a). — This  congregation 
was  founded  at  Steyl,  Holland,  in  the  year  1889, 
by  the  late  Very  Rev.  Arnold  Janssen,  founder  of 
the  Society  of  the  Divine  Word.  Its  principal  aim 
is  work  in  home  and  foreign  missions,  especially 
in  those  which  are  in  charge  of  the  above  mentioned 
society.  Its  chartered  title  is  “Missionary  Sisters, 
Servants  of  the  Holy  Ghost.”  It  numbers  (1920) 
1034  professed  Sisters,  119  novices,  67  postulants, 
and  70  candidates.  The  congregation  possesses  7 
novitiates,  as  follows:  2  in  Holland,  at  Stejd  and 
at  Uden;  1  in  Germany,  at  Vallendar,  Rid.;  1  in 
Austria,  at  Stockerau,  near  Vienna;  1  in  Argentina, 
at  Crespo;  1  in  the  U.  S.  A.,  at  Techny,  Ill.;  1  in 
Yen-chou-fu,  South  Shantung,  China.  In  the  home 
and  foreign  missions  the  Sisters  take  up  all  kinds 
of  work  suitable  to  their  state:  the  teaching  in 
schools  for  elementary  and  higher  education,  the 
conducting  of  hospitals,  dispensaries,  orphanages, 
boarding  schools,  homes  for  the  aged,  asylums, 
sanatoria,  etc.  They  have  14  houses  in  Holland, 

9  in  Germany,  6  in  Austria,  19  in  Argentina,  10  in 
Brazil,  14  in  the  U.  S.  A.,  3  in  the  Philippine  Islands, 

5  in  China,  4  in  New  Guinea,  2  in  Japan,  2  in 


Dutch  E.  Indies.  Up  to  1918  the  congregation  was 
represented  also  in  the  mission  of  Togo,  West 
Africa,  and  in  Mozambique,  on  the  east  coast  of 
Africa.  These  two  missions,  comprising  four  and 
three  stations  respectively,  are  forsaken  at  the 
present  time,  by  reason  of  the  deportation  and 
repatriation  of  the  priests  as  well  as  the  Sisters. 
At  the  first  General  Chapter  of  the  congregation 
which  convened  in  1910  at  Steyl,  Holland,  Mother 
Theresia  was  elected  Superior  General.  At  this 
time  the  first  constitutions  were  revised  and 
adapted  according  to  the  then  published  decrees 
of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Affairs  of  the 
Religious.  A  change  was  made  in  the  color  of  the 
religious  garb  from  light  blue  to  dark  blue,  except 
for  the  missionaries  in  the  tropics,  who  continue 
to  wear  white  habits.  In  1920  the  formation  of 
the  European  houses  into  provinces  took  place,  and 
the  following  provinces  were  erected :  Holland,  Ger¬ 
many,  and  Austria.  The  next  General  Chapter  is 
in  preparation  for  May,  1922,  when  the  Superior 
General  will  be  elected  and  another  revision  of  the 
constitution  will  be  made  to  conform  to  the  new 
Canon  Law. 

The  first  provincial  superior  of  the  United  States 
was  Sister  Leonarda.  The  present  Provincial 
Superior  is  Sister  Willibalda.  The  Holy  Ghost 
Institute,  Techny,  Ill.,  is  the  provincial  house,  the 
seat  of  the  novitiate  and  postulate.  Connected 
with  it  is  a  boarding  school  for  girls.  The  number 
of  religious  in  the  United  States  is  199,  including 
169  professed  Sisters,  19  novices,  and  11  postulants. 
The  Sisters  conduct  five  schools  for  colored  chil¬ 
dren  in  Jackson,  Meridian,  Vicksburg,  Greenville, 
Miss.,  and  in  Little  Rock,  Ark.  They  have  an 
average  of  1500  pupils  in  the  elementary  grades,  in 
high  school,  commercial  and  music  departments. 
The  community  is  in  charge  of  two  hospitals,  at 
Watertown,  Wis.,  with  a  training  school  for  nurses 
in  connection,  and  at  New  Hampton,  Iowa,  with 
500  and  300  patients  per  annum.  At  the  St.  Ann’s 
Home  at  Techny,  Ill.,  130  aged  people  are  cared 
for.  Since  1910  up  to  15  Sisters  left  Techny  to 
go  to  the  missions  among  the  Igorots  on  the  island 
Luzon,  P.  I.  On  24  November,  1921,  the  first  four 
American  Sisters  departed  from  Techny  for  the 
mission  among  the  Papuans,  in  New  Guinea, 
Oceania. 

Holy  Humility  of  Mary,  Institute  of  Sisters  of 
the  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-418b). — The  Sisters  devote 
themselves  to  the  care  of  the  sick,  orphans,  and 
homeless  children.  The  postulantship  of  six  months 
is  followed  by  a  novitiate  of  two  years,  at  the  end 
of  which  time  triennial  vows  are  made.  At  the 
expiration  of  these  vows  the  Sisters  make  perpetual 
vows.  The  mother-house  is  at  Villa  Maria,  Law¬ 
rence  Co.,  Penn.,  and  the  community  is  attached 
to  the  Diocese  of  Cleveland.  In  19il  the  Sisters 
were  given  charge  of  a  new  diocesan  hospital  opened 
at  Youngstown,  Ohio.  At  present  18  Sisters  are 
assigned  there.  The  congregation  numbers  (1921) 
about  275  members.  They  conduct  two  high  schools 
and  a  school  for  poor  children,  the  latter  situated 
at  the  mother-house,  and  also  have  under  their 
care  parochial  schools,  one  hospital,  the  diocesan 
seminary,  and  St.  Anthony’s  Home  for  Working 
Boys. 

Holy  Savior,  Sisters  of  the  Most. — This  con¬ 
gregation,  called  also  the  Daughters  of  the  Divine 
Redeemer  or  Sisters  of  Niederbronn,  was  founded 
in  1849  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  poor  at  Nieder¬ 
bronn  (Alsace)  by  Elizabeth  Eppinger,  a  peasant 
girl.  The  foundress  was  in  poor  health  and  thirty- 
five  years  of  age.  She  was  aided  in  her  work  by 


HOLY  SEPULCHRE 


380 


HOLY  UNION 


the  zealous  and  prudent  devotion  of  Fr.  Jean  David 
Reichard,  pastor  of  Niederbronn,  who  later  resigned 
his  parish  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  the  con¬ 
gregation.  The  Bishop  of  Strasburg,  Msgr.  Raess, 
gave  his  paternal  interest  and  entire  sympathy  to 
the  work  from  its  beginning.  The  congregation 
obtained  legal  rights  and  recognition  by  imperial 
decree  of  6  November,  1854.  The  Holy  See  granted 
it  the  decree  of  praise  7  March,  1863,  the  decree  of 
approbation  11  April,  1866,  and  approved  its  con¬ 
stitutions  30  July,  1877.  By  decree  of  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Religious  of  3  December,  1919,  it 
was  divided  into  four  provinces,  two  French  and 
two  German.  The  constitutions,  changed  to  con¬ 
form  to  this  new  division  and  to  the  new  Code 
of  Canon  Law,  have  been  submitted  to  the  Holy 
See  for  approbation. 

The  congregation  spread  rapidly  in  the  Diocese 
of  Strasburg,  and  since  1851  has  been  established 
in  other  dioceses  of  France,  in  Germany,  Austria, 
Belgium,  and  Luxemburg.  In  1866  a  schism  sep¬ 
arated  from  the  mother-house  of  the  congregation 
the  houses  in  the  Dioceses  of  Wurzburg  in  Bavaria, 
Vienna  in  Austria,  and  Oedenburg  in  Hungary, 
which  the  respective  bishops  constituted  as  inde¬ 
pendent  and  autonomous  congregations.  In  1880 
the  mother-house  with  the  novitiate  was  transferred 
from  Niederbronn  to  Oberbronn.  The  congregation 
has  at  the  present  time  three  novitiaties;  one  at 
Oberbronn  in  the  Diocese  of  Strasburg  for  the  two 
French  provinces  of  Alsace-Lorraine  and  of  the 
Interior;  another  at  Buhl  in  the  Diocese  of  Frei- 
burg-im-Breisgau  for  the  German  province  of 
Baden-Hesse ;  the  third  at  Neumarkt  in  the  Diocese 
of  Eichstatt  for  the  German  province  of  Bavaria. 
The  three  novitiates  have  a  total  of  207  novices. 
The  number  of  members  of  the  congregation  has 
steadily  increased  since  its  origin.  Professed  Sis¬ 
ters  numbered  600  in  1872,  1800  in  1900,  2424  in 
1910,  2871  in  1922.  The  number  of  houses  in  the 
four  provinces  is  367.  There  were  268  in  1900,  122 
in  1880,  72  in  1860,  and  9  in  1850.  The  primary 
work  of  the  congregation  is  the  care  of  the  sick, 
especially  the  sick  poor,  in  their  homes,  in  hos¬ 
pitals,  and  in  convalescent  homes.  The  Sisters  also 
have  under  their  care  orphanages,  hospices,  and 
refuges  for  the  poor,  workrooms  for  young  girls, 
housekeeping  schools,  kindergartens,  and  day 
nurseries. 

Holy  Sepulchre,  Canonesses  Regular  of  the. 
See  Canonesses  Regular. 

Holy  Sepulchre,  Franciscan  Guardians  of  the 
(cf.  C.  E.,  VII-427b). — A  band  of  six  or  seven 
Franciscan  Fathers  and  as  many  Brothers  chosen 
from  the  community  of  St.  Saviour  to  keep  watch 
over  the  Hofy  Sepulchre  and  the  sanctuaries  of  the 
basilica,  to  which  they  conduct  a  daily  pilgrimage. 
The  Friars  lead  a  difficult  confined  life.  At  mid¬ 
night,  while  chanting  their  Office,  they  go  in  pro¬ 
cession  to  incense  the  tomb  of  the  Saviour  whilst 
they  intone  the  Benedictus.  The  rest  of  the  com¬ 
munity  of  St.  Saviour,  which  generally  numbers 
about  25  Fathers  and  55  Brothers,  are  engaged  in 
the  various  activities  of  the  convent,  which  com¬ 
prise,  besides  the  church  of  St.  Saviour  (the  Latin 
parish  church  of  Jerusalem),  an  orphanage,  a  parish 
school  for  boys,  a  printing  office,  carpenter’s  and 
ironmonger’s  shops,  a  mill  run  by  steam,  and  the 
largest  library  in  Palestine.  While  the  taking  of 
Jerusalem  from  the  Turks  by  the  British  forces  on 
9  December,  1917,  tended  to  alleviate  the  severe 
privations  suffered  by  the  Guardians  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  in  common  with  their  brethren  through¬ 


out  the  Custody  of  the  Holy  Land,  it  nevertheless 
failed  to  mark  the  end  of  their  humiliation  in  hav¬ 
ing  Mohammedan  doorkeepers  at  the  Tomb  of 
the  Saviour.  General  Allenby,  on  assuming  formal 
possession  of  the  Holy  City,  regarded  this  galling 
condition  in  the  light  of  a  quasi-religious  right 
belonging  traditionally  to  certain  Turkish  families, 
and  confirmed  their  position  until  such  time  as  the 
status  of  the  religious  questions  in  Palestine  should 
be  defined.  This  difficult  task  was  entrusted  by  the 
Treaty  of  Versailles  to  a  commission  to  be  appointed 
for  the  purpose.  Remarkable  deliberation  has  been 
manifested  in  this  important  matter,  for  after  two 
years’  delay  no  visible  progress  has  been  made 
toward  the  bare  nomination  of  the  commission. 
Until  the  decisions  of  this  future  body  are  approved 
by  the  League  of  Nations,  the  many  injustices  to 
Catholic  rights  that  came  into  being  during  the 
long  Turkish  rule  in  the  Holy  Land  are  to  remain 
unremedied. 

Holy  Union  of  the  Sacred  Hearts,  Congregation 
of  the,  founded  in  France,  in  Cambrai,  by  Jean 
Baptiste  Debrabant,  secular  priest  of  that  diocese. 
As  early  as  the  year  1824  the  work  had  been  begun 
in  Douai,  under  the  protection  of  Monsignor  Wicart, 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Laval.  In  1826  the  Abbe 
Jean  Baptiste  Debrabant,  animated  with  zeal  for 
the  glory  of  God  and  deeply  affected  by  the  great 
moral  evils  brought  about  by  the  principles  of  the 
French  revolution,  accepted  the  spiritual  and  tem¬ 
poral  responsibility  of  the  work  already  begun  in 
1824,  and  established  in  the  Diocese  of  Cambrai  a 
pious  Congregation  of  Sisters  who  should  procure 
the  glory  of  God  and  the  salvation  of  souls,  by 
the  sanctification  of  its  members  and  the  Catholic 
and  social  education  of  youth.  Thus  the  Abbe 
became  the  founder  of  the  congregation  to  which 
he  gave  the  name  of  “The  Holy  Union  of  the 
Sacred  Hearts.”  The  congregation  spread  rapidly, 
and  at  the  present  day  it  has  convents  in  several 
parts  of  the  world.  After  a  laudatory  brief,  given 
on  the  recommendation  of  the  bishops,  the  congre¬ 
gation  received  its  first  decree  of  approbation  from 
the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars, 
30  May,  1853.  On  18  December,  1877,  another 
decree  of  the  same  sacred  congregation  granted  the 
final  approbation  of  the  Holy  See.  This  important 
decree  facilitated  its  extension  in  foreign  countries. 
Already  established  in  France,  Belgium,  England, 
and  Ireland,  it  was  in  1882  introduced  into  South 
America,  in  1886  into  North  America,  and  in  1890 
into  the  West  Indies. 

It  was  on  the  recommendation  of  Rt.  Rev.  J. 
McNamee,  of  Brooklyn,  that  this  congregation  was 
introduced  into  the  United  States.  This  worthy 
priest,  having  a  near  relative  a  member  of  the 
congregation,  advised  the  late  Rev.  M.  McCabe, 
of  Fall  River,  Mass.,  to  invite  the  Sisters  to  take 
up  the  work  of  the  parochial  school  in  his  parish 
of  the  Sacred  Heart.  The  invitation  was  accepted, 
and  the  Sisters  came  to  Fall  River  from  Douai  in 
October,  1886.  In  December  of  the  same  year  a 
young  ladies’  academy  was  opened  on  Prospect 
Street,  and  later  on  a  boarding  school  was  estab¬ 
lished.  Other  foundations  succeeded  each  other  in 
due  course:  in  Taunton,  Mass.,  Pawtucket,  R.  I., 
North  Cambridge,  Mass.,  South  Lawrence,  Mass., 
and  Chelsea,  Mass.  The  novitiate  for  the  American 
province  is  in  Fall  River,  Mass.  The  congregation 
is  placed  under  the  authority  of  a  superior  general, 
who  is  elected  by  the  general  chapter  and  who 
resides  in  Tournai,  Belgium.  Before  the  expulsion 
of  the  religious  from  France,  in  1902,  the  mother- 
house  was  situated  in  Douai.  The  superior  is 


HOMICIDE 


381 


HO-NAN 


assisted  by  a  council  of  six  members,  besides  a 
secretary^  general  and  a  bursar  general. 

Homicide  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII— 422c). — A  member  of 
the  laity  who  is  guilty  of  homicide  is  thereby 
rendered  incapable  of  legal  ecclesiastical  acts  and 
is  excluded  from  any  office  he  may  have  held  in 
the  Church. 

Ho-nan,  Eastern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Ho- 
nanensis  Orientalis),  in  China.  The  vicariate 
was  erected  21  September,  1916,  when  Ho-nan  was 
divided  for  the  third  time  into  four  instead  of 
three  dioceses  as  hitherto,  the  new  vicariate  being 
directly  east  of  Western  Honan.  Bishop  Noe 
Giuseppe  Tacconi  of  the  Foreign  Missions  of  Milan, 
born  at  Pavia  23  September,  1873,  came  to  China 
27  September,  1895,  was  named  Bishop  of  Aradus 
and  vicar  Apostolic  of  Southern  Ho-nan,  18  Septem¬ 
ber,  1911,  and  was  transferred  on  20  November, 
1916,  to  the  new  see.  With  seven  priests,  five  of 
whom  were  from  the  Foreign  Missions  of  Milan, 
and  two  natives,  the  new  vicar  organized  the 
vicariate.  An  imposing  cathedral  has  been  built 
in  Kai-feng-fu,  the  episcopal  seat. 

On  24  November,  1920,  six  Sisters  of  Divine  Provi¬ 
dence  from  the  United  States  of  America  arrived 
in  Kai-feng  for  purpose  of  founding  schools  for 
girls  and  caring  for  orphans.  In  the  same  year 
three  priests  from  America  arrived  to  teach  the 
boys  of  the  vicariate,  and  in  a  few  months  had 
opened  flourishing  schools.  The  8262  Catholics  are 
Chinese  and  are  attended  by  11  secular  priests. 
The  vicariate  has  8  parishes,  8  missions,  7  churches, 
8  stations,  1  seminary  with  25  seminarians,  2  normal 
schools  with  15  teachers  and  340  boys  and  60  girl 
students,  32  elementary  schools  with  32  teachers 
and  459  boys  and  215  girls,  144  catechumens,  1 
home  for  the  aged,  1  orphanage  with  30  children. 

Ho-Nan,  Northern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (  Ho¬ 
nan  en  sis  Septemtrionalis)  ,  is  one  of  the  four 
vicariates  in  the  territory  of  Ho-Nan,  China.  It 
is  entrusted  to  the  seminary  of  Foreign  Missions 
of  Milan,  and  the  present  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt. 
Rev.  Martino  Cholino,  born  in  Volchiusella,  diocese 
of  Ivrea,  in  1877,  left  for  Northern  Ho-Nan  after 
having  been  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Calama 
and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Northern  Ho-Nan  23 
February,  1921,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni 
Memcatti,  born  in  Milan- 18  September,  1866,  came 
to  China  1  April,  1889,  was  elected  Bishop  of  Tanis 
and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Northern  Ho-Nan  12  Sep¬ 
tember,  1903,  consecrated  in  Pekin  23  November, 
1903.  On  the  occasion  of  his  sacerdotal  jubilee, 
in  1913,  the  pope  accorded  him  the  usage  of  the 
throne  and  of  the  cappa  magna,  and  the  privilege 
to  be  named  in  The  Canon  of  the  Mass  as  if  he 
were  a  resident  bishop.  In  1920  the  bishop  resigned 
from  the  vicariate  and  is  now  living  in  Milan. 

By  present  (1921)  statistics  the  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  the  vicariate  numbers  20,967,  all  Chinese, 
and  there  are:  15  parishes,  22  churches,  396  mission 
stations,  1  convent  of  women  with  12  Chinese  Sis¬ 
ters,  4  lay  brothers,  1  seminary,  17  seminarians,  6 
secondary  schools  for  boys  with  324  pupils,  1  second¬ 
ary  school  for  girls  with  40  pupils,  1  professional 
school  with  1  professor  and  7  pupils,  1  French  school 
with  9  teachers  and  250  pupils,  447  elementary 
schools  with  6900  pupils,  1  orphanage  for  boys  with 
24  orphans,  1  orphanage  for  girls  with  92  orphans, 
and  1  infant  asylum  with  363  orphan  children. 

Ho-nan,  Southern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf. 
C.  E.,  III-677d). — Before  1844  the  missions  in  Ho¬ 
nan  were  cared  for  by  the  Jesuits,  but  in  1844  a 


vicariate  apostolic  was  created  and  placed  in  charge 
Vo™  i  ^azarist  lathers,  they  being  succeeded  in 
1869  by  the  priests  of  the  Foreign  Missions  ol 
Milan,  directed  by  Bishop  Simeone  Volontieri,  who 
greatly  increased  the  number  of  Christians  and  mis¬ 
sions.  rlhe  vicariate  was  divided  in  1882,  all  the 
territory  of  Ho-nan  north  of  the  Yellow  River  being 
formed  into  the  \icanate  of  Northern  Ho-nan  and 
that  south  of  the  river  into  the  vicariate  of  Southern 
Ho-nan.  It  was  1884  before  the  bishop  for  Northern 
Ho-nan  took  over  his  territory  and  the  vicar  apos¬ 
tolic  of  Ho-nan  became  vicar  apostolic  of  Southern 
Ho-nan.  In  1911  Southern  Ho-nan  was  divided  and 
the  additional  vicariate  of  Western  Ho-nan  was 
formed.  Still  another  separation  occurred  in  1916, 
when  the  vicariate  of  Eastern  Ho-nan  was  created! 

At  present  the  vicariate  of  Southern  Ho-nan  is 
under  the  direction  of  Rt.  Rev.  Flaminius  Belotti, 
born  at  Senna,  diocese  of  Bergamo,  9  February 
1874;  ordained  8  October,  1899;  entered  the  semi¬ 
nary  of  Foreign  Missions  at  Milan  9  September 
1909;  arrived  at  the  mission  of  Southern  Ho-nan 
17  September,  1908,  and  was  consecrated  on  6 
January,  1918,  bishop  of  Sufeta  and  vicar  of  South¬ 
ern  Ho-nan  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Noe  Giuseppe  Tac¬ 
coni,  who  was  appointed  20  November,  1916,  to 
take  charge  of  the  new  vicariate  of  Eastern  Ho-nan. 

Important  events  since  1909  were  the  pacification 
of  the  Chinese  during  the  revolution  of  1911,  and 
assistance  rendered  during  the  famine  of  1919-20, 
in  which  American  priests  were  of  great  aid  to 
the  missionaries  from  Milan.  In  the  vicariate 
to-day  there  are  18  European  and  13  native  Chinese 
priests,  12  European  nuns,  and  1  convent  with  30 
Chinese  Sisters.  The  population  of  the  district  is 
8,000,000,  of  whom  17,782  are  Catholics  and  13,081 
catechumens.  There  are  1  seminary  with  7  theo¬ 
logians  and  philosophers  and  50  Latinists,  139 
schools  for  boys,  with  1563  pupils,  66  schools  for 
girls  with  885  pupils,  1  foundling  home  with  335 
infants,  2  orphanages  with  358  orphans,  22  churches, 
180  chapels,  317  primary  stations,  and  623  secondary 
ones. 

Ho -Nan,  Western,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Ho- 
nanensis  Occidentals;  cf.  C.  E.,  XVI-83d),  is 
one  of  the  four  divisions  of  the  district  of  Ho-Nan, 
in  China.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Yel¬ 
low  River,  on  the  west  by  the  Shen-si,  on  the  south 
by  the  vicariate  of  Southern  Ho-nan,  on  the  east  by 
that  of  Eastern  Ho-nan.  The  present  Vicar  Apos¬ 
tolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Luigi  Calza,  b.  at  Rocco,  Italy, 
1879,  ordained  24  May,  1902,  appointed  Prefect 
Apostolic  of  Western  Ho-Nan  21  June,  1906,  and 
Vicar  Apostolic  18  September,  1911,  consecrated 
titular  Bishop  of  Termessus  21  April,  1912. 

During  the  World  War  one  missionary  of  this 
vicariate  returned  home  to  join  the  Italian  Army 
and  was  wounded  and  decorated  with  the  Italian 
war  cross.  In  1920—21  there  occurred  an  invasion 
by  the  Peland  and  a  terrible  famine,  which  was 
especially  severe  in  the  western  and  southwestern 
part  of  the  vicariate. 

By  present  (1921)  statistics  there  are  10  missions, 
197  churches  and  mission  stations,  2  convents  of 
women,  1  Chinese  and  1  European,  29  Chinese  and 
9  European  Sisters  of  the  Order  of  Josephines,  1 
seminary,  18  seminarians,  1  college  for  boys  with 
9  professors  and  50  students,  1  college  for  girls  with 
9  professors.  Among  the  missionary  works  are: 

83  catechism  schools  for  boys  with  1167  pupils,  16 
catechism  schools  for  girls  with  567  pupils,  1  orphan¬ 
age  with  118  children,  119  men  and  28  women  under 
religious  instruction,  2  dispensaries.  Two  societies 
are  organized  among  the  laity.  The  Chinese  Cath- 


HONDURAS 


382 


HRADEC 


olic  population  numbers  approximately  11,093,  be¬ 
sides  6279  catechumens  and  about  100  Italians, 
French,  and  Belgians. 

Honduras,  British,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Hon- 
durensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII-449d),  is  the  only  English 
dependency  in  Central  America.  It  is  attached  to 
the  Missouri  Province  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and 
the  episcopal  residence  is  at  Belize,  the  capital 
of  the  colony.  The  second  and  present  vicar  apos¬ 
tolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Frederick  Hopkins,  S.J.,  conse¬ 
crated  in  St.  Louis,  titular  Bishop  of  Athribis,  5 
November,  1899.  The  same  year  Father  William 
Wallace,  S.J.,  was  appointed  regular  superior  and 
pro-vicar  of  the  bishop.  He  was  followed  by  Father 
William  Mitchell,  S.  J.  (1910),  Father  John  Neenan, 
S.J.  (1918),  and  Father  Joseph  Hammerer,  S.J. 

(1921).  ,  1  .  ,  1 

In  1918  a  disastrous  fire  occurred  in  the  colony 

which  destroyed  the  principal  Government  build¬ 
ing  and  resulted  in  the  death  of  the  governor.  On 
8  September  of  the  same  year  the  fiftieth  anni¬ 
versary  of  Bishop  Hopkins’  entrance  into  the 
Society  of  Jesus  was  celebrated;  there  was  a  semi¬ 
public  celebration  of  the  event  in  Belize,  in  which 
the  acting  governor  and  ministers  of  various  reli¬ 
gious  denominations  took  part.  The  same  year  an 
epidemic  of  influenza  spread  throughout  the  vica¬ 
riate  and  caused  many  deaths.  A  riot,  attended 
by  serious  destruction  of  property,  which  occurred 
in  July,  1919,  caused  troops  to  be  sent  from 
Jamaica  and  quartered  in  Belize  until  October, 
1921,  and  also  caused  a  heavy  increase  in  taxation 
to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  property.  An  epi¬ 
demic  of  yellow  fever,  which  started  in  St.  John’s 
College,  Belize,  although  it  claimed  only  eight  vic¬ 
tims,  brought  great  harm  to  the  institution,  as 
most  of  the  boarding  students  went  back  to  their 
homes  and  their  return  upon  the  reopening  of  the 
college  in  1922  is*  doubtful.  At  its  opening  in  1921 
the  college  had  registered  244  students. 

A  great  drawback  to  the  spiritual  progress  of 
the  mission  is  the  language;  outside  of  Belize  and 
the  two  residences  in  the  south,  the  language  of  the 
school  is  English,  that  of  the  church  Spanish,  while 
three-fourths  of  the  Catholic  population  are  either 
Spanish  or  Indian  speaking.  The  result  is  that  the 
missionaries,  who,  with  the  exception  of  two,  are 
English-speaking,  have  to  learn  two  or  more  lan¬ 
guages  before  they  can  be  of  real  service. 

By  present  statistics  the  total  population  of  this 
colony  is  about  45,317,  the  Catholic  population 
about  25,000,  and  there  are  19  priests,  all  Jesuits 
except  1,  4  scholastics  and  4  lay  brothers.  There 
are  9  residences,  7  mission  stations,  and  5  convents 
of  religious  women,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Family,  and  Sisters  of  the  Pious  Missions,  all 
of  whom  teach  in  the  elementary  schools.  Besides 
St.  John’s  College  and  1  academy  with  230  pupils, 
there  are  32  public  schools,  so  called  because  they 
accept  the  Government  standards  for  the  lay 
branches  of  instruction,  submit  to  inspection,  and 
receive  government  grants-in-aid ;  during  the  last 
year  these  amounted  to  $18,908. 

The  fruitful  result  of  the  missionaries’  work  for 
the  past  year  is  shown  by  the  following  record: 
1120  baptisms  of  infants,  68  baptisms  of  adults, 
209  marriages,  70,051  confessions,  982  confirmations, 
98,290  Easter  communions,  29,853  communions  of 
devotion,  1714  catechists,  1521  boys  and  1532  girls 
in  parochial  schools.  There  are  32  sodalities  with 
a  membership  of  1737,  the  Apostleship  of  Prayer 
alone  have  6659  associates. 

Hong  Kong,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
VII-450d),  consists  of  an  island  which  belongs  to 


Great  Britain  and  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Canton  River  in  China.  The  vicariate  Apostoiic 
contains  about  24,945  Catholics,  of  whom  4000  are 
Europeans  in  Hong  Kong.  It  has  54  churches  with 
33  principal  mission  stations,  233  smaller  stations, 
18  European  secular  priests,  13  lay  brothers,  158 
Sisters  of  whom  103  are  Europeans  and  55  natives, 
1  seminary  and  24  seminarians.  The  following  col¬ 
leges  and  schools  exist  in  the  vicariate:  2  colleges 
for  boys  (120  students),  3  colleges  for  girls  (260 
students),  8  secondary  schools  (1220  boys  and  1030 
girls),  74  common  elementary  schools  (1464  boys 
and  1072  girls),  1  school  for  catechists  (10  students), 
3  schools  for  catechumens  (93  students).  Schools 
under  the  grant-in-aid  system  are  assisted  by  the 
Government.  In  1921  the  following  charitable  in¬ 
stitutions  existed  in  the  vicariate:  4  hospitals,  6 
refuges  with  248  inmates,  11  day  nurseries.  The 
hospitals  and  jails  admit  the  ministry  of  priests 
and  allow  Catholic  visitors.  Two  monthly  maga¬ 
zines  (“The  Rock”  and  “Religiao  Patria”)  are 
published  in  the  vicariate,  and  3  associations  exist 
among  the  laity:  Catholic  Men’s  Club  (English), 
Catholic  Union  (Portuguese),  St.  Joseph’s  Society 
(Chinese).  One  of  the  principal  benefactors  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  Hong  Kong  was  Dr.  A.  S. 
Gomez,  who  died  in  1921.  He  built  the  church  of 
Our  Lady  of  the  Rosary  and  St.  Anthony’s  Asylum, 
and  had  the  distinction  of  being  a  Knight  of  St. 
Gregory.  The  vicariate  is  under  the  care  of  the 
Seminary  of  Foreign  Missions  of  Milan  and  is 
administered  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Dominic  Pozzoni, 
b.  at  Paderno  d’Adda  22  December,  1861,  joined 
the  mission  in  1885,  elected  bishop  19  July,  1905, 
consecrated  at  Hong  Kong  1  October,  made  vicar 
apostolic  of  Hong  Kong  26  May  preceding. 

Hospital  Sisters  of  the  Mercy  of  Jesus  (cf.  C. 
E.,  VII-488d),  a  cloistered  institute  and  branch 
of  the  order  founded  by  St.  Augustine  to  care  for 
the  sick.  The  choir  religious  go  daily  to  the  hos¬ 
pitals  to  render  some  service  to  the  sick  poor. 
Two  to  six  or  more  of  their  number,  according 
to  the  case,  take  in  turn  the  night-watch  in  each 
hospital.  The  chapter  is  formed  of  all  who  are 
ten  years  professed.  They  elect  a  superior  trien- 
nially,  but  her  charge  may  not  be  prolonged  beyond 
six  years.  They  also  elect  the  principal  officers 
and  the  council,  which  is  composed,  with  the 
superior,  the  assistant,  and  the  mistress  of  novices, 
of  four  other  advisers.  •  The  officers  may  be  re¬ 
tained  as  long  as  they  have  the  majority  of  votes 
in  the  chapter.  The  Hospitallers  have  communi¬ 
ties  in  France,  at  Dieppe,  Rennes,  Eu,  Vitre, 
Chateau -Gontier-St.  Julien,  Chateau -Gontier- St. 
Joseph,  Malestroit,  Auray,  Treguier,  Lannion,  Guin- 
gamp,  Morlaix,  Pont-l’Abbe,  Gouarec,  Fougeres, 
Harcourt,  and  Bayeux;  in  England,  at  Waterloo 
(Liverpool) ;  in  Canada,  at  Quebec  (3  communi¬ 
ties),  Levis,  Chicoutimi,  and  Roberval;  in  Africa, 
at  Estcourt  (Natal),  Durban,  Ladysmith,  and 
Pietermaritzburg. 

Hours,  Canonical  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-500). — In  reli¬ 
gious  houses  of  men  or  women  who  are  bound  to  re¬ 
cite  the  office  in  choir,  it  must  be  said  in  common  if 
there  are  present  four  members  so  bound  and  not 
at  the  time  excused,  or  even  when  fewer  are  present, 
if  it  is  so  provided  in  the  Constitutions.  In  such 
institutes  solemnly  professed  members  who  have 
been  absent  from  choir,  except  lay  brothers,  must 
recite  the  hours  privately. 

Hradec  Kralove  (Koniggratz),  Diocese  of 
(Reginze  Hradecensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-688c),  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Prague,  Bohemia.  The  present  bishop  is 


HUAJUAPAM 


HU-NAN 


3813 


jlvu.  uv,v.  wearies  Raspar,  b.  18/0,  elected  titular 
Bishop  of  Bethsaida  8  March,  1920,  and  transferred 
to  the  Diocese  of  Hradec  Kralove  13  June,  1921, 
succeeding  Bishop  Doubrava,  who  died  22  February, 
1921.  In  1918  the  diocese  comprised  475  parishes, 
32  deaneries,  869  secular  priests,  90  regular  priests, 
and  495  Sisters.  There  are  in  the  diocese  147,546 
Catholics,  59,128  Protestants  and  other  sectarians, 
57  Schismatics,  10,062  Jews,  and  2101  without  any 
creed. 

Huajuapam  de  Leon,  Diocese  of  (Huajua- 
patamensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII-505c),  suffragan  of 
Puebla,  Mexico.  The  first  and  present  bishop  is 
Rt.  Rev.  Raphael  Amador,  consecrated  1903.  There 
are  in  the  diocese  30  parishes,  220  churches  and 
chapels,  60  priests,  and  1  seminary. 

Huamanga,  Diocese  of.  See  Ayacucho. 

Huanuco,  Diocese  of  (Huanucensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VII-t506a),  suffragan  of  Lima,  Peru.  Rt.  Rev. 
Pedro  Pablo  Drinot  y  Pierola,  appointed  to  this  see 
8  June,  1904,  retired  and  was  transferred  to  the 
titular  see  of  Basilinopolis  21  October,  1920,  and 
his  successor  has  not  yet  been  appointed.  The 
population  of  the  diocese  is  600,000,  of  whom  the 
majority  are  Catholics.  There  are  in  the  diocese: 
8  deaneries  comprising  58  parishes,  82  secular 
priests,  21  regulars,  of  whom  17  are  Franciscans  and 
4  Canons  Regular  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
3  Marist  Brothers,  over  500  churches  and  chapels, 
2  preparatory  seminaries  at  Huanuco  and  Jauja,  9 
seminarians  at  Lima,  and  1  at  the  Latin-American 
College  at  Rome. 

Kuaraz,  Diocese  of  (Huaracensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VII-506c),  suffragan  of  Lima,  Peru.  The  present 
bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Dominic  Vorgas,  O.P.,  b.  1869, 
professed  1887,  lecturer  in  theology,  master  of 
novices  at  Lima  and  at  Arequipa,  elected  bishop 
26  August,  1920,  succeeding  Bishop  Fanfan,  ap¬ 
pointed  5  March,  1907,  transferred  to  Cuzco,  19 
April,  1918.  There  are  in  the  diocese:  1  rectorate 
and  16  deaneries  comprising  52  parishes;  over  1000 
churches  and  chapels;  5  private  oratories;  50  secular 
priests;  14  regulars  (Franciscans);  2  preparatory 
seminaries  at  Huaraz  and  Carhuaz;  9  seminarians 
at  Lima.  Franciscan  tertiaries  with  simple  vows, 
founded  at  Huaraz  in  1886,  direct  a  college  there, 
numbering  about  80  young  girls  as  students.  Four 
Franciscan  tertiaries  are  at  the  hospital  at  Huaraz. 
The  Sisters  of  Providence  of  Vitteaux  have  9 
members  in  Huaraz,  where  they  direct  a  college, 
numbering  about  180  pupils.  The  total  number 
of  Sisters  in  the  diocese  is  24. 

Huesca,  Diocese  of  (Oscensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VII-513b),  suffragan  of  Saragossa,  Spain.  The 
present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Zacharius  Martinez  y 
Nunez,  O.  S.  A.,  born  in  Banos  de  Valdearados, 
Spain,  in  1864,  provincial  of  the  Province  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  and  professor  at  the  College  of 
Alphonso  XII  at  Escurial,  elected  1918  to  succeed 
Bishop  Supervia  y  Lostale,  deceased.  The  area 
of  the  diocese  is  1940  square  miles  and  it  has  a 
population  of  88,000  Catholics.  There  are  173  par¬ 
ishes,  12  annexes,  240  priests,  245  churches  and 
chapels,  23  convents  with  62  members  of  religious 
orders  of  men  and  356  Sisters. 

Hughes,  John  J.,  superior-general  of  the  Paulists, 
b.  at  New  York  on  6  December,  1856;  d.  there  on 
6  May,  1919.  He  was  educated  at  St.  Charles  Col¬ 
lege,  Maryland,  and  St.  Francis  Xavier’s  College, 
New  York,  graduating  in  1878,  and  was  ordained  in 
1884.  He  was  assistant  superior  under  Father 

25 


Generals  Deshon  and  Searlc,  and  was  himself  chosen 
general  twice,  in  1909  and  1914  During  his  gen- 
eralate  new  houses  of  the  community  were  founded 
in  Toronto,  Canada;  in  New  York,  Portland,  Ore¬ 
gon,  and  Minneapolis;  and  St.  Paul’s  novitiate  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  established.  He  founded  the 
Paulist  Monthly  Calendar,’’  which  is  now  a  feature 
of  so  many  parishes  in  the  United  States.  He  was 
a  man  of  keen  perception  and  of  a  fine  personality, 
uniting  strength  and  simplicity,  that  attracted  men 
to  him  and  kept  them  at  his  side,  bound  by  ties 
of  admiration  and  affection.  Such  accounts  for  his 
success  as  director  of  the  Spalding  Literary  Union 
and  as  vice-president  of  the  Catholic  Converts 
League  of  New  York,  of  which  he  was  one  of  the 
founders. 

Hummelauer,  Franz  von,  exegete,  b.  in  Vienna 
on  14  August,  1842;  d.  at  Heerenberg,  Holland,  on 
12  April,  1914.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus 
and  on  completing  his  studies  devoted  himself 
entirely  to  Scriptural,  particularly  Old  Testament, 
Exegesis.  He  collaborated  with  Comely  and  his 
associate  on  the  great  Jesuit  “Cursus  Scripturae 
Sacrae,”  for  which  he  wrote  commentaries  on 
Samuel  (1897),  Judges  and  Ruth  (1888),  Genesis 
(1895),  Exodus  and  Leviticus  (1897),  Josue  (1903), 
and  I  Paralipomenon  (1905).  In  a  second  edition 
he  modified  some  of  the  views  he  expressed  earlier 
on  the  historicity  of  certain  narratives  in  Genesis 
and  Exodus,  which  were  considered  too  advanced. 
Von  Hummelauer  was  a  member  of  the  Pontifical 
Commissions  for  Biblical  Studies,  from  its  estab¬ 
lishment  in  1902  until  his  death.  In  addition  to 
the  work  mentioned  above,  he  is  the  author  of: 
“Der  biblische  Schopfungsbericht,”  “Das  vor- 
mosaische  Priestertum  in  Israel”  (1899),  and 
“Exegetisches  zur  Inspirations  frags  mit  bsd.  Riick- 
sicht  auf  das  alte  Testament”  (1904). 

Hu-nan,  Northern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of, 
(Hu-nanensis  Septentrionalis),  was  erected  19 
September,  1879,  by  a  division  of  the  original 
vicariate  of  Hu-nan  into  two  vicariates.  It  is 
entrusted  to  the  Augustinian  Monks,  its  present 
vicar  being  Rt.  Rev.  Angel  de  Diego  y  Cartajal,  b. 
at  Nava,  1867,  entered  the  Augustinians  1885,  went 
to  China  1894,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Caloe 
and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Northern  Hu-nan  13  March, 
1917;  up  to  the  present  time  he  has  refused  epis¬ 
copal  consecration.  In  recent  years  the  vicariate 
has  lost  three  able  missionaries  through  the  deaths 
of  Revs.  Benito  Gonzalez,  Augustin  de  la  Paz, 
and  Ignatio  Magaz.  By  latest  statistics  this  terri¬ 
tory  counts  12,876  Christians,  19,051  catchumens, 
23  churches,  111  chapels,  31  European  and  2  native 
priests,  67  elementary  schools  with  71  teachers 
and  1766  pupils,  and  3  asylums.  During  the  past 
year  (1921)  1070  adults,  498  children  of  Christian 
parents  and  1419  children  of  pagans  were  baptized. 
A  Catholic  periodical  is  published. 

Hu-nan,  Southern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Hu- 
nanensis  Meridionalis),  was  erected  19  Septem¬ 
ber,  1879,  by  a  division  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  Hu-nan  in  China.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Italian 
Friars  Minor,  the  present  vicar  apostolic  being  Rt. 
Rev.  Jean-Pellerin  Mondaini,  O.  F.  M.,  b.  a':  Veruc- 
chio  15  January,  1868,  ordained  1890,  wTent  to  China 
1891,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Synaos  and  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Southern  Hu-nan  23  January,  1902, 
consecrated  20  April  of  the  same  year. 

The  almost  continuous  civil  war  which  has  been 
waged  in  this  part  of  China  since  1916  has  retarded 
the  progress  of  religion.  In  spite  of  this,  however, 
the  number  of  Catholics  in  the  vicariate  has  grown 


HUNGARY 


384 


HUNGARY 


to  about  23,562,  and  by  present  (1921)  statistics 
there  are :  40  churches,  202  chapels,  250  mission 
stations,  10  secular  and  22  regular  clergy,  1  convent 
of  women,  9  Sisters,  2  seminaries,  29  seminarians, 

8  secondary  schools  for  boys  with  24  teachers  and 
155  pupils,  2  secondary  schools  for  girls  with  6 
teachers  and  50  pupils,  1  normal  school  with  2 
teachers  and  20  pupils,  and  68  elementary  schools 
with  220  teachers  and  2474  pupils.  Among .  the 
charitable  institutions  are  1  asylum,  1  home,  and 
3  nurseries. 

Hungary  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-574b),  a  monarchy, 
formed  in  1918  after  the  fall  of  the  Austrio-Hun- 
garian  Empire.  Its  area,  formerly  109,188  sq. 
miles  is  at  present  35,164  sq.  miles,  and  its  popula¬ 
tion,  formerly  18,264,533,  is  now,  according  to  the 
census  of  1921, 7,840,832.  New  Hungary  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Czechoslovakia,  Poland,  and  Ukraine; 
on  the  east  by  Rumania  and  Ukraine ;  on  the  south 
by  Jugoslavia,  and  on  the  west  by  Austria.  The 
principal  towns  with  their  population  are  Budapest 
184,616;  Szeged  118,328;  Debreczen  92,729; 
Kecskemet  68,424.  It  is  estimated  that  56%  of  the 
population  live  from  agriculture  and  30%  from 
industry. 

Religion. — In  recent  years  there  has  been  some 
anti-Jewish  legislation,  prohibiting  Jews  to  own 
or  to  lease  landed  property,  or  to  own  more  than 
one  house,  debarring  all  foreign  Jews  from  en¬ 
tering  the  country  and  expelling  those  who  had 
entered  since  1914,  forbidding  Jews  to  hold  posi¬ 
tions  in  any  school  or  theater,  in  the  army, 
editorial  office,  or  in  the  government  or  to  have 
Gentile  servants,  limiting  the  Jewish  enrollment 
in  the  universities  to  5  per  cent,  and  retiring  or 
dismissing  all  professors  of  Jewish  ancestry.  For 
religious  statistics  see  Church  in  Hungary  below. 

Economic  Conditions. — The  assets  of  Hungary 
lie  almost  entirely  in  its  capacity  to  produce  food¬ 
stuffs.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  proper  maintenance  of 
the  soil  during  the  war  the  land  has  become  to 
some  extent  impoverished,  while  for  want  of  agri¬ 
cultural  implements  and  fertilizers  production  has 
dropped  off.  The  following  is  the  official  crop  re¬ 
port  for  1920:  harvested  area  of  wheat  1,463,731 
jochs  (1  joch=1.16  acres)  production,  7,930,270 
quintals  (1  quintal  =  100  pounds),  maize  1,331,937 
jochs,  12,273,770  quintals;  rye. 877,649  jochs,  4,196,- 
430  quintals;  barley  844,733  jochs,  4,364,350  quin¬ 
tals;  oats  588,270  jochs,  3,355,960  quintals.  An 
Agrarian  Reform  Bill  was  passed  in  December, 
1920,  with  the  purpose  of  increasing  the  number  of 
small-holders,  but  up  to  the  present  very  little 
advantage  has  been  taken  of  the  measure.  The 
coal  production  in  1920  amounted  to  4,956,285  tons, 
equivalent  to  78%  of  the  output  in  1913.  Of  this 
quantity,  4,458,694  tons  were  distributed,  one-third 
used  for  transport,  another  third  for  industrial  pro¬ 
duction,  and  the  remainder  for  light,  power,  and 
domestic  purposes.  About  63,800  tons  of  coal  and 
151,970  tons  of  coke  were  imported.  With  the 
exception  of  five  small  mines,  all  the  pits  are 
privately  owned,  but  are  under  official  supervision. 
The  partition  of  the  former  monarchy  has  so  far 
had  a  disastrous  effect  on  all  Hungarian  manufac¬ 
ture.  Iron  ore,  timber,  oil,  hemp,  flax,  and  cereals 
are  now  cut  off  from  Hungary.  There  are  about 
4378  miles  of  standard  gauge  track  (of  which 
1861  miles  are  owned  by  the  state),  1717  loco¬ 
motives,  2348  passenger  coaches,  1048  luggage 
trucks,  and  18,832  freight  trucks.  In  order  to  meet 
the  loss  caused  by  depreciation  of  currency,  rail¬ 
way  passenger  rates  have  increased  200  per  cent 
and  freight  300  per  cent.  The  present  condition 


of  the  track  is  adequate  only  for  the  requirements 
of  the  reduced  traffic,  and  buildings  and  bridges 
are  in  urgent  need  of  restoration.  Traffic  on  the 
Danube  is  now  internationalized. 

Finance. — There  has  been  no  Hungarian  State 
Budget  since  1914-15.  During  the  war  thirteen 
interim  provisions  were  made  for  the  financial  ad¬ 
ministration  of  a  Special  Act,  but  this  simply  meant 
the  re-application  of  the  1914—15  budget.  The 
Budget  of  1917-18  did  not  receive  legislative  sanc¬ 
tion.  The  Karolyi  Government  (30  October,  1918, 
to  21  March,  1919),  spent  4,800,000,000  korona  (1 
korona=$0.2026)  and  received  in  revenue  400,000,- 
000  korona;  the  Bolshevik  Government  spent 
4,889,000,000  korona  in  five  months  and  obtained 
473,000,000  korona.  The  public  debt  of  Hungary 
at  the  end  of  July,  1914,  was  8,287,800,000  korona; 
debts  contracted  during  the  war,  32,631,000,000 
korona,  and  debts  contracted  after  the  war,  13,524,- 
100,000  korona,  bring  the  total  amount  of  debts  to 
nearly  60  milliards  of  korona,  equal  to  7500  korona 
per  head. 

Education. — Public  education  in  Hungary  com¬ 
prises  infant  schools,  elementary  schools,  industrial 
and  commercial  apprentice  schools,  higher  primary 
and  primary  schools,  training  colleges  for  teachers, 
middle  or  secondary  schools,  academies  of  law, 
institutions  for  religious  education,  universities, 
technical  high  schools,  economic,  mining,  industrial, 
and  commercial  special  schools.  School  attendance 
is  compulsory  for  children  between  six  and  twelve. 
In  Old  Hungary,  the  prevailing  language  in  12,503 
schools  was  Hungarian;  in  428  German,  in  304 
Slovak;  in  1707  Rumanian,  in  1767  Croatian  and 
Serb.  In  the  middle  schools  the  curriculum  extends 
over  eight  years. 

Recent  History. — For  events  up  to  1918,  see 
Austria.  The  collapse  of  the  Dual  Monarchy  led 
Hungary  to  sever  relations  with  Austria,  and  on 
17  October,  1918,  the  Hungarian  Diet  declared  Hun¬ 
gary  to  be  entirely  independent,  except  for  the 
personal  union  through  the  Emperor.  On  2  Novem¬ 
ber  the  Hungarian  Parliament  styling  itself  a 
National  Assembly  decided  for  a  republic  with 
Count  Michael  Karolyi  as  Prime  Minister.  King 
Charles  abdicated  on  13  November,  1918,  and  the 
republic  was  proclaimed  on  16  November,  1918. 
Unstabilized,  with  utter  lack  of  cohesion  between 
the  various  political  factions  and  menaced  by  the 
encroachments  of  her  neighbors,  the  new  Hungarian 
Republic  faced  tremendous  difficulties  from  its  in¬ 
ception.  The  Rumanians  and  Serbs  advanced  for 
some  distance  into  Hungarian  territory,  while  the 
Czechs  occupied  Slovakia  and  the  Danube  district. 
Through  these  activities,  Hungary  lost  the  Banat 
region,  the  great  source  of  her  food  supply  and 
her  northern  coal  mines,  upon  which  her  industrial 
life  depended.  Meanwhile  Bolshevism  was  spread¬ 
ing  and  a  Communist  revolt  under  the  leadership 
of  Bela  Kun  broke  out  with  such  violence  that 
the  Government  was  forced  to  declare  martial  law 
and  use  troops  to  retake  parts  of  the  capital  which 
had  fallen  under  the  control  of  the  rebels.  The 
Interallied  Supreme  Council  in  Paris  decided  to 
subject  Hungary  to  military  occupation  and 
directed  the  Hungarians  to  withdraw  to  the 
Rumanian  boundary,  as  fixed  by  the  Ruma¬ 
nian  Treaty  of  19i6,  and  established  a  neutral 
zone  on  the  Hungarian-Rumanian  border,  140 
miles  long  and  40  miles  wide,  to  be  occupied  by 
the  Allied  troops.  On  22  March,  1919,  the  Allies 
announced  that  the  Allied  troops  had  occupied 
the  greater  part  of  Hungary,  for  the  purpose  of 
suppressing  plundering  bands  of  Bolsheviki. 
Angered  by  these  actions.  Count  Karolyi  appealed 


HUNGARY 


385 


HUNGARY 


to  the  proletariat  ol  the  world  for  justice  and  sup¬ 
port.  the  Budapest  Workmen’s  Council  immedi¬ 
ately  1  omied  a  Radical  ministry  with  Alexander 
Garbai  as  President  and  Bela  Kun  as  Minister  of 
foreign  Affairs,  this  Soviet  Government  carried 
on  almost  continuous  warfare  with  Rumania,  Jugo¬ 
slavia,  and  Czechoslovakia,  all  three  of  which  sent 
troops  intq  Hungarian  territory.  On  2  April  the 
Paris  Conference  sent  General  Smuts  to  Budapest 
with  power  to  negotiate  a  new  armistice.  In  May 
the  Hungarian  troops  had  won  numerous  successes 
against  the  Czechs,  but  following  an  appeal  for  help 
by  President  Masaryk  of  Czechoslovakia,  the  Allies 
in  an  ultimatum  on  9  June  threatened  to  use  “ex¬ 
treme  measures  to  constrain  Hungary  to  cease 
hostilities,”  if  it  did  not  refrain  from  further  at¬ 
tacks  on  the  Czech  forces.  After  an  ill-fated  in¬ 
vasion  of  Rumania  in  July,  1919,  the  Radical  gov¬ 
ernment  established  under  the  leadership  of  Bela 
Kun  came  to  an  end,  and  was  succeeded  bj^  that 
composed  of  moderate  Socialists,  headed  by  Jules 
Peidll.  The  new  government  was  paralyzed  when, 
in  defiance  of  the  Supreme  Council,  the  Rumanians 
occupied  Budapest  on  5  August,  1919.  Two  days 
later  it  was  overthrown  by  a  monarchist  coup  d’etat, 
Archduke  Joseph  proclaiming  himself  governor. 
The  Archduke  had  the  support  of  the  monarchists 
and  the  peasantry,  but  was  opposed  by  all  the  So¬ 
cialist  and  Liberal  groups.  An  ultimatum  from  the 
Supreme  Council  brought  about  the  Archduke’s 
retirement  on  23  August.  His  Government  con¬ 
tinued,  however,  but  was  later  forced  to  retire. 
In  the  plebiscite  of  25  January,  1920,  Admiral 
Nicholas  Horthy  was  elected  Viceregent  (Lord  Pro¬ 
tector).  In  March,  1921,  ex-King  Charles  made  an 
attempt  to  regain  his  throne.  Aided  and  abetted 
by  the  landed  aristocracy  and  by  the  higher  clergy, 
Charles  entered  Hungary  on  26  March,  1921.  Two 
days  later  the  Council  of  Ambassadors  (Allies)  sent 
an  ultimatum  to  Budapest  demanding  Charles’ 
deposition  and  delivery  to  the  Entente  representa¬ 
tives.  His  fate,  however,  had  been  settled  by  the 
quick  and  determined  action  of  Horthy.  In  an 
engagement  near  Budapest,  Charles  was  completely 
defeated,  and  after  ordering  his  troops  to  surrender 
to  avoid  further  bloodshed,  was  himself  taken 
prisoner  with  Queen  Zita  while  in  flight.  Charles 
was  exiled  on  3  November  by  the  Council  of  Am¬ 
bassadors  to  Madeira.  His  death  on  1  April,  1922, 
at  Funchal,  Madeira,  resulted  in  the  proclamation 
signed  by  eighteen  prominent  Legitimist  leaders  an¬ 
nouncing  the  succession  to  the  Hungarian  throne  of 
Prince  Otto,  his  eldest  son,  and  the  regency  of  Queen 
Zita  pending  his  coming  of  age.  Cardinal  Czernoch, 
the  Prince  Primate,  endorsed  the  proclamation,  but 
Horthy’s  Government  refused  to  take  cognizance 
of  it.  The  Dethronement  Act  of  6  November, 
1921,  deposed  the  Hapsburgs  from  all  future  title 
to  the  throne  of  Hungary,  cancelled  the  Pragmatic 
Succession  Sanction  contained  in  Acts  I  and  II  of 
the  year  1723,  which  determined  the  successor  of 
the  throne  of  the  House  of  Austria,  thereby  giving 
to  the  nation  the  right  of  free  election  to  the 
throne;  retained  unchanged  the  ancestral  constitu¬ 
tion  of  a  kingdom,  but  postponed  the  choice  of  a 
king  until  a  later  date. 

In  the  Treaty  of  Peace  between  Hungary  and 
the  Allies,  signed  at  Versailles  on  4  July,  1920,  it 
was  provided  that  Hungary  should  formally  waive 
claim  to  Fiume,  and  to  all  former  Austro-Hungarian 
territory  awarded  to  Italy,  Rumania,  Jugoslavia, 
and  Czechoslovakia;  limit  her  army  to  35,000  men, 
assume  a  proportional  share  of  the  Austro-Hun¬ 
garian  debt,  place  no  restriction  upon  the  export 
of  food-stuffs  into  Austria,  and  insure  to  Austrian 


purchasers  terms  as  favorable  as  those  given  to 
Hungarians  I  lie  treaty  with  Austria  ceded  West 
Hungary  (Burgenland)  to  Austria,  but  the  Hun- 
garians  did  not  accept  the  decision.  The  protocol 

°f.re?iCe^3  ?.Ct0^.1921>  was  an  attempt  to 
settle  the  difficulty,  for  it  provided  for  the  transfer 

9:  the  territory  to  Austria  and  for  a  plebiscite  in 
Oedenbuig  and  its  environs.  The  plebiscite  re¬ 
sulted  in  a  majority  for  union  with  Hungary.  In 
the  meantime  the  territory  was  governed  by  an 
international  commission.  On  29  August,  1921,  a 
treaty  establishing  friendly  relations  between  the 
United  States  and  Hungary  was  signed. 

The  Church  in  Hungary. — Before  the  war  there 
were  9,011,000  Catholics  in  the  kingdom  of  Hun- 
Lniat  Greeks,  2,600,000  Calvinists, 

ii°Hl?00TLutherans’  2>004>°00  Orthodox  Greeks,  and 
912,000  Jews.  Since  the  signing  of  the  Treaty  of 
Versailles  there  are  4,708,000  Catholics,  158,000 
Uniat  Greeks  and  466,000  Lutherans,  77,000  Orth¬ 
odox  Greeks  and  466,000  Jews.  In  1914  Catho¬ 
lics  formed  48.3  per  cent  of  the  total  population; 
to-day  they  are  in  the  majority  as  they  form  63 
per  cent  of  the  total  population.  As  a  result  of 
a4)0Ut  2,113,000  Catholics  became  subjects 
of  Czechoslovakia,  while  1,008,000  went  to  Rumania, 
821,000  to  Jugoslavia,  316,000  to  Austria,  and  45,000 
s^ate  of  Fiume.  Catholic  priests  and  nuns 
suffered  much  in  Hungary  during  the  Bolshevist 
legime  of  Bela  Kun;  unspeakable  atrocities  were 
committed  by  this  Government,  whose  leaders  were 
almost  exclusively  Jewish.  More  than  $82,000,000 
worth  of  ecclesiastical  property  was  confiscated  and 
liquidated;  convents,  hospitals,  orphanages,  and 
asylums,  in  addition  to  churches,  were  included 
among  the  institutions  which  the  Bolshevists  seized. 
Great  sums  in  cash  were  taken  from  benevolent, 
social,  athletic  and  charitable  organizations  operat¬ 
ing  under  religious  auspices.  Tlie  Catholic  Church 
fared  worst  of  all,  and  it  is  estimated  that  the 
liquidations  of  Catholic  property  aggregated  $44,- 
/  34,000.  Amongst  the  difficulties  that  the  newly- 
constituted  Christian  government  of.  Hungary  had 
to  deal  with  was  an  excessive  antipathy  against 
the  Jews;  acts  of  retribution  were  committed 
against  them  in  the  period  of  rehabilitation  by 
those  who,  inflamed  by  the  memory  of  their  suffer¬ 
ings,  did  not  distinguish  between  Judaism  as  a 
whole  and  the  excesses  of  some  perverse  Jews. 
Leading  Catholics  in  political  life  and  the  Hun¬ 
garian  Catholic  bishops  lifted  their  voices  in  behalf 
of  Judaism,  but  nevertheless  the  unscrupulous 
Masonic  press  raised  a  cry  against  the  new  Chris¬ 
tian  Government  and  by  misrepresentation  sought 
to  prejudice  world  opinion  against  it.  A  most 
effective  weapon  of  defence  in  Catholic  hands  is 
the  Catholic  press  which,  after  ten  years  of  effort 
on  the  part  of  few  zealous  Hungarian  priests,  was 
well  established  in  1918.  A  stock  company  with 
a  capita]  of  $2,000,000  had  been  formed  to  carry 
on  its  work,  nearly  all  the  bishops  being  share¬ 
holders,  though  the  greater  part  was  subscribed  by 
the  middle  and  poorer  classes.  During  the  revolu¬ 
tion  this  Central  Press  Association  was  suspended, 
and  under  the  Bela  Kun  Government  its  archives, 
records,  and  books  were  destroyed.  When  Chris¬ 
tian  principles  finally  triumphed  in  Hungary,  the 
people  clamored  for  a  Christian  press,  managed  on 
truly  national  lines.  The  Central  Press  Association 
met  the  demand  and  a  month  after  the  fall  of 
Bela  Kun  (1919)  had  founded  four  journals  and 
several  reviews.  In  the  following  years  it  managed 
to  buy  the  “Pallas”  of  Budapest,  one  of  the  largest 
printing  presses  fn  the  world,  and  soon  began  to 
play  an  important  part  in  the  life  of  the  country 


HTJ-PE 


386 


HU-PE 


and  to  break  tlie  power  of  the  anti-religious  and 
anti-Christian  press,  which  has  tempered  its  lan¬ 
guage  and  abated  much  of  its  insolence.  Without 
counting  provincial  sheets  and  reviews,  the  Central 
Press  Association  now  issues  the  following  dailies: 
“Uj  Nemezedek”  (the  New  Generation),  “Nemzeti 
Ujsag”  (the  National  Journal),  “Uj  Lap”  (the  New 
Sheet),  “Pester  Zeitung”  (Pest  Journal),  for  Ger¬ 
man-speaking  Hungarians.  Catholic  leaders  in 
Hungary  include  Mgr.  Molnar,  deputy,  who  died  m 
1920;  M.  Haller,  Minister  of  Ecclesiastical  Affairs 
and  Public  Instruction ;  the  former  Premier  Charles 
Huszar ;  and  Margrave  Palavinci,  men  highly 
respected  even  by  their  opponents. 

The  Apostolic  Nunciature  of  Hungary  was 
created  in  1920,  and  Hungary  is  represented  at 
the  Vatican  by  Count  Sonissich  as  Envoy  Ex¬ 
traordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary.  Mgr. 
Schioppo,  titular  Archbishop  of  Mocissos  and 
auditor  of  the  nunciature  at  Munich,  was  named 
nuncio  to  Budapest,  and  presented  his  ciedential 
letters  6  October,  1920,  on  which  occasion  he  gave 
50,000  crowns  to  the  municipality  for  the  poor. 
There  are  in  New  Hungary  the  following  sees:  the 
Archdiocese  of  Eger  (or  Erlau),  the  Archdiocese  of 
Esztergom,  with  suffragans,  Gy  or,  Pecs,  Szekes- 
fehervar  (or  Stuhlweissenburg),  Szombathely,  vacz, 
Veszprem;  and  the  Archdiocese  of  Ralocsa-Bacs. 
For  further  statistics  see  articles  on  the  above. 

Hu-pe,  Eastern  (Hu-pe  Orientalis),  in  China, 
was  erected  in  1870  from  a  division  of  the  original 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Hu-pe.  Rt.  Rev.  Epitanio 
Carlassara,  O.F.  M.,  who  had  filled  this  see  for  25 
years,  died  24  April,  1909.  He  was  born  at  Mon- 
tecchio  1844,  ordained  priest  1866,  sent  to  China 
1870,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Madaura  and 
vicar  apostolic  of  Eastern  Hu-pe  18  June,  1884. 
He  was  succeeded  by  the  present  vicar  apostolic, 
Rt.  Rev.  Bishop  Genaro,  titular  Bishop  of  Jericho, 
and  also  a  member  of  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor, 
to  whose  care  this  vicariate  is  entrusted. 

Since  the  Revolution  which  broke  out  m  Wu¬ 
chang  in  October,  1910,  causing  the  final  overthrow 
of  the  Ta-Tsing  dynasty,  and  the  establishment  of 
the  republic,  there  have  been  constant  small  revolu¬ 
tions  and  internal  wars  which  have  retarded  the 
progress  of  religion.  . 

In  addition  to  the  32  Friars  Minor  and  24  native 
priests  in  the  vicariate,  there  are  8  Marist  Brothers, 
12  Franciscan  Sisters  of  Mary,  44  Sisters  of  Chanty 
of  Canossa,  50  members  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis,  and  109  Catechists.  By  present  (1921) 
statistics  there  are  267  churches  and  public  ora¬ 
tories,  332  mission  stations,  4  convents,  for  men, 
2  seminaries,  88  seminarians,  2  secondary  schools 
for  boys  with  40  teachers,  one  of  these,  conducted 
by  the  Marist  Brothers,  is  maintained  by  the 
French  Government,  2  secondary  schools  for  girls 
with  33  teachers  and  275  pupils,  5  high  schools 
with  18  teachers  and  184  boys  and  34  girls,  3  normal 
schools  with  9  teachers  and  120  pupils,  80  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  with  462  teachers  and  2710  boys  and 
1526  girls.  The  charitable  institutions  include  4 
hospitals,  one  of  which  is  an  international  hospital 
under  the  Franciscan  Sisters  of  Mary,  5  dispensaries, 
6  orphanages,  and  2  asylums.  The  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  numbers  43,914,  all  of  whom  are  Chinese  with 
the  exception  of  about  205  French,  Irish,  Italians, 
Belgians,  and  Americans.  During  the  past  year 
there  were  1729  baptisms  of  adults,  360  of  these 
at  the  point  of  death,  and  1232  baptisms  of  Catholic 
children. 

Hu-pe,  Northwestern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of, 
in  China.  Among  those  of  note  recently  deceased 


are:  Rev.  Francesco  Luzi,  O.F.  M.,  d.  30  April, 
1916,  at  the  age  of  forty-three,  sixteen  years  of 
which  were  devoted  to  the  mission.  For  many 
years  he  was  pro-vicar,  director  of  the  Holy  Child¬ 
hood,  and  superior  of  the  Franciscan  Missionaries. 
He  supervised  the  building  of  the  hospital  at 
Laohokow;  and  with  contributions  from  America 
enlarged  the  orphan  asylum  of  the  Holy  Childhood. 
Rev.  Fabian  Landi,  O.F.  M.,  died  30  June,  1920,  at 
tlie  age  of  forty-eight,  twenty-six  years  of  which 
were  devoted  to  the  mission;  for  sixteen  years  he 
was  titular  Bishop  of  Taenarum  and  Vicar  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  Hu-pe;  the  development  of  the  vicariate 
since  1900  may  be  attributed  largely  to  his  personal 
efforts.  A  man  of  great  goodness  and  kindness,  he 
won  the  hearts  of  even  the  pagans.  His  example 
stirred  everyone  to  labor,  for  he  performed  at  the 
same  time  the  duties  of  bishop  and  missionary, 
hearing  confessions  and  preaching  whenever  occa¬ 
sion  arose.  He  compiled  an  Italian-Chinese  dic¬ 
tionary,  which  was  published  by  the  Jesuits  at 
Shanghai  in  1920.  Until  the  appointment  of  a  new 
vicar  the  vicariate  is  being  administered  by  Rev. 
Hermenegildus  Ricci,  O.F.M.  _ 

The  following  is  the  report  of  the  activities  of 
the  mission  from  1  August,  1920,  to  1  August,  1921 : 
Catholics  35,012,  catechumens  18,000,  missions  315, 
churches  and  chapels  145,  19  Franciscan  priests  from 
Europe,  18  native  priests,  of  whom  3  are  regulars, 
lay  brothers  2,  sermons  to  Catholics  3358  and  to 
non-Catholics  2537,  adult  baptisms  1340,  infant  bap¬ 
tisms  950,  annual  confessions  17,057,  and  of  devo¬ 
tion  62,915,  annual  communions  16,383  and  of  devo¬ 
tion  145,064,  confirmations  122,  marriages  181,  ex¬ 
treme  unctions  306,  adult  deaths  430  and  of  minors 
244,  elementary  schools  89,  1  high  school  for  boys 
with  24  pupils,  1  normal  school  for  girls  with  35 
pupils,  1  college  recognized  by  the  Government 
with  5  professors  and  54  students,  1  upper  seminary 
with  14  seminarians,  1  lower  seminary  with  33  stu¬ 
dents,  total  number  of  students  in  the  schools  1559 
boys  and  955  girls.  The  statistics  affecting  infants 
are:  administrations  of  baptism  146,  infants  of  non- 
Catholics  baptized  4710,  abandoned  infants  taken 
in  charge  45,  placed  in  the  care  of  nurses  110;  in 
the  2  orphan  asylums  for  girls  there  are  43  natives 
belonging  to  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  300 
girls,  196  inmates  placed  in  the  care  of  nurses,  7 
catechumens;  36  old  and  infirm,  57  deaths;  in  the 
hospital  there  are  7  Franciscan  Sisters  from  Egypt, 
606  infirm,  33,807  externs,  to  whom  medical  care 
was  given,  90  adult  baptisms,  397  infant  baptisms, 
383  deaths. 

Hu-pe,  Southwestern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of, 
(Hu-pe  Occiduo-Meridionalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-678a), 
in  China.  The  vicariate  is  confided  to  the  Belgian 
Franciscans,  and  the  present  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt. 
Rev.  Modestus  Everaerts,  O.F.  M.,  consecrated 
titular  Bishop  of  Tadama  in  1905.  The  Franciscan 
Missionaries  of  Mary  have  an  orphanage,  catechu- 
menate,  hospital,  and  dispensaries  at  I-chang;  in¬ 
dustrial  schools,  home  for  old  people,  2  dispensaries, 
18  foreign  Sisters  and  16  Chinese  Sisters  of  this 
order,  and  an  orphanage  at  King-chau.  Thirty- 
eight  native  Franciscan  tertiaries  are  engaged  in 
teaching  at  King-chau,  Chang-kin-ho,  and  Hwa-li- 
lin.  The  population  of  the  vicariate  is  9,000,000, 
of  whom  32,192  are  Catholics.  There  are  (1922) 
9919  catechumens,*  43  European  priests,  11  Chinese 
priests,  4  lay  brothers,  5  convents,  136  churches  and 
chapels  (in  1920),  2  seminaries  with  8  students  of 
theology  and  21  in  preparatory  courses,  1  college 
with  23  students,  5  primary  schools  with  108  pupils, 
93  parochial,  schools  with  1846  pupils,  2  hospitals, 


HYDERABAD-DECCAN 


387 


HYDERABAD-DECCAN 


6  dispensaries,  5  orphanages  with  498  orphans,  2 
homes  for  old  women  with  43  inmates.  Fr.  Van 
Ruytegem,  director  of  the  orphanage  at  I-chang, 
died  in  1917  in  attempting  to  save  some  children 
from  drowning. 

Hyderabad-Deccan,  Diocese  of  (Hyderabadensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  VII-592c),  erected  in  1886,  suffragan  of 
Madras,  India.  The  diocese  is  entrusted  to  the 
Foreign  Missions  of  Milan,  and  the  present  bishop 
is  Rt.  Rev.  Dionisio  Vismara,  M.E.  M.,  born  in 


Milan  1867,  ordained  in  1890,  joined  the  Indian 
mission  immediately  and  was  appointed  bishop  11 
May ,  1909,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Pietro  Andrea 
Vigano,  retired,  and  transferred  to  the  titular  see 
of  Ezam.  The  population  of  the  diocese  is  12,000,- 
000,  of  whom  21,017  are  Catholics.  There  are:  9416 
catechumens,  20  European  missionaries,  8  native 
priests,  8  seminarians,  98  churches  and  chapels,  17 
principal  stations,  110  substations,  20  schools  with 
605  children,  6  orphanages  with  317  orphans.  90 
Sisters. 


< 


-V 


I 

Ibague,  Diocese  of  (Ibaguensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII- 
613a),  suffragan  of  Bogota,  Colombia.  The  first 
and  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Ismael  Perdomo, 
consecrated  1903.  The  diocese,  founded  in  1901, 
has  mourned  the  deaths  of  several  of  the  clergy  who 
took  part  in  building  it  up;  Rev.  Jesus  M. 
Restrepo,  who  served  as  vicar  general  of  the  dio¬ 
cese  of  Tolima  before  its  division  into  Ibague 
and  Garzon,  Revs.  Fausto  Pardome,  Francisco 
Hurtado,  Francisco  Gonzalez,  Demetrio  Luque, 
and  Jose  J.  Villar.  A  new  church  is  under  con¬ 
struction  in  the  city  of  Guame,  financed  through 
the  generosity  of  the  family  of  Caicedo  Ibanez, 
which  promises,  when  completed,  to  be  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  in  the  diocese.  The  Salesian  Fathers 
have  also  undertaken  the  construction  of  a  church 
which  will  be  dedicated  to  Our  Lady  of  Mount 
Carmel.  Latest  statistics  credit  the  diocese  with 
42  parishes,  74  churches,  42  secular  and  17  regular 
clergy,  10  Marist  and  11  Christian  Brothers,  43 
Brothers  of  the  Presentation  and  4  Vincentian 
Brothers,  10  seminarians  making  higher  studies  and 
35  making  preparatory  studies,  2  official  higher 
schools  for  boys  with  139  students,  7  for  girls  with 
223  students,  2  intermediate  schools  with  60  pupils, 

1  normal  school  for  men  ’with  26  pupils,  1  normal 
school  for  women  with  46  pupils,  2  technical  schools, 
one  with  122  male  students,  the  other  with  72  female 
students,  1  conservatory  of  music,  1  private  school, 
364  official  elementary  schools  with  9021  boys  and 
10,022  girls,  1  asylum  under  construction  and  12 
hospitals.  The  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  i® 
organized,  and  two  periodicals,  El  Meridiane  and 
“El  Carmen/’  are  published  here. 

Ibarra,  Diocese  of  (Ibarrensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII- 
613b),  in  Northern  Ecuador,  suffragan  of  Quito. 
The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Alberto  Ordonez, 
born  in  Cuenca  2  November,  1872,  elected  4  Decem¬ 
ber  to  succeed  Mgr.  Perez  y  Quinones,  transferred 
to  Riobamba.  On  8  December,  1917,  the  bishop 
entered  his  see.  On  1  October,  1921,  a  school  under 
the  direction  of  Christian  Brothers  was  opened  in 
Ibarra,  while  another  school  is  being  prepared  for 
the  same  Brothers  in  Tulcan.  The  Sisters  of 
Charity  have  founded  a  school  in  Atuntaqui.  The 
second  semana  social  of  all  the  Catholic  circles 
in  the  diocese  was  held  in  Ibarra  in  1921.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  1920  statistics  the  diocese  has  100,420  Cath¬ 
olics,  40,000  of  whom  are  Indians,  28  parishes,  40 
churches,  2  monasteries  for  men  and  1  for  women, 
41  secular  priests,  4  Christian  Brothers,  17  Beth- 
lehemites,  30  Sisters  of  Charity,  2  seminaries  with 
105  seminarians,  1  college  for  boys  with  96  stu¬ 
dents,  2  for  girls  with  60  students,  5  elementary 
schools  with  1500  pupils,  1  asylum,  1  hospital  in 
Ibarra  and  1  in  Tulcan,  1  orphanage,  5  circles  of 
Catholic  workers,  1  Catholic  paper,  and  organiza¬ 
tions  of  the  laity  in  all  the  centers  of  population. 

Idaho. — The  area  of  the  State  of  Idaho  is  83,888 
sq.  miles. 

Population. — In  1921  the  population  of  the  State 
was  estimated  at  431,866,  and  that  of  its  capital, 
Boise,  at  36,900. 

Resources. — The  Idaho  mines  in  1918  produced 
minerals  valued  at  $36,522,158;  lead  yielded  $20,- 
923,416;  silver,  $9,172,340;  copper,  $1,613,870;  gold, 
$1,373,131.40;  zinc,  $4,109,716. 


Agriculture. — The  latest  irrigation  project  in  the 
State,  involving  an  expenditure  of  $100,000,000,  will 
utilize  the  waters  of  the  Snake  River  in  reclaiming 
the  desert  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  State,  and 
guarantee  a  supply  of  water  to  2,500,000  acres. 
Statistics  for  1919  give  the  value  of  farm  products 
as  over  $126,000,000;  wheat,  being  valued  at  $36,- 
648,087;  hay  at  $50,802,765;  potatoes  at  $13,546,798. 
The  alfalfa  yield  (1917)  was  1,500,000  tons;  oat 
yield  (1919)  7,700,000  bushels. 

Other  Industries. — In  1919  there  were  194  saw 
mills  and  planing  mills,  with  an  output  valued  at 
$30,088,000.  The  State  forest  lands,  including  barren 
or  grazing  lands,  young  timber  growth  or  mer¬ 
chantable  timber,  cover  723,000  acres.  The  total 
merchantable  timber  belonging  to  the  State  is 
approximately  10,130,000,000  bd.  ft.,  valued  at  $30,- 
000,000  In  Idaho  there  were,  in  1918,  eight  great 
sugar  factories  producing  from  sugar  beets  grown 
on  irrigated  lands  88,200,000  pounds  of  sugar.  The 
total  output  of  manufacturing  plants  in  1919  was 
$80,414,000,  and  13,917  workmen  were  employed. 

Communication. — In  1915  the  Celilo  Canal  on 
the  Oregon  side  of  the  Columbia  River  was  opened, 
giving  Idaho  a  seaport,  Lewiston.  Vessels  can  pass 
for  480  miles  from  the  Pacific  to  Lewiston.  The 
railroad  mileage  in  1918  was  2,861.13  miles. 

Education. — The  State  University  has  a  faculty 
of  90  and  a  student  body  of  1330.  In  1918  there 
were  3118  teachers  in  the  public  schools,  and  93,236 
pupils  enrolled;  the  total  expenditure  for  all  educa¬ 
tion  in  that  year  was  $5,369,965.  For  statistics  of 
Catholic  schools  see  Boise,  Diocese  of. 

State  laws  relative  to  private  and  parochial 
schools  are  as  follows:  no  public  money  shall  be 
used  to  help  support  any  school  or  any  other 
literary  or  scientific  institution  controlled  by  any 
church,  or  sectarian  or  religious  denomination 
(IX-5);  certificates  are  issued  only  to  citizens  or 
declarants;  all  holders  of  certificates  must  attend 
institutes. 

Recent  History. — Recent  legislative  measures  in 
the  State  provide  for  the  initiative,  referendum,  and 
recall  of  State  officers,  excepting  judicial  officers, 
an  increase  in  the  membership  of  the  House  of 
Representatives,  the  creation  of  a  public  utilities 
commission  (1913),  the  adoption  of  mothers’  pen¬ 
sions,  non-partisan  judicial  primary  elections,  the 
creation  of  a  State  highway  commission,  and  the 
passing  of  an  eight-hour  law  for  public  employees. 
By  legislative  enactment,  approved  on  3  March, 
1915,  Idaho  became,  on  1  January,  1916,  a  prohibi¬ 
tion  State.  In  1914  a  Workmen’s  Compensation 
Bill  was  passed,  also  a  measure  providing  for  the 
employment  of  convicts  in  the  building  of  roads 
in  mountainous  districts.  Under  the  Carey  Act  a 
new  irrigation  system  and  a  parallel  railroad  lead¬ 
ing  from  Boise  into  Bruneau  County  was  developed, 
with  the  purpose  of  claiming  about  75,000  acres  for 
agricultural  purposes.  An  Anti-Alien  Bill  was  in¬ 
troduced  in  1917  with  the  purpose  of  preventing 
the  Japanese  from  owning  land  in  the  State.  At 
the  protest  of  the  U.  S.  Secretary  of  State  the  bill 
was  withdrawn.  On  10  December,  1917,  the  U.  S. 
Supreme  Court  upheld  the  prohibition  law  of  the 
State,  holding  that  a  citizen  has  no  constitutional 
right  to  possess  liquor  for  his  private  use  if  the 
State  wishes  to  forbid  it.  Idaho  ratified  the  national 

388 


IGLESIAS 


389 


ILLINOIS 


prohibition  amendment  8  January,  1919,  and  the 
woman’s  suffrage  amendment  11  February,  1920. 
The  budget  in  1920  was  84,737,739,  and  the  net 
debt  $3,880,750. 

During  the  European  War  Idaho  contributed 
19,016  soldiers,  or  .51  per  cent  of  the  U.  S.  Army. 
Its  national  guard  formed  a  part  of  the  41st  Divi¬ 
sion  at  Fremont,  Cal.;  its  national  army,  of  the 
91st  Division  at  Camp  Lewis,  Washington.  Of  all 
the  force  sent  to  France,  the  casualties  were : 
deceased,  15  officers  and  394  soldiers;  prisoners,  9; 
wounded,  18  officers  and  915  men.  In  1918  Idaho 
sent  472  men  to  the  U.  S.  Naval  Reserve;  1234  to 
the  U.  S.  Navy;  6  to  the  National  Naval  Volun¬ 
teers;  a  total  of  489. 

Religious  Factors. — The  membership  of  the 
Mormon  Church  in  the  State  is  72,439;  Catholics 
number  17,947;  Presbyterians  6943;  Methodists 
11,3/3;  Christian  5065;  Baptist  5682;  Episcopalians 
2404;  Congregational  2827. 

In  May,  1920,  there  were  eleven  councils  of  the 
order  of  the  Knights  of  Columbus  in  Idaho.  For 
Catholic  information  see  Boise,  Diocese  of. 

State  Government. — One  of  the  most  far-reach¬ 
ing  reforms  ever  made  in  State  administrative 
organization  was  effected  in  Idaho  in  1919  by  the 
enactment  of  the  Administration  Consolidation  Bill. 
By  this  act  the  civil  administration  of  the  State  is 
divided  into  nine  departments,  agriculture,  com¬ 
merce  and  industry,  finance,  immigration,  labor  and 
statistics,  law  enforcement,  public  welfare,  public 
works,  and  reclamation.  At  the  head  of  each  de¬ 
partment  is  a  commissioner,  appointed  by  the 
governor,  and  removable  by  him.  The  governor  is 
authorized  to  devise  a  practical  working  basis  for 
co-operation  of  work,  eliminating  duplication  and 
overlapping  of  functions.  The  commissioner  of 
each  department  is  empowered  to  prescribe  regula¬ 
tions  not  inconsistent  with  law  for  the  government 
of  his  department.  Of  peculiar  significance,  is  the 
Department  of  Law  Enforcement. 

Prisons  and  Reformatories. — On  30  November, 
1920,  the  State  penitentiary  had  218  inmates,  but 
the  average  for  the  year  was  230.  The  Idaho  in¬ 
dustrial  school  has  221  inmates  (1918). 

Iglesias,  Diocese  of  (Ecclesiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VII-638d),  suffragan  of  Cagliari,  Sardinia.  The 
present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Saturnino  Peri,  elected 
bishop  of  Cotrone  16  June,  1909,  transferred  to  this 
see  16  June,  1909,  succeeding  Bishop  Dallepiane. 
The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  100,000. 
There  are  24  parishes,  41  secular  priests,  12  semi¬ 
naries,  39  churches  and  chapels. 

Ignorance  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-648)  .—Ignorance  of 
invalidating  or  inhabilitating  laws  never  excuses 
from  their  effects,  in  Canon  law  unless  this  is  stated 
expressly.  Ignorance  or  error  about  a  law,  penalty, 
one’s  own  act,  or  the  notorious  act  of  another  is 
as  a  rule  not  presumed;  but  till  the  contrary  is 
proved  it  is  presumed  in  regard  to  a  non-notorious 
act  of  another.  Affected  ignorance  of  a  law  or  of 
&  penalty  only  does  not  excuse  from  penalties  latce 
sententioe.  If  the  law  contains  the  words  “pre¬ 
sumes,”  “dares,”  “knowingly,”  “of  set  purpose,” 
“rashly,”  or  other  such  terms  implying  full  knowl¬ 
edge  and  deliberation,  whatever  would  lessen  im- 
putability,  either  on  the  part  of  the  will  or  of  the 
intellect,  would  excuse  from  penalties  lata  sent  entice. 

If  the  law  does  not  contain  such  words,  however, 
crass  or  supine  ignorance  of  the  law  or  of  the 
penalty  alone  would  not  excuse  from  penalties  latce 
sententioe;  if  the  ignorance  were  not  crass  or  supine 
it  would  excuse  from  medicinal  (as  in  excommuni¬ 


cation),  but  not  from  vindicatory,  punishments  latce 
sententioe.  Ignorance  of  irregularities  or  impedi¬ 
ments  does  not  prevent  one  from  contracting  them. 

Hheos,  Diocese  of  (Ilheosensis),  in  Brazil, 
ereo-  An, 1913  by  dismemberment  of  the  Diocese 
ot  bao  Salvador  de  Bahia  de  Todos  os  Santos,  of 
which  it  is  now  a  suffragan.  It  comprises  the  28 
parishes  of  Ilheos,  Olivenga,  Cannarieiras,  Belmonte, 
Santa  Cruz,  Porto  Seguro,  Villa  Verde,  Tramoso, 
Nossa  Senhora  de  Lourdes  do  Angelim,  Prado,  Alco- 
baca,  Carayellas,  Villa  Vigosa,  S.  Jose  de  Porto 
Alegie,  Itabima,  Barra  de  Rio  de  Contas,  Marahie, 
Barcellos,  Camanni,  Igrapiuna,  Santarem,  Nova 
Boipeba,  Boipeba  Velha,  Cayru,  Taperoa,  Serapuhy, 
Guerem,  and  Valenga.  The  cathedral  is  dedicated 
to  St.  George.  The  first  and  present  bishop  is  Rt. 
Rev.  Emmanuel-Antonio  de  Paiva,  consecrated  1915. 

(°r  Kul-Dia),  a  mission  in  China  with  resi¬ 
dence  at  Sui-ting.  This  mission,  which  originally 
formed  a  part  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Kan-su 
(comprising  the  Chinese  province  of  Sin-Kiang), 
was  separated  from  it  in  1888.  The  superior  resides 
the  principal  city  of  the  I-li  district  of 
the  province.  It  comprises  about  579,150  sq.  miles, 
and  is  entrusted  to  the  Congregation  of  Scheutveld, 
Rev.  Joseph  Hoogers  being  the  present  superior. 
Born  in  Horst,  Holland,  in  1867,'  he  was  professed 
in  1891,  ordained  in  1894,  joined  the  Chinese  mis¬ 
sion  in  1895,  was  named  procurator  at  Shanghai  in 
1909,  and  superior  of  I-li  8  June,  1918.  Out  of  a 
total  population  of  1,200,000  the  mission  counts 
only  300  Catholics,  owing  to  the  serious  difficulties 
of  evangelization  in  this  part  of  China.  According 
to  1920  statistics  there  are  75  catechumens,  4  Euro¬ 
pean  priests,  some  catechists,  and  2  chapels. 

Illinois  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-653c). — The  population 
of  the  State  of  Illinois  in  1920  was  6,485,280. 

Resources. — Agriculture  and  Coal. — The  total 
acreage  of  the  state  is  35,867,520  acres.  In  1919 
31,974,775  acres  were  under  cultivation.  The  total 
value  of  farm  property  in  Illinois  in  1919  was 
$6,666,767,235,  and  the  value  of  the  produce  in  1919 
was  $864,737,833,  and  in  the  same  year  the  acreage 
given  to  the  leading  crops  was  as  follows:  wheat, 
4,103,035  acres;  oats,  4,291,066  acres;  corn,  7,908,385 
acres;  hay,  4,013,476  acres;  rye,  319,636  acres;  bar¬ 
ley,  176,792  acres. 

The  total  coal  output  in  1918  was  89,291,105 
tons;  the  number  of  mines  was  967;  the  total  value 
of  the  coal  at  the  mines  was  $206,860,291.  The 
coal  field  area  is  42,900  sq.  miles. 

Banks  and  Communication. — The  total  number 
of  national  banks  in  Illinois  in  1919  was  473,  with 
a  capitalization  of  over  $83,937,000,  and  a  surplus 
of  $59,823,000;  while  there  were  905  State  banks 
with  a  capitalization  of  $101,189,000  and  a  surplus 
of  $67,135,000. 

In  1911  Illinois  awoke  to  the  necessity  of  good 
roads  in  the  State,  and  in  1913  the  Tice  law  pro¬ 
vided  for  a  $60,000,000  bond  issue  for  the  construc¬ 
tion  and  maintenance  of  a  16,000  mile  system  of 
State  aid  roads  out  of  a  total  of  95,000  miles  of 
country  highways  in  the  State.  The  bonds  and 
interest  are  to  be  retired  from  the  proceeds  of 
the  motor  license  fees.  In  addition,  the  State  and 
Federal  governments  have  appropriated  $6,600,000. 
Only  one  state  in  the  Union,  Texas,  has  greater 
railway  mileage  than  Illinois,  in  1917  its  total  track 
mileage  being  12,132  miles  of  steam  railway  track¬ 
age  compared  with  15,931  miles  in  Texas. 

Manufactures. — In  1919  the  amount  of  money 
invested  in  manufactures  was  $3,513,700,000;  the 


ILLINOIS 


390 


ILLINOIS 


number  of  wage  earners  was  653,900,  End  to  these 
$801,610,000  was  paid  as  wages.  The  manufactured 
products  had  a  value  of  $5,874,007,000;  the  cost  of 
materials  was  $3,490,021,000,  and  the  number  of 
establishments  18,596.  Thirty-five  cities  in  the 
State  are  the  seats  of  manufacturing  establishments. 
The  value  of  manufactured  products  in  Chicago  in 
1919  was  $3,658,740,000,  as  against  $1,483,498,000  in 
1914.  In  1919  the  Lake  traffic  in  Chicago  was  12,- 
194,194  tons  in  and  out,  as  against  a  tonnage  of 
9,582,000  for  London  (excluding  coastwise  trade), 
13,671,000  for  Liverpool  (including  Birkenhead), 
and  8,918,667  for  Hamburg.  There  were  5,048,780 
tons  of  iron  ore  received  at  the  port  of  Chicago 
during  the  year  1919.  Illinois  had  5898  oil  wells 
1  January,  1918,  with  a  total  product  in  1917  of 

15,770,641  barrels.  „  ,  „  ,  0 

Education. — The  endowment  fund  of  the  State 
University  amounted  to  $649,012  in  1918.  It  has  51 
buildings,  751  professors,  and  a  student  body  of 
7157.  There  are  six  normal  schools  at  Carbondale, 
Normal,  Chicago,  De  Kalb,  Charleston,  and 
Macomb.  In  1918  there  were  in  Illinois  11,889 
public  elementary  schools,  in  which  there  were 
33,653  teachers,  of  whom  4656  were  men  and  28,997 
were  women.  The  male  teachers  received  (1916) 
about  $106.24  per  month,  and  the  females  $88.18. 
In  the  year  1918  the  total  cost  of  the  public  schools 
was  $51,506,043,  which  is  a  cost  of  $39.29  for  every 
pupil.  In  the  same  year  there  were  651  high  schools, 
enrolling  112,557  pupils  and  4476  teachers.  Recent 
legislative  changes  include  statewide  pensioning  of 
teachers  and  a  free  public  high  school  education 
for  every  pupil  in  Illinois  (1915).  Bible  reading 
in  the  public  schools  is  excluded  by  decree  of  the 
Supreme  Court  (20  July,  1910).  The  assets  of  the 
University  of  Chicago  are  $32,000,000.  In  the 
scholastic  year  1919-20  the  number  of  enrolled  stu¬ 
dents  was  9032.  The  university  has  a  library  of 
570,000  volumes.  In  1919  Northwestern  University 
had  4759  enrolled  students.  In  the  same  year  there 
were  in  Illinois  35  collegiate  institutions  with  2495 
instructors  and  24,875  students. 

Catholic  Education. — For  parochial  school  statis¬ 
tics  see  Chicago,  Archdiocese  of;  Belleville,  Dio¬ 
cese  of;  Alton,  Diocese  of;  Peoria,  Diocese  of; 
Rockford,  Diocese  of.  Loyola  University  (q.v.) 
Chicago,  is  the  largest  Catholic  educational  institu¬ 
tion  in  Illinois.  De  Paul  University,  Chicago,  is 
conducted  by  the  Vincentians.  These  and  other  in¬ 
stitutions  around  the  city  will  be  affiliated  with  the 
University  of  St.  Mary’s  of  the  Lake,  now  under 
construction  at  Area,  a  Chicago  suburb,  which  is 
planned  to  be  the  greatest  Catholic  educational 
center  in  America.  This  university,  founded  1844, 
went  out  of  existence  during  the  Civil  War,  but  its 
charter  was  never  revoked,  and  it  is  being  revised 
in  the  $10,000,000  project  now  in  course  of  execu¬ 
tion.  The  Augustinians,  Benedictines,  Franciscans, 
Resurrectionists,  Carmelite  Fathers,  Clerics  of  St. 
Viator,  and  Fathers  of  the  Order  of  Charity  also 
conduct  colleges  in  Illinois.  The  total  number  of 
colleges  and  academies  for  boys  in  the  State  is  17, 
with  an  attendance  of  8007;  for  girls  41,  attendance 
7894;  there  are  533  parochial  schools  with  180,652 
pupils.  Figuring  the  cost  of  educating  every  Cath¬ 
olic  pupil  at  $39.29,  which  is  the  cost  under  the 
public  school  system,  there  is  an  annual  saving  to 
the  State  by  the  Catholic  educational  system  of 
$7,097,817.08. 

The  State  laws  governing  private  and  parochial 
schools  are  as  follows:  no  public  appropriation  shall 
ever  be  made  in  aid  of  any  school  controlled  by 
any  church  or  sectarian  denomination  (VIII.  3) ; 
instruction  in  the  elementary  branches  of  education 


in  private  schools  shall  be  in  the  English  language; 
every  organized  university,  college,  academy,  semi¬ 
nary,  or  other  educational  institution,  whether  in¬ 
corporated  or  unincorporated,  shall  submit  such 
report  to  superintendent  of  public  instruction  as 
he  may  require. 

Recent  History. — The  year  1911  will  always  be 
remembered  in  Illinois  history  for  the  political 
bitterness  rising  out  of  the  accusation  of  election 
bribery  brought  against  Senator  Lorimer.  A  resolu¬ 
tion  was  offered  in  the  United  State  Senate  to 
declare  his  seat  vacant  on  the  ground  that  he  had 
not  been  duly  or  legally  elected.  The  Senate  re¬ 
fused  to  unseat  him  by  a  vote  of  46  to  40.  Later 
the  investigation  was  re-opened  and  Senator  Lori¬ 
mer  was  finally  deprived  of  his  seat  in  July,  1912. 
Partial  woman  suffrage  was  granted  in  1913,  also 
mothers’  pensions,  ownership  of  public  utilities,  and 
workmen’s  compensation.  In  1917  a  fierce  race  riot 
broke  out  in  East  St.  Louis  between  the  whites 
and  the  negroes  who  had  immigrated  into  the 
North  from  the  South  to  take  advantage  of  war- 
stimulated  industries  in  the  manufacturing  district. 
In  1920  a  referendum  from  the  voters  brought  a 
decision  in  favor  of  making  the  initiative  and  refer¬ 
endum,  as  well  as  municipal  ownership  of  public 
utilities,  a  part  of  the  State  constitution.  The  State 
Legislature  ratified  the  national  prohibition  amend¬ 
ment  14  January,  1919,  the  twenty-sixth  State  to 
do  so.  The  Federal  suffrage  amend.  lent  was  rati¬ 
fied  10  June,  1919,  but  an  error  in  the  State’s  certifi¬ 
cation  caused  a  re-ratification  17  June,  1919. 

Illinois  put  into  the  national  service  a  total  of 
314,504  men  and  boys;  24,663  in  the  navy,  3,678 
in  the  marines,  and  286,163  in  the  army,  the  thou¬ 
sand  volunteers  who  entered  the  service  as  officers 
through  the  various  training  camps  being  excluded. 
While  the  Selective  Draft  Act  was  adopted,  56.6 
per  cent  of  the  men  who  went  from  Illinois  (178,- 
143)  volunteered,  and  only  43.3  per  cent  (136,361) 
were  drafted.  With  but  5.5  per  cent  of  the  popu¬ 
lation  of  the  United  States,  Illinois  took  7  per 
cent  of  the  nation’s  loan.  Of  the  expeditionary 
force  201  officers  and  4065  men  died,  12  officers 
and  192  men  were  taken  prisoners  and  504  officers 
and  13,290  men  were  wounded.  The  1918  war 
crop  was  the  greatest  in  money  value  ever  produced 
by  any  State  in  America. 

Ecclesiastical  History. — In  the  ecclesiastical 
province  of  Chicago,  co-extensive  with  the  State 
of  Illinois,  there  were  (1921) :  1  archbishop,  6 

bishops,  1,680  priests,  230  ecclesiastical  students, 
972  churches,  63  missions  without  churches,  about 
120  chapels,  4  training  schools  for  boys,  5  industrial 
schools  for  girls;  1  school  for  mutes,  8  infant  asy¬ 
lums,  1  industrial  and  reform  school,  187,136  young 
people  under  Catholic  care,  1  working  boys  home, 
3  working  girls  homes,  14  homes  for  the  aged,  55 
hospitals  and  a  Catholic  population  of  1,486,216. 

Principal  Religious  Denominations. — The  re¬ 
ligious  census  of  1916  gives  a  total  population  of 
6,152,257,  of  whom  3,629,884  did  not  attend  any 
church.  Members  of  all  denominations  numbered 
2,522,373,  of  whom  1,171,381  were  Catholics;  of 
Greek  Orthodox  there  were  15,050;  Methodists  of 
all  kinds,  324,783;  Lutherans  of  all  kinds,  223,874; 
Baptists,  180,807;  Presbyterians,  170,271;  Disciples, 
116,639;  German  Evangelists,  71,274;  Congrega- 
tionalists,  57,926;  Protestant  Episcopalians,  40,725; 
Unitarians,  1593;  Quakers,  1849;  others,  1,201,299. 
The  total  number  of  church  organizations  (parishes, 
etc.),  in  Illinois  in  1916  was  9294;  church  edifices 
8584;  value  $103,613,316;  debt  $12,953,904. 

Public  Institutions. — The  two  new  hospitals  for 
the  insane  were  recently  opened  at  Dunning  and 


ILLITERACY 


391 


IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION 


Alton;  a  colony  for  epileptics  lias  been  established 
in  the  town  of  Dixon. 

Legislative  Changes. — The  Legislature  passed  an 
act  in  1915  authorizing  the  construction  of  the  Illi- 
nois.  Waterway.  Of  greater  importance  is  the  new 
administrative  Code  Bill  (1917),  consolidating  the 
many  boards  and  commissions  of  the  State  govern¬ 
ment  into  nine  departments.  The  same  Legisla¬ 
ture  passed  the  constitutional  resolution  which 
placed  the  proposition  of  the  calling  of  such  a 
convention  before  the  voters  in  1918.  In  1917 
was  created  the  Department  of  Public  Welfare, 
with  one  man  as  director  over  all  the  charities,  the 
three  penal  institutions  and  the  courts  of  Pardons 
and  Paroles, 


Illiteracy.  See  Americanization. 

Images,  Veneration  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-664).— 
Extraordinary  images  may  not  be  exposed  in  any 
church  or  other  holy  places  unless  with  the  approval 
of  the  local  ordinary;  .he  must  not,  however, 
authorize  for  public  veneration  images  out  of  har¬ 
mony  with  the  approved  custom  of  the  Church. 
If  the  images  represent  erroneous  dogma,  or  are 
unbecoming,  or  might  lead  the  unlearned  into  dan- 
gerous  errors,  they  must  be  forbidden  or  removed. 
The  blessing  of  images  exposed  for  public  venera¬ 
tion  is  reserved  to  the  ordinary,  but  he  may  dele¬ 
gate  this  power  to  any  priest.  Images,  noted  for 
their  antiquity,  art,  or  as  objects  of  devotion,  if 
exposed  in  churches  or  public  oratories  for  the 
veneration  of  the  faithful,  must  not  be  restored  or 
renovated  without  the  written  consent  of  the  ordi¬ 
nary,  who  before  granting  it  is  to  consult  with  the 
persons  of  good  judgment  and  experts  in  art.  Such 
images  cannot  be  validly  alienated  or  transferred 
perpetually  to  another  church  without  leave  of  the 
Holy  See. 

Immaculate  Conception,  Congregations  of  the. — • 
I.  Mission  Priests  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-681b). — This  congregation, 
called  the  Missionaries  of  Rennes,  has  ceased  to 
exist  since  the  dissociation  of  religious  orders  in 
France. 

II.  Servites  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
(cf.  C.  E.,  VII-681c). — The  second  general  superior 
and  successor  of.  the  founder,  Peter  Carisciarian, 
was  Stephen  Ghiorogadze,  who  was  succeeded  in 
1905  by  Benedict  Vardize,  now  pastor  of  Our  Lady 
of  Lourdes  in  Constantinople.  The  fourth  and 
present  general  superior  is  Pius  Balize,  elected  in 
1911,  to  remain  superior  until  the  rule  of  the  con¬ 
gregation  is  approved  by  Rome.  The  congregation 
is  considered  Oriental  and  is  consequently  not  sub¬ 
mitted  to  the  .  Latin  Code  of  Canon  Law,  although 
most  of  its  members  are  Latins,  Rome  not  having 
yet  decided  what  Rite  they  must  follow.  Distin¬ 
guished  members  deceased  are:  Fr.  Michael  Tas- 
siarati  (d.  1911),  historian;  he  published  in  French 
the  history  of  the  Georgian  Church.  Fr.  Dominic 
Mughasasvili  (d.  1912),  editor  of  the  first  Catholic 
paper  in  Georgia;  Fr.  Anselm  Mghetrisvili  (d. 
1921),  a  good  preacher;  he  built  a  beautiful  church 
at  Batoum,  and  translated  the  “Imitation  of  Christ” 
into  Georgian.  There  are  fifteen  members  of  the 
congregation,  and  they  have  under  their  care  4000 
parishioners  of  the  Latin  parish  of  Ferikeuy 
(mother-house)  in  Constantinople,  three  parishes 
in  Georgia,  and  two  in  Russia. 

III.  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
founded  at  Labadieville,  Louisiana,  in  the  Assump¬ 
tion  parish  11  July,  1874,  by  Fr.  Cyprien  Venissat. 
"ea  °us  for  the  advancement  of  the  kingdom  of 
God  and  aware  of  the  great  need  of  a  religious 


community  in  the  parish  which  he  had  founded, 
.  Venissat  endeavored  to  secure  religious  from 
hrance  to  instruct  the  young  children  of  Labadie- 
ville.  Alter  many  fruitless  endeavors  he,  with  the 
consent  of  Archbishop  Perche,  resolved  to  found 
a  community  bearing  the  name  Sisters  of  the  Im¬ 
maculate  Conception,  and  composed  principally  of 
virtuous  young  girls  and  pious  widows  of  Louisiana 
who  would  strive  to  imitate  the  humility,  purity 
a?AT^er^ec^  .  0^dience  °f  the  Immaculate  Queen 
at  Nazareth.  The  foundress,  Miss  Elvina  Vienne 
of  New  Orleans,  La.,  a  woman  of  great  ability  and 
sanctity,  was  a  pupil  of  the  Ladies  of  the  Sacred 
xleart  and  had  had  a  private  school  in  New  Orleans 
prior  to  becoming  Superior  General  of  the  new 
°™er  the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
the  chief  work  of  the  community  lies  in  the  educa¬ 
tional  field.  Its  religious  inculcate  solid  Christian 
principles  in  the  young  children  confided  to  their 
care,  preparing  them  also  to  earn  a  livelihood. 
■vr‘  _y enissat  s  desire  to  establish  an  orphan  asylum 
at  Labadieville  has  not  yet  been  realized,  due  to 
a  lack  of  finances.  To-day  the  Sisters  are  found 
in  Labadieville,  New  Orleans,  which  is  the  mother- 
house,  Lockport,  White  Castle,  and  Church  Point. 

IV.  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception,  founded  in  1902  at  Notre  Dame  des 
N  eiges,  .  near  Montreal,  by  Abbe  Bourassa,  and 
erected  into  a  religious  community  in  1904  by  Mgr 
Bruchesi,  Archbishop  of  Montreal,  with  the 
approval  ,  and  blessing  of  Pope  Pius  X.  The 
specific  aim  of  the  institute  is  the  conversion  of 
pagan  nations  through  a  life  of  prayer,  of  love  of 
God  and  zeal  for  His  glory,  sacrifice  and  labor 
i  an<^  s&lvation  of  souls,  especially 

infidels.,  lhe  Sisters  undertake  the  following  works 
in  the  infidel. countries:  formation  of  Chinese  reli- 
gious;  formation  of  virgin  catechists  who  go  among 
the  families  in  the  districts  teaching  Christian 
doctrine;  organization  of  “baptizers,”  who  go  every¬ 
where  baptizing  the  dying,  especially  children  in 
danger  of  death;  nurseries,  caring  for  babies  found, 
ransomed,  or  entrusted ;  orphanages  where  orphans 
are  gi\  en  religious  instruction  and  education ; 
houses  of  refuge  for  aged  women,  blind,  idiots, 
cripples,  etc. ;  schools  where  there  are  taught  the 
elements  of  letters,  sciences,  and  arts;  instruction 
of  catechumens  and  neophytes;  assistance  of  the 
dying,  pagans  or  Christians ;  hospitals,  dispensaries, 
lazarettoes,  etc.;  workrooms  where  domestic  econ¬ 
omy,  trades,  and  arts  are  taught.  In  Christian 
countries  the  Sisters  spread  the  devotions  to  the 
Childhood  of  Our  Lord,  the  Blessed  Eucharist,  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  the  Immaculate  Conception; 
endeavor  to  obtain  members  of  the  Associations 
of  the  Holy  Childhood  and  the  Propagation  of 
the  Faith;  circulate  publications  making  known  the 
missions;  procure  resources  for  the  missions  by 
the  reception  of  alms  and  gifts,  and  by  certain 
industries,  such  as  the  making  of  Church  vestments, 
sacred  linens,  and  artificial  flowers;  conduct  schools 
for  pagan  children;  give  courses  of  religious  in¬ 
struction  for  pagans;  and  assist  those  dying. 

The  Sisters  have  the  following  foundations  in 
Canada:  at  Outremont,  near  Montreal,  are  the 
mother-house,  novitiate,  procure  for  the  missions, 
diocesan  office  of  the  Holy  Childhood,  workrooms 
for  painting  and  the  making  of  Church  vestments 
for  .  the  maintenance  of  the  mother-house  and 
novitiate;  at  Montreal  are  a  school  for  Chinese 
children  of  both  sexes  (founded  1916)  and  a  hos¬ 
pital  for  the  Chinese  (founded  1918),  and  the  Sis¬ 
ters  also  give  language  and  catechism  courses  for 
Chinese  adults,  and  visit  the  Chinese  sick  in  Cath¬ 
olic  and  Protestant  hospitals,  when  they  are  called, 


IMMACULATE  HEART 


392 


IMMACULATE  HEART 


teaching  them  Christian  doctrine  or  serving  as 
interpreters;  at  Rimouski  (founded  1918)  are  a 
postulate,  diocesan  office  of  the  Holy  Childhood, 
closed  retreats  for  young  girls,  and  apostolic  school 
for  aspirants  to  the  missions;  at  Joliette  (founded 
1919)  are  a  postulate,  diocesan  office  of  the  Holy 
Childhood,  and  adoration  of  the  Most  Blessed 
Sacrament;  at  Quebec  (founded  1919)  are  a  postu¬ 
late,  diocesan  office  of  the  Holy  Childhood,  and 
closed  retreats;  at  Vancouver  (founded  1921)  is  a 
school  for  Chinese  sick  in  their  homes'  and  m  hos¬ 
pitals.  In  China  the  Sisters  have  schools  for 
Christian  and  pagan  children,  nurseries,  an  orphan¬ 
age,  a  dispensary,  refuge  for  aged  women,  and 
catechumenate  at  Canton  (founded  1909),  a  lazar¬ 
etto  caring  for  900  male  and  female  lepers  at 
Sheklung  near  Canton  (founded  1912),  and  a 
nursery  caring  for  3200  babies  annually  at  Tong- 
Shan,  near  Canton  (founded  1916).  The  Sisters 
opened  a  Chinese  general  hospital  at  Manila, 
Philippine  Islands,  in  1921. 

Immaculate  Heart,  Sisters  Servants  of  the 
(cf.  C.  E.,  VII-167c). — One  of  the  pioneer 

educational  orders  of  the  United  States,  first  estab¬ 
lished  in  Monroe,  Michigan,  by  Fr.  Louis  Gilet,  a 
Redemptorist.  Bishop  Lefevre,  of  Detroit,  had 
asked  the  Redemptorists  of  Baltimore  for  aid  m 
work  among  the  French  Canadians,  and  Fr.  Gilet 
was  appointed  to  found  a  mission  at  Monroe,  a 
French  Canadian  settlement  without  priests.  Nor 
were  there  any  schools,  and  realizing  this  need 
Fr.  Gilet  asked  Teresa  Maxis,  of  Baltimore,  who 
had  signified  to  him  her  desire  to  consecrate  her 
life  to  God,  to  undertake  the  education  of  the  chil¬ 
dren  of  Monroe.  She  arrived  in  the  summer  of 
1845  and  was  soon  joined  by  Charlotte  Ann  Schaaf, 
also  of  Baltimore,  who  was  desirous  to  undertake 
the  same  work.  Their  modest  dwelling  was  a  log 
cabin,  and  here  they  earnestly  prepared  for  the 
religious  life.  They  made  their  vows  30  November, 
and  were  established  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception  as  Sisters  of  Providence. 
They  were  given  a  rule  founded  on  the  rule  of 
St.  Alphonsus,  prepared  by  Fr.  Gilet  and  approved 
by  Bishop  Lefevre.  Their  habit  was  patterned  on 
that  of  the  Notre  Dame  Sisters,  with  scapular 
added.  The  third  member  of  the  community  was 
Teresa  Renauld,  whose  home  was  nearby,  and 
who  made  her  vows  8  December.  The  school  was 
opened  in  a  log  cabin  adjoining  the  Sisters’  dwel¬ 
ling  on  15  January,  1846.  Their  first  benefactor 
was  Mme.  Josette  Godfroy  Smith,  sister  of  the 
mayor  of  Monroe,  who  disposed  of  her  estate  in 
favor  of  the  community,  and  became  a  member  of 
it  as  Sister  M.  Alphonsine  26  May,  1846.  This 
gift  and  the  proceeds  of  a  mission  given  by  Fr. 
Gilet  in  New  Orleans  enabled  the  Sisters  to  erect 
a  new  convent  in  1847.  Two  more  novices  were 
received  in  1849,  and  gradually  the  number  of 
members  was  increased  to  twelve  in  1855  and 
twenty-six  in  1863.  The  Sisters  were  under  the 
spiritual  direction  _  of  Fr.  Gilet,  and  sustained  a 
great  loss  upon  his  return  to  Baltimore  in  1847. 
He  later  crossed  to  Europe,  and  as  Fr.  Mary 
Celestine  became  a  Cistercian  (1858)  in  the  Abbey 
of  Hautecombe,  Savoy,  where  he  died  in  1892. 
His  co-laborer  in  the  foundation  of  the  young 
community  in  Monroe  was  Fr.  Francis  Poilvache, 
who  succumbed  to  the  epidemic  of  fever  in  1849. 
His  cause  of  beatification  is  being  advanced  in 
Rome.  The  Sisters  came  under  the  spiritual  direc¬ 
tion  of  Fr.  Smulders  (d.  1900).  They  petitioned 
him  in  1847  to  give  them  a  title  that  would  dis¬ 
tinguish  them  in  their  devotion  to  the  Immaculate 


Conception.  The  unanimous  choice  of  the  com¬ 
munity  was  the  name  Sisters  Servants  of  the  Im¬ 
maculate  Heart  of  Mary,  by  which  they  were 
henceforth  known.  In  April,  1855,  the  Redemp¬ 
torists  left  Monroe,  and  there  was  no  stationary 
priest  for  seven  months.  In  November,  1857,  Fr. 
Joos  was  appointed  director  of  the  Sisters. 

Their  first  parochial  school  was  opened  in  con¬ 
nection  with  St.  Michael’s  Church,  and  their  first 
mission  outside  Monroe  was  at  Vienna,  Michigan, 
where  they  labored  from  1855  to  1858.  In  the 
latter  year  they  were  called  to  the  Pennsylvania 
missions.  At  the  request  of  Fr.  Vincent  O’Reilly 
and  with  the  permission  of  Bishop  Neumann  of 
Scranton,  and  Bishop  Lefevre  of  Detroit,  the  Sisters 
under  Sister  M.  Magdalen  took  charge  of  St. 
Joseph’s  Academy,  Penn.,  and  opened  a  novitiate 
there.  A  novitiate,  parochial  school  for  boys  and 
girls  were  established  at  Reading,  Penn.,  in  1859. 
In  that  same  year  the  Sisters  became  diocesan. 
Reading  remained  the  mother-house  and  novitiate 
for  all  the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  in 
Pennsylvania,  until  1871,  when  a  new  foundation 
was  made  in  the  Scranton  Diocese  under  Bishop 
O’Hara.  The  novitiate  and  mother-house  for 
Scranton,  temporarily  located  at  Laurel  Hill 
Academy,  Susquehanna,  was  transferred  to  St. 
Cecilia  Academy,  Scranton  (1872),  and  to  St.  Rose’s 
Convent,  Carbondale  (1876),  and  permanently  fixed 
at  Mt.  St.  Mary’s  in  1902.  The  novitiate  and 
mother-house  for  Philadelphia  were  transferred  from 
Reading  in  1872  to  Villa  Maria  Academy,  West 
Chester,  erected  in  that  year.  In  an  effort  to 
effect  a  reunion  of  the  houses  in  Pennsylvania  with 
the  mother-house  at  Monroe,  Mother  M.  Teresa, 
foundress  of  the  congregation,  went  to  the  convent 
of  the  Grey  Nuns  of  Ottawa,  where  she  remained 
eighteen  years,  but  finally  rejoined  her  community 
at  Villa  Maria,  where  she  died  in  1892. 

The  first  orphan  asylum  was  erected  at  Monroe 
in  1860;  St.  Patrick’s  Orphanage  at  West  Scranton 
was  erected  in  1875.  The  Sisters’  work  was  thus 
extended  to  the  care  of  orphans,  and  in  1890  they 
established  St.  Joseph’s  Foundling  Home  in  Scran¬ 
ton.  The  care  of  children  of  Slovak  and  Lithuanian 
immigrants,  who  had  come  in  large  numbers  to  the 
United  States  during  the  latter  part  of  the  nine¬ 
teenth  century,  was  also  included  in  their  work, 
and  with  their  aid  were  founded  the  Daughters  of 
Sts.  Cyril  and  Methodius  (q.v.)  for  the  Christian 
education  of  Slovak  children,  and  the  Lithuanian 
Sisters  of  St.  Casimir  (q.v.).  The  Sisters  also 
undertook  the  aid  of  foreign  missions  in  training 
the  Teresian  Sisters  in  religious  life.  For  this  pur¬ 
pose  three  of  the  community,  with  Sister  M. 
Stanislaus  (d.  1917)  as  mistress  of  novices,  spent 
two  years  at  Maryknoll.  The  work  was  then  given 
over  to  Dominican  nuns.  Novices  of  the  Oblates 
of  Divine  Providence  vq.v.)  are  received  into  the 
novitiate  at  Marywood,  and  are  there  trained  as 
efficient  teachers  and  religious  to  labor  among  their 
own  colored  people.  The  Sisters  are  now  asked 
to  co-operate  in  the  foundation  of  a  new  congrega¬ 
tion  of  religious  to  care  for  foreigners,  to  follow 
the  Passionists’  rule,  conduct  homes  for  foreign 
girls,  take  care  of  orphanages,  and  teach  catechism 
to  children,  preparing  them  for  the  Sacraments. 

In  the  pursuit  of  higher  education  the  §isters 
take  summer  courses  at  universities,  and  a  very 
large  percentage  of  them  hold  degrees  from  col¬ 
leges  and  universities  of  international  standing. 
They  conduct  St.  Mary’s  College  for  women  (char¬ 
tered  1906)  at  Monroe,  Mich.,  Marywood  College, 
Scranton  (chartered  1917),  and  Villa  Maria  College, 
Immaculata  (chartered  1920).  The  Sisters  opened 


IMMIGRANTS 


IMPEDIMENTS 


393 


their  first  house  in  New  York  in  1913,  when  they 
took  charge  of  St.  Alphonsus’  School  St.  Michael’s 
Industrial  School  at  Falls,  Wyoming  Co.,  Penn, 
was  erected  in  1916  for  the  care,  education,  and 
geneial  training  of  the  homeless,  dependent  boys 
of  the  Scranton  Diocese.  The  care  of  the  Most 
Blessed  Sacrament  School  in  Trenton,  N.  J.  was 
j  7  listers  Villa  Maria  for  January, 
1922,  and  during  the  summer  of  1921  arrangements 
were  completed  for  the  opening  of  an  academy  at 
Lima  Peru.  Their  social  service  work  includes  the 
establishment  by  the  Scranton  community  at 
Altoona,  Penn.,  of  the  Casa  Regina,  a  home  for 
self-supporting  girls.  St.  Joseph’s  Shelter  for 
VV omen,  founded  in  Scranton  in  1915,  was  given  in 
charge  of  the  Sisters  in  1920,  and  a  day  nursery 
The  Sisters  aided  in  the  influenza  epidemic 
m  1918  by  nursing  the  sick  in  their  homes.  For 
a  few  dajs  in  the  early  summer  young  women’s 
retreats  are  held. 

on  mother-house  at  Monroe  are 
establishments  in  the  dioceses  of  Cleveland  and 
Detroit.  These  are  in  charge  of  461  Sisters  and 
i  no\Ices  and  postulants,  and  comprise  1  college 
1  academy  1  boys’  boarding  school,  33  parochial 
high  schools,  1  normal  school,  1  orphan  asylum, 
4i  paroclnal  elementary  schools,  with  22,239  pupils. 

There  are  748  Sisters,  92  novices,  and  26  postu- 
lants  m  the  community  with  mother-house  at  Villa 
Maria,  West  Chester.  They  have  a  summer-house 
in  the  Diocese  of  Trenton  and  the  following  estab¬ 
lishments  m  the  Archdiocese  of  Philadelphia  and 
the  Diocese  of  Harrisburg  :  1  college,  3  academies, 

4  high  schools,  62  parochial  schools,  2  nurseries  2 
houses  for  settlement  work,  a  Catholic  Children’s 
Home  Bureau.  They  have  32,000  pupils  under 
instruction. 

The  community  with  mother-house  at  Scranton 
numbers  438  Sisters  48  novices,  and  13  postulants, 
with  the  following  foundations  in  the  Archdioceses 
of  New  York  and  Oregon  City  and  the  Dioceses  of 
Altoona,  Boise  Harrisburg,  Pittsburgh,  Syracuse, 
Scranton  and  Seattle:  1  college,  6  academies,  14 
parochial  high  schools,  32  parochial  elementary 
schools  1  boys  industrial  school,  3  orphan  asylums, 

1  miTnt>  ,me»  \  day  nursery,  1  sodality  home. 

ihe  Rules  and  Constitutions  approved  in  1889 
received  the  “Decretum  laudis”  in  1913,  and  were 
finally  approved  by  the  Holy  See,  26  July,  1920. 
The  Diamond  Jubilee  of  the  Congregation  (10 
November,  1920),  was  publicly  celebrated  in  May, 


(’anon  Sante  Minganti,  Jiturgist;  Rev.  Eduardo 
Jietelh,  famous  Latinist  and  Giovanni  Gambetti, 
doctor  of  sociology. 

ioJn  19-2i  th^  diocese  contained  125,000  Catholics, 
123  parishes,  154  churches,  5  monasteries  and  1  con¬ 
vent  lor  men,  4  monasteries  and  18  convents  for 
women  with  246  Sisters,  236  secular  priests  28 
regulars  and  10  lay  brothers.  There  is  in  the 
diocese  1  diocesan  and  interdiocesan  seminary 
with  30  seminarians,  also  4  colleges  for  men  (154 
students),  17  for  women  (257  students).  The  fol- 
charitable  institutions  exist  in  the  diocese* 
10  hospitals,  5  asylums,  5  refuges  all  of  which  per¬ 
mit  the  ministry  of  priests.  Two  Catholic  papers 
are  printed  in  the  diocese. 


Immigrants,  Catholic  Care  of.  See  Ameri¬ 
canization. 

of  (Imolensis;  cf.  C.  E 
\II-692d),  in  Central  Italy,  suffragan  to  Bologna! 
Ihe  present  administrator  of  the  diocese  is  the 
Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Tnbbiolli,  b.  at  Cortona,  13 
December  1868,  ordained  28  June,  1891,  elected 
r  April  1913,  consecrated  at  Rome  4  May  follow- 
rng,  published  25  May,  1914.  During  the  World 
VV ar  60  priests  and  11  seminarians  joined  the  army. 

these  4  were  killed,  many  wounded  and  divers 
J'cre  decorated.  A  permanent  home  was  estab¬ 
lished  for  the  soldiers,  also  an  asylum  for  the  war 
orphans.  The  following  clergymen  of  note  have 
died  since  1910:  Francesco  Baldassari,  Bishop  of 
lmola,  distinguished  scholar  and  art  critic  in 
■November,  1912;  Rev.  Domenico  Selvatici,  well 
Known  theologian  and  man  of  letters;  Rev.  Marco 
Morelli,  writer  and  founder  of  the  Society  of  the 
Handmaids  of  the  Agonizing  Heart  of  Jesus;  Canon 
^uigi  Albcrtazzi,  writer  and  theologian;  Rev. 
viiovanm  Biondi,  a  zealous  and  saintly  pastor; 


Impediments,  Canonical  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-695b).— 
Matrimonial  impediments  can  be  abrogated, 
derogated  from,  or  dispensed  from  only  by  the 
Holy  bee,  or  by  inferiors  enjoying  that  power  by 
common  canon  law  or  special  Apostolic  indult.  Any 
custom  introducing  a  _  new  impediment— this  hap¬ 
pened,  for  instance,  in  the  case  of  disparity  of 
worship— -or  opposed  to  those  now  existing  is  repro¬ 
bated.  The  following  impediments  have  been  abol¬ 
ished  by  the  Code  of  Canon  Law :  (a)  consanguinity 
degree  of  the  collateral  line;  (b)  law¬ 
ful  affinity,  in  the  third  and  fourth  degree  of  the 
collateral  line;  (c)  unlawful  affinity  in  all  cases; 
and  (d)  public  honesty  or  decency  arising  from 
betrothal  or  valid  marriage.  Important  changes 
have  been  introduced  also  regarding  the  impedi- 
rnents  of  forbidden  times,  age,  adoption,  disparity 
ot  worship,  abduction,  spiritual  relationship  and 
crime.  Formerly  an  impediment  to  marriage  was 
called  public  or  occult,  according  as  there  was 
little  or  much  difficulty  in  proving  it;  but  now,  if 
it  can  be  proved  in  the  external  forum,  irrespective 
of  the  case  or  difficulty  of  doing  so,  it  is  considered 
public,  otherwise  it  is  occult. 

Some  matrimonial  impediments  are  of  the  minor 
grade,  others  of  the  major:  those  of  the  minor 
grade  are.  (a)  consanguinity  in  the  third  degree 
r  collateral  line;  (b)  affinity  in  the  second  degree 
of  the  collateral  line;  (c)  public  honesty  or  decency 

th(;1SeC??dJdegree;. maY  be  noted  in  passing 
that  the  Code  has  introduced  new  concepts  of 
afhmty  and  public  honesty,  the  former  now  arising 
only  from  any  valid  marriage,  while  the  latter  arises 
only  Rom  any  invalid  marriage,  or  from  notorious 
or  public  concubinage;  (d)  spiritual  relationship; 
(e)  crime  arising  from  adultery  with  a  promise  of, 
or  an  attempt  at,  marriage,  even  by  a  merely  civil 
contract,  with  the  associate  in  sin.  All  other  impe¬ 
diments  are  of  the  major  order.  The  distinction 
between  the  two  orders  of  impediments  is  a  matter 
of  importance  only  when  a  dispensation  (q.v.)  is 
being  sought. 

While  the  supreme  ecclesiastical  authorities  have 
the  exclusive  right  of  establishing  prohibitive  or 
diriment  impediments  for  baptized  persons,  by  way 
of  universal  or  particular  law,  bishops  may  forbid 
marriage  to  any  person  residing  in  their  territory 
and  to  their  own  subjects  while  away  from  their 
diocese,  but  they  can  do  so  only  in  a  particular 
case,  temporarily,  and  as  long  as  a  just  cause  lasts. 
A|S  examples  of  just  causes  canonists  cite  the  prob- 
able  exist  ence  of  a  hidden  impediment,  the  danger 
of  scandal,  the  fear  of  stirring  up  enmities.  °A 
bishop,  however,  can  only  forbid  the  marriage  under 
penalty  of  sin;  he  can  not  render  it  invalid,  unless 
he  has  been  specially  authorized  to  do  so  by  the 
Holy  See.  (Cf.  also  the  separate  articles  on  the 
different  impediments.) 

Ayrinhac, Marriage  Legislation  (New  York,  1919);  O’Don¬ 
nell,  Jmpedient  Impediments  in  Irish  Eccl.  Rec.,  Xfl  (1918), 


INCAPACITY 


394 


INDIA 


481-94;  Idem,  Diriment  Impediments  loc.  cit.,  XII  (1919), 
121-140*  Petrovits,  The  New  Church  Law  on  Matrimony 
^Philadelphia  1921)  pp.  67-108;  de  Smet,  De  sponsahbus  et 
matnmomo  (Bruges,  1920),  II;  Vlaminc  Prwlectwnes  juris 
matrimonii,  pars  iv  (1919),  and  for  dispensations  fiom  im¬ 
pediments,  op.  cit.,  pars  v  (1921). 

Incapacity,  a  vindicatory  punishment,  which  can 
be  inflicted  by  the  Holy  See  alone  on  the  faithtul, 
in  virtue  of  which  a  culprit  is  disqualified  from  re¬ 
ceiving  or  holding  an  ecclesiastical  office  or  benefice, 
or  from  enjoying  ecclesiastical  favors  not  exclu¬ 
sively  clerical,  or  from  obtaining  academic  degrees 
conferred  by  ecclesiastical  authority.  It  can  be  re¬ 
mitted  only  by  the  Holy  See,  except  under  the  cir- 
stances  in  which  an  ordinary  is  permitted  to  akso)ve 
in  occult  cases  from  censures  reserved  simply  to  the 
pope.  It  is  incurred  by  a  person  by  the  very  fact 
that  he  becomes  infamous  by  law;  or  by  one  who 
knowingly  consents  to  his  election  to  a  benefice  or 
office  in  which  a  laic  or  the  secular  power  has 
illegally  intervened;  or  who  usurps  an  ecclesiastical 
office  or  benefice  or  takes  possession  thereof  befoie 
showing  his  letters  of  confirmation  to  the  proper 
authority;  or  who  knowingly  accepts  a  benefice  or 
office  and  allows  himself  to  be  put  m  possession 
before  it  becomes  legally  vacant;  or  who,  being  a 
cleric,  usurps  or  retains  personally  or  by  another 
the  property  or  rights  of  the  Roman  Church ;  or  by 
anyone  who  presumes  to  convert  to  his  own  use  any 
ecclesiastical  property,  or  to  prevent  the  lawful 
holder  from  enjoying  its  fruits;  or  by  a  priest  gui  y 
of  solicitation.  The  penalty  is  to  be  imposed  on  a 
reverend  mother  or  any  of  her  subjects,  who induces 
any  member  of  the  community  to  conceal  the  truth 
when  she  is  questioned  by  the  visitor  or  who 
annoys  a  member  for  having  answered  the  visitor, 
and,  likewise,  on  a  reverend  mother  who  after  the 
visitation  transfers  a  member  of  the  community  to 
another  house  against  the  wish  of  the  visitor. 

Incardination  and  Excardination  (cf.  C.  E., 
VII-704) . — Every  cleric  must  be  attached  to  some 
diocese  or  religious  institute,  incardination  in  a 
pious  place  being  now  forbidden.  By  first  tonsure 
he  is  incardinaled  in  the  diocese  for  the  service  of 
which  he  has  been  promoted.  Letters  of  excardina¬ 
tion  and  incardination  are  invalid  unless  signed  by 
the  ordinaries  authorized  to  grant  them;  a  vicar 
general  requires  a  special  mandate  to  issue  them; 
so  does  a  vicar  capitular,  unless  the  see  has  been 
vacant  more  than  a  year;  and  even  then  he  re¬ 
quires  the  consent  of  the  chapter.  However,  it  a 
cleric  receives  a  residential  benefice  from  the  ordi¬ 
nary  of  another  diocese,  and  has  the  written  consent 
of  his  own  ordinary  either  to  accept  it  or  to  leave 
the  diocese  permanently,  he  is  thereby  lncardinated 
in  the  new  diocese.  A  cleric  is  excardinated  from 
his  diocese  by  perpetual  religious  profession  If  a 
religious  in  sacred  orders  has  thus  lost  his  diocese 
and  afterwards  in  virtue  of  an  indult  of  seculariza¬ 
tion  gives  up  the  religious  state  he  may  be  received 
by  a  bishop  unconditionally  or  on  trial  for  three 
years.  In  the  former  case  he  is  thereby  mcardinated ; 
in  the  latter  at  the  end  of  the  time  of  trial,  which 
the  bishop  may  extend,  but  not  beyond  another 
three  years,  if  he  has  been  dismissed  he  is  by  the 
very  fact  incardinated  in  the  diocese.  A  religious 
who  has  thus  left  his  order  or  institute  legitimately 
may  not  exercise  his  orders  until  he  has 
found  a  bishop  to  receive  him,  unless  the  Holy 
See  has  provided  otherwise,  but  this  prohibition 
does  not  now  bind  religious  who  have  made  only 
temporary  vows  and  who  have  been  seculanzed  or 
did  not  renew  their  vows— they  are  to  return  to 
their  own  diocese  and  are  to  be  received  by  their 
bishop.  This  right  of  the  bishop  to  receive,  on 


trial  a  former  religious,  even  one  who  has  been 

expelled,  is  an  innovation. 

Codex,  jur.  can.,  111-117. 

Incarnate  Word,  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  (cf. 
C.  E.,  VII-705c) . — The  Constitutions  of  the  congre¬ 
gation  with  mother-house  at  San  Antonio,  Texas, 
received  the  decree  of  final  approbation  of  the  Holy 
See,  in  April,  1910.  Mother  M.  Alphonse  was  then 
the  superior  general,  and  in  1912  was  re-elected 
for  another  period  of  six  years.  In  1918  she  was 
succeeded  by  Mother  Mary  John,  the  present 
superior  general,  who  was  elected  at  the  General 
Chapter  of  the  Congregation  held  that  year. 
Mother  Mary  John  had  been  the  assistant  general 
since  1906,  and  for  thirteen  years  previous  had  been 
mistress  of  novices.  The  congregation  has  grown 
rapidly  as  evidenced  by  the  number  of  its  institu¬ 
tions  and  its  personnel.  Since  1910,  21  new  foun¬ 
dations  have  been  made.  At  present,  the  institution 
numbers  700  members,  and  has  care  of  69  houses, 
namely  1  college,  18  academies,  31  schools,  5  orphan¬ 
ages,  i2  hospitals,  and  2  homes  for  the  aged.  There 
are  4940  students  in  actual  attendance  at  the  educa¬ 
tional  institutions  of  the  congregation;  400  orphan 
children  instructed  and  cared  for;  a  total  yearly 
average  of  6450  sick  persons  in  the  aforesaid  hos¬ 
pitals;  and  110  inmates  of  the  homes  for  the  aged. 
These  foundations  are  distributed  throughout  the 
States  of  Texas,  Missouri,  Oklahoma,  Louisiana, 
and  the  Republic  of  Mexico. 

Incarnate  Word  and  Blessed  Sacrament,  Order 
of  the  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-706a). — The  houses  of  this 
order  are  independent  of  one  another.  There  are 
in  the  United  States  154  Sisters,  10  novices,  and 
14  postulants  in  charge  of  4  academies  and  7 
schools.  These  are  all  in  the  State  of  Texas. 


Incest  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-717). — Lay  persons  who 
have  been  legally  declared  guilty  of  this  crime  are 
thereby  infamous;  if  the  culprits  are  clerics  in 
minor  orders  they  may  be  expelled  from  the  clerical 
state,  while  those  in  major  orders  may  be  deprived 
of  their  benefices  and  deposed. 

India  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-722d),  consisting  of  the 
whole  Indian  peninsula  and  certain  countries  which 
are  beyond  that  area,  and  which  are  in  close  rela¬ 
tion  with  India.  Including  only  the  native  states,  the 
area  is  about  1,802,629  sq.  miles.  According  to  the 
census  of  1921  the  population  was  319,075,132,  an  in¬ 
crease  of  1.2%  since  1911.  Of  this  164,056,191  were 
males  and  155,018,941  were  females.  The  ratio  of 
births  in  British  India  per  thousand  of  the  population 
under  registration  in  1919  was  30.24;  of  deaths,  35.87. 
Th4  registered  deaths  in  1919  numbered  8,554,178, 
of  which  cholera  accounted  for  578,426;  plague 
74,284;  dysentery  and  diarrhoea  291,643.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  coolie  emigrants  from  India  in  1917-18  was 
869.  The  emigration  of  unskilled  labor  has  been 
prohibited.  The  only  colony  in  which  indentured 
emigration  still  prevails  is  Trinidad,  the  system 
for  various  reasons  having  almost  come  to  an  end. 
There  has  been  discussion  of  assisted  emigration. 
The  largest  cities  in  India,  with  their  respective 
populations,  are:  Calcutta  1,222,313;  Bombay  979,- 
445;  Madras  518,660;  Hyderabad  500,623;  Rangoon 
293,316;  Lucknow  259,798. 

Education. — In  1910  a  Department  of  Education 
was  established  in  the  Government  of  India  with 
an  office  of  its  own  and  a  member  to  represent  it 
in  the  Executive  Council.  Thanks  to  the  free  in¬ 
struction  imparted  in  the  monasteries  and  the 
absence  of  the  pardah  system  which  hampers  the 
education  of  females  in  other  parts  of  India,  Burma 


INDIA 


395 


INDIA 


has  222  literate  persons  to  each  1000  of  the  popula¬ 
tion.  In  the  Central  Provinces  and  Berar  the  pro¬ 
portion  ranges  from  only  6  per  thousand  in  the 
Chota  Valley  to  54  in  the  Nerbudda  Valley.  Ben¬ 
gal’s  rate  is  77  and  Madras’s  75.  Education  is 
more  widely  diffused  in  British  provinces  than  in 
native  states.  Of  the  different  religious  communi¬ 
ties,  excluding  the  Brahmans  and  Aryas,  the  Parsis 
rank  the  highest  with  711  literates  per  1000.  The 
total  number  of  literate  persons  has  risen  during 
the  last  decade  from  15,700,000  to  18,600,000,  or 
18%.  In  1918-19  there  were  in  India  for  males, 
134  arts  colleges,  students  49,815;  1803  high  schools, 
students  584,270;  129,805  primary  schools,  students 
4,821,611;  for  females,  12  arts  colleges,  students 
915;  183  high  schools,  students  29,980;  and  20,468 
Primary  schools,  students  1,119,871.  The  total  ex¬ 
penditure  from  public  funds  was  71,726,000  rupees 
(1  rupee=$0.324) ;  from  fees  and  other  sources  58,- 
137,000  rupees;  total  129,863,000  rupees.  There  are 
eight  universities,  at  Patna,  Calcutta,  Madras,  Bom¬ 
bay,  Allahabad,  the  Punjab,  and  Mysore,  all  or¬ 
ganized  on  the  examining  body  system,  having 
affiliated  to  them  a  large  number  of  teaching  col¬ 
leges.  A  Hindu  University  for  students  from  all 
India  has  been  established  at  Benares.  In  1922 
the  University  of  Visva-bharati  Parishat  at  Shan- 
tinketan,  Bengal,  was  founded  by  Sir  Rabindranath 
Tagore.  Its  purpose  is  to  bring  together  the  scat¬ 
tered  cultures  of  the  East  and  to  provide  for  the 
exchange  of  knowledge  between  the  East  and  the 
V  est.  In  1917  the  commission  appointed  to  inquire 
into  the  conditions  and  prospects  of  the  University 
of  Calcutta  made  drastic  recommendations  in  regard 
to  the  position  of  the  Government  in  the  matter  of 
education.  Thq  one  every  serious  defect  of  the  edu¬ 
cational  system  is  that,  in  conformity  with  the 
neutrality  of  the  State  in  all  matters  of  religion, 
it  has  addressed  itself  almost  exclusively  to  the 
intellectual  development  of  the  young  Indian.  The 
result  is  that,  whilst  Western  knowledge  necessarily 
shook  the  foundations  of  his  old  beliefs,  it  substi¬ 
tuted  no  wholesome  restraints  for  those  that  it 
loosened.  Nor  was  any  attempt  made  to  bring  his 
Western  education  into  direct  relation  with  his 
home  life,  which  continued  to  move  on  an  alto¬ 
gether  different  plane,  so  that  his  home  influences 
either  insensibly  defeated  the  educational  purpose 
in  the  shaping  of  character,  or  else  he  cast  them 
off  prematurely  without  having  anything  to  put  in 
their  place.  The  same  conditions  were  discussed 
in  the  report  of  the  Industrial  Commission  (1919), 
which  summed  up  its  findings  as  follows:  “The 
Commission  finds  that  India  is  a  country  rich  in 
raw  materials  and  in  industrial  possibilities,  but 
poor  in  manufacturing  accomplishments.  Her  labor 
is  inefficient,  but  for  this  reason  capable  of  vast 
improvement.  The  non-existence  of  a  suitable  edu¬ 
cation  to  qualify  the  Indians  for  posts  requiring 
industrial  or  technical  knowledge  was  met  by  the 
importation  of  men  from  Europe,  who  supervised 
and  trained  illiterate  Indian  labor  in  the  mills.” 
The  educational  system  may  be  judged  from  the 
fact  that  while  the  expenditure  of  the  United  States 
on  education  per  head  is  $4.00  and  that  of  England 
and  Wales,  $3.20,  India  is  allowed  only  2V2  cents. 
With  the  introduction  of  the  new  constitution  in 
1921  education,  with  the  exception  of  the  univer¬ 
sities  becomes  a  provincial  subject. 

Economics. — About  72%  of  the  population  or 
226,000,000  people  in  India  are  engaged  in  agri¬ 
culture.  The  total  acreage  under  the  chief  crops 
and  the  production  in  1919-20  was:  wheat,  29,976,000 
acres,  10,092,000  tons;  rice,  78,394,000  acres,  34,199,- 
000  tons;  cotton,  23,063,000  acres,  5,845,000  bales; 


i'ror  no/?21’000  a<Ari^>  8,428,000  bales;  sugar  cane, 
2,69o,000  acres,  2,989,000  tons.  During  1919-20  the 
total  area  irrigated  by  all  classes  of  works  in  India, 
excluding  the  areas  irrigated  in  the  Indian  states, 
amounted  to  over  28,000,000  acres.  Thirteen  per 
cent  of  the  cropped  area  was  irrigated  by  Govern¬ 
ment  irrigation  works  and  the  estimated  value  of 
the  crops  so  irrigated  amounted  to  nearly  2!4 
times  the  total  capital  expended  on  the  works* 

ioi  nnn0a  undei\tea  Packed  in  1920-21  was  about 
001,000  acres,  and  the  production  was  about  377,055  - 
600  pounds.  The  cultivation  of  opium,  which  is  a 
government  monopoly,  has  diminished  as  a  result 

imoag^eerilent  with  China  t0  restrict  the  output. 
-111.,,1918-1?  the£e  were  in  British  India,  235  cotton 
mills  with  267,669  persons  employed  daily;  575 
rice  mills  with  47,724  persons  employed;  1405* cotton 
rfo?aning’  and  Pressing  mills  and  factories 
100,981  Persons-  On  31  March,  1919,  there  were 
2789  joint  stock  companies  incorporated  in  India 
under  the  India  Companies  Act  of  1913,  and  the 
Mysore  Companies  Regulation  III  of  1895  (re- 
pealed  in  1917),  and  in  operation  with  a  capital 
of  £71,076,000.  The  total  value  of  the  minerals 
produced  in  British  India  and  the  Indian  states 
during  1918,  was  £15,771,085;  of  this,  £6,017,089 
came  from  coal,  £2,060,152  from  gold,  £1,131,904 
irom  petroleum.  In  1919  the  production  of  petro¬ 
leum  was  305,651,816  gallons;  of  coal,  22,628  037 
tons.  In  1918  practically  all  the  coal  trade  was 
undei  the  Coal  Controller.  In  the  same  year  the 
average  number  of  persons  working  in  or  about 

oA?  ™mes,  reSulated  by  the  Indian  Mines  Act  was 
237,738,  of  whom  150,064  worked  underground.  The 

C?I®c^eiCe  lncda  1920  included  imports  valued 
at  $674,819,900,  and  exports  valued  at  $1,060,986,599 
iSd!?^  g?ods>  $1  >003,308,500,  foreign  goods,  $57,- 
677  800),  thus  leaving  a  balance  of  $386,166,600  in 
India’s  favor. 

Finance.  The  total  revenue  in  the  fiscal  year 

inlo'oi1!  1was  £134,825,900;  the  total  expenditure 
£132,311,100.  In  addition  there  was  an  estimated 
capital  expenditure  on  State  railways  and  irrigation 
woiks  of  £13,852,100  and  £735,000  initial  expendi¬ 
ture  on  the  new  capital  at  Delhi.  In  1917-18  India’s 
contribution  to  the  war  was  £100,000,000,  which  was 
met  partly  by  making  over  to  the  British  Govern¬ 
ment  the  proceeds  of  the  Indian  war  loans  raised 
m  1917  and  1918,  and  partly  by  taking  over  a 
portion  of  the  British  war  debt. 

Defence.— At  the  outbreak  of  the  World  War 
the  Indian  Army  consisted  of  76,953  British  troops 
and  239,561  native  troops.  Up  to  the  date  of  the 
armistice,  1,161,789  troops  were  recruited  during 
the  war.  The  Defence  Act,  passed  in  1917,  was 
abandoned  in  1920  as  a  result  of  the  Esher  report  j 
the  army  was  reorganized  in  four  commands  instead 
of  two  and  in  place  of  compulsory  service  for  Euro¬ 
pean  British  subjects,  an  Auxiliary  Force  was  raised 
on  a  voluntary  basis. 

Religions— The  following  statistics  are  taken 
from  the  India  Year  Book  (1921) :  Hindus,  217,- 
586,892;  Brahmans,  217,337,943;  Aryas,  243,445; 
Brahmos,  5504;  Sikhs,  3,014,466;  Jains,  1,248,182; 
Buddhists,  10,721,453;  Zoroastrians  (Parsis),  100,096; 
Mussulmans,  66,647,299;  Christians,  3,876,203;  Jews, 
20,980;  Animists,  10,295,168;  minor  religions  and 
religion  not  returned,  37,101;  not  enumerated  by 
religion,  1,608,556. 

Catholic  troops  are  allowed  the  ministrations  of 
Catholic  priests,  but  the  expenditure  is  very  small, 
in  that  respect,  amounting  only  to  Rs.  430,923  per 
annum  (the  rupee  varies  from  30  to  32  cents).  An 
instructive  commentary  on  this  part  of  the  subject 
is  furnished  by  the  figures  of  expenditure  in  the 


INDIA 


396 


INDIA 


Bombay  presidency.  The  Church  of  England  costs 
Rs.  296,734;  the -Church  of  Scotland  Rs.  45,881; 
while  the  Catholic  Church  receives  only  Rs.  35,252. 


CHRISTIANS 


Europeans 

Eurasians 

Natives 

T  otal 

Church  of  England.... 

Presbyterians  . 

Baptists  . 

]V[  ('  t  h  or]  i  st.s  . 

125,392 

15,150 

2816 

6904 

736 

1469 

40,119 

7 

1233 

34,553 

1911 

2239 

2573 

289 

189 

57,024 

6 

872 

332,807 

164,069 

332,171 

162,367 

134,240 

216,842 

1,393,720 

628,291 

15,849 

492,752 

181,130 

337,226 

171,844 

135,265 

218,500 

1,490,863 

728,304 

17,954 

Congregationalists  . 

Latin  Catholics  . 

Syrians  . 

Sect  not  returned . 

In  some  respects,  it  is  true,  the  Government 
has  departed  from  a  strict  neutrality,  as  in  the  case 
of  giving  a  guaranteed  number  of  posts  in  Govern¬ 
ment  service  to  Moslems.  The  Mohammedans 
were  given  special  representation  with  separate  elec¬ 
torates  in  1909,  and  regard  these  as  their  only  ade¬ 
quate  safeguards.  The  Hindus’  acquiescence  was 
embodied  in  an  agreement  between  the  political 
leaders  of  the  two  communities.  To  be  fair  to  the 
Sikhs,  a  distinct  and  important  people,  supplying 
a  valuable  element  to  the  British  army,  but  forming 
a  minority  and  virtually  unrepresented,  the 
Montagu-Chelmsford  report  recommended  one  con¬ 
stituency.  - 

The  Government  and  the  People. —  there  has 
arisen  in  India  of  late  years  a  wave  of  national 
aspiration,  which  is  by  some  viewed  with  alarm, 
and  by  others  with  indifference.  It  originated  or 
first  manifested  itself  by  the  formation  of  the 
Indian  National  Congress  in  1886,  which  began  to 
hold  annual  meetings  wherein  “to  give  voice  to  our 
aspirations  and  to  formulate  our  wants”  (Gokhale 
in  1905).  In  1904  a  party-protest  against  the  parti¬ 
tion  of  Bengal  was  followed  by  an  attempt  to  force 
the  hand  of  the  Government  by  the  boycott  of 
imported  goods  in  favor  of  Indian  manufactures 
(Lwadeshi  movement),  which  in  turn  developed 
into  an  effort  after  “national  revival.”  This  move¬ 
ment  caused  a  certain  amount  of  seditious  writ¬ 
ing,  systematic  spread  of  disaffection  among  the 
masses  and  even  resort  to  antiarchistic  methods 
such  as  the  use  of  bombs,  etc.  Outside  of  Bengal 
attempts  to  quell  the  disaffection  by  the  ordinary 
law  were  successful,  and  though  recourse  was  had 
to  the  deportation  of  persons  without  reason  as¬ 
signed  to  it  under  an  Act  of  1818,  special  Acts  had 
to  be  passed  to  meet  the  situation,  viz : — an  Explo¬ 
sives  Act,  a  Prevention  of  Seditious  Meeting  Act, 
etc.  Concurrently  with  these,  steps  were  taken  to 
extend  representative  institutions.  In  1907  a  Hindu 
and  a  Mohammedan  were  appointed  to  the  Secre¬ 
tary  of  State’s  Council,  and  in  1909  a  Hindu  was 
appointed  to  the  Viceroy’s  Council.  The  legislative 
Councils  were  reconstituted  and  given  wider  powers 
of  discussion.  More  trouble  occurred  in  September, 
1914,  when  a  riot  at  Budge-Budge  among  a  number 
of  Sikh  emigrants  returned  by  unwilling  Canada, 
revealed  the  wide  influence  of  the  “Ghadir”  con¬ 
spiracy  and  its  German  affiliations.  That  plot  had 
little  influence  on  the  general  attitude  of  India  to 
the  Great  European  War.  The  Indian  Expedi¬ 
tionary  Forces,  including  the  British  garrisons  and 
native  troops  served  in  good  stead  during  the  critical 
winter  of  1914-15.  Again,  the  brilliant  victory  of 
Armageddon  in  Palestine  was  largely  the  triumph 
of  Indian  troops.  For  the  first  time  Indians  were 
admitted  into  the  innermost  councils  of  the  Empire 


and  sat  at  the  war  conferences  in  London.  How¬ 
ever,  India  was  at  no  time  included  in  the  theatre 
of  war  except  when  the  “Emden”  bombarded 
Madras,  though  shipping  off  Bombay  was  severely 
affected  by  mines  laid  by  the  enemy. 

In  1917  Mr.  Montagu,  who  succeeded  Mr.  Cham¬ 
berlain  as  Secretary  of  State,  visited  India  with 
the  purpose  of  determining  what  steps  should  be 
taken  in  the  direction  of  establishing  government 
responsible  to  the  peoples  of  various  provinces. 
The  result  was  shown  in  a  joint  scheme  of  reform 
evolved,  for  the  Secretary  of  State,  Mr.  Montagu, 
and  the  Viceroy,  Lord  Chelmsford,  aimed  at  carry¬ 
ing  into  effect  the  announcement  made  in  Parlia¬ 
ment  20  August,  1917,  that  “the  policy  of  His 
Majesty’s  government  is  that  of  the  increasing 
association  of  the  Indians  in  every  branch  of  the 
administration  and  the  gradual  development  of  self- 
governing  institutions  with  a  view  to  the  progressive 
realization  of  responsible  government  in  India  as 
an  integral  part  of  the  Empire.”  Shortly  after  this 
•report  there  was  issued  another  by  the  Special 
Committee  of  Inquiry  into  seditious  crime  in  India, 
over  which  Mr.  Justice  Rowlatt  presided.  The 
Committee  recommended  that  the  Government  of 
India  should  arm  itself  with  special  powers  to  deal 
with  such  crime,  to  come  into  operation  when  it 
attained  proportions  dangerous  to  public  safety. 
The  result  was  the  Rowlatt  Act  (1919)  introduced 
into  the  Legislature  and  carried  against  the  solid 
opposition  of  the  unofficial  members.  This  was  the 
signal  for  violent  agitation  throughout  the  country. 
Riots  occurred  at  Calcutta,  Delhi,  and  Amritsar, 
the  sacred  city  of  the  Sikhs.  At  Bombay  the  Pas¬ 
sive  Resistance  League  (Satyagraha)  was  formed 
under  the  leadership  of  Mahatma  Ghandi,  who  had 
successfully  championed  the  cause  of  Indian 
laborers  in  South  Africa. 

In  the  meantime  the  Montagu-Chelmsford  report 
was  bearing  fruit.  It  advocated  immediate  estab¬ 
lishment  of  responsible  government  in  the  prtiv- 
inces,  through  committing  certain  branches  of  the 
administration  to  Indian  Ministers  chosen  from  the 
Legislative  Councils  and  the  eventual  liberalization 
of  the  government  of  India.  A  Bill  framed  on  the 
lines  of  this  report  passed  both  Houses  of  Parlia¬ 
ment  and  received  the  Royal  Assent  in  December, 
1919.  This  Government  of  India  Act  (1919)  makes 
several  important  constitutional  changes  more  par¬ 
ticularly  in  the  government  of  the  provinces.  The 
various  functions  of  government  are  classified  as 
Central  and  Provincial  subjects,  the  latter  being 
practically  definitely  committed  to  the  Provincial 
Governments,  which  for  purposes  of  convenience, 
Central  subjects,  such  as  the  collection  of  income 
tax,  are  to  be  dealt  with  by  the  Provincial  Govern¬ 
ment  at  the  discretion  of  the  Central  Government. 
The  inauguration  of  the  new  Government,  met 
with  determined  opposition  from  the  Nationalists 
under  the  leadership  of  Mahatma  Ghandi,  anti- 
English  agitator  and  disciple  of  Tolstoy.  At  the 
Indian  National  Congress  held  8  September,  1920, 
Ghandi’s  program  of  passive  resistance  to  the  Brit¬ 
ish  included  gradual  withdrawal  of  Indian  children 
from  British  schools  and  colleges,  gradual  boycott 
of  British  courts  and  the  establishment  of  private 
arbitration  courts  for  the  settlement  of  industrial 
disputes,  refusal  to  serve  in  the  Government 
service,  or  army,  or  in  any  of  the  Reformed  Coun¬ 
cils,  and  boycott  of  British  goods.  Despite  all 
obstacles,  the  new  Government  was  organized,  ap¬ 
pointment  of  governors  made  in  August,  1921,  and 
Sir  William  Meyer  became  first  High  Commissioner 
of  India.  On  8  February,  1921,  the  Parliament  or 
Advisory  Assembly  was  opened  at  Delhi  by  the 


INDIA 


397 


INDIA 


Duke  of  Connaught..  The  visit  of  the  Prince  of 
Wales  to  India  in  1922  was  the  occasion  of  rioting 
in  Bombay  which  drew  the  attention  of  the  whole 
world  to  conditions  in  that  country  and  to  the 
extensi\  e  hatred  of  British  rule.  Ghandi  was 
arrested  on  18  March,  1922,  sentenced  to  six  year’s 
imprisonment.  The  war  between  India  and 
Afghanistan  was  ended  with  the  treaty  of  peace 
signed  on  8  August,  1920.  It  began  in  1919  with  the 
declaration  of  Amanullah  of  Afghanistan  to  free 
India  from  the  horrors  of  revolution  and  from  the 
tyranny  of  British  rule.  Despite  the  treaty,  the 
W  azira  and  Mnhsuds,  two  frontier  tribes,  renewed 
their  attacks  in  October,  1920,  and  since  that  time 
desultory  fighting  has  ensued.  The  war  cost  India 
about  £14,736,000. 

Present  Political  Organization. — India  is  at 
present  divided  into  British  territory  and  native 
states.  British  India  has  eight  large  provinces  and 
six  lesser  charges,  each  of  which  is  termed  a  local 
government.  The  eight  major  provinces  are  the 
Presidencies  of  Madras,  Bombay,  and  Bengal;  the 
Lieutenant-governorships  of  the  United  Provinces, 
the  Punjab,  Burma,  and  Mehar;  and  the  Chief 
Commissionerships  of  the  Central  Provinces.  The 
-  minor  provinces  are  Assam,  the  North-West  Fron¬ 
tier  Province,  Baluchistan,  Coorg,  Ajmer,  Merwara, 
and  the  Andaman  Islands.  The  status  and  area  of 
these  provinces  have  been  varied  from  time  to  time 
to  meet  the  changed  conditions  of  the  day,  the 
final  adjustment  being  made  in  1911  when  the  newly 
created  province  of  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam  dis¬ 
appeared,  and  Bengal  -was  divided  into  the  Presi¬ 
dency  of  Bengal,  and  the  Lieutenant-Governorship 
of  Behar  and  Orissa,  and  the  Chief  Commissioner- 
ship  of  Assam,  wffiilst  the  Government  seat  was 
moved  from  Calcutta  to  Delhi  and  the  city  of 
Delhi  with  ar  enclave  of  territory  was  taken  under 
the  direct  administration  of  the  Government  of 
India.  The  native  states  vary  in  size  from  petty 
states  at  Lawa  in  Rajputana  with  an  area  of  19 
square  miles  to  states  like  Hyderabad  as  large  as 
Italy  with  a  population  of  13,000,000.  They  include 
the  inhospitable  regions  of  Western  Rajputana, 
Baroda,  Mysore,  and  Kashmir.  The  control  which 
the  Supreme  Government  exercises  over  the  Indian 
States  varies  considerably  in  degree,  but  they  are 
all  governed  by  Indian  princes,  ministers,  or  coun¬ 
cils.  The  princes  have  no  right  to  make  war  or 
peace,  or  to  send  ambassadors  to  each  other  or  to 
external  States;  they  are  not  permitted  to  main¬ 
tain  a  military  force  above  a  certain  specified 
limit;  no  European  is  allowed  to  reside  in  their 
courts  without  special  sanction;  and  the  Supreme 
Government  can  exercise  control  in  case  of  mis- 
government.  Within  this  limit  the  more  important 
princes  are  autonomous  in  their  own  territories. 
Some  are  required  to  pay  tribute.  They  have 
freedom  of  trade  with  British  India,  except  in  rare 
cases  and  levy  their  own  customs.  The  political 
powers  of  the  British  Government  are  exercised 
through  the  Political  officers  who  reside  in  the 
States.  The  Governor-General  in  Council  retains 
certain  powers  of  control  over  the  Provincial  Gov¬ 
ernments,  where  it  is  necessary  to  safeguard  Central 
subjects  or  to  decide  questions  where  two  or  more 
provinces  are  concerned.  Certain  sources  of  revenue 
are  to  be  definitely  allocated  to  the  provinces  which 
will  be  required  to  contribute  to  the  Central  Gov¬ 
ernment  certain  annual  sums  which  are  to  be  the 
first  charge  on  their  revenues.  The  new  Provincial 
Governments,  consisting  of  an  Executive  Council 
and  a  Legislative  Council,  are  to  be  based  on  a 
dualized  form  of  government.  Under  this  plan 
official  acts  will  be  carried  out  by  the  Governor-in- 


Council,  while  on  the  popular  side  the  Government 
will  consist  of  the  Governor  and  Ministers  who  are 
to  be  elected  members  of  the  Legislative  Council, 
these  ministers  will  have  charge  of  certain  depart- 
ments  of  Government,  known  as  “transferred  sub¬ 
jects  while  others,  the  “reserved  subjects,”  are  to 
be  administered  by  the  Governor-in-Council  The 
Governor’s  Executive  Council  must  include  a  mem¬ 
ber  qualified  by  twelve  years’  public  service.  The 
Legislative  Council,  meeting  for  three  years  con¬ 
tains  not  more  than  20  per  cent  of  official  members 
and  at  least  70  per  cent  elected  members  and 
exercises  general  financial  control.  The  provinces 
are  usually  formed  in  divisions  under  Commis- 
sioners  and  then  divided  into  districts,  at  the  head 
of  which  is  an  executive  officer,  responsible  to  the 
governor  of  the  province.  The  central  administra- 
tion  of  India  is  entrusted  to  a  High  Commissioner 
and  a  Secretary  of  State,  assisted  by  a  Council’ 
of  not  less  than  eight  and  not  more  than  twelve 
members,  appointed  for  five  years  by  the  Secretary 
of  State.  At  least  half  must  have  resided  in 
°r  ^en  years-  dhe  Under-Secretaryship  is 
l  1  b3fLord  Smha  of  Raipur,  the  first  Indian  to 
nold  office.  The  supreme  executive  authority  is 
vested  in  the  Governor-General  in  Council,  or 
Viceroy,  appointed  by  the  English  Crown.  There  is 
an  Indian  Legislature  consisting  of  the  Governor- 
General  and  two  Chambers,  the  Council  of  State 
and  the  Legislative  Assembly.  The  Council  of  State 
consists  of  60  members  (33  elected,  27  nominated 
by  the  Governor-General).  The  Legislative  Assem¬ 
bly  consists  of  142  members,  40  nominated  by  the 
Governor  and  102  elected,  and  is  presided  over  by 
a  President  appointed  by  the  Governor-General. 

I  his  legislature  has  power,  subject  to  restrictions, 
to  make  laws  for  all  persons  within  India  and  the 
Native  States.  The  salary  of  the  Secretary  of  State 
and  the  cost  of  the  India  Office  for  other  than 
agency  services,  may  now  be  borne  by  the  British 
and  not  as  formerly,  by  the  Indian  Exchequer. 
After  ten  years’  trial  a  committee  will  go  out  to 
India  and  advise  on  the  success  of  the  experiment. 
If  its  report  is  favorable  the  progress  will  go  on 
until  further  responsible  government  is  established, 
and  the  transitional  system  of  dualism  is  superseded 
by  a  unified  popular  administration.  The  success 
of  these  reforms  depends  largely  on  the  attitude 
of  the  native  intellectual  leaders.  The  task  of  the 
government  is  that  of  educating  the  people  to 
autonomy  without  sharpening  religious  jealousies. 

The  Church  in  India.— There  are  (1921)  3,000,- 
000  Catholics  in  India,  speaking  more  than  two  hun¬ 
dred  different  languages  and  five  hundred  dialects. 
These  are  ministered  to  by  priests  from  thirteen 
religious  orders  and  foreign  mission  societies,  by 
Brothers  from  twelve  orders  and  congregations,  and 
by  Sisters  from  sixty-four  orders  and  societies.  The 
national  spirit  now  awakened  in  India  is  in  one 
way  detrimental  to  the  success  of  the  missionaries, 
who  are  looked  upon  as  foreigners  and  share  in  the 
hostility  shown  towards  everything  not  purely 
Indian.  The  different  pagan  religions  are  united 
against  the  Church,  even  certain  Christians  are  in¬ 
fluenced  by  the  Buddhist  leaders  and  recognize  in 
the  Church  only  a  vague  authority.  On  the  other 
hand  the  unrest  is  forcing  Catholics  to  better 
organization,  and  in  causing  the  crumbling  of  the 
Hindu  caste  system  is  doing  away  with  a  hitherto 
impregnable  barrier  to  India’s  evangelization.  The 
future  of  the  Church  in  this  country  will  be  in  the 
hands  of  the  native  priests,  the  training  of  whom 
is  one  of  the  chief  tasks  of  the  foreign  missionaries. 
To  that  end  there  are  26  preparatory  and  26  theo¬ 
logical  seminaries  for  native  secular  priests,  10 


INDIA 


398 


INDIANA 


novitiates  and  seminaries  for  natives  aspiring  to 
become  religious.  The  native  clergy  number  1500 
and  are  already  in  charge  of  three  dioceses.  The 
appointment  of  Mgr.  Francis  Vazapilly,  the  first 
purely  native  bishop,  as  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Trichur, 
is  the  first  step  in  the  formation  of  a  native 
hierarchy,  the  establishment  of  which  was  promised 
to  India  by  Benedict  XV.  In  spite  of  divergent 
opinions  as  to  the  missions  in  India,  statistics  prove 
that  they  are  by  no  means  at  a  standstill,  and 
that  the  rate  of  missionary  progress  has  increased 
enormously  in  recent  years.  The  average  number 
of  yearly  conversions  is  14,000,  and  the  chief  means 
of  apostolate  are  educational  and  social  service 
work.  There  are  28  colleges  for  boys,  2  for  girls,  90 
orphanages  for  boys  and  119  for  girls,  and  100 
foundling  asylums.  With  the  authorization  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  children  of  un¬ 
believers  are  admitted  to  the  schools  and  colleges, 
thus  procuring  for  Catholics  a  social  influence  other¬ 
wise  unattainable  and  introducing  their  doctrines 
into  circles  where  they  destroy  prejudices  and  make 
converts,  even  amongst  the  Brahmins.  In  fact,  non- 
Christians  form  the  major  portion  of  the  students 
in  these  schools  and  colleges,  due  to  the  poverty 
of  the  Catholics.  Educational  leagues  have  been 
formed  to  help  Catholic  students,  notably  that  of 
Bengal,  which  in  six  years  spent  107,567  rupees  for 
the  education  of  843  students. 

The  missionary  priests  are  greatly  aided  in  their 
work  by  the  medical  missionaries,  whose  work  in 
India  is  the  most  highly  developed  of  Catholic 
foreign  missionary  medical  work  in  the  world.  Yet 
there  are  only  one  foreign  male  doctor,  four  foreign 
women  doctors,  and  200  native  Catholic  women 
doctors.  There  are  many  missionary  Sisters,  how¬ 
ever,  engaged  as  nurses  in  the  hospitals  and  dis¬ 
pensaries.  Women  doctors  are  essential  in  India, 
and  a  movement  in  their  favor  has  been  inaugurated 
by  Dr.  Margaret  Lamont,  and  the  first  contribution 
of  Americans  to  the  work  will  be  in  behalf  of  the 
medical  apostolate.  The  Catholic  press  established 
by  the  missionaries  in  this  country  is  well  organized. 
In  1912  there  were  6  establishments  and  2  have 
since  been  added.  From  1919-20,  400,000  pamphlets 
and  about  300  works  in  one  or  several  volumes  were 
published,  many  of  them  translations  into  Annamite 
and  other  native  tongues. 

The  most  significant  event  from  a  Catholic  point 
of  view  that  has  recently  taken  place  in  India  was 
the  Marian  Congress  held  in  Madras,  January,  1921, 
its  object  being  the  conversion  of  India  and  the 
Orient.  It  was  the  first  Marian  Congress  ever  held 
on  the  continent  of  Asia.  A  hall  was  especially 
built  for  the  occasion,  and  it  was  crowded  with 
12,000  people  of  many  races.  The  Apostolic  Dele¬ 
gate,  Mgr.  Pisani,  presided,  surrounded  by  thirty 
bishops  and  about  three  hundred  priests.  It  is  esti¬ 
mated  tliat  50,000  Catholics  participated  in  this 
notable  demonstration  of  love  for  the  Mother  of 
God,  which  gave  a  new  impetus  to  religion.  In 
November,  1921,  the  golden  jubilee  of  St.  Joseph’s 
Cathedral  at  Allahabad  was  celebrated.  The  Dele¬ 
gate  Apostolic  again  presided,  assisted  by  four 
bishops,  Father  Albert,  the  Provincial  of  the  Eng¬ 
lish  Province  of  the  Capuchin  Order  and  represen¬ 
tatives  from  all  the  Capuchin  missions  of  Northern 
India.  Protestant  missionaries  are  active  in  India, 
having  125  societies,  50  of  which  are  from  the 
United  States,  chiefly  Baptists.  The  white  mis¬ 
sionary  evangelists  number  500,  the  native  evan¬ 
gelists  1500,  and  native  catechists  about  7000.  There 
are  100,000  Protestant  educators,  65,000  pupils  m 
the  colleges  and  high  schools,  200,000  grade  pupils, 
and  a  Protestant  population  of  2,000,000. 


Indiana  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-738b). — The  area  of 
Indiana  is  36,453  sq.  miles  or  23,167,560  acres,  which 
places  it  thirty-seventh  among  the  states  of  the 
Union.  In  1920  the  population  was  returned  as 
2,930,544. 

It  now  ranks  seventh  in  the  production  of  wheat 
and  fifth  in  that  of  corn  and  oats.  In  1919  it  pro¬ 
duced  46,020,000  bushels  of  wheat  from  2,886,000 
acres;  60,225,000  bushels  of  oats  from  1,825,000  acres; 
175,750,000  bushels  of  potatoes  from  100,000  acres; 
60,000,000  tons  of  hay  from  50,000  acres,  besides 
an  important  yield  of  other  crops  such  as  tomatoes, 
clover,  tobacco,  peas,  onions,  clover-seed,  butter,- 
cheese,  poultry,  eggs,  and  apples.  The  assessed 
valuation  of  its  farms  is  $1,089,135,238.  In  1917 
its  total  taxable  property  equalled  $2,305,392,201.  In 
the  same  year  there  were  31,000  miles  of  gravel 
and  macadamized  roads,  of  steam  railroads  7475 
miles  and  2463  miles  of  electric  interurban  roads. 

In  1919  there  were  7918  factories  representing  an 
investment  of  $1,335,851,000  with  277,600  wage 
earners.  In  1918  the  bituminous  coal  output  was 
28,244,498  tons;  its  oil  wells  produced  877,558  bar¬ 
rels  of  oil  valued  at  $2,028,129;  the  product  value 
of  oolitic  limestone  was  $1,961,154. 

Education. — According  to  the  latest  estimates  - 
(1918),  the  total  value  of  public  school  property 
is  $67,675,607,  the  number  of  teachers  is  19,928,  of 
enrolled  pupils  557,376.  The  state  public  school 
fund  (including  the  university)  is  $12,253,938.  The 
State  University  at  Bloomington  now  has  a  faculty 
of  140  and  about  3200  students.  Purdue  Univer¬ 
sity  at  Lafayette  has  183  professors,  over  2600  stu¬ 
dents,  and  29  buildings,  the  campus  and  farm 
covering  692  acres.  It  is  estimated  that  by  its 
various  courses  and  features  including  its  regular 
course  Purdue  gave  instruction  to  about  1,500,000 
people  in  1919. 

In  1918  Wabash  College  at  Crawfordsville  had 
219  students;  Earlham  College  near  Richmond  had 
400  students;  De  Pauw  University  at  Greencastle 
had  1062  students;  Butler  University  near  Indi¬ 
anapolis  had  756  students,  and  Hanover  College 
near  Madison  had  224  students. 

A  statute  enacted  in  1919  increased  to  fifty  acres 
the  untaxable  land  on  which  is  situated  any  build¬ 
ing  used  and  set  apart  for  educational,  literary,  sci¬ 
entific,  or  charitable  purposes,  and  to  fifteen  acres 
the  untaxable  land  owned  by  a  church  and  used 
for  religious  purposes.  All  property  belonging  to 
the  Young  Men’s  Christian  Association,  the  Knights 
of  Columbus,  the  Young  Men’s  Hebrew  Association 
and  the  Young  Women’s  Christian  Association  is 
tax  exempt,  as  are  all  dormitories  owned  by  any 
Church  and  used  by  students  of  any  university. 
Sunday  baseball  is  permitted  by  statute  after 
1  o’clock,  and  not  within  1000  feet  from  a  church. 
There  are  strict  statutes  against  obscene  pictures 
or  literature. 

State  laws  relative  to  private  and  parochial 
schools  are  as  follows:  In  every  city  of  this  state 
having  a  population  of  more  than  one  hundred 
thousand,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board  of 
public  health  and  charities  to  make  a  medical  in¬ 
spection  from  time  to  time  of  all  persons  attending 
or  employed  in  or  about  all  public,  private,  and 
parochial  schools  in  such  city;  inspectors  shall 
confer  with  private  school  authorities  and  advise 
them  for  the  purpose  of  improving  and  standardiz¬ 
ing  schools;  all  private  and  parochial  schools  shall 
be  taught  in  the  English  language  only.  The  teach¬ 
ing  of  religion  in  German  is  prohibited;  no  money 
shall  be  draw-n  from  the  treasury  for  the  benefit  of 
any  religious  or  theological  institution;  the  general 
assembly  shall  provide  for  the  taxation  of  all  prop- 


INDIANA 


399 


INDIANA 


erty,  excepting  such  only  for  municipal,  educa-  dal  occurred  in  1915,  when  the  mayor,  sheriff,  and 
tional,  literary,  scientific,  religious  or  charitable  chief  of  police  were  convicted  of  election  frauds, 
purposes  as  may  be  specially  exempted  by  law  In  recent  times  Indiana  has  furnished  many 
.  v  county  superintendents  are,  expected  to  prominent  names  to  the  literary  history  of  America, 
furnish  statistical  and  other  reports  relative  to  the  poets,  Joaquin  Miller,  John  Hay,  James  Whit- 
private  high  schools,  elementary  schools,  colleges,  comb  Riley,  and  the  fiction  writers,  General  Lew 
and  other  institutions  of  learning;  to  comply  with  Wallace,  Meredith  Nicholson,  Booth  Tarkington 
regulations  of  the  Compulsory  Education  Act,  the  and  Annie  Fellows  Johnston, 
term  or  period  of  private  and  parochial  schools 
may  not  be  shorter  than  that  of  public  schools; 
the  Board  of  Education  may  prescribe  courses  of 
physical  education  lor  all  private,  elementary  and 
high  schools  (ed.  Laws,  1919,  p.  31) ;  the  state  board 


Denominations 


may  refuse  to  admit  to  the  accredited  list  a  normal  Adventists  of  the  Church  of  God 

institution  not  requiring  a  suitable  course  of  physi-  Adventists,  Seventh  Day . 

cal  education,  according  to  an  opinion  of  the  attor-  Baptists,  Northern  Convention, 
ney  general  of  the  state,  members  of  the  Catholic  Baptists,  National  Convention. 

Sisterhoods  are  eligible  to  teach  in  the  public  Baptists,  Regular  . 

schools;  after  September  1,  1921,  all  youths  between  Baptists,  General  . 

the  ages  of  14  and  17  years  or  14  and  18  years,  Baptists,  Separate  . 

who  are  regularly  employed,  may  be  compelled  to  Baptists,  Primitive  . 

attend  part-time  school  not  less  than  four  nor  more  Catholics  (Latin  Rite)  . 

than  eight  hours  per  week,  between  8:00  a.  m.  and  Catholics  (Greek)  . .  . 

5 :00  p.  m,  during  the  school  term.  Christians . .....I..:::.:: 

For  statistics  of  Catholic  schools  and  colleges  see:  Christian  Missionary  Alliance. 
Indianapolis,  Diocese  of;  Fort  Wayne,  Diocese  Christian  Union 
of;  Notre  Dame,  University  of.  Church  of  Christ 

Recent  Legislative  Changes. — The  legislature  of  Church  of  God  . 

1909  pi o\ ides  for  the  abolition  of  the  convict  sys-  Church  of  the  Living  God.... 

tern  ot  contract  labor  in  1920.  In  1913  a  tract  of  Congregationalists  . 

1584  acres  in  Putnam  County  was  purchased  for  Dunkards  (German  Baptists) . . 

a  state  farm  for  male  offenders,  not  felons.  By  Episcopalians  . 

an  Act  (1917)  the  General  Assembly  provided  for  Evangelical  Association . 

the  election  of  delegates  to  a  convention  for  the  Evangelicals,  German  . 

revision  of  the  constitution,  which  Act  was  declared  Evangelicals,  Christian  Congre- 

null  and  void,  since  the  Legislature  had  exceeded  gation  . 

its  authority,  inasmuch  as  the  question  of  calling  French  Conservation  . 

a  constitutional  convention  had  not  been  submitted  Friends,  Hicksite  . 

to  referendum  vote.  In  1918  the  governor  was  Friends,  Orthodox . 

authorized  to  appoint  an  unpaid  commission  of  five  Hebrews  . 

persons  to  investigate  child  welfare  and  social  in-  Holiness  Bands . 

surance.  Prohibition  and  woman  suffrage  became  Lutherans,  Evangelical  Synodi- 

enective  that  year.  Later  legislation  provides  for  cal . 

the  establishment  of  a  farm  colony  for  the  feeble-  Lutherans,  General  Synod  .... 

minded,  the  registration  of  voters,  the  extension  Mennonites,  Amish  . 

of  workmen  s  compensation  to  include  coal  miners,  Mennonites,  Old  Order . 

and  a  grant  to  the  counties  giving  them  the  right  Mennonites,  Defenseless . 

to  construct  and  maintain  highways.  The  new  Mennonites,  Proper  . 

tax  code  limits  the  amount  of  annual  taxes  in  any  Mennonite  Brethren  in  Christ, 
taxmg  unit  to  a  sum  not  greater  than  the  tax  Mennonite  Old  Order  (Wisler) 
yield  of  the  preceding  years,  and  the  total  rate  Methodists,  African  Episcopal. 

for  all  purposes  to  one  and  a  half  per  cent,  unless  Methodists,  Episcopal  . 

the  tax  commissioners  permit  a  higher  rate.  Methodists,  Free  . 

Religion.— The  accompanying  table  shows  the  Methodists,  Episcopal,  South. . 

latest  statistics  for  the  various  forms  of  religion  Methodists,  Colored  . 

represented  in  the  State.  Methodists,  Protestant  . 

Recent  History. — In  1911  Indianapolis,  the  capi-  Methodists,  Wesleyan  . 

tal,  was  the  scene  of  wholesale  indictments  of  Moravians  . 

the  officials  of  the  International  Association  of  Pentecost  Church  of  the  Naza- 

Bridge  and  Structural  Workers  of  America  for  rene  . 

dynamiting  several  large  buildings  in  the  United  Presbyterians  of  the  United 

States.  These  acts  were  a  part  of  the  warfare  States  . 

against  employers  who  refused  to  accede  to  the  Presbyterians,  United . 

demands  for  closed  shops.  The  climax  came  in  Reformed,  Christian  . 

Pi®  destruction  of  the  Los  Angeles  Times,  by  the  Reformed  in  America  . 

MciSamara  brothers,  who  were  in  the  employ  of  Reformed  in  United  States _ 

the  union,  which  had  its  headquarters  at  Indi-  Scandinavian  Evangelical  Bodies 

anapohs.  In  1914  it  was  discovered  that  certain  Salvation  Army  . 

Bills  had  been  signed  by  the  governor  under  a  Spiritualists  . 

misinterpretation.  They  had  been  passed  in  one  Swedenborgians  . 

house  and  defeated  in  another  and  presented  to  Unitarians  . 

the  governor  as  having  passed  both  houses.  Indict-  United  Brethren  in  Christ . 

ments  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  and  of  the  Universalists  . 

Speaker  of  the  House  followed,  but  no  intention  Volunteers  of  America . 

to  defraud  was  discovered.  Another  election  scan- 
26 


Churches 

Members 

9 

663 

42 

1800 

502 

75,374 

54 

10,412 

11 

1214 

75 

7497 

17 

1698 

85 

5432 

365 

272,288 

1 

2530 

195 

20,253 

4 

130 

13 

1366 

202 

16,512 

28 

2064 

2 

316 

39 

5768 

205 

20,125 

60 

8848 

111 

10,876 

93 

25,403 

5 

645 

6 

232 

6 

829 

165 

26,658 

21 

5461 

1 

343 

124 

38,309 

87 

10,505 

2 

101 

•  •  •  • 

1942 

3 

315 

17 

2903 

8 

493 

6 

155 

68 

493 

1626 

261,228 

44 

1128 

2 

428  * 

2 

258 

128 

10,367 

90 

4511 

3 

440 

22 

1141 

340 

59,209 

24 

2844 

4 

719 

4 

267 

62 

10,642 

5 

216 

28 

963 

17 

1161 

1 

72 

2 

297 

525 

59,955 

24 

1656 

1 

134 

INDIANAPOLIS 


400 


INDOCHINA 


During  the  European  War  Indiana  furnished 
106,581  soldiers  or  2.83  per  cent  of  the  United  States 
Army,  and  5516  to  the  United  States  Navy.  In  the 
number  of  volunteers  for  the  Navy  she  led  all  the 
other  States  on  the  basis  of  population.  Besides 
these  the  State  raised  and  drilled  an  extra  regi¬ 
ment  of  artillery  for  the  National  Guard  and 
offered  it  to  the  Federal  Government.  For  some 
unknown  reason  it  was  rejected  as  a  unit,  but  went 
into  active  service  through  volunteer  enlistment. 
The  first  American  soldier  killed  in  battle  in  France 
was  an  Indiana  man,  Corporal  James  Bethel 
Gresham,  of  Evansville.  The  first  shot  fired  against 
the  Germans  by  an  American  gunner  was  fired  by 
Sergeant  Alex.  Arch,  of  South  Bend,  Indiana.  The 
summary  of  casualties  among  the  Indiana  members 
of  the  American  Expeditionary  Force  is  as  follows: 
deceased,  57  officers  and  1453  men;  prisoners,  3 
officers  and  53  men;  wounded,  146  officers  and  5054 
men. 

Indiana  ratified  the  Federal  suffrage  amendment 
16  January,  1919,  the  twenty-sixth  State  to  do  so, 
and  the  prohibition  amendment  14  January,  1919, 
the  twenty-seventh  State  to  do  so. 

Indianapolis,  Diocese  of  (Indian apolitana  ;  cf. 
C.  E.,  VII-744a),  comprises  the  southern  half  of 
Indiana.  The  population  of  the  diocese  (1920)  is 
1,531,458,  of  wdiom  133,719  are  Catholics,  and  of 
these  1000  are  Italians  and  3000  are  Slovenians  and 
Slovaks.  During  the  war  most  of  the  parishes  were 
active  in  welfare  work,  such  as  the  Red  Cross, 
Liberty  Bond  sales,  comfort  kits,  and  books  for 
soldiers.  The  honor  roll  of  the  diocese  shows  6738 
enlisted  in  the  war,  of  whom  95  were  killed  or  died. 
Five  diocesan  priests  were  chaplains  in  the  service 
of  the  United  States.  Rt.  Rev.  Denis  O’Donaghue, 
auxiliary  Bishop  of  Indianapolis,  was  transferred 
to  Louisville  in  1910.  Bishop  Francis  Silas  Chatard 
died  8  September,  1918,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Joseph  Chartrand,  b.  1870,  ordained  1892, 
consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Flavias  and  coadjutor 
Bishop  of  Indianapolis  15  September,  1910,  elevated 
to  the  see  of  Indianapolis  25  September,  1918. 
Established  in  the  diocese  are  the  Benedictines, 
Franciscans,  Friars  Minor  Conventuals,  Brothers  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  and  Brothers  of  the  Holy  Cross. 
Religious  orders  of  women  are:  Sisters  of  St.  Bene¬ 
dict,  Sisters  of  Charity,  Poor  Clares,  Sisters  of  St. 
Francis,  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Sisters  of 
Providence,  Ursulines,  and  Sisters  of  Mercy.  The 
diocese  comprises:  145  parishes,  222  churches,  54 
missions,  11  stations,  1  Benedictine  Abbey  (St. 
Meinrad’s)  with  107  religious,  2  convents  of  men 
with  56  religious,  191  secular  priests,  82  regulars, 
21  lay  brothers,  2763  Sisters,  3  seminaries  with  83 
seminarians,  2  colleges  for  men  with  17  teachers  and 
174  students,  1  college  for  women  with  16  teachers 
and  185  students,  4  high  schools  for  boys  with  17 
teachers  and  724  students,  8  academies  for  young 
ladies  with  40  teachers  and  973  students,  2  normal 
schools  with  17  teachers,  122  elementary  schools 
with  an  attendance  of  20,163,  1  industrial  school 
with  20  teachers  and  200  students,  2  homes  for 
the  aged,  2  orphan  asylums,  5  hospitals.  The  Cath¬ 
olic  Community  Center  at  Indianapolis  is  a  settle¬ 
ment  house.  Public  institutions  admitting  the 
ministry  of  priests  and  Catholic  visitors  are  the 
state  prison,  state  reformatory,  and  insane  hos¬ 
pitals.  Organizations  among  the  clergy  are  St. 
Michael’s,  for  deceased  members,  and  the  Clergy 
Relief  Union  for  the  support  of  disabled  priests. 
Many  of  the  laity  belong  to  the  Knights  of  Colum¬ 
bus.  Catholic  periodicals  are  the  “Indiana  Cath¬ 


olic,”  of  Indianapolis,  and  “The  Grail,”  published 
at  St.  Meinrad. 

Indies,  East,  Patriarchate  of  the  (I-ndiarum 
Orientalium;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII-758d),  erected  in  1886. 
The  present  patriarch  is  His  Excellency  Mateo  de 
Oliveira  Xavier,  who  succeeded  His  Excellency 
Antonio  Sebastiano  Valente,  deceased  1909. 

Indies,  West,  Patriarchate  of  the  (Indiarum 
Occidentalium),  erected  in  1520,  and  in  1886  united 
to  the  Archdiocese  of  Toledo.  The  purely  honorary 
title  of  Patriarch  of  the  West  Indies  was  transferred 
from  the  Archbishop  of  Toledo  to  the  Bishop  of 
Sion,  Chaplain  General  of  the  Spanish  Army,  by 
Apostolic  Letter  of  9  December,  1920. 

Indo-China  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-765b). — The  territory 
of  this  peninsula  of  Southern  Asia  is  divided 
politically  into  Upper  and  Lower  Burma,  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  the  Empire  of  Siam,  and  French  Indo- 
China.  For  particulars  concerning  the  first  three 
see  Burma;  India;  Siam. 

French  Indo-China,  a  colony  of  France,  with 
an  area  of  256.000  sq.  miles  and  a  population  of 
16,990,229  (1914),  of  whom  23,700  were  European 
(excluding  military  forces),  consists  of  the  colony 
of  Cochin-China  and  the  protectorates  of  Tong- 
king,  Annam,  Cambodia,  and  Laos.  The  territory 
of  Kwang-chau-wan,  which  was  leased  from  China 
for  99  years,  is  to  be  returned  to  China  (1922). 
The  inhabitants  of  Indo-China  consist  largely  of 
Annamites  (12,000,000),  who  are  numerous  in 
Cochin-China,  Annam,  and  Tong-king;  Cambodians 
(1,500,000)  in  Cambodia,  and  in  provinces  west  of 
Cochin-China;  the  Thai's  in  Tong-king  and  Laos, 
where  they  still  form  a  large  portion  of  the  moun¬ 
tain  population;  and  the  Chinese  whose  superior 
commercial  aptitude  has  given  them  command  of 
the  trade  and  minor  industries. 

Government. — The  French  power  is  represented 
in  the  colony  by  the  governor-general,  who  is  also 
supreme  military  authority.  He  is  assisted  by  the 
Superior  Council  of  thirty-two  members,  which 
meets  once  a  year,  generally  at  Hanoi,  and  con¬ 
siders  the  budget  of  Indo-China  and  the  five  dif¬ 
ferent  states;  when  not  in  session  the  council  dele¬ 
gates  its  functions  to  a  permanent  commission  of 
thirteen  members.  It  corresponds  to  a  legislative 
council,  and  is  composed  of  the  governor-general 
as  president,  the  military  and  naval  commanders- 
in-chief,  the  secretary-general  of  Indo-China,  the 
governor  of  Cochin-China,  the  residents  superior  of 
Tong-king,  Annam,  Cambodia,  and  Laos,  the  heads 
of  departments  of  the  government-general,  the 
president  of  the  Colonial  Council  of  Cochin-China, 
the  presidents  of  the  various  chambers  of  commerce 
and  agriculture,  two  high  native  officials,  and  the 
chief  of  cabinet  of  the  governor-general,  who  acts 
as  secretary  to  the  council.  Each  of  the  five  states 
has  its  own  organization,  at  the  heads  of  which 
are  the  residents  superior,  who  are  answerable  to 
the  governor-general.  Throughout  Indo-China 
Europeans  can  only  be  tried  for  serious  criminal 
offenses  by  French  judges  at  specified  centers. 
There  are  native  tribunals  from  which  there  is  an 
appeal  to  the  two  courts  at  Saigon  and  Hanoi. 
In  these  two  courts  the  European  judges,  in  matters 
affecting  the  natives,  are  assisted  by  Annamite 
mandarins.  Each  state,  province,  and  municipality 
has  its  budget.  The  revenue  and  expenditure  of 
the  general  budget  in  1920  balanced  at  57,092,640 
piastres.  The  outstanding  debt  in  1920  was  403,- 
000,000  francs.  The  military  force  totals  25,514 
men,  and  the  naval  force  2  gunboats,  4  torpedo 
boats,  and  21  dispatch  vessels.  The  recent  policy  of 


INDOCHINA 


401 


INDOCHINA 


France  has  been  to  give  the  natives  as  large  a 
share  in  the  government  as  they  are  capable  of 
bearing.  During  the  World  War  France  received 
from  Indo-China  not  only  an  important  contingent 
of  troops,  but  large  supplies  of  money,  boats,  pro¬ 
visions,  and  raw  materials.  After  the  war  the 
native  judicial  code  was  reorganized,  and  new  legis¬ 
lation  introduced.  A  recrudescence  of  the  revolu¬ 
tionary  movement  took  place  in  Annam  in  1917, 
but  in  general  the  natives  have  accepted  with 
apparent  placidity  the  rule  of  the  French. 

Economics  and,  Agriculture. — The  tenure  of  the 
land  is  either  in  the  hands  of  the  natives  who  pay 
a  tax  to  the  State  as  rent,  or  in  the  hands  of  the 
I  rench  colonists  who  have  received  concessions 
amounting  to  over  one  million  acres.  The  con¬ 
cessionaries  lease  the  land  to  the  natives,  and 
provide  them  with  the  necessary  materials  for 
agriculture,  receiving  in  return  a  percentage  of  the 
products;  or  if  they  directly  exploit  the  lands  them¬ 
selves,  they  pay  a  certain  percentage  of  profit  to 
the  State  and  reward  the  natives  with  a  proportion 
of  the  produce.  Mining  concessions  are  granted  by 
the  government  (218  in  1918)  foreigners  being 
forbidden  to  own  mines.  Foreign  capital  does  not 
directly  play  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  Indo-China.  The  chief  minerals  are  coal 
(636  tons  in  1918),  lignite,  antimony,  tin  (604  tons 
in  1918),  wolfram  and  zinc  (28,000  tons  in  1918). 
The  chief  error  in  the  past  has  been  too  exclusive 
a  concentration  on  the  cultivation  of  rice  to  the 
neglect  of  the  many  other  possibilities  of  the  coun¬ 
try.  It  is  the  chief  export,  forming  about  70  per 
cent  of  the  total  (1,475,775  tons  in  1918).  In  1918 
2714  vessels  of  2,241,746  tons  entered,  and  2568 
vessels  of  2,196,064  tons  cleared.  Of  those  entered 
332  were  French,  281  English,  and  258  Japanese. 

‘  The  oldest  railroad  is  that  from  Saigon  to  Mytho; 
at  the  end  of  1918  the  total  length  of  line,  two- 
thirds  Government  owned,  was  1300  miles. 

Cochin-China,  a  direct  colony  of  France,  has  an 
area  of  about  20,000  square  miles,  and  a  population 
(1919)  of  3,452,248,  of  whom  6301  were  Europeans. 
In  1919  Saigon,  the  capital,  had  a  population  of 
64,496,  of  whom  4161  were  Europeans,  exclusive  of 
2200  troops.  Cholon,  the  largest  city,  had  190,085, 
of  whom  97,211  were  Chinese.  As  a  French  colony 
Cochin-China  is  represented  in  France  by  a  deputy 
elected  by  the  French  citizens.  It  is  directly 
administered  by  a  governor,  assisted  by  a  privy 
council.  The  Colonial  Council  of  sixteen  members, 
of. whom  six  are  Annamites  and  the  rest  French, 
decides  the  law  of  the  colony  and  votes  on  the 
budget.  The  head  of  each  province  is  assisted  by 
a  provincial  council  of  natives,  and  votes  on  the 
budget  of  the  province.  The  cantons  are  adminis¬ 
tered  by  the  chiefs,  and  are  divided  into  communes, 
each  directed  by  a  council  of  twelve  notables.  The 
towns  of  Saigon  and  Cholon  form  a  separate  com¬ 
munity.  In  Saigon  the  mayor,  who  is  elected, 
heads  a  municipal  council,  composed  of  twelve 
French  residents  and  four  natives.  In  Cholon  he 
is  nominated  by  the  governor-general,  and  his 
Commission  M unidpale  is  composed  of  three 
French  notables,  chosen  for  three  years  by  the 
governor  from  a  list  of  ten,  selected  bv  the  Cham¬ 
ber  of  Commerce;  four  Annamites  (elected)  and 
three  Chinese;  chosen  by  the  governor  from  a 
list  presented  to  him  by  the  Chinese  congregation. 
Justice  is  administered  in  French  courts  by  French 
justices.  There  are  five  magistrates,  nine  Courts 
of  First  Instance  at  different  centers,  and  a  branch 
of  the  Court  of  Appeal  for  Indo-China,  sitting  at 
Saigon.  The  judges  of  the  Courts  of  First  Instance 
also  exercise  the  functions  of  magistrates.  There 


are,  in  addition,  four  criminal  courts.  Natives  are 
not  allowed  to  sit  as  judges. 

Education. — There  are  about  867  schools  with 
1325  teachers  and  51,452  pupils.  Secondary  educa¬ 
tion  is  given  at  the  College  Chasseloup-Loubat  of 
Saigon,  at  College  of  Gia  Dinh,  and  at  the  College 
of  Mytho.  In  1918  was  created  the  Scientific  In¬ 
stitute  at  Saigon,  to  which  was  united  the  Botanical 
Institute,  the  agricultural  stations  at  Girai,  and  the 
arboretum  _  at  Tranybuum. 

Economics  and  Agriculture. — The  total  area  of 
Cochin  China  is  5,011,277  hectares  (1  hectare=2.47 
acres),  of  which  1,975,725  hectares  are  cultivated 
and  3,488,611  hectares  are  uncultivated  (1,748,694 
hectares  being  forest).  About  1,665,000  hectares 
are  devoted  to  the  culture  of  rice.  In  1920  the 
farm  animals  comprised  12,383  horses,  435,489  buf¬ 
faloes,  277,473  pigs,  2553  sheep  and  goats.  There 
are  10  rice  mills  at  Saigon  and  Cholon,  turning 
out  from  450  to  900  tons  a  day,  also  2  sawmills,  2 
soap  factories,  and  a  varnish  factory.  Cochin- 
China  has  a  Department  of  Agriculture  and  a 
Chamber  of  Commerce.  During  1919,  589  steamers 
of  895,592  tons  entered  the  port  of  Saigon,  114  of 
which  were  British.  The  total  exports  in  1919  were 
valued  at  980,777,780  francs;  the  imports,  84,202,744 
francs.  In  the  same  year  the  local  budget  balanced 
at  9,086,358  piastres.  For  Catholic  statistics  see 
Cochin  China,  Western,  Vicariate  Apostolic 

OF. 

Annam,  a  kingdom  under  French  protectorate, 
has  an  area  of  52,100  square  miles.  In  1919  the 
population  was  5,592,000,  including  2117  Europeans 
(exclusive  of  military  forces).  The  population  is 
mainly  Annamite.  The  ports  of  Tourane,  Qui- 
Nhon,  and  Xuan  Day  are  open  to  European  com¬ 
merce,  and  the  customs  revenue  conceded  to  France. 
French  troops  occupy  part  of  the  cidatel  (Manga- 
Ca)  of  Hue,  the  capital  (population  60,611).  Binh- 
Dinh,  the  largest  town,  has  74,400  inhabitants. 

Education—  At  the  end  of  1920  the  official  schools 
of  Annam  were  reorganized  and  placed  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  French  Protectorate.  There 
were  685  village  schools  with  14,438  pupils,  98 
elementary  schools  with  5985  pupils,  16  secondary 
schools  with  5058  pupils,  1  higher  secondary  school 
at  Hue  with  562  pupils,  1  higher  secondary  school 
for  native  girls  with  289  pupils,  1  professional 
school  with  125  pupils,  and  1  school  of  law  and 
administration  with  55  pupils.  Higher  education 
is  given  at  the  college  of  Quoc-Hoc  at  Hue. 

Economics  and  Agriculture. — The  Phanrang  River 
has  been  utilized  to  irrigate  100,000  acres,  and 
similar  works  are  being  carried  on  in  Central 
Annam.  Cattle  raising  is  an  important  industry, 
there  being  in  Annam,  in  1919,  681,000  head  of 
cattle.  In  the  same  year  the  exports,  which  con¬ 
sisted  chiefly  of  rice,  cotton,  silk,  tea,  and  pepper, 
were  valued  at  51,556,788  francs;  the  imports  at 
9,243,059  francs.  In  1919,  117  ships,  totaling  97,942 
tons,  cleared  the  port  of  Tourane. 

Government.— The  King  of  Annam,  who  is 
an  absolute  sovereign,  is  assisted  by  a  Conseil 
secret  (comat),  composed  of  seven  ministers,  each  of 
whom  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  three  mandarins. 
A  conseil  de  censure,  nominated  by  the  king,  con¬ 
trols  the  work  of  the  functionaries.  The  kingdom 
is  divided  into  provinces,  circumscriptions,  cantons, 
and  communes.  The  provinces  are  controlled  by 
the  tong-doc,  assisted  by  the  quan-bo  (chief  of 
the  administrative  service),  the  an-sat  (chief  of  the 
judiciary  service),  the  doc-hoc  (inspector  of  schools), 
and  the  lanh-binh  (military  commander).  The  cir¬ 
cumscriptions  are  directed  by  the  quan-huyen,  or 
quan-fu,  who  are  at  once  administrators  and  judges. 


INDOCHINA 


402 


INDULGENCES 


Then  come  the  canton  chiefs  and  sub-chiefs  and 
the  communal  councils.  The  resident  general,  who 
represents  the  French  Government  to  the  king, 
presides  over  the  co-mat,  and  also  directs  the  great 
public  services  depending  upon  the  French  adminis¬ 
tration  (agriculture,  customs,  and  excise  duties, 
post  and  telegraph,  public  works,  etc.).  He  is 
assisted  by  a  conseil  de  protectorat ;  he  is  the  mas¬ 
ter  of  the  budget  of  the  protectorate,  and  himself 
defines  the  receipts  and  expenditures.  He  also 
oversees  the  native  provincial  administration 
through  his  intermediaries,  one  of  whom  is  placed 
at  the  head  of  each  of  the  thirteen  provinces, 
several  being  French  delegates.  Annam  has  a 
mixed  Chamber  of  Commerce  and  Agriculture. 

Recent  History—  In  1908  occurred  the  revolt  of 
the  “Tondus”  against  the  excessive  taxation,  and 
in  1916  that  of  Duy-Tan  against  French  rule.  The 
latter  ended  in  the  dethronement  and  exile  of  the 
king,  who  was  succeeded  by  Khai-Dinh,  a  cousin 
of  Thanh-Thai.  Under  his  rule  the  country  pros¬ 
pered  greatly,  and  during  the  European  War  the 
Annamites  showed  their  loyalty  to  France  by  send¬ 
ing  soldiers  for  the  great  struggle.  Annam  has  its 
own  budget,  which  is  drawn  up  by  the  resident 
general  and  approved  by  the  conseil  des  ministres. 
The  assessed  taxes  include  chiefly  those  payable  on 
alcohol,  mineral  oils,  matches,  opium,  salt,  and  the 
customs  revenues.  The  budget  for  Annam  in  1919 
was  5,723,139  piastres  (1  piastre  equals  about  2.50 
francs) . 

For  Catholic  statistics  see  Cochin-China,  East¬ 
ern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of;  Cochin-China, 
Northern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

Laos  has  an  area  of  98,000  sq.  miles.  In  1914 
the  population  was  640,877.  In  the  country  there 
are  three  protected  states,  Luang-Prabang,  Bassac, 
and  Muong-Sing.  The  king  is  assisted  in  his  gov¬ 
ernment  by  a  French  administrator  (resident 
superior),  who  resides  at  Vien-tian  and  is  assisted 
by  twelve  commissioners.  Each  province  is  admin¬ 
istered  by  the  tiao-munong,  who  is  assisted  by  three 
mandarins.  The  canton  is  ruled  by  the  tasseing, 
and  the  commune  by  the  phoban.  The  cost  of  the 
Laos  administration  is  borne  by  Cochin-China  (six- 
thirteenths),  Tong-king  and  Annam,  (five-thir¬ 
teenths),  and  Cambodia  (two-thirteenths).  The 
local  budget  for  1918  was  1,747,000  piastres.  The 
prevailing  religion  is  Buddhism,  with  traces  of 
Brahmanism  in  court  circles.  The  temples  are  not 
so  numerous  as  in  Cambodia,  the  priests  are  more 
ignorant,  and  in  practice  Buddhism  is  reduced  to 
external  signs  of  deference  to  the  priests  and  sacred 
places.  For  Catholic  statistics  see  Laos,  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of. 

Tong-king,  French  protectorate,  has  an  area  of 
46,400  sq.  miles,  and  is  divided  into  21  provinces. 
The  population  in  1919  was  6,470,250,  of  whom 
6875  were  Europeans  (exclusive  of  military  forces). 
The  chief  town  is  Hanoi,  which  had,  in  1919,  a 
population  of  109,500. 

Government. — The  chief  French  official  is  desig¬ 
nated  as  resident  superior,  and  is  assisted  by  a 
Protectorate  Council,  composed  of  the  heads  of 
departments  and  delegates  of  the  Chambers  of 
Commerce  and  Agriculture.  He  represents  the 
governor-general  and  carries  out  the  execution  of 
the  laws  and  decrees.  The  French  judges  with 
extensive  powers  sit  at  Hanoi,  Hai-fong,  and  Nam- 
dinh.  The  resident  of  each  province  exercises  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  magistrate,  but  he  takes  cognizance 
only  of  cases  in  which  Europeans,  French  subjects, 
and  foreigners  are  concerned.  The  local  budget  for 
1921  balanced  at  13,131,390  piastres. 


Educa ti on  —There  are  14  grammar  schools  (1920) 
with  4967  pupils.  The  University  of  Hanoi, 
founded  on  28  April,  1918,  includes  schools  of 
medicine  and  pharmacy,  education,  science,  engi¬ 
neering,  agriculture,  forestry,  maritime  engineering, 
navigation,  and  veterinary  science. 

Economics  and,  Agriculture. — The  enormous  lime¬ 
stone  quarries  made  possible  in  1917  the  large  ex¬ 
portation  of  67,567  tons  of  cement.  In  the  same 
year  290,000  tons  of  hard  coal  were  exported.  In 
1919  186,685  tons  of  rice,  valued  at  117,045,000 
francs,  were  exported,  chiefly  to  Hong-Kong.  The 
principal  port,  Haiphong,  was  visited  in  1919  by 
588  steamers  (187  British). 

For  Catholic  statistics  see  Vicariates  Apostolic  of 
Central,  Maritime,  Southern,  Western,  Eastern, 
Northern,  and  Upper  Tong-king. 

Cambodia,  a  French  protectorate,  has  an  area  of 
45,000  sq.  miles,  and  is  divided  into  42  provinces. 
In  1919  the  population  was  estimated  at  2,000,000, 
of  whom  1100  were  Europeans,  100,500  were  Anna¬ 
mites,  and  140,000  were  Chinese.  The  chief  towns 
are  Pnom-Penh  (population  85,000),  the  capital, 
Battambang,  and  Kampot. 

Government. — The  present  king,  Sisowath,  is 
assisted  by  a  council  of  five  ministers  and  of 
thirteen  assistants.  Each  province  is  ruled  by  a 
governor,  each  commune  by  a  municipal  council, 
presided  by  a  mekhum.  France  is  represented  by 
the  resident  general,  who  presides  over  the  Council 
of  Ministers  and  the  Council  of  Protectorate,  pre¬ 
pares  the  budget  and  sees  to  the  execution  of  the 
laws.  The  budget  for  1920  balanced  at  6,500,000 
piastres,  including  a  sum  of  525,000  piastres, 
allowed  for  the  civil  list  of  the  king  and  princes. 
There  are  60  schools  with  4000  pupils. 

Economics  and  Agriculture. — The  chief  product 
is  rice,  of  which  300,000  tons  are  exported  yearly. ' 
Pepper  is  extensively  grown  in  61  villages  by  4800 
planters,  the  production  being  800,000  kilogrammes 
annually.  In  1920,  4236  vessels  of  179,874  tons 
entered,  and  10,806  vessels  of  312,166  tons  cleared 
the  ports  of  Cambodia.  The  export  trade  is  carried 
on  mostly  through  Saigon. 

For  Catholic  statistics  see  Cambodia,  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of. 

Kwang-chau-wan,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  China, 
was  leased  from  China  by  France  in  1898.  In  1900 
it  was  placed  under  the  authority  of  the  governor- 
general  of  Indo-China  and  divided  into  3  adminis¬ 
trative  districts,  the  Chinese  communal  organization 
being,  however,  maintained.  It  has  an  area  of 
190  sq.  miles,  and  a  population  of  about  168,000. 
The  port  is  a  free  port.  The  budget  for  1918  was 
404,960  piastres.  The  French  have  developed  the 
resources  of  the  territory,  and  when  China  recovers 
Kwang-chau-wan  she  will  get  back  a  country 
greater  in  value  than  the  territory  she  leased  to 
France.  At  the  Washington  Disarmament  Con- 
turned  the  territories  which  they  had  leased  from 
ference  in  1922  the  French  offered  to  return  the 
territory  to  China,  provided  the  other  powers  re- 
China. 

Indulgences  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-783). — All  matters  re¬ 
lating  to  indulgences  are  now  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Sacred  Apostolic  Penitentiary.  No  one  but 
the  pope  can  (a)  grant  others  the  power  of  con¬ 
ceding  indulgences,  unless  that  privilege  has  been 
conceded  expressly  by  Apostolic  indult;  or  (b)  grant 
indulgences  applicable  to  the  dead;  or  (c)  annex 
indulgences  to  pnv  pious  act,  thing  or  sodality 
membership  to  which  other  indulgences  have  been 
granted  by  the  pope  or  other  person,  unless  new 
conditions  to  be  fulfilled  for  gaining  them  are  im- 


INDULGENCES 


403 


INFAMY 


posed.  Those  who  have  obtained  from  the  pope 
a  concession  of  indulgences  for  all  the  faithful  are 
obliged  to  present  an  authentic  copy  of  the  con¬ 
cession  to  the  sacred  penitentiary,  otherwise  the 
concession  becomes  invalid.  New  indulgences 
granted  to  churches,  even  to  those  of  regulars, 
which  have  not  been  promulgated  in  Rome  must 
not  be  made  public  without  the  local  ordinary’s 
knowledge;  so,  too,  in  publishing  in  books, 
pamphlets,  etc.,  collections  of  indulgences  for 
prayers  or  pious  works  must  the  license  of  the 
ordinary  or  of  the  Holy  See  be  obtained,  as  is 
required  by  the  law  of  censorship. 

Plenary  indulgences  granted  for  the  feasts  of  Our 
Lord  or  the  Blessed  Virgin  can  be  gained  only  on 
the  feasts  that  are  contained  in  the  universal  cal¬ 
endar;  so,  too,  those  granted  for  the  feast  of  an 
Apostle  can  be  gained  only  on  the  feast  commemo¬ 
rating  his  death.  A  plenary  indulgence  granted  as 
quotidiana  perpetua  or  ad  tempus  (daily  and  per¬ 
petually,  or  temporarily)  for  visiting  a  church  or 
public  oratory  can  be  gained  by  each  of  the  faithful, 
on  any  day,  but  only  once  a  year,  unless  it  is  other¬ 
wise  expressly  stated  in  the  decree.  Indulgences 
granted  for  feasts  or  for  pious  practices  performed 
for  three  days,  a  week,  or  for  nine  days,  before  or 
after  a  feast,  or  during  the  octave  are  transferred 
to  any  day  to  which  the  feast  has  been  legally 
transferred,  if  the  feast  transferred  has  an  office 
with  a  Mass  without  solemnity  and  external  cele¬ 
bration  and  if  the  translation  is  perpetual,  or  if  the 
solemnity  and  the  external  celebration  are  trans¬ 
ferred  either  temporary  or  perpetually.  If  a  visit 
to  a  church  or  oratory  is  annexed  as  a  condition 
for  gaining  an  indulgence  on  any  day,  the  visit 
can  be  made  any  time  between  noon  on  the  preced¬ 
ing  day  and  midnight  terminating  the  day  men¬ 
tioned.  If  a  church  to  which  an  indulgence  has 
been  annexed  is  entirely  destroyed  the  indulgence 
does  not  cease  if  the  church  be  rebuilt  within  fifty 
years  in  the  same  or  almost  the  same  spot  and 
under  the  same  title.  Indulgenced  beads  or  objects 
lose  their  indulgence  only  when  they  are  entirely 
destroyed  or  sold. 

A  plenary  indulgence  is  so  granted,  that  if  one 
fails  to  gain  it  entirely,  he  can  gain  a  partial  in¬ 
dulgence  according  to  his  disposition.  A  plenary 
indulgence  for  a  given  pious  exercise  can  be  gained 
only  once  in  a  day,  whereas  a  partial  indulgence 
can  be  gained  as  often  as  the  exercise  is  repeated, 
unless  in  either  case  the  contrary  is  expressly  stated. 
Unless  the  contrary  is  expressly  stated  indulgences 
granted  by  a  bishop  can  be  gained  by  any  one 
actually  within  his  diocese.  No  one  can  gain  indul¬ 
gences  for  another  living  person,  but  all  papal  indul¬ 
gences  are  applicable  to  the  dead,  unless  the  con¬ 
trary  is  stated.  To  gain  indulgences  one  must  be 
baptized,  not  excommunicated,  and  in  the  state  of 
grace  at  least  when  finishing  the  works  prescribed; 
moreover,  one  must  have  at  least  a  general  intention 
of  gaining  them  and  must  perform  the  works  pre¬ 
scribed  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner  laid  down. 
Those  who  for  religious  purposes  or  for  the  sake  of 
education  or  even  health  are  living  in  community 
life  in  houses  erected  with  the  ordinary’s  consent, 
but  which  have  no  church  or  public  chapel,  and  all 
others  living  there  in  their  service,  may  fulfil  the 
obligation  of  visiting  a  church  or  a  public  oratory, 
when  no  special  one  has  been  mentioned  as  a 
condition  for  gaining  an  indulgence,  by  visiting 
their  own  domestic  chapel  in  which  they  can  satisfy 
the  precept  of  hearing  Mass.  If  confession  is  a 
condition  for  gaining  an  indulgence  it  can  be 
made  within  the  octave  immediately  preceding  the 
day  for  which  the  indulgence  is  granted,  and  the 


Communion  may  be  received  on  the  vigil ;  or  either 
condition  may  be  fulfilled  within  the  octave  follow¬ 
ing  the  appointed  day.  In  like  manner  the  con¬ 
fession  and  Communion  required  for  gaining  the 
indulgences  granted  for  the  pious  exercises  of  a 
tnduum,  novena,  etc.,  may  be  made  within  the 
octave  immediately  following  the  exercises.  The 
faithful  who  are  accustomed  to  go  to  confession 
at  least  twice  a  month  unless  lawfully  prevented, 
or  who  receive  Holy  Communion  in  the  state  of 
grace  with  a  right  intention  daily,  even  though 
they  may  refrain  once  or  twice  a  week,  may  gain 
all  indulgences  without  the  actual  confession  an¬ 
nexed  as  a  condition,  except  indulgences  granted 
for  the  ordinary  or  an  extraordinary  jubilee  or  for 
some  similar  case.  An  indulgence  cannot  be  gained 
for  doing  anything  that  is  already  enjoined  by 
law  or  precept,  unless  the  contrary  is  expressly 
stated  in  the  concession ;  however,  if  in  sacramental 
confession  a  work  to  which  perchance  an  indulgence 
is  attached  is  imposed  as  a  penance,  it  is  possible  to 
gain  the  indulgence  and  perform  the  penance  at 
the  same  time.  More  than  one  indulgence  may 
be  annexed  to  one  and  the  same  thing  or  place 
on  divers  grounds;  but  more  than  one  indulgence 
cannot  be  gained  for  performing  one  and  the  same 
work  to  which  the  indulgences  have  been  annexed 
on  divers  grounds,  unless  the  work  enjoined  is 
confession  and  Communion,  or  unless  the  contrary 
has  been  declared.  If  prayers  for  the  pope’s  inten¬ 
tions  are  a  condition  for  gaining  an  indulgence, 
mental  prayer  alone  is  not  sufficient,  but  any  vocal 
prayer  will  satisfy  the  obligation  unless  a  specific 
prayer  has  been  ordered.  If  a  particular  prayer  is 
assigned  the  indulgences  may  be  gained  no  matter 
in  what  language  it  is  said,  provided  the  fidelity  of 
the  translation  is  declared  by  the  sacred  penitentiary 
or  by  one  of  the  local  ordinaries  of  the  place  where 
the  language  is  spoken;  but  any  addition,  omission, 
or  interpolation  nullifies  the  indulgence.  For  gain¬ 
ing  indulgences  the  prayers  may  be  said  alternately 
by  those  praying  together,  or  one  mav  say  the 
prayers  and  the  other  fellow  them  mentally.  If 
without  fault  on  one’s  part  it  is  impossible  to  per¬ 
form  the  works  enjoined  for  gaining  an  indulgence,  a 
confessor  is  empowered  to  commute  them  into 
others.  Those  who  are  dumb  can  gain  indulgences 
annexed  to  public  prayers,  if  they  are  present  with 
the  other  faithful  at  the  prayers  and  raise  up  their 
thoughts  and  affections  to  God;  in  the  case  of 
private  prayers  it  suffices  for  them  to  repeat  them 
mentally  or  peruse  them  with  their  eyes. 

Infamy  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-1). — Infamy  is  the  loss 
of  one’s  good  name.  In  canon  law  infamy  is 
twofold:  (a)  infamy  by  law,  that  is  when  the 
Church  declares  one  infamous  on  account  of  a 
crime  which  he  has  committed;  (b)  infamy  by  act 
or  of  fact,  when  one  owing  to  his  ill  deeds  loses 
his  reputation  in  the  sight  of  prudent  serious  per¬ 
sons.  Neither  species  of  infamy  affects  one’s  kin¬ 
dred;  however,  the  Code  provides  that  a  parish 
priest  who  lives  with  relatives  who  have  lost  their 
good  name  may  be  transferred  from  his  parish 
if  he  refuses  to  send  them  away.  Infamy  by  law 
is  incurred  ipso  facto  by  those  who  profane  the 
sacred  species,  or  who  desecrate  the  bodies  or 
graves  of  the  dead,  or  lay  violent  hands  on  a 
pope,  cardinal,  or  papal  legate,  or  who  participate 
in  duels  as  principals  or  seconds,  or  who  marry 
again  even  civilly  in  disregard  of  their  valid  mar¬ 
riage  bond,  or  who  are  guilty  of  certain  immoral 
deeds;  it  is  to  be  imposed  by  sentence  on  recal¬ 
citrant  apostates,  heretics,  or  schismatics  after  due 
warning,  and  on  clerics  guilty  of  certain  vices. 


INFANT  JESUS 


404 


INNSBRUCK 


Infamy  by  law  can  be  removed  only  by  permission 
of  the  Holy  See,  but  infamy  by  act  ceases  when 
in  the  opinion  of  the  ordinary  the  sinner  has  by 
his  continued  good  life  regained  the  esteem  of  pru¬ 
dent  serious-minded  persons. 

Infamy  by  law  constitutes  an  irregularity  ex 
defectu;  it  disqualifies  entirely  for  benefices,  pen¬ 
sions,  offices,  dignities,  for  ecclesiastical  legal  acts, 
for  the  exercise  of  ecclesiastical  rights,  for  any 
ministry  in  sacred  functions,  or  for  sponsorship. 
Infamy  by  act  impedes  one  temporarily  from  re¬ 
ceiving  holy  orders,  or  benefices,  offices  or  dignities, 
and  from  the  exercise  of  sacred  ministry  or  of  eccle¬ 
siastical  legal  acts.  Furthermore,  after  a  sentence 
pronouncing  infamy  the  culprit  cannot  vote  at 
elections,  or  exercise  the  right  of  patronage,  or 
validly  act  as  sponsor.  Finally,  no  one  who  is 
tainted  with  infamy  may  testify  in  ecclesiastical 
suits,  and  if  he  is  notoriously  infamous  he  must  not 
even  be  allowed  to  receive  Holy  Communion. 

If  any  one  fears  that  his  testimony  will  entail 
infamy  on  himself  or  on  his  kindred  in  the  direct  line 
or  in  the  first  degree  collateral,  he  is  exempted  ex¬ 
pressly  by  law  from  confessing  the  truth  to  a  judge 
who  questions  him  in  an  ecclesiastical  court.  If  by 
observing  a  vindicatory  penalty  or  censure  lat(B 
sentenice  a  guilty  person  would  betray  himself  and 
incur  infamy  and  cause  scandal,  in  an  urgent  case 
any  confessor  can  in  the  forum  of  confession 
suspend  the  obligation  of  observing  the  penalty, 
on  condition  that  he  imposes  on  the  culprit  the 
obligation  of  having  recourse  at  least  within  a 
month  by  letter  and  by  his  confessor,  if  possible 
without  grave  inconvenience,  his  name  being  con¬ 
cealed,  to  the  sacred  penitentiary  or  to  a  bishop 
possessing  the  requisite  faculties  and  of  obeying 
his  commands ;  if  in  any  extraordinary  case  such 
recourse  is  impossible  the  confessor,  except  in  case 
of  the  censure  for  solicitation,  can  grant  the  dis¬ 
pensation,  but  he  must  impose  a  fitting  penance  and 
satisfaction  with  the  penalty  of  again  incurring 
infamy  if  the  penance  or  satisfaction  is  unduly  de¬ 
layed. 

Infant  Jesus,  Sisters  of  the. — Founded  at 
Neufchatel  (Sarthe),  1835,  and  transferred  to  Le 
Mans,  1888,  the  Congregation  of  the  Infant  Jesus 
is  approved  for  teaching  and  nursing,  non-clois- 
tered.  They  came  to  America,  21  October,  1905, 
and  are  incorporated  under  the  title  Nursing  Sis¬ 
ters  of  the  Sick  Poor,  with  mother-house  in  Brook¬ 
lyn.  At  present  the  community  numbers  63,  and  in 
the  past  fifteen  years  has  served  over  4000  patients. 
The  novitiate  has  been  transferred  to  St.  Joseph’s 
Villa,  Hempstead,  L.  I.,  where  the  Sisters  are 
trained  in  the  hospital  and  prepared  for  their 
work.  A  small  branch  house  was  recently  opened 
in  Long  Island  City  and  ministers  to  the  poor  of 
that  section.  The  works  of  the  congregation  are 
the  education  of  children  in  orphanages,  industrial 
schools,  and  homes  for  working  girls;  the  conducting 
of  clinics,  hospitals,  homes  for  the  aged;  and  the 
nursing  of  the  sick  in  their  homes.  In  America  the 
work  of  the  Sisters  is  the  nursing  of  the  sick  poor 
in  their  homes.  The  Sisters  form  a  family  without 
distinction,  wear  the  same  religious  habit,  and 
observe  the  same  discipline,  regardless  of  their 
origin  or  education.  For  the  continuance  and  ex¬ 
tension  of  their  work  they  depend  solely  on  the 
charity  of  others,  for  they  accept  no  remuneration 
whatever  for  their  services.  During  the  year  1921 
the  Sisters  attended  392  new  cases,  spent  1592  whole 
days,  1044  half  days,  and  72  nights  on  cases,  made 
1700  visits  to  cases  new  or  still  pending,  attended 
41  at  the  hour  of  death,  procured  admission  to 


hospitals  for  35,  gave  food  supplies  to  3320,  dis¬ 
tributed  3363  new  garments,  4865  used  garments, 
179  Christmas  red  stockings,  and  gave  85  Christmas 
dinners. 

Innsbruck,  University  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-24b). — 
The  war  and  its  aftermath  have  produced  a  great 
many  problems  in  the  solution  of  which  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Innsbruck  was  involved.  The  award  of 
a  substantial  portion  of  the  Province  of  Austrian 
Tyrol  to  Italy  under  the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain, 
when  under  the  pressure  of  the  first  great  economic 
crisis  it  was  proposed,  in  order  to  create  credits  in 
foreign  countries,  to  sell  the  national  works  of  art, 
the  Academic  Senate  of  the  university  entered 
vigorous  protest,  laying  stress  upon  the  fact  that 
such  means  should  be  adopted  only  after  all  the 
resources  of  the  State  had  been  directed  toward 
forcing  the  profiteers  and  their  accomplices  and 
conscienceless  manufacturers  to  disgorge  that  which 
was  really  due  to  the  Government.  The  university 
opposed  the  establishment  of  the  compulsory  asso¬ 
ciation  of  university  professors,  which  was  directed 
by  an  order  of  the  Ministry  of  Education,  on  the 
ground  that  such  action  on  the  part  of  the  Govern¬ 
ment  constituted  an  undermining  of  the  basic 
autonomy  granted  by  law  to  the  universities.  The 
Academic  Senate  also  opposed  an  increase  in  the 
tuition  fees,  as  well  as  re-introduction  of  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  payments  by  students  direct  to  the  pro¬ 
fessors  as  an  additional  fee  for  attendance  upon 
the  courses  given  by  such  professors.  An  attack 
was  also  made  upon  the  time-honored  practice  of 
using  Latin  formulas  in  the  conferring  of  Academic 
Degrees.  While  the  university  recognized  that  the 
language  of  such  promotion  formulae  were  anti¬ 
quated,  and  in  many  instances  did  violence  to  the 
scientific  feelings  of  the  philologists,  nevertheless 
because  of  the  fact  that  the  question  is  by  no  means 
of  basic  importance,  and  because  the  Academic 
Senate  in  these  times  of  radical  change  felt  it  de¬ 
sirable  to  adhere  to  a  conservative  course,  the 
movement  to  abolish  such  formulae  and  standards 
has  not  thus  far  been  successful. 

For  the  first  time  in  decades  an  academic  celebra¬ 
tion,  which  hitherto  had  been  impossible  because 
of  the  political  and  religious  cleavage  in  the  student 
body,  was  held  on  4  December,  1919,  to  celebrate 
the  return  of  the  students  who  had  participated 
in  the  war.  The  university  and  the  Ministry  of 
Education  vied  with  one  another  in  order  to  find 
ways  and  means  to  facilitate  the  education  and 
instruction  of  these  returning  soldiers.  As  a  con¬ 
sequence  credit  was  given  to  such  students  for 
service  in  the  army  as  far  as  possible,  an  extra 
semester  was  added  and  the  requirements  of  exami¬ 
nations  were  reduced  as  far  as  it  was  compatible 
with  the  feeling  of  responsibility  of  the  academic 
teacher.  The  lightening  of  the  financial  burdens 
of  the  students  was  accomplished  through  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  a  Mensa  Academica,  where  meals  are 
served  to  needy  students,  either  without  charge  or 
for  a  nominal  consideration.  Support  was  given  to 
this  undertaking  through  large  donations  on  the 
part  of  the  professors,  through  suitable  contribu¬ 
tions,  and  principally  by  the  National  Auxiliary 
Council  of  Tyrol,  as  well  as  a  large  gift  from  the 
Convention  of  German  Cities  through  the  instru¬ 
mentality  of  the  Municipal  Councils  and  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  of  Tyrol.  However,  these  means  were  not 
sufficient  to  relieve  the  great  needs  of  the  students 
and  help  from  abroad  was  necessary.  As  the  result 
of  a  gift  from  Holland  it  was  possible  to  provide 
the  students  a  daily  breakfast  prepared  by  their 
female  fellow  students.  Contributions  from  Sweden, 


INQUISITION 


INSTITUTE  OF  MARY 


Switzerland,  and  America,  as  well  as  from  the 
Quakers,  provided  means  for  furnishing  luncheon 
and  dinner  to  the  students.  In  addition  to  the 
above  a  contribution  which  arrived  in  the  summer 
of  the  year  1920  from  Rochester,  New  York,  and 
Chicago,  Illinois,  consisting  of  lard,  bacon,  flour, 
rice,  corn  beef  and  condensed  milk,  valued  at 
100,250,000  cronin,  relieved  anxiety,  supply  of  neces¬ 
saries  _  for  months,  and  removed  a  tremendous 
financial  burden.  Free  meals  at  the  Mensa 
Academica  tvere  supplied  during  the  winter  semester 
to  eighty  students,  and  during  the  summer  semester 
to  ninety-three  students. 

Below  is  given  a  table  showing  the  apportionment 
of  the  instructional  staff  at  the  university : 


Professors 

Ordinary 

Professors 

Extraordinary 

Private 

Dozenten 

Dozenten 

Lecturer 

Instructors 
and  Assistants 

Theology  . 

10 

4 

1 

Law . 

13 

1 

3 

Medicine  . 

16 

6 

10 

1 

40 

Philosophy  . 

33 

5 

10 

2 

5 

8 

Totals  . 

72 

16 

21 

6 

5 

48 

Entire  total,  168. 

During  the  year  1919-1920  the  following  was 
the  attendance  at  the  lectures  given  by  the  various 
faculties : 


Winter 

Semester 

Summer 

Semester 

Theology  . 

85 

66 

Law  . 

117 

114 

Medicine  . 

185 

195 

Philosophy  . 

290 

304 

Total  . 

677 

679 

The  university  has  also  undertaken  a  series  of 
popular  lectures  which  are  open  to  the  public 
without  charge.  These  lectures  were  given  on  a 
variety  of  subjects,  for  instance,  philosophical, 
social,  historical,  scientific,  medical  and  legal.  The 
total  attendance  at  these  courses  was  1428. 

Inquisition,  Canonical  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-38b).— 
Though  the  special  inquisition  preliminary  to  enter¬ 
taining  a  charge  of  crime  against  a  cleric  may  be 
held  by  the  local  ordinary,  it  is  usually  entrusted 
to  one  of  the  synodal  judges,  or  for  special  reasons 
to  another  priest.  The  inquisitor  must  be  dele¬ 
gated  specially  on  each  occasion  and  for  a  single 
case  only,  and  can  never  act  in  the  same  trial  as 
judge.  When  his  report  indicates  that  the  denuncia¬ 
tion  is  without  solid  foundation,  a  record  of  this 
fact  is  to  be  kept  in  the  secret  archives;  if,  how¬ 
ever,  there  are  indications  of  a  crime  having  been 
committed  which  are  insufficient  for  citing  the  cleric 
for  trial,  the  record  is  to  be  similarly  preserved 
and  the  conduct  of  the  suspected  party  is  to  be 
kept  under  supervision ;  finally,  if  the  evidence  is 
certain  or  at  least  probable  and  sufficient  for 
formulating  an  accusation,  the  cleric  should  be  sum¬ 
moned  to  appear. 

Institute  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian 

Schools  (Cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-56a).— Members  of  this 
congregation  take  annual  vows  at  the  end  of  their 


novitiate,  triennial  vows  at  twrcnty-two  years  of 
age,  and  are  admitted  to  perpetual  profession  at 
the  age  of  twenty-five.  The  present  superior  gen- 
erid  is  Brother  Imier  de  Jesus  Lafabregue,  born  in 
18, >o  entered  the  institute  in  1869,  provincial  visitor 
to  the  United  States,  assistant  general  in  1907,  and 
?Jeute,  superior  general  in  1913,  replacing  Brother 
uabnel-Mane,  who  resigned  because  of  his  ad¬ 
vanced  age.  There  are:  in  Belgium  85  establish¬ 
ments  conducted  by  the  Brothers,  comprising  about 
do  popular  free  schools,  boarding  schools,  official 
normal  schools,  and  trade  schools  known  as  St. 
Luke  schools;  35  houses  in  Germany,  Austria  Hun¬ 
gary,  Bohemia,  Galicia,  Albania,  Bulgaria,  and 
Rumania;  in  Spain,  including  the  Canaries  and  the 
Balearic  Isles,  136  houses  of  the  institute,  of  which 
about  111  are  popular  gratuitous  schools;  in  Italy 
37  houses  of  which  9  are  in  Rome;  in  the  Levant, 
Tui  key ,  Syria,  and  Egypt,  50  houses  which  are 
centers  of  Christian  education  and  influence  and 
are  liberally  patronized  by  the  people  of  those 
countries;  in  the  district  of  England  and  Ireland 
3o  houses,  the  Brothers  for  the  most  part  being 
engaged  in  the  national  schools;  95  houses  in 
Mexico,  Cuba,  Ecuador,  Colombia,  Panama,  Argen- 
Venezuela,  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Brazil; 
and  66  houses  with  nearly  24,000  pupils  in  Canada. 
In  the  United  States  the  institute  has  four  prov¬ 
inces,  Baltimore,  New  York,  St.  Louis,  and  San 
Irancisco.  In  the  Baltimore  province  the  Brothers 
conduct  establishments  in  the  Archdioceses  of 
Baltimore  and  Philadelphia,  arid  in  the  dioceses  of 
Newark,  Richmond,  Savannah,  Scranton,  and 
Wheeling.  The  Brothers  number  225,  novices  30 
scholastics  9,  junior  novices  33,  pupils  7136,  orphans 
720,  pupils  in  industrial  schools  839.  In  the  New 
York  province  the  Brothers  conduct  38  establish¬ 
ments  in  the  archdioceses  of  New  York,  Boston 
and  Halifax,  and  in  the  dioceses  of  Albany,  Buffalo’ 
Brooktyn,  Detroit,  Manchester,  Fall  River,  Syracuse 
and  Providence.  There  are  460  Brothers,  15  novices’ 

7  scholastics,  40  postulants,  16,000  pupils.  In  the 
St.  Louis  province  the  Brothers  conduct  establish¬ 
ments  in  the  archdioceses  of  Chicago,  St.  Louis, 
and  St.  Paul,  and  in  the  dioceses  of  Kansas  City’ 
St.  Joseph,  Duluth,  Nashville,  and  Winona.  The 
Brothers  number  208,  novices  13,  postulants  37, 
scholastics  9,  pupils  3300,  colleges  2,  high  schools  12, 
parochial  schools  2.  In  the  San  Francisco  province 
the  Brothers  conduct  establishments  in  the  arch¬ 
dioceses  of  Oregon  City  and  San  Francisco,  and 
in  the  dioceses  of  Sacramento  and  Los  Angeles. 
There  are  80  Brothers,  1  scholastic,  4  novices,  18 
postulants,  2562  pupils,  1  college,  4  high  schools, 

3  parochial  schools,  1  orphanage  and  industrial 
school,  1  scholasticate  and  normal  training  school, 

1  novitiate,  1  j  uni  orate. 

J-  B.  de  la  Salle,  Etude  pedagogique  (Avignon. 
1914);  Wolters,  De  H.  Johannes  Baptista  de  la  Salle,  stichter 
der  Cong r eg atie  de  Broeders  der  Christelijke  Scholen  (’ s  Gra- 
venhage,  1919) ;  Brug,  Der  heilige  Johannes  Baptist  de  la  Salle 
wid  seme  padagogigische  Stiftung  (Ratisbon,  1918);  Revue 
Beige  de  Pedagogie,  Manuel  du  Catecjiiste,  methodologie  de 
l  enseignement  de  la  religion  (Paris,  1907);  Histoire  de  la 
pedagogie  (Gembloux,  1919). 

Institute  of  Mary  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-54a).— Owing 
to  the  political  disturbances  in  Europe  during  the 
last  three  centuries,  the  Institute  of  Maiy  has 
been  split  up  into  several  generalates.  At  the 
present  day  (1922)  there  are  subject  to  the  Insti¬ 
tute  in  Bavaria  126  houses:  107  in  Bavaria  itself, 

5  in  England,  3  in  Italy,  5  in  Rumania,  and  6  in 
India.  Of  these  13  are  new  foundations.  The 
total  number  of  members  is  3345.  In  Bavaria  the 
number  of  pupils  is  38,860;  in  Rumania,  3300;  in 
India,  980;  in  England,  580;  in  Italy,  490.  In  1911 


INSTITUTE  OF  MARY 


406 


INTERDICT 


Mother  Elise  Blume  was  succeeded  as  general 
superior  in  Nymphenburg  by  Mother  Isabella  Wild. 
Mother  Magdalen  Gremion,  foundress  of  the  first 
house  in  Rome  in  modern  times,  died  in  1913. 
The  Austrian  branch  of  the  Institute  consists  at 
present  (1922)  of  12  houses,  3  of  which  are  new 
foundations.  It  has  739  members,  52  schools  with 
7800  pupils.  The  house  in  Prague  had  to  be  sold 
to  the  Government  during  the  World  War;  the 
house  at  Zara  was  taken  over  by  another  Congrega¬ 
tion  in  1921.  In  1913  Mother  J.  Castiglione  was 
succeeded  by  Mother  Barbara  Gottlieb  as  general 
superior  in  Austria.  Mainz,  a  separate  generalate 
since  the  time  of  Napoleon,  has  now  8  dependencies 
with  277  members,  25  educational  establishments, 
and  3759  pupils.  Mother  Thaddae  Lechner  was 
succeeded  in  1919  by  Mother  Paula  Rang  as  gen¬ 
eral  superior. 

In  1913  new  Constitutions  according  to  the 
Normas  were  approved  for  the  Irish  branch  of  the 
Institute,  which  is  now  divided  into  provinces. 
In  1919  Mother  Raphael  Deasy  succeeded  Mother 
Michael  Corcoran,  who  for  thirty  years  governed 
as  mother  general  the  houses  dependent  on  Rath¬ 
farnham.  Distinguished  members  deceased  were: 
Mother  Teresa  Ball  (d.  1911),  assistant  general  for 
nineteen  years;  Mother  Gonzaga  Barry  (d.  1915), 
foundress  of  the  Institute  in  Australia  and  first 
provincial;  Mother  Stanislaus  Murphy  (d.  1919), 
foundress  of  the  Institute  in  Spain  and  first  pro¬ 
vincial;  Mother  Attracta  Coffey  (d.  1920),  who 
devoted  her  musical  talent  to  the  perfecting  of 
Church  music,  leaving  a  tradition  in  Rathfarnham  as 
to  the  correct  singing  of  plain  chant.  Rathfarnham 
has  49  dependencies,  6  of  which  are  new  founda¬ 
tions.  In  1911  a  hostel  in  Dublin,  and  in  1918  one 
in  Melbourne  were  established  for  students  attend¬ 
ing  the  respective  universities.  The  number  of 
members  subject  to  Rathfarnham  is  1031.  The 
number  of  pupils  is  14,153. 

There  are  four  houses  of  the  Institute  in  the 
United  States.  Canada  has  12,  four  of  them 
being  new  foundations.  Since  1910  it  has  had  four 
general  superiors:  Mother  Ignatia  Lynn,  the  con¬ 
necting  link  between  the  pioneers  of  the  Institute 
in  America  and  their  successors  of  the  present  day; 
Mother  Victorine  Harris;  Mother  Stanislaus 
Liddy;  and  Mother  Pulcheria  Farrelley,  the  present 
mother  general.  In  1911,  at  Toronto,  the  seat  of 
the  Generalate,  Loreto  Abbey  College  was  founded 
as  a  woman’s  department  of  St.  Michael’s  College, 
one  of  the  four  federated  colleges  of  the  University 
of  Toronto.  Of  these  four,  University  College  is 
undenominational,  Victoria  is  Methodist,  Trinity 
is  Anglican,  and  St.  Michael’s  is  Catholic.  The 
first  three  are  co-educational,  and  each  maintains 
a  woman’s  residence  in  connection  with  it.  At 
St.  Michael’s  a  principle  of  segregation  prevails, 
consequently  Loreto  students  enrolled  there,  attend 
lectures  at  Loreto  Abbey  College,  thus  enjoying 
the  unique  advantage  of  pursuing  their  studies  in  a 
Catholic  college  and  of  obtaining  their  degree  from 
a  university  whose  high  standing  is  recognized  both 
throughout  the  British  Empire  and  in  the  United 
States.  The  number  of  members  subject  to  Tor¬ 
onto  is  350.  They  have  33  schools  with  7804 
pupils. 

Among  prominent  ecclesiastics  anxious  to  advance 
at  Rome  the  cause  of  Mary  Ward,  foundress  of 
the  Institute,  are  Cardinal  Bourne  and  Cardinal 
Gasquet.  In  the  preface  to  “Mary  Ward,  a  Sketch,” 
recently  published  by  the  Catholic  Truth  Society, 
Cardinal  Bourne  expresses  the  hope  that  “an  in¬ 
creased  knowledge  of  her  life  may  lead  to  a  greater 
appreciation  of  her  work;  may  it  be  the  means  of 


uniting  into  one  great  organization  the  widely  scat¬ 
tered  branches  of  her  Institute;  may  it  bring  about 
in  God’s  own  day  her  publicly  authorized  invoca¬ 
tion.” 

Institution,  Canonical  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII-65). — The 
right  of  instituting  parish  priests  belongs  to  the 
bishop,  unless  the  parish  has  been  reserved  to  the 
Holy  See,  all  customs  to  the  contrary  being 
reprobated.  Canonical  institution  to  a  benefice 
cannot  be  granted  by  a  vicar  general  without  a 
special  mandate. 

Intendencia  Oriental  y  Llanos  de  San  Martin, 

Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-69a),  in 
Colombia.  The  present  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Jose  Maria  Guiot,  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of 
Augustopolis  in  1908.  The  vicariate  comprises 
34,749  square  miles,  and  has  a  population  of  about 
30,000  Indians.  There  are  5  residences  or  parishes, 
2  vice-parishes,  and  14  religious.  Several  Sisters  of 
Wisdom  are  active  in  the  vicariate. 

Inter-Church  World  Movement.  See  Protes¬ 
tantism. 

Interdict  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-73b). — The  right  of  im¬ 
posing  any  general  interdict,  affecting  a  diocese 
or  state  is  reserved  to  the  Holy  See;  but  a  general 
interdict  affecting  a  parish  or  its  parishioners,  or  a 
particular  local  or  personal  interdict  may  be  im¬ 
posed  by  the  bishop  also.  Extems  and  exempted 
individuals  are  obliged  to  observe  a  local  interdict. 

The  sacraments  and  sacramentals  can  always  be 
administered  to  the  dying  in  spite  of  a  local  inter¬ 
dict;  moreover,  except  it  is  expressly  forbidden, 
if  the  interdict  is  general  and  local:  (a)  priests  not 
personally  indicated  may  perform  all  Divine  services 
in  any  church  or  public  oratory  privately,  in  a 
low  voice,  without  bells,  and  with  closed  doors; 
(b)  in  the  cathedral  church,  parish  churches  or  in 
the  only  church  in  a  town,  and  only  in  these,  it  is 
lawful  to  say  a  daily  Mass,  reserve  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  administer  baptism,  Holy  Communion, 
penance,  assist  at  marriages,  though  the  nuptial 
blessing  is  prohibited,  hold  funeral  services 
without  any  solemnity,  bless  baptismal  water  and  the 
sacred  oils,  and  preach.  In  these  ceremonies  there 
must  be  no  music,  singing,  or  pomp;  the  Viaticum 
is  to  be  carried  privately  to  the  sick.  Though  local 
interdicts  are  suspended  on  certain  great  feasts,  still 
the  prohibition  against  ordination  or  the  solemn 
blessing  of  marriage  remains  in  force.  Interdiction  of 
a  church  involves  neighboring  chapels,  but  not  the 
cemetery;  interdiction  of  a  cemetery  involves  the 
oratories  in  it,  but  not  the  neighboring  church. 

The  following  interdicts  are  incurred  ipso  facto: 
(1)  Universities,  colleges,  chapters,  and  all  other 
legal  persons  who  appeal  from  laws,  decrees  or 
mandates  of  the  reigning  pope  to  a  general  council; 
this  interdict  is  reserved  specially  to  the  Holy 
See.  (2)  Those  who  knowingly  celebrate  or  cause 
to  be  celebrated  the  Divine  offices  in  interdicted 
places;  and  those  who  admit  clerics  who  have  been 
excommunicated,  interdicted,  or  suspended  by  a 
declaratory  or  a  condemnatory  sentence,  to  cele¬ 
brate  the  Divine  offices  from  which  they  have  been 
excluded  by  censure,  incur  ipso  jure  an  interdict 
against  entering  the  church,  which  remains  in  force 
until  in  the  judgment  of  the  person  whose. authority 
was  condemned  they  have  made  due  satisfac¬ 
tion.  It  should  be  noted  that  what  is  penalized 
here  is  the  admission  to  celebrate  the  Divine  offices, 
not  attendance  at  them.  By  “Divine  offices”  is 
meant  those  functions  of  the  power  of  orders  which 
by  the  institution  of  Christ  or  of  the  Church  are 
ordained  for  the  worship  of  God  and  can  be  exer- 


IOWA 


407 


IOWA 


ciscd  only  by  clerics.  The  interdict  would  not 
be  incurred  unless  the  reason  why  the  party  should 
have  been  excluded  was  that  he  had  been  cen¬ 
sured  by  sentence,  formerly  the  motiye  for  exclu¬ 
sion  was  excommunication  by  name.  (3)  A 
personal  interdict  falls  on  those  who  have  furnished 
cause  for  a  local  interdict  or  for  an  interdict 
affecting  a  community  or  college.  This  interdict 
not  being  reserved,  the  party  affected  can  be  ab¬ 
solved  sacramentally  by  any  confessor.  (4)  An 
interdict  .from  entering  the  church,  reserved  to  the 
ordinary,  is  incurred  by  anyone  who  willingly  gives 
ecclesiastical  burial  to  infidels,  apostates  from  the 
Faith,  heretics,  schismatics,  or  other  persons  who  are 
excommunicated  or  interdicted,  in  violation  of  the 
ecclesiastical  regulations  governing  Christian  burial. 
Naturally,  as  the  pastor  or  rector  of  the  church 
is  the  only  person  who  authorizes  the  ceremonies 
of  Christian  burial,  it  is  he  alone,  and  not  those 
who  request  him,  that  incurs  this  censure,  which  is 
reserved  to  the  ordinary. 

In  addition  to  these  four  cases  in  which  interdict 
is  explicitly  mentioned  we  may  note  that  Catholics 
who  dare  to  contract  mixed  marriages,  even  if  the 
marriage  is  valid,  without  a  dispensation  from  the 
Church  are  ipso  facto  excluded  from  the  sacraments 
until  a  dispensation  has  been  granted  by  the  ordi¬ 
nary.  Moreover,  a  personal  interdict  is  to  be  im¬ 
posed  on  those  who  mutilate  corpses  or  violate 
graves  for  an  evil  purpose,  and  also  on  those  who 
while  still  bound  by  the  marriage  bond  have  at¬ 
tempted  to  contract  another  marriage,  even  a  civil 
marriage,  and  who  continue  this  unlawful  union 
after  being  warned  by  the  ordinary. 

Formerly,  the  Council  of  Trent  in  order  to 
force  bishops  to  reside  in  their  dioceses  imposed 
on  metropolitans  the  duty  of  denouncing  those  who 
failed  to  do  so  to  the  Holy  See,  if  they  had  absented 
themselves  for  more  than  a  year.  If  the  metro¬ 
politan  did  not  do  so,  he  incurred  an  interdict 
against  entering  his  church.  Chapters,  also,  were 
forbidden  under  penalty  of  interdict  to  grant  dimis- 
sorial  letters  during  a  vacancy — except  in  the  case 
of  those  who  had  to  be  ordained  on  account  of  a 
benefice;  and,  later,  an  interdict  against  entering 
church  was  imposed  on  bishops  who  illegally  took 
over  the  administration  of  their  dioceses.  These 
penalties,  however,  are  no  longer  in  force. 

Ayrinhac,  Penal  Legislation,  124-144. 

Iowa  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-93c) . — The  State  of  Iowa 
has  an  area  of  56,147  sq.  miles  or  35,934,080  acres. 
During  the  ten  years  from  1908  to  1918  the  average 
extremes  of  temperature  were  106°  above  and  34° 
below  zero.  During  the  same  period  the  average 
rainfall  was  27  inches.  For  the  year  1918  the  mean 
temperature  was  49.2°;  the  highest  temperature  was 
113°  (4  August),  in  Clarinda,  Knoxville,  and 

Shenandoah  in  the  southern  part  of  the  State;  the 
lowest  temperature  was  40°  below  zero  (20  Decem¬ 
ber)  in  Washta,  Cherokee  County,  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  state.  The  average  amount  of  rain 
and  melted  snow  for  the  year  was  32.78  inches. 

Industrial  and  General  Social  Conditions. — 
The  value  of  the  agricultural  products  of  the  State 
in  1919,  according  to  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  was  $861,338,000.  This  includes 
416,000,000  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  valued  at  $499,- 
200,000,  and  196,182,000  bushels  of  oats,  valued  at 
$125,556,000.  The  state  now  ranks  first  in  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  oats  and  corn  and  in  the  number  of 
swine  and  horses.  The  value  of  dairy  products 
for  the  year  1919  was  $100,000,000.  The  mineral 
output  for  the  same  year  was  8,192,195  tons,  valued 
at  $24,703,232.  In  the  year  1918  the  value  of  clay 


products  was  $5,313,394.  The  value  of  the  output 

0t  miKl?££iures  for  the  last  statistical  year,  1919, 
was  $746,774,000.  1  he  total  mileage  of  railways  in 

the  State  in  1918  was  9,837.7,  and  the  total  mileage 
of  electric  mterurban  railways  was  887.1.  According 
to  the  Federal  Census  of  1920,  the  population  of 
Jlowa  was  2  403,630;  that  of  Des  Moines,  the  largest 
city,  126,468.  The  next  largest  cities  in  order  are 
Sioux  City,  Davenport,  and  Dubuque.  The  Federal 
Census  of  1916  gives  the  membership  of  the  various 
churches  as  follows:  Methodist  Episcopal,  325,959- 
Catholic,  206,701;  Lutheran,  107,523;  Presbyterian, 
47,159. 

Education  is  compulsory  for  children  between 
the  ages  of  seven  and  sixteen  years  inclusive.  In 
1917  the  number  of  school  houses  was  13,227,  the 
number  of  teachers,  27,227 ;  the  enrollment  of  pupils. 
532,060,  and  the  total  appropriation  for  educational 
purposes  for  the  year  $32,395,988.  There  are  905 
high  schools  in  the  State.  In  1919  the  State  Univer¬ 
sity  had  260  professors  and  instructors,  and  2889 
students  enrolled.  There  are  in  the  State  226 
^private  denominational  and  higher  educational  in¬ 
stitutions.  The  State  laws  relative  to  private  and 
parochial  schools  are  as  follows :  the  medium  of 
instruction  in  all  secular  subjects  taught  in  all  the 
schools,  public  and  private,  shall  be  the  English 
language,  and  the  use  of  any  language  other  than 
English  in  secular  subjects  in  said  schools  is  hereby 
prohibited,  provided,  however,  that  nothing  herein 
shall  prohibit  the  teaching  and  studying  of  foreign 
languages  as  such;  private  schools  must  furnish 
attendance  reports;  the  common  branches  of  ele¬ 
mentary  education  must  be  taught  in  private 
schools.  Instruction  in  citizenship  must  also  be 
given;  private  high  schools  may  be  designated  to 
conduct  normal  training  courses. 

Catholic  Education. — In  the  year  1920  there  were 
in  the  State  33,845  pupils  attending  parochial 
schools,  and  6929  students  in  academies  and  high 
schools.  Dubuque  College,  diocesan,  formerly  St. 
Joseph’s,  has  165  students  and  St.  Ambrose  College, 
also  diocesan,  has  302  students. 

Recent  History. — During  the  European  War, 
Iowa  contributed  98,000  soldiers,  10,000  sailors,  and 
600  marines,  all  of  whom  accredited  themselves 
honorably.  Headquarters  First  Iowa  Brigade  was 
reorganized  into  the  67th  Brigade  Headquarters, 
34th  Division,  entrained  at  Camp  Cody,  New 
Mexico,  and  arrived  in  France,  where  they  were 
skeletonized  at  Le  Mans,  along  with  the  First  Iowa 
Infantry  (133rd  Infantry)  and  the  Second  Iowa 
Infantry.  The  Third  Iowa  Infantry  (168th  U. 
S.  Infantry)  42d  or  Rainbow  Division,  arrived 
at  Rimaucourt,  France,  on  12  December,  1917,  en¬ 
tered  the  line  in  February,  and  participated  in  the 
battles  of  Badonviller,  Lorraine,  Champagne, 
Chateau  Thierry,  Sergy,  St.  Mihiel,  and  Argonne. 
The  rest  of  the  Iowa  men,  organized  into  the  34th 
Division  entrained  at  Camp  Cody,  arrived  in  France 
in  1918  and  saw  little  service.  The  summary  of 
casualties  of  the  Iowa  members  of  the  American 
Expeditionary  Force  was  as  follows:  deceased,  42 
officers  and  2199  men;  prisoners,  8  officers  and  86 
men;  wounded,  106  officers  and  4950  men. 

For  details  of  the  Church  in  Iowa  see  Dubuque, 
Archdiocese  of;  Sioux  City,  Diocese  of;  Daven¬ 
port,  Diocese  of;  Des  Moines,  Diocese  of. 

In  the  state  there  were  (1921)  586  churches,  621 
priests,  34  different  religious  orders,  35  hospitals 
and  asylums,  and  a  Catholic  population  of  about 
262,690. 

Legislative  Changes. — The  Legislature  of  Iowa 
was  one  of  the  first  to  organize  the  commission 
form  of  government  for  cities  and  the  system  of  the 


IRELAND 


408 


IRELAND 


city  government  adopted  by  Des  Moines  in  1907, 
became  known  as  the  Des  Moines  system.  In  1911 
it  created  the  office  of  commerce  counsel  to  inves¬ 
tigate  railroad  rates  and  matters  pertaining  to  com¬ 
merce.  In  the  same  year  the  office  of  dairy  and 
food  commissioner  was  created.  A  stringent  child 
labor  law  was  passed  in  1915.  The  contract  prison 
labor  system  was  recently  abolished.  Iowa  has  a 
workman’s  compensation  law  and  laws  providing 
for  safety  in  coal  mines.  There  is  a  pure  food 
law,  conforming  in  its  requirements  to  the  national 
law.  There  are  statutory  provisions  for  direct 
primaries,  for  direct  election  of  senators,  and  for 
non-partisan  nomination  of  judges  of  the  supreme 
district,  and  superior  courts.  The  property  rights 
of  husbands  and  wives  are  equal,  each  upon  the 
death  of  the  other  inheriting  one-third  of  his  or  her 
real  estate,  while  neither  is  responsible  for  the  debts 
of  the  other.  The  State  ratified  the  Federal  suf¬ 
frage  amendment,  2  July,  1919,  and  the  prohibition 
amendment,  15  January,  1919,  the  thirty-first  State 
to  do  so. 

* 

Ireland  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-98b). — The  history  of 
Ireland  since  1913  centers  chiefly  around  the  death 
of  the  Home  Rule  movement  and  the  sanguinary 
struggle  for  independence  during  and  after  the 
European  War,  which  was  professedly  fought  to 
dethrone  might  as  the  basis  of  right  and  to  liberate 
subject  nationalities.  Ireland  is  a  distinct  and 
separate  nation,  the  oldest  in  Europe,  except  Greece. 
It  has  a  population  of  more  than  4,500,000,  and  in 
that  surpasses  Norway,  Denmark,  and  Switzerland. 
It  has  an  area  of  32,531  sq.  miles,  and  is  larger 
than  Belgium,  Holland,  Denmark,  or  Switzerland, 
or  any  two  of  them  combined.  In  1918-19  the 
British  Government  collected  $170,000,000  in  taxes 
in  Ireland,  and  spent  there  $65,000,000,  reaping  a 
net  profit  of  $105,000,000.  The  cost  of  government 
in  other  small  countries  before  the  war  was : 
Servia,  $26,000,000;  Greece,  $27,000,000;  Switzer¬ 
land,  $35,000,000;  Bulgaria,  $35,000,000;  Norway, 
$36,000,000;  Denmark,  $47,500,000.  In  1917  Portugal 
did  a  business  of  $115,000,000;  Norway,  $210,000,000; 
Denmark,  $325,000,000;  Sweden,  $375,000,000;  while 
Ireland  did  a  business  of  $820,000,000.  In  view  of 
these  figures  and  of  the  fact  that  the  Irish  had 
never  voluntarily  accepted  any  union  with  England, 
it  was  but  natural  for  the  Irish  to  accept  the  state¬ 
ments  and  professions  of  the  governments  of  the 
world  and  insist  on  their  right  to  freedom.  The 
present  movement  in  Ireland  for  independence  was 
linked  up  with  an  unending  series  of  wars  and 
revolts  against  English  rule,  since  the  first  attempt 
to  subdue  the  island.  It  originated  at  the  moment 
when  the  agitation  for  Home  Rule  had  failed  in 
circumstances  of  extreme  humiliation.  The  many 
times  reiterated  promise  of  a  very  limited  measure 
of  self-government  had  been  violated  and  the 
British  Government  had  virtually  pledged  its  word, 
on  the  contrary,  to  divide  Ireland  for  the  first  time 
in  history.  When  it  seemed  probable  that  some 
measure  of  Home  Rule  would  have  to  be  given  to 
Ireland,  the  British  supporters  in  N.  E.  Ulster  had 
been  encouraged  and  permitted  to  organize  Well- 
armed  volunteer  forces  to  resist  Home  Rule.  When 
the  Irish,  to  meet  this  menace,  began  their  volun¬ 
teer  movement  and  attempted  to  secure  arms,  the 
British  interfered  and  peaceful  citizens  were  wan¬ 
tonly  fired  on  by  the"  British  military  bn  the  last 
Sunday  in  July,  1914.  Meanwhile  the  workingmen 
of  Dublin  were  forming  their  citizen  army,  while 
Countess  Markiewicz  had  founded  the  Fianna  na 
h-Eireann  or  Irish  boy  scouts,  two  bodies  that  made 
the  1916  revolt  possible.  When  the  war  broke  out 


a  few  days  later,  the  Irish,  forgetting  the  past, 
enlisted  voluntarily  in  the  British  Army,  in  re¬ 
sponse  to  a  plea  by  the  British  imploring  them 
to  enlist  to  help  Belgium,  where  the  nuns  and 
priests  were  being  slam,  they  declared,  and  the 
churches  destroyed  by  the  German  Protestants. 
When  it  was  believed  that  the  war  would  not  last 
long,  the  parties  responsible  for  the  arming  of  N.  E. 
Ulster  against  Home  Rule  made  vigorous  efforts  to 
discourage  the  Irish  Catholics  from  enlisting,  lest 
they  should  learn  the  use  of  arms,  and  so  be  in  a 
position  to  meet  any  pro-British  rising  in  N.  E.. 
Ulster  in  case  Home  Rule  was  granted.  The  author¬ 
ities  at  the  War  Office  in  London  refused  Redmond’s 
offer  of  his  Irish  volunteers  as  an  Irish  unit  for  a 
similar  motive.  Dazzled  by  the  thought  of  fighting 
to  liberate  small  nationalities,  Ireland  had  come  near 
losing  her  own  soul,  when  on  Easter  Monday,  24 
April,  1916,  Patrick  Pearse,  James  Connolly,  Thomas 
Clarke,  Joseph  Plunkett,  and  their  associates, 
rose  in  sudden  revolt  in  Dublin,  proclaimed  the 
independence  of  Ireland,  and  unfurled  the  Irish 
tricolor.  For  a  week  a  bitter  fight  was  staged,  the 
British  violating  the  internationally  accepted  Red 
Cross  regulations.  The  revolt  was  crushed,  but  only 
after  heavy  losses  had  been  inflicted  on  the  British. 
Less  than  1100  Irish  soldiers,  and  these  included 
women  like  Countess  Markiewicz  in  their  ranks, 
participated  in  the  active  fighting;  of  these  58 
were  killed,  while  16  leaders  were  court-martialed 
and  shot.  The  revolt  took  the  populace  by  sur¬ 
prise,  and  was  not  in  general  approved  at  first. 
Archbishop  Harty  and  Bishops  Hoare,  Gilmartin 
and  Morrisroe  condemned  it  severely.  Bishop 
O’Dwyer,  however,  and  later  Archbishop  Mannix  of 
Melbourne,  won  the  affection  of  Irish  race  by  their 
protests  against  the  cruelty  of  the  British  com¬ 
mander-in-chief  and  by  upholding  Ireland’s  rights 
to  self-determination.  The  public  was  shocked  by 
the  method  of  executing  the  leaders  by  twos  or 
threes  over  an  extended  period,  and  particularly  by 
the  execution  of  James  Connolly,  the  noted  labor 
leader,  who,  having  been  severely  wounded  in  the 
fighting,  was  nursed  back  to  health  sufficiently  to 
allow  him  to  be  carried  out  on  the  chair  to  face 
the  rifles  of  the  firing  squad. 

About  4,000  Irishmen,  mostly  leaders  of  the 
patriotic  party,  were  deported  to  England  after 
the  suppression  of  the  revolt.  An  attempt  made 
by  the  Irish  Nation  League  in  August,  1916,  to 
induce  the  people  to  consent  to  remain  in  the 
British  Empire  failed.  The  national  consciousness 
of  the  nation  was  awakening.  In  February,  1917, 
Count  Plunkett,  father  of  Joseph  Plunkett,  won  a 
striking  victory  at  an  election  in  which  his  plat¬ 
form  was  complete  Irish  independence.  This  vic¬ 
tory  was  followed  by  a  convention  of  the  public 
bodies  in  Ireland,  which  re-asserted  the  nationality 
of  Ireland  and  pledged  itself  to  use  every  means 
to  secure  independence.  The  British  premier, 
Lloyd  George,  thereupon  proposed  a  convention 
of  Irishmen  exclusively  to  arrange  a  settlement  of 
the  Irish  question  and  pledged  the  British  Govern¬ 
ment  to  accept  any  solution  of  the  Irish  question 
upon  which  the  convention  could  reach  a  substantial 
agreement,  with  the  sole  exception  that  Ireland 
must  remain  within  the  empire.  The  proposal  was 
accepted  by  the  Unionists  and  Parliamentarian 
Nationalists,  but  was  rejected  by  the  Sinn  Fein 
party,  who  refused  to  be  present  unless  all  the 
delegates  should  be  elected  by  adult  suffrage,  and 
unless  the  convention  should  be  free  to  decree 
independence.  The  term  Sinn  Fein,  meaning  “out- 
selves,”  was  originally  given  by  Arthur  Griffith  to 
his  movement  to  have  Irishmen  abandon  the  British 


IRELAND 


409 


IRELAND 


Parliament  and  rely  on  themselves  to  improve  their 
conditions,  but  it  had  come  to  mean  the  patriotic 
party  that  demanded  complete  national  indepen¬ 
dence.  The  convention  met  without  the  Sinn  Fein 
party  on  25  July,  1917.  There  were  101  delegates, 
none  of  whom  was  chosen  by  election.  Meanwhile 
Eamonn  do  Valera,  who  had  made  a  brilliant 
defence  of  his  position  in  the  revolt  of  1916,  and 
who  had  been  sentenced  to  death,  a  penalty  com¬ 
muted  later  to  penal  servitude  for  life,  was  elected 
for  East  Clare  on  the  Irish  Republic  ticket.  On 
25  October,  1917,  he  was  chosen  president  of  the 
Sinn  Fein  organization,  which  pledged  itself  to 
make  it  impossible  for  England  to  hold  Ireland. 
As  was  expected,  Lloyd  George,  on  25  February, 
1918,  intervened  in  the  convention  and  declared 
that  Great  Britain  must  control  the  Irish  customs 
and  excise.  The  convention  failed,  partly  because 
of  the  attitude  of  the  Unionists  of  N.  E.  Ulster, 
and  partly  because  of  the  new  limitations  imposed 
by  Lloyd  George  in  violation  of  his  pledge.  The 
Nationalists  and  the  other  Unionists,  had  agreed 
to  accept  limited  self-government;  but  before 
reading  their  report  Lloyd  George  announced  he 
had  decided  to  conscript  the  Irish.  His  threat 
■was  met  at  once  by  a  union  of  the  Sinn  Fein, 
Labor  and  Parliamentary  parties  to  defeat  this 
attack  on  the  nation’s  prerogative,  and  an  appeal 
to  the  Irish  to  resist  by  force.  The  answer  was 
unanimous,  and  the  hierarchy  declared  their  resis¬ 
tance  by  force  to  be  morally  justified.  A  month 
later  the  British  replied,  deporting  and  imprisoning 
about  100  of  the  leading  Irishmen  without  any 
legal  formality.  To  justify  himself  in  the  eyes  of 
the  world,  especially  of  America,  Lloyd  George 
said  he  had  discovered  an  Irish-German  plot.  He 
was  at  once  challenged  by  the  Irish  to  substantiate 
his  charge,  but  he  failed  to  do  so;  the  British 
viceroy  in  Ireland  at  the  time,  Lord  Wimborne, 
admitting  publicly  that  the  plot  was  a  mere  fiction. 
It  was  seen  soon  that  the  enforcement  of  con¬ 
scription  would  be  a  physical  impossibility,  and 
Sinn  Fein  continued  to  spread  rapidly. 

In  December,  1918,  a  general  election  was  held  in 
Ireland.  The  nation  had  a  chance  to  make  a 
deliberate  choice.  The  result  was  phenomenal : 
the  Republicans  triumphed  everywhere,  except  in 
the  N.  E.  corner  of  Ulster,  where  the  British 
“planters”  were  in  a  majority.  The  Republicans, 
however,  refused  to  sit  in  the  British  Parliament, 
as  that  would  have  involved  an  oath  of  allegiance 
to  England,  and  forfeited  thereby  a  deposit  of 
$700  for  each  of  their  members.  The  Republicans 
established  a  parliament  of  their  own — the  Dail 
Eireann — issued  a  declaration  of  independence  and 
elected  De  Valera  president  of  the  Irish  Republic. 

In  1919  the  British  began  a  policy  of  brute 
force.  Republican  leaders  were  seized  and  their 
organizations  declared  illegal;  but  the  local  elec¬ 
tions  in  1920  showed  the  country  was  solid  for 
independence.  The  Republican  victories  in  the 
rural  elections  in  June  were  followed  by  a  Reign 
of  Terror.  For  nearly  a  year  the  lives  and  property 
of  the  Irish  were  at  the  mercy  of  the  constabulary 
and  a  body  of  special  auxiliaries  from  England 
(popularly  called  Black  and  Tans,  from  their  uni¬ 
forms),  some  of  whom  were  criminals  specially 
pardoned  on  condition  that  they  would  go  to  Ire¬ 
land  and  do  what  they  were  told  without  ques¬ 
tioning.  The  Irish  volunteers,  whose  supplies  had 
to  be  smuggled  into  Ireland  in  spite  of  the  vigilance 
of  the  British  Navy,  and  transported  through  it, 
despite  the  fact  that  the  country  was  swarming 
with  British  soldiers,  adopted  guerilla  tactics  and 
carried  on  a  magnificent  fight  for  over  a  year. 


I  heir  success  was  due  to  the  fearless  cooperation 
ol  the  peasantry  and  the  heroism  of  the  women 
and  girls  of  Ireland.  I  he  atrocities  reported  from 
Eui  opean  countries  during  the  war  were  now  re¬ 
enacted  in  Ireland  in  cold  blood  with  the  knowledge 
and  cooperation  of  the  British  authorities.  Cork 
City  with  its  library  was  burned,  as  were  large  areas 
*n  Limerick,  Granard,  and  Balbriggan  and  a  hun¬ 
dred  villages  and  hamlets;  1355  stores  or  shops* 
52  cooperative  creameries;  31  factories;  985  private 
residences;  and  139  halls  and  clubs  were  among 
the  buildings  destroyed  by  the  British  without  mili¬ 
tary  necessity,  merely  as  reprisals  or  intimidation 
between  January,  1920,  and  July,  1921.  The 
destruction  of  property  was  surpassed  by  the 
atrocities  committed  on  non-combatants — a  mas¬ 
sacre  at  Croke  Park,  Dublin,  druing  a  football 
game,  of  women  and  girls  assaulted;  young  mothers 
slam;  priests  assassinated;  prisoners  tortured  before 
execution;  unprintable,  unnatural  tortures  inflicted 
on  the  prisoners  in  the  Irish  gaols;  the  assassina- 
tion  of  the  Lord  Mayor  and  ex-Lord  Mayor  of 
murder  of  Lord  Mayor  MacCurtain 
of  Cork,  which  was  followed  by  the  remarkable 
sacrifice  made  by  Lord  Mayor  Terence  MacSwiney, 
who,  refusing  to  eat  while  a  prisoner  of  the 
British  lest  his  doing  so  should  be  accepted  as  a 
sign  that  he  acknowledged  their  right  to  hold  him 
a  prisoner,  died  in  Brixton  prison,  England,  after 
a  fast  of  more  than  70  days.  Thousands  of  young 
Irishmen  were  flung  into  unsanitary,  vermin-infected 
concentration  camps,  without  being  told  the  why  or 
wherefore.  In  August,  1920,  Archbishop  Mannix 
was  seized  on  the  high  seas  by  the  British  Navy 
and  excluded  from  Ireland. 

It  had  become  apparent  in  the  middle  of  1921 
that  England  could  not  suppress  the  guerilla  war¬ 
fare  except  by  exterminating  the  whole  Irish  peo¬ 
ple.  Foreign  nations  were  becoming  outspoken  in 
their  condemnation  of  her  cruelty.  An  American 
commission  had  declared  that  England  had  sub¬ 
stituted  an  organized  anarchy  for  the  orderly  gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  people’s  choice,  justly  established 
in  face  of  opposition.  Vigorous  protests  were  made 
by  British  generals,  like  Major-General  Sir  Herbert 
Gough,  British  women  like  Lady  Mark  Sykes  and 
Mrs.  Annan  Bryce,  sister-in-law  of  Viscount  Bryce, 
by  the  Anglican  hierarchy  and  leading  noncon¬ 
formist  clergymen.  While  the  Irish  hierarchy  has 
repeatedly  protested  against  the  injustice  and 
atrocities  being  committed  by  the  British  Govern¬ 
ment,  and  condemned  the  excesses  of  some  of  the 
Republicans,  they  refused  formally  to  recognize 
Ireland’s  independence  or  the  legitimacy  of  the 
Dail  Eireann.  On  12  December,  1920,  Bishop 
Cohalan  decreed  the  censure  of  excommunication 
ipso  facto  on  anyone  who  should  “within  the  diocese 
of  Cork  organize  or  take  part  in  an  ambush  or  in 
kidnapping,”  which  practically  forbade  the  Irish  to 
conduct  their  guerilla  warfare  in  the  district;  and 
in  January,  1921,  Archbishop  Gilmartin  of  Tuam 
declared  the  fight  against  the  British  to  be  a  viola¬ 
tion  of  the  moral  law  and  therefore  sinful. 

At  last  a  truce  was  called.  Lloyd  George  and 
De  Valera  met,  but  failed  to  agree.  Meanwhile 
the  Dail  Eireann  assembled  openly,  and  on  16 
August,  1921,  all  its  members  swore  allegiance  to 
the  Irish  Republic  in  the  following  terms:  “I  .  .  .  . 
do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  do  not  and 
shall  not  yield  a  voluntary  support  to  any  pretended 
Government,  Authority,  or  Power  within  Ireland 
hostile  and  inimical  thereto;  and  I  do  further 
swear  (or  affirm)  that  to  the  best  of  my  knowl¬ 
edge  and  ability  I  will  support  and  defend  the 
Irish  Republic  and  the  Government  of  the  Irish 


IRELAND 


410 


IRELAND 


Republic,  which  is  the  Dail  Eireann,  against  all 
enemies,  foreign  and  domestic;  that  I  will  bear 
true  faith  and  allegiance  to  the  same;  and  that 
I  take  this  obligation  freely,  without  any  mental 
reservation  or  purpose  of  evasion,  so  help  me  God.” 
The  oath  was  administered  in  the  Irish  language. 

A  new  conference  was  arranged  a  little  later,  and 
Messrs.  Griffith,  Collins,  Barton,  Duggan  and 
Gavan  Duffy  were  authorized  by  the  Dail  on  7 
October  “as  envoys  plenipotentiary  from  the  elected 
government  of  the  Republic  of  reland  to  negotiate 
and  conclude  on  behalf  of  Ireland  with  the  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  His  Britannic  Majesty,  George  V,  a 
treaty  or  treaties  of  settlement,  association,  and 
accommodation  between  Ireland  and  the  community 
of  nations  known  as  the  British  Commonwealth.” 
This  parley  took  place  and  on  6  December,  1921,  a 
series  of  articles  of  agreement  were  signed  by  the 
plenipotentiaries.  As  the  articles  provided  for  the 
inclusion  of  the  Irish  within  the  British  Empire 
and  accepted  the  partitioning  of  the  country,  the 
delegates  in  affixing  their  signatures  acted  contrary 
to  their  instructions.  They  explained  later,  how¬ 
ever,  that  they  had  done  so  only  after  Lloyd 
George  had  confronted  them  with  the  alternatives 
of  immediate  signature  or  immediate  renewal  of 
the  Reign  of  Terror  in  an  intensified  form.  Under 
the  proposed  agreement  Ireland  is  to  accept  the 
position  of  a  Free  State  within  the  British  Empire, 
with  N.  E.  Ulster  remaining  a  separate  state. 
The  Irish  Government  is  to  have  control  of  con¬ 
stabulary,  army,  education,  taxes,  excise,  postoffice, 
telegraph  and  telephone;  the  British  Government 
is  to  be  permitted  the  use  of  certain  Irish  ports  for 
navy  purposes  and  sites  for  aeroplane  stations; 
the  members  of  the  Irish  Parliament  are  to  swear 
allegiance  to  the  Irish  Free  State  as  by  [British] 
law  established  and  fidelity  to  the  British  king; 
finally,  the  king  is  to  be  represented  by  a  Governor 
appointed  by  the  British  Cabinet.  A  constitution 
is  to  be  drawn  up  by  the  Irish  Provisional  Govern¬ 
ment,  and  if  it  is  in  conformity  with  the  articles 
of  agreement,  and  approved  at  an  Irish  general  elec¬ 
tion,  the  British  Parliament  will  incorporate  it  in 
a  bill  and  enact  it  by  law.  The  terms  of  the 
December  agreement  were  accepted  later  by  the 
Dail  by  a  small  majority,  in  spite  of  the  opposition 
by  President  De  Valera.  Meanwhile  the  Provisional 
Government  is  preparing  to  hold  the  election  in 
the  twenty-six  counties,  of  which  the  future  Irish 
Free  State  is  to  be  composed.  Just  when  a  radical 
and  dangerous  difference  of  opinion  regarding  the 
election  had  manifested  itself  between  the  Free 
State  and  the  Republic  adherents  Collins  and  De 
Valera  reached  an  agreement  which  secured  an 
equitable  and  peaceful  solution. 

By  the  acceptance  of  partition,  which  Archbishop 
Walsh  and  the  hierarchy  had  opposed  so  vigorously 
in  1917  the  Catholics  in  N.  E.  Ulster,  without 
being  consulted  or  given  any  guarantee  of  civil  or 
religious  liberty,  have  been  handed  over  to  the 
mercy  of  fanatical  Orangemen,  over  20,000  of  whom 
in  Belfast  alone  have  been  armed  •  to  crush 
Catholicism.  During  the  Reign  of  Terror  the  con¬ 
vent  in  Lisburn  had  been  wrecked  and  the  nuns 
forced  into  exile  in  England,  the  parochial  home 
was  burned  to  the  ground,  and  the  houses  of 
Catholics  destroyed,  all  in  one  outbreak  when 
£500,000  damage  was  done.  Since  July,  1920,  over 
8000  Catholic  workingmen  in  Belfast,  more  than 
1500  of  whom  had  fought  for  the  Allies  in  the 
World  War,  have  been  driven  from  their  work 
under  threat  of  death,  without  any  redress;  while 
their  wives  and  children  have  been  saved  from 
starvation  only  by  the  generosity  of  the  Irish 


abroad  especially  in  the  United  States.  Conditions 
in  Belfast  have  steadily  grown  worse.  Under  the 
auspices  of  the  Orange  authorities  a  systematic 
program  has  been  carried  on  without  government 
interference.  Catholic  houses  have  been  burned, 
Catholic  men,  women,  and  children  have  been 
murdered,  merely  because  they  were  Catholics; 
repeated  attempts  have  been  made  to  destroy 
Catholic  churches;  if  the  Catholics  are  found  armed 
for  defense  they  are  liable  to  be  flogged;  they  have 
been  flung  into  gaol  in  such  numbers  that  the  N.  E. 
Ulster  government  has  been  obliged  to  lease  an 
additional  gaol  in  Scotland  to  which  they  are  to  be 
transported.  The  Sisters  of  Mercy  and  of  Nazareth 
cannot  appear  in  the  streets  for  fear  of  assassina¬ 
tion  ;  and  the  Catholic  schools  have  been  threatened 
with  secularization.  All  the  while  in  virtue  of  the 
acceptance  of  partition  the  other  Irish  Catholics 
have  been  rendered  incapable  of  helping  them  by 
political  measures. 

Among  the  events  of  religious  importance  or  inter¬ 
est  in  Ireland  in  recent  years,  in  addition  to  the  an¬ 
nual  pilgrimage  to  Croaghpatrick  are  the  following : 

The  grant  of  special  plenary  and  partial  indul¬ 
gences  and  privileges  to  members  of  the  Irish 
League  of  Daily  Mass  (16  September,  1915),  and 
the  Catholic  Truth  Society  of  Ireland  (12  April, 
1917).  The  establishment  of  a  feast  of  All  the 
Saints  of  Ireland  on  6  November  (23  February, 
1916) ;  the  extension  of  the  feast  of  St.  Columbanus, 
26  November,  to  all  the  Irish  dioceses  (29  January, 
1916) ;  the  restoration  of  St.  Patrick’s  Day  as  a 
holy  day  of  obligation,  with  a  dispensation  from 
fast  and  abstinance  (13  May,  1919).  The  intro¬ 
duction  on  12  February,  1915,  of  the  causes  of 
canonization  of  258  Irish  servants  of  God,  slain 
by  the  English,  and  of  Fathers  Fiacre  Tobin  and 
John  Baptist  Dowdall,  Franciscans  (23  July,  1919), 
similarly  done  to  death  in  the  penal  days;  the 
beatification  of  Oliver  Plunkett,  martyred  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Armagh  (27  March,  1920).  The  approval 
of  the  Holy  See  given  (13  June,  1917),  to  the 
project  of  establishing  a  mission  house  to  prepare 
candidates  for  an  Irish  mission  in  China ;  departure 
of  the  first  band  of  Irish  priests  on  27  March, 
1920,  for  that  mission,  and  their  arrival  at  their 
headquarters,  Hang  Yang  in  Houpe,  on  29  June 
following.  The  approval  given  by  the  Holy  See 
on  9  March,  1921,  of  a  litany  of  the  Saints  of 
Ireland  for  public  use  in  all  Irish  churches.  The 
formation  of  the  League  of  St.  Brigid  on  10  Jan¬ 
uary,  1920,  to  combat  the  attempt  to  popularize 
immodest  foreign  fashions  in  dress.  The  opposi¬ 
tion  offered  by  the  Irish  hierarchy  to  the  Bill 
proposing  to  place  Irish  education  under  the  con¬ 
trol  of  an  English  board  subject  only  to  the  British 
Parliament,  which  would  have  been  most  harmful 
from  an  educational,  national,  or  religious  point 
of  view.  . 

Among  the  prominent  Irishmen  who  have  died 
since  1914,  besides  those  who  fell  in  the  fight  for 
independence,  may  be  mentioned :  Archbishop 
Walsh  (Dublin),  Archbishop  Healy  (Tuam),  Bishop 
O’Dwyer  (Limerick),  Fr.  James  A.  Cullen,  S.  J.,  the 
Apostle  of  Temperance,  Dr.  Walter  McDonald, 
theologian  and  philosopher,  Fr.  Matthew  Russell, 
S.J.,  poet,  Fr.  Edmund  Hogan,  S.  J.,  Irish  historian, 
Canon  Peter  O’Leary,  the  leading  Gaelic  writer  and 
scholar. 

MacNeill,  Phases  of  Irish  History  (Dublin,  1920);  0’Kelly, 
Ireland:  Elements  of  Her  Early  Story  (Dublin,  1921);  Fitz¬ 
patrick,  Ireland  and  the  Making  of  Britain  (New  York,  1922); 
Hayden  and  Moonan,  Short  Hist,  of  the  Irish  People  from 
the  Earliest  Time  (London,  1921);  Gleeson,  Hist,  of  the 
Ely  O’Carroll  Territory  (Dublin,  1915);  MacInerney,  Hist, 
of  the  Irish  Dominicans  (Dublin,  1916) ;  Fitzmaurice  and 


IRELAND 


411 


ISERNIA 


I.iTTLE,  Material  for  the  Hast,  of  the  Franciscan  Province 
of  Ireland,  1280-14&0  (Manchester,  1920);  Maguire,  Hist,  of 
the  Diocese  of  Raphoe  (Dublin,  1920);  Butler,  Confiscation 
in  Irish  Hist.  (Dublin,  1917);  Corcoran,  State  Policy  in 
Irish  Education  (Dublin,  1916);  MacManus,1  Story  of  the 
Irish  Race  (New  York,  1922);  Lockington,  The  Soul  of 
Ireland  (London,  1920). 

Henry,  Evolution  of  Sinn  Fein  (Dublin,  1921);  Jones, 
Hist,  of  the  Sinn  Fein  Movement  and  the  Irish  Rebellion 
of  1916  (New  York,  1918);  Creel,  Ireland’s  Fight  for  Free¬ 
dom  (New  York,  1919) ;  DAlta,  An  Irish  Commonwealth 
(Dublin,  1920);  Good,  Ulster  and  Ireland  (Dublin,  1919); 
Lynd,  Ireland  a  Nation  (London,  1919);  MacSwiney,  Princi¬ 
ples  of  Freedom  (New  York,  1921);  Maloney,  The  Irish  Issue 
(New  York,  1919);  Report  of  the  American  Commission  on 
Conditions  in  Ireland  (New  York,  1921);  Martin,  Ireland  in 
Insurrection  (London,  1921). 

Chart,  Economic  Hist,  of  Ireland  (Dublin,  1920);  O’Brien, 
Economic  Hist,  of  Ireland  in  the  18th  Century  (London, 
1919);  Idem,  Economic  Hist,  of  Ireland  from  the  Union  to 
the  Famine  (London,  1921);  Idem,  Modern  Irish  Trade  and 
Industry  (London,  1921);  Riordan,  Modern  Irish  Trade  and 
Industry  (London,  1921);  Webb,  Municipal  Government  in 
Medieval  and  Modem  Ireland  (Dublin,  1918) ;  Hogan,  Ireland 
in  the  European  System  (London,  1920). 

Ireland,  John,  Archbishop  of  St.  Paul,  Minnesota, 
b  in  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  11  September,  1838;  d.  at 
St.  Paul,  25  September,  1918.  He  made  his  ecclesias¬ 
tical  studies  (1853-1864)  at  the  Little  and  Grand 
Seminary  of  Belley,  France.  In  1861  he  was  chap¬ 
lain  of  the  5th  Minnesota  Civil  War  regiment, 
during  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States.  He 
was  then  successively  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Nebraska 
and  Coadjutor  Bishop  of  St.  Paul,  having  been 
consecrated  on  21  December,  1875.  In  1884,  when 
Archbishop  Grace  resigned,  his  coadjutor  took  his 
place  as  head  of  the  diocese,  but  was  made  arch¬ 
bishop  only  in  1888. #  At  one  time  there  was  con¬ 
siderable  talk  about  his  promotion  to  the  cardinalate 
which  President  Roosevelt  is  said  to  have  been  very 
anxious  to  obtain  for  him. 

Irregularity  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-170). — No  perpetual 
irregularity  is  now  contracted  except  in  the  cases 
mentioned  in  the  Code.  The  persons  who  are  irregu¬ 
lar  by  reason  of  defect  (ex  defectu)  are:  (a)  Illegiti¬ 
mates,  unless  they  have  been  legitimized  or  sol¬ 
emnly  professed;  (b)  those  whose  bodily  defects 
render  them  too  feeble  to  minister  at  the  altar  with 
safety  or  who  are  too  deformed  to  do  so  with  due 
decorum;  however,  to  exercise  orders  already  re¬ 
ceived  more  serious  defects  may  be  tolerated  than 
where  there  is  question  of  receiving  orders;  (c) 
epileptics,  the  insane,  and  those  who  are  or  have 
been  possessed;  if  these  defects  occur  after  ordi¬ 
nation,  the  ordinary  may  allow  his  subjects  to 
minister  again  if  it  is  certain  that  they  have  been 
cured;  (d)  those  who  have  contracted  two  succes¬ 
sive  marriages  whether  the  marriages  have  been 
consummated  or  not;  (e)  those  who  have  incurred 
infamy  of  law;  (f)  a  judge  who  has  imposed  a 
death  sentence — jurors,  witnesses  and  others  are  no 
longer  mentioned;  (g)  executioners  and  their  vol¬ 
untary  and  immediate  assistants. 

Those  who  become  irregular  by  reason  of  a  crime 
are:  (a)  Apostates  from  the  Faith,  heretics,  and 
schismatics;  (b)  those  who  have  allowed  themselves 
to  be  baptized  by  non-Catholics  except  in  cases  of 
extreme  necessity — nothing  is  now  said  about  the 
unconditional  reiteration  of  baptism;  (c)  those  who 
have  presumed  to  marry  even  civilly,  while  they 
were  themselves  bound  by  the  marriage  bond  or 
were  in  sacred  orders,  or  had  religious  vows  even 
,  simple  and  temporary,  as  well  as  those  who  have  at¬ 
tempted  to  marry  a  woman  bound  by  similar  vows 
or  by  the  matrimonial  bond;  (d)  those  guilty  of 
voluntary  homicide  or  who  have  efficaciously  pro¬ 
cured  abortion  of  a  human  foetus — formerly  the 
,  expression  animated  foetus  was  used — and  all  their 
co-operators;  (e)  those  who  have  mutiliated  them- 
;  selves  or  others,  or  who  have  attempted  suicide — 


the  latter  clause  is  new;  (f)  clerics  practicing  medi¬ 
cine  or  surgery  when  forbidden,  if  death  results 
from  their  action — mutilation  is  no  longer  men¬ 
tioned  in  this  case;  (g)  whoever  performs  an  act 
reserved  to  clerics  in  sacred  orders  if  he  has  not 
received  that  order  or  who  has  been  prohibited 
from  exercising  it,  as  a  personal,  medicinal,  vindi¬ 
catory  or  local  canonical  punishment.  These  of¬ 
fenses  do  not  beget  irregularity  unless  they  are 
external  mortal  sins  committed  publicly  or  secretly 
after  ^baptism,  except  in  the  case  of  baptism  by 
non-Catholics;  mere  ignorance  of  an  irregularity 
based  on  defect  or  crime  or  of  an  impediment  never 
excuses  a  person  from  incurring  them.  Irregularities 
are  multiplied  not  by  repetition  of  the  same  cause, 
except  in  case  of  homicide,  but  by  different  kinds  of 
crime. 

The  following  are  prevented  by  impediment 
from  receiving  orders:  (a)  Sons  of  non-Catholics, 
as  long  as  one  of  the  parents  at  least  remains  in 
error;  (b)  men  whose  wives  are  living;  (c)  those 
who  are  still  holding  positions  forbidden  to  clerics 
and  who  have  to  render  an  account  of  their  ad¬ 
ministrations;  (d)  unfreed  slaves — these  four  classes 
were  formerly  irregular;  (e)  those  who  have  not 
yet  completed  their  military  service,  when  it  is 
obligatory  by  civil  law;  (f)  recent  converts,  until 
the  ordinary  believes  them  to  have  been  suf¬ 
ficiently  tested;  (g)  those  who  are  infamous  by 
fact,  as  long  as  the  ordinary  judges  the  infamy  to 
continue — they  were  formerly  irregular  by  reason 
of  crime. 

O’Donnell  in  Irish  Eccl.  Rec.,  XI  (1918),  368-76. 

Irremovability.  See  Pastor. 

Ischia,  Diocese  op  (Isclana;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII- 
185a),  suffragan  of  Naples,  has  for  its  territory  the 
island  of  Ischia  in  the  Bay  of  Naples.  The  present 
bishop  is  Pasquale  Ragosta,  born  at  Naples  30 
April,  1861,  elected  25  May,  1914,  to  succeed  Rt. 
Rev.  Mario  Palladino,  who  was  transferred  to 
Caserta.  On  29  October,  1910,  Ischia  underwent  a 
disastrous  eruption,  the  damages  resulting  were 
inspected  by  King  Victor  Emmanuel  III.  In 
October,  1914,  the  new  bishop.  Mgr.  Ragosta,  took 
possession  of  his  diocese.  His  Imperial  Highness 
Don  Francesco  Giuseppe  di  Bracanza,  prisoner  of 
war,  died  15  June,  1919.  From  17  August  to  2 
September,  1920,  Cardinal  de  Lai  was  a  visitor  at 
the  episcopal  palace.  The  seminary  was  tendered 
to  the  Government  for  the  use  of  troops,  and  the 
convent  of  Monte  della  Misericordia  was  turned 
over  for  use  of  the  wounded.  Assistance  was  also 
rendered  widows  and  children  of  the  slain,  a  secre¬ 
tariate  was  established  for  communicating  with  the 
prisoners  of  war,  monuments  were  placed  over  the 
fallen,  and  other  works  of  mercy  were  performed 
by  the  clergy  and  laity  of  the  diocese. 

The  diocese  counts  about  35,000  Catholics,  15 
parishes,  82  churches,  104  secular  and  5  regular 
priests,  4  lay  brothers,  12  Sisters,  2  convents  for 
men  and  3  for  women,  1  seminary  with  20  semi¬ 
narians,  94  elementary  schools  with  3631  pupils,  4 
asylums,  2  homes,  2  hospitals.  A  monthly  paper, 
“La  Cultura,”  is  published. 

Isernia  and  Venafro,  Diocese  of  (Iserniensis 
and  Venafransis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-185b),  in  the 
province  of  Campobasso,  in  Molise  (Southern 
Italy),  suffragan  of  Capua.  On  26  March,  1916, 
the  present  bishop,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Nicolo  Rotoli, 
D.D.,  O.  F.  M.,  was  elected  to  the  see  to  suc¬ 
ceed  Rt.  Rev.  Nicolas  Maria  Merola,  who  had 
filled  the  see  from  1893  until  his  death  24  Sep¬ 
tember,  1915.  During  the  World  War  the  many 
good  and  patriotic  works  done  by  this  diocese  are 


ISPAHAN 


412 


ITALY 


testified  to  in  the  publication  of  the  Holy  See 
“Cor  Paternum 

The  present  (1921)  statistics  of  the  diocese  show 
39  parochial  schools  105  churches  1  convent  for 
men  and  5  for  women  88  secular  priests  and  5 
regular  2  lay  brothers  21  sisters  1  seminary  with 
27  seminarians;  1  college  for  men  with  5  professors 
and  80  students  1  elementary  school  with  2  teach¬ 
ers  and  53  students  3  asylums,  and  2  hospitals, 
There  are  two  societies  organized  among  the  clergy 
and  22  among  the  laity. 

Ispahan,  Diocese  of  (Hispahanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VIII-192c)  —  Out  of  a  total  population  of  8,000,000 
there  are  3500  Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite  and 
7600  Catholic  Armenians.  Ispahan  was  erected  into 
a  Latin  archepiscopal  residence  1  July,  1910,  and 
the  present  administrator  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Aloysius  Martin,  O.C.D.,  appointed  11  February, 
1922.  Under  the  Latin  Rite  there  are  22  Lazarist 
priests,  5  stations,  62  churches  and  chapels,  2  semi¬ 
naries,  65  schools,  38  Daughters  of  Charity  with  3 
hospitals,  5  orphanages,  and  dispensaries.  The 
Catholic  Armenian  diocese,  erected  in  1850,  has  11 
priests  and  4  churches  and  chapels.  The  adminis¬ 
trator  apostolic  is  His  Excellency  Paul  Terzian, 
Armenian  Patriarch  of  Cilicia. 

Istria.  See  Jugoslavia. 

Italy  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-208b). — The  area  of  Italy 
exclusive  of  accessions  resulting  from  the  war  is 
110,632  sq.  miles.  By  the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain 
(10  September,  1919)  Italy  acquired  7350  sq.  miles. 
On  1  December,  1921,  the  total  population  was 
38,835,184,  including  1,564,691  persons  in  the  re¬ 
deemed  provinces.  In  1917  there  were  96,649  mar¬ 
riages,  691,207  births,  and  682,311  deaths;  in  1918, 
107,226  marriages,  634,389  births,  1,143,447  deaths; 
in  1919,  314,113  marriages,  754,685  births,  and  677,- 
040  deaths.  The  total  number  of  emigrants  in  1919 
was  243,417,  of  whom  144,524  went  to  other  Euro¬ 
pean  countries  or  those  bordering  on  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean,  and  98,893  to  countries  overseas.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  Italians  who  returned  to  Italy  in  1919  was 
89,081,  of  whom  9025  were  from  the  United  States. 

Education. — The  state  regulates  public  instruc¬ 
tion  and  maintains,  either  entirely  or  in  conjunc¬ 
tion  with  the  communes  and  provinces,  public 
schools  of  every  grade.  Schools  are  classified  under 
four  heads,  according  as  they  provide:  (1)  ele¬ 
mentary  instruction;  (2)  secondary  instruction, 
classical;  (3)  secondary  instruction,  technical; 
(4)  higher  education.  The  elementary  schools  in 
1915  enrolled  3,692,024  children  between  the  ages 
of  six  and  eleven  years,  employed  75,993  teachers 
(17,243  men  and  58,750  women),  and  cost  the  nation, 
combining  central  and  local  expenses,  approximately 
$18,000,000.  A  new  type  of  school,  scuole  popolare, 
introduced  in  1917,  offers  instruction  of  special  and 
vocational  character  to  those  who  complete  the  fifth 
and  sixth  elementary  classes.  Elementary  schools 
of  agriculture,  which  now  number  twenty-nine,  were 
established  by  royal  decree  in  1907.  The  law  of 
1912,  providing  for  a  complete  system  of  vocational 
training  and  the  establishment  of  one  elementary 
vocational  school  in  each  commune  of  10,000  or 
more  inhabitants,  has  not  been  very  successful, 
the  aggregate  expense  of  $2,600,000  being  from  the 
first  a  deterrent  to  the  execution  of  the  law.  In 
1917-18  there  were  in  Italy  about  1235  government 
secondary  schools,  including  124  supplementary 
schools  for  girls,  with  30,401  pupils,  164  normal 
schools  with  35,228  pupils,  296  ginnasi  with  54,274 
pupils,  165  licei  with  10,943  pupils,  399  technical 
schools,  122,980  pupils;  87  technical  institutes,  25,996 


pupils.  The  private  schools  in  the  same  period 
numbered  646  with  27,657  pupils.  The  universities 
in  1917-18  had  an  enrollment  of  33,798  students. 
Besides  the  universities  there  are  also  three  institu¬ 
tions  of  university  rank,  the  Institute  of  Higher 
Education  in  Florence,  the  Royal  Scientific  and 
Literary  Academy  in  Milan,  and  the  Higher  Tech¬ 
nical  Institute  of  Milan.  There  were  also  six  higher 
institutes  for  commercial  education  with  2554  stu¬ 
dents  in  1917-18;  three  higher  schools  of  agriculture, 
a  naval  college,  a  school  of  forestry,  a  school  of 
social  science,  a  school  for  Oriental  languages,  3 
veterinary  colleges,  3  women’s  training  colleges.  In 
1919  a  national  institute  for  the  instruction  of 
illiterate  adults  was  established. 

Economics. — The  principal  crops  for  1920  and 
their  acreage  is  as  follows:  wheat  11,362,000  acres, 
76,932,000  cwts.  (1  cwt.=100  lbs.);  oats  1,172,500 
acres,  7,032,000  cwts.;  maize  3,753,250  acres,  45,366,- 
000  cwts.;  beans  1,068,000  acres,  5,190,000  cwts. 
Owing  to  the  great  density  of  population  wheat 
has  been  cultivated  on  land  which  would  in  reality 
be  more  adapted  for  woods  and  pasture.  The. 
average  annual  production  of  wine  from  1915  to 
1919  was  35,628,000  hectolitres  (1  hectolitre=22  gal¬ 
lons),  and  the  export  in  1919  was  638,911  hectolitres 
valued  at  148,097,000  lire  (1  lira=$.193).  The  pro¬ 
duction  of  olive  oil  in  1918  was  260,100,000  pounds. 
In  the  breeding  of  silk  worms  Itaty  holds  the  first 
position  in  Europe.  Lemons  constitute  52%  of  the 
production  of  citrus  fruits.  At  present  Italian  agri¬ 
culture  is  unable  to  meet  the  national  requirements 
of  her  consumers.  In  Sicily  and  the  South  of  Italy 
the  movement  has  been  for  the  resumption  by  the 
community  of  common  land  appropriated  in  the 
past,  for  the  division  of  the  large  estates  and  large 
farms,  and  for  the  compulsory  occupation  of  un¬ 
cultivated  land.  Industrial  conditions  in  the  past 
two  years  have  been  disturbed  by  strikes,  there 
being  in  1920  a  total  of  1847  strikes,  with  a  loss  of 
a  milliard  of  lire.  The  last  Italian  industrial  census 
(1911)  gave  243,926  industrial  establishments  having 
2,304,438  employees  and  possessing  1,620,404  horse¬ 
power.  In  1919  Italy  produced  15%  of  the  fuel 
(coal,  lignite,  and  petroleum)  consumed  in  the 
country,  an  increase  of  11%  since  1913.  The  co¬ 
operative  movement  is  spreading  in  Italy;  the  prin¬ 
cipal  organizations  are  the  Conjederazione  Co¬ 
operative a  Italiana  and  the  Lega  Nazionale  delle 
Cooperativa,  representing  the  Catholics  and  Social¬ 
ists  respectively,  and  the  Sindicato  Nazionale  and 
the  F ederazione  Italiana  Generate  C ooperativa  dei 
Combattenti,  which  represent  the  neutral  party  and 
which  have  recently  formed  a  coalition,  including 
more  members  than  either  of  the  other  two  bodies. 

In  August,  1921,  the  long  period  of  social  and 
industrial  unrest,  following  the  World  War,  culmi¬ 
nated  in  a  serious  upheaval.  Anticipating  a  lock¬ 
out,  the  metallurgical  workers  took  possession  of 
their  plants,  organized  workingmen’s  councils,  and 
as  far  as  possible  continued  operations.  On  11 
September  the  workmen  took  over  200  chemical 
plants  and  several  textile  mills.  The  next  day  the 
National  Labor  Convention  voted  for  the  organiza¬ 
tion  of  Italian  industry  on  a  Soviet  basis,  while 
those  who  opposed  Sovietism  demanded  syndicalism. 
At  first  the  Government  declared  the  movement 
to  be  merely  a  new  form  of  struggle  between 
capital  and  labor,  and  one  not  warranting  Govern¬ 
ment  interference,  as  long  as  property  was  not 
damaged  or  lives  sacrificed,  but  the  inability  of 
labor  organizations  to  agree  caused  the  Govern¬ 
ment  to  offer  a  compromise  in  the  form  of  the 
“Controllo  Act”  (1921),  a  plan  allowing  employees 
to  participate  in  plant-  management.  It  was,  how- 


ITALY 


ITALY 


41.°, 


e\er,  never  puf  in  force.  The  Socialists  seceded 
irom  the  Third  International  Party  and  the  revolu¬ 
tionary  movement  in  Italy,  from  want  of  coherence 
among  the  Socialists,  failed  to  put,  through  a 
revolutionary  program.  The  lack  of  geographical, 
political,  and  industrial  unity  in  Italy,  too,  made 
B  it  impossible.  I  he  revolution,  in  order  to  succeed, 
\\ould  have  meant  not  merely  a  dictatorship  of 
the  proletariat  party,  but  a  dictatorship  of  factory 
workers  of  Northern  Italy,  a  condition  of  affairs 
which  the  agricultural  peasants  of  the  South  and 
the  small  shopkeepers  of  Italy  would  not  accept. 

Commerce.  In  1913  the  total  imports  of  Italy 

VoV 3,645,600,000  lire;  the  total  exports 

ic  °i-ire;  \n  1919  tlle  imP°rts  were  worth 

10,516,600  000  lire,  the  exports  5,188,600,000  lire. 

Between  1913  and  1919  the  total  value  of  imports 
i^^GaSC<^  mor?  than  four  times,  while  exports  were 
little  more  than  doubled.  The  result  was  that 
im  adverse  trade  balance  of  1134  million  lire  in 
-  1913  increased  to  almost  exactly  ten  times  that 
amount  in  1919.  In  that  year  the  United  States 
supplied  nearly  50%  of  the  Italian  imports  and 
i  took  in  return  only  9%  of  her  exports. 

Iinance.— The  public  debt,  excluding  short  dated 
treasury  bills  but  including  paper  money  guaran¬ 
teed  by  the  State,  amounted  31  October  1920  to 
98,072,000,000  lire.  On  this  sum  the  Stfte  is  pay¬ 
ing  interest  at  the  rate  of  over  3,500,000,000  lire 

KS,™  Jhe  trja?ury  ,bllls  amount  to  about 
9,250,000,000  lire,  and  together  with  other  obliga- 

tl01^  the  treasury  the  total  debt  probably  ex¬ 
ceeds  100  000,000,000  lire,  or  about  2500  lire  per 
head  of  the  population.  From  1  July,  1919,  to  30 
June,  1920  the  revenue  was  8,955,000,000  lire  and 

If 6 1 ^^vfn^njv,2!-’21^'000’000- br8’  showin«  a  deficit 

•  iU0’^!?  lire’.as  against  20,835,000,000  lire 

in  1918-19.  1  he  principal  items  of  expenditure 

vere.  army,  9,538,000,000;  pensions  and  interest  on 
floating  debt,  5,207,000,000  lire;  navy,  1.222,000  000 
lire;  labor  and  provisioning,  1,289,000,000  lire.  The 
principal  items  of  revenue  were :  government 
monopolies  (principally  tobacco),  2,443,000,000  lire* 

2>2^>000,000  stamp  duties,  1,378,- 
000,000  lire;  and  consumption  taxes  (including  cus¬ 
toms  and  excise),  1,255,000,000  lire. 

Railways.— On  30  June,  1919,  there  were  8761 
miles  of  railway  in  Italy.  Of  these  80%  are  owned 
and  operated  by  the  State,  the  remaining  being 
operated  by  private  companies.  At  present  the 
btate  railways  are  operated  at  a  loss,  the  deficit 
being  due  to  increase  in  personnel  and  to  costs 
ol  material  and  supplies.  The  deficit  in  1920  was 
reported  to  be  8163,40°, 000.  It  is  proposed  to 
electrify  2750  miles. 

•  G(iv  ern MENT.— Italy,  a  constitutional  monarchy, 
is  ruled  by  the  king,  in  whom  is  placed  all  executive 
?rcJ>  and  ky  Parliament  composed  of  two  houses, 
the  Senate  and  the  Camera  de’  Deputati  (Chamber 
of  Deputies).  The  Senate  is  composed  of  the 
princes  of  the  royal  house  and  of  an  unlimited 
number  of  members  nominated  by  the  king  for 
hie.  On  1  January,  1921,  there  were  368  senators 
and  9  members  of  the  royal  family.  The  new 
Electoral  Law  of  December,  1920,  made  the  suffrage 
universal  for  men  and  women  twenty-one  years 
of  age  The  Electoral  Reform  Act  of  1919  in- 
roduced  the  principle  of  proportional  representa- 
ll°nCAo  e  scrutin  de  liste.  In  the  chamber  there 
are  508  deputies.  The  duration  of  Parliament  is 

•  Y®  hears,  and  it  must  meet  annually.  For  admin¬ 
istrative  purposes  there  are  69  provinces,  214  terri- 
°r'iCSco°Y>  wrcondari,  1805  districts  or  mandamenti, 

8346  communes.  According  to  the  law  of  4 
ebruary,  1915,  each  commune  has  a  communal 


a*f11Uu1Cip,al  counci1’  and  a  syndic.  The 
syndic  is  the  head  of  the  communal  government 
and  is  a  Government  official.  Each  province  has 
?  : Wovmcml  council  and  provincial  commission. 
For  judicial  purposes  Italy  has  five  Courts  of 
Cassatlon,  aad  is  divided  into  20  appeal  court  dis¬ 
tricts.  In  1918  there  were  167  central  and  arron- 
dissement  prisons,  70  penal  establishments,  34  re¬ 
formatories,  and  8  colonies,  besides  1414  cantonal 
prisons.  In  Italy  legal  charity,  in  the  sense  of  an 
obligation  on  the  commune  to  relieve  the  poor 
does  not  exist.  Public  charity  is  exercised  by  the 
permanent  charitable  foundations,  which  on  1  Jan- 
numbered  29,995  with  a  capital  of 
S64>72  1-  0n.12  August,  1912,  a  law  was 
passed,  establishing  life  insurance  as  a  State 
monopoly.  The  existing  insurance  companies  were 
allowed  to  continue  their  operations  for  ten  years 
under  certain  conditions. 

Defence.— The  strength  of  the  Italian  field  army 
at  the  end  of  1919  was  placed  at  800,000  and 
9“res  proposed  to  reduce  it  gradually  to 
250,000.  At  the  end  of  1920  the  permanent  Italian 
army  numbered  350,000,  while  the  number  of  its 

non  6tS’  +1.ncludmg7  reserves,  was  placed  at 
f’163’000*  In  the  Five  Power  Treaty  of  February, 
1922,  signed  between  Great  Britain,  Italy,  France 
Japan,  and  the  United  States,  it  was  decided  that 
m  view  of  the  reduced  condition  of  the  Italian 
navy  Italy  could  not  be  fairly  asked  to  “scrap” 
ner  ships  in  the  same  proportion  as  Japan,  Great 
Britain,,  and  the  United  States,  but  could  retain 

*5  ™ai°Y  ®hlps  of , an  aggregate  tonnage  of  182,- 
8UU  with  future  replacement  tonnage  of  175  000. 

Recent-  History. — War  with  Turkey  (1911-1912) 
—At  the  Algeciras  Conference  (1909)  the  Powers 
had  recognized  Italy’s  interests  in  Tripoli,  as  well 
as  those  m  the  Adalia  regions  where  she  had 
secured  railway  and  incident  concessions.  Everv- 
where,  however,  she  found  her  enterprises  ob¬ 
structed,  her  citizens  persecuted,  and  her  progress 
impeded  by  the  Turkish  government  officials.  On 
26  September  Italy  sent  an  ultimatum  to  the 
lurkish  Government  concerning  her  rights  in 
inpoli,  stating  her  grievances  against  Turkish  mis- 
government  m  Tripoli,  and  claiming  the  occupation 
ol  Inpoli.  The  unsatisfactory  nature  of- Turkey’s 
iq?7  caased  Jtaly  to  declare  war  on  29  September, 

L  jhree  torpedo  boats  were  sunk  off  Previsa  by 
the  Italian  fleet;  Tripoli  was  bombarded  and  taken 
on  5  October  and  Bengazi  was  seized  later.  On 
f  1^11,  Italy  proclaimed  the  annexation 

of  Inpoli  and  Cyrenaica.  Desultory  fighting  con- 
tmued,  however,  and  the  Italian  fleet  appeared  in 
the  Dardanelles.  On  4  May  Rhodes  was  occupied, 
and  by  the  middle  of  June  eleven  of  the  2Egean 
Islands  were  seized.  The  trouble  ended  with  the 
peace  treaty  signed  at  Ouchy,  Switzerland,  on  15 
October,  1912,  by  the  terms  of  which  Italy’s 
sovereignty  over  Libya  (the  Tripolitaine  and 
Cyrenaica)  was  recognized,  but  the  ^Egean  Islands 
were  restored  to  Turkey. 

.  The  Triple  Alliance.— From  recent  disclosures  it 
is  possible  to  understand  the  nature  of  Italy’s  con- 
nection  with  Austria  and  Germany  culminating  in 
the  famous  Triple  Alliance.  A  secret  treaty 
negotiated  in  1882,  when  Italy  was  full  of  resent¬ 
ment  against  France  for  her  seizure  of  Tunis 
renewed  in  1887,  1891,  1903,  and  1912,  bound  Italy 
to  the  Central  Powers  in  the  defence  of  the  Triple 
Alliance.  'The  chief  object  of  the  alliance  was 
protection  against  France  on  one  side  and  Russia 
on  another. 

European  War. — It  was  soon  to  be  repudiated, 
however,  for  when  Austria-Hungary  desired  to 


ITALY 


ITALY 


414 


attack  Servia  in  1914  and  appealed  to  the  Triple 
Alliance,  Italy,  as  was  disclosed  later,  refused  her 
aid.  She  maintained  her  neutrality,  her  reason 
being  that  the  causus  foederis  had  not  risen,  inas¬ 
much  as  Austria  and  Germany  had  brought  the 
situation  to  the  point  where  it  stood  by  their 
initiative  alone.  The  provisions  of  the  treaty  stated 
that  if  either  or  both  of  her  allies,  “without 
provocation  on  their  part,”  should  be  attacked  by 
another  power,  Italy  would  be  obliged  to  join  the 
war  against  the  attacking  power.  If  either  ally 
should  be  forced  to  declare  offensive  war  against 
a  Great  Power  which  menaced  its  security,  the 
other  members  of  the  Triple  Alliance  would  either 
join  in  the  war  or  “maintain  benevolent  neu¬ 
trality  towards  their  ally.”  At  first  this  neutrality 
was  construed  as  benevolent  to  Germany,  but  as 
the  war  progressed  and  after  the  accession  as 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  of  Baron  Sidney  Son- 
nino,  in  whose  ancestry  were  British  and  Jewish 
elements,  the  spirit  of  Italy’s  neutrality  became 
less  and  less'  “benevolent”  and  the  Italian  Gov¬ 
ernment  began  to  accuse  Austria-Hungary  of 
violating  a  clause  of  the  Triple  Alliance  treaty 
concerning  the  status  quo  in  the  east  and  to  de¬ 
mand  “compensation”  for  the  advantages  which 
the  attack  on  Servia  would  probably  give  the 
Dual  Monarchy.  As  “compensation”  Italy  de¬ 
manded  not  only  the  port  of  Avlona  on  the 
Albanian  coast,  whither  an  Italian  expedition  had 
been  sent  in  December,  1914,  but  also  direct 
cessions  of  Hapsburg  territory  to  Italy.  Negotia¬ 
tions  went  on  with  Austria  and  ^finally  on  21 
February,  1915,  Italy  forbade  further  Austrian 
operations  in  the  Balkans  until  an  agreement  con¬ 
cerning  compensations  was  reached.  On  9  March 
Austria  acceded  in  principle  to  Italy  s  threat.  Then 
on  8  April,  1915,  Italy  formulated  the  following 
demands:  (1)  the  cession  of '  Trentino  up  to 

the  boundary  of  1811,  the  towns  of  Rovereto, 
Trent,  and  Bozen:  (2)  an  extension  of  the  eastern 
Italian  frontier  along  the  Isonzo  River  to  include 
the  strong  positions  of  Tolmino,  Gorizia,  Gradisca, 
and  Montefalcone ;  (3)  the  erection  of  Trieste  into 
an  autonomous  state:  (4)  the  cession  of  several 
Dalmatian  islands;  (5)  the  recognition  of  Austria- 
Hungary’s  disinterestedness  in  Albania  and  in  the 
twelve  iEgean  Islands.  Austria-Hungary  absolutely 
refused  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  demands,  and 
modified  the  first  by  reserving  Bozen.  Moreover, 
Austria  was  averse  to  making  any  concessions  till 
after  the  war  and  demanded  in  return  a  strict 
observation  of  Italy’s  neutrality  during  the  war. 
Germany  at  once  promised  to  guarantee  cessions 
of  Austrian  territory  at  the  conclusion  of  hostili¬ 
ties.  However,  the  Allies  could  bid  higher  than 
the  Central  Powers  and  in  fact  could  promise 
Italy  slices  of  Austria,  without  any  injury  to 
t  hern  solves. 

On  4  May,  1915,  Italy  denounced  her  treaty  of 
alliance  with  Austria-Hungary.  Already  on  26 
April,  Italy  had  signed  a  secret  agreement  at  Lon¬ 
don  by  which  she  was  to  receive  Trentino,  all 
southern  Tyrol  to  the  Brenner,  Trieste,  Gorizia, 
and  Gradisca,  the  provinces  of  Istria  and  Dal¬ 
matia,  and  all  the  Austrian  islands  in  the  Adriatic. 
Italy,  moreover,  was  to  annex  Avlona  and  its  neigh¬ 
borhood  although  she  was  not  to  object,  if  it  were 
later  decided  to  apportion  parts  of  Albania  to 
Montenegro,  Servia,  and  Greece.  Besides,  Italy 
was  to  strengthen  her  hold  on  Libya,  and,  in  the 
event  of  an  increase  of  French  and  English 
dominion  in  Africa  at  the  expense  of  Germany, 
she  was  to  have  the  right  of  enlarging  hers.  Finally 
Italy  was  to  retain  the  twelve  Greek-speaking 


islands  in  the  iEgean  and  on  the  partition  of 
Turkey  to  secure  a  share  in  the  basin  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  more  specifically  in  that  part 
contiguous  to  the  Turkish  province  of  Adalia, 
commensurate  with  those  of  France,  Great  Britain, 
and  Russia.  By  an  additional  article,  “France, 
England,  and  Russia  obligated  themselves  to  sup¬ 
port  Italy  in  her  desire  for  the  non-admittance  of 
the  Holy  See  to  any  kind  of  diplomatic  steps 
for  the  conclusion  of  peace  and  the  regulation  of 
questions  arising  from  the  present  war.”  Before  the 
final  rupture,  Austria,  unaware  of  the  final  agree¬ 
ment  of  the  Allies,  made  another  bid.  The  war 
spirit,  however,  prevailed  among  the  Italians  and 
on  23  May,  1915,  the  Italian  Government  declared 
war  against  Austria.  The  resentment  caused  by 
this  “betrayal”  on  the  part  of  Italy  was  very  acute 
in  Germany  and  still  more  so  in  Austria. 

The  character  of  the  Italian  boundary,  with  its 
high  mountain  passes,  its  flowing  torrents,  and  its 
precipitous  snow-clad  peaks  required  a  slow  and 
careful  preparation  of  the  army  for  the  invasion 
of  Austria.  General  Cadorna  concentrated  the 
main  strength  of  his  armies  at  the  railheads  along 
the  southeastern  portion  of  the  Austro-Italian 
frontier.  In  a  week  the  Isonzo  was  reached,  but. 
the  Italians  were  confronted  with  strongly  fortified 
heights  east  of  the  river,  from  Monte  Nero  in  the 
north  to  Montefalcone  and  the  Carso  plateau  on  the 
coast.  All  summer  the  Italians  struggled  bravely 
but  vainly  to  master  these  heights.  Meanwhile, 
against  the  middle  sector  of  the  Austro-Italian 
frontier,  General  Cadorna  sent  only  a  compara¬ 
tively  thin  line  of  troops  with  instructions  to  guard 
the  passes  and  prevent  an  Austrian  counter-invasion. 
The  third  or  western,  sector  of  the  frontier  was 
formed  by  the  irregular  triangle  of  Trentino,  jut¬ 
ting  southward  into  Italy.  With  the  object  of 
liberating  Trentino  and  of  forestalling  an  Austrian 
offensive  from  the  commanding  heights  of  this 
district,  the  Italians  moved  up  to  the  valley  of 
the  Adige  and  the  basin  of  Lake  Garda  towards 
Rovereto,  while  small  parties  assailed  the  moun¬ 
tain  passes  on  both  sides  of  the  triangle.  The 
odds  in  men,  however,  were  about  five  to  one 
against  them  and  they  made  but  meagre  progress. 
The  Austrians  who  had  acted  strictly  on  the  de¬ 
fensive  with  their  300,000  troops,  began  with¬ 
drawing  their  men  from  the  Russian  front  and 
the  Balkans,  bringing  up  their  military  strength 
to  half  a  million  men.  The  main  force  concentrated 
at  Rovereto  which  the  Italians  had  approached  but 
had  not  been  able  to  storm.  After  a  terrific  bom¬ 
bardment  the  Austrian  infantry  rushed  forward 
along  the  front  from  Rovereto  to  Borgo.  Arsiero 
and  Asiago  fell  to  the  Austrians  and  there  was 
great  rejoicing  in  Vienna.  The  Italians  fell  back 
to  Monte  Ciove,  which  they  held  fast.  Likewise 
they  stood  unflinchingly  on  Monte  Pasubio  against 
odds  of  four  to  one  under  a  nerve-shattering 
bombardment.  The  Austro-Hungarian  lines  at  the 
Russian  front  were  too  thinly  held  and  the  troops 
from  the  Italian  front  were  recalled  to  meet  Brus- 
silof’s  onslaughts  in  the  east.  Thus  the  Austrian 
offensive  on  Tyrol  was  checked.  The  Italians  dealt 
a  counterblow  and  once  more  Asiago,  Arsiero,  and 
Posina  were  occupied  by  Italian  troops.  The  drive 
for  Gorizia  had  begun.  The  heights  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  Isonzo,  overlooking  Gorizia, 
were  taken  the  first  day,  as  were  the  heights  farther 
north.  South  of  Gorizia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Isonzo,  the  Italians  stormed  the  summit  of  Monte 
San  Michele,  the  key  to  the  Gorizia  position.  In 
two  days  the  heights  of  the  Isonzo  were  carried 
and  on  9  August,  1916,  the  Italian  infantry  escorted 


ITALY 


ITALY 


415 


King  Victor  Emmanuel  into  Gorizia.  After  the 
capture  of  Gorizia  further  violent  fighting  occurred, 
the  Italians  were  unable  to  make  any  serious 
breaches  in  the  new  Austrian  lines.  •,  From  a  ter¬ 
ritorial  point  of  view  the  Italians  won  slight  ad¬ 
vantages  over  their  enemy  in  the  campaigning  of 
1916. 

In  May,  1917,  the  Italians  once  more  took  the 
offensive  in  the  direction  of  Trieste.  During  the 
winter  they  had  increased  their  military  strength 
by  the  addition  of  numerous  British  guns  and 
gunners.  The  Austrians  fortified  their  formidable 
mountain  positions  still  further,  and  withdrew  a 
number  of  divisions  from  the  Galician  front.  The 
ensuing  battle,  therefore,  was  to  be  of  unparalleled 
fury.  I  he  Italian  line  ran  southwards  from  Plezzo 
to  the  sea,  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Isonzo.  After 
three  days’  violent  artillery  preparation  General 
Cadorna  launched  a  general  assault  on  14  May 
along  the  whole  front  from  Tolmino  to  the  sea. 
On  18  May  the  topmost  peak  of  Monte  Vodice 
was  in  his  hands,  and  a  few  days  later  Hudi  Log 
and  Jamiano  were  captured.  The  Austrian  de¬ 
fenders  reinforced  by  Hungarian  troops  from  the 
eastern  frontier,  carried  out  some  very  creditable 
counter-attacks.  From  24  May  on  the  whole  line 
from  Plava  to  the  sea  swayed  to  and  fro  repeatedly 
and  the  casualties  on  both  sides  were  extremely 
heavy.  On  19  August  General  Cadorna  again  at¬ 
tacked  along  the  whole  of  the  front  from  Tolmino 
to  the  sea  and  on  24  August  the  Italians  performed 
the  remarkable  feat  of  storming  Monte  Sante,  a 
position  of  redoubtable  strength.  This  drive,  like 
the  others,  ended  in  a  standstill,  with  great  losses 
on  both  sides. 

On  1  August,  Pope  Benedict  XV  addressed  a 
note  to  all  the  Belligerent  Powers,  inviting  all 
these  Governments  to  come  to  an  agreement  on 
the  points  which  he  set  forth  as  the  fundamental 
basis  of  a  permanent  Peace.  They  included  the 
moral  right  of  justice”  as  a  substitute  for  “the 
material  might  of  arms”;  the  introduction  of  arbi¬ 
tration  according  to  an  agreed  standard;  and  the 
<(true  freedom  and  common  enjoyment  of  the  seas” 
under  the  guarantee  of  definite  rules.”  The  note 
was  endorsed  by  the  clergy  and  the  clerical  press, 
and  the  Central  Powers  promptly  availed  them¬ 
selves  of  the  opportunity  to  attempt  a  “peace 
offensive.”  The  Allies  on  the  other  hand  felt  that 
under  the  existing  conditions  it  was  less  favorable 
to  their  aims.  The  United  States  defined  its 
grounds  for  peace  and  declared  the  necessity  of 
continuing  the  war  until  these  were  realized,  in 
which  the  Allies  concurred.  The  defensive  atti- 
Austrians,  assumed  from  the  beginning 
of  the  war,  was  now  given  up.  Germany’s  hand 
began  to  be  felt,  for  early  in  October  unknown  to 
the  Italians,  German  and  Austro-Hungarian  divi¬ 
sions  were  withdrawn  from  the  east  and  concen¬ 
trated  in  the  southwest,  as  a  reserve  force.  The 
defenses,  being  ruptured  at  Caporetto  and  Tol¬ 
mino,  the  whole  Italian  line  from  Plezzo  to  Tol¬ 
mino  collapsed.  On  27  October  the  German 
commander,  von  Below,  entered  Cividale.  This 
defeat  involved  a  prolonged  and  disastrous  retreat. 

1  he  troops  to  the  south,  the  Italian  “Third  Army” 
occupying  the  Bainsizza  Plateau,  Gorizia,  and  the 
Carso,  were  obliged  to  fall  back.  Gorizia  was 
evacuated  on  28  October.  On  29  October,  Udine, 
tne  seat  of  the  Italian  main  headquarters  was  cap¬ 
ped  o  the  Austrians.  At  Latisana  the  rear  guard 
01  .thfLS£cond  Army,  consisting  of  60,000  men,  was 
cut  off  by  von  Below’s  rapid  advance  and  being 
surrounded,  surrendered  without  further  resistance. 

Un  5  ISovember  General  Boroevic’s  army  (the  large 
2  7 


and  purely  Austro-Hungarian  Army  operating  on 
von  Below s  left),  forced  a  passage  of  the  Taglia- 
mento  near  Pinzano.  The  Livenza  was  crossed 
three  days  later.  Asiago  fell  to  the  Austrians 
on  10  November.  After  retreating  to  the  Piave 
River  the  Italians  stood  firm,  despite  the  numerous 
Austrian  attacks.  The  disaster  of  the  Isonzo  caused 
.French  and  British  troops  to  be  hastily  despatched 
to  the  assistance  of  Italy.  Finding  all  efforts  to 
cross  the  Piave  futile,  the  Austro-Germans  sought 
to  outflank  the  new  Italian  lines  by  striking  at 
the  Asiago  Plateau  and  the  range  of  mountains 
between  the  upper  courses  of  the  Brenta  and  Piave 
Rivers.  In  December  desperate  assaults  were  made 
by  the  Austrians  on  the  Asiago  Plateau  and  on 
the  upper  reaches  of  the  Brenta;  Monte  Asolone 
was  captured  by  the  Teutons,  and  likewise  the 
lower  summit  of  Monte  Tomba.  The  Italian  out¬ 
look  now  brightened,  for  on  30  December  Monte 
iomba  was  recovered,  and  in  January  the  Teutons 
evacuated  Monte  Asolone  and  the  bridgehead  on 
the  Piave  at  Zenson. 

The  final  Austrian  drive  in  1918  was  a  flat  failure. 

I  his  time  the  Italians  were  prepared.  The  advance 
of  the  Austrians  over  two  areas,  in  the  plains  be¬ 
tween  the  Montello  and  San  Dona  di  Piave,  and 
m  the  hills  between  Monte  Grappa  and  Canove, 
was  checked  at  the  outset.  The  more  successful 
General  Boroevic,  crossing  the  Piave,  seized  the 
eastern  end  of  the  Montello,  but  was  stopped  by 
the  arrival  of  Diaz’s  reinforcements  and  the  flood- 
mg  of  the  Piave.  A  counter-offensive  by  General 
hhaz  ^suited  in  the  retreat  of  Boroevic’s  forces 
to  their  old  positions,  and  also  secured  ground 
which  had  been  lost  in  1917,  especially  the  delta 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Piave.  The  Austrian  army 
was  decomposing,- and  when  on  24-25  October  the 
the  Italian  armies  smote  the  Austrians  in  the 
Monte  Grappa  region,  between  the  Brenta  and 
Piave  Rivers,  they  were  incapable  of  making  an 
effective  defense.  A  British  unit  under  Lord  Cavan 
attacked  along  the  Lower  Piave  and  a  French  unit 
took  Monte  Seismol  on  the  Asiago  Plateau.  By  30 
October  the  Italians  had  captured  Monte  Grappa, 
and  were  driving  the  Austrians  along  the  whole 

?nnt  /r<S?  the  A1PS  to  the  Adriatic.  With  the 
tall  of  Monte  Grappa,  the  enemy  army  in  the 
mountains  was  cut  off  from  those  in  the  plains. 
On  1  November  the  Austrians  were  in  utter  rout. 
Irent  and  Trieste  fell  to  the  Italians  and  Udine 
was  entered.  Durazzo,  an  important  Austro-Hun¬ 
garian  naval  base,  had  been  entered  on  15  October. 
The  morale  of  the  Austrians  had  vanished  and  on 
31  October  they  sued  for  peace.  On  3  November, 
an  armistice  was  signed  and  hostilities  ceased.  The 
terms  included  the  complete  demobilization  of  the 
Austro-Hungarian  armies,  the  evacuation  of  all  ter¬ 
ritory  occupied  by  the  Austrian  armies  and  of  all 
territory  in  dispute;  the  withdrawal  of  all  German 
troops  from  the  Austrian,  Balkan,  and  Italian  fronts, 
the  surrender  of  a  number  of  Austrian  ships,  the 
liberation  of  all  captured  merchant  ships,  the  allied 
occupation  of  Poland  and  the  control  of  the 
Danube. 

Peace  Negotiations.— When  the  war  ended, 
confusion  rose  as  to  Italy’s  territorial  aims,  re- 
K^ding  which  there  had  never  been  any  agreement. 
The  demands  of  the  extremists  and  imperialists  of 
not  only  the  Trentino  and  Trieste,  but  also  Fiume 
and  the  entire  Dalmatian  coast,  brought  the  Ital- 
1 ans  into  a  position  of  sharp  antagonism  towards 
the  Servians,  and  later  towards  the  new  Jugoslav 
state  (see  Fiume).  In  1920  the  question  was  set¬ 
tled  by  negotiations  at  Santa  Margherita  Ligure, 
which  gave  the  whole  of  Istria  .to  Italy  as  well  as 


ITALY 


416 


IVORY  COAST 


the  islands  of  Cherso,  Lussin,  and  Unie.  Fiume 
Was  to  be  independent,  but  was  brought  into  ter¬ 
ritorial  contiguity  with  Italy.  Zara  was  to  have 
an  autonomous  government,  but  was  to  be  under 
Italian  suzerainty.  The  island  of  Lagosta  was 
also  given  to  Italy.  On  the  other  hand  the  Jugo¬ 
slavs  obtained  Northern  Dalmatia.  The  new  agree¬ 
ment  between  Italy  and  Jugoslavia  was  embodied 
in  the  Treaty  of  Rapallo,  signed  on  12  November, 
1920.  This  agreement  was  vigorously  denounced  by 
Gabriele  d’Annunzio,  who  had  seized  Fiume  and 
declared  it  an  independent  state.  War  was  there¬ 
upon  declared  on  Italy,  and  Fiume  bombarded. 

In  the  negotiations  following  the  Treaty  of  Ver¬ 
sailles  concerning  German  reparations,  Italy  was 
awarded  10%  of  any  reparations  Germany  could 
give.  The  difficulties  between  Greece  and  Italy 
following  their  convention  of  1919,  were  -settled 
by  a  convention  appointed  in  1920  to  delimit  the 
Adalian  frontier  (see  Greece).  In  a  protocol 
signed  between  Albania  and  Italy  on  2  August, 

1920,  at  Tirana,  Albania,  Italy  agreed  to  recognize 
the  independence  of  Albania  and  to  surrender 
Avlona,  withdrawing  her  troops  as  soon  as  public 
order  permitted.  Italy  was  to  retain  and  fortify 
the  island  of  Saseno  at  the  entrance  to  the  Bay 
of  Avlona  and  also  Punta  Linguetta  on  the  main¬ 
land.  In  November,  1920,  were  published  the  terms 
of  the  Italo-Franco-British  agreement  for  maintain¬ 
ing  respective  spheres  of  influence  in  Asiatic  Tur¬ 
key,  a  pact  which  was  secretly  signed  at  Sevres 
on  10  August,  the  date  of  the  Turkish  treaty.  It 
defined  the  areas  of  special  interest  to  France  and 
Italy,  recognized  as  supreme  the  Italian  interests 
westward  of  the  French  sphere  between  Cilicia  and 
the  coast  facing  Rhodes,  also  the  right  of  Italy 
to  exploit  the  Heraclea  coal  basin.  On  12  March, 

1921,  Italy  concluded  a  secret  pact  with  the  Turkish 
Nationalists,  pledging  herself  to  support  the  Turkish 
demands  for  the  restitution  of  Thrace  and  Smyrna. 
In  return  for  this  and  the  withdrawal  of  all  Italian 
troops  from  Ottoman  territory,  Italy  was  guaranteed 
certain  economic  concessions  and  monopolies,  in¬ 
cluding  the  right  of  priority  in  the  coal  basin  of 
Heraclea. 

In  June,  1920,  Pope  Benedict  XV  issued  an 
encyclical  rescinding  the  veto  on  official  visits  of 
Catholic  sovereigns  to  the  King  of  Italy  in  Rome. 

The  Church. — In  no  European  country  is  the 
social  organization  of  Catholics  going  forward  in 
more  comprehensive  fashion  than  in  Italy.  Its 
methods  are  both  interesting  and  businesslike;  the 
entire  field  is  divided  into  three  distinct  sections: 
first,  the  Catholic  Movement  strictly  so-called; 
second,  the  Economic  Social  Action,  and  third,  the 
Political  Action.  The  first,  Movimento  Catholico 
is  made  up  of  the  following  organizations:  the 
Popular  Union  among  Catholics  of  Italy;  the 
Society  of  the  Catholic  Youth  of  Italy;  the  Union 
of  Catholic  Women  of  Italy.  The  first  of  these  was 
instituted  by  Pius  X  in  June,  1905,  by  the  Ency¬ 
clical  “II  Fermo  Proposito,”  and  is  the  mother 
organization  of  the  Catholic  movement  in  Italy, 
on  which  all  other  associations  depend.  It  has 
committees  in  all  the  dioceses  composed  of  paro¬ 
chial  societies,  the  diocesan  committees  depending 
upon  the  Central  Direction  Committee  of  the 
Catholic  Movement,  which  has  its  seat  in  Rome 
and  whose  President  is  nominated  by  the  Holy 
See.  This  central  Directive  Committee  functions 
by  means  of  three  secretariates,  the  Secretariate 
for  Propaganda,  the  Secretariate  of  Culture  (or 
formation  of  the  social  conscience),  the  Secretariate 
for  Liberty  of  Schools,  each  thoroughly  equipped 
for  work  in  its  special  field.  The  Society  of  the 


Catholic  Youth  of  Italy  is  an  organization  for 
the  moral  and  intellectual  formation  of  Italian 
youths  to  habituate  them  to  profess  their  faith 
openly,  and  to  educate  them  for  its  defense.  The 
parochial  and  diocesan  clubs  and  associations  are 
also  under  a  president  general  in  Rome.  In  1921 
these  clubs  numbered  2300,  with  a  membership 
of  70,000.  The  Union  of  Catholic  Women  of  Italy 
is  the  third  great  organization  and  has  for  its 
purpose  the  education  of  the  Catholic  woman  of 
Italy  for  the  full  observance  of  her  duties,  religious, 
civil,  and  social.  The  Economic  Social  Action  com¬ 
prises  the  Movimento  Sindicale  Cristiano  and  the 
Movimento  Cooperativo  Cristiano,  the  first  the 
Italian  Confederation  of  Workingmen,  with  a  mem¬ 
bership  of  1,500,000;  the  second  the  largest  and 
most  important  of  Italian  Catholic  organizations, 
conducted  on  a  vast  scale,  embracing  all  industries, 
and  comprising  about  7000  societies  scattered  all 
over  Italy. 

Since  the  encyclical  “Non  Expedit”  of  Pius  IX, 
Catholics  in  Italy  were  debarred  from  candidacy 
for  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  from  voting  at 
political  elections.  Piux  X  gave  permission  to 
Catholics  in  specific  cases  to  participate  in  political 
life  and  in  time  there  came  to  be  about  thirty 
Catholic  deputies  in  the  Chamber,  constituting, 
however,  neither  a  party  nor  a  group.  A  change 
came  in  1919  with  the  formation  of  the  Popular 
Party,  which,  though  not  a  Catholic  party  in  that 
its  object  is  not  pre-eminently  religious  and  its 
members  not  necessarily  Catholics,  is  inspired  by 
Christian  principles  and  is  in  intent  directly  social 
and  political.  It  is  not  dependent  on  ecclesiastical 
authority  and  receives  as  members  any  citizens 
who  accepts  its  program.  The  “Rerum  Novarum” 
of  Leo  XIII  is  its  leading  text-book.  It  was  formed 
under  the  leadership  of  Don  Luigi  Sturzo,  a  Sicilian 
priest,  formerly  vice-president  of  the  Association  of 
Italian  Communes,  who  became  convinced  that 
with  the  end  of  the  war  the  time  had  come  to  line 
up  for  defense  and  reconstruction  of  society  the 
great  forces  of  the  Catholic  organizations  that  had 
developed.  With  personal  disinterestedness  and 
firm  discipline  he  has  guided  it  through  the  inevi¬ 
table  first  vicissitudes  until  it  has  become  in  Italy 
what  the  German  Center  Party  was  in  Bismarck’s 
day,  the  arbiter  of  the  situation.  As  the  Socialist 
party  refused  to  collaborate  with  any  other  party, 
no  side  could  govern  without  the  Popular  party. 
In  electoral  tactics  it  decided  on  a  policy  of  in- 
transigency  and  in  political  elections  of  1921  ob¬ 
tained  1,345,305  votes  and  elected  one  hundred 
and  seven  of  its  candidates.  It  was  recently  re¬ 
sponsible  for  the  downfall  of  the  Giolitti  ministry. 
Its  members  hold  (1922)  three  of  the  most  im¬ 
portant  portfolios,  Grace  and  Justice,  Public  Works 
and  Agriculture.  With  the  Hon.  Anile  as  Under¬ 
secretary  of  Public  Instruction,  it  has  penetrated 
what  was  formerly  the  stronghold  of  Masonry.  The 
present  Minister  of  Public  Instruction  is  a  Moderate 
and  a  man  of  practical  religious  faith.  Other  under¬ 
secretaries  from  the  Popular  Party  are  in  the  Min¬ 
isters  of  Labor,  of  War,  of  Liberated  Territories 
and  the  Treasury.  Its  success  has  meant  the  loss 
of  prestige  for  both  Socialists  and  Liberals.  To 
its  strength  as  well  as  to  the  example  of  France 
is  due  the  attitude  which  the  Italian  press  as  a 
whole  has  adopted  in  favor  of  a  permanent  recon¬ 
ciliation  between  the  Holy  See  and  Italy. 

Ivory  Coast,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Littoris 
Eburnei;  cf.  C.  E.,  XVI-84a),  comprises  a  French 
colony  in  Equatorial  Africa.  This  vicariate  is  under 
the  care  of  the  Society  of  African  Missions  of 


IVREA 


417 


IVREA 


Lyons,  and  the  present  and  first  vicar  apostolic  is 
the  Rt.  Rev.  Jules  Joseph  Maury,  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Anassus  17  November,  1911.  This  terri¬ 
tory  was  first  erected  into  a  prefecture  apostolic  in 
1895,  but  by  a  Decree  of  17  November,  1911,  it  was 
raised  to  a  vicariate.  In  192J  the  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  consisted  of  9100  Catholics,  who  belong  to 
twenty  different  tribes,  and  8083  catechumens.  The 
vicariate  contains  11  quasi-parishes,  10  churches  84 
chapels,  1  convent  with  6  Sisters,  18  secular  priests, 
1  home  for  the  aged,  3  dispensaries,  1  orphanage 
for  gills,  which  is  supported  by  the  Government. 
I  he  hospitals  admit  the  ministry  of  priests. 

Ivrea,  Diocese  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-258b),  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Turin  in  Northern  Italy.  The  present 
bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Matteo  Angelo  Filipello,  bora 
.  nuo,va  d’Asti,  diocese  of  Turin,  12  April, 
1859,  elected  24  March,  1898,  to  succeed  Mgr. 
Richelmy  who  was  promoted  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
lurm  and  later  created  cardinal.  Mgr.  Francesco 
Gnavi  of  Calusa,  founder  of  the  Catholic  economic 
social  institute,  in  Piedmont,  died  31  January,  1918. 
Mgr.  Giovanni  Clerico,  archdeacon  of  the ‘  Cathe¬ 
dral  of  Ivrea,  professor  of  morals,  litterateur,  his¬ 
torian,  and  hagiographer,  died  17  March,  1919. 

hrom  8-10  October,  1910,  a  solemn  festival  was 
held  at  Ivrea  with  the  inauguration  of  the  cathe¬ 
dral,  newly.  decorated  and  restored,  enriched  with 
a  new  baptismal  font  and  chapel  dedicated  to  Our 
Lady  of  Lourdes;  with  the  celebration  of  the  ninth 
centenary  of  Blessed  Warmundo  attended  by  Cardi¬ 
nal  Richelmy,  the  Archbishop  of  Vercelli,  ‘and  the 
Bishops  of  Aosta  and  Casale;  and  with  the  opening 
of  an  oratory  for  the  monks  of  St.  Joseph.  On  3 
feeptember,  1911,  a  diocesan  Eucharistic  Congress 
(the  first  in  Italy)  was  held  at  Caluso,  and  after 


that,  except  in  time  of  war,  the  congress  was  held 
each  year.  The  Marian  Congress  met  at  Strambino 
^ober  19M.  A  monastery  for  women  (Bethania 

vLpnd  HearL  fi  J,esus)  was  founded  at 
Vische  Canavese  19  March,  1914.  The  fourth  cen¬ 
tenary  of  the  coronation  of  the  Madonna  of  the 
Holy  Rosary  m  Strambino  was  celebrated  in  the 
presence  of  Cardinal  Richelmy  and  the  bishops  of 
Ivrea  Aosta,  and  Biella.  In  1919  a  Catholic  Union 
was  started  in  the  diocese  with  a  school  of  propa¬ 
ganda  attached;  also  a  Casa  del  Populo  was 
organized. 

In  every  parish  during  the  war  the  pastor  formed 
a  committee  for  aiding  soldiers,  their  families  and 
prisoners.  One  hundred  priests  were  called  to  the 
colors,  23  serving  as  chaplains  and  77  enlisting  as 
soldiers,  4  were  killed,  14  #ere  decorated;  36  out 
?-n  j  se^inarians  served  in  the  army  and  5  were 
killed.  During  the  last  few  months  of  the  war  a 
committee  of  clergy  published  a  paper,  T1  Fra- 
termtas,  which  was  intended  especially  for  priests 
and  clerics  in  the  army. 

The  diocese  contains  138  parshes,  516  succursal 
churches,  chapels  and  oratories,  2  monasteries  for 
women,  3  convents  for  men  and  3  for  women,  177 
secular  and  31  regular  priests,  14  lay  brothers, 
35  nuns  and  257  Sisters,  4  seminaries  with  153 
seminarians,  1  international  theological  university 
with  80  students,  1  college  for  men  with  84  students, 
4  tor, women  with  320  students,  1  normal  school 
for  women  with  180  students,  2  professional  schools 
with  120  students,  2  elementary  schools  with  312 
pupils,  4  missions,  3  refuges,  infant  asylums  in 
every  parish,  6  hospitals,  2  case  per  bambini,  5 
associations  among  the  clergy  and  7  among  laity, 

2  Catholic  papers.  The  normal  school  is  supported 
by  the  Government, 


Jaca  (or  Xaca),  Diocese  of  (Jaccensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VIII-260a),  in  the  province  of  Huesca,  Spam,  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Saragossa.  Rt.  Rev.  Emmanuel  de  Castro 
y  Alonso,  appointed  to  this  see  28  October,  1913, 
was  transferred  to  Segovia,  9  July,  1920.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Francisco  Frutos  y  Valiente, 
canon  and  chaplain  major  of  the  king  at  the 
cathedral  of  Toledo,  appointed  21  September,  1920. 
The  diocese  embraces  a  territory  of  about  1081  sq. 
miles  and  by  1920  statistics  comprises  a  Catholic 
population  of  71,659,  8  archpresbyteries ,  251  par¬ 
ishes,  100  filial  parishes,  1206  priests,  137  chapels 
and  9  convents  with  82  nuns  and  60  Sisters. 

Jaen,  Diocese  of  (Giennensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VIII-267b),  in  the  province  of  Andalusia,  Spain, 
suffragan  of  Granada.  Rt.  Rev.  John  Emmanuel 
Sanz  y  Saravia,  appointed  to  this  see  29  April, 
1909,  died  22  June,  1919,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Emmanuel  Basulto  y  Jimenez,  born  in 
Adanero,  Spain,  1867,  studied  at  the  Seminary  of 
Avila,  served  as  vice-rector  and  canon  of  Leon, 
canon  of  the  Cathedral  of  Madrid  in  1905,  ap¬ 
pointed  Bishop  of  Lugo,  4  September,  1909,  trans¬ 
ferred  18  December,  1919.  This  diocese  embraces 
a  territory  of  some  873  sq.  miles  and  a  Catholic 
population  of  437,783,  with  only  190  Protestants. 
By  1920  statistics  it  comprises  12  archpresbyteries, 
159  parishes,  8  filial  parishes,  475  priests,  16  chapels, 
and  33  convents  with  67  religious  and  659  Sisters. 

Jaffna,  Diocese  of  (Jaffnensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VIII,  269a),  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Island  of 
Ceylon,  suffragan  of  Colombo.  In  1919,  on  7  Feb¬ 
ruary,  the  bishop  of  this  diocese,  Rt.  Rev.  Henri 
Joulain,  O.  M.I.,  who  was  appointed  to  the  see 
20  July,  1893,  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Jules  Andre  Brault,  O.M.I.,  who  was  consecrated 
15  February,  1920.  The  diocese  comprises  a  Catho¬ 
lic  population  of  51,750  Tamils,  and  by  latest  statis¬ 
tics  there  are :  26  missions,  236  stations,  2  convents 
for  men  and  3  for  women,  5  secular  and  48  regular 
clergy,  3  Brothers  of  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Immacu¬ 
late,  36  Brothers  of  St.  Joseph,  14  European  and 
66  native  Sisters,  1  seminary  with  21  seminarians, 
1  college  for  boys  with  36  professors  and  700  stu¬ 
dents,  1  college  for  girls  with  12  teachcn  and  360 
students,  7  high  schools  with  43  teachers  and  an  at¬ 
tendance  of  852  b  -  s  tr  ining  schools  with  9 
teachers  and  33  pupils,  126  elementary  schools  with 
338  teachers  and  8400  pupils,  3  industrial  schools 
with  10  teachers  and  122  pupils.  There  are  4  Gov¬ 
ernment  hospitals  in  which  the  priests  are  per¬ 
mitted  to  minister  and  all  the  schools  are  aided 
by  the  Government.  A  Catholic  club  is  organized 
among  the  laity  and  two  periodicals,  “The  Jaffna 
Catholic  Guardian”  and  the  “Lattica  Veda  Padu 
Kavalan”  are  published. 

Jamaica,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Jamaica;  cf. 
C.  E.,  VIII-270d),  an  island  of  the  West  Indies, 
and  British  colony.  The  vicariate  is  entrusted  to 
the  Jesuits,  and  has  its  official  residence  at  King¬ 
ston,  Winchester  Park.  It  was  administered  by  Rt. 
Rev.  John  Collins,  S.J.,  titular  Bishop  of 
Antiphellos,  from  9  March,  1906,  when  he  was 
appointed  vicar  apostolic  until  he  retired  in  1919.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Wm.  F.  O’Hare,  S.J., 
born  in  South  Boston,  U.  S.  A.,  1870,  ordained  in 


1903,  named  superior  of  the  Jamaica  mission  in 
1915,  and  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Maxi- 
mianopolis,  2  September,  1919,  and  vicar  apostolic 
18  September  following.  On  5  February,  1912,  the 
new  cathedral,  built  to  replace  the  old  one,  which 
had  been  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1907,  was 
dedicated,  and  is  considered  the  finest  cathedral  in 
the  West  Indies.  Five  years  later  St.  Joseph’s  Sam- 
torium  was  opened.  During  the  World  War  none 
of  the  clergy  from  the  island  went  abroad,  but  a 
number  served  as  chaplains  for  the  military  stations 
and  internment  camp  at  home.  About  500  of 
the  faithful  saw  service  abroad  and  many  won 
distinctions  for  their  bravery. 

During  recent  years  the  mission  has  lost  three 
able  clergymen  by  the  deaths  of  Rev.  John  Harper, 
S.J.,  superior  of  the  mission  and  distinguished 
for  the  establishment  of  many  sodalities  and  church 
organizations;  Rev.  Maurice  E.  Prendergast,  S.J., 
a  victim  of  zeal  and  charity  during  the  influenza 
epidemic;  Rev.  John  A.  Pfister,  S.J.,  director  of 
public  pageants  and  musical  activities,  and  noted 
for  his  zeal  among  the  poor.  The  vicariate  counts 
about  40,000  native  Catholics  (colored),  and  about 
200  of  other  nationalities.  Latest  statistics  credit 
it  with  34  churches,  10  missions,  67  stations,  19 
Jesuit  Fathers,  2  Jesuit  Brothers,  47  Sisters  of 
Mercy,  11  Dominicans  and  36  Franciscans,  1  high 
school  with  8  teachers  and  214  pupils,  2  academies 
with  13  teachers  and  21  boys  and  299  girls,  1  normal 
school  with  2  teachers  and  12  pupils,  1  training 
school  with  2  teachers  and  70  girl  students,  33 
elementary  schools  with  91  teachers  and  about 
6000  boys  and  girls,  and  2  industrial  schools  with 
10  teachers  and  425  boys  and  girls.  The  various 
charitable  institutions  include  1  home  for  girls  in 
charge  of  Sisters  of  Mercy,  1  sanitorium  under  the 
Dominican  Sisters,  and  1  refuge  for  girls  in  charge 
of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  The  public  prison,  alms 
houses,  hospitals,  insane  asylums,  and  _  military 
stations  permit  the  priests  to  minister  in  them, 
and  the  two  industrial  schools  and  thirty-one  of  the 
elementary  schools  are  aided  by  the  Government. 
The  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society,  a  Catholic  club, 
and  the  Knights  of  St.  John  are  organized,  and 
a  periodical,  “Catholic  Opinion,”  is  published. 

Japan  (cf.  C.  E.,  VTII-297a),  consists  of  six  large 
islands,  Honshiu  or  Hondo,  Kiusiu,  Shikoku,  Hok¬ 
kaido  (Yezo),  Taiwan  or  Formosa,  the  southern 
part  of  Karafuto,  Corea  (Chosen),  and  about  six 
hundred  small  islands.  The  total  area  amounts  to 
260,738  sq.  miles.  According  to  the  census  of  1920 
the  population  of  Japan  is  77,005,570,  apportioned 
as  follows:  Japan,  55,961,100;  Corea,  17,284,207; 
Formosa,  3,654,398.  For  the  first  time  in  1920 
Japan’s  census-taking  was  carried  out  according  to 
the  Occidental  method,  the  renewal  to  be  made 
every  ten  years.  More  than  10  per  cent  of  the 
population  live  in  towns  containing  100,000  or  over. 
The  density  is  about  392  to  the  sq.  mile,  except  in 
Hokkaido,  where  it  is  65  to  the  sq.  mile.  The 
number  of  Japanese  resident  abroad  in  1918  was 
447,706;  in  China  159,677;  in  the  United  States 
108,216;  in  Hawaii  and  the  Philippines  109,452;  in 
Europe  1243.  The  number  of  foreigners  resident 
in  Japan  was  20,793;  Chinese  13,793;  English  2388; 
Americans  1770;  Germans  650;  French  455;  Russians 
468;  Portuguese  222;  Dutch  108. 


418 


JAPAN 


419 


JAPAN 


Economic  Status.— About  three-fifths  of  the 
arable  land  is  cultivated  by  peasant  proprietors 
and  the  remaining  portion  of  it  by  tenants.  The 
forest  area  in  1918  was  about  46,000,000  acres,  one- 
eighth  of  which  belonged  to  the  Imperial  House¬ 
hold.  The  chief  crops  with  their  acreage  (in  1917) 
were:  rice,  7,761,527  acres;  wheat,  1,371,267  acres; 
barley,  1,335,697  acres;  rye,  1,615,906  acres;  tobacco, 
61,097  acres;  tea,  122,107  acres.  The  mineral  pro¬ 
duction  for  the  year  was  valued  at  710,520,488  yen 
(1  jren=$0.4985  normal  exchange);  the  number  of 
mine  workers  was  464,724.  The  industrial  census 
on  31  December,  1918,  revealed  22,391  factories  with 
1,409,196  employees.  The  principal  manufactures  in 
the  same  year  were:  woven  goods  valued  at  1,189- 
275,699  yen;  Japanese  paper,  53,932,699  yen; 
matches,  39,272,285  yen.  In  1920  the  majority  of 
the  exports  went  to  China,  Great  Britain,  and  the 
United  States. 


•  ^?mmunication.— The  railway  mileage  of  Japan 
in  1919  was  8014,  including  1941  miles  of  railways 
owned  by  private  companies.  The  decision  of  the 
government  to  make  the  standard  gauge  4.85  feet 
will  cost  the  government  about  1,408,000,000  yen 
before  it  is  completed  in  1943.  Japan  has  also  the 
right  to  build  five  railway  lines  in  Manchuria  and 
Mongolia.  A  railway  tunnel  under  the  Moji- 
bhimonoseki  Straits  was  commenced  in  1920  and 
will  be  completed  in  about  eight  years.  Its  length 
is  seven  miles,  one  mile  of  which  will  be  completely 
under  the  sea.  There  are  1659  miles  of  electric 
tramway  in  Japan. 

Government. — The  present  emperor  is  Yoshihito, 
who  was  born  31  August,  1879,  and  succeeded  his 
father,  Mutsuhito,  30  July,  1912.  Hiro-Hito,  his 
son,  b.  26  April,  1901,  was  proclaimed  heir  apparent 
9  September,  1912.  The  law  of  December,  1910, 
divides  the  emperor’s  lands  into  hereditary  and  per¬ 
sonal  property,  and  provides  that  for  all  the  judicial 
proceedings  affecting  the  property,  the  Minister  of 
the  Imperial  Household  is  responsible.  The  ordi¬ 
nary  civil  or  commercial  law  can  be  applicable  to 
the  property  only  when  it  does  not  conflict  with 
the  Imperial  House  Law  and  the  present  law.  No 
hereditary  landed  estate  can  be  newly  used  for  pur¬ 
poses  other  than  those  of  public  utility  or  under¬ 
takings  sanctioned  by  the  emperor.  The  court  owns 
about  5,425,000  acres  of  dwelling  land,  forests,  and 
plains,  shares  of  different  banks  and  industrial  enter¬ 
prises,  also  20,000,000  yen  transferred  out  of  the 
Chinese  Indemnity  Fund,  20,000,000  yen  in  war 
bonds  subscribed  by  the  court  in  1905.  The  civil 
list  was  increased  in  1910  to  4,500,000  yen.  All 
these  proporties  are  estimated  at  500  million  yen. 

I  he  Munster  of  the  Imperial  Household  is  assisted 
by  24  councillors;  the  chief  of  these  are  the  cham¬ 
berlain,  the  keeper  of  the  seal,  the  empress’s  steward, 
the  master  of  rituals,  the  director  of  the  Peer’s 
school,  and  the  director  of  the  treasury  bureau. 

I  he  emperor  shares  the  legislative  power  with  two 
political  bodies,  the  Chamber  of  Peers  and  the 
House  of  Representatives.  In  1918  the  Chamber 
oi  Peers  was  composed  as  follows :  members  of  the 
imperial  family,  14;  princes,  13;  marquises,  37; 
counts,  20;  viscounts,  73;  barons,  72;  appointed  for 
hte  by  the  emperor,  124;  chosen  amongst  the  citi¬ 
zens  paying  the  largest  taxes,  46;  total,  399. 

ioioCiAr(j-n^  new  Election  Law,  passed  in  the 
1918-19  diet  and  put  into  force  in  the  general  elec- 

i°n  tbe  House  is  composed  of  members 

elected  by  male  Japanese  subjects  of  not  less  than 
twenty-five  years  of  age  and  paying  a  direct  tax  of 

i  A  rru^  ^  yen  as  aSainst  the  previous  limit 
ot  10.  The  incorporated  cities  containing  not  less 
than  30,000  inhabitants  form  independent  electoral 


districts  and  are  entitled  to  return  one  member, 
while  cities  containing  more  than  100,000  inhabi¬ 
tants  elect  one  member  for  every  130,000  people. 
1  he  rural  districts  are  to  send  one  member  for 
every  130,000  inhabitants  approximately.  Each 
prefecture  was  formerly  regarded  as  one  electoral 
district,  but  in  the  new  law  the  one  member  for 
one  constituency  system  has  been  adopted  Elec¬ 
tion  is  carried  on  by  secret  ballot,  one  vote  for  one 
man,  and  a  general  election  takes  place  every  four 
years.  Every  Japanese  subject  over  thirty  years  of 
age  is  eligible,  except  the  mentally  unfit  or  those 
who  have  been  deprived  of  civil  rights.  The  mem¬ 
bership  of  the  House  is  increased  thereby. 

At  present  the  members  are  divided  into  four 
parties:  (1)  the  Government  party  (Seiyukwai; 
f  Eansm-kai,  formed  in  1916,  formerly  of  seceders 
rom  the  Nationalist  party  and  members  of  the 
Central  Club  (dissolved) ;  (3)  Kokumin+o  (Nation¬ 
alists),  organized  in  1910  by  members  identified  with 
.Progressives,  historically  the  remnants  of  the  Pro¬ 
gressive  party  of  1882;  (4)  Independents.  The  most 
noteworthy  features  of  Japanese  politics  are  the 
absence  of  Conservative,  Labor,  and  Socialistic  ele¬ 
ments  as  organized  power.  The  new  election  law 
increases  the  number  of  members  from  381  to  464. 
Number  of  members  in  the  different  parties :  Seiyu¬ 
kwai,  162;  Kensei-kai,  122;  Kokuminto,  36;  Inde¬ 
pendents,  61. 

Education.  Education  in  Japan  is  compulsory 
and  non-religious.  There  were  (1917)  325  secondary 
schools  for  boys  with  6702  teachers  and  147,467 
pupils,  247  private  schools.  There  were  378  second¬ 
ary  schools  for  girls  with  4758  instructors  and  101,- 
965  pupils;  295  were  public  and  83  private  schools. 

•.u  n ????«£  of  Pybllc  primary  schools  was  25.445 
with  165,190  teachers  and  7,621,951  pupils.  The 
average  number  of  children  receiving  instruction 
was  98.61.  There  were  164  private  primary  schools 
and  635  infant  schools.  The  government  plans  to 
devote  44,000,000  yen  to  extend  higher  education,  this 
sum  to  be  a  continuing  expenditure  extending  over  6 
years  from  1919-20  to  1924-25.  Of  the  total  39,500,- 
000  yen  were  spent  on  the  training  of  teachers,  espe- 
cially  abroad.  The  emperor  has  contributed  10,000,- 
000  yen  toward  the  necessary  funds;  balance  is  to  be 
met  by  public  bonds  or  loans.  There  are  eight  higher 
schools  which  prepare  for  the  university  and  are 
located  at  Tokio,  Sendai,  Kyoto,  Kanazawa, 
Okayama,  Kumamoto,  Nagoya,  and  Kagoshima. 
Ihe  imperial  universities  are  located  at  Tokyo, 
Kyoto,  Sendai  (Tohoku),  Fukuoka  (Kyushu  Uni¬ 
versity),  and  Hokkaido  (formerly  the  Agricultural 
Department  of  Tohoku  University).  The  eighteen 
technical  schools  comprise  institutions  that  give 
necessary  instruction  to  those  desiring  to  pursue 
practical  business  such  as  industry,  agriculture, 
trade,  etc.  The  special  schools  include  the  five 
schools  of  medicine,  Tokio  School  of  Foreign  Lan¬ 
guages,  Fine  Art  Academy,  Academy  of  Music. 
For  the  blind,  deaf,  and  dumb  there  are  71  schools. 

Educational  Work  in  Formosa. — The  administra¬ 
tion  of  the  schools  in  the  island  of  Formosa  by 
the  Japanese  Department  of  Education  has  con¬ 
stituted  throughout  a  remarkable  record  of  progress 
in  the  face  of  serious  obstacles.  Formosa  passed 
to  Japan  by  cession  from  China  in  1895  and  im¬ 
mediately  racial  and  religious  problems  asserted 
themselves,  taking  shape  in  uprisings  and  forays 
on  the  part  of  rebellious  natives.  After  two  months 
of  military  activities  the  condition  of  the  island 
was  sufficiently  settled  to  allow  the  initiation  of  a 
system  of  education.  The  provisional  office  of  the 
department  was  opened  in  the  city  of  Taihoku 
and  schools  established  in  temples,  generally  the 


JAPAN 


420 


JAPAN 


only  structures  left  intact.  Recognizing  as  the 
immediate  task  the  teaching  of  the  Japanese  lan¬ 
guage  to  native  children,  the  department  called  for 
Japanese  teachers,  who  received  intensive  training 
in  the  Formosan  language.  With  the  pacification  of 
the  island  the  growth  of  the  elementary  schools  was 
so  rapid  that  the  government  could  not  wait  for 
the  first  graduates  of  the  newly  established  normal 
schools  and  seven  times  the  policy  of  training 
Japanese  volunteers  was  repeated.  By  logical  steps 
the  administration  of  educational  affairs  came 
finally,  in  1911,  under  the  control  of  the  educational 
department  of  the  imperial  Government,  which  is 
its  present  status. 

For  compelling  reasons  of  race  diversities  the 
practical  educational  work  in  Formosa  is  grouped 
under  three  headings,  named  in  order  of  their 
establishment  by  the  Japanese  authorities:  (1) 
Work  for  the  natives  of  Chinese  descent;  (2)  work 
for  the  aborigines,  and  (3)  work  for  Japanese  chil¬ 
dren.  In  the  schools  for  natives  of  Chinese  descent, 
the  six  compulsory  years  are  identical  with  those 
of  the  imperial  schools.  Industrial  education  is 
provided  for.  Only  four  years’  attendance  is  re¬ 
quired  in  the  schools  for  aborigines,  the  subjects 
taught  being  only  morals,  Japanese,  and  arith¬ 
metic.  The  education  of  Japanese  children  whose 
parents  are  residents  of  Formosa  is  conducted  sub¬ 
stantially  along  the  same  lines  as  prevail  in  imperial 
Japan  proper.  Encouragement  is  offered  to  promis¬ 
ing  pupils  to  proceed  to  the  imperial  schools  and 
an  increasing  number  of  native  Formosan  students 
complete  their  education  in  Japan  every  year. 

Recent  History. — In  1908  Japan  negotiated  an 
arbitration  treaty  with  the  United  States  and 
exchanged  notes  with  the  same  power  regarding 
the  preservation  of  the  territorial  integrity  of 
China.  The  United  States  proposed  the  neutraliza¬ 
tion  of  the  Manchurian  railways  in  1919,  but  was 
refused,  Japan  and  Russia  agreeing  to  main¬ 
tain  the  status  quo  in  Manchuria  and  in  case  of 
its  being  menaced  to  take  in  concert  what  steps 
were  necessary.  The  treaty  of  alliance  with  Great 
Britain  in  1911  provided  that  nothing  in  the  new 
agreement  should  entail  upon  the  other  contracting 
party  the  obligation  to  go  to  war  with  a  power 
with  whom  a  treaty  of  arbitration  was  in  force, 
thus  making  it  impossible  for  Great  Britain  to  be 
drawn  into  a  war  with  the  United  States  and 
Japan.  By  a  treaty  concluded  between  Japan  and 
Corea,  23  August,  1910,  the  Corean  territory  was 
formally  annexed  to  Japan.  Under  its  new  appela- 
tion,  Chosen,  it  was  placed  under  a  Japanese 
governor-general . 

Japan  entered  the  European  War  at  an  early 
date.  On  15  August  she  demanded  the  withdrawal 
of  all  German  warships  from  Chinese  and  Japanese 
waters  and  the  surrender  of  Kiao-chou  “with  a  view 
to  its  eventual  restoration  to  China.”  Upon  Ger¬ 
many’s  refusal  Japan  declared  war  on  23  August, 
1914,  giving  as  one  of  its  reasons  its  alliance  with 
Great  Britain  with  the  object  of  maintaining  gen¬ 
eral  peace  in  Eastern  Asia  and  freeing  allied  vessels 
for  activity  in  foreign  waters.  The  Japanese  navy 
established  a  blockade  of  Kiao-chou,  and  10,000 
Japanese  troops  were  landed  on  the  Shantung 
peninsula  outside  the  German  leased  territory,  thus 
violating  China’s  neutrality.  A  small  British  Indian 
force  co-operated  with  the  Japanese  landing  party 
under  the  command  of  General  Kamio.  After  a 
short  siege  Tsing-tao  surrendered  on  7  November, 
1914.  The  casualties  were  light;  only  248  were 
killed  and  1082  were  wounded.  In  the  meantime 
the  Japanese  naval  forces  aided  the  British  in  the 
conquest  of  Germany’s  island  possessions  in  the 


Pacific  and  performed  special  service  against  the 
hostile  submarines  in  the  Mediterranean. 

In  1915  China  consented  to  all  the  arrangements 
that  might  be  made  in  the  Treaty  of  Peace  between 
Germany  and  Japan  as  to  the  disposal  of  the  rights 
of  the  former,  and  promised  that  no  other  power 
could  establish  a  naval  base  on  the  coast  of  Fu-kien. 
Japan  then  promised  the  return  of  Kiao-chou  sub¬ 
ject  to  the  establishment  of  a  Japanese  concession. 
The  United  States  refused  to  countenance  any  such 
action  impairing  the  integrity  of  China,  although 
it  recognized  that  by  territorial  proximity,  Japan 
had  special  interests  in  China.  At  the  peace  con¬ 
ference  it  was  revealed  that  Great  Britain  had  made 
a  secret  pact  with  Japan,  promising  her  all  the 
German  concessions  in  China  upon  her  entry  into 
the  war.  The  agreement  was  incorporated  into  the 
Peace  Treaty  which  the  two  countries  refused  to 
sign.  The  same  treaty  gave  Japan  the  mandates 
of  Germany’s  former  possessions  in  the  Pacific, 
the  Marshall  Islands,  the  Caroline  Islands,  and  the 
Mariana  Islands.  In  1917  Macao  was  purchased 
from  Portugal. 

The  virtual  anarchy  in  Siberia  under  the  Bol- 
sheviki  regime,  the  release  of  300,000  German 
prisoners  in  Russia,  and  the  dire  straits  of  the 
Czechoslovak  army  led  to  the  intervention  of  Japan 
in  Siberia.  In  1918  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
and  Japan  sent  7000  troops  there,  Japan  immediately 
adding  93,000  in  order  to  fulfill  the  terms  of  the 
Sino-Japanese  military  agreement.  Kharavosk  was 
captured,  Biagiovestchensk  was  entered,  and  Rufulor 
was  taken.  After  the  withdrawal  of  the  allied  forces 
the  Japanese  remained,  for  the  country  was  still 
chaotic.  The  massacre  of  700  Japanese  at  Niko- 
laevsk  in  March,  1920,  led  to  the  annexation  of 
northern  Sakhalin  despite  the  protest  of  the  powers. 

The  difficulties  created  between  Japan  and 
America  in  1913  by  the  introduction  of  the  Webb 
Bill  into  the  California  Legislature  were  repeated 
in  1920,  when  the  people  of  California  refused  to 
sanction  the  ownership  or  lease  of  any  property  by 
Japanese  or  American-born  minors  under  their 
parents’  guardianships.  In  the  Shantung  treaty 
signed  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  on  4  February,  1922, 
during  the  Disarmament  Conference,  China  is  to 
receive  back  from  Japan  the .  German  property, 
concessions,  railways,  and  all  rights  in  Shantung; 
China  is  to  pay  Japan  53,406,141  gold  marks  as 
assessed  value  of  the  property  plus  the  improve¬ 
ments;  Japanese  troops  are  to  be  withdrawn  as 
soon  as  Chinese  troops  are  sent.  In  the  same  con¬ 
ference  Japan  assented  to  a  reduction  in  naval 
disarmament  to  ten  capital  ships.  The  agreement 
between  Great  Britain  and  Japan,  entered  into  on 
13  July,  1911,  was  terminated.  The  budget  for 
1921-22  was  approximately  $778,000,000  (1,562,000,000 
yen),  $369,000,000  for  armament:  army  $122,500,000, 
navy  $247,000,000,  including  $72,000,000  for  new 
construction. 

Church  in  Japan. — The  religious  liberty  incor¬ 
porated  by  the  Emperor  Meijo  Tenno  in  the  Con¬ 
stitution  he  gave  his  people  was  not  of  such  benefit 
to  Catholics  as  had  been  hoped.  The  question  of 
religion  occupied  the  attention  of  the  intellectual 
classes  in  the  Empire,  and  in  1912,  at  the  invita¬ 
tion  of  the  Minister  of  the  Interior,  Baron  Hara,  a 
conference  was  held,  attended  by  the  representatives 
of  all  religious  bishops.  The  result  seemed  to  be 
public  recognition  of  the  right  of  religion  in  educa¬ 
tion.  It  was  a  question  of  religion  in  general,  how¬ 
ever,  and  when  practiced  details  were  _  considered 
it  was  found  to  apply  only  to  Shintoism,  grown 
more  powerful  since  the  Japanese  victory  over 
Russia,  attributed  by  the  heads  of  the  army  to  the 


JARO 


421 


JASSY 


protection  of  the  Jinga  or  deceased  emperors  and 
heroes  of  the  tutelary  gods  of  the  nation.  In  May, 
1918,  at  the  general  reunion  of  Shintoist  dignitaries] 
the  study  of  Shintoism  was  made  obligatory  in 
secondary  and  higher  education  as  it  already  was 
in  the  primary  schools.  Religion  thus  became  a 
matter  of  patriotism,  and  in  its  name  pressure 
was  brought  to  bear  on  the  pupils  of  schools  which 
did  not  take  part  in  the  official  festivals  of  Japan. 
The  Christians  refused  to  do  so  in  virtue  of  their 
faith,  which  forbids  participation  in  superstitious 
ceremonies,  and  the  pagans,  in  the  name  of  the 
religious  liberty  guaranteed  by  the  constitution. 
Newspapers  and  periodicals  took  the  stand  that 
one  could  be  at  the  same  time  a  Christian  and 
a  loyal  citizen  of  Japan.  A  Japanese  Catholic,  Cap¬ 
tain  Yamagata,  was  sent  to  Rome  by  the  Govern¬ 
ment  to  explain  the  full  import  of  Juiga  worship, 
and  a  delegate  apostolic,  Mgr.  Petrelli,  was  sent  to 
Japan  to  study  this  important  question.  The  re¬ 
sults  of  both  missions  are  not  yet  available,  but 
the  pressure  formerly  exercised  on  non-Shintoists 
has  been  noticeably  weakened.  Another  division 
exists  amongst  the  intellectuals,  for  some  of  whom 
Shintoism  is  in  decadence,  Buddhism  stagnant, 
Chi  istianity  without  strength,  and  who  seek  in 
eclecticism  to  rebuild  a  spiritual  edifice  in  Japan. 
This  thinking  element  has  no  antagonism  towards 
the  Church,  and  does  not  refuse  to  at  least  examine 
her  doctrines.  The  same  conditions  prevail  in 
Corea  (Chosen),  where  the  strict  enforcement  of 
the  school  laws  raises  obstacles  to  Catholicism 
hitherto  unknown.  The  principal  marks  of  the 
present  religious  situation  then  are  on  the  one  hand 
a  greater  esteem  for  the  Church  and  on  the  other 
a  war  against  her  in  the  name  of  patriotism  and 
of  badly  defined  ideas  of  religion. 

The  Apostolic  Delegation  of  Japan  with  Corea, 
Fomosa,  the  Caroline,  Mariana,  Marshall  Islands 
was  erected  26  November,  1919.  Mgr.  Fumasoni 
Biondi,  titular  Archbishop  of  Dioclea,  formerly 
Apostolic  delegate  to  the  Indies,  was  the  first  head 
of  the  Japanese  delegation.  He  was  recalled  to 
Rome  in  1921  and  named  secretary  of  the  Propa¬ 
ganda  16  June,  counsultor  of  the  Holy  Office  25 
June,  and  a  month  later  consultor  of  Extraordinary 
Ecclesiastical  Affairs.  He  was  succeeded  in  Japan 
by  Mgr.  Giardini,  Barnabite,  b.  in  Milan,  1877, 
entered  the  novitiate  in  1893,  elevated  to  the  epis¬ 
copate  in  1915,  as  titular  Archbishop  of  Edessa. 


Mill  Hill  missionaries,  40  regular  clergy  (Augus- 
tinians  and  Recollects),  2  lay  brothers,  75  Sisters, 
1  seminary,  and  65  seminarians.  The  educational 
institutions  include  1  college  for  men  in  connection 
with  the  seminary,  which  is  in  charge  of  the 
Lazansts  with  several  hundred  students,  1  college 
for  men  under  the  Augustinians,  also  with  several 
hundred  students,  5  academies  for  young  ladies 
w  ith  60  teachers  and  1000  students,  35  elementary 
schools  with  175  teachers  and  3000  pupils.  There 
is  1  asylum  with  125  girls  and  1  hospital;  the 
Knights  of  Columbus  are  organized  and  a  Catholic 
periodical,  “Cabuhisang  Banua,”  is  published. 


Jaro,  Diocese  of  (Jarensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VIII-323d),  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  is  suffragan 
to  the  Archdiocese  of  Manila.  Until  1910  it  in¬ 
cluded  the  present  diocese  of  Zamboanga*  which 
was  erected  on  10  April  of  that  year.  The  islands 
of  Panay  and  Negros,  together  with  the  Romblon 
group,  are  comprised  within  the  limits  of  the  Dio¬ 
cese  of  Jaro,  and  there  are  scattered  throughout 
some  Aglipayan  Schismatics,  and  on  the  mountains 
the  semi-civilized  Negritos.  The  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  is  about  1,000,000.  The  first  American  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Frederick  Zadok  Hooker,  d.  18  September, 
1907,  and  was  succeeded  in  1908  by  the  present 
Cardinal  Dougherty  of  Philadelphia,  who  was  bishop 
'of  this  see  until  his  transfer  to  the  Diocese  of 
Buffalo  in  1915,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  Bishop 
Foley,  d.  12  August,  1919.  The  present  incumbent, 
Rt.  Rev.  James  P.  McClosky,  b.  in  Philadelphia, 
1870,  ordained  1898,  prelate  of  the  Holy  See  1913, 
appointed  Bishop  of  Zamboango,  consecrated  1 
May,  1917,  was  transferred  to  Jaro,  8  March,  1920. 

By  present  (1921)  statistics  there  are  115  parishes, 
12  missions,  150  churches,  1  monastery  for  men, 
95  secular  clergy,  70  of  whom  are  native,  and  25 


Jassy,  Diocese  of  (Jassiensis;  cf.  C.  E , 
\III-325b),  in  Rumania.  In  1921  by  apostolic  de¬ 
cree  the  province  of  Bessarabia  in  Moldavia  was 
separated  from  the  diocese  of  Tiraspol  and  incor- 

in  „diocese  of  Jassy.  After  the  death 
(1915)  of  the  former  Bishop  Joseph  Camilli  'the 
episcopal  seat  remained  vacant  until  15  August 
1920,  when  Alexander  Th.  Cisar  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Jassy  in  the  Cathedral  at  Bucarest  by 
Archbishop  Netzhammer,  O.S.B.  Among  the  recent 
events  of  importance  within  the  diocese  are:  the 
reopening  of  the  theological  seminary  at  Jassy;  the 
publication  of  a  new  diocesan  catechism,  prayer 
book,  and  of  the  periodical  “Catholic  Sentinel’'; 
the  institution  of  the  Sodality  for  the  Protection 
of  ^oung  Girls,  and  of  the  Association  of  Christian 
Mothers.  Of  special  note  are  the  following  clergy 
recently  deceased:  Daniel  Pietrobono  (d.  1915),  for 
forty  years  stationed  in  Galatz,  provincial  of  the 
Conventuals  in  Moldavia,  Vicar  General  of  Jassy, 
built  the  parish  house  and  wholly  restored  the 
church,  afforded  every  assistance  to  the  Sisters  of 
Notre  Dame  of  Sion  in  founding  a  flourishing  com¬ 
munity  in  Galatz.  Nicholas  Joseph  Camilli  (d. 
1915),  Bishop  of  Jassy  for  twenty-five  years,  founded 
the  theological  seminary  and  the  schola  cantorum, 
edited  both  a  large  and  small  diocesan  catechism 
and  the  diocesan  Acts;  Joseph  Malinovski  (d. 
1917),  Vicar  General  and  Apostolic  Administrator 
of  Jassy,  edited  many  books  and  in  particular  a 
practical  prayer  book  and  a  hymn  book:  Gratiano 
Carpati  (d.  1919),  a  zealous  missionary  and  founder 
of  the  parochial  library,  of  the  periodical  “Viata,” 
and  of  the  Society  of  Honorable  Youth. 

During  the  war  the  Catholic  soldiery  merited  the 
special  commendation  of  their  superiors  and  of 
King  Ferdinand  I.  Ulderico  Cipolloni,  O.M.C., 
who  was  at  that  time  Apostolic  Administrator  of 
the  diocese,  besides  giving  every  assistance  to  the 
priests  in  the  army,  and  providing  for  the  care  of 
the  prisoners,  and  the  sick  and  wounded,  built  a 
refuge  for  the  orphaned  and  founded  two  such 
asylums,  and  erected  a  monument  to  the  dead 
Catholic  soldiers. 

The  diocese  numbers  100,000  Catholics  in  Mol¬ 
davia  and  Bessarabia,  of  whom  85  per  cent  are 
Hungarians,  10  per  cent  Poles,  4  per  cent  Germans 
or  Austrians,  and  1  per  cent  Italians.  There  are 
24  secular  and  26  regular  priests;  5  deaneries  and 
33  parishes  with  217  affiliated  stations,  and  148 
churches  and  10  chapels;  4  convents  for  men  and 
4  for  women  with  136  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  of 
Sion  and  40  Franciscan  Nuns;  1  theological  semi¬ 
nary  at  Jassy  and  2  preparatory  seminaries  at 
Jassy  and  Halaucesti  with  49  students;  several  day 
schools  for  boys  and  girls;  2  boarding  schools  for 
girls  at  Jassy  and  Galatz  directed  by  the  Sisters  of 
Notre  Dame  of  Sion  with  1086  students;  4  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  with  794  pupils;  2  orphan  asylums 
with  35  boys  and  56  girls.  The  Government  does 
not  contribute  to  the  support  of  the  Catholic  in- 


JAY 


422 


JESUS  AND  MARY 


stitutions.  In  Jassy  and  Husi  there  is  established 
a  flourishing  Catholic  mutual  aid  society.  The 
following  associations  exist  among  the  laity :  Rosary 
Society,  Society  of  Catholic  Young  People,  Apostle- 
ship  of  Prayer,  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  Con¬ 
gregation  of  Mary,  Association  of  Christian  Mothers, 
Sodality  for  the  Protection  of  Young  Girls.  There 
are  2  Catholic  weeklies,  “Lumina  Crestinului”  and 
the  “Catholic  Sentinel,”  and  2  monthlies,  “Viata” 
and  the  Franciscan  “Aurora.” 

Jay,  Marie-Raoul,  economist,  b.  at  Paris  on  1 
June,  1856;  d.  there  in  July,  1921.  A  devout  Cath¬ 
olic  and  a  follower  of  Count  de  Mun,  he  was  one 
of  the  most  prominent  sociologists  in  France,  and 
was  consulted  on  almost  every  social  law  adopted 
there  during  the  first  two  decades  of  the  twentieth 
century.  He  was  especially  interested  in  such  ques¬ 
tions  as  the  weekly  day  of  rest,  the  protection  of 
women  workers  at  home,  unnecessary  employment 
of  workers  at  night.  He  was  a  chevalier  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Union 
of  Social  Catholics,  the  secretary  of  the  French 
Association  for  the  Legal  Protection  of  the  Work¬ 
ingmen,  a  member  of  the  Supreme  Council  of 
Labor,  and  a  professor  in  the  faculty  of  law  in 
the  University  of  France,  where  his  lectures  were 
enthusiastically  received.  Among  his  principal 
writings  may  be  mentioned:  “L’assurance  ouvriere 
et  la  solidarity  dans  l’industrie,”  “Le  repos  hebdo- 
madaire  et  la  nouvelle  loi  frangaise”  (1906),  “La 
limitation  legale  de  la  journee  de  travail  en 
France”  (1906). 

Jean,  Auguste,  Jesuit  missionary  and  educa¬ 
tionist,  b.  in  France  on  15  October,  1833;  d.  at 
the  Sacred  Heart  College,  near  Kodaikanal,  Madura, 
India,  on  16  September,  1921.  After  entering  the 
Society  of  Jesus  and  studying  at  Lyons  and  Rome, 
he  was  sent  to  Negapatan,  India,  in  1875.  A  little 
later  he  was  named  rector  of  St.  Joseph’s  College, 
and  in  January,  1883,  secured  the  transference  of 
the  college  from  Negapatan  to  Trichinoply,  where 
it  flourished  to  such  a  degree  that  at  the  time  of 
his  death  it  had  in  the  college  department  1031 
students  (210  Catholics),  and  in  the  school  depart¬ 
ment  1245  (530  Catholics).  Just  previously  he  had 
been  nominated  by  Lord  Ripon  to  the  first  Indian 
Educational  Commission,  as  an  associate  of  Sir 
W.  W.  Hunter  and  Dr.  Miller,  whom  he  accom¬ 
panied  in  their  official  tour  of  India.  Jean’s  mastery 
of  Latin  was  unique;  his  scholarship  was  so  well 
appreciated  by  Madras  University  that  till  he  re¬ 
tired  as  a  septuagenarian  to  the  Sacred  Heart  Col¬ 
lege  he  was  chairman  of  the  board  of  studies  in 
Greek,  Latin,  and  French,  and  university  examiner 
in  these  subjects.  Latin  verse  was  his  favorite 
pastime,  and  he  could  write  Horatian  lyrics  with 
as  much  ease  and  classic  grace  as  an  Addison.  For 
many  years  after  his  retirement  he  was  engaged 
teaching  Latin  and  Tamil  to  the  Jesuit  novices. 
Father  Jean  is  the  author  of  a  Latin  grammar 
widely  used  in  India. 

Jeanne  d’ Arc  Home,  at  253  West  24th  St.,  New 
York,  was  established  in  1896  by  the  present  pastor 
of  the  Church  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Rev. 
Thoephile  Wiicher,  S.P.  M.,  for  the  protection  of 
French  girls  who  come  to  America  to  eran  their  liv¬ 
ing  as  teachers,  governesses,  stenographers,  seam¬ 
stresses,  maids,  etc.  They  can  live  at  the  home  for  a 
moderate  sum  in  private  rooms  or  in  dormitories 
accommodating  six.  There  is  a  beautiful  chapel 
in  the  house  where  holy  Mass  is  offered  every 
morning  at  seven  o’clock,  assistance  at  daily  Mass 
being  optional.  The  boarders  have  also  at  their 


disposal  a  large  recreation  hall  provided  with  piano, 
victrola,  and  library,  where  they  can  amuse  them¬ 
selves,  also  sewing  machines  for  their  own  use  or 
to  use  in  sewing  for  the  poor  in  their  spare 
moments. 

Adjoining  the  home  is  a  public  school  where  the 
girls  receive  instruction  in  the  English  language 
during  the  evening  sessions  of  winter  months.  The 
house  is  open  until  ten  o’clock  every  evening,  but 
with  permission  the  girls  may  remain  out  until 
eleven. 

The  home  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Sisters 
of  Divine  Providence,  whose  provincial  house  is  in 
Newport,  Kentucky.  Rev.  Mother  M.  Clotilde  has 
been  the  Superioress  since  the  beginning.  The  Sis¬ 
ters  meet  the  girls  at  their  request  on  their  arrival 
at  the  different  piers  and  stations,  they  watch  over 
the  welfare  of  their  charges  with  a  maternal  solici¬ 
tude,  and  are  often  in  constant  correspondence  with 
their  families  abroad  concerning  their  well  being. 
The  Sisters  find  work  for  them,  take  care  of  them 
when  they  are  sick,  visit  those  who  are  in  hospitals, 
attending  to  their  spiritual  needs;  when  they  die 
they  see  to  their  burial,  and  after  the  religious 
services  at  the  Church  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  they 
accompany  their  remains  to  their  last  resting  place 
(their  own  plot)  in  St.  Mary’s  Cemetery,  Staten 
Island. 

The  first  establishment  of  the  home  could  only 
accommodate  twelve  boarders.  In  1911  a  spacious 
building  was  erected  which,  with  an  annex,  can 
accommodate  150.  Since  there  is  not  room  enough 
for  all  who  now  apply  daily,  they  are  directed  to 
other  homes  or  to  recommended  private  families. 
The  home  receives  equally  girls  of  all  nationalities, 
without  regard  to  creed,  provided  the  applicants 
are  of  good  moral  character.  More  than  2000  girls 
receive  hospitality  at  the  home  yearly,  30,859  hav¬ 
ing  passed  through  the  house  since  the  beginning. 

Jerico,  Diocese  of.  See  Antioquia  and  Jerico. 

Jesus,  Daughters  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-374a). — 
The  mother-house  is  at  Kermaria,  France,  and  the 
provincial  house  for  Canada  is  at  Three  Rivers. 
There  are  260  professed  choir  religious,  74  lay  sisters, 
10  novices,  and  16  postulants,  with  30  establish¬ 
ments  in  Canada.  There  are  2  establishments  in 
the  United  States. 

Jesus  and  Mary,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Child¬ 
hood  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-374a). — The  congregation 
called  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy  of  the  Good 
Shepherd,  a  teaching  and  nursing  order  in  Dra- 
guignan,  France,  was  authorized  by  the  government 
29  April,  1853.  Their  official  title  is  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Childhood  of  Jesus  and  Mary.  Since  the 
decrees  of  1901  and  1904  the  Sisters  have  limited 
their  work  to  care  for  the  sick  and  orphans. 

Jesus  and  Mary,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Child¬ 
hood  of  (of  Ste.  Chretienne;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-374a). 
— Mother  Marie  Seraphine,  elected  as  general 
superior  of  the  institute  for  the  first  time  in  1906, 
was  re-elected  in  1912.  She  died  in  January,  1914, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Mother  Marie  Appoline, 
elected  April,  1914,  and  re-elected  in  1920  for  six 
years.  Cardinal  Billot,  S.  J.,  was  appointed  by  the 
Holy  See,  in  1919,  as  Cardinal  Protector  of  the 
institute.  In  June,  1914,  St.  .Joseph’s  Convent 
School  was  wholly  destroyed  by  the  big  Salem  fire; 
the  Sisters  remained  in  Salem  and  St.  Joseph’s 
parochial  school  was  temporarily  installed  in  the 
church  buildings,  partially  rebuilt.  The  novitiate 
for  America,  previously  in  Salem,  was  transferred 
to  Giffard,  near  Quebec,  Canada,  in  1914;  the  Sis¬ 
ters  undertook  the  direction  of  two  schools  there. 


JESUS  MARY 


423 


JOLIETTE 


Two  other  foundations  were  made  at  the  same 
time  at  Rumford,  Maine,  and  St.  Malachie,  Canada. 
In  1918  Ste.  Chretienne  Academy  was  founded  at 
Loring  Villa,  Salem,  where  a  number  of  girls  attend 
the  grammar  school  and  the  different  departments 
of  the  high  school. 

The  vows  are  made  annually  for  six  years,  after 
which  perpetual  vows  are  taken,  according  to  the 
revised  Code  of  Canon  Law,  which  effects  other 
changes  in  the  government  of  the  institute.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  World  War  the  Sisters  in  Europe  cared 
for  the  wounded  in  the  hospitals  or  in  their  con¬ 
vents  turned  into  hospitals.  Many  of  them  were 
received  in  the  Legion  of  Honor  and  were  awarded 
medals  by  the  French  and  foreign  governments. 
The  works  of  the  institute  are  the  direction  of 
elementary  and  high  schools,  academies,  industrial 
schools,  orphanages,  hospitals. 

In  the  United  States  and  Canada  about  100  Sis¬ 
ters  have  charge  of  9  schools  in  the  Archdiocese  of 
Boston  and  the  Dioceses  of  Portland,  Providence, 
and  in  Canada,  with  a  total  attendance  of  3200. 

Jesus  Mary,  Religious  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-385c). 
—In  1860  the  first  school  of  the  Sisters  of  Jesus 
Mary,  from  Lyons,  was  opened  at  Ipswich,  Eng¬ 
land.  The  seeds  of  faith  there  sown  rapidly  bore 
fruit,  and  soon  another  house  was  opened  at  Willes- 
den,  London.  From  these  two  houses  branched 
off  a  number  of  flourishing  schools  on  English  soil 
and  one  in  Ireland.  The  schools  at  Ipswich,  Willed 
den,  and  Thornton  College  are  affiliated  to  the 
Universities  of  Cambridge  and  Oxford.  In  1842 
Lyons  sent  a  colony  to  India,  where  twelve  houses 
now  exist.  The  most  important  are  at  Simla,  now 
seat  of  the  provincialate,  at  Agra,  Bombay,  Poona, 
Lahore,  Mussoon.  The  St.  Bede  Training  School 
is  at  Simla,  and  also  a  high  school,  both  attended 
by  over  100  students.  In  1850  the  first  house  of 
the  Spanish  province  was  opened  at  San  Andre, 
a  suburb  of  Barcelona. .  To-day  the  provincial  house 
ns  that  of  San  Gervasio,  having  under  its  control 
the  houses  of  Barcelona,  Valencia,  Tarragona,  and 
others.  In  1913  the  Spanish  province  sent  a  colony 
to  Buenos  Aires,  Argentine  Republic.  This  was 
the  second  colony  from  Spain,  the  first  having  been 
sent  to  Mexico  and  Yucatan,  which  now  form  the 
Mexican  province.  A  school  is  still  open  in  Cuba 
where  the  Sisters  found  a  refuge  in  1914  when 
fleeing  from  the  persecutions  of  the  Mexican  Con¬ 
stitution. 

The  first  house  of  the  congregation  in  America 
was  founded  at  St.  Joseph,  Levis,  in  Canada,  in 
1855.  In  1870  Sillery,  Quebec,  became  the  provincial 
house  of  America,  with  six  other  houses  under 
its  control.  Sillery  has  a  large  boarding  school, 
and  will  open,  in  the  near  future,  a  residence  for 
ladies,  similar  to  that  in  New  York.  The  houses 
in  the  United  States  are  at  Fall  River,  Mass.,  Man¬ 
chester  and  Goffstown,  N.  H.,  Woonsocket,  R.  I., 
Providence,  R.  I.  and  New  York,  N.  Y.  The  estab¬ 
lishments  in  New  York  are  a  school  in  Kingsbridge, 
Bronx,  and  a  house  on  14th  Street  called  “Our 
Lady  of  Peace,”  which  is  a  residence  where  190 
ladies  in  the  literary  profession  can  find  every 
comfort  and  convenience.  The  latter  was  founded 
by  nuns  from  Rome  in  1902.  In  1911  a  novitiate 
and  boarding  school  were  opened  at  Highland  Mills, 
Orange  Co  ,  N.  Y.  The  congregation  now  has  about 
1400  members  at  work  in  the  different  institutions 
scattered  over  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  and  South 
America.  .  More  than  15,000  students  receive  in¬ 
struction  in  their  schools.  The  mother-house  is 
at  Rome,  transferred  there  from  Lyons  in  1901. 

Jette,  Sir  Louis  Amable,  K.  C.  M.  G.,  Canadian 


lawyer  and  statesman,  b.  at  L’Assomption,  Quebec, 
on  15  January,  1836;  d.  at  Quebec  in  May,  1920; 
son  of  Amable  and  Caroline  (Gauffreau)  Jette. 
He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1857,  and  at  the  same 
time  was  engaged  in  journalism,  becoming  the 
e^tor  of  “L’Ordre.”  In  1862  he  married  Mile. 
Berthe  Laflamme  (their  son,  Father  Jules  Jette,  a 
noted  mathematician,  who  has  been  a  Jesuit  mis¬ 
sionary  in  Alaska  since  1898,  is  a  well-known 
authority  in  the  language  and  folk-lore  of  the 
lena  Esquimaux  of  Central  Alaska).  Louis  Jette 
represented  East  Montreal  in  the  Dominion  Parlia¬ 
ment  in  1872  and  18/4,  and  four  years  later  was 
appointed  professor  of  civil  law  in  Laval  University 
and  puisne  judge  for  Quebec,  resigning  the  latter 
position  to  become  lieutenant-governor  of  the  prov¬ 
ince  from  1898  till  1908.  In  the  former  year  he 
was  made  a  commander  of  the  Legion  d’honneur, 
and  in  1903  was  a  member  of  the  Alaskan  Boundary 
Commission,  and  from  1909  to  1911  he  was  chief 
justice  of  the  province  of  Quebec. 

Jibuti,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (de  Djibouti)  in 
French  Somaliland,  South  Africa.  Somaliland  has 
been  a  mission  since  1894,  but  the  missionaries  being 
expelled  from  their  original  stations,  took  refuge  in 
Jibuti,  and  this  was  erected  into  a  prefecture  apos¬ 
tolic  28  April,  1914.  It  comprises  all  the  territory  of 
French  Somaliland  and  is  entrusted  to  the  French 
Capuchins.  The  present  prefect  apostolic  is  Rev. 
Pascal  de  Luchon  Lombard,  O.  M.  Cap.,  born  in 
Luchon,  France,  1874,  ordained  in  1900,  joined  the 
mission  of  Somaliland  in  1908  and  was  appointed  pre¬ 
fect  apostolic  27  April,  1914.  The  territory  counts  only 
62  Somali  Catholics  and  352  Europeans.  By  latest 
statistics  there  are  3  churches,  3  missions,  3  mission 
stations,  5  regular  clergy,  1  lay  brother,  5  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  with  6  teachers  and  220  pupils,  and 
3  homes.  One  public  institution  permits  the  priests 
to  minister  in  it  and  the  Catholic  schools  and  insti¬ 
tutions  are  assisted  by  the  Government. 

Joan  of  Arc,  Saint  (cf.  C.  E„  VIII-409d),  canon¬ 
ized  by  Benedict  XV  16  May,  1920.  Her  feast  is 
kept  on  30  May. 

Jogues,  Isaac  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-420b). — The  cause 
of  his  beatification  was  introduced  at  Rome  9 
August,  1916. 

Joliette,  Diocese  of  (Joliettensis;  cf.  C.  E, 
VIII-496c),  comprises  three  counties,  Joliette’ 
Berthier,  and  Montcalm,  and  five  parishes  of 
L  Assomption  County  in  the  province  of  Quebec. 

It  is  a  suffragan  of  Montreal. 

The  total  population  (1921)  is  65,000,  of  whom 
62,600  are  Catholic,  and  it  is  divided  into  43 
canonically  erected  parishes  and  3  missions  with 
resident  priests.  The  various  societies  organized 
m  these  parishes  are:  the  Third  Orders  of  St. 
Francis  and  St.  Dominic,  the  League  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  Jesus  for  men  and  children,  Congregation 
of  the  Most  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  for  men,  youths, 
and  young  women,  Sodality  of  St.  Ann  for  married 
women,  Confraternities  of  the  Holy  Rosary,  Bona 
Mors,  Holy  Angels,  Association  for  Daily  Adoration 
pf  the  Most  Blessed  Sacrament,  Association  of  the 
Way  of  the  Cross;  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul, 
and  the  Temperance  Society.  There  are  5  vicariates- 
forane,  12  titular  canons  assisting  the  bishop,  104 
secular  and  16  regular  clergy,  134  religious  men  and 
500  women. 

The  religious  institutions  of  men  are:  the  Clerics 
of  St.  Viateur  (novitiate  at  Joliette  and  juniorate 
at  Berthierville),  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
Brothers  of  Christian  Instruction,  and  Brothers  of 
St.  Gabriel;  of  women:  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Provi- 


JONES 


424 


JUDGE 


dence,  Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame, 
of  the  Holy  Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  of  bt. 
Anne  of  the  Holy  Cross,  of  the  Seven  Dolors,  of 
the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  Sisters 
Adorers  of  the  Precious  Blood,  and  Missionary  Sis¬ 
ters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception. 

The  diocese  contains  1  seminary,  1  normal  school 
for  girls,  3  commercial  colleges,  3  commercial  acade¬ 
mies,  24  boarding  schools  for  young  women,  12 
academies,  30  model  schools,  and  230  elementary 
schools..  There  are  in  these  314  institutions,  725 
professors,  22  of  whom  are  priests  or  seminarians 
119  religious,  329  nuns,  and  255  lay  persons;  16,500 
pupils  receive  instruction  in  the  various  institutions. 
Education  is  in  the  hands  of  the  religious  com¬ 
munities  mentioned  above,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Sisters  Adorers  of  the  Precious  Blood,  who  lead 
a  contemplative  life,  and  the  Missionary  Sisters  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception,  who  are  engaged  in  the 
diffusion  of  the  works  of  Holy  Childhood  and  the 
Propagation  of  the  Faith. 

The  charitable  institutions  of  the  diocese  in¬ 
clude:  2  hospitals  5  homes  for  the  aged,  7  orphan¬ 
ages  for  girls  and  1  for  boys,  as  well  as  6  associa¬ 
tions  of  Ladies  of  Charity  and  3  societies  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul. 

On  25  April,  1913,  the  first  bishop  of  Joliette, 
Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Alfred  Archambault,  died,  and 
was  succeeded  by  the  present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev. 
Joseph  Gillaume  Forbes,  consecrated  9  October, 
1913.  He  was  bom  at  Isle  Perrol  10  August,  1865, 
educated  at  Montreal  College  and  the  grand 
seminarie  of  Montreal,  ordained  priest  17  March, 
1888,  missionary  at  Caughnawaga  Iroquois  Mission 
(1888-1903),  pastor  of  St.  Anne  de  Bellevue  (1903— 
1911),  of  St.  Jean  Baptiste  (1911-13),  and  appointed 
Bishop  of  Joliette  6  August,  1913. 

Jones,  Arthur  Edward,  ethnologist,  b.  at  Brock- 
*  ville,  Canada,  17  November,  1838;  d.  19  June,  1918. 
He  was  a  pupil  at  St.  Mary’s  College,  Montreal, 
and  from  there  went  to  the  Jesuit  novitiate  at 
Amiens,  France.  He  made  his  philosophical  and 
theological  studies  at  Vais,  Boston,  and  Woodstock, 
was  a  professor  at  Montreal  and  Fordham,  and 
after  various  occupations  in  the  ministry  at  Guelph 
and  Montreal  was  made  President  of  the  English 
College  of  Loyola  in  the  latter  city.  Later  he  was 
appointed  Archivist  of  St.  Mary’s,  and  from  that 
till  the  end  of  his  life  was  a  valuable  aid  to  Dr. 
Reuben  J.  Thwaites,  who  published  the  monumental 
work  known  as  the  “Jesuit  Relations”  in  seventy- 
two  volumes.  He  was  corresponding  member  of 
several  learned  societies  of  Canada  and  the  United 
States,  and  won  the  grand  prize  for  his  archaeolog¬ 
ical  exhibit  at  the  St.  Louis  Exposition  at  St. 
Louis  in  1904.  He  verified  many  of  the  sites  of 
the  Huron  country,  and  his  latter  works  were  pub¬ 
lished  by  the  Ontario  Government. 

Joseph,  Saint,  Congregations  of.  See  Saint 
Joseph,  Congrerations  of. 

Joseph  Benedict  Cottolengo,  Blessed,  founder 
of  the  House  of  Providence,  Turin,  b.  at  Bra  3  May, 
1786;  d.  at  Chieri  29  April,  1842.  He  completed  his 
theological  studies  at  the  diocesan  seminary  of  Asti, 
where  he  was  ordained.  Appointed  curate  first  in 
Bra,  then  in  Corneliano,  in  1818  he  was  made  a 
canon  of  the  collegiate  Church  of  Corpus  Christi  in 
Turin.  The  perusal  of  the  life  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  discovered  to  him  his  real  vocation:  to  do  in 
Turin  the  work  that  Saint  had  done  in  Paris.  He 
began  by  renting  several  rooms  in  a  house  near 
the  Church  of  Corpus  Christi,  where  he  sheltered 
and  nursed  the  destitute  sick  of  the  parish,  assisted 


by  several  young  women  whom  he  called  the 
Daughters  of  Charity  and  to  whom  he  gave  a  rule 
of  life.  At  this  time  there  was  an  outbreak  of 
cholera  in  the  city  and  the  authorities,  who  feared 
that  Father  Cottolengo’s  hospice  would  become  a 
center  of  contagion,  ordered  it  closed.  Nothing 
daunted,  its  founder  in  1832  established  himself 
on  property  farther  from  the  city  near  the  Church 
of  Our  Lady  of  Consolation,  renovated  the  build¬ 
ings  he  found  there,  and  as  the  sick  and  the  out- 
cast  flocked  to  him  in  ever-increasing  numbers, 
gradually  extended  them,  dividing  them  into  sec¬ 
tions  and  created  the  miniature  city,  well-planned, 
the  House  of  Divine  Providence,  called  by  Pius  X 
the  House  of  the  Miracle.  Human  misery  in  every 
form  of  degradation  was  relieved  there  by  the 
members  of  the  various  institutes  founded  by 
Father  Cottolengo  to  supply  the  many  needs  of 
the  work.  The  institutes,  include  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  of  St.  Thais,  of  Carmel,  of  Suffrage, 
of  Mary  of  the  Seven  Dolors,  of  the  Good  Shep¬ 
herd,  the  Brothers  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  the 
Monks  of  Gassin,  the  preparatory  seminary  of  St. 
Thomas,  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Trinity  and 
others,  in  all  thirty-four  religious  families.  He 
was  their  superior  general  and  gave  to  each  ap¬ 
propriate  rules,  assuring  to  God  the  service  of 
perpetual  praise,  to  which  the  marvelous  success  of 
his  work  was  due.  He  refused  the  proffered  aid 
of  the  king  and  endowment  from  other  sources 
in  order  to  be  completely  dependent  on  Divine 
Providence,  and  his  undertaking  prospered  so  well 
that  in  fourteen  years  numerous  buildings  of  the 
House  of  Providence  were  completed,  including, 
besides  the  hospitals,  workshops,  schools,  refuges, 
cloistered  monasteries,  convents,  hospices  for  old 
men  and  for  idiots,  families  of  epileptics  and  crip¬ 
ples,  of  the  blind,  the  deaf  and  dumb,  orphanages 
and  seminaries.  In.  1917,  eighty  years  after  its 
foundation,  it  contained  8000  people  living  from 
day  to  day  without  other  revenue  than  the  charity 
of  the  faithful.  Its  legal  existence  was  recognized  by 
public  act  in  1883,.  and  it  is  dispensed  by  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  from  giving  any  financial  account.  The 
cause  of  Father  Cottolengo’s  canonization  was  in¬ 
troduced  19  July,  1877;  he  was  declared  Venerable 
10  February,  1901,  and  his  beatification  took  place 
27  April,  1917.  By  a  special  concession  of  the  Holy 
Father,  the  Mass  celebrated  in  his  honor  has  not 
only  a  special  Collect,  Secret  and  Postcommunion, 
but  its  entire  liturgy  has  been  chosen  to  express 
the  admirable  character  of  the  founder  of  the 
House  of  Providence. 

Edith  Donovan. 

Josephites.  See  Saint  Joseph,  Missionaries  of; 
Saint  Joseph,  Sons  of. 

Judge,  Ecclesiastical  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-545). — If 
the  relative  competency  of  a  judge  is  questioned, 
he  himself  decides  the  question  with  appeal.  If 
the  question  arises  among  two  or  more  judges 
themselves,  the  decision  rests  with  the  court  im¬ 
mediately  higher;  if  the  judges  are  under  different 
higher  tribunals,  the  dispute  is  to  go  before  the 
higher  tribunal  of  the  judge  before  whom  the  case 
was  first  brought;  if  there  be  no  higher  tribunal  it 
is  decided  by  the  papal  legate  if  he  is  present, 
otherwise  by  the  Apostolic  Signature.  Kinship  with 
either  of  the  parties  to  a  suit  in  the  direct  line 
or  in  the  first  or  second  (formerly  the  fourth) 
degree  collateral  renders  a  judge,  the  promoter  of 
the  faith,  or  the  defender  of  the  bond  incompetent 
to  act  in  their  case.  If  the  ordinary  is  acting  as 
judge  and  is  objected  to  as  suspected  he  is  to 
refrain  from  adjudicating  or  should  refer  the  ques¬ 
tion  of  his  fitness  to  the  next  higher  tribunal;  if 


JUGOSLAVIA 


JUGOSLAVIA 


425 


the  exception  is  taken  against  the  promoter  of 
justice,  the  defender  oi  the  bond  or  other  adminis¬ 
trators  of  the  court,  the  president  of  the  college 
of  judges,  or  the  judge  himself,  if  He  be  the  only 
one,  is  to  decide.  If  the  plaintiff  does  not  adduce 
the  proofs  which  he  might  give,  or  if  the  defendant 
does  not  make  competent  objections,  the  judge 
should  not  interfere  unless  the  public  good  or  the 
welfare  of  souls  is  in  question;  under  such  circum¬ 
stances  he  not  only  may  but  must  intervene.  Ex- 
cept  in  the  case  of  a  bishop  who  exercises  his 
judicial  power  personally,  all  judges  must  swear 
to  act  faithfully;  this  oath  involves  the  invocation 
of  God;  priests  at  the  same  time  must  touch  their 
breasts  while  the  other  faithful  are  sworn  in  on 
the  Gospels.  Judges  and  assistants  are  strictly 
bound  to  secrecy  regarding  criminal  trials,  and  even 
other  suits  if,  otherwise,  either  of  the  litigants 
might  suffer. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  1608-26". 


Jugoslavia,  a  new  State  formed  out  of  the  com¬ 
ponent  parts  of  the  old  Austro-Hungarian  Mon- 
archy,  consisting  of  Croatia,  Slovakia,  Dalmatia, 
Serbia,  Montenegro,  Bosnia-Herzegovina,  Karniola, 
Karmthia,  Styria,  Istria,  Gorizia-Gradisca,  Quarnero 
Islands,  southern  Hungary  (Banat,  Batchka,  and 
Baranya).  The  area  is  about  95,628  sq.  miles.  The 
population  in  1920  was  11,590,000  divided  as  fol¬ 
lows:  Servia  (limits  of  1914)  4,157,000;  Monte¬ 
negro  173,000;  Bosnia-Herzegovina  1,877,000;  Croatia 
232,000;  Slovenia  1,056,000;  Batchka  836,000; 
Banat  480,000;  Dalmatia  301,000;  Madjoumourie, 
Veglia,  118,000.  The  principal  towns  (1919)  are: 
Belgrade  (120,000  inhabitants),  Zagreb  (Agram) 
80,000;  Ljubliana  (Laibach)  60,000;  Sarajevo  50,000; 
Novi  Sad  40,000;  Spert  30,000;  Nish  24,949  (1910). 

Economics. — The  total  production  of  wheat  in 
Jugoslavia  in  1919  was  24,694,726  cwts.  (1  cwt.  =  100 
lbs.),  of  barley  4,251,692  cwts.;  of  oats  6,164,247 
cwts.;  of  maize  36,575,315  cwts;  potatoes  15,136,749 
cwts.  In  1920  the  output  of  sugar  was  35,000  metric 
tons.  There  are  about  4,940,000  acres  of  vineyards 
in  the  country  and  the  production  of  wine  is  about 
66,000,000  gallons  yearly,  of  which  quantity  two- 
thirds  is  consumed  in  the  country  and  the  rest 
exported.  The  mining  industry  of  the  country 
is  very  little  developed.  In  1920,  341,950  tons  of 
coal  were  mined  in  Servia,  387,390  tons  in  Croatia 
and  Slavonia,  1,193,874  tons  in  Slovenia,  826,669 
tons  in  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  and  473,850  tons 
m  Pecs.  Servia  suffered  much  during  the  war 
by  the  devastation  of  her  forests  by  the  enemy  and 
the  destruction  of  the  sawmills.  In  Bosnia  timber 
is  the  chief  export,  half  of  the  area  being  covered 
by  forests.  The  imports  of  Jugoslavia  in  the  first 
nine  months  of  1920  were  valued  at  2,577,709,123 
dinars  (1  dinar  =  $0,193  normal  exchange);  the 
exports  for  the  same  period,  716,393,284  dinars.  The 
commercial  balance  which  showed  a  deficit  in  1919 
of  2,364,855,000  dinars  had  a  depreciating  influence 
on  the  value  of  the  dinar.  In  1920  Jugoslavia 
had  5684  miles  of  railway,  of  which  3732  are  of 
normal  gauge  and  1952  of  narrow  gauge.  Direct 
traffic  is  in  operation  with  all  the  neighboring 
states,  except  Rumania  and  Hungary.  The  total 
length  of  the  waterways,  including  the  Danube, 
Save,  Drave,  and  Tisa,  is  1322  miles.  River  traffic 
is  under  the  control  of  the  Navigation  Syndicate, 
in  which  the  Government  holds  51%  of  the  shares 
and  the  syndicate  49%.  It  is  planned  to  make  the 
Morava  River  navigable,  in  order  to  connect  the 
productive  land  in  Central  Servia  with  the  Danube. 
The  exterior  debt  before  the  war  of  1914  was 
903,810,000  francs;  during  the  war,  approximately 
1,863,212,500  francs;  after  the  war,  434,900,000 francs, 


rL3l201,922’?2?  f,rancs  i  <hc  interior  debt, 
331,/Jl,o00  francs.  1  he  budget  for  1921  estimated 
the  levenue  at  3,884,177,798  dinars  and  the  ex¬ 
penditure  at  3,994,366,343  dinars. 

Army.— In  1919  the  organization  of  the  army  of 
Jugoslavia  was  commenced.  The  strength  of  the 
army  in  peace  time  is  150,000.  Compulsory  service 
is  m  force  for  men  between  the  ages  of  twenty-one 
and  forty-five. 

Education.— During  1920  about  eight  million 
dinars  were  spent  on  repairing  the  schools;  about 
eighty  in  all  have  been  repaired  and  many  new 
schools  have  been  opened.  Practically  all  schools 
have  been  taken  over  by  the  State  and  in  a  short 
s^a^s  their  pay  will  be  standardized, 
ine  state  pays  the  teachers’  salaries  in  elementary 
schools  and  the  municipalities  provide  for  all  other 
expenditure.  Elementary  education  is  compulsory 
and  free  in  all  the  primary  schools  under  the 
Mimstei  of  Education.  In  1919  there  were  in 
elementary  schools  with  3867  teachers 
and  154,9/6  pupils,  also  49  colleges  for  boys  5  for 
gills,  and  2  modern  schools.  There  were  158 
special  schools  for  illiterates  and  9  higher  elemen¬ 
tary  schools.  In  1920  Belgrade  University  had 
an  enrolment  of  80  professors  and  7250  students.  In 
that  year  a  new  university  was  established  at 
Ljubliana  Medical  faculties  have  been  established 
at  Belgrade;  a  philosophical  faculty  at  Skoplje  and 
a  law  faculty  at  Subotica  are  branches  of  the 
Belgrade  University.  Eight  million  dinars  are  spent 
annually  in  the  country  on  students’  scholarships 
and  seven  millions  for  students  studying  abroad 
under  chairs  non-existent  in  the  Kingdom.  The 
new  constitution  of  Jugoslavia  provides  that  re¬ 
ligious  instruction  be  given  according  to  the  wish 
of  the  parents  or  guardians;  the  pupils  are  divided 
into  groups  according  to  their  confession  and  in 
harmony  with  their  religious  beliefs. 

.  Government. — The  new  constitution,  which  went 
into  effect  on  28  June,  1921,  owes  a  great  deal 
to  the  Servian  constitution  of  1888,  which  was 
re-enacted  in  1903.  According  to  its  provisions, 
Jugoslavia  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  with  the 
Crown  passing  in  the  male  line  by  order  of 
primogeniture.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in 
the  king,  who  names  the  officials  and  promulgates 
the  laws,  but  all  acts  issued  by  him  must  be 
countersigned  by  the  responsible  minister.  He  also 
nominates  the  members  of  the  Council  of  State, 
which  is  the  highest  administrative  court.  The 
legislative  power  is  entrusted  to  the  National 
Skupshtina  (Assembly)  elected  by  universal  ballot, 
direct  and  secret,  in  the  ratio  of  one  deputy  to 
each  50,000  inhabitants,  about  280  in  all,  with 
representation  of  the  minorities.  For  judicial  pur¬ 
poses  there  is  a  Court  of  Cassation  at  Zagreb. 
Part  III  of  the  constitution  is  composed  of  social 
and  economic  regulations  as  to  the  protection  of 
labor,  health,  marriage,  insurance  against  accident, 
illness,  unemployment,  incapacitation,  old  age  and 
death.  It  also  contains  two  significant  provisions: 
No  one  is  obliged  to  take  part  in  religious  acts, 
celebrations,  rites,  and  practices,  except  on  State 
holidays  and  celebrations.  Religious  leaders  may 
not  employ  their  spiritual  authority  for  partisan 
aims  outside  their  houses  of  worship,  or  beyond 
prescripts  of  a  religious  character,  or  otherwise  in 
the  fulfillment  of  their  official  duty. 

In  May,  1914,  a  Concordat  was  concluded  between 
Servia  and  the  Vatican,  under  which  a  Catholic 
Archbishopric  of  Belgrade  was  to  be  established 
with  jurisdiction  over  the  Catholics  within  the  old 
frontiers  of  Servia.  Servia  proper  was  almost  en¬ 
tirely  Orthodox  until  after  the  Balkan  Wars,  when 


JUGOSLAVIA 


426 


JUGOSLAVIA 


she  was  ceded  a  part  of  Macedonia  with  a  large 
Catholic  population.  By  Article  IV  of  the  Con¬ 
cordat  the  Holy  See  grants  the  use  of  the  Glagolitic, 
or  Old  Slav  Liturgy  in  those  regions  where  the 
need  is  felt.  After  the  union  of  all  the  Orthodox 
Servs  in  the  Kingdom,  the  Church  becomes  a 
patriarchate  under  the  rule  of  the  Patriarch  and 
Holy  Synod  for  ecclesiastical  purposes.  The  Servian 
Orthodox  Church  is  governed  by  the  Synod  of 
Bishops.  All  the  ecclesiastical  officials  are  under 
the  control  of  the  Ministry  of  Public  Worship. 
There  is  unrestricted  liberty  of  conscience. 

The  State  budget  which  is  assigned  to  the  re¬ 
ligious  denominations,  is  repartitioned  among  the 
confessions  pro  rata  to  the  number  of  communi- 

History. — The  creation  of  the  Jugoslav  State  in 
1917  was  the  culmination  of  long  agitation  on  the 
part  of  the  Slav  peoples  for  nationality,  a  move¬ 
ment  which  was  hastened  by  the  World  War. 
The  conception  of  Jugoslav  unity  was  in  part  the 
outcome  of  the  literary  and  linguistic  movement 
which  developed  in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century  under  Vuk  Karadzic.  The  Jugoslavs  shared 
in  the  revolutionary  spirit  of  1848  and  1866,  but 
for  various  reasons,  the  Serbs,  Croats,  and  Slovenes 
were  unable  to  unite.  The  Balkan  Wars  brought 
a  closer  co-operation,  however,  and  their  animosity 
seemed  to  die  out.  During  the  World  War,  a  very 
large  proportion  of  the  Jugoslavs  were  imprisoned 
and  interned,  a  severe  censorship  was  established, 
the  Provincial  Diets  in  which  the  Jugoslavs  were 
represented  were  suspended,  a  condition  of  affairs 
which  intensified  the  already  apparent  determina¬ 
tion  of  the  Jugoslavs  to  secure  their  separation 
from  the  Habsburg  monarchy.  In  May,  1917,  the 
Jugoslavs  in  the  Austro-Hungarian  Reichsrat  de¬ 
manded  that  all  provinces  in  the  monarchy  should 
be  united  under  the  Habsburg  Crown  in  a  single 
autonomous  and  democratic  State,  free  from  all 
foreign  domination.  On  20  July,  1917,  after  the 
fall  of  Russia,  a  pact  was  signed  at  Corfu  between 
Doctor  Anton  Trumbitch,  the  head  of  the  Jugoslav 
party,  and  Nikola  Pashitch,  the  premier  of  Servia, 
whereby  it  was  agreed  to  constitute  an  independent 
unified  State  of  the  five  million  Servians  of  Servia 
and  Montenegro  and  the  Serbs,  Croats,  and 
Slovenes,  subjects  of  Austria-Hungary.  On  8  April, 
1918,  the  Congress  of  Oppressed  Nationalities  at 
Rome  declared  in  favor  of  the  State,  and  the 
movement  for  unity  took  definite  form  at  the 
meeting  of  the  Jugoslav  Council  at  Ljubliana  on 
16  August,  1918.  In  the  following  nrnnth  the 
National  Council  elected  a  Central  Executive  Com¬ 
mittee  to  undertake  the  creation  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  and  establishment  of  a  sovereign  State  with 
the  purpose  of  reuniting  the  Serbs,  Croats,  Slovenes 
on  the  basis  of  race  without  regard  to  political 
frontiers.  In  October,  1918,  Croatia  severed  rela¬ 
tions  with  Hungary.  At  Geneva  in  November, 
1918,  the  representatives  of  Servia,  the  Jugoslav 
National  Council,  and  the  Jugoslav  Committee  of 
London,  proclaimed  a  common  ministry  for  a  united 
State.  Later  in  the  month,  the  National  Council, 
representing  all  the  Jugoslavs,  voted  for  union 
with  Servia  and  Montenegro,  and  the  bestowal 
of  the  regency  on  the  Prince  Regent  of  Servia. 
On  1  December,  1918,  the  Jugoslav  National  Coun¬ 
cil  announced  the  fact  to  the  Prince  Regent  and 
called  for  the  creation  of  a  representative  body 
by  the  agreement  between  the  National  Council 
and  popular  representatives  of  Servia,  which  was 
to  meet  until  a  constituted  assembly  had  met  and 
the  Government  should  be  responsible  to  it.  Prince 
Alexander  at  once  proclaimed  the  new  State.  The 


Montenegro  Assembly  voted  to  depose  King 
Nicholas  and  to  unite  with  the  new  State.  There 
was  some  doubt,  however,  about  the  legality  of 
the  proceedings,  as  King  Nicholas  never  accepted 
his  forcible  removal,  but  upon  his  death  on  1 
March,  1921,  the  country  was  definitely  joined  to 
the  new  State.  The  Treaty  of  Rapallo  between 
Italy  and  Jugoslavia,  signed  12  November,  1920, 
delimited  the  frontiers  of  Jugoslavia,  giving  to  the 
country  part  of  Dalmatia,  including  the  portion 
assigned  to  Italy  by  the  Treaty  of  London  (1915). 
The  work  on  the  new  constitution  unfortunately 
caused  dissension,  the  Croats  refusing  to  acquiesce 
in  the  new  arrangement  of  political  divisions,  and  to 
take  part  in  the  elections  of  1920.  In  the  plebiscite 
in  the  district  of  Klagenfurt  (10  October,  1920), 
Jugoslavia  lost  to  Austria,  but  invaded  the  district, 
claiming  fraud  in  the  elections.  Upon  the  demand 
of  the  Council  •  of  Ambassadors  their  troops  were 
withdrawn.  At  the  death  of  King  Peter  of  Servia, 
Prince  Alexander  ascended  the  throne. 

The  Church. — On  24  June,  1914,  the  Concordat 
between  Servia  and  the  Holy  See  was  signed  in 
Rome  by  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val  and  the  Servian 
delegate,  M.  Milenko  R.  Vesnia.  Its  general  tenor 
was  favorable  to  religious  freedom  and  the  re¬ 
ligious  development  of  the  Catholic  subjects  of 
the  King  of  Servia,  although  in  the  Servian  Con¬ 
stitution  Orthodoxy  was  the  State  religion  and  con¬ 
versions  to  Catholicism  were  severely  forbidden. 
Following  the  World  War  Jugoslavia  has  acquired 
a  larger  Catholic  population  than  any  other  Eastern 
State.  The  number  of  Catholics  in  Croatia, 
Slovenia,  Dalmatia,  Bosnia-Herzegovina,  and 
Servia  exceeds  6,000,000.  Before  the  war  Belgrade 
had  15,000  Catholics  who  were  deprived  of  a  church 
because  of  the  intolerance  of  the  Servian  Govern¬ 
ment,  and  could  only  attend  Mass  in  the  chapel 
of  the  Austrian  legation.  Now  under  new  condi¬ 
tions  which  are  gradually  overcoming  prejudices 
in  this  Orthodox  city,  the  erection  of  a  suitable 
place  of  worship  is  being  planned,  to  be  dedicated 
to  SS.  Cyril  and  Methodius.  Contributions  were 
received  from  Pope  Benedict  XV  and  from  prelates 
from  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  the  new  Jugoslav 
State  Catholicism  is  independent,  while  Orthodoxy 
is  still  a  State  institution.  The  strongest  Catholic 
element  is  amongst  the  Slovenes  (1,500,000)  who, 
while  not  so  numerous  as  the  Croats,  are  more 
Catholic,  and  strongly  influenced  by  their  priests. 
According  to  the  plan  of  reorganization  of  the 
churches  in  Jugoslavia,  it  will  be  divided  into  fifty 
dioceses,  half  of  which  will  be  Catholic  and  half 
Orthodox.  The  great  bulk  of  the  Slovenes,  600,000, 
form  the  diocese  of  Ljubljana  (Laibach)  whose 
bishop,  Mgr.  Jeglic,  is  venerated  even  by  the 
Servians  as  a  valiant  pioneer  of  South  Slavic 
political  unity.  It  has  a  flourishing  ecclesiastical 
seminary  and  preparatory  school,  and  in  1919  its 
desire  for  a  university  charter  hitherto  frustrated 
by  German  opposition,  was  fulfilled  by  decree  of 
the  Regent,  Prince  Alexander.  The  university  was 
endowed  with  two  theological  faculties,  one  Catho¬ 
lic  faculty  in  1920,  and  the  other  Orthodox.  _  The 
Catholic  numbered  13  professors  for  the  chairs  of 
theology  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  Biblical 
archeology,  systematic  dogma,  historic  dogmatics, 
comparative  history  of  religions,  fundamental 
theology,  moral  and  pastoral  theology,  canon  law, 
philosophy,  patrology,  history  of  the  Eastern 
Churches,  and  general  ecclesiastical  history.  There 
are  also  courses  of  liturgy,  ecclesiastical  art,  homi¬ 
letics  and  ecclesiastical  pedagogy. 

Amongst  the  priestly  leaders  of  the  Slovenes  was 
the  late  Dr.  Janez  Krek,  the  father  of  Christian 


JURISDICTION 


427 


JURISDICTION 


Socialism  in  Slovenia,  and  one  of  the  finest  figures 
in  the  history  of  modern  Slavdom.  He  had  repre¬ 
sented  Karniola  in  the  Austrian  Parliament  and 
was  an  exemplary  pastor,  a  wise  political  coun¬ 
sellor,  and  an  indefatigable  worker  for  the  welfare 
ol  the  masses.  He  inaugurated  a  strong  cultural 
movement  amongst  the  Slovenes  and  after  his  death 
in  1917  his  work  was  ably  carried  on  by  his  friend 
Dr  Anton  Korosec,  vice-president  of  the  Servian 
Cabinet  in  1919,  and  a  man  of  liberal  views,  who 
embodies  the  democratic  ideals  of  his  countrymen. 
Catholic  expectations,  based  on  the  unfulfilled 
promises  of  Servian  promoters  of  the  Jugoslav 
movement,  have  been  largely  frustrated,  and  in 
the  consequent  disillusionment  the  Church  passed 
through  several  internal  crises.  In  Croatia  the 
Belgi ade  Government  appointed  as  governor  Dr. 
Lanjuja,  a  Croat  politician  conspicuous  for  his 
liberal,  unecclesiastical  proclivities,  who  attempted 
to  impose  the  marriage  laws  of  the  Orthodox 
Church  on  Catholics  and  was  vigorously  opposed 
by  the  Archbishop  of  Agram.  A  so-called  reform 
movement  amongst  the  Catholic  clergy  in  Croatia 
similar  to  that  >  which  disturbed  the  Church  in 
Czechoslovakia,  is  now  practically  dead,  owing  to 
the  loyal  stand  taken  by  the  overwhelming  majority 
of  the  clergy.  In  spite  of  these  unheavals,  which 
eventually  will  serve  to  strengthen  Catholic  organi¬ 
zation,  the  future  of  Catholicity  in  Jugoslavia  is 
bright.  Contact  with  the  essence  of  Catholic  teach¬ 
ing  will  serve  to  dissipate  racial  and  political  ha¬ 
treds.  A  pioneer  in  this  work  of  rapprochement  is 
Mgr.  Francesco  Cherubino,  titular  archbishop  of 
Psicosia,  first  Papal  Nuncio  to  Belgrade,  appointed 
^tt^'  In  ^15  Servia  sent  a  special  mission  to 
the  Holy  See  and  in  1919  the  legation  of  Jugoslavia 
was  erected.  M.  Louis  Bakotic  is  the  Envoy 
Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary. 

Jurisdiction  (for  confessions;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII- 
567b).— No  confessor  can  give  valid  absolution  from 
sin  unless  he  has  expressly  received  either  in  writing 
or  verbally  ordinary  or  delegated  jurisdiction  over 
the  penitent.  The  pope  and  the  cardinals  have 
ordinary  jurisdiction  over  all  the  faithful,  local 
ordinaries,  parish  priests,  and  those  who  are  in 
place  of  parish  priests  have  jurisdiction  within  the 
limits  of  their  respective  territories;  so  too  has 


a  canon  penitentiary  for  the  whole  diocese,  or  an 
exempt  religious  superior  over  his  own  subjects. 
Cardinals  have  no  jurisdiction  in  cases  in  which 
there  is  a  censure  very  specially  reserved  to  the 
Holy  See  or  attached  to  the  violation  of  the  Holv 
See  secrecy.  A  priest  who  is  approved  for  hearing 
confessions,  and  who  has  ordinary  or  delegated 
jurisdiction,  can  licitly  and  validly  absolve  anv 
vagus  or  person  coming  to  him  from  another  dio¬ 
cese  or  parish,  even  if  the  person  be  a  Catholic 
belonging  to  any  Eastern  Rite.  No  one  should  be 
granted  faculties  to  hear  confessions  unless  after 
examination;  this  does  not  apply,  however,  in  the 
case  oi  a  priest  who  is  known  to  be  well  qualified. 
Any  priest  who  has  been  granted  jurisdiction  may 
be  required  to  undergo  another  examination,  if  a 
doubt  arises  as  to  his  present  skill  as  a  confessor— 
tins  applies  even  to  parish  priests  and  canon  peni- 
tentaries.  Delegated  jurisdiction  is  conferred  by 
the  ordinary  of  the  place  where  the  confessions  are 
to  be  heard;  but  religious  must  not  exercise  this 
power  without  at  least  the  presumed  permission  of 
eir  supenors.  No  priest,  whether  he  be  a  secular 
or  a  regular,  can  validly  or  licitly  hear  the  confes¬ 
sions  of  female  religious  or  novices  without  special 
authorization,  and  all  privileges  or  private  laws  to 
the  contrary  are  now  expressly  revoked.  This  does 
not,  however,  apply  to  cardinals;  nor  does  it  affect 
the  permission  that  has  been  granted  to  nuns  or 
casters,  of  going  to  confession  in  any  church  or 
oratory,  even  semi-public  (this  has  been  interpreted 
officially  as  including  any  place  designated  in  ac¬ 
cordance  with  the  law  for  the  hearing  of  women’s 
confessions),  to  a  confessor  authorized  by  the  local 
ordinary  to  hear  the  confessions  of  women;  nor 
finally  does  it  limit  the  right  which  female  religious 
enjoy,  when  they  are  seriously  ill,  of  calling  in  as 
confessor  any  priest  authorized  to  hear  womens 
eonfessions. 


A  confessor  loses  his  jurisdiction  when  his  office 
terminates,  or  if  he  is  excommunicated,  interdicted, 
or  suspended  from  office  by  a  declaratory  or  con¬ 
demnatory  sentence.  Holders  of  ordinary  jurisdic¬ 
tion  may  delegate  it  wholly  or  in  part,  unless  this 
is  expressly  forbidden  by  the  law;  but  neither  parish 
priests  nor  canon  penitentiary  can  delegate  their 
jurisdiction. 


K 


Kadi-Keu'i  (Chalcedon;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-554d). — 
This  mission  was  created  2  July,  1895,  and  25  May, 
1898,  and  confided  to  the  Augustinians  of  the 
Assumption,  for  the  Latins,  Greeks,  and  Slavs,  with 
parishes  at  Kadi-Keui,  Stamboul,  Gallipoli,  and 
elsewhere  in  Asia  Minor.  An  Archconfraternity  of 
Our  Lady  of  the  Assumption,  prima  primaria,  was 
erected  by  Leo  XIII  25  May,  1898,  to  promote 
the  union  of  churches.  A  secular  priest  was  ap¬ 
pointed  parish  priest  at  Scutari  in  1908.  In  the 
same  year  a  church  of  the  Armenian  Rite  was 
erected  in  Kadi-Keui'.  A  church  of  the  Latin 
Rite  was  erected  at  Haidar  Pacha  in  1912,  and  a 
public  chapel  was  built  at  Pendik.  In  November, 
1914,  the  French  religious  congregations  were  ex¬ 
pelled  by  the  Turks,  who  seized  all  the  buildings 
in  use  as  orphanages,  schools,  etc.,  turned  one  chapel 
into  a  mosque  and  one  church  into  a  moving  pic¬ 
ture  theater,  and  burned  the  Armenian  Mechitarist 
College  and  two  other  buildings.  These  congrega¬ 
tions  returned  in  1918  and  1919.  The  Carmelite 
nuns  settled  at  Phanaraki  15  December,  1919.  The 
church  and  parochial  school  at  Scutari  were  burned 
in  July,  1921.  Many  religious  and  laymen  in  the 
mission  were  called  to  the  colors  by  their  respective 
Governments  in  the  World  War;  among  those 
killed  were  1  priest  and  11  lay  brothers,  as  well  as 
many  laymen.  The  clerics  and  pious  laymen 
formed  an  association  to  assist  the  needy,  and 
several  Sisters  devoted  themselves  to  nursing  the 
typhus  sufferers.  Among  the  latter  was  Sister 
Amelia,  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception  of  Lourdes,  who  died  1916  as  a  result 
of  her  labors  among  the  plague-stricken.  Other 
noteworthy  persons  who  have  died  are:  Fr.  Soph- 
rone  Rabois-Bousquet,  A.  A.,  rector  of  the  Greek 
Rite  parish  of  Chalcedon,  and  contributor  to  the 
“Echos  d’Orient,”  d.  18  April,  1911;  Fr.  Armand 
Trannoig,  A.  A.,  vicar  of  the  Latin  parish  of  Chalce¬ 
don,  d.  8  November,  1918;  Fr.  Jerome  Frassier, 
A.  A.,  missionary  of  the  Slavic  Rite,  who  had 
labored  many  years  in  Bulgaria,  d.  25  November, 
1920;  Fr.  Louis  Dimitrof,  A.  A.,  who  labored  more 
than  thirty  years  in  Bulgaria,  d.  18  January,  1921; 
Brother  Prudentius,  superior  of  the  College  of  the 
Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  in  Kadi-Keu'i, 
d.  19  March,  1913;  Sisters  M.  Constance  (d.  1912), 
M.  Chantal  (d.  1915),  and  M.  Fidelia  (d.  1921), 
all  superiors  of  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  de  Sion 
at  Kadi-Keu'i;  Fr.  Corneyre,  of  the  Congregation 
of  Notre  Dame  de  Sion,  chaplain  of  the  Sisters  of 
Kadi-Keui,  d.  in  June,  1920;  Jacques  de  Beaufort, 
a  French  nobleman  of  remarkable  piety,  d.  16  Jan¬ 
uary,  1919. 

The  Catholic  population  of  the  mission  is  2300, 
of  whom  1355  belong  to  the  Latin  Rite  and  915  to 
the  Eastern  Rite.  Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite  in¬ 
clude  490  Italians,  265  Greeks,  155  French,  135 
Ottomans,  125  Maltese,  110  Jugoslavs,  and  75  others. 
Since  1918  there  have  been  British  troops,  with  a 
military  chaplain,  in  the  mission,  some  of  the 
soldiers,  Europeans  and  Indians,  being  Catholics. 
Catholics  of  the  Armenian  Rite  number  820,  almost 
all  Ottomans;  of  the  Melchite  Greek  Rite  there 
are  55  Syrians;  of  the  Syrian  Rite,  45  Syrians;  of 
the  Pure  Greek  Rite,  25  Ottomans  and  Greeks. 
There  are  5  parishes,  of  which  2  are  Armenian  and 
1  Greek;  5  churches,  2  of  which  are  Armenian;  5 


public  chapels;  2  missions;  1  station;  1  monastery 
of  monks,  and  1  monastery  of  nuns;  7  convents  of 
religious  and  6  convents  of  Sisters;  83  lay  brothers; 

4  secular  priests,  24  regular  priests,  of  whom  15  are 
Latins,  5  Armenians,  3  Bulgarians,  and  1  Greek;  1 
seminary  with  15  seminarians,  of  whom  11  are  Bul¬ 
garians,  3  Russians,  and  1  Rumanian;  5  colleges  for 
boys  with  102  teachers  and  1245  students;  4  colleges 
for  girls  with  65  teachers  and  1010  students;  6  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  with  12  teachers  and  245  pupils;  1 
commercial  school  with  5  teachers  and  65  pupils;  1 
orphan  ayslum;  1  hospital;  1  settlement  house.  All 
hospitals  admit  Catholic  visitors  and  ministry  of 
priests.  The  Catholic  institutions  receive  some  aid 
from  the  French  Government,  but  none  from  the 
Turkish  Government.  The  “Echos  d’Orient,”  a 
review  of  Oriental  studies,  is  published  at  Kadi- 
Keu'i.  The  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  is  estab¬ 
lished  in  the  mission,  as  are  also  honorary  guards 
of  the  Sacred  Heart,  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society 
for  men,  the  Association  of  Christian  Mothers,  and 
the  Children  of  Mary  for  young  girls.  The  present 
superior  of  the  mission  is  Rev.  Gervais  Quenard, 
A.  A.,  appointed  in  1920. 

Kaffa,  Southern,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (cf. 
C.  E.,  XVI-68b),  erected  28  January,  1913,  from 
part  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Galla,  in  Abys¬ 
sinia,  and  confided  to  the  Missionaries  of  the  Con- 
solata  of  Turin.  In  the  persecution  of  1904  mis¬ 
sionaries  had  been  banished  from  Kaffa,  and  no 
Catholic  priest  was  allowed  to  return  there  until 
12  November,  1917,  when  the  Missionaries  of  the 
Consolata  of  Turin  got  five  installations  newly 
erected  in  the  prefecture,  but  only  as  civilians. 
Their  spiritual  work  is  still  clandestine.  The  pres¬ 
ent  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Gaudens  Barlassina, 
brother  of  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  appointed 
6  May,  1913.  The  new  boundaries  of  the  prefecture 
are  as  follows:  on  the  north  the  Blue  Nile  River 
from  the  British- Abyssinian  frontier,  to  38°  long.j 
on  the  east  the  38°  long,  from  the  Blue  Nile  to  4° 
N.  lat.;  on  the  south  from  38°  long,  and  4°  N.  lat. 
to  Lake  Rudolph;  on  the  west  the  British- Abys¬ 
sinian  frontier  from  Lake  Rudolph  to  the  Blue 
Nile. 

Kafiristan,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of.  See 
Kashmir  and  Kafiristan. 

Kaiserwilhelmsland,  Eastern  and  Western, 
Prefectures  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-592d),  in 
the  island  of  New  Guinea.  The  various  tribes  in 
New  Guinea  are  numerically  small,  especially  those 
on  the  coast;  inland  their  numbers  increase  and 
their  language  is  more  or  less  uniform.  With  few  ex¬ 
ceptions  the  places  on  the  sea  coast  have  been  reached 
by  the  missionaries.  The  island  stations  of  Tumlio 
and  Ali  are  Catholic.  The  work  of.  conversion  is 
progressing  as  the  natives  are  taking  an  active  part 
in  it.  Spirit-worship  is  gradually  losing  its  hold 
on  the  people  and  public  worship  is  finding  favor, 
so  that  the  effects  of  grace  are  everywhere  being 
felt.  The  number  of  Christians  and  catechumens 
is  increasing  from  year  to  year.  In  1910  the  rice 
industry  was  established  as  a  means  of  support 
in  the  mission,  to  enable  the  natives  to  earn  a 
better  living,  to  provide  adequate  nourishment,  and 
in  general  to  raise  the  standard  of  the  people.  The 
first  attempts  proved  satisfactory  and  the  mission 


428 


KAUSZ-KUJAWY 


429 


KAMERUN 


was  beginning  to  flourish  when  the  war  broke  out.  Hermits  of  St.  Paul  at  Czestochowa,  the  residence 
It  was  then  impossible  to  obtain  the  machinery  of  the  general  of  the  order.  At  Czestochowa  is  the 
and  .  the  undcitciking  w&s  abandoned.  In  1913  2b  f&mous  shrine  of  Our  Lcidy,  the  miraculous  image 
mission  was  established  on  the  Sepik  River.  The  of  the  Virgin  having  been  ornamented  in  1910  with 
first  station  was  at  Marienberg.  In  the  same  year  a  gold  crown  given  by  Pope  Pius  X.  Other  con- 
Kaiserwilhelmsland  was  erected  into  two  separate  vents  in  the  diocese  are:  Friars  Minor  5*  Friars 
prefectures  apostolic  of  Western  and  Eastern  Kaiser-  Minor  Conventuals,  3;  Dominicans,  1  •  Salesmans  1  • 
wilhelmsland  and  the  Congregation  of  the  Sacred  Lazarists,  1;  Jesuits,  1;  Olivetans,  1;  Dominican 
Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary  was  to  be  placed  in  Nuns,  1;  Daughters  of  Charity,  12;  other  religious 
charge  of  the  former  territory.  This  has  not  yet  congregations,  8.  The  Catholic  population  of  the 
been  accomplished.  Rt.  Rev.  Adalbert  Otto  diocese  is  about  1,600,000. 

Rielander,  C.SS.CC.  was  appointed  prefect  apos¬ 
tolic  in  1914  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Gellings,  and  Kalocsa-Bacs,  Archdiocese  of  (Colocensis  et 
resigned  in  1921.  Eastern  Kaiserwilhelmsland  is  con-  Bachiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-594d). — By  the  Treaty 
tided  to  the  Society  of  the  Divine  Word,  and  the  °f  Versailles,  in  1919,  the  whole  region  of  Bacs, 
present  prefect  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Andrew  Puff,  formerly  Hungarian,  with  its  88  populous  parishes, 
S.  D.  V.,  with  residence  at  Tumleo.  which  comprises  the  greater  part  of  the  archdiocese, 

In  1914  the  first  mission  stations  in  the  interior  was  included  in  the  kingdom  of  Jugoslavia,  and  so 
of  Alexishafen  were  established  and  in  1917  two  a  new  diocese  may  be  erected.  There  would  then 


more  were  founded  at  a  distance  of  two  days  inland 
journey  from  the  former.  In  1915  Rt.  Rev.  Evrad 
Limbrock,  Prefect  Apostolic  of  Eastern  Kaiser¬ 
wilhelmsland  and  founder  of  the  mission,  resigned. 
The  wisdom  and  foresight  which  he  showed  in 
laying  out  the  settlement  so  as  to  insure  the  mate¬ 
rial  success  of  the  undertaking,  made  him  one  of 
the  greatest  benefactors  of  the  mission.  The  pro¬ 
tracted  war  evinced  the  inestimable  value  of  this. 
The  large  herds  of  cattle  were  especially  useful  and 
proved  a  source  of  real  blessings.  In  1916  as  a 
political  precautionary  measure,  the  mission  station 
west  of  Eitape,  the  government  station,  was  sup¬ 
pressed.  The  stations  of  Malol  and  Aissano  suf¬ 
fered  greatly.  It  was  impossible  to  take  care  of  the 
parishes  as  no  priest  was  permitted  to  go  there 
until  1919.  In  1921  all  the  priests  who  were  willing 
to  take  the  oath  of  loyalty  were  given  permission 
to  remain  for  seven  years  longer.  All  voluntarily 
complied  with  this  requirement. 

In  1921  the  prefecture  apostolic  contained  35 
churches  and  chapels,  47  stations,  21  regular  priests, 
19  Brothers,  34  Sisters,  25  catechists,  55  elementary 
schools  with  3119  pupils,  3  orphanages,  and  2  hos¬ 
pitals.  During  the  war  the  sick  and  wounded  were 
cared  for  at  all  the  mission  stations.  Formerly  the 
schools  and  institutions  received  a  small  sum,  about 
1000  marks,  from  the  government.  The  present 
government  does  not  contribute  to  their  support. 
Since  1910,  5  Fathers,  3  Brothers,  and  12  Sisters 
belonging  to  the  prefecture  apostolic  have  died. 

Kalisz-Kujawy  or  Wloclawek  (Wladislaw),  Dio¬ 
cese  of  (Calissiensis;  Cujaviensis  seu  Vlocla- 
viensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV-680c),  suffragan  of  Warsaw, 
Poland.  The  diocese  is  under  the  patronage  of  St. 
Joseph.  In  1918  it  comprised  nearly  13 districts;  new 
boundaries  were  fixed  in  1919.  The  area  is  about 
7632  square  miles.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Stanislaw  Zdzitodiecki,  b.  1854,  ordained  1877, 
consecrated  1902,  succeeding  Bishop  Beresniewicz, 
who  was  transferred,  appointed  assistant  at  the 
pontifical  throne  1920.  The  auxiliary  bishops  are: 
R-t.  Rev.  Wladyslaw  Krynicki,  b.  1861,  preco- 
nized  1918,  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Acanthus 
1919;  Rt.  Rev.  Wojciech  Owczarek,  b.  1875,  preco- 
mzed  1918,  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Ascalon 
1918.  The  bishop  resides  at  Wloclawek,  where 
is  the  Cathedral  of  the  Assumption,  the  cathedral 
chapter  comprising  4  prelates  and  8  canons.  To 
the  collegiate  Church  of  St.  Mary  at  Kalisz  are 
also  attached  4  prelates  and  8  canons.  The  diocese 
comprises  39  deaneries  with  377  parishes,  419 
churches,  and  179  chapels.  The  number  of  con¬ 
vents  of  religious  has  considerably  increased  since 
the  restoration  of  Poland.  There  is  a  convent  of 


remain  but  52  parishes  in  the  original  archdiocese, 
which  comprises  140  parishes  and  has  289  secular 
and  65  regular  priests,  15  lay  brothers,  6  convents 
for  men  and  32  for  wromen,  2  seminaries  with  45 
theologians  and  31  seminarians,  4  colleges  for  men 
and  4  for  women,  13  high  schools,  163  normal  schools 
with  687  teachers  and  53,605  students,  1  home  for 
the  aged  poor,  5  orphanages,  1  hospital,  and  140 
day  nurseries.  There  is  a  Society  of  Perpetual 
Adoration  for  the  clergy,  and  for  the  laity  there 
are  the  following  organizations  or  societies:  Most 
Sacred  Heart,  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  Rosary 
Society,  Altar  Society,  Marian  Congregations, 
Workmen’s  Societies,  Economical  Associations  for 
Young  Men.  Four  Catholic  dailies  and  three 
periodicals  are  published.  The  government  con¬ 
tributes  to  the  support  of  Catholic  schools  and 
institutions.  The  Catholic  population  numbers 
620,945,  and,  in  round  numbers,  is  composed  of 
334,000  Hungarians,  190,000  Germans,  who  emi¬ 
grated  into  Bacs  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Turks 
(1723-90),  and  96,000  Slavs  who  were  driven  out 
of  Dalmatia  and  Servia  by  the  Turks  (1689-1700). 
The  present  archbishop,  appointed  in  1914,  is  Leo¬ 
pold  Arpad  Varady.  He  succeeded  John  Csernoch 
(1911-13),  who,  transferred  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
Esztergom,  crowned  King  Charles  and  Queen  Zita  of 
Hungary.  The  preceding  archbishop,  Julius  Varosy 
(1905-10),  restored  the  cathedral  church,  established 
perpetual  adoration  within  the  archdiocese,  and 
organized  societies  for  both  religious  and  laity. 

Kamenetz  (Kamieniec),  Diocese  of  (Camene- 
censis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-465b),  suffragan  of  Mohileff, 
Russia.  The  diocese  was  founded  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  and  administered  by  the  Bishop  of  Luck 
and  Zhitomir  from  3  June,  1866,  till  24  September, 
1918,  when  it  was  reestablished  as  an  independent 
diocese.  Rt.  Rev.  Peter  Mankowski,  b.  1866, 
ordained  1899,  rector  of  the  cathedral  of  Kamieniec 
1902,  removed  from  this  post  in  1911  by  order  of 
the  Russian  government,  vicar  general  and  official 
in  that  part  of  the  Diocese  of  Luck  occupied  by 
German  and  Austrian  troops  1917-18,  honorary 
canon  of  Luck,  was  elected  24  September,  1918, 
Bishop  of  Kamieniec,  after  the  long  vacancy  of 
that  see,  consecrated  30  November,  1918,  and  took 
possession  of  the  see  26  August,  1919,  succeeding 
Mgr.  Fijalkowski,  promoted  in  1870.  According  to 
latest  statistics  Kamieniec  had  312,087  Catholics, 
128  secular  priests,  3  regular  priests,  and  101 
parishes.  For  the  diocese  of  the  Ruthenian  Rite 
see  Lwow. 

Kamerun,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Cameronen- 
sis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-596a),  comprises  the  former 
German  colony  of  Kamerun,  now  divided  between 


KAMIENIEC 


430 


KANSAS 


the  British  and  French  since  its  capture  from  the 
Germans  in  February,  1916.  It  has  an  area  of 
191,130  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  2,540,000. 
The  present  vicar  is  Rt.  Rev.  Francis  Hennemann, 
P.  S.  M.,  titular  Bishop  of  Coptos.  During  the 
absence  of  the  vicar  the  administrator  apostolic  is 
Rev.  Jules  Douvry,  C.S.SP.,  appointed  3  February, 
1917.  The  vicariate  was  confided  to  the  Pious 
Society  of  Missions,  but  during  the  war  they  were 
expelled  and  the  vicariate  was  given  in  charge  of 
the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  this  decision  was 
renewed  by  Propaganda  26  June,  1920.  Protestant 
propaganda  is  very  active  in  the  vicariate,  there 
being  7500  adherents  to  Protestantism  before  the 
war.  Catholics  numbered  4489  and  there  were 
1396  catechumens,  16  priests,  9  churches  and  chapels, 
13  stations,  24  lay  brothers,  21  Pallotin  Fathers,  37 
schools  with  2120  boys,  and  12  schools  with  368 
girls.  These  pre-war  figures  are  the  latest  statistics 
available. 

Kamieniec,  Diocese  of.  See  Kamenetz. 

Kan-chow,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of,  erected  25 
August,  1920,  by  dismemberment  of  the  former 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Southern  Kiang-si,  and  con¬ 
fided  to  the  Lazarists.  This  new  vicariate  com¬ 
prises  the  three  civil  provinces  of  Kow-chow-fu, 
Nan-an-fu,  and  Ning-tu-chow,  with  an  area  of  20,077 
square  miles.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  principal 
city,  which  is  the  residence  of  the  vicar  apostolic. 
The  administrator  is  Mgr.  Dumond,  titular  Bishop 
of  Curubis,  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Maritime  Chi-li. 
The  population  of  the  vicariate  is  about  5,000,000 
infidels,  and  9287  Catholics.  There  are  in  the 
vicariate:  8  Lazarists  Fathers,  of  whom  3  are  Euro¬ 
peans  and  5  Americans;  9  Daughters  of  Charity, 
both  foreign  and  native;  28  native  Virgins  of  Our 
Lady  of  Good  Counsel ;  46  male  teachers,  25  female 
teachers;  143  places  visited  once  a  year  by  mis¬ 
sionaries;  8  stations,  7  churches,  19  public  chapels, 
12  oratories;  1  theological  seminary  with  13  semi¬ 
narians;  1  preparatory  seminary  with  25  students; 
25  schools  for  boys  with  819  pupils;  11  schools  for 
girls  with  318  p  pils;  1  orphanage  for  girls  with 
62  orphans;  7  catechumenates  for  men  and  boys 
with  318  catechumens;  6  catechumenates  for  women 
and  girls  with  154  catechumens;  5  dispensaries  with 
21,123  remedies  distributed  and  visits  made  to  the 
sick  during  the  year  1920-21;  there  were  baptized 
434  adult  catechumens,  350  children  of  Christians, 
3151  pagan  children  in  danger  of  death. 

Kandy,  Diocese  of  (Kandiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII- 
596c),  suffragan  of  Colombo,  in  the  Island  of 
Ceylon.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Bede 
Beekmeyer,  O.S.B.,  born  in  1873,  elected  19  April, 
and  consecrated  30  June,  1912,  succeeding  Bishop 
Pagnani,  who  died  27  June,  1911.  The  area  of  the 
diocese  is  6040  square  miles,  and  the  total  popula¬ 
tion  is  889,685,  of  whom  30,228  are  Catholics.  The 
diocese  is  confided  to  the  Silvestrine  Benedictines, 
who  number  21  priests,  and  there  are  also  5  secular 
priests  and  1  Jesuit.  At  the  general  seminary  for 
India  at  Ampitiya,  Kandy,  there  are  13  Jesuit  pro¬ 
fessors  and  97  students.  Rt.  Rev.  A.  Pancrazi, 
O.S.B.,  is  abbot  of  the  Kandy  monastery  of  Silves¬ 
trine  Benedictines,  with  a  community  of  25  monks, 
of  whom  4  are  scholastics  and  3  lay  brothers.  At 
the  monastery  of  the  Oblates  of  St.  Sylvester  at 
Wahacotte  there  are  3  Oblates  and  2  postulants. 
The  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  number  30,  with 
3  houses  as  Kandy,  Nuwara  Eliya,  and  Badulla. 
The  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  Mother  Superior  of  the  Sisters  of  the 
Good  Shepherd,  have  2  houses  at  Natale  and 
Navalapitiya.  There  are  3  Franciscan  Missionaries 


of  Mary  at  Nuwara  Eliya.  St.  Anthony’s  College 
at  Kandy  is  under  the  Benedictines,  and  there  are 
24  lay  teachers,  with  85  boarders  and  a  total  of 
460  pupils.  St.  Clement’s  Elementary  School,  with 
a  vernacular  department  for  poor  boys,  has  58 
pupils.  The  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  have  an 
English  day  and  boarding  school  for  girls  at  Kandy 
with  345  pupils  in  the  English  school,  100  in  the 
vernacular  school,  and  97  in  the  industrial  school, 
and  they  also  have  charge  of  St.  Scholastica’s  School 
for  girls  with  90  pupils.  There  are  in  the  diocese: 
3  schools  for  boys  with  245  pupils,  and  St.  Mary’s 
School  for  girls  with  80  pupils,  at  Ampitiya;  an 
elementary  school  with  241  boys  and  an  English 
day  and  boarding  school,  under  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Francis  Xavier  with  162  girls,  at  Matale;  a  ver¬ 
nacular  school,  under  the  Oblates  of  St.  Sylvester, 
with  121  boys,  and  a  vernacular  school  with  38 
girls  at  Wahacotte;  St.  Mary’s  School  with  151 
boys  and  39  girls  at  Nawalapitiya;  Holy  Cross 
School  for  boys  with  34  pupils,  at  Hatton;  St. 
Joseph’s  School  for  girls,  with  68  pupils,  at  Gam- 
pola;  St.  Francis  Xavier’s  School,  with  95  boys,  an 
English  day  and  boarding  school,  under  the  Sisters 
of  the  Good  Shepherd,  with  83  girls,  and  an  in¬ 
dustrial  vernacular  school,  under  the  Franciscan 
Missionaries  of  Mary,  with  70  girls,  at  Nuwara 
Eliya;  St.  Joseph’s  School  for  boys,  with  68  pupils, 
at  Bandarawela ;  St.  Mary’s  school,  with  34  girls, 
and  an  English  day  and  boarding  school,  under  the 
Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  with  58  girls  at 
Badulla.  There  are  orphanages  for  boys  at  Kandy 
and  Wahacotte,  orphanages  for  girls  at  Kandy, 
Matale,  Nuwara  Eliya,  and  Badulla,  and  a  benevo¬ 
lent  association  at  Kandy.  The  diocese  has  36 
churches,  35  chapels,  and  12  head  stations. 

Kansas  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-597c). — The  State  of 
Kansas  has  an  area  of  82,158  square  miles  and 
ranks  thirteenth  among  the  States  of  the  Union. 

Economics. — In  1919  Kansas  raised  69,362,000 
bushels  of  corn  with  a  value  of  $97,107,000;  151,— 
001,000  bushels  of  wheat  with  a  value  of  $324,652,000. 
The  value  of  sorghums  was  $26,802,000;  of  tame 
hay,  $71,211,000;  oats,  $32,287,000;  of  barley,  $16,- 
200,000;  Irish  potatoes,  $9,819,000.  The  field  prod¬ 
ucts  from  22,249,594  acres  under  cultivation  had 
a  value  of  $442,091,198  in  1918.  The  value  of 
animals  slaughtered  or  sold  for  slaughter  was  $108,- 
073,032;  poultry  and  eggs  sold,  $14,792,000;  milk 
sold,  $15,098,844;  garden  and  horticultural  products 
marketed,  $4,061,009.  The  total  value  of  farm 
products  in  1918  reached  the  sum  of  $592,017,250, 
without  considering  the  live  stock  retained  by  the 
farmers  and  returned  by  assessors  to  the  value  of 
$361,868,765.  In  1918  the  value  of  farm  products 
and  live  stock  aggregated  $953,886,015,  which  was 
$93,737,345  in  excess  of  1917. 

The  annual  salt  production  is  about  2,000,000 
barrels.  Kansas  ranks  fourth  in  the  production  of 
lead  and  zinc.  According  to  the  United  States 
census  of  1919  the  manufactured  products  of  the 
State  attained  a  value  of  $909,897,000.  In  1917  its 
mineral  production  had  a  value  of  $106,763,055,  its 
natural  gas  a  value  of  $5,701,436. 

Kansas  has  9383  miles  of  railroads  on  which  a 
three-cent  fare  obtains.  The  Board  of  Railroad 
Commissioners  was  succeeded  in  1910  by  the  Public 
Utilities  Commission,  and  in  1920  the  Industrial 
Board  was  formed. 

Population. — The  fourteenth  Federal  census  of 
1920  gave  1,769,257  as  the  total  population  of  the 
State’s  105  counties:  males,  909,221;  females,  860,036. 
There  are  sixty-two  towns  with  a  population  of 
more  than  2500  each;  seventeen  of  them  have  more 


KANSAS 


431 


KANSAS  CITY 


than  ten  thousand  people.  Atchison  has  12,630; 
Leavenworth,  16,912;  Wichita,  72,217;  Kansas  City, 
101,177;  and  Topeka,  50,022.  In  1920  the  aggregate 
in  cities  of  above  10,000  was  417,749,  or  13.6% 
of  .the  total  population.  The  latest  statistics  show 
2618  divorces  and  18,162  marriages  in  one  year. 

Education. — If  the  majority  of  the  electors  of 
the  county  favor  it,  a  high  school  may  now  be  estab¬ 
lished  at  the  discretion  of  the  county  commissioners 
and  on  petition  of  one-fourth  of  the  electors.  Four 
years  are  now  required  for  completion  of  the  high 
school  courses  of  instruction.  The  Legislature  of 
1917  was  authorized  to  levy  a  permanent  tax  for 
the  support  of  educational  institutions.  The  total 
school  population  in  1918  was  620,991,  and  the  enrol¬ 
ment  405,319.  The  average  daily  attendance  was 
288.286.  There  were  16,395  teachers.  The  total 
cost  of  the  public  schools  in  1918  was  $17,102,644. 
The  State  School  Book  Commission  was  established 
in  1913. 

.  The  student  membership  at  the  State  educational 
institutions  in  1919  was  as  follows :  University  of 
Kansas,  Lawrence,  3915;  Kansas  State  Agricultural 
College,  Manhattan,  2171;  Kansas  State  School 
for  the  Deaf,  Olathe,  223.  Non-Catholic  denomina¬ 
tional  colleges  have  invested  in  equipment  and 
endowment  about  $16,000,000.  They  represent 
faculties  of  250  persons,  instructing  3500  students 
at  an  annual  expense  of  $607,000.  In  1920  there  were 
310  private  and  denominational  schools  in  Kansas. 

The  laws  of  1915  empower  the  counties  having 
&  population  of  more  than  60,000  and  less  than 
/5,000  to  establish  public  service  institutions,  includ¬ 
ing  a  county  home,  county  hospital,  and  a  tuber¬ 
culosis  hospital.  In  1917  a  State  Board  of  Adminis¬ 
tration  was  created  to  constitute  the  Board  of 
Trustees  for  the  control  of  educational,  benevolent, 
and  penal  institutions.  For  this  purpose  the  board 
appoints  a  business  manager  to  manage  such  institu¬ 
tions  with  the  advice  of  the  board,  and  to  purchase 
supplies.  A  Workman’s  Compensation  Law  has 
been  adopted..  The  establishment  at  Topeka  of  a 
State  Industrial  Farm  for  women  prisoners  was 
provided  for  by  the  Legislature  in  1917. 

According  to  the  United  States  census  of  1916 
all  the  church  property  in  the  State  was  valued 
at  $23,808,000.  The  Catholic  population  in  1921 
was  134,220,  an  increase  of  nearly  70%  in'  forty 
years.  For  details  with  regard  to  ecclesiastical  his¬ 
tory  see  Leavenworth,  Diocese  of;  Concordia,  Dio¬ 
cese  of;  Wichita,  Diocese  of. 

Legislation. — Property  passing  to  direct  descend¬ 
ants  is  tax  exempt;  to  brothers  or  sisters  $5000 
exempt;  to  near  kindred  the  tax  is  graduated;  to 
others  more  remote  the  rates  are  higher.  This 
does  not  apply  to  constitutional  exemptions. 
Columbus  Day  (12  October)  and  Election  Day 
(first  Tuesday  in  November)  are  now  included 
among  the  legal  holidays.  In  1912  the  full  exercise 
of  suffrage  was  conferred  upon  women,  a  right 
which  in  1918  was  restricted  to  citizens  of  the 
United  States. 

Recent  History.— An  important  step  in  the*  in¬ 
dustrial  progress  of  the  United  States  was  taken 
when  the  Kansas  Court  of  Industrial  Relations  was 
established  as  a  court  to  find  solution  for  industrial 
controversies  and  to  protect  the  public  against 
waste  and  danger  of  industrial  war.  It  was  meant 
as  a  court  of  human  relations,  not  as  a  public 
utilities  commission,  but  the  public  utilities  cases 
so  increased  that  the  court  was  robbed  of  the 
opportunity  to  do  more  than  care  for  the  acute 
industrial  cases.  Kansas  ratified  the  federal  suffrage 
amendment  16  June,  1919,  and  the  prohibition 
amendment  14  January,  1919,  the  twenty-eighth 


state  to  do  so.  The  recent  adoption  of  the  farm- 
homes-amendment  was  aimed  at  checking  the 
growth  of  land  tenantry  in  the  State  and  to 
strengthen  agricultural  conditions  as  to  farm  labor 

?,n' 9or!ser,va^on-  The  good  roads  amendment 
in  19^0  limited  the  State’s  help  to  25  per  cent  of 
the  cost  of  the  road,  and  to  $10,000  per  mile  for 
more  than  100  miles  in  any  county. 

Kansas  contributed  during  the  World  War 
63,428  soldiers,  or  1.69  per  cent  of  the  total  furnished 
by  the  United  States.  Camp  Funston  was  estab¬ 
lished  in  the  State  for  the  troops  of  the  89th  and 
92d  divisions. 

Kansas  City  (Kasanopolitana),  Diocese  of  (cf. 
y  ■  VIII-602a),  in  Missouri,  suffragan  of  St. 

Louis  The  first  bishop  of  this  diocese,  Rt.  Rev.  John 
Joseph  Hogan,  who  had  filled  the  see  from  1880, 
died  21  February,  1913,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
coadjutor,  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  Francis  Lillis,  who 
had  been  consecrated  Bishop  of  Leavenworth  27 
December,  1904,  transferred  to  Kansas  City  as 
coadjutor  with  right  of  succession  14  March,  1910, 
taking  possession  of  the  see  21  February,  1913. 

Two  diocesan  synods  have  been  held  since  1910, 
one  April  9,  1912,  and  the  last  April  20,  1920,  to 
effect  to  the  instructions  and  legislative  acts 
of  the  Iloly  See  as  provided  in  the  New  Canon 
r  Wi-  The  sixteenth  (and  last)  annual  convention 
of  the  American  Federation  of  Catholic  Societies 
was  held  at  Kansas  City  August  26-29,  1917,  the 
Papal  Delegate,  His  Excellency  John  Bonzano,  and 
twenty-five  archbishops  and  bishops  attending. 

During  the  decade  1910-20  the  Kansas  City  dio¬ 
cese  has  enjoyed  a  steady  growth  in  the  number 
of  priests,  parishes,  educational  and  charitable  in¬ 
stitutions.  .  The  number  of  priests  has  increased 
from  101  in  1910  (70  secular  and  31  religious)  to 
146  (102  secular,  44  regular)  at  present  (1921). 
The  total  number  of  Sisters  now  working  in  the 
diocese  is  530,  compared  with  350  ten  years  ago; 
eight  new  parishes  were  established  during  this 
period,  and  in  many  instances  the  first  church, 
rectory  or  school  has  been  replaced  by  a  modern 
structure.  The  number  of  parochial  schools  has 
grown  from  42  to  50,  and  the  number  of  children 
attending  them  from  5543  to  7873.  There  are  10 
academies  for  girls  attended  by  about  600  pupils. 
A  desire  for  a  higher  education  for  boys  than  that 
afforded  in  the  parish  school  found  its  realization 
m  the  establishment  of  two  colleges,  De  La  Salle 
Academy  (1910),  in  charge  of  the  Christian  Brothers, 
and  Rockhurst  College  (1914),  conducted  by  the 
Jesuit  Fathers,  both  in  Kansas  City;  their  present 
enrollment  is  565.  There  are  three  orphan  homes 
in  the  diocese,  two  in  Kansas  City  (one  for  girls 
with  150  and  one  for  boys  with  145  inmates),  and 
St.  Francis  Convent  at  Nevada,  Mo.,  attended  by 
125  children.  Two  new  hospitals  have  been  added 
to  the  six  already  existing  in  1910,  and  the  Catholic 
League  Hotel  (1911)  and  St.  Catherine’s  Convent 
(1921)  provide  a  home  for  young  women  employed 
in  stores,  offices,  etc.  St.  Vincent’s  Maternity  Hos¬ 
pital  was  established  in  1914.  The  new  $400,000 
House  of  the  Good  Shepherd  was  completed  last 
year.  The  total  number  of  children  under  Catholic 
care  has  increased  from  5773  in  1910  to  8000  in 
1920,  and  the  total  Catholic  population  from  55,000 
in  1910  to  75,500^  in  1920.  The  number  of  parishes 
in  the  city  of  Kansas  City  has  grown  from  28  to 
32,  including  one  for  the  Mexicans  (1915),  one  for 
the  Polish  Catholics  (1913),  and  St.  Monica’s,  in 
charge  of  the  Franciscan  Fathers  (1910),  for  the 
Catholic  negroes.  There  are  26  missions  with 
churches,  108  churches,  and  30  chapels. 


KAN-SU 


432 


KASSAI 


During  the  W  orld  War  about  3000  Catholic  young 
men  of  this  diocese  entered  the  service,  of  whom 
84  gave  up  their  lives. 

Kan-Su,  Northern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (de 
Kan-su  Septentrionalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-602d),  in 
China.  The  vicariate  contains  about  8,000,000  inhabi¬ 
tants  ;  among  this  number  there  are  6250  Catholics 
and  7200  catechumens,  all  of  whom»are  Chinese,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  Tangouses  and  Tibetans. 
In  1921  the  mission  had  55  chapels,  18  mission  resi¬ 
dences,  2  secular  priests,  16  regulars,  18  native  Sis¬ 
ters  who  live  in  community,  1  preparatory  seminary 
with  10  students,  1  college  for  boys  with  12  teachers 
and  52  students,  36  elementary  schools,  51  teachers, 
and  1063  pupils,  28  catechists  and  10  catechu- 
menates.  The  following  institutions  exist  in  the 
vicariate  apostolic:  3  asylums  in  charge  of  18 
Sisters  with  230  children,  3  small  homes  for  old 
people,  several  day  nurseries.  Of  late  the  number 
of  missionaries  has  diminished,  some  of  them  having 
died  and  others  being  recalled  to  the  mother- 
house.  The  present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Geoffrey 
Frederix  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Immaculate 
Heart  of  Mary  of  Scheutveld,  b.  at  Afferden,  17 
July,  1866,  elected  8  March,  1920,  appointed  vicar 
apostolic  of  Kan-Su  5  March  preceding,  consecrated 
29  June  following.  He  arrived  at  Kan-Su  in  March, 
1921,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Hubert  Otto,  deceased. 

Kan-su,  Southern,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (cf. 
C.  E.,  VIII-602c),  in  China.  The  present  prefect 
is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Constantine  Benedict  Daems  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary 
of  Scheutveld,  b.  at  Westmalle,  Belgium,  13  May, 
1872,  ordained  21  July,  1895,  departed  for  China  the 
following  September,  and  was  named  prefect  5  May, 
1914.  In  1921  the  prefecture  apostolic  contained  11 
European  regular  priests,  1  native  secular  priest, 
2703  baptized  Christians,  3931  registered  catechu¬ 
mens,  12  principal  missions,  22  outlying  missions, 
1  theological  seminary,  1  preparatory  seminary  at 
Trinchow  (29  students),  12  parochial  schools  (167 
boys,  81  girls),  12  teachers,  11  native  Sisters  who 
are  teachers,  3  orphanages  with  76  ransomed 
orphans. 

Karinthia.  See  Jugoslavia. 

Karniola.  See  Jugoslavia. 

Kaschau,  Diocese  of.  See  Kosice. 

Kashmir  and  Kafristan,  Prefecture  Apostolic 
of  (Cashmirensis  et  Kafristanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VIII-591b),  created  by  Pope  Leo  XIII  in  1887. 
The  territory  embraces  a  large  portion  of  the  ex¬ 
treme  north  of  India  and  includes  part  of  the 
Punjab,  the  whole  of  Kashmir  Kafristan,  and  many 
free  tribes  around  Chitral  Waziristan  and  the  Swa^t 
Valley  bordering  Afghanistan.  Roughly  the  inhabi¬ 
tants  number  15,000,000.  The  northern  boundaries 
are  the  Hindu  Kush  mountains,  and  the  Pamir 
Range — “the  roof  of  the  world.”  The  mission  was 
taken  over  from  the  Capuchins  by  the  English 
Mill  Hill  Fathers  in  1887.  The  prefecture  includes 
some  of  the  most  important  British  military  stations 
in  India.  Peshawar  guards  the  mouth  of  the  Khy- 
ber  Pass,  Nowshera  is  a  large  base  near  the  Indus, 
whilst  Rawalpindi,  “the  Aldershot  of  India,”  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  Northern  Army  Command  in 
India.  In  all  there  are  about  20  permanent  stations, 
besides  innumerable  summer  stations  in  the  hills, 
served  by  the  Mill  Hill  Fathers,  15  in  number. 
Besides  military  work  the  priests  are  engaged  on 
native  missions,  in  which  work  they  are  very  mate¬ 
rially  helped  by  the  Franciscan  Missionary  Sisters 
of  Mary,  assisted  by  Dr.  Anne  Dengel,  who  have 


hospitals  for  native  women  and  children  in  Raw¬ 
alpindi  and  at  Baramulla  in  Kashmir.  The  Irish 
Presentation  Sisters  have  convent  day  schools  in 
Rawalpindi  and  Peshawar,  and  a  boarding  school 
for  small  boys  at  Murree,  a  summer  station  o.ver 
7000  feet  above  sea  level.  At  Baramulla  Fr.  de 
Ruyter  has  a  successful  high  school  and  an  orphan¬ 
age  for  native  boys,  with  a  total  of  250.  The  Sisters 
of  the  Congregation  of  Jesus  and  Mary  have  a 
large  boarding  school  for  girls,  open  only  in  the 
summer.  _ 

The  present  prefect  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  R.  J. 
Winkley,  who  succeeded  Rt.  Rev.  D.  Wagner  in 
1916.  Born  in  Preston  and  educated  at  Kelvedon, 
Freshfield,  and  Mill  Hill,  he  was  one  of  the  pioneer 
priests  in  the  Mill  Hill  mission  in  north  India. 
On  arriving,  he  was  sent  to  Kashmir,  where  no 
priest  had  ever  been,  and  he  commenced  the  now 
established  missions  of  Baramulla,  Srinagar,  and 
Gulmarg.  He  returned  to  the  Punjab  in  1914  and 
was  posted  at  West  Ridge,  where  he  built  a  large 
church  and  presbytery.  He  served  for  a  time  on 
the  frontier  of  India,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  in  1914  he  was  in  England  for  the  Mill  Hill 
General  Council,  and  entered  the  service  imme¬ 
diately  as  a  chaplain.  He  went  to  France,  was 
invalided  home,  and  then  proceeded  to  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean,  working  in  Salonika,  Gallipoli,  Egypt,  and 
on  the  Arabian  frontier.  In  1916  he  was  nominated 
prefect  and  returned  to  India  to  direct  the  labors 
of  the  Mill  Hill  priests  in  British  North  India. 
Other  clergy  who  saw  service  in  the  war  were: 
Rev.  J.  Mullen,  who  was  with  the  army  which 
defended  Kut,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  awarded 
the  military  cross;  Rev.  Hubert  Janssen,  who  served 
with  the  armies  on  the  frontier  and  was  mentioned 
in  dispatches  for  bravery  and  devotion  to  duty; 
Rev.  W.  Bolton  and  Rev.  A.  Malden,  B.  A.,  who 
served  in  the  Khyber  and  on  the  frontier;  and 
Rev.  W.  White,  who  was  chaplain  in  Egypt  and 
Palestine 

The  Catholic  population  of  the  prefecture  is 
about  5000  native  Hindus  and  British.  There  are 
in  the  prefecture:  11  churches,  4  missions,  18  sta¬ 
tions,  4  convents  of  nuns,  35  Sisters,  15  secular 
priests,  2  hospitals  for  native  women  under  the 
Franciscan  Missionaries  of  Mary,  and  an  orphan¬ 
age  for  native  boys  in  Baramulla.  The  priests 
have  charge  of  native  missions  in  Rawalpinda, 
Baramulla,  and  Srinagar.  The  schools  are  partially 
supported  by  the  government. 

J.  M.  Clarke. 

Kassa,  Diocese  of.  See  Kosice. 

Kassai,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Upper  (cf.  C.  E., 
VIII-609a) . — On  13  June,  1917,  the  Prefecture  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  Upper  Kassai  was  erected  into  a  vicariate, 
comprising  at  that  date  18  principal  mission  stations 
and  a  Catholic  population  of  60,000.  The  bound¬ 
aries  of  the  vicariate  are :  on  the  west  the  course  of 
the  River  Loange  in  the  Congolese  territory,  and 
the  boundaries  of  the  colony;  on  the  south  the 
boundaries  of  the  colony  as  far  as  the  source  of 
the  Lualaba;  on  the  east  the  Lualaba  from  its 
source  to  Kikondja,  the  course  of  the  Lovoi  to  the 
source  of  the  Lomami,  the  Lomamie  from  its  source 
to  Bena  Kamba;  on  the  north  the  boundaries  of 
the  vicariates  of  New  Antwerp  and  Leopoldville. 
The  climate  is  salubrious  and  the  soil  generally 
fertile.  The  recent  discovery  of  diamond  beds  has 
brought  to  the  locality  mining  exploitations,  ana 
these  as  well  as  the  establishment  of  a  railroad 
and  the  improvement  of  other  ways  of  communica¬ 
tion  are  of  great  importance  in  the  development  ox 
the  country.  The  most  widely  spread  language  is 


/ 


KATANGA 


433 


KEEWATIN 


Luba,  which  is  used  by  the  missionaries  for  teach¬ 
ing  and  preaching,  except  in  the  region  of  Batetela, 
where  the  idiom  of  the  country  is  in  usage.  The 
approximate  number  of  natives  is  1,200,000.  The 
vicariate  comprises  four  civil  districts,'  and  the  four 
principal  towns  are  Luebo,  Lusambo,  Kabinda,  and 
Sandoa;  the  last,  of  recent  foundation,  is  in  the 
Lunda  country,  and  the  other  three,  each  of  which 
has  a  Catholic  mission,  are  in  the  Luba  country. 
The  character  of  the  people  evangelized  is  gen¬ 
erally  peaceful,  and  the  greatest  progress  in  evan¬ 
gelization  is i  among  the  Luba.  According  to  the 
statistics  of  1  July,  1921,  the  number  of  native 
Catholics  was  111,277,  with  a  total  of  8843  Catholic 
families.  The  vicariate  has  18  principal  stations, 
each  of  which  serves  an  extensive  territory,  some¬ 
times  comprising  several  hundred  villages.  These 
stations  are:  Luluabourg  St.  Joseph,  Hemptinne, 
St.  Benoit,  Ndekesha,  Ndemba,  Mushenge,  Luebo, 
Mayi,  Munene,  Kalende,  St.  Trudon,  Lusambo, 
Mcrode  Salvator,  Tielen  St.  Jacques,  Kabinda, 
Tshumbe  Ste.  Marie,  Katako  Kombe,  Lodja, 
Lubefu,  Kanzeuze.  There  is  also  a  residence  at 
St.  Antoine  (Lusambo).  The  number  of  missionary 
priests  attached  to  the  vicariate  is  55  Missionaries- 
of  Scheutveld  and  4  Franciscan  Fathers  of  the 
Belgian  province,  who  are  established  at  Kanzeuze. 
The  Missionaries  of  Scheutveld  are  aided  by  23 
coadjutor  brothers  of  their  congregation  and  3000 
native  catechists  and  assistant  catechists.  Each 
mission  station  has  an  elementary  school,  the  total 
daily  regular  attendance  being  2857  boys  and  1101 
girls.  There  is  a  normal  school  at  Luluabourg  St. 
Joseph  with  130  pupils;  the  course  of  studies  is  four 
years.  Another  normal  school  at  Tshumbe  has  at 
present  60  pupils  and  a  two-year  course  of  studies. 
Since  1917  a  preparatory  seminary  has  been  estab¬ 
lished  at  Luluabourg  St.  Joseph  for  the  formation 
of  a  native  clergy;  there  are  at  present  11  students, 
all  graduates  of  the  normal  school.  The  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  Ghent,  numbering  21  religious,  are  estab¬ 
lished  at  Luluabourg  St.  Joseph,  Hemptinne  St. 
Benoit,  and  St.  Trudon,  where  they  instruct  and 
educate  young  girls.  The  Brothers  of  Charity,  in 
the  service  of  the  government  of  the  colony,  direct 
at  Lusambo  and  Kabinda  an  official  professional 
school  where  they  teach  various  European  trades 
to  young  men.  The  religious  instruction  given  by 
the  Brothers  is  under  ecclesiastical  authority.  The 
vicariate  publishes  in  the  native  language  a  small 
monthly  called  “Nkuruse”  (“The  Cross”).  The 
vicar  apostolic  resides  at  Luluabourg  St.  Joseph. 
The  present  vicar  is  Rt.  Rev.  Auguste  De  Clercq, 
born  in  1870,  ordained  15  July,  1893,  missionary  at 
Luluabourg  St.  Joseph  from  1894  to  1897,  provincial 
superior  of  the  missionaries  from  1897  to  1906,  re¬ 
turned  to  Belgium  where  he  filled  various  posts 
and  was  named  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Upper  Kassai 
and  titular  Bishop  of  Thignica  in  1918,  consecrated 
12  January,  1919,  and  arrived  in  the  vicariate  in 
September  of  that  year. 

Katanga,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
XVI-68c),  in  Belgian  Congo,  Africa.  This  prefec¬ 
ture,  formerly  in  charge  of  the  Brazilian  Congre¬ 
gation  of  the  Benedictines  of  the  Abbey  of  St. 
Andre,  is  now  cared  for  by  the  Belgian  Congrega¬ 
tion  of  Benedictines,  who  founded  a  house  at 
Katanga  in  1919.  The  present  and  first  prefect 
apostolic  is  Dom  Jean  de  Hemptinne,  appointed 
in  August,  1910.  The  Catholics  number  3000,  of 
whom  500  are  Europeans  and  2500  are  natives. 
The  prefecture  apostolic  contains  8  missions,  2  sec¬ 
ular  priests,  12  regulars,  5  lay  brothers,  18  Sisters 
of  Charity,  1  hospital  for  white  and  colored  patients. 


ie  government  supports  the  schools  and  missions, 
there  is  a  primary  school  for  European  boys  and 
one  lor  gnls,  and  1  professional  school  conducted 
by  14  Salesmans.  A  monumental  church  is  being 
erected  at  Elizabethville,  the  funds  for  which  were 
donated  ~y  the  pope,  the  king,  the  Belgian  govern¬ 
ment,  and  by  a  national  subscription  in  Belgium. 

Katanga,  Northern,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
(cf.  C.  E.,  XVI-68c),  in  Belgian  Congo,  Africa, 
erected  in  1911  by  dismemberment  of  the  Prefec¬ 
ture  Apostolic  of  Upper  Kassai.  It  was  confided 
to  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  the  first 
and  present  prefect  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Emile 
Callewaert,  C.S.Sp.  The  Catholic  population  com¬ 
prises  4500  blacks  and  several  European  officials 
and  merchants.  .  J  here  are  in  the  prefecture :  3 
parishes,  3  missions,  6  churches,  42  stations  with 
catechists,  12  regular  priests,  4  lay  brothers,  12 
Daughters  of  the  Cross,  1  seminary  with  11  semi¬ 
narians,  10  elementary  schools  with  about  500 
pupils,  schools  for  catechists  with  1000  pupils,  2 
refuges  for  widows  and  fallen  women,  1  hospital 
for  Europeans  and  1  for  blacks,  and  4  orphan  asy¬ 
lums  (2  for  boys,  2  for  girls).  The  hospitals  are 
under  the  care  of  the  Sisters.  Associations  among 
the  laity  are  the  Confraternity  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
for  men  and  the  Confraternity  of  the  Holy  Family 
for  women. 

Kearney,  Diocese  of.  See  Grand  Island. 

Keewatin,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Koevatinen- 
sis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XVI-49b),  suffragan  of  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Saint  Boniface,  was  erected  8  August, 
1910.  It  includes  the  northern  half  of  the  two 
provinces  of  Manitoba  and  Saskatchewan,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  North  Pole,  on  the 
south  by  the  Archdiocese  of  Saint  Boniface  and 
Winnipeg,  on  the  east  by  the  Diocese  of  Sault  Ste. 
Marie  and  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Northern 
Ontario,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Archdiocese  of 
Edmonton  and  Vicariates  Apostolic  of  Athabaska 
and  Mackenzie. 

The  country,  which  is  sparsely  inhabited  by 
Indians,  half-breeds,  and  a  few  whites,  is  chiefly 
forest  land  of  a  swampy  or  very  rocky  nature  and 
improper  for  cultivation,  but  it  possesses  some 
valuable  mineral  resources.  It  was  first  visited  by 
pioneer  missionaries  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
when  Mgr.  Provencher,  Bishop  of  St.  Boniface, 
sent  Abbe  Thibaut  to  Ue-la-Crosse  and  Abbe 
Lafleche,  later  Bishop  of  Trois  Rivieres,  to  explore 
the  Cumberland  district  (1845).  In  1846  Father 
Tache  (later  Archbishop  of  St.  Boniface)  was  sent 
to  join  them,  and  they  visited  Lake  Caribou  (1847). 
These  and  surrounding  missions  were  subsequently 
served  by  Oblate  Fathers  of  the  Alberta-Saskatche- 
wan  and  Manitoba  Provinces.  Prominent  among 
these,  since  1887,  was  Father  Ovide  Chari ebois, 
whose  successful  work  during  sixteen  years  ministry 
at  Fort  Cumberland  led,  in  1900,  to  his  nomination 
as  visitor  of  the  Cumberland  District  Indian  mis¬ 
sions,  and  in  1903  to  his  appointment  as  director 
of  Duck  Lake  Industrial  School.  In  1910,  upon 
the  erection  of  the  Vicariate  of  Keewatin,  he  was 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Bernice  and  vicar  apos¬ 
tolic  of  the  new  vicariate  with  residence  at  Le  Pas. 

The  vicariate  comprises  a  population  of  13,000 
Indians,  Montagnais,  Crees,  and  Esquimaux,  of 
whom  6000  are  Catholic  and  7000  non-Catholic, 
some  being  pagan,  chiefly  Esquimaux.  The  mis¬ 
sionary  work  is  carried  on  by  18  Oblate  Fathers  of 
Mary  Immaculate,  9  Brothers  of  Mary  Immaculate, 

3  secular  priests,  14  Grey  Nuns  (of  Montreal),  10 
Oblate  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  and  of  Mary 


KELLY 


434 


KENTUCKY 


Immaculate  (St.  Boniface),  and  12  Grey  Nuns  (St. 
Hyacinthe).  There  are  11  churches  with  16  out- 
stations;  1  Indian  boarding  school  at  Cross  Lake 
with  10  Oblate  Sisters  and  95  pupils,  1  at  Lac  La 
Plonge  with  8  Grey  Nuns  and  60  pupils;  a  general 
hospital  under  the  Grey  Nuns  with  30  beds;  a 
boarding  school  at  Ile-la-Crosse  with  4  Grey  Nuns 
and  40  pupils;  a  French-English  school  at  Le  Pas 
with  8  Sisters  of  the  Presentation  of  Mary  and  160 
pupils,  and  2  other  day  schools  at  Cumberland  and 
Lac  Caribou  with  45  pupils  under  lay  teachers. 

Kelly,  Hugh,  M.  A.,  LL.D.,  merchant,  b.  in  Chi¬ 
cago,  Illinois,  24  September,  1858;  d.  in  New  York, 
30  October,  1908,  son  of  James  and  Sarah  Belle 
(O’Brien)  Kelly,  of  Sligo  County,  Ireland.  Educa¬ 
tion:  public  schools  and  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York.  He  began  his  business  career  in  1871, 
and  was  successively  in  the  employ  of  Gomez  and 
Monjo;  Gomez,  Rionda  and  Co.;  Rionda,  Ben¬ 
jamin  and  Co.,  commission  merchants,  and  in  1883  he 
formed  a  partnership  with  Manuel  Rionda,  engag¬ 
ing  in  the  West  Indian  trade.  In  the  same  year 
he  married  Mary  E.,  daughter  of  Thomas  McCabe; 
associated  with  Franklin  Farrel,  establishing  the 
house  of  Hugh  Kelly,  sugar  merchants  of  New 
York  and  Havana,  Cuba,  1884.  He  became  school 
commissioner  and  trustee  of  the  •  city  and  normal 
colleges  of  New  York  (1895-1898);  president  of 
the  Maritime  Exchange,  1896-1898;  State  commerce 
commissioner,  1898-1900 ;  member  of  the  board  of 
managers,  Central  Islip  State  Hospital,  1905-1908. 
He  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  the  study  and 
research  of  sugar-cane  culture  and  modern  sugar 
house  engineering,  and  was  considered  one  of  the 
foremost  scientific  engineers  in  that  industry.  At 
the  time  of  his  death  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Board  of  Directors  of  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia, 
the  United  Fruit  Co.,  the  Seventh  National  Bank, 
the  Third  National  Bank,  the  North  American 
Trust  Co.,  the  City  Trust  Co.,  the  Oriental  Bank, 
trustee  of :  the  Emigrants’  Industrial  Savings  Bank, 
St.  Patrick’s  Cathedral,  the  New  York  Catholic 
Protectory,  the  Roman  Catholic  Orphan  Asylum, 
President  of  the  Parvenir,  Central  Teresa  and  Cen¬ 
tral  Ansonia  sugar  companies,  West  Indies;  a  mem¬ 
ber  of:  Xavier  Alumni  Society  (president  two 
years),  Catholic  Club,  New  York;  Society  of  the 
Friendly  Sons  of  St.  Patrick,  Catholic  Historical 
Society,  Catholic  Benevolent  Legion,  the  Educa¬ 
tional  Alliance,  Lebanon  Hospital  Association, 
United  Trust  Co.,  Boston,  and  honorary  member 
of  the  Marine  Society  of  New  York,  a  life  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Catholic  Summer  School. 

Kentucky  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-620b). — Population 
and  Wealth. — According  to  the  federal  census  for 
1920  the  population  of  Kentucky  was  estimated  at 
2,416,630,  of  whom  40,053  were  of  foreign  birth 
and  235,938  negroes.  Thirteen  other  States  have  a 
larger  negro  population,  and  the  increase  in  this 
race  is  materially  less  than  among  the  whites. 
There  are  57  Indians,  and  the  number  of  Chinese 
and  Japanese  is  probably  less  than  100  in  the  entire 
State. 

The  1920  census  shows  an  increase  in  the  popula¬ 
tion  of  126,725,  or  5.5  per  cent  since  1910,  making 
it  the  fifteenth  in  the  United  States  in  size  of 
population.  The  largest  cities  are:  Louisville,  234,- 
891 ;  Covington,  57,121 ;  Newport,  29,317 ;  Paducah, 
24,735;  Owensboro,  17,427;  Henderson,  12,160; 
Lexington,  41,534;  Ashland,  14,729. 

Material  Resources. — The  total  assessed  valua¬ 
tion  of  property  in  1919  was  $1,997,446,000,  of  which 
$1,028,128,532  was  real  estate  and  $969,318,159  was 
personalty.  The  net  revenue  of  the  State  for  that 


year  was  $12,324,620.  In  1919  there  were  129 
national  banks  in  Kentucky,  with  an  aggregate  capi¬ 
tal  stock  of  $16,256,000,  an  aggregate  surplus  of 
$10,102,000,  and  individual  deposits  amounting  to 
$131,867,000.  There  are  446  state  banks  and  trust 
companies  with  a  capital  stock  of  $19,706,000,  an 
aggregate  surplus  of  $9,239,000,  and  deposits  aggre¬ 
gating  $163,921,000. 

Mining. — The  total  mineral  output  for  1917 
amounted  in  value  to  $77,177,421. 

Agriculture. — Of  the  total  area  of  Kentucky  in 
1919,  farm  lands  occupied  86.4  per  cent,  and  of  this 
64.7  per  cent  was  improved.  More  than  70  per 
cent  of  the  farms  are  operated  by  owners  of  the 
land.  In  1919  the  total  area  planted  in  Indian  corn 
was  3,247,167  acres;  in  wheat  839,987  acres,  in  oats 
229,464  acres,  in  hay  2,084,909  acres,  in  tobacco 
640,000  acres.  The  total  value  of  the  principal 
crops  in  1920  was  $348,654,000.  Kentucky  pro¬ 
duces  nearly  all  the  hemp  grown  in  the  United 
States,  but  the  demand  for  this  product  has  so  far 
decreased  that  in  1920  only  721  acres  were  planted 
in  the  State.  Kentucky,  formerly  the  first  State 
in  the  production  of  tobacco,  is  now  superseded  by 
North  Carolina,  not  only  in  acreage,  but  also  in 
value  of  the  product.  Kentucky  grows  more  than 
one-fourth  of  the  total  production  of  the  United 
States.  In  1920,  550,000  acres  were  planted  and 
produced  467,500,000  pounds  of  tobacco,  worth  $70,- 
125,000,  a  great  drop  from  the  value  of  tobacco 
produced  in  1918,  $190,236,000. 

Grazing. — On  account  of  the  climate  the  large 
production  of  grain,  and  the  excellence  of  the 
pasturage,  stock  raising  is  very  extensively  carried 
on.  The  total  value  of  live  stock  in  1920  was  $165,- 
000,000;  horses,  $43,329,000;  mules,  $29,106,000; 
horned  cattle,  $23,896,000;  other  live  stock,  $57,- 
257,000. 

Manufactures. — A  comparison  of  industrial  con¬ 
ditions  in  1914  and  1919  shows  an  increase  in  the 
later  year  of  43.0  per  cent  in  capital  invested, 
110  in  wages  paid,  and  71  in  value  of  output.  There 
were  in  the  State  3957  manufacturing  establish¬ 
ments,  69,300  wage  earners,  and  an  invested  capital 
of  $276,535,000.  The  value  of  products  was  $395,- 
660,000. 

Transportation. — There  were  4118  miles  of  rail¬ 
road  in  1919,  the  principal  lines  being  the  Louis¬ 
ville  and  Nashville,  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio,  the 
Illinois  Central,  and  the  Southern.  There  are  over 
500  miles  of  electric  railway. 

Education. — In  1921  the  total  number  of  students 
in  all  departments  in  the  University  of  Kentucky, 
at  Lexington,  was  2284,  and  there  were  110  pro¬ 
fessors  and  assistants.  In  1916  a  State  Board  of 
Education  was  created.  The  Legislature  of  1920 
established  in  each  county  a  county  board,  con¬ 
sisting  of  five  members,  and  a  county  superinten¬ 
dent,  which  has  general  supervision  over  all  educa¬ 
tional  matters  in  the  county.  The  county  is 
required  to  levy  a  tax  on  the  general  school  district, 
not  exceeding  30  cents  on  every  $100  of  the  assessed 
value  of  property  in  the  district,  to  meet  the  re¬ 
quirements  of  the  County  Board  of  Education. 
According  to  the  last  school  census  the  total  num¬ 
ber  of  children  of  school  age  was  648,307.  The 
actual  number  enrolled  in  the  public  schools  was 
535,332,  and  the  average  daily  attendance  was 
342,669.  In  1920  there  were  27,981  Catholic  children 
attending  the  Catholic  schools  of  the  State.  For 
public  school  purposes,  exclusive  of  expenditures 
for  the  state  university,  normal  schools,  schools 
for  the  blind,  deaf,  and  dumb,  $8,628,475  were  ex¬ 
pended  in  the  last  fiscal  year  by  the  State  and 
local  taxing  districts. 


KENTUCKY 


435 


KETCHAM 


Charities  and  Correction. — In  1920  a  state 
board  of  charities  and  corrections  for  the  manage¬ 
ment  of  benevolent,  correctional,  and  penal  institu¬ 
tions  was  created.  It  is  composed  of  eight  members, 
appointed  by  the  governor,  and  has  for  its  agent 
a  commissioner  of  public  institutions.  A  house  of 
reform  for  boys  and  girls  was  established  at  Pine 
Bluff  in  1919. 

Legislation  Directly  Affecting  Religion. — 
Clergymen  are  not  required  to  serve  on  petit  juries, 
though  they  may  do  so;  there  is  no  such  exemp¬ 
tion  from  services  on  grand  juries.  In  actual  prac¬ 
tice  militia  sendee  is,  of  course,  purely  voluntary, 
but  clergymen  are  not  exempt  in  the  event  of 
enforced  enlistment.  An  appropriation  of  $300.  to 
be  distributed  by  the  chief  clerks  of  the  Houses  of 
the  Legislature,  is  made  for  all  those  who  open 
the  sessions  of  the  House  and  Senate  with  prayer. 
By  recent  legislation,  Columbus  Day  (12  October) 
and  Lincoln’s  Birthday  (12  February)  have  been 
made  holidays. 

Recent  Legislative  Changes. — The  Constitution 
has  been  recently  amended  (1)  to  permit  a  county 
to  assume  a  limited  indebtedness  to  the  common¬ 
wealth  for  public  roads;  (2)  to  provide  for  an 
annual  tax  for  government  expenses;  (3)  to  make 
peace  officers  liable  to  prosecution  in  lynching 
cases;  (4)  to  prohibit  the  sale  and  manufacture 
of  liquor  for  any  other  than  sacramental,  medical, 
scientific,  or  mechanical  purposes.  Further  changes 
included  the  establishment  of  a  Department  of 
Banking,  a  Department  of  Public  Roads,  and  a 
Board  of  Forestry  (1912),  the  regulation  of  female 
employment,  the  organization  of  the  State  Militia, 
and  the  establishment  of  a  State  Board  of  Charities 
(1920). 

Wills  and  Testaments. — A  collateral  inheritance 
tax  was  imposed  in  1906,  but  this  law  was  amended 
by  Act  of  1916,  providing  for  a  progressive  tax  on 
direct  and  collateral  inheritances.  There  are  5 
degrees  of  relationship,  with  5  rates  for  each,  1,  2, 
3,  4,  5%  on  inheritances  not  over  $25,000.  Exemp¬ 
tions  vary  from  $10,000  to  $500.  On  large  inheri¬ 
tances  the  tax  is  multiplied  from  1  to  3  times. 

Recent  History.— A  vexing  problem  in  1915  had 
to  do  with  the  “night-riders,”  who  terrorized  the 
western  part  of  the  State  under  the  guise  of  hun¬ 
ters,  whipping  men  and  women,  and  killing  one 
negro.  Their  purpose  was  “to  regulate  conduct,” 
to  replace  the  blacks  with  whites  in  labor,  and  to 
fix  the  prices  in  the  stores  of  western  Kentucky. 
On  5  November,  1917,  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court  declared  invalid  a  race  segregation  ordinance, 
forbidding  either  the  blacks  or  whites  from  moving 
into  resident  blocks  in  which  the  majority  were  of 
the  opposing  color.  This  had  the  effect  of  nullify¬ 
ing  ordinances  of  a  similar  kind  in  other  States. 
In  1918  women  were  admitted  to  the  bar.  A  State 
tuberculosis  sanatarium  was  provided  for  in  1920, 
and  the  employment  of  convict  labor  on  roads  was 
allowed.  Kentucky  was  the  third  State  to  ratify 
the  prohibition  amendment,  14  January,  1918;  the 
woman’s  suffrage  amendment  was  adopted  6  Jan¬ 
uary,  1919. 

Kentucky’s  contribution  to  the  United  States 
Army  during  the  European  War  was  75,043  men, 
or  2.00  per  cent  of  the  force.  A  summary  of 
casualties  among  the  Kentucky  members  of  the 
American  Expeditionary  Force  included:  deceased, 
43  officers  and  1393  men;  prisoners,  2  officers  and 
58  men;  wounded,  94  officers  and  3790  men.  The 
Majority  of  Kentucky  men  belonged  to  the  38th 
division,  quartered  at  Camp  Shelby,  Mississippi, 

>r  to  the  84th  Division  at  Camp  Zachary  Taylor, 


in  the  State.  For  Catholic  statistics  see  Louisville, 
Diocese  of;  Covington,  Diocese  of. 

Kenya,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII- 
616c),  in  the  East  African  Protectorate,  situated 
between  36°  6'  and  37°  6'  E.  long,  and  0°  and  1°  2' 
S.  lat.,  was  erected  into  a  vicariate  12  July,  1909, 
and  confided  to  the  Missionaries  of  the  Consolata* 
of  Turin.  The  vicariate  has  a  population  of  1,000,- 
000.  There  are  14  stations  served  by  60  priests, 
Brothers,  and  Sisters,  with  a  school  in  each  station. 
The  Fathers  have  a  large  industrial  establishment 
at  Tusu,  4  orphanages,  a  college  of  catechists,  a 
seminary  with  60  native  students,  and  a  farm  at 
Fort  Nyere.  The  present  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt. 
Rev.  Filippo  Perlo,  titular  Bishop  of  Maronia,  b. 
1873,  ordained  1895,  elected  and  consecrated  1909. 

Kerkuk,  Archdiocese  of  (Chercensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VIII-626c),  a  Chaldean  Uniat  archdiocese,  in  Asia 
Minor.  The  present  archbishop  is  Very  Rev.  Hor- 
misdas  Stephen  Djibri,  b.  1870,  ordained  1893,  vicar 
general  of  the  patriarchate  in  1900,  elected  to  the 
titular  see  of  Nisibis  in  1902,  promoted  to  Kerkuk 
in  1917,  succeeding  Very  Rev.  Messaieh,  who  died 
26  May,  1917.  The  archbishop  has  also  the  title 
of  Archbishop  of  Suleimanieh.  There  are  in  the 
archdiocese  5000  Catholic  Chaldeans  of  Assyrian 
origin,  numerous  schismatics  and  mussulmans,  15 
secular  priests,  3  regular  priests,  9  churches,  7 
parishes,  and  9  elementary  schools  with  20  teachers 
and  420  pupils.  The  government  aids  some  of  the 
schools.  Notable  for  his  charity  was  Rev.  Echaia, 
pastor  of  Ainkawa,  who  died  in  1915. 

Kerry  and  Aghadoe,  Diocese  of  (Kerriensis  et 
Aghadoensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-627b),  suffragan  of 
Cashel,  Ireland.  The  present  bishop  is  Most  Rev. 
Charles  O’Sullivan,  elected  10  November,  1917,  suc¬ 
ceeding  Most  Rev.  John  Mangan,  who  died  1  July, 
1917.  Religious  orders  in  the  diocese  are:  Francis¬ 
cans  of  the  Irish  province,  Dominicans,  Presenta¬ 
tion  Brothers,  Christian  Brothers,  Presentation 
Nuns,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Bon  Secours  Sisters,  and 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Infant  Jesus.  There  are  52 
parishes,  50  parish  priests,  3  administrators,  72 
curates  and  others,  99  churches,  2  friaries,  5  mon¬ 
asteries,  18  convents,  1  industrial  school,  1  mental 
hospital,  8  convents  in  workhouses.  The  population 
of  the  diocese  in  1911  was  173,861,  of  whom  169,427 
were  Catholics  and  4434  non-Catholics. 


Ketcham,  William  Henry,  director  of  the 
Bureau  of  Catholic  Indian  Missions,  b.  1868  in 
Summer,  Iowa;  d.  14  November,  1921,  in  Tucker, 
Mississippi.  Of  Puritan  ancestry,  he  became  a  con¬ 
vert  in  1885,  while  a  student  at  St.  Charles  College, 
Grand  Coteau,  Louisiana.  After  graduation,  in 
1888,  he  entered  the  theological  seminary  of  Mount 
St.  Mary’s  of  the  West,  Cincinnati,  and  in  1892 
was  ordained  priest.  He  had  the  happiness  of  bap¬ 
tizing  his  mother  and  sister  who  followed  him  into 
the  Church.  Father  Ketcham’s  work  for  the  Indian 
missions  began  with  his  appointment  as  missionary 
to  the  Creek  and  Cherokee  tribes,  and  the  Quapaw 
Agency  in  what  was  then  Indian  Territory.  In 
1897  he  extended  his  missions  to  the  eastern  part 
of  the  Choctaw  tribes,  building  churches,  and  estab¬ 
lishing  mission  centers  and  boarding  schools  for 
boys  and  girls.  After  laboring  with  untiring  zeal 
for  ten  years  amongst  the  various  tribes,  baptizing 
hundreds  of  Indians,  he  was  appointed  Director  of 
the  Bureau  of  Catholic  Indian  Missions,  Washing¬ 
ton,  D.  C.  He  established  cordial  co-operation 
between  the  missionaries  and  the  United  States 
Government  officials,  and  secured  the  abolition  of 
the  Browning  rule  whereby  the  choice  of  a  school 


KETTLE 


436 


KIANG-SU 


for  an  Indian  child  was  taken  from  the  parent  and 
vested  in  the  government  agent.  The  right  of 
Catholic  pupils  in  government  schools  to  attend 
their  own  Catholic  services  was  also  recognized  and 
proper  religious  instruction  secured  for  them.  He 
obtained  the  use  of  the  Indian  Tribal  funds  for  the 
education  of  Indian  children  in  the  mission  schools, 
thereby  bringing  a  revenue  of  $100,000  a  year  to 
Catholic  mission  contract  schools,  having  an  enrol¬ 
ment  of  1500  pupils. 

In  1919  Father  Ketcham  was  made  a  domestic 
prelate  by  Pope  Benedict  XV.  He  was  the  per¬ 
sonal  friend  of  President  Taft  and  President  Roose¬ 
velt,  as  well  as  of  many  of  the  Indian  chiefs  of 
the  United  States.  He  translated  a  catechism  and 
many  hymns  into  the  Choctaw  language,  and  was 
visiting  the  missions  of  this  tribe  at  the  time  of 
his  death. 

Kettle,  Thomas  Michael,  writer  and  politician, 
b.  in  Co.  Dublin,  Ireland,  in  1880;  killed  in  the 
World  War  at  Ginchy,  France,  on  9  September, 
1916;  son  of  Andrew  J.  and  Margaret  (McCourt) 
Kettle.  He  was  educated  by  the  Christian  Brothers 
(Dublin)  and  by  the  Jesuits  at  Clongowes  Wood 
College,  and  later  graduated  with  honors  in  mental 
and  moral  science  from  University  College,  Dublin. 
In  1906  he  was  admitted  to  the  Irish  Bar  after 
winning  the  Victoria  prize.  In  the  same  year, 
while  he  was  editor  of  “The  Nationist,”  he  was 
elected  to  Parliament,  where  he  represented  East 
Tyrone  until  1910.  In  1909  he  was  called  to.  the 
chair  of  National  Economics  in  the  National  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Ireland,  and  in  1913  was  elected  one  of 
the  governors  of  University  College,  Dublin.  He 
married  Miss  Mary  E.  Sheehy,  who  like  himself 
belonged  to  a  family  that  played  a  prominent  part 
in  Ireland’s  political  struggles  in  the  nineteenth 
century.  In  1914  he  helped  to  organize  the  Irish 
National  Volunteers  as  a  precaution  against  Sir 
Edward  Carson’s  threatened  rebellion.  When  the 
war  of  1914  broke  out  Kettle,  believing  that  the 
cause  of  justice  called  for  his  support  of  the  Allies, 
enlisted  in  the  British  Army,  and  as  a  lieutenant 
in  the  Seventh  Battalion  of  the  Leinster  Regiment 
fell  two  years  later.  He  translated  “Contemporary 
Ireland”  from  the  French  of  Paul  Dubois,  and 
“Christianity  and  the  Leaders  of  Modern  Science” 
from  the  German  of  Alois  Kneller.  His  essays, 
“The  Day’s  Burden,”  reveal  his  literary  charm  and 
Catholic,  patriotic  spirit,  and  place  him  high  among 
the  essayists  of  the  early  twentieth  century.  A 
short  collection  of  fugitive  poems  published  after 
his  death  contain,  besides  powerful  satire,  a  beau¬ 
tiful  sonnet  written  in  the  field  near  Guillemont 
to  his  baby  daughter. 

Kharput  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-633b),  an  Armenian 
Uniat  diocese,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Diocese 
of  Mush,  on  the  west  by  the  dioceses  of  Melitene 
and  Sebastia,  on  the  south  by  the  Diocese  of  Amida, 
and  on  the  north  by  the  Diocese  of  Erzerum.  The 
population  of  the  diocese  is  600,000,  of  whom 
100,000  are  Christians  of  all  sects  and  about  4000 
Catholics.  There  are  8  parishes  or  stations,  with 
7  churches  and  4  chapels,  administered  by  8  native 
clergy,  6  Capuchin  priests,  and  several  lay  brothers. 
There  is  no  seminary,  aspirants  to  the  priesthood 
being  sent  to  Rome  or  to  Constantinople.  The 
residence  of  the  bishop  is  at  Mansuret-el-Azin. 
The  instruction  of  young  girls  is  confided  to  the 
Armenian  Congregation  of  the  Immaculate  Con¬ 
ception,  the  center  of  which  is  at  Gile,  and  there 
are  also  Franciscan  nuns  in  the  diocese.  There  are 
15  Catholic  schools  with  1200  children,  all  Catholics 


with  the  exception  of  a  few  Mohammedans.  Two 
Catholic  periodicals  are  published:  one  in  Arme¬ 
nian,  “Luzachavigh,”  is  directed  by  the  native 
clergy;  the  other  in  French,  “Joyeux  Noel,”  is 
directed  by  the  Capuchins. 

Khartum,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
XVI-84a),  in  the  Sudan.  Established  as  a  mission 
in  1635  it  was  constituted  a  vicariate  apostolic  in 
1846  under  the  name  of  Sudan,  which  was  changed 
in  1913  to  Khartum,  and  the  boundaries  were 
modified  in  1894  and  in  1913  when  it  embraced  part 
of  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Bahr-el-Gazal.  It 
was  confided  to  the  Missionaries  of  Verona.  The 
population  of  the  vicariate  is  about  15,000,000,  of 
whom  1027  are  Catholics,  72  catechumens,  and  3600 
Protestants.  There  are  24  missionary  priests,  11 
churches  and  chapels,  12  stations,  10  schools,  5 
orphanages,  18  lay  brothers  of  the  Institute  of 
Verona,  and  31  Sisters.  Rev.  Anthony  Stoppani, 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Bahr-el-Gazal,  was  appointed 
administrator  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Khar¬ 
tum  17  February,  1922. 

Ki-an  (or  Kingan),  Vicariate  Apostolic  of;  (cf. 
C.  E.,  III-678a),  in  province  of  Kiang-si,  China. 
This  province  was  divided  into  four  vicariates  in 
October,  1920,  instead  of  three  (Northern,  Southern, 
and  Eastern  Kiang-si),  as  formerly.  Ki-an  was 
erected  from  the  two  civil  prefectures  of  Northern 
Kiang-si  and  one  (the  episcopal  seat)  of  Southern 
Kiang-si,  with  residence  at  the  latter  place,  Ki-an-fu 
(Kingan).  The  vicar  apostolic  is  Msgr.  Nicolas 
Ciceri,  titular  Bishop  of  Dausara  and  vicar  apostolic 
of  Southern  Kiang-si  until  the  erection  of  the  new 
vicariate.  Bishop  Ciceri  was  born  at  Bruciano, 
Italy,  26  May,  1854,  entered  the  Congregation  of 
the  Mission  1874,  ordained  1878,  left  for  China  the 
same  year,  named  bishop  and  vicar  1907.  The 
vicariate  is  entrusted  to  the  Lazarists. 

There  are  in  the  vicariate  14  churches,  365  mis¬ 
sions,  27  stations,  8  convents  of  Sisters,  14  regular 
and  10  secular  priests,  16,279  Catholics,  3  seminaries 
with  36  seminarians,  22  schools  for  boys  with  983 
pupils,  16  for  girls  with  389  pupils,  3  high  schools 
with  135  pupils,  1  normal  school  with  25  pupils, 

1  industrial  school  with  12  pupils,  5  homes  for  the 
aged  poor  with  39  inmates,  2  hospitals,  8  orphan¬ 
ages,  6  refuges,  and  2  asylums. 

In  1915  the  Kan-Kiang  overflowed  its  banks  and 
flooded  the  district  causing  great  damage  to  the 
mission.  Many  churches,  residences,  hospitals,  and 
all  crops  were  destroyed.  Since  then  the  vicariate 
has  remained  in  great  poverty.  All  of  the  European 
priests  (8  French,  3  Italian)  were  called  for  war, 
4  were  sent  to  Europe,  one  of  whom  died  returning 
from  the  war,  another  remained  in  Europe  on 
account  of  infirmities  contracted  in  the  army,  and 

2  returned  to  the  mission. 

Kiang-nan,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See  Kiang- 
su;  Ngan-hoei. 

Kiang-si,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See  Kan- 
chow;  Ki-an;  Kiu-kiang;  Yii-kiang. 

Kiang-su,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII- 
633b),  in  China,  erected,  according  to  papal  Brief 
of  8  August,  1921,  by  division  of  the  former  Vica¬ 
riate  Apostolic  of  Kiang-nan  into  the  two  vicariates 
of  Kiang-su  and  Ngan-hoei,  comprising  the  respec¬ 
tive  provinces  of  those  names  and  confided  to  the 
Jesuits.  The  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Kiang-nan,  Rt. 
Rev.  Prosper  Paris,  S.J.,  became  Vicar  Apostolic 
of  Kiang-su,  with  residence  at  Shanghai.  Before 
the  division  the  mission  (1  July,  1921)  had  an 
approximate  population  of  50,000,000  inhabitants. 


KIELCE 


437 


KILDARE 


and  comprised  the  two  provinces  of  Kiang-su  in 
the  east  and  Ngan-hoei  in  the  west,  with  120  sub¬ 
prefectures,  GO  in  each  province,  grouped  in  8 
intendancies,  of  which  5  were  in  Kiang-su  and  3  in 
Ngan-hoei.  There  were  laboring  in  the  mission 
208  Jesuits,  including  153  priests,  of  whom  19  were 
natives,  13  scholastics,  of  whom  7  were  natives, 
and  41  lay  brothers,  of  whom  23  were  natives.  The 
secular  priests  numbered  61,  and  there  were  35 
students  at  the  theological  seminary,  27  at  the 
preparatory  seminary,  and  92  students  in  prepara¬ 
tory  courses  at  the  college  of  Zi-ka-wei.  Religious 
congregations  included  43  Little  Brothers  of  Mary, 
of  whom  3  were  natives;  21  Carmelite  Nuns,  of 
whom  17  were  natives;  134  Helpers  of  the  Holy 
Souls,  of  whom  64  were  natives,  37  Franciscan 
Missionaries  of  Mary,  of  whom  1  was  native;  71 
Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  of  whom  42  were 
natives;  27  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  of  whom  7 
were  natives,  and  237  Presentandines,  all  of  whom 
were  natives.  The  Presentandines  occupied  38  posts 
in  I£iang-su  and  51  in  Ngan-hoei,  a  total  of  89. 
There  were  279  catechists,  675  men  teachers,  846 
women  teachers,  and  about  910  native  Virgins,  who 
aided  the  missionaries. 

In  the  year  1920-21  there  were  in  Kiang-su  769 
Christian  communities;  195,863  Catholics,  27,087 
catechumens,  5220  baptisms  of  adults,  45,944  bap¬ 
tisms  of  children,  7811  confirmations,  116,716  annual 
confessions,  113,854  annual  communions,  929,042 
confessions  of  devotion,  2,143,837  communions  of 
devotion,  2703  who  received  Extreme  Unction,  1857 
marriages,  225  schools  for  boys  with  9387  Catholic 
and  4612  pagan  pupils,  524  schools  for  girls  with 
8538  Catholic  and  2172  pagan  pupils,  458  men 
teachers,  and  722  women  teachers.  There  are  18,000 
Catholics  in  the  city  of  Shanghai,  of  whom  1000  are 
Europeans  and  Americans.  The  hospice  in  Shanghai, 
called  the  Pou  yen  dang,  is  not  dependent  on  the 
missions,  but  is  supported  by  donations  and  alms 
of  Chinese  Christians  and  pagans,  especially  the 
latter.  The  director  is  a  Catholic  and  he  has  asked 
the  Sisters  of  Charity  to  take  charge  of  the  hospice 
and  has  erected  a  chapel  there,  where  many  bap¬ 
tisms  have  taken  place.  This  hospice  has  at  least 
1500  boarders,  with  all  kinds  of  illnesses  and  infirm¬ 
ities.  A  priest  says  daily  Mass  and  administers 
the  sacraments.  In  1920  the  director  of  the  hospice, 
Mr.  Dohpahong,  was  made  a  Knight  of  St.  Gregory 
the  Great  by  Benedict  XV  for  his  devotion  to  the 
Church  and  Catholic  works. 

Kielce,  Diocese  of  (Kielcensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII- 
636b),  suffragan  of  Warsaw,  Poland.  After  the 
death  of  Bishop  Kulinski,  in  1907,  the  see  was 
vacant  until  1910,  when  the  present  bishop,  Augus¬ 
tin  Losinski,  was  appointed.  The  diocesan  semi¬ 
nary,  which  had  been  closed  in  1893  and  four  of 
the  professors  deported  to  Siberia,  was  reopened 
in  1897  and  now  (1921)  has  12  professors  and  104 
seminarians.  The  seminary  was  made  larger  and 
more  commodious  by  the  erection  of  new  build¬ 
ings  between  1912  and  1921.  About  20  new  churches 
have  also  been  erected  in  the  diocese;  the  largest 
church  in  the  diocese  is  to  be  Holy  Cross  Church, 
begun  in  1904  and  not  yet  (1922)  completed. 
Kielce  contains  the  old  monastery  church  of 
Karczowka,  formerly  belonging  to  the  Benedictine 
Order.  There  are  2  hospitals  in  charge  of  the  Sis¬ 
ters  of  Charity,  one  for  children  and  the  other  the 
town  hospital  of  St.  Alexander,  founded  in  1745  by 
Cardinal  John  Alexis  Lipski,  Bishop  of  Cracow. 
Bartosz  Gtowacki,  the  famous  leader  of  the  peasants 
under  Thaddeus  Kosciuszko,  died  in  this  hospital 
and  is  buried  in  the  cemetery  near  the  cathedral. 


The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  are  all  of 
Polish  origin,  except  a  few  French,  Germans,  and 
Russians,  not  exceeding  3000  in  number.  During 
the  World  War  the  bishop  and  priests  of  the  dio¬ 
cese  zealously  promoted  charitable  works  to  relieve 
the  great  suffering  brought  on  the  whole  of  Poland 
by  the  war.  Some  of  the  clergy  were  harassed  by  the 
enemy  and  others  deported  to  Russia.  Here  within 
recent  years  many  religious  congregations  have 
been  established  in  the  diocese,  notably  the  Sales- 
ians,  heretofore  banned  by  the  Russian  government. 
Many  associations  of  Catholics  have  been  formed, 
especially  for  young  people  and  the  wTorking  classes. 
These  are:  Association  of  Laborers,  Young  Men’s 
Association,  Club  of  Organists,  Club  of  Firemen, 
Association  of  Catholic  Women,  Association  of 
Christian  Mothers,  Sodality  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
Society  of  Servants,  and  others.  Among  the  clergy 
four  great  associations  have  been  formed:  Associa¬ 
tion  of  Mutual  Succor  of  the  Priests  of  the  Diocese 
of  Kielce,  Union  of  the  Diocesan  Clergy,  “Praca” 
(Labor),  Homiletic  Association.  Two  diocesan 
printing  presses  have  been  founded,  and  the  popular 
daily,  “Ojczyzna”  (Fatherland),  and  monthly 
periodical  “Przeglad  djecezalny”  (Diocese  Review) 
are  published  on  Catholic  principles.  A  large  book¬ 
shop  is  distributing  Catholic  books  and  newspapers 
among  the  people.  Recently  deceased  clergy  of  note 
are:  Fr.  Sawicki,  director  of  the  diocesan  seminary, 
and  Frs.  Michael  Staweta  and  Casimir  Bochnis, 
professors,  who  for  their  faith  and  country  were 
exiled  to  Siberia  by  the  Russian  government  in 
1893;  Fr.  Lucian  Maciejski,  canon  of  the  cathedral 
chapter,  who  during  the  Russo-Japanese  War 
(1904-5)  exercised  great  zeal  in  the  care  of  souls 
in  the  Russian  army  and  during  the  World  War 
(1914-18)  assiduously  cared  for  the  great  number 
of  refugees  in  Petrograd,  especially  the  children. 
Eustachius  Dobiecki,  a  member  of  the  Imperial 
Council  of  Petrograd  and  a  layman  of  the  Diocese 
of  Kielce,  also  died  recently.  The  diocese,  divided 
into  25  deaneries,  has  (1921):  1,169,220  Catholics, 
a  few  Orthodox,  3560  Protestants,  and  103,759  Jews; 
258  parish  churches,  21  other  churches,  and  141 
chapels ;  325  secular  clergy,  8  Franciscan  Reformati, 
6  Salesians,  2  monasteries,  1  convent  of  Norbertines 
with  12  nuns,  10  establishments  of  the  Sisters  of 
Charity  with  47  Sisters,  1  emerit-house  for  aged  and 
retired  priests,  65  hospitals  and  orphan  asylums,  26 
homes,  1  settlement  house,  6  grammar  and  other 
schools,  1  industrial  school  with  5  teachers  and  60 
pupils.  All  the  schools  are  supported  by  the  gov¬ 
ernment,  and  _  Christian  institutions  permit  the 
ministry  of  priests  and  admit  Catholic  visitors. 

Kien-chang,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
XVI-84a),  in  China.  In  1916  the  vicar  apostolic, 
Mgr.  de  Guebriant,  was  transferred  to  Canton,  and 
the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Kien-chang  remained 
vacant  until  the  appointment  to  it  in  1918  of  Rt. 
Rev.  Joseph  Bourgain,  b.  1872,  ordained  1896,  con¬ 
secrated  titular  Bishop  of  Archelais  3  November, 
1918.  The  population  of  the  vicariate  is  2,000,000, 
of  whom  7400  are  Catholics.  There  are  13  Euro¬ 
peans  priests,  4  native  priests,  43  churches  and 
chapels. 

Ki-han-fu,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See  Ki-an. 

Kikuyu.  See  Anglicanism. 

Kildare  and  Leighlin,  Diocese  of  (Kildarensis 
et  Leighlinensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-637c),  suffragan 
of  Dublin,  Ireland.  The  present  bishop  is  Most 
Rev.  Patrick  Foley,  consecrated  1896.  Religious 
orders  in  the  diocese  are  the  Jesuits,  Dominicans, 
Carmelites,  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  Christian 


KILIMANJARO 


438 


KIMBERLEY 


Brothers,  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools, 
Brothers  of  St.  Patrick,  Presentation  Nuns,  Bridget- 
tines,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Sisters  of  Mary  Immacu¬ 
late,  Sisters  of  St.  John  of  God,  and  Poor  Clares. 
The  population  of  the  diocese  (1911)  is  147,781,  of 
whom  127,013  are  Catholics  and  20,768  non-Cath- 
olics.  There  are  49  parishes,  46  parish  priests,  3 
administrators,  73  curates,  10  priests  in  colleges,  etc., 

1  diocesan  examiner,  3  military  and  naval  chap¬ 
lains,  total  secular  clergy  136,  total  regular  clergy  23, 
total  priests  159,  churches  164,  convents  21. 

Kilima-Njaro,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
XVI-84b),  in  East  Africa.  Kilima,  the  residence 
of  the  vicar  apostolic  and  the  most  ancient  of  the 
missions  of  the  vicariate,  was  founded  in  1891,  and 
numbers  about  1500  Catholics  and  as  many  catechu¬ 
mens.  Kilomeni,  the  most  recent  mission,  was 
founded  in  1910,  and  numbers  about  1000  catechu¬ 
mens.  The  vicariate  comprises  the  districts  of 
Tanga,  Pangani,  Usambara,  Pare,  Kilimanjaro, 
Neru,  Ufioni,  and  Trangi.  It  numbers  nine  mis¬ 
sions  with  a  personnel  of  20  Fathers  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  12  Brothers,  25  nuns,  and  more  than  4500 
Catholics.  Rev.  Henry  Gogarty,  C.S.Sp.,  was 
appointed  administrator  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  Kilima-Njaro  18  February,  1922. 

Killala,  Diocese  of  (Alladensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII- 
640c),  suffragan  of  Tuam,  Ireland.  The  present 
bishop  is  Most  Rev.  James  Naughton,  born  in 
1873,  consecrated  in  1912,  succeeding  Bishop  Conmy, 
who  died  26  August,.  1911.  Religious  orders  in  the 
diocese  are  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  with  3  convents, 
and  Sisters  of  Jesus  and  Mary  with  1  convent. 
There  are  22  parishes,  20  parish  priests,  3  adminis¬ 
trators,  19  curates,  4  college  priests,  1  chaplain, 
44  churches  and  chapels,  and  1  college.  The  popu¬ 
lation  of  the  diocese  is  (1911)  63,238,  of  whom 
60,142  are  Catholics  and  3096  non-Catholics. 

Killaloe,  Diocese  of  (Laonia;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII- 
641b),  suffragan  of  Cashel,  Ireland,  is  under  the 
administration  of  Most  Rev.  Michael  Fogarty, 
D.  D.,  consecrated  4  September,  1904.  By  the  1911 
census  the  total  population  of  the  diocese  was 
135,646,  of  whom  128,628  were  Catholic  and  7018 
non-Catholic.  There  are  57  parishes,  142  secular 
clergy,  143  parochial  and  district  churches,  2  houses 
of  regular  clergy,  13  convents  with  198  members 
in  the  community,  6  monastic  houses  with  63  mem¬ 
bers,  9  secondary  schools  with  an  attendance  of 
495  boys  and  214  girls,  290  elementary  schools  with 
attendance  of  22,202,  and  2  industrial  schools. 

Kilmer,  Alfred  Joyce,  poet,  essayist,  and  jour¬ 
nalist,  b.  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  6  December, 
1886;  d.  in  France  30  July,  1918.  He  was  the  son 
of  Frederick  Barnett  Kilmer,  a  distinguished 
chemist,  and  Annie  Ellene  (Kilburn)  Kilmer.  Edu¬ 
cated  at  Rutgers  College,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J. 
(1904-6),  and  at  Columbia  University,  New  York 
City  (A.B.,  1908),  he  became  editorial  assistant  of 
the  Standard  Dictionary  1909-12,  literary  editor  of 
the  “Churchman”  1912-13;  member  of  the  staff 
of  the  New  York  Times  Sunday  Magazine  and 
Review  of  Books  from  1913  till  his  enlistment.  In 
1908  he  married  Aline  Murray,  likewise  a  poet  of 
distinction.  In  the  latter  part  of  1913  he  became 
a  Catholic  and  was  received  into  the  Church  in 
New  York  City.  He  contributed  to  several 
periodicals,  delivered  literary  lectures,  was  the 
author  of  “Summer  of  Love”  (1911),  “Trees  and 
Other  Poems”  (1915),  “Main  Street  and  Other 
Poems”  (1917),  “Literature  in  the  Making”  (1917), 
“The  Circus  and  Other  Essays”  (1916),  and  com¬ 
piled  “An  Anthology  of  Catholic  Poets”  (1917). 


His  poetical  work  was  characterized  by  a  deep  ' 
simplicity  and  straightforwardness.  He  took  the 
commonplace  and  spun  out  of  it  golden  strands. 
As  a  soldier  in  the  famous  69th  Regiment  of  New 
York  City  he  saw  service  in  France  during  the 
World  War,  and  was  killed  in  action  near  the 
Ourcq. 

Kilmore,  Diocese  of  (Kilmorensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VIII-642d),  includes  a  Catholic  population  of  102,- 
254  (1911  census)  and  a  non-Catholic  population 
of  22,045,  showing  a  decrease  of  some  7000  Catholics 
since  the  previous  census  in  1901.  The  former 
bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Andrew  Boylan,  died  25  March, 
1910,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Patrick  Fine- 
gan,  who  now  fills  the  see.  He  was  born  at  Corlun- 
gan  on  16  August,  1858,  and  elected  to  the  Diocese 
of  Kilmore  on  4  July,  1910,  being  consecrated  11 
September  of  the  same  year. 

During  recent  years  there  has  been  considerable 
activity  in  building  and  remodeling  throughout  the 
diocese,  and  an  imposing  site  has  been  obtained 
for  a  new  cathedral,  but  its  erection  awaits*  the 
collection  of  sufficient  funds.  Six  of  the  clergy  of 
the  diocese  served  as  chaplains  during  the  World 
War,  and  since  then  two  others  have  joined  the 
Maynooth  Mission  to  China. 

There  are  in  the  diocese  115  priests,  42  parishes, 
90  churches,  and  100  nuns.  The  Marist  Brothers 
have  established  a  Juniorate  at  Bailieborough,  and 
the  Sisters  of  Mercy  have  charge  of  3  public  hos¬ 
pitals.  Elementary  education  is  provided  by  275 
schools,  which  are  supported  by  the  state  and 
which  were  attended  by  16,110  children  in  1920. 
A  good  course  in  religious  instruction  is  given,  the 
parish  priest  being  manager  of  all  schools  in  his 
parish,  and  an  annual  examination  is  held  by 
diocesan  examiners.  St.  Patrick’s  College,  with  an 
attendance  of  140  students,  provides  secondary 
education.  The  Diocese  of  Kilmore  took  its  part 
in  preventing  the  objectionable  Education  Bill  of 
1920  from  becoming  a  law.  The  diocese  is  depen¬ 
dent  on  Armagh,  with  residence  at  Cavan. 

Kimberley,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Kimber- 
liensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-645b),  suffragan  of  Perth, 
Australia.  The  area  of  the  vicariate  is  120,000 
square  miles.  It  was  confided  to  the  Trappists  in 
1890,  and  they  abandoned  the  mission  in  1891 
and  were  replaced  by  the  Pallotines,  who  in  turn 
were  replaced  in  1910  by  the  Benedictines  of  New 
Norcia,  and  they  in  1920  by  the  Redemptorists. 
The  present  administrator  of  the  vicariate  is  Rt. 
Rev.  John  Creagh,  C.SS.R.,  appointed  in  1920, 
replacing  Abbot  Catalan,  of  New  Norcia.  The  Cath¬ 
olic  population  of  the  vicariate  is  5000.  There  are 
at  Beagle  Bay  the  residence  of  the  vicar,  4  priests, 
9  Brothers,  11  Sisters,  and  110  children  in  2  Catholic 
schools. 

Kimberley  in  South  Africa,  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  (Kimberliensis  in  Africa  Meridionalis ;  cf.  C. 
E.,  VIII-645c),  formerly  called  Kimberley  in 
Orange,  the  name  having  been  officially  changed 
by  decree  of  28  November,  1918.  The  vicariate 
comprises  the  whole  of  the  Orange  Free  State, 
Griqualand  West,  and  Bechuanaland  south  of  the 
Tropic  of  Capricorn.  The  population  consists  ap¬ 
proximately  of  5270  Catholics,  224,000  Europeans  of 
non-Catholic  sects,  371,000  natives,  5000  Jews,  mak¬ 
ing  a  total  of  605,270.  Bloemfontein,  the  capital 
of  the  Orange  Free  State,  contains  17,516  Europeans 
and  36,113  natives  and  colored  persons.  The 
smaller  towns  of  the  vicariate  are  visited  from  the 
large  centers,  the  isolation  of  small  groups  of  Cath¬ 
olics  in  these  smaller  towns  causing  the  clergy  much 


KING 


439 


KIU-KIANG 


anxiety.  I  he  present  administrator  of  the  vicariate 
apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Charles  Cox,  O.M.I.,  titular 
Bishop  of  Dioclea  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the 
Transvaal,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Matthew  Gaughren, 
O.M.I.,  who  died  1  June,  1914.  There  are  in  the 
vicariate  9  Oblate  Fathers,  1  retired  Oblate  Father, 
2  secular  priests,  1  military  chaplain,  retired,  15 
Christian  Brothers,  3  Oblate  Brothers,  and  130  Sis¬ 
ters  of  the  Holy  Family  of  Nazareth,  of  Mercy, 
of  the  Holy  Cross,  of  Notre  Dame,  and  Dominican 
Nuns.  There  are  18  churches  and  chapels,  2  semi¬ 
public  oratories,  1  college  under  the  Christian 
Brothers,  with  103  boarders  and  385  day  scholars, 
and  16  convent  schools,  with  537  boarders  and  1479 
day  pupils,  making  a  total  of  2504  pupils,  of  whom 
924  are  Catholics.  The  Christian  Brothers  will,  in 
1923,  build  a  college  at  Bloemfontein,  the  site  for 
the  purpose  having  been  granted  by  the  munici¬ 
pality.  The  Sisters  of  Nazareth  in  1921  opened  a 
new  building  on  their  premises  in  order  to  make 
room  for  more  inmates,  their  work  for  orphan  chil¬ 
dren  and  the  aged  poor  being  much  appreciated. 
There  are  flourishing  native  missions  at  Tawngs 
and  Bloemfontein,  a  native  school  at  Kroonstad, 
an  Indian  school  at  Kimberley,  and  a  colored  school 
(Indians  and  others)  at  Mafeking.  The  Sacred 
Heart  Confraternity,  Children  of  Mary  Sodality, 
and  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society  are  established  in 
the  vicariate. 


Redemptorist  Fathers.  The  Hotel  Dieu  and  orphan 
asylum  are  in  charge  of  the  Hospital  Bisters  of 
fet.  Joheph,  and  two  other  hospitals  and  a  Home 
of  Providence  are  also  maintained  by  the  diocese 
in  the  interest  of  charity.  All  the  elementary 
schools  are  aided  by  the  Government.  The  Priests’ 
Eucharistic  League  is  organized  among  the  clergv 
and  the  Holy  Name  Society,  Knights  of  Columbus,’ 
Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians,  Catholic  Men’sBenev- 
olent  Association  are  established  among  the  laitv 
1  he  diocese  publishes  the  “Canadian  Freeman  ”  a 
Catholic  weekly.  • 


King,  Harriet  Eleanor  Baillie  Hamilton,  Eng¬ 
lish  poetess,  d.  on  10  May,  1920,  in  London,  at 
the  age  of  eighty;  daughter  of  Admiral  W.  A. 
and  Lady  Bailie  Hamilton.  From  early  life  Miss 
Hamilton  displayed  her  interest  in  the  welfare  of 
humanity  and  her  enthusiasm  after  meeting  Maz- 
zini  in  London  found  expression  in  “The  Disciples,” 
a  work  which  led  to  her  marriage  with  its  pub¬ 
lisher,  Henry  Samuel  King,  J.  P.,  of  Cligwell,  Essex. 
In  her  special  work  for  the  poor  she  met  Cardinal 
Manning,  who  received  her  into  the  Catholic 
Church.  By  her  poetry  Mrs.  King  has  won  a 
permanent  place  in  English  literature.  “The  Hours 
of  the  Passion”  are  reminiscent  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Among  her  other  writings  are  “Aspro- 
monte”;  “A  Book  of  Dreams”;  “Ballads  of  the 
North,”  and  “Letters  and  Reminiscences  of  Maz- 
zini.” 

Kingan,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See  Ki-an. 

Kingston,  Archdiocese  of  (Kingstoniensis  or 
Regiopolitana;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-658d),  in  Canada. 
On  6  September,  1910,  Most  Rev.  C.  H.  Gauthier, 
Archbishop  of  Kingston,  was  transferred  to  Ottawa 
and  the  present  archbishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Michael 
Joseph  Spratt,  D.  D.,  became  his  successor,  being 
consecrated  30  November,  1911.  During  the  World 
War  this  diocese  was  distinguished  by  having  one 
of  the  three  chaplains  which  it  supplied  for  military 
service,  Capt.  Rev.  J.  F.  Nicholson,  decorated  with 
the  Military  Cross.  Father  Nicholson  is  now  Dean 
of  Regiopolis  College. 

The  Catholic  population  of  the  archdiocese 
approximates  45,000,  of  whom  a  great  number  are 
of  Irish  descent.  The  diocese  comprises  40  parishes, 
40  churches,  23  missions,  56  secular  priests  and  8 
Redemptorists,  300  nuns,  and  30  seminarians.  The 
various  educational  institutions  include:  1  college 
for  men  with  5  professors  and  150  students,  2  high 
schools  with  12  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  200 
girls,  ^1  academy  with  6  teachers  and  an  attendance 
of  265  girls,  54  elementary  schools  with  250  teachers 
and  a  total  attendance  of  47,500.  In  addition  to 
these,  St.  Mary’s  College  for  boys  at  Brockville, 
Ontario,  is  established  under  the  direction  of  the 


’  S*MT?ELA  scTulptor’  b-  at  Huddersfield, 

Vn^b  nire,Q  audL  1  January>  1848;  d.  at  New 
York  on  9  November,  1906.  In  his  boyhood  he 

showed  unmistakable  signs  of  talent  in  art  and 
at  the  age  of  sixteen  went  to  Leeds,  where  he 
studied  anatomy  and  architectural  sculpture  for 
rv  e  years.  In  1871  he  went  to  Rome,  entering 
the  Royal  Academy  of  St.  Luke’s,  where  during 
his  two  years  study  he  won  four  prizes — two  for 
bas-reliefs  a  third  for  the  study  of  the  Barberini 
.baun,  and  a  fourth  for  modeling  from  life.  He 
won  the  Papal  prize,  a  gold  medal.  In  1873  Kitson 
opened  a  studio  m  the  Holy  City.  His  first  com- 
nnssion  was  for  a  life  size  statue  of  “Rebecca  at 
the  Well,  and  soon  thereafter  he  received  com¬ 
missions  from  Sir  Thomas  Brooke  for  “Nydia  ”  and 
from  Lord  Truro  for  the  “Greek  Spinning  Girl  ” 
then  followed  “Abel  Waiting  for  the  Bfessing/’ 
Young  Ambitmn”  “Miriam”  “Hagar and IshmaeJ,” 

£?d  .  DJa<?rf  'li16  om  T?,0me  he  did  a  marble 
“f?_sized  David  for  Sir  Edward  Acroyd.  In  1879 

Kitson  made  a  tour  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada  He  produced  “Ole  Bull”  and  “Longfellow  ” 
after  which  he  returned  to  Rome.  A  little  later 
he  was  called  to  the  United  States  to  execute  the 
sculptural  decorations  of  the  W.  K  Vanderbilt 
y-denfie  in  New  York,  and  panels  of  “Music”  and 
.  be  iP rama  for  the  Marquand  home,  together 
with  thiee  Greek  busts  in  marble.  Then  followed 
sterling  example  of  character  portraiture  from 
life,  Samuel  J.  Tilden.”  In  1885  he  modeled  the 
north  frieze  of  the  Soldiers’  and  Sailor;;’  Monument 
at.  Hartford,  Connecticut,  which  has  been  termed 
^  Miniature  Gettysburg.”  In  1884  he  had  married 
Miss  Meredith  of  New  York,  a  fellow-sculptor,  who 
became  his  helper  and  inspiration  in  all  his  later 
work.  About  this  time  he  opened  a  studio  at  Bos¬ 
ton,  where  his  later  work  was  done.  Then  followed 
a  series  of  notable  creations:  General  Sheridan 
for  Arlington  Cemetery,  busts  of  Cardinal  Gibbons, 
Archbishop  Williams,  John  Boyle  O’Reilly,  and  a 
number  of  the  New  England  clergy.  While  in 
Rome  Kitson  had  been  attracted  by  the  ceremonies 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  and  during  a  visit  to  Wash¬ 
ington,  in  connection  with  the  work  of  the  Sheridan 
monument,  he  applied  to  Father  Clark,  S.J.,  for 
instruction,  and  was  received  into  the  Church  at 
Boston,  8  December,  1889.  His  busy  life  was  pro¬ 
ductive  of  such  splendid  spiritual  compositions  as 
Christ,  the  Light  of  the  World,”  “The  Sacred 
Heart,”  “Our  Lady  of  Lourdes,”  and  a  marble  bust 
of  Christ,  executed  for  the  late  Mrs.  Thomas  F. 
Ryan,  of  New  York.  This  latter  was  carved  frgm 
a  block  of  the  finest  Carrara  marble.  His  large 
figure  of  “Christ,  the  Light  of  the  World”  is  placed 
before  the  entrance  of  St.  Joseph’s  Seminarv,  Yon¬ 
kers,  on  an  eminence  overlooking  a  wonderful  vista 
of  country. 

Kiu-kiang,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
VIII-634a),  in  China,  formerly  the  Vicariate  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  Northern  Kiang-si,  which  comprised  6  civil 
prefectures:  Kin-Kiang-fu,  residence  of  the  vicar 


KNIGHTS  OF  COLUMBUS 


440 


KNOPFLER 


apostolic,  Nan-chang-fu,  Nan-kang-fu,  Jui-chow-fu, 
Lin-kiang-fu,  and  Yuan-chow-fu,  with  approxi¬ 
mately  9,000,000  inhabitants  and  an  area  of  24,040 
square  miles.  In  spite  of  persecutions  ano  Efris- 
fortunes  the  number  of  Catholics  in  the  vicariate 
had  steadily  increased  since  1885,  the  date  of  its 
foundation,  as  follows:  3211  Catholics  and  744 
catechumens  in  1885;  5382  and  4098  in  1900;  15,063 
and  7972  in  1910;  31,927  and  13,066  in  1921.  By 
the  Apostolic  Letter,  “Divmse  Sponsiones,  of  25 
August,  1920,  Pope  Benedict  XV  established  m 
Kiang-si  the  new  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Kan-chow, 
formed  from  two-thirds  of  the  former  Vicariate  oi 
Southern  Kiang-si,  and  confided  it  to  the  Lazansts 
of  the  Eastern  Province  of  the  United  States,  lo 
the  former  Vicariate  of  Southern  Kiang-si,  thence¬ 
forth  known  as  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Ki-ngan, 
the  Holy  Father  attached  the  territory  of  the 
two  civil  prefectures  of  Lin-kiang-fu  and  Yuan- 
chow-fu,  detached  from  Northern  Kiang-si,  which 
was  thenceforth  called  Kiu-kiang.  Thus  dimin¬ 
ished,  the  new  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Kiu-kiang 
comprises  (1921)  17,553  square  miles  and  a  popula¬ 
tion  of  approximately  6,000,000.  Having  ceded  to 
the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Ki-ngan  3331  Catholics 
and  1400  catechumens,  it  had  remaining  (1921) 
28,596  Catholics  and  11,666  catechumens.  There 
are  14  European  priests  and  14  Chinese  priests, 
25  Daughters  of  Charity,  and  a  diocesan  congre¬ 
gation  of  Chinese  Sisters,  founded  in  1907  by  Mgr. 
Ferrant,  under  the  name  of  Virgins  of  Our  Lady 
of  Good  Counsel,  and  comprising  25  members  with 
4  houses.  A  large  hospital  has  been  erected  at 
Nan-chang,  the  care  of  the  sick  being  inaugurated 
there  in  February,  1921,  by  four  Daughters  ot 
Charity  and  a  French  doctor.  A  college,  confided 
to  the  Marist  Brothers,  is  also  to  be  built  at 
Nan-chang,  and  a  central  seminary  of  philosophy 
and  theology  for  the  four  vicariates  of  Kiang-si 
will  be  erected  at  Kiu-kiang.  _  The  present  vicar 
apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Louis-Elisee  Fatiguet,  C.  M., 
b.  1855,  ordained  1881,  consecrated  titular  Bishop 
of  Aspendus  11  June,  1911,  appointed  Vicar  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  Northern  Kiang-si  in  1911  and  of  Kiu- 
kiang  in  1920.  He  succeeded  Mgr.  Ferrant,  who 
died  5  November,  1910.  The  Catholic  population 
of  the  vicariate  is  all  Chinese  except  14  Euro¬ 
peans  in  the  port  of  Kiu-kiang.  Two  missionaries 
were  mobilized  in  France  during  the  World  War 
and  one  of  them  decorated  with  the  croix  de 

guerre.  x _  .  . 

The  vicariate  comprises  (1921)  22  parishes;  17 
churches;  142  chapels;  31  missions;  481  Christian 
communities;  21  Daughters  of  Charity  with  3  con¬ 
vents;  25  Chinese  Virgins  of  Our  Lady  of  Good 
Counsel  with  4  convents;  9  secular  priests;  19 
regular  priests;  1  seminary  with  7  philosophy  and 
theology  students  and  27  in  preparatory  courses, 
1  college  for  boys  with  2  teachers  and  14  pupils; 

1  college  for  girls  with  2  teachers  and  21  pupils; 

1  normal  school  with  2  professors  and  18  pupils , 

33  elementary  schools,  with  50  teachers  and  543 
pupils;  retreats  given  to  629  people  during  the 
year;  3  orphanages  for  girls  with  297  orphans;  4 
hospitals  caring  for  1849;  2  homes  for  old  people 
with  68  inmates;  107  catechumenates  with  1850 
catechumens;  2  creches  with  40  children;  3  indus¬ 
trial  schools  with  270  girls;  6  associations  and 
confraternities  among  the  laity. 

Knights  of  Columbus  in  Peace  and  War  (cf.  C. 
E.,  VIII-670d) .— When  the  United  States  of  Amer¬ 
ica  declared  war  against  Germany  in  April,  1917, 
the  Knights  of  Columbus,  through  their  Supreme 
Board  of  Directors,  passed  the  following  resolution: 


“The  Supreme  Board  of  Directors  of  the  Knights 
of  Columbus,  at  a  regular  meeting,  held  the  14th 
day  of  April,  1917,  in  the  City  of  Washington, 
realizing  that  the  crisis  confronting  our  country 
calls  for  the  active  co-operation  and  patriotic  zeal 
of  every  true  citizen,  hereby  reaffirms  the  devotion 
of  400,000  members  of  the  Order  in  this  country 
to  our  Republic  and  its  laws,  and  pledges  their 
continued  and  unconditional  support  to  the  Presi¬ 
dent  and  the  Congress  of  the  Nation,  in  their 
determination  to  protect  its  honor  and  its  ideals 
of  humanity  and  right.”  In  keeping  with  the  spirit 
of  this  resolution  the  Knights  of  Columbus  offered 
the  services  of  the  Order  as  a  unit  to  the  Govern¬ 
ment  in  war  work.  An  appeal  was  issued  to  the 
public  for  SI, 000, 000  for  this  purpose,  and  an  assess¬ 
ment  of  $2.00  per  capita  levied  against  its  mem¬ 
bership.  In  time  the  war  fund  in  response  to  this 
appeal  far  exceeded  the  expectations  of  the  Knights, 
amounting  in  the  end  to  something  over  $14,000,000. 
Later  on  the  Knights  of  Columbus  participated 
in  the  fund  from  the  general  “drive”  made  jointly 
by  the  seven  officially  recognized  welfare  organiza¬ 
tions  doing  war  work,  its  share,  out  of  $170,000,000, 
being  $30,000,000,  which  in  turn  was  shared  with  the 
National  Catholic  War  Council.  The  first  task 
was  the  establishment  of  a  Knights  of  Columbus 
service  in  the  United  States  and  its  insular  posses¬ 
sions.  Secretaries  and  chaplains  were  placed  in  all 
the  camps  and  cantonments;  buildings  were  erected 
and  community  centers  were  established.  In  all 
260  buildings  were  erected,  1134  secretaries  were 
placed,  and  309  camps  were  operated.  Headquar¬ 
ters  were  established  in  Paris  for  the  Order’s  over¬ 
seas  activities,  with  branches  in  London  covering 
the  British  Isles,  and  after  the  Armistice  in  Cob¬ 
lenz,  for  the  Army  of  Occupation.  The  number 
of  secretaries  sent  overseas  was  1075;  36  chaplains 
and  126  clubs  were  established  in  camps  along  the 
front,  and  among  the  various  military  divisions. 
The  work  of  the  Knights  at  home  and  overseas 
won  the  highest  encomiums  from  both  soldiers, 
commanding  officers,  and  Governments  themselves. 
Its  motto  “Everybody  Welcome,  Everything  Free,” 
was  exemplified  in  every  respect.  After  peace  was 
effected,  the  Knights  immediately  devoted  their 
energies  and  their  resources  to  reconstruction  work. 
Employment  bureaus  to  the  number  of  254  were 
opened,  and  in  the  first  twelve  months  300,000 
service  men  were  placed  in  employment,  498 
scholarships  in  colleges  were  given  to  service  men, 
150,000  service  men  and  1100  service  women  were 
enrolled  in  48  schools  then  established  for  that 
purpose.  By  August,  1920,  there  were  150  Knights 
of  Columbus  Schools  in  operation  with  an  at¬ 
tendance  of  500,000  pupils.  The  Knights  have 
devoted  the  $7,000,000  of  their  war  fund  to  this 
educational  work  which,  like  the  employment  work, 
is  absolutely  free  to  all  former  service  men. 

Knin,  Diocese  of  (Tinnensis  or  Tinianensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIV-736b),  in  Dalmatia,  suffragan  of 
Kalocsa.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph 
Lanyi,  born  in  Nemet-Prona,  .Slovakia,  in  1868, 
ordained  in  1891,  named  a  private  chamberlain  8 
October,  1900,  prothonotary  apostolic  1  April,  1903, 
became  abbe  of  Holy  Savior  of  Leber  and  canon 
of  Gross-Wardein,  and  was  appointed  bishop  7 
November,  1906.  The  “Annuario  Pontificio”  places 
this  see  among  the  titular  sees.  No  statistics  are 
now  published  for  it. 

Knopfler,  Alois,  Church  historian,  b.  at  Schom- 
burg,  Wiirtemberg,  on  29  August,  1847 ;  d.  in  July, 
1920.  He  studied  at  Tubingen  and  was  ordained  in 
1874,  and  devoted  himself  thereafter  to  the  cause 


KONIGGRATZ 


441 


KRIZEVACKE 


of  education.  He  was  editor  of  “Kirchengeschicht- 
lischen  Studien”  from  1891,  and  of  “Veroffent- 
lichungen  aus  dem  kirchenhistorischen  Seminar 
Miinchen”  from  1899;  and  translated  Rohrbacher’s 
“Histoire  de  TEglise”  into  German.  His  “Lehrbuch 
der  Kirchengeschichte”  lias  been  very  widely  used 
by  students.  Among  his  other  writings  are  “Die 
Kelchbewegung  in  Bayern  unter  Albrecht  V,”  1891 ; 
“Johann  Ad.  Mohler,  Gedenkblatter,”  1896;  “Das 
Vaterunser  im  Geiste  der  altesten  Kirchenvater  in 
Bild  und  Wort.” 

Koniggratz,  Diocese  of.  See  Hradec  Kralove. 

Kopp,  Georg,  Cardinal,  b.  at  Duderstadt,  in  the 
Diocese  of  Hildesheim,  on  25  July,  1837;  d.  at 
Breslau  on  4  March,  1915.  Like  Pius  XI,  Cardinal 
Kopp  had  the  distinction  of  being  the  son  of  a 
weaver.  After  studying  at  Duderstadt  and  later 
at  Hildesheim,  he  had  entered  the  employment  of 
a  telegraph  company  (1856-58),  when  he  heard  the 
call  to  the  ecclesiastical  state  and  he  became  a 
priest  in  1862.  In  1871  Father  Kopp  \Vas  made 
Vicar  General  of  Hildesheim.  The  Kulturkampf 
was  just  then  inaugurated,  and  Mgr.  Kopp  set  him¬ 
self  to  stop  its  ravages.  In  1878  Bismarck  found 
that  he  made  a  mistake  and  began  to  approach 
Leo  XIII  about  filling  a  number  of  vacant  dioceses 
and  Mgr.  Kopp  was  named  for  Fulda.  Mgr.  Kopp’s 
opposition  was  so  marked  that  Bismarck  frequently 
consulted  him.  In  1886  the  bishop  was  a  member 
of  the  Prussian  House  of  Lords  and  was  so  suc¬ 
cessful  in  getting  rid  of  the  remnants  of  the  Falk 
Laws  that  Bishop  Kopp  was  transferred  to  the 
Diocese  of  Breslau,  one  of  the  most  extensive  of 
Europe.  It  embraced  Silesia,  Brandenburg,  Pome¬ 
rania  and  vast  territories  in  Austria.  He  occupied 
that  see  for  twenty-seven  years;  repaired  the  dam¬ 
ages  wrought  by  the  Kulturkampf;  supplied  the 
vacant  parishes  with  priests;  created  industrial  cen¬ 
ters;  founded  the  Seminary  of  Wednare  and  called 
in  the  religious  orders.  He  figured  largely  in  all 
social  movements,  and  was  a  staunch  upholder  of 
the  papacy.  He  insisted  on  keeping  the  guilds 
strictly  Catholic  and  so  opposed  the  Cologne  move¬ 
ment  in  the  opposite  direction.  He  was  elevated 
to  the  Cardinalate  in  1904,  which  brought  him  into 
collision  with  the  Italian  Government  in  its  attempt 
to  secularize  St.  Agnes  extra  muros.  He  had  cele¬ 
brated  his  jubilee  in  1912  and  received  as  a  tribute 
of  admiring  affection  an  album  with  the  photo¬ 
graphs  of  650  churches,  charitable  institutions  and 
monasteries,  founded  by  him  in  the  Diocese  of 
Breslau  during  his  episcopate. 


v^ottayai?>  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 

i  ^nc^)a»  comprises  all  the  churches  and 

chapels  of  Suddbist  Syrians  on  the  Malabar  Coast. 
1  he  present  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Mar  Alexan- 
dei  Chulaparambil,  b.  1877,  ordained  1906,  named 
titular  Bishop  of  Busiris  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Kottayam  16  July,  1914,  and  consecrated  1  Novem¬ 
ber  1914,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Mathew  Makil,  who 
o Ja,nuary >  1914.  There  are  in  the  vicariate 
2J,530  Catholics;  30  secular  priests,  12  seminarians, 
62  churches  or  stations,  19  native  Sisters  of  the 
Third  Order  of  the  Visitation  and  16  postulants, 
5  convents,  14  parochial  schools,  4  English  schools 
for  boys,  1  English  school  for  girls,  17  grant-in- 
aid  lower  grade  vernacular  schools  for  boys,  1 
higher  grade  and  2  lower  grade  vernacular  schools 
for  girls,  1  orphanage,  and  catechumenates. 

Koudelka,  Joseph  M.,  b.  at  Chlistovo,  Bohemia, 
9?L  December  8,  1852;  d.  in  Superior  on  June  26, 
1921.  His  collegiate  education  was  received  at  the 
College  Klattan  in  his  native  country;  in  1868  he 
came  to  the  United  States,  and  soon  after  entered 
Saint  Francis  Seminary  at  Milwaukee.  He  was 
ordained  to  the  priesthood  on  October  8,  1875,  and 
he  served  as  pastor  of  several  churches  in  the 
Diocese  of  Cleveland  before  his  appointment  as 
titular  Bishop  of  Germanicopolis  and  auxiliary  of 
that  see  on  November  29,  1907.  He  was  conse¬ 
crated  by  Bishop  Horstmann  on  February  25,  1908, 
and  he  was  transferred  to  Milwaukee  as  auxiliary 
bishop  on  September  4,  1911.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Superior  on  August  6,  1913.  Bishop 
Koudelka  was  the  author  of  several  readers  for 
Bohemian  parochial  schools,  and  also  of  a  “Short 
History  of  the  Catholic  Church  for  Schools”  (in 
German)  (1905). 

Corrigan,  Chronology  of  the  Catholic  Hierarchy  in  The 
Catholic  Historical  Review,  III  29. 


KSsice  (Hungarian  Kassa,  German  Kaschatj), 
Diocese  of  (Cassoviensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  III-407c), 
suffragan  of  Eger.  Since  the  new  division  of  terri¬ 
tory  subsequent  on  the  World  War,  this  diocese  is 
divided  between  Czechoslovakia  and  Hungary,  with 
152  parishes  in  the  former,  and  47  in  the  latter. 
The  government  of  Czechoslovakia,  however,  wishes 
to  have  the  boundaries  changed  in  order  to  make 
the  limits  of  the  diocese  coincide  with  those  of  the 
republic.  The  present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Augustin 
Fischer-Colbrie,  was  born  in  Zseliz  1863,  ordained 
1886,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Domitiopolis  16 
October,  1904,  and  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Bubics  of 
Cassovia,  whom  he  succeeded  upon  his  retirement 
6  August,  1906. 

The  latest  census  of  this  diocese  was  taken  in 
1900,  and  counts  the  Latin  Catholics  at  307,186; 
Greek  Catholics,  160,527;  Oriental  Greeks,  15; 
Protestants,  898,727;  Jews,  55,475.  Statistics  of  1920 
credit  the  diocese  with  197  parishes,  to  which  2 
have  been  added  since,  84  vicariates,  310  secular 
and  62  regular  clergy. 


Krishnagar,  Diocese  of  (Kishnagrensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  VIII-702a),  in  India,  suffragan  of  Calcutta. 
The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Santino  Taveggia, 
born  1855,  consecrated  1906.  The  Catholics  of 
the  diocese  (August,  1921),  number  13,981,  besides 
1723  catechumens.  With  the  exception  of  about 
500  Eurasians  and  Europeans,  all  the  Catholics 
are  native  converts.  Working  in  the  diocese  are 
16  Foreign  Missionaries  of  Milan,  residing  in  9 
stations,  and  19  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Lovere  (Italy), 
with  4  houses.  There  are:  25  churches  and  101 
mud  huts  in  the  villages  which  are  used  as  places 
of  worship,  as  shelters  for  the  visiting  missionary, 
and  sometimes  as  schoolrooms;  3  orphanages  for 
native  boys  and  3  for  native  girls,  with  over  200 
children  entirely  supported  by  the  mission  and 
under  the  direction  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity;  60 
mission  schools  attended  by  1090  Christian  and 
pagan  children;  1  public  hospital  and  3  mission 
free  dispensaries,  2  homes  for  widows  and  catechu¬ 
mens,  and  1  home  for  incurables  under  the  Sisters 
of  Charity. 

Krizeva6ke,  Diocese  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  IV-490c), 
(Graeco-Slavonic  Rite),  in  Croatia.  The  events  of 
recent  years  have  made  great  changes  in  the  diocese. 
The  parishes  are  at  present  30  in  number  and  are  now 
known  as  either  Croatian  or  Ruthenian,  all  included 
in  what  is  to-day  called  The  Kingdom  of  Jugoslavia. 
Some  of  the  former  Ruthenian  parishes  have  been 
placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Apostolic  Ad¬ 
ministrator  in  Bosnia,  and  some  of  the  Bulgarian 
parishes  in  southern  Servia  under  the  Archbishop  of 
Scopia.  Nothing  definite  is  as  yet  determined  with 
regard  to  the  disposition  of  these.  The  question 
of  two  parishes  now  jn  Jugoslavia  and  formerly 
under  the  Bishop  of  Lugos  also  remains  to  be  finally 


KRK 


442 


KTJRTH 


passed  upon.  Between  the  years  1908-12  five  new 
parishes  were  erected  within  the  diocese. 

The  Catholic  population  is  now  (1921)  40,000, 
speaking  either  Croatian  or  Ruthenian.  There  are 
43  secular  priests,  44  churches,  30  of  which  have 
resident  priests,  2  chapels,  1  monastery  for  men,  2 
convents  for  women,  1  seminary,  and  1  college  for 
women  with  20  students.  A  Society  of  Saint  Joseph 
exists  for  the  clergy.  The  Sisters  of  the  Order  of 
Saint  Basil  the  Great  and  the  Servants  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary  have  recently  been  established 
within  the  diocese. 

Among  the  recently  deceased  are  the  following 
clergy  and  laity  of  note:  Andreas  Labos  (d.  3 
January,  1918), ‘parish  priest,  greatly  esteemed  by 
the  Ruthenian  people;  Andreas  Labos  the  younger 
(d.  1920),  parish  priest;  Nicolaus  Radic  (d.  25  Jan¬ 
uary,  1918),  parish  priest,  held  in  great  respect 
among  the  Croatians;  Elias  Hranilovic  (d.  25  July, 
1921),  parish  priest,  esteemed  throughout  the  dio¬ 
cese;  Andreas  Segedi  (d.  12  February,  1920), assessor 
of  the  diocesan  consistory,  distinguished  for  his 
services  to  sacred  music  in  the  diocesan  seminary; 
Tadeus  Smiaklas  (d.  8  June,  1914),  an  eminent 
scholar,  professor  at  the  University  of  Zagreb, 
prominent  as  a  Catholic  and  Croatian  patriot,  the 
author  of  historical  and  other  works. 

Mgr.  Denis  Nyardi,  born  in  Krizevacke  m  1874, 
was  elected  titular  bishop  of  Abila  and  apostolic 
administrator  of  Krizevacke  5  December,  1914,  and 
transferred  as  bishop  of  the  see  22  April,  1922, 
succeeding  Mgr.  Drohobetzki,  resigned. 

Krk  (Veglia),  Diocese  of  (Veglensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV-321a),  in  Istria,  Jugoslavia,  suffragan  of  Zagreb; 
Parallel  to  the  Dinaric  Alps  are  the  rocky  islands 
of  Krk,  Rab,  and  Pag  (with  the  Plavmk  and 
Irstenik  reefs).  Separated  from  the  mainland  by  a 
deep  though  narrow  strait,  Krk,  Rab,  and  two 
parishes  in  Pag  form  the  Diocese  of  Krk.  The 
largest  island  is  Krk  (Greek  Kurykta),  which 
probably  had  a  bishop  in  the  fourth  century,  though 
the  first  bishop  whose  name  is  known  is  Vitalis, 
who  occupied  the  see  about  1000.  The  see  of  Rab 
is  as  ancient  as  that  of  Krk,  its  first  bishop  com¬ 
memorated  by  history  being  Ticyanus,  who  was 
present  at  the  Synod  of  Solin  (Salona)  in  530.  The 
last  Bishop  of  Rab,  Galzigna,  died  in  1822  and 
his  diocese  was  merged  in  that  of  Krk.  The  Dio¬ 
cese  of  Krk  originally  a  part  of  the  Croatian  main¬ 
land  and  the  islands  of  Krk,  Cres  (Cherso),  Losinj 
(Lossin),  etc.  The  Diocese  of  Osor,  for  the  islands 
of  Cres  and  Losinj,  was  probably  founded  at 
the  Synod  of  Solia  (530).  The  first  bishop  com¬ 
memorated  is  Laurentius  who  was  present  at  the 
Council  of  Nicea  (787).  The  last  Bishop  of  Osor, 
Rakmaric,  died  in  1815  and  the  diocese  was  again 
united  to  the  Diocese  of  Krk.  By  the  Treaty 
of  Rapallo  (1920)  the  islands  of  Cres,  Losinj,  and 
the  minors  came  under  Italy’s  dominion  and  are 
now  temporarily  administered  by  the  Apostolic 
Administrator  of  Rijeka  (Fiume).  Following 
political  events,  the  Diocese  of  Krk  has  been  suc¬ 
cessively  suffragan  of  Solin-Split  (Spoleto),  Zadar 
(Zara),  Grado  (1155),  Venice  (1450),  again  Zadar 
(1820),  then  Gorcia  (Gorizia)  in  1831,  and  finally 
(since  Rapallo)  Zagreb.  The  diocese,  as  now  re¬ 
duced,  contains  28,000  inhabitants,  all  Catholics. 
There  are:  26  parishes,  3  monasteries  of  nuns,  5 
convents  of  religious  orders  of  men,  1  convent  of 
Sisters,  1  training  school  with  3  teachers  and  65 
students,  28  elementary  schools  with  57  teachers 
and  3200  pupils,  and  1  asylum.  An  association  of 
the  clergy  is  called  “Svecenicka  Zajednica,”  and 
there  are  121  lay  confraternities  and  associations 


of  adults  and  boys  and  girls.  At  present  the  see 
is  vacant.  The  last  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Anthony 
Mahnic,  born  1850,  died  at  Zagreb,  14  December, 
1920,  was  one  of  the  most  representative  figures 
in  Jugoslavia.  As  professor  in  the  theological  semi¬ 
nary  at  Goriza,  he  was  the  founder  of  the  Catholic 
movement  among  the  Slovenes.  Coming  to  the  see 
of  Krk  he  did  the  same  work  among  the  Croats. 
The  whole  Catholic  Organization  in  Jugoslavia  rec¬ 
ognizes  him  as  its  founder.  He  was  the  deepest 
philosopher  of  the  time  in  his  country,  founded 
and  in  part  directed  various  ecclesiastical  reviews, 
and  was  one  of  the  first  to  struggle  for  his  people’s 
liberty  and  the  union  of  the  South-Slavs.  During 
the  Italian  occupation  of  his  diocese  (1918-21)  he 
strenuously  defended  religious  and  national  liberty 
and  was  therefore  interned  in  Frascati.  He  was 
set  at  liberty  in  March,  1920,  but  died  some  months 
later,  in  his  seventy-first  year. 

Kuhn,  Bela.  See  Hungary. 

Kumbakonam,  Diocese  of  (Kumbakonensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  VIII-710c),  in  India,  is  entirely  on  British 
territory,  although  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
Pondicherry,  the  capital  of  French  India.  Kum¬ 
bakonam  is  a  town  of  68,000  inhabitants,  while 
the  total  population  of  the  whole  diocese  was 
counted  at  3,350,000  in  1919,  and  in  1921  the  Cath¬ 
olic  population  numbered  103,118  Tamilians. 

The  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  H.  M.  Bottero,  con¬ 
secrated  30  November,  1899,  died  21  May,  1913,  and 
was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev. 
M.  A.  Chapuis,  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Cas- 
toria  and  made  coadjutor  to  Bishop  Bottero  25 
July,  1911. 

During  the  World  War  13  of  the  clergy  of  this, 
diocese  did  service  in  France  and  Belgium,  and 
2  in  Macedonia,  and  of  these  2  were  killed  in 
action,  2  wounded,  1  awarded  the  medaille  militarie, 
and  3  the  croix  de  guerre. 

The  language  generally  used  in  this  territory  is 
Tamil,  a  Dravidian  language  with  many  words 
borrowed  from  Sanscrit;  the  educated  people,  how¬ 
ever,  also  speak  English.  By  present  statistics  there 
are  40  parishes,  25  churches,  470  chapels,  1115  mis¬ 
sion  stations,  47  secular  priests,  41  European  and 
89  native  Sisters,  and  39  seminarians.  Besides  the 
college,  which  is  under  the  management  of  an 
Indian  gentleman,  assisted  by  a  staff  of  native 
teachers,  there  are  3  high  school  and  65  elementary 
schools  with  183  teachers  and  3664  pupils,  and  1 
industrial  school  with  5  teachers  and  51  pupils.  A 
school  for  girls,  known  as  the  “big  school,”  is  under 
the  management  of  the  mission  with  a  staff  of  11 
native  Sisters.  About  50  of  the  schools  are  aided 
by  the  Government.  The  charitable  institutions 
comprise  1  home  for  the  aged  with  77  inmates,  1 
home  for  lepers  with  202  inmates,  1  refuge  for 
women  with  36  inmates,  and  1  nursery  with  96 
children.  The  Apostolic  Union  and  League  of 
Priestly  Holiness  are  established  among  the  clergy, 
and  5  temperance  societies  among  the  laity. 

Kurth,  Godefroid,  historian,  b.  at  Arlon,  Belgium, 
11  May,  1847;  d.  at  Assche,  on  4  January,  1916.  He 
went  to  Louvain  for  his  higher  studies  and  there 
laid  the  foundation  of  that  painstaking  and  accurate 
scholarship  and  fascinating  literary  expression  which 
characterize  him  as  a  writer.  He  is  credited  with 
having  introduced  into  Belgium  a  new  school  of 
historical  and  apologetic  exposition.  His  favorite 
theme  was  the  Middle  Ages,  especially  the  role 
his  country  played  during  that  period.  He  co¬ 
operated  with  Henri  Joly  in  his  “Psychologie  des 
Saints.”  His  “Beginnings  of  Christianity”  went 
through  six  editions.  In  fifteen  years  10,000  copies 


KWANG-CHAU-WAN 


443 


KWEI-CHCW 


of  his  “Church  at  the  Turning  Points  of  History” 
were  sold.  He  was  endowed  with  the  gift  of  elo¬ 
quence  and  was  in  constant  demand  as  a  lecturer. 
He  was  the  founder  and  editor  of  the  “Archives 
beiges.”  Among  his  other  important  writings  are 
“La  Frontiere  linguistique  en  Belgique,,”  “Histoire 
poetique  des  Merovingiens,”  “Clois,”  “Notger  de 
Liege  et  la  civilisation  an  Xe  siecle,”  and  “La  Cite 
de  Liege  au  moyen  age.” 

Kwang-chau-wan.  See  Indo-China. 

^  Kwango,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
VII 1-7 lid),  in  Belgian  Congo,  Africa.  The  center 
of  the  mission  is  at  Bergeyck  St.  Ignace  (Ki-Santu), 
where  there  is  a  large  Gothic  church,  the  dwelling 
of  the  missionaries,  the  convent  of  the  Sisters  of 
Notre  Dame  de  Namur,  a  normal  school  for 
catechists,  workshops,  and  a  printing  press.  There 
are  in  the  prefecture:  4  stations  and  300  Jermes- 
chapelles,  13  Jesuit  missionaries  and  8  lay 
Brothers,  1/  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  of  Namur, 
3  churches,  and  16  chapels.  The  Catholics  number 
2778.  The  present  prefect  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Stanislas  de  Vos,  S.J.,  elected  25  September,  1911. 

Kwang-si,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
VIII-712a),  in  China,  erected  into  a  vicariate  apos¬ 
tolic  6  April,  1914,  and  confided  to  the  Foreign 
Missions  of  Paris.  The  present  vicar  apostolic  is 
Rt.  Rev.  Maurice-Francois  Ducoeur,  M.E.,  b.  1878, 
ordained  1901,  named  titular  Bishop  of  Barbalissus 
and  Prefect  Apostolic  of  Kwang-si  in  1910,  conse¬ 
crated  1911,  named  vicar  apostolic  in  1914.  The 
establishment  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Paul  of  Chartres 
has  been  closed  for  lack  of  personnel,  the  last 
Sisters  having  left  Lung-chow,  5  February,  1918,  for 


the  hospital  of  Hanoi.  The  population  of  the 
diocese  is  9,000,000,  of  whom  4716  are  Catholics  and 
3216  catechumens.  There  are  26  missionary  priests, 
4  native  priests,  23  churches,  27  chapels,  47  oratories, 
156  stations,  a  theological  and  preparatory  seminary 
with  16  students,  31  schools  for  boys,  10  schools 
for  girls,  2  colleges,  11  orphanages,  5  hospitals,  17 
Little  Brothers  of  Mary,  19  Chinese  nuns. 

Kwang-timg.  See  Canton. 

Kwei-chou,  >  icariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
yiH— 713d) ,  in  China.  The  present  vicar  apostolic 
is  Rt.  Rev.  Francois-Lazare  Seguin,  M.  E.,  b.  1868, 
ordained  1891,  vicar  coadjutor  and  titular  Bishop  of 
Pinara  1907,  vicar  apostolic  in  1913,  succeeding  Rt. 
Rev.  Mgr.  Guichard,  deceased.  There  were  thirty 
odd  missionaries  mobilized  in  1914,  all  of  whom 
returned  to  the  mission  in  the  first  months  of  the 
war,  except  four,  of  whom  three  returned  in  1919 
and  the  fourth  died  of  exhaustion  in  the  service 
of  the  wounded.  During  recent  years  there  has 
been  a  recrudescence  of  brigandage  in  Kwei-chou, 
a  cholera  epidemic,  and  a  terrible  famine  which 
still  continues.  The  population  of  the  vicariate  is 
9,000,000,  of  whom  34,034  are  Catholics  and  about 
35,000  catechumens.  There  are  50  parishes  or  dis¬ 
tricts  divided^  into  250  stations ;  123  churches  and 
chapels,  40  missionary  priests  and  29  native  priests, 
2  preparatory  schools  with  50  pupils,  1  preparatory 
seminary  with  19  students,  1  theological  seminary 
with  23  students,  44  elementary  schools  for  boys 
with  1062  pupils,  41  elementary  schools  for  girls 
with  609  pupils,  3  orphanages,  a  hospital  which  has 
neither  medicines,  nurses,  or  remedies,  but  is  merely 
a  refuge  for  the  sick  poor,  84  of  whom  have  re¬ 
ceived  baptism  in  articulo  mortis. 


Labor  and  Labor  Legislation  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII- 

719b) . — The  most  important  developments  in  Amer¬ 
ican  labor  legislation  during  the  last  decade  relate 
to  workmen’s  compensation,  child  labor,  and  the 
adjustment  of  industrial  disputes.  In  the  great 
majority  of  our  States  the  old  employer’s  liability 
statutes  and  practices  have  been  supplanted  by 
laws  which  enable  an  injured  workman  or  his  heir3 
to  obtain  compensation  without  a  lawsuit  and 
through  administrative  commissions.  The  word 
“compensation,”  instead  of  “liability,”  connotes  a 
complete  change  in  both  the  theory  and  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  dealing  with  occupational  injuries.  Under 
the  old  system  the  employer  was  “liable”  for  such 
injuries,  but  only  when  he  was  at  fault.  In  the 
present  system  the  industry  is  made  accountable, 
whether  or  not  any  blame  attaches  to  the  employer. 
Hence  the  employee  is  not  required  to  show  that 
he  did  not  mean  to  assume  the  risk  of  injury,  nor 
that  his  “fellow  servants”  are  free  from  blame,  nor 
(as  a  rule)  that  his  injury  was  not  due  to  his  own 
negligence.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  establish 
the  fact  of  injury.  The  new  conception  is  that  the 
majority  of  accidents  are  not  anybody’s  “fault,” 
but  are,  in  the  existing  circumstances,  unavoidable. 
Hence  the  injured  man  receives  “compensation” 
instead  of  “damages,”  the  extent  of  the  injury 
determining  the  amount  of  compensation.  In  some 
of  the  States  the  rates  of  compensation  are  still 
too  low,  but  even  in  these .  States  the  injured 
workers  secure  a  far  greater  indemnity  than  was 
possible  under  the  old  system. 

The  child  labor  laws  have  been  improved  in 
many  States.  At  present  not  more  than  half  a 
dozen  States  are  grievously  backward  in  this  re¬ 
spect.  To  meet  their  obstinacy  two  statutes  were 
enacted  by  Congress.  The  first  forbade  the  ship¬ 
ment  in  interstate  commerce  of  the  products  of 
establishments  employing  children  under  fourteen 
years  of  age.  This  law  was  declared  unconstitu¬ 
tional  by  five  of  the  nine  justices  of  the  United 
States  Supreme  Court.  The  second  national  statute 
imposes  a  tax  of  ten  per  cent  on  the  net  profits  of 
such  industrial  establishments.  Its  constitutionality 
has  not  yet  been  determined. 

The  National  War  Labor  Board  was  composed  of 
six  persons  representing  the  employers  of  the  coun¬ 
try,  an  equal  number  representing  employees,  with 
an  impartial  person  as  chairman  of  each  group. 
The  board  possessed  effective  powers  of  investiga¬ 
tion,  but  its  decisions  were  not  compulsory.  Never¬ 
theless,  it  was  able  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of 
any  important  strike  or  lockout.  Unfortunately  it 
was  abolished  by  Congress  a  few  months  after  the 
armistice. 

The  Railroad  Labor  Board  is  a  legal  body,  con¬ 
sisting  of  three  men  representing  the  companies, 
three  representing  the  employees,  and  three  repre¬ 
senting  the  general  public.  While  it  has  adjusted 
many  minor  disputes  and  prevented  one  great 
strike,  it  lacks  an  industrial  code,  or  set  of  prin¬ 
ciples,  such  as  that  provided  for  the  guidance  of 
the  National  War  Labor  Board. 

The  Kansas  Industrial  Court  is  a  tribunal  of 
three  judges  having  power  to  adjust  all  disputes 
in  four  industries,  namely,  food,  fuel,  clothing,  and 


transportation.  Its  decisions  are  legally  binding 
upon  both  parties.  Nevertheless,  it  has  not  pre¬ 
vented  all  strikes,  nor  proved  satisfactory  even  to 
all  employers.  Most  probably  it  will  not  be  copied 
by  many  other  States,  nor  long  survive  in  its  pres¬ 
ent  form  in  Kansas. 

Aside  from  workmen’s  compensation  laws,  no 
form  of  social  insurance  has  yet  been  enacted  in 
the  United  States.  All  competent  students  of 
industrial  conditions  realize  that  the  wage  earning 
classes  will  not  have  sufficient  security  until  they 
are  protected  by  insurance  against  sickness,  acci¬ 
dents,  invalidity,  old  age,  and  unemployment.  All 
these  contingencies  and  liabilities  should  be  met  by 
industry,  since  industry  is  at  once  the  beneficiary 
of  the  wage  earner’s  life  work,  and  the  only  source 
of  provision  for  his  life  needs. 

The  general  condition  of  the  laboring  classes 
cannot  be  regarded  with  any  degree  of  complacency. 
The  best  statistical  estimates  show  that,  measured 
by  purchasing  power,  wages  in  the  United  States 
have  rather  steadily  declined  since  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century  (see  articles  in  the  “American 
Economic  Review,”  December,  1914,  June,  1917,  and 
September,  1921).  While  the  right  of  labor  to  at 
least  a  living  wage  is  more  frequently  recognized 
than  was  the  case  twenty-five,  or  even  ten  years 
ago,  it  has  not  been  formally  adopted,  either  in 
theory  or  in  practice,  by  the  majority  of  industrial 
concerns.  Labor  organizations  have  steadily  in¬ 
creased  in  numbers  and  power,  but  they  have  been 
unable  to  secure  recognition  from  some  of  our 
greatest  industrial  corporations.  Nor  have  they 
yet  begun  to  show  anything  like  an  adequate  appre¬ 
ciation  of  their  .  industrial  responsibilities.  Class 
antagonism  has  increased  greatly  in  the  ranks  of 
both  employees  and  employers.  From  present  con¬ 
ditions  and  tendencies  it  seems  clear  that  industrial 
peace,  stability,  and  justice  will  not  be  approxi¬ 
mated  until  such  changes  are  made  in  labor’s  status 
as  will  make  the  worker  more  interested  in  his 
work,  through  participation  in  management,  profits, 
and  ownership.  John  A.  Ryan. 

Lacedonia,  Diocese  of  (Laquedoniensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  VIII-732c),  in  the  province  of  Avellino,  South¬ 
ern  Italy,  suffragan  of  Conza.  Rt.  Rev.  Gaetano 
Pizzi  appointed  to  this  see  21  July,  1907,  was  trans¬ 
ferred  to  San-Severo,  5  November,  1912.  The  see 
remained  vacant  until  22  September,  1915,  when 
Rt.  Rev.  Cosma  Agostino,  Bishop  of  Ariano,  was 
appointed  administrator  apostolic  and  governed  the 
diocese  until  22  May,  1916.  A  new  bishop  was  then 
appointed  in  the  person  of  Rt.  Rev.  Francesco 
Maffei,  bora  in  Bisaccia,  1855,  and  serving  as  canon 
penitentiary  at  the  time  of  his  appointment.  The 
statistics  of  1920  credit  the  diocese  with  27,300 
Catholics,  11  parishes,  95  secular  and  2  regular 
clergy,  10  seminarians,  2  Brothers,  4  Sisters,  and 
51  churches  or  chapels. 

Lacombe,  Albert,  Apostle  of  the  Cree  and  Black- 
feet  Indians,  b.  at  Saint-Sulpice,  Quebec,  on  28 
February,  1827;  d.  at  Midnapore,  Alberta,  on  12 
December,  1916.  He  was  ordained  at  St.  Hyacinthe 
on  13  June,  1850,  and  two  years  later  he  joined 


LA  CROSSE 


445 


LAFAYETTE 


Mgr.  Tache  in  the  mission  of  the  Northwest.  He 
evangelized  the  Pembina  metis  and  the  Crees  in 
the  mission  of  Lake  St.  Anne,  and  in  1855  he  joined 
the  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate.  In  I860  he  was 
among  the  Blackfeet,  and  three  years  later  founded 
a  mission,  which  he  named  Albert  after  his  patron 
saint  and  which  has  since  given  its  name  to  the 
province  of  Alberta.  About  this  time  he  went 
among  the  nomadic  Crees  and  established  the  mis¬ 
sion  of  St.  Paul  on  the  Saskatchewan  in  1866; 
later  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  wandering  Black- 
feet;  among  both  tribes  his  efforts  met  with  great 
success.  In  1876  he  became  the  agent  for  Catholic 
and  French  immigration  into  Manitoba;  and  a 
few  years  later  he  devoted  himself  to  the  spiritual 
interests  of  the  workers  engaged  in  constructing 
the  Canadian  Pacific  railroad.  In  1882  he  was  again 
laboring  for  the  Indians  around  Calgary,  McLeod, 
and  Pincher  Creek.  He  rendered  great  service  to 
the  Government  by  securing  the  neutrality  of  the 
powerful  Blackfeet  tribe  during  the  Rebellion  of 
1885.  He  was  sent  to  Europe  many  times  in  the 
interests  of  his  congregation,  and  visited  Austria 
in  1900  and  1904  in  behalf  of  the  Ruthenian  Cath¬ 
olics.  Father  Lacombe  was  a  master  of  several 
Indian  languages,  and  among  his  works  are  a  Cree 
grammar  and  lexicon,  a  New  Testament  and  a 
prayer-book  in  Cree,  and  a  catechism  and  prayer- 
book  in  Santeux. 


La  Crosse,  Diocese  of  (Crossensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VHI-735b),  in  State  of  Wisconsin,  suffragan  of 
Milwaukee,  lost  its  third  bishop  on  6  June,  1921, 
through  the  death  of  Rt.  Rev.  James  Schweback, 
D.D.,  who  had  filled  the  see  since  1892.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Alexander  J.  McGarick, 
D.  D.,  who  was  appointed  to  the  see  21  November, 
1921.  He  was  born  in  Chicago  in  1863  and  educated 
m  the  district  school  of  Fox  Lake,  and  at  St. 
Viateur’s  College,  Kankakee,  Ill.  He  was  conse¬ 
crated  titular  Bishop  of  Marcopolis  and  auxiliary 
to  the  Bishop  of  Chicago  on  1  May,  1899.  He  is 
the  author  of  ‘‘Some  Incentives  to  Right  Living." 

By  present  statistics  the  Catholic  population  of 
this  diocese  is  approximately  116,608,  and  the  fol¬ 
lowing  religious  communities  work  among  the  faith¬ 
ful,  men:  Jesuits,  Dominicans,  Fathers  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  and  Missionary  Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Heart ; 
women:  Franciscan  Sisters  of  Perpetual  Adoration, 
Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  of  the 
Sorrowful  Mother,  Hospital  Sisters  of  St.  Francis, 
School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of  St.  Dom¬ 
inic,  Franciscan  Sisters  of  Charity,  School  Sisters 
of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis  of  Assisi,  Sisters  of  St.  Benedict,  Polish 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  and  Sisters  of  the  Society 
of  ^  the  Divine  ^Saviour.  There  are  156  parishes, 
235  churches,  79  missions,  1  monastery  for  men 
and  1  for  women,  189  secular  priests,  53  regu¬ 
lar,  3  convents  for  women  with  1450  Sisters,  1 
college  for  men  with  24  teachers  and  an  attendance 
of  400,  2  colleges  and  academies  for  women  with 
an  attendance  of  380,  4  high  schools  with  an  attend¬ 
ance  of  320  boys  and  125  girls,  and  90  elementary 
schools.  The  charitable  institutions  include  St. 
Michael’s  Orphanage  and  7  hospitals,  4  of  which 
have  training  schools  for  nurses.  Practically  all 
the  public  institutions  admit  the  ministry  of  Cath¬ 
olic  priests.  St.  Joseph’s  Priests’  Fund  Association 
and  the  Eucharistic  League  for  Priests  are  organized 
in  the  diocese  and  various  parish  societies  are  estab¬ 
lished  among  the  laity. 

Lafayette,  Diocese  of  (Lafayettensis),  was 
erected  by  Pope  Benedict  XV  on  11  January,  1918. 
lhe  territory  assigned  to  it  was  taken  from  the 


Archdiocese  of  New  Orleans,  and  comprises  all  the 
civil  parishes  (counties)  of  the  State  of  Louisiana, 
west  of  the  Atchafalaya  River,  i.  e.,  St.  Mary, 
Iberia,  St.  Martin,  St.  Landry,  Evangeline,  Acadia, 
Lafayette,  Vermilion,  Cameron,  Jefferson  Davis, 
Calcasieu,  Allen,  and  Beauregard,  these  parishes 
forming  the  southwestern  part  of  the  State.  Rt. 
Rev.  Jules  B.  Jeanmard  was  appointed  its  first 
bishop  and  consecrated  in  New  Orleans  8  Decem¬ 
ber,  1918.  He  was  born  on  15  August,  1879,  in  the 
territory  of  his  future  diocese,  and  therefore  has 
the  distinction  of  being  the  first  Louisianian  to  be 
elevated  to  the  episcopal  dignity. 

Possibly  nowhere  in  the  continental  United  States 
can  there  be  found  a  population  so  homogeneous 
m  racial  character  and  religion  as  one  finds  in  this 
part  of  Louisiana.  The  vast  majority  of  the  170,000 
Catholics  of  the  territory  are  descendants  of  the 
Acadian  refugees,  who  were  driven  out  of  Nova 
Scotia  and  who, 'after  many  vicissitudes  and  migra¬ 
tions,  found  new  homes  in  southwest  Louisiana, 
where  they  gradually  congregated  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century  (1764-1788).  There  were 
then  a  few  French  settlements  in  this  territory 
and  while  the  Acadians  built  their  habitations 
around  the  existing  points  of  civilization,  they  did 
not  hesitate  to  found  villages  of  their  own,  and 
gradually  spread  along  the  water  courses  (bayous) 
and  throughout  the  vast  prairies.  Hence  very  early 
in  this  part  of  the  United  States  we  find  distinc¬ 
tively  Catholic  settlements,  which  at  present  (1921) 
can  look  back  on  a  hundred  years  and  more  of 
organized  Catholic  parish  activity;  the  century  old 
church  records  of  St.  Martinville,  Opelousas  (1777), 
Grand  Coteau  (1819),  and  Lafayette  (1821)  have 
few  equals  in  the  United  States,  in  historical  value 
and  interest.  Acadian  families  are  usually  very 
large,  and  so  we  need  not  wonder  that  the  descend¬ 
ants  of  the  original  few  thousand  settlers  form 
to-day  by  far  the  major  portion  of  the  inhabitants 
of  thirteen  civil  parishes  (counties). 

The  language  of  the  people  is  mostly  French, 
with  a  fair  knowledge  of  English  in  the  larger 
places,  and  while  the  western  parishes  received 
in  the  eighties  and  nineties  a  considerable  influx 
of  settlers  from  the  Middle  West,  it  is  only  in  the 
new  towns  that.  English  has  superseded  the  lan¬ 
guage  of  the  original  inhabitants. 

The  rapid  growth  of  the  schools,  parochial  as 
well  as  public,  and  commercial  necessity  have  also 
been  responsible  for  the  gradual  spread  and  grow¬ 
ing  importance  of  English  in  church  and  mart. 

With  the  language  they  retained  the  religion  of 
their  ancestors,  although  priests  were  few  and  their 
territory  so  extended  that  the  outlying  districts  saw 
the  missionary  but  a  few  times  a  year.  The  new 
cities,  such  as  Crowley,  Jennings,  and  Lake 
Charles,  are  prosperous  communities  with  flourish¬ 
ing  Catholic  congregations,  surrounded  by  a  terri¬ 
tory  whose  well  cultivated  rice  fields  are  mostly 
owned  by  the  old  Acadian  settlers.  New  methods 
in  agriculture,  together  with  the  native  aptitude 
and  industry  of  the  Acadians,  have  already  pro¬ 
duced  a  state  of  affluence  that  seems  to  guarantee 
still  greater  material  prosperity  for  the  ever  increas¬ 
ing  population. 

Ecclesiastically  the  new  diocese  is  well  organized, 
having  52  parishes  with  resident  priests,  while  50 
missions  and  11  stations  are  visited  at  regular 
intervals.  In  many  of  these  missions  conditions 
are  so  favorable  that  only  the  dearth  of  priests 
prevents  their  being  made  parishes  with  resident 
pastors.  Since  the  creation  of  the  diocese  seven  new 
parishes  have  been  erected.  More  priests  is  the 
crying  need  of  the  Diocese  of  Lafayette,  and  there- 


LAFON 


446 


LAMEGO 


fore  the  energetic  Bishop  Jeanmard  is  putting  forth 
his  best  efforts  to  foster  native  vocations,  to  secure 
more  priests,  and  to  systematize  the  work  of  recruit¬ 
ing  and  financing  the  education  of  the  prospective 
students.  At  present  there  are  32  students  prepar¬ 
ing  for  the  holy  priesthood.  .  , 

As  one  of  his  first  administrative  measures  the 
bishop  appointed  a  superintendent  of  schools,  and 
set  out  to  co-ordinate  the  efforts  of  the  existing 
institutions  and  to  inspire  pastors  and  people  with 
the  ideal  of  Catholic  school  activity.  The  super¬ 
intendent  was  directed  to  systematize  the  work  m 
the  elementary  grades,  and  lay  down  the  lines  for 
the  standardization  of  the  high  schools,  and  to-day 
a  system  is  in  operation  which  only  awaits  the 
multiplication  of  the  schools  to  produce  great  re¬ 
sults  for  the  Catholic  life  of  the  coming  generation 
The  lack  of  teachers  is  a  serious  handicap,  and 
several  places  are  only  awaiting  the  arrival  of  reli- 
gious  to  open  schools  that  would  be  patronized  by 
hundreds  of  pupils.  At  present  there  are  30  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  directed  by  354  teachers  with  5805 
pupils  attending;  18  parish  high  schools  have  en¬ 
rolled  374  pupils.  A  state-approved  normal  school 
is  being  conducted  by  the  Religious  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  who  also  conduct  an  academy  with  79  young 
ladies  in  attendance.  St.  Charles  College  at  Grand 
Coteau,  with  an  attendance  of  150  students,  is  m 
charge  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  and  is  the  only  insti— 
tut6  of  higher  learning  for  men  in  the  diocese.  St. 
Patrick’s  Sanitarium  at  Lake  Charles  is  being  con¬ 
ducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Incarnate 
Word. 

During  the  World  War  the  diocese  furnished  a 
large  quota  of  men  for  the  service  of  the  country, 
and  three  of  its  priests  served  with  the  colors. 

As  within  the  confines  of  the  diocese  there  is  a 
large  colored  population,  many  of  whom  axe  Cath¬ 
olics,  it  is  the  aim  of  the  bishop  to  provide  them 
with  their  own  churches  and  priests,  and  to-day 
there  are  5  parishes  for  the  colored  people  with 
resident  pastors  in  the  larger  centers  of  population, 
i  e.,  Lafayette,  New  Iberia,  Opelousas,  Crowley, 
and  Lake  Charles.  The  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
and  the  Josephite  Fathers  are  in  charge  of  these 
churches,  and  are  doing  splendid  work  in  church 
and  school.  In  Lafayette  there  is  an  industrial 
institute  for  colored  pupils,  which  has  an  attendance 
of  116  children,  while  the  colored  parish  schools  of 
the  diocese  have  about  2000  pupils  enrolled. 
Parishes,  52;  churches,  102;  missions,  50;  stations, 
11;  convents:  men  2,  women  1;  priests:  secular  51, 
regular  26;  Sisters,  425;  seminarians,  32;  colleges: 
men  1,  teachers  14,  attendance  150;  high  schools 
18,  teachers  22,  attendance  374;  academy  1,  teachers 
6,  attendance  71;  normal  school  1,  teachers  3,  at¬ 
tendance  18;  elementary  schools  30,  teachers  354, 
attendance  5805;  industrial  school  1,  teachers  5, 
attendance  116. 


them  were  Vallery-Radot,  Jammes,  and  especially 
Mauriac,  a  fellow-Girondin.  His  association  with 
Mauriac  was  followed  by  remarkable  progress  in 
the  spiritual  life  as  is  revealed  in  his  private 
correspondence.  ‘‘La  Maison  Pauvre,”  a  volume 
of  poems  depicting  the  daily  humble  peasant  life, 
and  containing  many  frankly  religious  effusions, 
appeared  shortly  after  his  arrival  in  Paris  and 
secured  his  reputation  as  a  poet.  In  1912  the 
French  Academy  crowned  his  first  novel,  “L’Eleve 
Gilles,”  awarding  it  the  new  10,000  francs  prize 
for  literature.  It  is  the  portrayal  9f  the  soul  of 
a  poor  child,  and  is  in  part  a  reflection  of  his  own 
life.  His  second  novel,  “La  Maison  sur  la  Rive,” 
an  attempt  to  reveal  the  soul  of  a  girl,  appeared 
in  1914,  and  is  full  of  charm,  but  was  not  so  suc¬ 
cessful.  When  the  war  broke  out  he  volunteered 
again  and  again  for  active  service,  despite  his  ill- 
health,  but  he  never  got  beyond  the  training  camp 
at  Souge,  as  he  was  stricken .  with  scarlatina  and 
died  in  the  military  hospital  at  Bordeaux. 

Lagos,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See  Benin. 

Lahore,  Diocese  of  (Lahorensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VIII-742d),  in  Northern  India,  suffragan  of  Simla. 
Formerly  suffragan  of  Agra,  this  see  has  been  a 
part  of  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Simla  since 
13  September,  1910,  when,  in  order  to  form  this 
new  archdiocese,  the  districts  of  Kulu,  Lahul, 
Mandi,  Spiti,  and  Suket  were  taken  from  Lahore. 
The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Fabian  Anthony 
Eestermans,  O.  M.Cap.,  to  whom  this  territory  is  en¬ 
trusted.  Born  in  Meerles,  Belgium,  1858,  he  entered 
order  in  1878,  and  was  ordained  in  1883,  served  as 
a  professor  at  Bruges,  was  sent  to  the  Indian  mis¬ 
sion  in  1889,  and  was  appointed  bishop  11  April, 
1905.  Out  of  a  total  population  of  15,836,000  the  dio¬ 
cese  counts  a  Catholic  population  of  26,591  (3277 
Europeans,  23,314  Indians),  and  16,453  catechumens. 
It  is  served  by  36  Capuchin  Fathers,  50  churches 
and  chapels,  23  stations  with  resident  priests,  8 
convents  with  60  Sisters,  1  preparatory  seminary 
with  16  boys,  a  college  for  boys  under  the  Patrician 
Brothers  with  10  teachers  and  170  students,  3  high 
schools  with  10  teachers  and  130  girl  and  40  boy 
students,  an  academy  for  Indian  children  with  15 
teachers  and  a  total  attendance  of  400,  23  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  with  three  or  four  teachers  in  each, 
teaching  1600  children,  and  2  industrial  schools 
conducted  by  the  nuns  with  80  pupils.  The  gov¬ 
ernment  asylum  for  insane  women  is  in  charge  of 
the  Franciscan  Sisters,  and  8  dispensaries  are  es¬ 
tablished.  Nearly  all  the  schools  receive  aid  from 
the  Government.  A  Catholic  Association  is  formed 
in  Lahore,  and  a  small  weekly  paper,  “Catholic 
News,”  is  published  for  the  Catholics  of  the  dio¬ 
cese  only. 

Laibach,  Diocese  of.  See  Ljubljana. 


Lafon,  Andre,  poet  and  novelist,  b.  in  1883  at 
Bordeaux;  d.  there  in  May,  1915.  In  his  early 
childhood  his  family,  which  was  in  lowly  circum¬ 
stances,  moved  from  Bordeaux  to  Blaye,  where  he 
studied  at  the  municipal  school,  in  which,  after 
completing  his  education,  he  secured  a  position  as 
prefect  of  discipline.  Later  he  became  a  teacher 
in  the  lycee  at  Bordeaux,  and  while  there  he  pub¬ 
lished  a  small  volume  of  poems  entitled  “Poemes 
Provinciaux.”  He  next  obtained  a  transfer  to  the 
Lycee  Carnot  at  Paris,  but  shortly  secured  a  more 
congenial  position  in  the  Catholic  College  of  Ste 
Croix  at  Neuilly.  In  Paris  he  was  welcomed  by  a 
group  of  young  Catholic  writers  associated  with 
“L’Amitie  de  France,”  a  quarterly  review;  among 


Lalemant,  Gabriel  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-752b). — The 
cause  of  his  beatification  was  introduced  at  Rome 
9  August,  1916. 

Lamego,  Diocese  of  (Lamacensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VIII-761c),  in  the  province  of  Beira,  Portugal, 
suffragan  of  Braga.  The  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Francisco  Jose  Ribeiro  de  Vieira  Britto,  born  in 
Rendufinho,  Portugal,  1850,  appointed  Bishop  of 
Angra  27  February,  1892,  and  transferred  9  June, 
1902.  On  4  August,  1921,  a  coadjutor  bishop  was 
appointed  in  the  person  of  Rt.  Rev.  Augustin  de 
Jesus  e  Souza,  canon  theologian,  made  prothonotary 
apostolic  30  September,  1920,  consecrated  titular 
Bishop  of  Hauara  21  November  of  the  following 
year.  With  the  exception  of  Braga,  Lamego  is  the 
oldest  diocese  in  Portugal,  and  counts  266,000 


LAMENNAIS 


447 


LANG-SON 


Catholics,  a  few  Protestants,  287  parishes,  4G5 
priests,  310  churches,  1144  public  chapels  and  110 
private  oratories  (1920  statistics). 

Lamennais,  Jean-Marie-Robert  de  (cf.  C.  E., 
yill-765c) . — The  cause  of  his  beatification  was 
introduced  at  Rome  22  March,  1911. 

Lamp,  The,  a  Catholic  monthly  devoted  to 
Church  unity  and  missions,  founded  under  Anglican 
auspices  by  Very  Rev.  Paul  James  Francis,  S.A., 
and  making  its  first  appearance  on  Candlemas,  1903! 
\\  hen  the  Society  of  the  Atonement  was  received 
into  the  Catholic  Church  on  30  October,  1909,  with 
its  name  and  institute,  “The  Lamp”  continued  to 
make  its  monthly  appearance  without  interruption 
Its  average  circulation  for  the  first  six  months  of 
was  160,000  monthly.  “The  Lamp”  is  the  organ 
•  ^  q  Society  of  the  Atonement  and  of  its  activi¬ 
ties,  St.  John’s  Atonement  College  which  prepares 
T°r,j^e  friar-priesthood,  the  Rosary  League  of  Our 
Lady  of  the  Atonement,  the  Union  That  Nothing 
lie  Lost,  which  is  the  missionary  agency  of  the  Soci¬ 
ety,  and  of  the  Church  Unity  Octave  in  the  propa¬ 
gation  of  the  observance  of  which  it  was  the  first 
to  be  interested.  “The  Lamp”  is  edited  bv  The 
Friars  of  the  Atonement,  at  Graymoor,  Garrison, 

Lamy,  Etienne-Marie- Victor,  author  and 
secretary  of  the  French  Academy,  b.  at  Cire,  Jura, 
on  2  June,  1845;  d.  on  9  January,  1919.  He  studied 
under  the  Dominicans  at  Sorreze,  and  later  at  the 
College  Stanislas.  Subsequently  he  won  his  doc¬ 
torate  of  law  with  a  thesis  on  the  Bourse  in  ancient 
medieval,  and  modem  days.  In  his  youth  in- 
spired  by  Pere  Lacordaire  he  took  the  resolution, 
vhich  he  cairied  out  in  later  manhood,  of  serving 
France  through  the  religion  of  Christ.  Nominated 
to  the  National  Assembly  at  the  age  of  twenty-five 
he  \oted  against  the  peace  with  Germany  in  1871. 
By  his  gift  of  eloquence  and  especially  by  his  re¬ 
markable  Report  on  the  Na tfy  Budget,  1878,  he 
established  his  position  as  a  parliamentarian  of  first 
aP.  to  assure  his  early  inclusion  in 

the  Cabinet.  But  this  was  not  to  be.  Lamy  was 
a  Catholic;  he  stood  for  the  liberty  of  higher  edu¬ 
cation  and  so  fought  the  anti-Catholic  monopolistic 
school  law  of  Jules  Ferry  in  1879,  with  the  conse¬ 
quence  that  in  1881  he  was  defeated  for  re-election. 

1  hereafter  he  fought  his  fight  for  Christian  France 
in  the  literary  field.  He  became  editor  of  “Le 
Correspondant”  and  wrote  for  the  “Journal  des 
Debats,  La  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,”  and  won  a 
great  literary  reputation.  In  1905  he  was  elected  to 
the  French  Academy  and  on  the  death  of  Thureau- 
Dangin  succeeded  as  perpetual  secretary.  Startled 
by  the  increasing  decline  in  French  natality  conse¬ 
quent  on  the  spread  of  non-Catholic  principles  of 
morality,  he  enabled  the  French  Academy  through 
his  generosity  to  offer  annually  the  two  Etienne 
Lamy  prizes  of  10,000  francs  each,  for  large  families. 
For  many  years  he  began  his  day’s  work  by  hearing 
early  Mass.  Among  his  chief  works  are :  “La  France 
du  Levant”  (1898),  “Le  second  Empire”  (1895), 

La  Femme  du  demain”  (1899),  “Aimee  de  Coigny” 
(1900),  “Fausses  republiques,”  Temoins  de  lours 
passes”  (1909;  1913). 


!f°  fUoCoCe?d  Most  Rev-  AuSeI°  della  Cioppa, 
appointed  22  June  1896,  d.  29  January,  1917.  On 

March,  1919,  Archbishop  Piccirilli  was  named 
admmistrator  of  Vasto.  On  5  February,  1909,  the 
cathedral  was  erected  into  a  minor  basilica 
According  to  1920  statistics  Lanciano  counts  37,209 
Catholics  Ortona,  60,400  Catholics;  there  are  in 
the  two  dioceses,  20  parishes,  100  secular  and  8 
regular  priests  12  seminarians,  5  Brothers,  25  Sis¬ 
ters,  and  102  churches  or  chapels. 

PI0C^SE  ?F  (Lingonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
ViII-780d)  in  the  department  of  Haute-Marne, 
France  suffragan  of  Lyons.  Rt.  Rev.  Marie- 
Augustin  de  Durfort  de  Civrac  de  Lorge  was 
appointed  to  this  see  9  February,  1911,  to  succeed 
Bishop  Herscher  (retired  24  December,  1910),  and 

imo  J^untl1  hls  tr.ansfer  t0  Poitiers  3  September, 
1918.  The  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Theophile- 

b°uvard,  born  in  Padon,  France,  1858,  or¬ 
dained  1882  was  a  professor  and  then  superior  of 
the  school  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  at  Alengon  (1898) 
named  an  honorary  vicar  general  and  appointed 
bishop  10  March,  1919.  A  decree  of  4  September, 
1918,  gave  to  the  cathedral  chapter  the  dignity  of 
a  deaconate ;  the  right  of  nomination  is  reserved  to 
the,  R?ly  See.  During  the  World  War  158  priests 
and  29  seminarians  were  mobilized  from  this  dio¬ 
cese,  and  of  this  number  25  gave  up  their  lives, 

4  were  taken  prisoners,  2  were  decorated  with  the 
Legion  dhonneur,  4  with  the  medaille  militaire,  47 
With  the  croix  de  guerre,  a  number  with  the 

5  inon  def  ^demies,  and  84  with  other  citations. 
By  1920  statistics  the  diocese  counts  a  Catholic 
population  of  214,785,  444  parishes,  3  archpresby¬ 
teries  and  29  deaneries,  540  priests,  of  whom  307 
are  pastors,  29  vicars,  55  professors,  23  vicars  gen¬ 
eral,  canons  and  chaplains,  58  priests  serving  in 
other  dioceses,  23  vicariates,  1  lower  seminary  1 
upper  seminary,  2  ecclesiastical  institutes,  and  ’  16 
religious  communities. 


Lanciano,  Archdiocese  of  (Lancianensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  \TII-774d),  in  the  province  of  Cheti,  Southern 
Italy,  with  the  perpetual  administration  of  Ortona 
(Ortonensis).  This  see  is  now  filled  (1922)  by  Most 
Rev.  Nicola  Piccirilli,  born  in  Chieti,  16  October, 
1855,  appointed  Archbishop  of  Santa  Severina.  30 
May,  1896,  transferred  to  Conza,  14  November, 
1904,  and  again  transferred  to  this  see  25  April, 
29 


Lang-son  and  Kao-bang,  Prefecture  Apostolic 
of  (de  Lang-son  et  Caobang). — This  prefecture 
was  erected  by  a  Decree  of  13  December,  1913, 
and  comprises  a  vast  mountainous  territory  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  Tonkin,  along  the  Chinese 
frontier.  Originally  the  bed  of  a  primitive  sea, 
about  three-fourths  of  this  territory  is  rock,  some 
of  the  rocks  being  4000  feet  high.  It  extends  over 
an  aiea  of  7722  sq.  miles,  but  owing  to  its  peculiar 
formation  is  very  sparsely  populated,  the  principal 
inhabitants  being  a  few  old  tribes  such  as  the  Thos 

Lalos,  with  a  few  thou¬ 
sand  Chinese  and  Annamites  who  have  migrated 
from  China  and  Annam.  Until  its  erection  into  a 
prefecture  this  territory  had  only  three  poor  chapels 
and  three  Dominican  Fathers  who  had  worked 
there  for  seven  or  eight  years  and  gathered  together 
a  community  of  514,  some  of  them  converts,  but 
for  the  most  part  Annamites  who  had  come  from 
the  Delta.  The  territory  was  left  in  charge  of 
the  Dominicans  (of  the  province  of  Lyons),  who 
now  number  10,  and  are  assisted  by  4  secular 
priests,  19  catechists,  45  student  catechists,  27  semi¬ 
narians  and  23  native  Sisters.  The  number  of 
Christians  has  increased  remarkably  considering  the 
almost  insurmountable  difficulties,  the  total  number 
now  being  1854.  About  200  of  these,  how  ever, 
are  orphans  or  infirm  people  who  are  totally  de¬ 
pendent  on  the  charity  of  the  priests  who  are 
piactically  without  resources.  The  first  and  present 
prefect  apostolic  is  Rev.  Bertrand  Cothonay,  ap¬ 
pointed  7  January,  1914.  Latest  statistics  credit 
the  mission  with  10  quasi-parishes,  6  churches,  8 
chapels,  15  mission  stations,  1  seminary,  6  elemen- 


LAOS 


448 


LATVIA 


tary  schools  with  6  teachers  and  75  pupils,  1  home 
for  the  blind,  and  2  orphanages. 

Laos,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Laotiensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  VII-773c),  in  the  province  of  Nakhon-Phanom, 
Siam,  with  episcopal  residence  at  Nong-seng.  It  is 
entrusted  to  the  Foreign  Mission  of  Paris.  The 
last  vicar  apostolic  was  Rt.  Rev.  Constant- 
Jean-Baptiste  Prodhomme  of  this  congregation, 
born  in  Garron,  France,  1849,  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Gerrha,  2  June,  1913,  died  19  August, 
1920.  His  successor  has  not  yet  been  appointed. 
The  territory  includes  a  population  of  2,500,000,  of 
whom  32,858  are  Catholics,  and  1172  catechumens. 
The  1920  statistics .  credit  the  vicariate  with  52 
European  missionaries,  19  native  priests,  8  semi¬ 
narians,  54  churches  and  chapels,  33  catechists,  22 
orphanages  with  304  children,  15  native  religious, 
and  35  schools  with  797  pupils. 

La  Paz,  Diocese  of  (Pacensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VIII-795b),  in  Bolivia,  South  America,  suffragan  of 
La  Plata.  Rt.  Rev.  Manuel-Jose  Pena,  appointed 
to  this  see  24  October,  1911,  died  in  1915,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Dionisio  Avila,  appointed 
27  January,  1916,  d.  3  July,  1919.  The  present 
incumbent  Rt.  Rev.  Celestino  Loza,  was  then  ap¬ 
pointed  20  June,  1920.  This  diocese,  which  has  a 
population  of  500,000,  is  credited  by  the  1920  statis¬ 
tics  with  90  parishes,  4  houses  of  religious,  8  con¬ 
vents  of  Sisters,  2  hospitals  and  3  asylums  for 
orphans  and  the  aged. 

La  Plata  (or  Charcas),  Archdiocese  of  (de 
Platensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-798d),  in  Bolivia,  South 
America,  with  episcopal  residence  at  Sucre.  Most 
Rev.  Sebastiano  Pifferi,  who  was  appointed  to  this 
see  30  April,  1906,  died  4  February,  1912,  and 
was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent  Most  Rev. 
Victor  Arrieu,  born  in  Sucre  1867,  served  as  vicar 
capitular  of  the  diocese  and  was  appointed  13  Jan¬ 
uary,  1914.  The  1920  statistics  credit  the  diocese 
with  366,560  Catholics;  134  parishes,  200  priests, 
and  515  churches  or  chapels. 

La  Plata,  Diocese  of  (de  Platensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
VIII-798b),  in  the  states  of  Buenos  Aires  and 
Pampa,  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  S.  A.,  suffragan 
of  Buenos  Aires.  This  see  was  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Juan  Nepomucene  Terrero  y  Escalada,  from  7 
December,  1900,  until  his  death  10  January,  1921. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Francisco  Alberti, 
born  in  Buenos  Aires  1865,  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Siunia  and  auxiliary  in  this  diocese  21  February, 
1899,  then  named  auxiliary  at  Buenos  Aires,  and 
transferred  to  the  See  of  La  Plata,  13  July,  1921. 
The  diocese  extends  over  an  area  of  174,141  sq. 
miles  and  comprises  a  population  of  2,300,000;  101 
parishes  and  128  churches  or  chapels. 

Larino,  Diocese  of  (Larinum;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-4a), 
in  the  province  of  Campobasso,  Southern  Italy, 
shows  a  slight  increase  in  Catholic  population,  the 
number  of  Catholics  in  the  diocese  now  (1921)  being 
80,000  as  against  79,000  in  1910.  The  present  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Antonio  Lippolis  was  born  at  Alberobello, 
Diocese  of  Bari  on  19  January,  1865,  and  was  elected 
to  the  See  of  Larino,  January,  1915,  to  succeed  Rt. 
Rev.  Bishop  Trenta,  who  was  transferred  in  1914  to 
the  See  of  Viterbo. 

The  present  statistics  of  the  diocese  show  21  par¬ 
ishes,  57  churches,  2  monasteries  for  men  and  1 
for  women,  64  secular  and  6  regular  clergy,  4  lay 
brothers,  9  religious  houses  for  men  and  3  for 
women,  1  seminary  with  8  seminarians,  1  college 
for  men  with  6  instructors  and  50  students,  3  tech¬ 
nical  schools  with  8  instructors  and  200  students,  10 
elementary  schools  with  10  instructors  and  300 


students.  The  various  charitable  institutions  include 
1  home,  2  asylums,  1  hospital,  settlement  houses 
and  day  nurseries;  1  society  is  organized  among 
the  clergy,  and  1  among  the  laity. 

La  Rochelle,  Diocese  of  (Rupellensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-6a),  comprises  the  entire  department  of 
Charente-Inferieure,  in  France.  It  carries  the 
united  title  of  Saintes  (Santonensis)  and  is  suffra¬ 
gan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Bordeaux.  The  see  is 
filled  by  Rt.Rev.  Jean-Auguste-Frangois  Eyssautier, 
born  in  Entrevaux  1844,  studied  at  Digne  and 
La  Rochelle,  was  ordained  in  1S68,  served  as  a  pro¬ 
fessor  at  the  College  of  Pons,  made  an  honorary 
canon  in  1878,  vicar  general  in  1893,  superior  of 
the  College  of  Pons  in  1894,  appointed  27  Novem¬ 
ber,  1906,  and  made  an  assistant  at  the  pontifical 
throne  11  April,  1918,  on  the  occasion  of  his 
sacerdotal  jubilee.  In  1920  in  accordance  with  in¬ 
structions  from  the  minister  of  agriculture,  Bishop 
Eyssautier  was  made  a  member  of  the  wheat  com¬ 
mittee  in  Charente-Inferieure.  The  same  year  a 
social  diocesan  congress  of  the  Catholic  Union  of 
Aunis  and  Saintonge  was  held  at  La  Rochelle,  6 
and  7  July,  with  the  bishop  presiding.  The  upper 
seminary,  closed  since  July,  1913,  was  reopened  in 
October,  1920,  and  now  has  forty  students.  The 
lower  seminary  was  re-established  some  years  be¬ 
fore  and  in  1915  had  71  students.  However,  this 
diocese,  like  most  of  the  others  in  France  is  suffer¬ 
ing  from  a  scarcity  of  vocations  which  becomes 
particularly  serious  in  view  of  the  depleted  ranks 
of  the  clergy  caused  by  the  World  War.  During 
the  war  254  of  the  clergy  were  mobilized  and  of 
this  number  34  gave  up  their  lives,  3  were  deco¬ 
rated  with  the  legion  d’honneur,  3  with  the  medaille 
militaire,  and  48  with  the  croix  de  guerre.  In 
all  83  priests  of  this  diocese  died  during  the  war. 
In  1921  there  were  121  priests  less  than  in  1891, 
and  226  parishes  were  without  resident  priests.  The 
diocese  counts  450,871  Catholics,  of  whom  36,371  are 
in  La  Rochelle  proper;  according  to  1920  statistics 
it  has  46  first  class  parishes,  326  succursal  parishes, 
and  49  vicariates,  formerly  supported  by  the  state. 

La  Salette,  Missionaries  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-9a). — 
The  provincial  house  for  America  is  at  Hartford, 
Conn.,  where  46  Fathers  have  charge  of  6  parishes 
and  an  apostolic  school  where  boys  from  twelve 
to  eighteen  years  are  received.  There  is  a  similar 
school  at  Tournai  in  Belgium. 

Lateran  Canons.  See  Canons  Regular  of  the 
Lateran. 

Latter  Day  Saints,  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of. 

See  Mormons. 

Latvia,  a  republic  along  the  southern  part  of 
the  Baltic  littoral,  consisting  of  the  former  Rus¬ 
sian  Province  of  Courland  (10,435  sq.  miles),  four 
southern  districts  (Riga,  Wenden,  Wolmar,  Walk) 
of  the  former  Russian  province  of  Livonia  (8715 
sq.  miles),  and  three  western  districts  (Dvinsk, 
Reshitza,  Lutsin)  of  the  former  Russian  province 
of  Vitebsk  (5292  sq.  miles),  a  total  of  about  24,440 
sq.  miles  or  including  inland  lakes,  about  25,000 
sq.  miles.  The  chief  towns  are  Riga,  the  capital, 
with  a  population  of  569,100  (1914),  Libau  (90,744), 
Mitau  (46,860),  Windau,  Wenden,  Wolmar.  The 
first  three  are  important  ports  on  the  Gulf  of 
Riga.  The  census  taken  on  15  June,  1920,  showed 
a  population  of  1,503,193  in  Latvia.  Of  these, 
1,416,090  are  Latvian  citizens  and  87,103  foreigners. 
Of  the  Latvian  citizens,  80.41%  were  Letts,  8.86% 
Russians,  4.29%  Jews,  3.23%  Germans,  2.19%  Poles, 
.52%  Lithuanians,  .25%  Esthonians,  and  .25%  other 
nationalities* 


LAU 


449 


LAUSANNE 


Religion. — -The  new  Constitution  of  Latvia  pro¬ 
vides  for  religious  freedom,  there  being  no  State 
Church.  In  Riga,  \Y  indau,  and  southeast  of  Livonia 
there  are  about  200,000  Greek  Orthodox  Letts. 

Education. — Before  the  war  there  were  98  sec¬ 
ondary  schools  in  Latvia  with  22,000  pupils,  or  1 
secondary  school  for  every  20,000  inhabitants.  The 
percentage  of  illiterates,  including  children  under 
the  age  of  ten,  is  21.5.  In  1919  the  Riga  Poly- 
technical  Institute  became  a  Latvian  University 
with  over  3000  students.  A  Musical  Academy  has 
also  been  reopened  in  Riga. 

Economic  Conditions— About  12,680  sq.  miles 
of  the  area  are  in  forest,  11,760  sq.  miles  in  pasture 
land,  11,080  in  arable  land,  4280  in  waste  land,  and 
200  in  gardens.  Before  the  war  the  Latvian  flax 
crop  was  about  35,000  tons  per  annum,  but  in 
1919-20  only  16,000  tons  were  available  for  export. 
The  forest  lands  yield  about  172,500,000  feet  of 
timber  annually,  14%  of  which  is  exported.  On 
1  July,  1920,  there  were  1242  industrial  enterprises 
in  Latvia,  employing  12,000  Lands.  During  the 
German  offensive  against  Russia,  the  Russians 
devastated  the  country  in  order  to  leave  nothing 
but  the  bare  land  for  the  invaders,  thus  completely 
destroying  the  economic  life  of  the  country.  In 
1920,  119  works  were  subsidized  and  the  amount 
of  subsidy  was  19,211,461  rubles  (1  ruble  =  $0.51 
normal  exchange).  Before  the  war  Riga  was  the 
leading  port  of  the  Russian  Empire,  the  total  turn¬ 
over  of  its  trade  being  over  $18,000,000.  In  1920 
the  export  trade,  most  of  which  (67%)  went  to 
Great  Britain  was  valued  at  1,075,500,000  rubles: 
the  imports,  2,061,100,000  rubied. 

Railways. — Three  Russian  steam  lines  converge  on 
Latvian  ports,  viz.:  the  Riga-Tsaritsin  line,  the 
Windau-Moscow  line  and  the  Libau-Romni  line. 
On  1  January,  1921,  10  steamboats  of  9003  tons 
and  29  sailing  vessels  of  7789  tons,  making  a  total 
of  39  vessels  of  16,892  tons  were  sailing  under 
the  Latvian  flag.  The  railway  mileage  is  1715, 
of  which  516  miles  are  of  Russian  gauge;  595  of 
European  gauge,  and  426  miles  of  narrow  gauge. 
Three  main  lines  connect  the  country  with  Russia. 

Recent  History.— The  free  state  of  Latvia  was 
proclaimed  at  Riga  on  18  November,  1918,  and 
was  recognized  de  facto  by  Great  Britain,  Japan, 
and  Italy,  and  several  of  the  smaller  states.  The 
Constituent  Assembly  met  on  1  May,  1920,  and 
after  the  resignation  of  the  Provisional  Govern¬ 
ment,  which  consisted  of  a  State  council  of  102 
members,  a  Coalition  Government,  responsible  to 
the  Assembly,  was  formed,  all  parties  participating, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Social  Democrats.  A 
Peace  Treaty  was  signed  with  Moscow  on  11  August 
and  ratified  by  the  Assembly  on  2  September.  It 
provided  for  the  return  to  Latvia  of  public  property, 
and  for  the  release  of  Latvia  from  the  liabilities 
of  the  former  Russian  Empire. 

Lau,  Jean  Marie,  and  Companions.  See  Carmes, 
Martyrs  of  the. 

Laurier,  Sir  Wilfred,  statesman,  b.  20  November, 
1841,  at  St.  Lin,  Province  of  Quebec;  d.  on  17 
February,  1919,  at  Ottawa;  received  his  primary 
education  in  the  parish  school  of  St.  Lin  and 
then  studied  at  Assumption  College,  in  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Montreal.  He  was  a  law  student  in 
McGill  Lmiversity  at  Montreal  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1864.  Seven  years  later  he  entered 
political  life  as  a  member  of  the  Assembly  for 
Drummond  and  Athabaska  and  was  elected  to 
the  House  of  Commons  in  1874;  and  in  1877  be¬ 
came  Minister  of  Inland  Revenue  in  the  Mackenzie 
Administration.  After  a  defeat  by  a  very  small 


majority  in  Quebec  East,  he  was  again  and  again 

e  eft^na?lcly’  in,  1878>  1882>  1887,  1891,  1896, 
and  1900.  In  1904  he  went  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons  and  was  chosen  again  in  1908,  1911,  and 
19i7  He  had  been  leader  of  the  Opposition  in 
the  House  ever  since  1887,  and  on  the  defeat  of  the 
1  upper  Ministry  in  1896  was  called  by  Lord  Aber- 
deoil  to  form  ci  Ministry  and  bocomo  Pr6sidont 
of  the  Privy  Council  and  in  that  capacity  took 
part  in  settling  the  Manitoba  Question  about 
separate  Catholic  schools,  not,  however,  by  repeat¬ 
ing  the  odious  legislation  but  by  diminishing  the 
evil  results  of  the  measure.  At  the  Queen’s  Jubilee 
in  1897,  he  was  created  a  Knight  of  the  Most 
Distinguished  Order  of  St.  Michael  and  St.  George, 
and  was  accorded  the  leading  place  among  the 
colonial  representatives  in  the  Jubilee  procession, 
was  made  a  member  of  the  Imperial  Privy  Council, 
and  received  from  the  President  of  the  French 
Republic  the  star  of  a  grand  officer  of  the  Legion 
Honor,  the  highest  rank  but  one  of  the  national 
order.  On  his  return  to  Canada  public  honors 
were  accorded  to  him  in  all  of  the  principal  cities 
and  decorations  of  every  description  were  bestowed 
upon  him.  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  were  especially 
insistent  on  honoring  him.  In  1907  he  attended 
the  Imperial  Conference  at  London  as  one  of  the 
representatives  of  Canada  and  was  granted  the 
freedom  of  the  cities  of  London,  Bristol,  Liverpool, 
and  other  cities.  In  1911  he  represented  Canada 
at  the  convention  of  King  George.  He  finally  fell 
from  power  in  September,  1911,  when  the  Liberals 
were  beaten. 

Lausanne  and  Geneva,  Diocese  of  (Lausan- 
nensis  et  Genevensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-40b),  in 
Switzerland  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy  See. 
Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Deruaz,  appointed  to  this  see  in 
1890,  died  26  September,  1911,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Andre  Bovet,  born  in  Autigny,  1865, 
ordained  1891,  served  as  first  doctor  of  theology 
m  the  University  of  Fribourg  in  1893,  vicar  at 
Neufchatel,  professor  in  the  college  of  St.  Michel 
in  1894,  federal  chaplain  of  the  Swiss  army,  director 
of  the  seminary,  appointed  bishop  30  November, 
1911.  In  1912  he  was  made  president  of  the  perma¬ 
nent  committee  of  the  international  Marian  Con¬ 
gress.  Under  his  patronage  various  relief  and 
charitable  associations  were  organized  during  the 
World  War,  notable  among  them  the  Catholic 
mission  for  prisoners  of  war.  Bishop  Bovet  died 
3  August,  1915,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Placide  Colliard,  born  in  Attelens,  Switzerland, 
1876,  appointed  6  December,  1915.  He  filled  the 
see  until  his  death  10  February,  1920,  and  the 
present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Marius  Benson,  was 
appointed  to  succeed  him.  Born  in  Turin  in  1876 
he  made  his  studies  at  the  seminary  of  St.  John 
at  Lyons  and  the  University  of  Fribourg,  was  or¬ 
dained  in  1899,  served  as  vicar  at  La  Chaux-de- 
Fonds,  professor  of  history  at  the  seminary  in 
1907,  at  the  university  in  1908,  superior  of  the 
seminary  in  1919,  and  appointed  bishop  7  May, 
1920.  In  1921  the  first  stone  of  a  lower  seminary 
now  under  construction  at  Geneva,  was  blessed. 

During  the  World  War  the  Catholic  Mission  of 
Switzerland,  organized  in  this  diocese,  was  the  cen¬ 
ter  of  many  activities  in  behalf  of  the  warring 
countries.  Bureaux  were  organized  for  investigating 
cases  of  persons  who  had  disappeared,  for  visiting 
prisoners  held  in  Germany,  and  in  the  Central 
Empires,  for  rendering  religious  service  to  those 
interned  in  Switzerland,  for  giving  food  and  clothes 
to  refugees,  and  for  dispensing  books  of  study  and 
conducting  lectures.  The  International  Catholic 
Union  was  also  established  for  the  protection  ol 


LAUSITZ 


450 


LAW 


young  girls,  for  supplying  the  prisoners’  needs, 
for  taking  charge  of  correspondence  with  invaded 
countries,  and  to  assist  the  civil  prisoners  in  Austria 
and  Hungary. 

The  statistics  of  1920  credit  the  canton  of  Fri¬ 
bourg  with  a  total  population  of  143,055,  of  whom 
123,039  are  Catholics,  and  about  19,000  Protestants. 
The  diocese  comprises  192  parishes,  of  which  six 
are  in  the  city  of  Geneva,  a  number  of  succursal 
parishes,  397  secular  and  about  100  regular  priests, 

1  upper  seminary  at  Fribourg,  1  Catholic  University 
and  a  number  of  ecclesiastical  colleges.  The  city 
of  Fribourg  is  rich  in  churches  and  religious  houses. 
In  making  excavations  in  the  cathedral  in  1911  the 
tombs  of  three  of  the  bishops  were  found,  which 
had  escaped  the  Bernese  who  had  destroyed  the 
original  building.  The  tombs  were  those  of  Berthold 
of  Neuchatel  (1220),  Henri  de  Bourgogne  (1029), 
and  Blessed  Amedee  de  Clermont-Tonnerre,  a  Cis¬ 
tercian  and  ecclesiastical  writer. 

Lausitz  (or  Lvsatia),  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
(Lusatle),  in  Saxony.  This  prefecture  was  erected 
in  1560  and  its  administration  entrusted  to  the 
Chapter  of  Bautzen.  On  24  June,  1921,  the  prefec¬ 
ture  was  suppressed  and'  incorporated  in  the  diocese 
of  Meissen  (q.v.). 

Laval,  Diocese  of  (Vallis  Guidonis,  or  Valle- 
gudonensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-45a),  in  the  department 
of  Mayenne,  France,  suffragan  of  Tours.  This  see 
is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Eugene- Jacques  Grellier,  born 
in  Joue,  France,  1850,  studied  at  Combree  and 
Angers,  ordained  in  1873,  served  as  a  vicar,  chap¬ 
lain  of  the  retreat  at  Angers,  pastor  and  vicar 
general,  superior  of  the  upper  seminary,  and  ap¬ 
pointed  bishop  21  February,  1906,  to  succeed  Bishop 
Gaey,  retired.  On  the  occasion  of  the  five-hundreth 
anniversary  of  the  apparition  of  Our  Lady  of  Pont- 
main  in  1921,  celebrations  were  held  in  January, 
and  again  in  June,  in  the  presence  of  many  arch¬ 
bishops  and  bishops.  The  same  year,  on  22  Novem¬ 
ber,  the  cathedral  of  the  Holy  Trinity  was 
consecrated  by  the  bishop.  This  cathedral  was 
begun  in  the  eleventh  century  by  the  Benedictines 
of  Le  Mans,  enlarged  in  1150,  the  spire  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1383  and  again  in  1563,  and  enlarged  by 
the  addition  of  the  chapel  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
in  1575;  in  1789  it  had  twenty  altars  served  by 
more  than  sixty  priests.  By  the  1911  census  there 
were  350,637  Catholics  in  the  diocese,  of  whom 
30,225  were  in  Laval  proper.  The  1920  statistics 
credit  it  with  31  first  class  and  265  succursal  par¬ 
ishes,  and  210  vicariates  formerly  supported  by  the 
State. 

Laval,  Jacques-Desire,  missionary,  b.  at  Croth, 
in  the  diocese  of  Evreux,  France,  on  18  Septem¬ 
ber,  1803;  d.  in  the  Isle  of  Mauritius  on  9  Sep¬ 
tember,  1864.  From  early  childhood  he  was  noted 
for  his  love  of  the  poor  and  his  gentleness.  He 
studied  at  Evreux  and  the  College  Stanislas,  Paris, 
and  in  J830  graduated  in  medicine.  He  practised 
his  profession  at  St.  Andre  and  St.  Ivry-la-Bataille, 
Eure,  with  his  usual  charity,  but  not  uncontami¬ 
nated  with  the  spirit  of  the  world  in  which  he 
mixed.  Suddenly  his  view  of  life  changed,  and 
entering  St.  Sulpice  he  was  ordained  in  1838,  and 
had  charge  successively  of  the  parishes  of  Pinter- 
ville  and  Acquiguy.  In  1841,  filled  with  a  desire 
to  consecrate  himself  to  the  missions,  he  entered 
the  Congregation  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mary,  then  recently  founded  by  Ven.  Fr.  Liber- 
mann,  and  after  its  union  with  the  Congregation 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  he  was  sent  to  Mauritius  on  14 
September,  1861,  wher^  he  reproduced  the  life  of 


St.  Peter  Claver.  During  these  twenty-three  years 
he  brought  into  the  Church  about  67,000  negroes, 
then  only  recently  emancipated.  In  addition  he 
utilized  his  earlier  professional  experience  to  effec¬ 
tuate  important  sanitary  and  agricultural  reforms. 
He  died  with  a  reputation  for  sanctity  which  has 
only  increased  since  his  death.  The  cause  of  his 
beatification  and  canonization  was  introduced  at 
Rome  on  26  June,  1918.  _ 

Lavant,  Diocese  of  (Lavantinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-49a),  situated  in  the  southern  part  of  Styria, 
Jugoslavia,  suffragan  of  Salzburg.  This  see  is  filled 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Michel  Napotnik,  born  in  Gonoblitz, 
this  diocese,  1850,  appointed  26  October,  1889,  and 
made  an  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  8  March, 
1901.  In  1911  a  diocesan  synod  was  held  here.  By 
latest  statistics  the  bishopric  is  divided  into  4  arch¬ 
deaneries  and  24  deaneries  and  comprises  221  par¬ 
ishes,  203  chaplaincies  (68  unoccupied),  6  unoccu¬ 
pied  offices  and  benefices,  356  priests  engaged  in 
the  cure  of  souls,  35  secular  priests  and  68  regular 
clergy  in  other  positions,  40  clergy  without  office, 
728  churches  and  chapels,  and  508,232  souls.  The 
episcopal  priests’  seminary  numbers  4  classes  with 
1151  students,  and  the  “Maximilianum-Viktorinum,” 
an  episcopal  seminary  for  boys  has  8  classes  with 
48  students.  The  School  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order 
of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  have  1  mother-house  and 
29  affiliated  houses  with  325  Sisters.  They  conduct 
a  training  school  for  women  teachers,  14  girls’ 
schools,  14  boarding  schools,  5  kindergartens,  9 
orphan  asylums,  5  schools  of  domestic  economy,  2 
homes  for  servant  girls,  and  5  houses  teaching 
housekeeping  and  sick-nursing.  The  Salesmans  of 
Don  Bosco  were  established  in  the  diocese  in  1912, 
at  Verzej,  and  number  5  priests,  5  clerical  novices, 
and  3  lay  brothers. 

Law  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-64).— The  laws  of  the  Code 
do  not  bind  the  Oriental  Church  except  when  deal¬ 
ing  with  matters  which  from  the  very  nature  of  the 
case  affect  it  also;  such,  for  instance,  would  be 
dogmatic  laws,  disciplinary  laws  merely  declarative 
of  the  Divine  law  or  those  expressly  including  the 
Oriental  Church.  Acquired  rights,  privileges  or 
indults  granted  by  the  Holy  See  to  legal  or  physical 
persons  and  all  liturgical  laws  are  unaffected  unless 
the  contrary  is  expressly  stated.  All  laws,  whether 
universal  or  particular,  opposed  to  the  prescriptions 
of  the  Code  have  been  abrogated,  unless  where 
the  contrary  is  expressly  stated  regarding  a  par¬ 
ticular  law.  Canons  restating  the  old  law  are  to 
be  explained  by  the  interpretations  already  given 
by  approved  authors.  In  cases  of  doubt  whether 
any  prescription  of  the  canons  differs  from  the  old 
law,  no  departure  from  the  old  law  should  be  made. 
All  penalties,  whether  spiritual  or  temporal,  medi¬ 
cinal  or  vindicatory,  latoe  or  ferencloe  sententice,  if 
not  mentioned  in  the  Code  are  abolished.  General 
disciplinary  laws  not  explicitly  or  implicity  con¬ 
tained  in  the  Code  lose  all  their  force,  unless  they 
are  found  in  the  approved  liturgical  books  or  are 
merely  confirmatory  of  the  natural  or  positive  Di¬ 
vine  law;  however,  the  punishments  imposed  by 
national,  provincial,  or  diocesan  synods  and  the 
penalties  inflicted  by  particular  legislation  of  the 
Holy  See  remain  in  vigor ;  so,  too,  do  the  dogmatic 
decrees  of  the  Holy  Office,  the  Biblical  Commission, 
and  other-  such  bodies. 

Laws  of  the  Holy  See  are  as  a  rule  promulgated 
by  publication  in  the  “Acta  Apostolicse  Sedis.” 
Episcopal  laws  bind  from  the  time  of  promulga¬ 
tion,  if  the  contrary  is  not  stated,  the  manner  of 
their  promulgation  being  left  to  the  bishop.  Merely 
ecclesiastical  laws  do  not  bind  the  unbaptized,  or 


LEAD 


451 


LEAVENWORTH 


the  baptized  who  do  not  enjoy  a  sufficient  use  of 
reason,  or  those  who,  though  they  have  the  use 
of  reason  have  not  completed  their  seventh  year, 
unless  the  law  expressly  states  otherwise,  thus  they 
are  obliged  to  go  to  confession  at  least  once  a  year, 
and  to  make  their  Easter  duty. 

Pcregnni  are  not  bound  by  the  particular  laws 
of  their  territory  when  they  are  absent  from  it, 
unless  the  laws  are  personal  or  unless  the  viola¬ 
tion  injures  some  one  in  their  own  .territory;  neither 
are  they  subject  to  the  laws  of  the  place  where 
they.  except  laws  enacted  for  the  public  welfare 
or  those  that  determine  the  validity  or  liceity  of 
legal  acts  performed  there;  on  the  other  hand,  they 
are  bound  by  the  general  ecclesiastical  laws,  even 
u  ^®se  are  not  effective  in  the  locality  in  which 
they  are.  Vagi,  however,  are  bound  by  the  general 
laws  and  the  particular  laws  of  whatever  place  they 
are  m. 

Where  there  is  a  doubt  of  law,  laws  even  invali¬ 
dating  and  disqualifying  do  not  take  effect;  if  the 
doubt  is  one  of  fact  the  ordinary  can  dispense,  if 
the  case  is  one  in  which  the  pope  is  wont  to  dis¬ 
pense.  No  ignorance  of  invalidating  or  disqualify- 
mg  laws  excuses,  unless  the  contrary  is  expressly 
stated.  An  authentic  interpretation  of  a  law,  if 
restrictive  or  extensive  or  explanatory  of  a  doubt, 
is  not  retroactive  and  requires  promulgation;  an 
interpretation  given  in  a  judgment  or  in  a  rescript 
concerning  a  particular  thing  has  not  the  force  of 
law  and  binds  only  the  persons  or  affects  only  the 
thing  in  question.  Laws  containing  an  exception 
to  the  general  law  are  to  be  interpreted  strictly. 
Laws  passed  to  provide  against  a  general  danger, 
bind  even  if  in  a  particular  instance  the  danger  is 
absent.  A  law  enacted  by  a  competent  authority 
abrogates  an  antecedent  law  if  it  expressly  says 
so,  or  if  it  is  directly  contrary  to  it,  or  if  it  deals  anew 
with  the  entire  subject  matter  of  the  former  law;  but 
as  a  rule  a  general  law  does  not  derogate  from  the 
statutes  of  special  territories  or  of  individuals  un¬ 
less  the  contrary  is  expressly  stated.  In  case  of 
doubt  an  earlier  law  is  not  to  be  presumed  revoked, 
and  the  later  law  is  as  far  as  possible  to  be  read 
agreement  with  it.  A  precept  given  to  any 
individual  binds  him  everywhere,  but  it  cannot  be 
urged  judicially;  it  ceases  with  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  person  who  imposed  it,  unless  it  was  imposed 
by  an  authentic  document  or  in  the  presence  of 
two  witnesses.  See  also  Code  of  Canon  Law. 


26C93*eX  JUr‘  CaH'’  1-30  ’  Vermeersch-Creusen>  Epit.  jur.  'can., 

Lead,  Diocese  of  (Leaden sis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-98c), 
during  the  administration  of  its  present  bishop  has 
had  a  remarkable  growth,  and  has  developed  into 
a  diocese  with  many  well  established  parishes  where 
formerly  it  was  almost  purely  a  missionary  dis- 
tnct.  On  21  February,  1915,  the  second  bishop  of 
the  diocese,  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  F.  Busch,  D.  D.,  was 
transferred  to  St,  Cloud,  Minn.,  and  Rt.  Rev.  John 
J .  Lawler,  D.  D.,  Titular  Bishop  of  Hermopolis 
Magna,  and  auxiliary  to  the  Archbishop  of  St. 
Raul,  was  appointed  to  succeed  him.  He  was 
born  at  Rochester,  Minn.,  in  1862  and  completed 
his  classical  studies  at  the  seminary  of  St.  Francis, 
Milwaukee,  going  from  there  to  Flanders,  Belgium, 
where  he  studied  philosophy  and  was  ordained  at 
the  University  of  Louvain  in  1885.  He  was  conse¬ 
crated  bishop  19  May,  1910,  and  succeeded  to  the 
Diocese  of  Lead,  29  January,  1916. 

Immediately  upon  his  succession  to  the  see,  after 
studying  the  situation,  Bishop  Lawler  became  con¬ 
vinced  that  the  mission  system,  which  had  been 
in  operation  in  the  diocese  since  its  foundation, 
must,  be  supplanted  by  a  system  of  established 


parishes.  He  was  confronted  with  many  difficulties ; 
a  widely  scattered  Catholic  population,  few  priests 
and  very  little  money,  but  by  untiring  efforts  and 
financial  assistance  from  the  Church  Extension  Soci¬ 
ety  and  other  sources,  a  church  was  erected  in 
every  mission  The  priests  and  people  of  the 
diocese  entered  into  the  new  plan  with  energy  and 
»  ani,  parochial  residences  were  shortly 
added.  The  scarcity  of  priests,  however,  was  still 
the  great  drawback  to  the  development  of  the 
diocese,  and  the  bishop  met  this  difficulty  by  mak- 
mg  yearly  visits  to  some  of  the  seminaries,  and  ap¬ 
pealing  to  Eastern  candidates  for  the  priesthood 
to  work  with  him  m  ministering  to  the  neglected 
Catholics  of  this  Western  territory.  The  diocese 
of  Lead  includes  all  of  the  State  of  South  Dakota 
west  of  the  Missouri  River  and  is  suffragan  to  St 
Paul,  Minnesota. 

j1.11  th65  years  55  new  priests  have  been 

added  to  the  diocese,  making  a  total  of  75;  52  new 
parishes  have  been  created,  131  churches  erected 
54  parochial  residences  acquired  and  10  schools 
opened.  The  religious  communities  in  the  diocese 
include  the  Jesuit  and  Benedictine  Fathers  the 
Benedictine  Sisters  and  the  Sisters  of  St.  Francis. 
Ihe  Catholic  population  is  about  35,200. 

On  26  October  of  the  present  year  (1921)  the 
entire  community  of  this  district  was  shocked  by 
the  murder  of  Rev.  A.  B.  Belknap,  rector  of  St. 
Patricks  Cathedral  at  Lead.  Father  Belknap 
started  out  at  3:15  in  the  morning  with  a  man 
who  was  apparently  taking  him  on  a  sick  call 
and  never  returned;  his  body  was  found  by  the 
^*1  j  i-  road  three  hours  later.  No  motive 
couid  be  found  for  the  crime,  as  the  relations 
between  Catholics  and  Protestants  throughout  the 
State  have  never  been  more  cordial  than  at  the 
present  time,  and  Father  Belknap  was  not  known 
to  have  any  enemies.  He  was  born  in  Jackson 
County,  Iowa,  on  4  July,  1891,  educated  at 
Dubuque,  Montreal,  and  Baltimore,  and  ordained  a 
priest  five  years  ago.  He  had  been  rector  of  the 
cathedral  for  the  last  three  years. 

Leavenworth,  Diocese  of  (Leavenworthensis; 
cf-  ?;.?•’  ,IX-102cL  suffragan  of  St.  Louis.  When 
established,  22  May,  1877,  this  diocese  comprised 
the  State  of  Kansas,  U.  S.  A.,  with  the  Right  Rev 
Louis  Mary  Fink,  O.S.B.,  as  its  first  bishop.  At 
his  request,  ten  years  later  the  Holy  See  divided 
the  diocese  into  three :  Wichita,  Concordia,  and 
Leavenworth.  Leavenworth  was  then  restricted  to 
the  43  counties  lying  east  of  Republic,  Cloud, 
Ottawa,  Saline,  McPherson,  Harvey,  Sedgwick,  and 
Sumner  Counties.  The  diocese  had  an  area  of 
28,687  sq.  miles,  with  a  total  population  in  1890, 
of  901,536.  Authorized  by  the  Holy  See,  Bishop 
Fink  on  29  May,  1891,  took  lip  his  residence  in 
Kansas  City,  Kan.,  and  for  some  years  the  diocese 
was  named  after  that  city.  Apostolic  letters  dated 
1  July,  1897,  further  diminished  the  territory  of 
the  diocese  in  favor  of  Concordia  and  Wichita  and 
it  now  includes  only  the  counties  of  Anderson, 
Osage,  Pottawatomie,  Shawnee,  Wabaunsee,  Wyan¬ 
dotte, .  Jackson,  Jefferson,  Linn,  Lyon,  Marshall, 
Miami,  Nemaha,  Atchison,  Brown,  Coffey,  Doni¬ 
phan,  Douglas,  Franklin,  Johnson,  and  Leaven¬ 
worth;  an  area  of  12,594  sq.  miles.  The  greater 
part  of  the  Indian  country  now  known  as  Kansas 
was  included  in  the  so-called  “Louisiana  Purchase.” 
From  the  days  of  the  great  explorers  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  the  whole  territory  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
to  the  Canadian  line  belonged  to  France,  and  was 
designated  as  Upper  and  Lower  Louisiana.  The 
See  of  Quebec,  erected  in  1674,  had  jurisdiction 
over  the  whole  territory  until  1763,  when  Louisiana 


LEAVENWORTH 


452 


LEAVENWORTH 


was  ceded  to  Spain,  and  the  ecclesiastical  juris¬ 
diction  passed  to  the  Diocese  of  Santiago  de  Cuba. 
In  1789  it  was  attached  to  the  Diocese  of  Havana, 
and  in  1793  became  a  separate  diocese  under  the 
title  of  “Saint  Louis  of  New  Orleans.”  Its  first 
bishop  was  nominated  by  the  King  of  Spain,  and 
was  consecrated  in  the  cathedral  of  Havana  in  1793, 
and  installed  in  New  Orleans,  17  June,  1795.  After 
six  years  of  heroic  effort  in  Louisiana,  Bishop 
Penalver  y  Cardenas  was  promoted  to  the  See  of 
Guatemala.  In  October,  1800,  the  King  of  Spain 
retroceded  Louisiana  to  the  French  Republic  and, 
finally,  Napoleon  Bonaparte  disposed  of  the  owner¬ 
ship  of  the  whole  territory  to  the  United  States 
on  30  April,  1803.  By  this  transaction  Louisiana 
became  subject  to  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of 
the  Bishop  of  Baltimore  and,  in  due  time,  acting 
under  authority  from  Rome,  Bishop  Carroll  ap¬ 
pointed  Rev.  Louis  William  Valentine  Dubourg, 
Administrator  Apostolic  of  the  Diocese  of  New 
Orleans  which  embraced  Louisiana,  Upper  and 
Lower. 

Dr.  Dubourg  assumed  his  duties  18  August,  1812, 
and  going  to  Rome  soon  afterwards  he  was  conse¬ 
crated  Bishop  of  Louisiana  by  Cardinal  Joseph 
Pamfili.  He  was  granted  permission  to  establish 
his  residence  in  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  where  he  was 
finally  installed  by  Bishop  Flaget  on  6  January, 
1818.  The  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart  and  the 
Lazarist  Fathers  arrived  from  France  the  same 
year.  A  band  of  six  Jesuit  scholastics  with  their 
two  superiors,  Father  Charles  Van  Quickenborn 
and  Father  Peter  J.  Temmermans,  all  Belgians, 
arrived  from  White  March,  Maryland,  31  May, 
1823,  and  the  Kansas  Indian  Missions  were  there 
and  then  projected.  On  18  July,  1826,  the  Diocese 
of  Louisiana  was  divided,  and  the  sees  of  St. 
Louis  and  New  Orleans  w’ere  erected. 

Bishop  Dubourg  resigned  the  see  of  Louisiana  in 
1826,  and  the  same  year  the  see  of  St.  Louis  was 
created,  and  Bishop  Rosati  became  its  first  incum¬ 
bent,  while  at  the  same  time  administering  the 
Diocese  of  New  Orleans.  He  died  while  on  a  visit 
to  Rome,  25  September,  1843,  and  his  coadjutor 
Right  Rev.  Peter  Richard  Kenrick  succeeded  him 
the  same  year  and  was  made  archbishop  in  1847. 
Archbishop  Kenrick  was  the  first  bishop  to  visit 
the  Indian  country  beyond  Missouri. 

In  1851,  before  the  vast  prairie  country  was 
opened  to  homesteaders,  Bishop  Kenrick  conse¬ 
crated  Rev.  John  Baptist  Miege,  S.J.,  Bishop  of 
Messenia  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  all  the  territory 
from  Kansas  to  the  British  possessions,  and  from 
the  Missouri  River  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  A 
new  vicariate  was  formed  out  of  Nebraska  and  a 
part  of  Wyoming  and  Montana  in  1857,  but  Bishop 
Miege’s  jurisdiction  remained  until  May,  1859.  The 
vicariate  at  first  had  five  little  churches,  eight 
priests  and  a  Catholic  population  of  nearly  5000 
souls,  of  whom  3000  were  Indians.  _  Bishop  Miege 
was  an  indefatigable  missionary,  visiting  the  Indian 
villages,  forts,  trading  posts,  and  growing  towns 
such  as  Omaha,  Denver,  and  other  hamlets  that 
have  since  become  great  cities.  In  August,  1855, 
there  were  seven  Catholic  families  in  Leavenworth, 
and  he  moved  his  residence  from  the  Pottawatomie 
mission,  at  St.  Mary’s  on  the  Kaw,  to  that  city, 
for  a  permanent  location  to  minister  to  the  fast 
increasing  tide  of  immigration  that  had  turned 
towards  Kansas.  In  1856  the  Benedictines  began 
a  foundation  at  Doniphan,  near  Atchison,  but  a 
short  time  afterwards  they  established  a  priory  and 
a  college  in  the  latter  city.  At  the  invitation  of 
the  Bishop,  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Nazareth, 
Kentucky,  came  to  Kansas  in  1858  and  the  Car¬ 


melite  Fathers  in  1864.  All  of  these  were  of  im¬ 
mense  assistance  during  the  on-rush  of  new  set¬ 
tlers  which  began  in  1854  and  continued  up  to  the 
commencement  of  the  Civil  War.  These  orders,  as 
well  as  the  great  pioneer  Society  of  Jesus,  have 
continued  to  flourish  in  Kansas  far  beyond  the 
most  sanguine  hopes  of  their  founders.  Bishop 
Miege  began  the  building  of  the  cathedral  of  Leav¬ 
enworth  in  the  spring  of  1864  and  it  was  conse¬ 
crated  by  Archbishop  Kenrick  on  8  December, 
1868.  Built  in  the  Romanesque  style  it  has  no 
superior  of  that  type  in  this  country.  Financial 
difficulties  arose  in  connection  with  this  great  un¬ 
dertaking,  which  necessitated  a  begging  trip  to 
South  America  to  obtain  funds  for  the  liquidation 
of  the  debt.  Soon  after  his  return  in  December, 
1874,  with  the  permission  of  the  Holy  See,  he  laid 
aside  his  dignity  of  bishop  and  retired  to  St.  Louis 
University.  Thence  he  withdrew  to  Woodstock 
College,  Maryland,  where  he  acted  as  spiritual 
director.  In  1877  he  was  sent  to  Detroit,  Michigan, 
to  found  a  College  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and 
greatly  endeared  himself  to  the  people  there.  In 
1880  he  retired  once  more  to  Woodstock,  where  he 
died. 

John  Baptist  Miege  was  bom  18  September,  1815, 
at  La  Foret,  Upper  Savoy,  Italy.  He  studied 
classics  and  philosophy  at  the  Seminary  of  Mon- 
tieri,  Italy,  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Milan, 
23  October,  1836;  was  ordained  7  September,  1847, 
at  Rome,  where  he  was  made  professor  of  philoso¬ 
phy  in  the  Roman  College.  Driven  from  Italy  by 
the  political  troubles  of  the  time  he  was  sent,  at  his 
own  request,  to  the  Indian  Missions  of  the  United 
States.  In  1849  he  was  assistant  pastor  of  St. 
Charles’  Church  at  St.  Charles,  Missouri;  in  1850 
he  was  socius  of  the  Master  of  Novices  at  Floris¬ 
sant,  where  he  taught  the  class  of  moral  theology, 
and  from  there  he  went  to  the  University  of  St. 
Louis,  where  he  stayed  until  his  consecration.  In 
1871  he  had  been  given  a  coadjutor  in  the  person  of 
Very  Rev.  Louis  Mary  Fink,  prior  of  the  Benedic¬ 
tine  monastery  at  Atchison,  and  with  some  experi¬ 
ence  in  the  missions  of  Pennsylvania,  Kentucky, 
New  Jersey  and  Illinois.  He  was  consecrated  titular 
Bishop  of  Eucarpia,  on  11  June,  by  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas 
Foley,  D.D.,  Coadjutor  Bishop  and  Administrator 
of  the  Diocese  of  Chicago.  Upon  the  retirement 
of  Bishop  Miege,  Bishope  Fink  assumed  his  duties 
and,  although  weakened  by  ill  health,  he  never 
spared  himself  during  a  period  of  unusual  financial 
difficulties.  There  was  lacking  that  organization  of 
forces  which  belongs  to  a  diocese,  Kansas  and 
all  the  rest  of  the  Western  country  remaining  a 
vicariate  until  six  years  later.  On  22  May,  1877, 
the  Diocese  of  Leavenworth  was  created  by  Pope 
Pius  IX  and  Bishop  Fink  was  transferred  to  the 
new  see  as  its  first  bishop,  with  authority  over  the 
State  of  Kansas  alone.  When  he  assumed  jurisdic¬ 
tion  there  were  within  the  boundaries  of  Kansas  65 
priests,  88  churches,  3  colleges,  4  academies,  1 
hospital,  1  orphan  asylum,  13  parish  schools  with 
1700  pupils;  communities  of  Benedictine,  Jesuit, 
and  Carmelite  priests;  Religious  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Sisters  of  St.  Benedict,  Sisters  of  Charity, 
and  Sisters  of  Loretto;  and  a  Catholic  population 
of  nearly  25,000.  In  1887  there  were  in  Kansas 
137  priests  and  216  churches.  This  rapid  progress 
testifies  to  the  zeal  and  activity  of  the  priests  and 
people  through  all  this  period.  Like  his  pre¬ 
decessor,  Bishop  Fink  did  much  to  encourage 
Catholic  immigration  into  the  State  and  a  number 
of  Catholic  settlements  were  formed  under  his 
influence  and  guidance.  He  sought  out  young  eccle¬ 
siastics  in  the  seminaries  of  Europe  and  America 


LEAVENWORTH 


453 


LEAVENWORTH 


and  augmented  the  secular  clergy  a  hundredfold. 
He  had  Catholic  schools  established  everywhere, 
except  where  absolute  poverty  prevented.  He 
lived  to  see  the  State  of  Kansas  dotted  over  with 
churches  and  institutions  of  every  kind,  with  a 
fine  body  of  clergy  and  a  loyal  and  generous  people. 
He  established  many  new  parishes  and  urged  the 
building  of  substantial  churches,  schools,  and  pas¬ 
toral  residences,  encouraged  the  founding  of  sodali¬ 
ties,  confraternities,  and  religious  associations  of 
various  kinds,  and  especially  encouraged  Catholic 
home  life.  It  was  he  who  introduced  into  Kansas 
the  Franciscans,  Capuchins,  and  Passionists;  the 
Sisters  of  St,  Joseph*  Ursuline  Nuns,  Sisters  of  Mercy, 
Sisters  of  the  Poor  of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  St.  Francis, 
Sisters  of  St.  Agnes,  and  the  Oblate  Colored  Sisters 
of  Providence.  The  Apostleship  of  Prayer-League 
of  the  Sacred  Heart,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society, 
Holy  Family  and  Holy  Childhood  Associations  were 
also  organized  by  him.  Besides  being  noted  for  his 
missionary  zeal,  Bishop  Fink  was  regarded  in  his 
day  as  a  learned  churchman  and  a  master  canonist. 
The  statutes  of  the  second  synod  of  Leavenworth 
are  most  admirable,  and  his  set  of  catechisms  is  not 
excelled.  He  is  the  author  of  a  great  number  of 
pastoral  letters  and  his  innumerable  epistles  to 
priests  and  religious  are  models  of  strict  discipline 
and  wrise  counsel.  After  the  division  of  the  diocese 
by  the  erection  of  the  sees  of  Wichita  and  Con¬ 
cordia  (2  August,  1887),  he  enjoyed  a  respite  from 
his  many  cares.  He  had  already  moved  his  resi¬ 
dence  from  Leavemvorth  to  Kansas  City,  Kansas, 
in  order  to  be  more  accessible  to  the  priests  and 
people  of  the  diocese  because  of  the  converging  of 
all  railroads  at  that  point.  At  the  time  of  his 
death,  17  March,  1904,  the  statistics  of  the  diocese 
show  all  the  details  of  a  well  organized  ecclesiastical 
establishment.  The  laws  of  the  Baltimore  Council 
and  the  statutes  of  the  diocese  were  in  full  force. 
All  financial  affairs  were  well  in  hand  and  a  peace 
and  unity  existed  that  made  the  Leavenworth  Dio¬ 
cese  the  admiration  of  the  entire  West.  There 
were  then  110  priests,  100  churches,  13  stations  and 
chapels,  37  parochial  schools,  4000  pupils,  and  35,000 
Catholics. 

Michael  Fink  was  bom  in  Triftersberg,  Bavaria, 
on  12  June,  1834,  and  after  studying  in 
the  Latin  school  and  gymnasium  at  Ratisbon,  came 
to  this  country  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  Called  to  a 
religious  life,  he  sought  admission  among  the  Bene¬ 
dictines  of  St.  Vincent’s  abbey  in  Westmoreland 
County,  Pennsylvania.  He  was*  received  by  the 
founder,  Abbot  Wimmer,  and  made  his  profession 
January,  1854,  taking  the  name  of  Louis  Maria. 
After  completing  his  theological  studies  he  was 
ordained  priest  on  28  May,  1857,  by  Bishop  Young 
of  Erie.  His  missionary  labors  were  at  Bellefonte, 
Pa.,  and  Newark,  N.  J.  He  was  then  made  pastor 
of  a  congregation  at  Covington,  Ky.,  where  he 
completed  a  fine  church.  He  introduced  into 
the  parish  Benedictine  nuns  to  direct  a  girls’  school, 
which  was  one  of  his  earliest  cares.  Appointed  to 
St.  Joseph’s,  Chicago,  he  aroused  a  spirit  of  faith 
in  his  flock  at  that  place  and  gathered  so  many 
around  the  altar  that  a  new  church  was  required, 
which  he  erected  at  a  cost  of  $80,000,  planting  a 
large  and  well  arranged  school  house  beside  it.  As 
prior  of  the  house  of  his  order  in  Atchison,  Kan., 
he  showed  the  same  zeal  and  ability,  and  when 
Bishop  Miege  wished  to  obtain  a  coadjutor  to 
whom  he  could  resign  his  charge,  he  solicited  the 
appointment  of  the  prior  of  St.  Benedict. 

The  successor  of  Bishop  Fink  was  the  Very  Rev. 
Thomas  F.  Lillis,  vicar-general  of  the  Diocese  of 
Kansas  City,  b.  at  Lexington,  Missouri,  in  1862, 


and  ordained  in  1885.  He  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Leavenworth,  in  Kansas  City,  27  December,  1904. 
His  episcopal  administration  of  the  Leavenworth 
Diocese  was  eminently  successful.  The  growth  of 
the  church  under  his  jurisdiction  was  marked  by 
the  foundation  of  new  congregations,  and  the  build¬ 
ing  of  churches  and  parochial  schools.  Catholic 
societies  were  strengthened,  and  the  diocesan 
statutes  revised  to  enforce  the  decrees  of  the  Third 
Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore  under  present  condi¬ 
tions.  He  adopted  practical  means  of  enforcing 
the  papal  “Motu  Proprio,”  on  the  Church  music. 
In  March,  1910,  he  was  appointed  coadjutor  to  the 
Bishop  of  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  cum  jure  succes¬ 
sions. 

1  he  third  incumbent  of  the  See  of  Leavenworth, 
Rt.  Rev.  John  Ward,  D.  D.,  was  appointed  24 
November,  1910,  and  consecrated  by  His  Excel¬ 
lency,  Most  Rev.  Diomido  Falconio,  Apostolic 
Delegate  to  the  United  States,  22  February,  1911. 
He  had  been  chosen  from  the  clergy  of  the  diocese 
and  on  that  account  the  event  was  one  of  special 
significance  to  the  priests  and  people  of  Kansas. 
As  a  priest,  Bishop  Ward  had  for  twenty-seven 
years,  labored  in  the  diocese  and  endeared  himself 
to  the  people  of  every  parish  where  he  served.  His 
first  permanent  appointment  after  ordination  17 
July,  1884,  was  to  a  little  church  on  the  wild 
prairies  of  Marshall  County,  twelve  miles  from  a 
store  or  postoffice.  Here  he  remained  for  four 
years  and  lent  his  youthful  energy  and  zeal  to  the 
welfare  of  a  scattered  farming  community  along 
what  was  known  as  Irish  Creek.  His  next  appoint¬ 
ment  was  as  pastor  of  the  then  small  town  of 
Parsons,  where  he  spent  seven  years,  and  from 
there  he  went  to  St.  Thomas’  Church,  Kansas  City, 
Kansas,  then  known  as  Armourdale.  When  Very 
Rev.  John  F.  Cunningham,  V.  G.,  became  Bishop  of 
Concordia,  Septembt  •,  1898,  Father  Ward  was  ap¬ 
pointed  rector  of  the  cathedral,  which  important 
charge  he  held  for  eleven  years.  Finally,  when  the 
irremovable  rectorship  of  St.  Mary’s  Church,  Kan¬ 
sas  City,  Kansas,  became  vacant  by  the  retirement 
of  its  venerable  pastor,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Kuhls,  Father 
Ward  won  the  prize  at  the  concursus  ordered  by 
Bishop  Lillis  in  the  Spring  of  1909.  As  rector 
of  St.  Mary’s,  his  administration  soon  proved 
financially  successful  and  his  interest  in  the  chil¬ 
dren  resulted  in  crowded  parochial  schools.  The 
subsequent  story  of  his  life  as  a  bishop  has  been  in 
keeping  with  his  early  record.  Bishop  Ward  was 
born  23  May,  1857,  in  the  vicinity  of  Cleveland, 
Ohio.  He  attended  the  parish  school  at  Olmstead, 
Ohio,  and  passed  through  the  high  school  at  Berea. 
He  continued  his  classical  studies  at  Mount  St. 
Mary’s,  Cincinnati,  and  completed  his  collegiate 
course  at  Sandwich  College,  Ontario.  He  took  up 
his  studies  of  science,  philosophy  and  theology 
under  the  Benedictine  Fathers  at  the  famous  insti¬ 
tution  of  learning  at  St.  Meinrad’s,  Indiana.  He 
was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  the  cathedral 
of  Leavenworth,  17  July,  1884,  bv  his  saintly  pre¬ 
decessor,  Rt.  Rev.  Louis  Mary  Fink,  O.S.B.  The 
religious  _  orders  now  (1922)  established  in  the 
diocese  include:  men,  Jesuit  Fathers  (Missouri 
Province)  St.  Mary’s’  College,  St.  Marj's,  Kansas, 
Fathers  25;  scholastics  15;  Brothers  15;  lay  pro¬ 
fessors  10;  students  500;  Benedictine  Fathers: 
priests  40;  clerics  20;  Brothers  10;  students  325. 
Franciscan  Fathers:  priests  10;  Kansas  Citj',  Em¬ 
poria,  and  Olpe.  Carmelite  Fathers:  American 
Province;  priests  5,  Leavenworth  and  Mt.  Carmel. 
Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Hearts:  Louvain,  Belgium; 
priests  1,  Kansas  City,  Kansas;  women,  Sisters 
of  Charity:  founded  1858;  conducting  academies, 


LECCE 


454 


LEHMKUHL 


hospitals,  asylums,  and  schools  in  six  dioceses. 
Sisters  475;  novices  15;  postulants  15;  mother-house, 
Mount  St.  Marys’  Academy,  Leavenworth,  Kansas. 
Benedictine  Sisters:  founded  over  fifty  years; 
academy  and  school  work;  Sisters  325;  novices  20; 
postulants  15;  mother-house,  St.  Scholastica’s 
Academy,  Atchison,  Kansas.  Ursuline  Sisters: 
founded  1895;  academy  and  school  work;  Sisters 
60;  postulants  10;  novices  10;  mother-house,  Ursu¬ 
line  Academy,  Paola,  Kansas;  Sister  Servants  of 
Mary,  nurses  of  the  sick;  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph; 
Sisters  of  St.  Francis  of  Perpetual  Adoration; 
Sisters  of  th@  Poor  of  St.  Francis;  Sisters  of  the 
Third  Order  of  St.  Francis;  Oblate  Sisters  of  Provi¬ 
dence  (colored) ;  School  Sisters  of  St.  Francis.  By 
latest  statistics  the  diocese  comprises  100  diocesan 
priests,  90  priests  of  religious  orders,  100 
churches  with  resident  priests,  29  missions  with 
churches,  25  diocesan  students,  35  clerics  and 
scholastics,  35  Brothers,  15  chapels,  1025  religious 
women,  including  novices  and  postulants  belonging 
to,  and  having  work  in  the  diocese,  2  colleges  for 
boys  800  students,  3  academies  for  girls  500  stu¬ 
dents,  70  parishes  with  schools  10,000  pupils,  12 
high  schools  600  students,  4  orphan  asylums  300 
orphans;  total  young  people  under  Catholic  care 
12,200;  6  hospitals  9000  patients;  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  70,000.  Thos.  H.  Kin  sella. 

Lecce,  Diocese  of  (Lyciensis;  cf.  C.E.,  IX-107d), 
in  the  province  of  Apulia,  Southern  Italy,  suffragan 
of  Otranto.  Rt.  Rev.  Gennaro  Trama,  born  in 
Naples,  2  January,  1857,  and  appointed  to  the 
titular  see  of  Capharnum  16  December,  1901,  was 
transferred  to  this  see  10  February,  1902,  and  still 
fills  it  (1922).  A  consistorial  decree  of  25  Novem¬ 
ber,  1915,  united  to  this  diocese  the  parish  of  St. 
Caesarius,  which  had  been  partially  subject  to  the 
Archdiocese  of  Otranto.  By  1920  statistics  the  dio¬ 
cese  has  a  Catholic  population  of  113,000  and 
counts  32  parishes,  220  secular  and  70  regular 
clergy,  180  seminarians,  30  Brothers,  125  Sisters, 
and  123  churches  and  chapels. 

Leeds,  Diocese  of  (Loidensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-112b), 
in  the  province  of  Liverpool  is  under  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Robert  Cowgill,  the 
fourth  Bishop  of  Leeds.  He  was  born  in  Broughton, 
23  February,  1860,  and  consecrated  as  Coadjutor 
Bishop  of  Leeds,  30  November,  1905,  and  upon  the 
death  of  Rt.  Rev.  Wm.  Gordon,  third  Bishop  of 
Leeds,  7  June,  1911,  he  succeeded  to  the  see. 
Another  prominent  clergyman  of  the  diocese  who 
died  within  recent  years  was  Mgr.  Canon  Glover, 
domestic  prelate,  d.  13  March,  1918.  During  Bishop 
Cowgill’s  incumbency  many  new  missions  have 
been  opened  in  the  diocese,  and  there  has  been 
extensive  development  in  rescue  work.  The  Victoria 
Cross  was  won  by  several  Catholic  soldiers  of  this 
diocese  during  the  World  War,  and  many  of  the 
clergy  who  served  as  chaplains  won  minor  decora¬ 
tions. 

The  1911  census  of  the  diocese  shows  a  total  popu¬ 
lation  of  3,086,897,  of  whom  122,652  are  Catholic, 
many  of  German  or  Italian  descent.  At  the  present 
time  (1921)  there  are  90  parishes,  140  churches,  3 
convents  for  men  and  38  for  women,  158  priests, 
secular,  and  31  regular,  1  seminary  with  10  semi¬ 
narians,  7  secondary  schools  and  7  academies,  103 
elementary  schools  and  2  industrial  schools.  All 
the  public  elementary  and  secondary  schools  re¬ 
ceive  aid  from  the  Government,  but  some  few 
private  schools  do  not. 

Among  the  charitable  institutions  are  12  homes 
of  various  kinds,  for  orphans,  for  deaf  and  dumb, 
and  for  working  girls  and  boys,  2  hospitals  under 


the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  several  night  shelters 
under  Catholic  supervision,  and  1  day  nursery  at 
Bradford.  All  the  public  institutions  permit  the 
ministry  of  Catholic  priests.  The  Eucharistic 
League,  Apostolic  Union  and  Society  of  Yorkshire 
Brethren  are  organized  among  the  clergy,  and  among 
the  laity  the  Catholic  Federation,  Knights  of  St. 
Columba,  Catholic  Women’s  League,  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul  Society,  Rescue  Society,  and  Catenian 
Society  are  established. 

Legacies  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-115). — In  willing  property 
to  the  Church  the  requirements  of  the  civil  law  are 
to  be  observed  as  far  as  possible;  but  if  any  of 
these  have  been  omitted  the  heirs  must  be  warned 
to  carry  out  the  wash  of  the  testator. 

Legate  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-118).— In  1922  there  were 
papal  nunciatures  in  Argentina,  Austria,  Bavaria, 
Belgium,  Brazil,  Chile,  Colombia,  Czechoslovakia, 
France,  Germany,  Hungary,  Jugoslavia,  Paraguay, 
Peru,  Poland,  Portugal,  Rumania,  Spain,  Switzer¬ 
land,  and  Venzuela;  and  internunciatures  in  Bolivia, 
Costa  Rica,  Haiti,  Holland,  Honduras,  Luxemburg, 
and  Nicaragua.  There  were  five  Apostolic  Delega¬ 
tions  depending  on  the  Consistorial  Congregation: 
in  Canada  and  Newfoundland,  Cuba,  Mexico,  the 
Philippine  Islands,  and  the  United  States;  and  ten 
depending  on  the  Congregation  for  the  Eastern 
Church  or  on  Propaganda:  in  Turkey,  Albania, 
Greece,  Egypt,  Syria,  Persia,  India,  Japan,  Meso¬ 
potamia,  Kurdistan  and  Armenia  Minor,  and  Aus¬ 
tralia. 

Leghorn,  Diocese  of  (Liburnensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-131a),  in  the  province  of  Tuscany,  Central 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Pisa.  Rt.  Rev.  Sabatino  Giani, 
appointed  to  this  see  17  December,  1900,  died  18 
February,  1921,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Giovanni  Piccioni.  Born  in  the  diocese  of  Narni, 
he  studied  and  was  ordained  at  Pistoia,  served  as  a 
professor  and  prefect  of  studies  in  that  seminary, 
was  made  vicar  general  in  August,  1920,  and  ap¬ 
pointed  bishop  13  June,  1921.  The  diocese  com¬ 
prises  a  Catholic  population  of  160,512,  and  by 
1920  statistics  is  credited  with  33  parishes,  85 
secular  and  56  regular  clergy,  20  seminarians,  67 
churches  or  chapels,  16  Brothers,  and  219  religious 
women. 

Le  Gras,  Louise  de  Marillac,  Blessed.  See 
Louise  de  Marillac,  Blessed. 

Lehmkuhl,  Augustine,  moral  theologian,  b.  on 
23  September,  1834,  at  Hagen,  Westphalia;  d.  at 
Valkenburg,  Holland,  1  July,  1918.  He  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus  on  15  October,  1853;  was 
ordained  on  20  August,  1862,  and  after  teaching 
Scripture  (1  year)  and  dogmatic  theology  (6  years) 
filled  the  chair  of  moral  theology  at  Maria  Laach. 
Exiled  from  Germany  during  the  Kulturkampf, 
he  continued  to  teach  at  Ditton  Hall,  England, 
till  1880,  when  owing  to  ill-health  he  returned  to 
Holland,  where  he  completed  his  “Theologia 
Moralis”  (1883),  which  has  since  remained  the 
standard  manual.  He  supplemented  this  work  with 
his  “Casus  Conscientise”  (1902).  Lehmkuhl  made 
a  thorough  study  of  the  application  of  moral  prin¬ 
ciples  to  the  new  problems  and  conditions  arising 
in  our  modern  complex  world,  and  his  advice  in 
solving  difficult  problems  was  constantly  sought  and 
accepted  from  every  comer  of  the  globe.  He  was 
a  contributor  to  the  “Stimmen  aus  MaVia  Laach” 
(now  “Stimmen  der  Zeit”),  “The  American  Eccles¬ 
iastical  Review,”  “Der  Katholik,”  and  other  pub¬ 
lications,  and  wrote  among  other  works:  “Herz- 
Jesu  Monat,”  “Die  sociale  Frage  und  die  staatliche 


LEIRIA 


LE  MANS 


A  **  r~ 

4  oo 


Gewalt,  Der  christliche  Arbeiter,”  “Probabilismus 
vmdicatus.  ’  He  edited  De  Ponte’s  “Meditations”: 
Schneider,  “Manuale  sacerdotum”;  Hausherr,  “Com¬ 
pendium  caeremoniarum”;  Bona,  “De  sacrificio 
missae  ,  Reuter,  Neo-confessarius  practice  instruc¬ 
ts  ;  Herder,  “Bibliotheca  ascetica  mystica”;  and 
otheis,  and  collaborated  on  the  “Kirchenlexicon,” 
“Konversationslexicon,”  “Kirchliches  Handlexicon” 
and  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia  (cf.  articles  on 
Di\orce;  Theology,  Moral  ;  Marriage,  Sacrament 
of  ;  Mariana)  . 

Leiria,  Diocese  of  (Leiriensis),  Portugal,  suf¬ 
fragan  to  the  Patriarchate  of  Lisbon,  was  erected 
by  1  aul  III,  22  May,  1552.  Owing  to  adverse  cir¬ 
cumstances  the  diocese  was  suppressed  by  Leo  XIII 
30  September,  1881,  and  25  of  its  parishes  were 
united  to  the  See  of  Lisbon,  the  other  25  to  the 
See  of  Coimbra.  In  answer  to  the  wishes  of  the 
bishops  of  Portugal,  particularly  those  of  Lisbon 
and  Coimbra,  Benedict  XV  re-established  the*  dio¬ 
cese  of  Leiria  by  his  Apostolic  Letter  of  17  January, 
1918.  The  fifty  parishes  which  had  constituted  the' 
original  diocese  were  taken  back  from  Lisbon  and 
Coimbra  and  re-united,  with  Leiria  as  the  episcopal 
city  A  revenue  fund  of  5000  francs  was  offered 
by  the  priests  from  revenues  of  indults,  the  chan¬ 
cellery  treasury  and  from  offerings  of  the  faithful, 
and  plans  were  made  for  the  erection  of  a  diocesan 
seminary  as  soon  as  circumstances  should  permit. 
f1  t  •  l  bishop  should  be  appointed  the  Patriarch 
of  Lisbon  was  appointed  apostolic  administrator 
of  the  new  see.  The  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Jose 
Alves  Correia  da  Silva,  was  appointed  to  the  newly 
erected  diocese  on  15  May,  1920,  and  consecrated 
in  Oporto,  the  diocese  of  his  birth,  25  July  of  the 
same  year. ' 

,  Jj16  diocese  comprises  150,000  Catholics  and  now 
(1921)  includes  51  parishes,  51  churches,  1  monas¬ 
tery  for  men,  _  80  secular  priests,  3  regulars,  1  lay 
brothei,  1  seminary  with  36  seminarians,  4  hospitals, 
and  1  day  nursery.  Two  Catholic  periodicals, 
Mensageiro  and  “Portomosense”  are  published  in 
the  diocese. 


> ear  his  bitter  article  on  Renan  placed"  him  in  the 
1  me light,  and  a  little  later  lie  became  literary  critic 
in  the  Journal  des  Debats,”  though  he  contributed 
also  to  the  Revue  des  deux  mondes”  and  daily 
papers  like  LEcho  de  Pans,”  and  “Le  Gaulois.” 
His  criticisms,  in  which  he  displays  a  keenness  of 
observation  and  great  power  of  analysis,  reprinted 
under  the  title  of  ‘Les  contemporains”  (6  vols.) 
are  his  masterpiece.  Notable  among  these  studies 
are  the  articles  on  Hugo,  Ohnet,  Zola,  and 
Lamartine.  His  theatrical  criticisms  re-united  in 
Les  impressions  de  theatre”  (10  vols.)  are  also 
biilliant,  but  less  permanent.  These  essays  won  for 
him  a  chair  in  the  French  Academy  in  1895. 
Lemaitre  was  more  than  a  theatrical  critic  he 
wrote  a  number  of  plays  like  the  psychological 
La  Revoltee,  the  political  satire  “Le  depute 
Levean,  Manage  blanc,”  and  “Le  Pardon.”  His 
plays  stirred  up  a  good  deal  of  criticism,  and  were 
undoubtedly  of  a  high  order,  but  the  public  was 
unable  to  appreciate  their  novelty  as  it  deserved. 
Among  his  other  noteworthy  writings  are  his 
treatises  on  Corneille,  Rousseau,  Racine,  Fenelon, 
Chateaubriand.  Lemaitre  was  a  royalist  and  a 
patriot,  and  to  this  we  owe  his  “Opinions  a 
repandre,”  La  campagne  nationalists, ”  “Theories  et 
impressions,”  “Discours  royalistes,”  and  “La 
francmagonnerie,”  as  well  as  the  foundation  of  the 
Ligue  de  la  Patrie  Frangaise,  of  which  he  was  a 
founder  and  a  director. 


Leitmeritz,  Diocese  of.  See  Litomerice. 

Lejay,  Paul,  classical  scholar,  b.  at  Dijon,  France 
on  3  May,  1861;  d.  in  July,  1920.  This  voluminous 
contributor  to  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia  was 
educated  at  Paris  in  the  School  of  Higher  Studies. 
He  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1890,  and  in 
that  year  was  made  professor  of  Latin  philology 
+u  tt  .  a^bolic  Institute,  Paris.  He  was  fellow  of 
the  University  of  France,  vice-president  of  the 
Section  of  Philology  at  the  International  Catholic 
Congress,  Fribourg,  Switzerland.  He  was  a  col¬ 
laborator  with  Vacant  in  his  “Dictionnaire  theo- 
Jogique,  .  and  the  author  of  many  linguistic, 
archaeological  and  theological  articles  which  ap¬ 
peared  in  the  scientific  reviews  of  Europe. 

Lemaitre,  Franqois-Elie- Jules,  French  author 
and  literary  critic,  b.  at  Vennecy,  Loiret,  on  27 
April,  1853;  d.  at  Tavers  near  Beaugency,  on  5 
August,  1914.  He  was  educated  in  the  petit  semi- 
nmres  of  La  Chapelle-Saint-Mesnin  near  Orleans, 
and  A  otre-Dame-des-Champs,  Paris,  and  after 
^rom  the  Ecole  normale  superieure  in 
87o,  he  taught  at  Le  Havre  and  Algiers,  and  sub¬ 
sequently  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  French 
literature  in  the  faculties  of  Besangon  and  Grenoble. 
As  early  as  1878  he  had  begun  contributing  literary 
essays  to  the  “Revue  bleue”;  these  were  followed 

t  ic>W0  ,V0^umes  °f  pleasing  and  delicate  verse. 
In  1884  he  resigned  his  university  chair  to  devote 
himself  exclusively  to  literature.  The  following 


Le  Mans,  Diocese  of  (Cenomanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-143b),  is  under  the  administration  of  the  Most 
Rev.  Georges-Francois-Xavier-Marie  Grente,  who 
was  elected  Bishop  of  Le  Mans  on  30  January,  1918, 
to  succeed  Bishop  de  La  Porte,  who  had  retired 
on  account  of  poor  health,  and  had  been  made 
Titular  Bishop  of  Berisa.  Bishop  de  La  Porte  came 
to  the  See  of  Le  Mans  in  1912  as  successor  to  the 
Most  Rev.  Marie-Prosper-Adolphe  de  Bonfils,  who 
had  filled  the  see  from  1898  until  his  death  on  2 
June,  1912. 

Bishop  Grente  was  born  at  Percy  in  1872  and 
made  his  studies^  at  the  diocesan  college  of  St.  Lo 
and  the  grand  seminaire  of  Coutances.  He  was  a 
professor  at  the  petit  seminaire  of  Mortain,  later 
director  of  the  diocesan  college  of  St.  Lo  in  1903, 
and  in  1912  was  chosen  for  the  vice-rectorship  of 
the  Catholic  Institute  of  Paris,  but  was  retained 
by  his  bishop.  However,  in  1916  he  was  made 
Superior  of  the  Institute  of  St.  Paul  at  Cherbourg, 
and  on  30  April,  1918,  he  was  elected  Bishop  of 
Le  Mans  and  consecrated  17  April  of  the  same 
year. 

During  the  World  War  33  of  the  priests  of  this 
diocese  gave  up  their  lives,  6  were  named 
chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  10  received  the 
medaille  militaire ,  3  the  medaille  des  epidemics, 
and  100  the  croix  de  guerre. 

By  the  present  (1921)  statistics  the  diocese  in¬ 
cludes  394  parishes,  400  churches,  33  convents  for 
women,  400  religious  women,  600  secular  priests, 

2  seminaries  with  150  seminarians,  5  colleges  for 
men  with  110  professors  and  1000  students,  4  high 
schools  with  40  teachers  and  250  girl  students,  149 
elementary  schools  with  160  teachers  and  4470 
pupils.  >  Among  the  charitable  institutions  main¬ 
tained  in  the  diocese  are,  1  home,  5  asylums,  30 
hospitals,  1  refuge,  and  2  nurseries.  Four  of  the 
public  institutions  allow  the  priests  of  the  diocese 
to  minister  in  them.  Various  parish  bulletins  are 
published  as  well  as  two  others  papers,  the  “Semaine 
du  Fidele”  and  the  “Pays  Sarthois.”  The  Catholic 
population  of  the  diocese  numbers  approximately 
400,000. 


LEMBERG 


456 


LERIDA 


Lemberg,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Lwow. 

Leon,  Diocese  of  (Leonensis,  in  America  Cen¬ 
tralis),  in  the  Republic  of  Nicaragua,  Central  Amer¬ 
ica,  suffragan  of  Managua.  The  whole  territory 
of  the  republic  was  originally  comprised  in  the  dio¬ 
cese  of  Nicaragua,  but  by  a  decree  of  2  December, 
1913,  Leo  XIII  divided  this  diocese  and  erected 
the  new  diocese  of  Leon.  It  comprises  the  prov¬ 
inces  of  Leon,  Chinandega,  Esteli,  and  Nueva 
Segovia.  It  is  bounded  on  the  North  by  the 
Archdioceses  of  Tegucigalpa  and  Honduras,  on  the 
South  and  West  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  on  the 
East  by  the  Archdiocese  of  Managua  and  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Bluefields.  The  first  bishop 
was  Rt.  Rev.  Simeon  Pereira  y  Castellon,  born 
in  this  territory  in  1863,  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Diocsesarea  2  December,  1895,  at  the  age  of 
thirty-two,  and  made  coadjutor  to  tjie  Bishop  of 
Nicaragua,  succeeded  to  that  see  31  July,  1908, 
and  was  transferred  to  Leon  2  December,  1913,  and 
was  also  named  titular  Archbishop  of  Cyzicus  15 
January,  1914.  He  was  made  an  assistant  at  the 
pontifical  throne  20  December,  1920,  and  died  2 
February,  1921.  He  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Nicolas  Tijerino  y  Loaiciga,  appointed  21  Decem¬ 
ber,  1921.  The  diocese  comprises  a  population  of 
199,000;  no  statistics  are  yet  published. 

Leon,  Diocese  of  (Leonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-177.c),  in  the  Statfe  of  Guanajuato,  Mexico, 
suffragan  of  Michoacan.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Emeterio  Valverde  y  Tellez,  born  in  Villa 
del  Carbon,  Mexico,  1864,  canon  of  the  archdio¬ 
cese  and  secretary  to  the  archbishop,  appointed  7 
August,  1909,  to  succeed  Archbishop  Moray  del 
Rio,  promoted.  The  1920  statistics  credit  the  dio¬ 
cese  with  800,000  inhabitants,  12  canons,  6  chapters, 
1  seminary  with  24  professors,  25  parishes,  2  vicar 
pastors,  243  secular  and  39  regular  clergy,  and  503 
churches  and  chapels. 

Leon  (Legionensis),  Diocese  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX- 
175a),  suffragan  of  Burgos,  in  Spain.  The  present 
bishop  of  the  diocese  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Alvarez 
y  Miranda,  b.  at  Minera,  11  December,  1851,  or¬ 
dained  18  December,  1875,  elected  18  July,  1913, 
consecrated  21  November,  enthroned  7  December  fol¬ 
lowing  and  published  25  May,  1914.  The  population 
of  the  diocese  consists  of  Europeans,  all  of  whom  are 
Catholics.  In  1921  the  diocese  contained  863  par¬ 
ishes,  1312  churches,  5  monasteries,  and  1  convent 
for  men,  15  monasteries,  27  convents  for  women, 
985  secular  priests,  90  regulars,  2  seminaries  with 
382  seminarians.  The  following  educational  institu¬ 
tions  exist  in  the  diocese:  4  colleges  for  men  with 
83  professors,  850  students,  52  for  women,  77  pro¬ 
fessors,  1325  kudents,  5  secondary  schools,  16  teach¬ 
ers,  800  students  (720  boys  and  80  girls),  8  acad¬ 
emies,  74  professors,  962  students  (850  boys,  112 
girls),  2  normal  schools,  24  teachers,  250  students, 
a  training  school,  15  teachers,  225  students,  1044 
elementary  schools,  3  industrial  schools,  9  teachers, 
180  students.  The  schools  are  all  supported  by  the 
Government.  The  diocese  has  the  following  insti¬ 
tutions:  7  hospitals,  6  asylums,  8  homes  for  the 
aged  and  infirm,  2  day  nurseries,  9  charitable  insti¬ 
tutions  of  various  kinds.  The  principal  events 
which  have  taken  place  since  1913  are  the  follow¬ 
ing:  the  royal  collegiate  church  of  St.  Isidor  was 
completely  restored  and  opened  to  the  faithful,  six 
new  religious  communities  were  established.  The 
ninth  centenary  of  the  Fuero,  or  charter  of  rights 
of  Leon  was  celebrated,  a  magnificent  hospital  was 
opened  under  the  patronage  of  the  bishop  and  the 
cathedral  chapter,  the  Federation  of  Catholic  rural 
syndicates  was  established  and  is  now  in  a  flourish¬ 


ing  condition,  as  is  also  the  Federation  of  Catholic 
students.  Since  the  war  a  yearly  collection  has 
been  taken  up  in  the  diocese  for  the  benefit  of  the 
children  of  Central  Europe. 

Leopold,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Lwow. 

Leopoldville,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Leopoldo- 
politanensis),  in  the  Belgian  Congo.  This  terri¬ 
tory  erected  in  1888  under  the  name  of  Belgian  or 
Independent  Congo,  had  its  boundaries  slightly 
changed  in  1911,  and  by  a  decree  of  3  April,  1919, 
it  was  erected  anew  under  its  present  name. 
Another  Decree  of  31  May,  1921,  changed  its  bound¬ 
aries  again,  taking  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
region  of  Mayomba  and  annexing  it  to  the  Pre¬ 
fecture  Apostolic  of  Matadi.  It  now  comprises  that 
part  of  the  Congo  between  Boma  and  Kionza  ex¬ 
tending  as  far  as  the  French  Congo.  It  is  entrusted 
to  the  Congregation  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mar#  of  Scheutveld,  the  present  vicar  apostolic 
being  Rt.  Rev.  Camille  Van  Ronsle,  appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  Lymbrias,  5  June,  1896.  The 
episcopal  residence  is  at  Leopoldville.  By  latest 
statistics  the  vicariate  comprises  11  missions  or 
stations,  11  churches,  4  chapels,  4  convents  of  Sis¬ 
ters,  33  regular  clergy,  2  houses  with  20  Brothers 
and  8  other  Brothers  scattered  through  the  various 
missions,  1  preparatory  seminary  with  25  students, 
11  elementary  schools  with  925  pupils,  2  industrial 
schools  with  70  pupils,  1  dispensary,  1  orphanage 
for  boys  and  2  for  girls.  The  Government  gives  a 
certain  amount  of  financial  assistance  to  the  Catho¬ 
lic  institutions. 

Le  Puy,  Diocese  of  (Aniciensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-185d),  in  the  department  of  Haute-Loire,  France, 
suffragan  of  Bourges.  The  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Thomas  Boutry,  born  in  Neuvy,  France,  1845,  or¬ 
dained  1869,  studied  at  the  French  seminary  in 
Rome,  made  a  titular  chancellor  in  1883,  vicar  gen¬ 
eral  in  1893  and  appointed  bishop  31  May,  1907,  to 
succeed  Bishop  Guillois,  retired.  The  jubilee  of 
Our  Lady  of  Le  Puy,  one  of  the  oldest  in  the 
church,  celebrated  during  the  Middle  Ages  when¬ 
ever  Ascension  Thursday  fell  on  the  feast  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  was  celebrated  in  1921, 
Ascension  Day  following  on  24  March,  the  day 
before  the  feast,  and  the  jubilee  opened  on  that 
day  and  lasted  for  eighteen  days,  closing  on  10 
April,  the  second  Sunday  after  Easter.  The  1920 
statistics  credit  the  diocese  with  a  population  of 
303,838,  280  parishes,  202  vicariates,  30  chaplains 
and  chaplaincies,  649  priests,  of  whom  37  are  pro¬ 
fessors,  78  retired  and  22  filling  various  other  posts, 
3  houses  of  Brothers,  5  cloistered  convents,  and  15 
religious  communities. 

Lerida,  Diocese  of  (Illerdensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX- 
188c),  suffragan  of  Tarragona  in  Spain.  According 
to  the  statistics  of  1921  the  Catholics  number  189,- 
700.  The  diocese  contains  257  parishes,  326 
churches,  4  convents  for  men,  33  for  women  with 
381  sisters,  450  secular  priests  and  67  regulars. 
Through  the  initiative  of  the  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph 
Mirailles  y  Sbert,  the  episcopal  heraldic  gallery  of 
Lerida,  after  a  thorough  search  of  its  archives,  has 
been  placed  in  the  hall  of  the  episcopal  palace. 
Due  to  the  influence  of  the  above  mentioned  prel¬ 
ate  the  ancient  cathedral  was  declared  a  national 
monument  by  royal  order  on  12  June,  1918.  The 
present  incumbent  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Mirailles 
y  Sbert,  b.  at  Palma  de  Mallorca  (Balearic  Islands), 
14  September,  1860,  ordained  7  June,  1884,  elected 
28  May,  1914,  to  succeed  Mgr.  Ruano  y  Martin, 
deceased. 


LESCHER 


457 


LIBYA 


Lescher,  Francsi  Mary,  educationist,  b.  in  1825; 
d.  in  1901.  She  entered  the  Institute  of  the  Sisters 
of  Notre  Dame  of  Namur,  in  which  she  was  known 
as  Sister  Mary  of  St.  Philip.  She  was  thirty  years 
old  and  she  had  been  a  mother  to  her  brothers 
and  sisters  after  their  mother’s  death,  when  she 
entered  religion.  She  became  a  brilliant  teacher 
and  it  was  chiefly  through  her  remarkable  ability 
that  the  school  which  she  founded  and  over  which 
she  presided  at  Mt.  Pleasant  achieved  its  reputation. 

Lesina,  Diocese  of  (Pharensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX- 
191b),  with  the  united  titles  of  Brazza  and  Lissa 
(Brachiensis  et  Lissensis),  in  Dalmatia,  Jugoslavia, 
suffragan  of  Zara.  Rt.  Rev.  Jordan  Zaninovic,  O.P., 
appointed  to  this  see  7  January,  1903,  died  22 
October,  1917,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Luca 
Pappalafa.  Born  in  Lesina  in  1851,  he  served  as 
pastor  dean  of  San-Pietro-Brazza,  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Sebenico  27  November,  1911,  and  was 
transferred  14  September,  1918.  By  1920  statistics 
the  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  numbers 
59,026,  divided  among  60  parishes  served  by  82 
secular  and  18  regular  clergy. 

Letellier,  Victoire,  in  religion  Mere  Ste.  Angele, 
foundress,  b.  at  Mortain,  Normandy,  on  24  October, 

,  1778,  d.  at  Paris,  1859.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
an  inspector  of  the  Due  d’Orleans  domain  at  Mort¬ 
main  and  studied  at  the  convent  of  Barenton. 
During  the  Revolution,  her  father  having  become 
warden  of  Mortmain  prison,  Victoire  seized  her 
many  opportunities  to  exercise  her  charity.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-eight  she  joined  the  Dames 
Augustmes  du  Tres-Saint  Coeur  de  Marie,  who  had 
charge  of  the  hospital  at  Saumur.  In  1816  she  was 
mistress  of  novices,  and  in  1823  superioress.  Owing 
to  the  persecution  of  the  local  civil  officials,  the 
Sisters  had  to  quit  the  hospital,  and  by  the  favor 
of  Archbishop  de  Quelen  of  Paris  they  reorganized 
in  the  capital  under  the  name  of  Augustinians  of 

MooS°ly  Heart  of  Mary  in  the  Rue  de  l’Arbalete 
(1828)  Eleven  years  later  they  moved  to  the 

Rue  de  la  Sante,  where  provision  was  made  not 
merely  for  the  aged  and  sick,  but  for  young  widows 
and  girls  without  protection.  The  institute  received 
papal  approbation  after  Mere  Ste.  Angele’s  death, 
and  new  foundations  have  been  made,  as  at  St! 
Leonards  in  England  and  Angers  and  Nice  in 
France. 

1916F)RNAKD’  Vie  de  la  R^rende  Mdre  Sainte  Angele  (Paris, 

Lettonia.  See  Latvia. 

Liberia,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (Liberiensis; 
w  m  the  province  of  Liberia, 

West  Africa,  with  residence  at  Monrovia.  This 
territory  was  first  entrusted  to  the  Fathers  of  the 
Commny  oi  Mary,  and  in  August,  1906,  transferred 
in ii  •  African  Missionaries  of  Lyons  and  again  in 
1911  it  was  made  over  to  the  Irish  branch  (Cork) 
of  the  African  Missions.  The  present  prefect  apos¬ 
tolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Jean  Oge,  born  at  Ettendorf,  Alsace, 
m  1868,  studied  at  the  seminary  of  the  African  Mis¬ 
sionaries  of  Lyons,  ordained  in  1890,  served  for  sev¬ 
enteen  years  in  the  mission  of  the  Gold  Coast,  was 
named  superior  of  the  native  seminary  of  Ibadan 
(vicariate  of  Benin),  and  appointed  Prefect  of 
Liberia  3  January,  1910.  By  the  1920  statistics  the 
*  territory  counts  a  total  population  of  1,700,000,  of 
whom  2400  are  Catholic,,  and  5594  catechumens; 
these  are  served  by  12  European  priests,  2  churches, 

inPriinclpa^  staRons>  6  missions  and  10  sub-stations, 

10  element arj^  schools  with  15  teachers  and  1200 
pupils  and  5  dispensaries.  During  the  World  War 
religious  meetings  were  held  at  Monrovia  for  the 


purpose  of  raising  funds  in  behalf  of  war  orphans, 
and  all  the  allied  consuls  assisted;  the  Syrians  sent 
large  sums  to  England,  France,  and  the  United 
otates  to  be  used  for  charitable  purposes.  During 
the  whole  war  period  starvation  was  very  prevalent 
on  the  Kroa  coast  and  in  order  to  save  its  numerous 
school  children  the  prefecture  was  obliged  to  incur 
a  debt  of  £2000. 

Libya,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Lybue;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV-58d),  in  Africa,  erected  23  February,  1913! 
from  the  prefecture  apostolic  of  Tripoli,  to  which 
it  corresponds,  with  Mgr.  Ludovico  Antomelli  as 
first  Vicar  Apostolic.  Following  his  transfer  to 
the  episcopal  see  of  Bagnorea,  Mgr.  Giacinto 
Tomzza,  O.F.M.,  formerly  Vicar  General  of  the 
Apostolic  Delegation  of  Syria  and  late  superior 
general  of  the  Franciscans  of  Constantinople,  was 
appointed  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Lybia  in  October, 

1919.  He  arrived  in  Tripoli,  in  the  early  part  of 

1920,  equipped  with  thirty  years’  experience  in  the 
mission  work  of  the  Orient.  The  newly  appointed 
vicar  apostolic  instilled  new  life  into  the  vicariate. 
Four  new  stations  were  founded:  Zuara  in  Tripoli, 
Cyrene-Marsa  Susa,  Merg-Tolmetta,  and  Tobruk 
in  Cyrenaica.  He  advanced  the  scholastic  institu¬ 
tions,  erected  new  parishes,  rejuvenated  the  exist¬ 
ing  religious  organizations  for  the  young  or  else 
founded  new  ones,  installed  religious  instruction  in 
the  public  schools,  and  distributed  with  equity  the 
responsibilities  of  the  different  parishes.  The  vica¬ 
riate  is  at  present  occupied  with  the  obligation  of 
raising  the  necessary  funds  for  the  building  of  the 
cathedral  church  and  presbytery,  towards  which  the 
Pope  donated  100,000  libellas. 

The  World  War  greatly  retarded  the  progress  of 
the  mission.  Ten  of  the  priests  served  with  dis¬ 
tinction  as  chaplains  in  the  army,  and  three  wTere 
cited  and  decorated  for  bravery.  Among  the  re¬ 
cently  deceased  of  note  are:  Sister  Mary  Simplicia 
Vecchiotti,  of  Cremona  of  the  Franciscan  Mis¬ 
sionary  Sisters  of  Egypt,  d.  12  April,  1916,  aged 
thirty  years,  after  a  life  of  unusual  sanctity;  Valen¬ 
tino  Cagnocci  de  Faltona  of  Arezzo,  O.  F'.  M.,  died 
30  July,  1921,  after  forty  years  of  untiring  labor 
among  the  missions  of  Lybia;  founded  and  directed 
the  mission  at  Homs,  where  he  built  an  imposing 
church;  Bonaventura  Rosselti,  O.F.M.,  from  1907 
to  1913  Prefect  Apostolic  of  Lybia,  later  Prefect 
Apostolic  of  Rhodes,  wffiere  he  died  9  August,  1921 ; 
Brother  Paul  Liekens,  whose  death  in  November, 
1921,  crowned  a  life  of  unselfish  devotion  to  duty; 
Giovanni  De  Martino,  Italian  senator  and  governor 
of  Cyrenaica,  devoted  to  furthering  the  interests 
of  the  Church  and  a  true  benefactor  of  the  vicariate, 
died  23  November,  1921. 

The  Catholic  population  of  20,000  is  increasing 
daily,  and  is  largely  made  up  of  those  of  Italian 
or  Maltese  descent.  Mohammedans  and  Jews  are 
numerous.  There  are  3  secular  priests,  20  Fran- 
cisan  priests,  12  Franciscan  lay  brothers,  and  11 
Christian  Brothers;  7  .parishes  with  7  churches, 

4  missions,  18  chapels,  6  stations,  2  convents  foi 
men  and  13  for  women,  1  college  for  girls  with  3 
teachers  and  30  students,  6  elementary  schools  for 
boys  and  11  for  girls  with  a  combined  total  of  35 
teachers  and  1400  pupils,  1  hospital,  3  orphanages, 

7  day  nurseries,  1  refuge  for  poor  girls,  5  classes 
of  catechetical  instruction.  The  numerous  Catholic 
primary  schools  are  flourishing,  and  are  under  the 
direction  of  the  Vicar  Apostolic,  who  supplies  the 
teachers  and  some  of  the  poorer  pupils  with 
the  necessities  of  life.  The  Government  contributes 
also  to  the  support  of  the  Catholic  institutions. 
There  are  other  Catholic  schools  which  are  sup¬ 
ported  by  the  Italian  National  Association  for  the 


LIEBRNECHT 


458 


LILLE 


Missions.  Not  only  the  pupils  of  the  Catholic 
schools,  but  also  those  of  the  public  grammar  schools 
receive  daily  religious  instruction  from  appointed 
priests  and  Sisters.  The  public  hospitals  have  Sis¬ 
ters  in  attendance  and  also  a  Catholic  chaplain. 
There  are  10  religious  associations  for  the  young, 
3  of  which  are  allied  with  the  National  Association, 
"Catholic  Italian  Youth.” 

Liebknecht,  Karl.  See  Spartacus  Group. 

Liege,  Eupen,  and  Malmedy,  Diocese  of 
(Leodiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-236a),  in  Belgium, 
dependent  on  Malines.  After  the  establishment  of 
the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  the  diocese  com¬ 
prised  the  Provinces  of  Liege  and  Limburg.  On 
6  May,  1833,  Mgr.  Van  Bommel  divided  the 
Province  of  Liege  into  eleven  deaneries.  In  1839 
the  diocese  lost  those  parishes  which  were  situated 
in  Dutch  Limburg.  In  1921  the  new  diocese  of 
Eupen-Malmedy,  formerly  a  German  possession 
belonging  to  the  archdiocese  of  Cologne  and  con¬ 
taining  70,000  inhabitants,  wras  united  to  the  Dio¬ 
cese  of  Liege.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Martin-Hubert  Rutten,  b.  at  Geystingen,  18  Decem¬ 
ber,  1841,  ordained  28  April,  1867,  elected  bishop 
16  December,  1901,  consecrated  at  Liege  6  January, 
1902,  made  assistant  to  the  pontifical  throne,  12 
November,  1920.  The  diocese  contains  1,215,000 
Catholics;  of  wrhom  350,000  are  Flemish,  850,000 
Walloons,  and  15,000  speak  German.  There  are 
685  parishes,  40  deaneries,  about  700  churches  and 
chapels  including  44  curacies,  2  abbeys  and  30 
convents  for  men,  10  monasteries,  1  abbey  and 
450  convents  for  women  with  5000  Sisters  and  about 
150  lay  brothers.  The  secular  priests  number  1500, 
regulars  about  200.  The  diocesan  seminary  is  at 
Liege  w7ith  160  seminarians.  The  following  educa¬ 
tional  institutions  exist  in  the  diocese:  19  colleges 
for  men,  200  teachers  and  5000  students;  3  normal 
schools,  27  teachers,  200  students ;  elementary 
schools  in  every  parish.  Nearly  all  the  normal 
and  elementary  schools  are  supported  by  the 
Government.  There  are  many  public  hospitals  in 
care  of  various  orders  of  Sisters,  also  3  refuges 
for  girls.  A  great  number  of  periodicals  are  printed 
in  the  diocese.  Liege  was  the  first  province  of 
Belgium  which  was  invaded  by  the  Germans. 
Ruin  and  devastation  followed  in  their  path. 
Numberless  churches  and  villages  were  destroyed 
and  the  population  was  subjected  to  great  misery 
and  suffering.  Mgr.  Rutten  distinguished  him¬ 
self  during  the  siege  and  occupation  of  Liege  by 
his  fearless  attitude  towards  the  conquerors  and 
his  continued  protests  against  their  treatment  of  his 
people. 

Liguge  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-247a). — The  present  abbot 
of  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  Liguge,  France,  is 
Dom  Leopold  Gougain,  O.S.B.  The  community, 
still  resident  at  Chevetogne,  numbers  34  priests, 
2  clerics,  and  9  lay  brothers. 

Lilienfeld  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-247c). — The  present 
number  of  monks  in  this  Cistercian  abbey  is  40, 
all  priests,  most  of  whom-  are  occupied  in  the  care 
of  souls  in  the  17  incorporated  parishes.  The 
present  abbot  is  Justin  Panschab,  b.  1859,  and 
elected  1899,  to  succeed  Alberic  Heinmann,  d.  1898. 

Lille,  Diocese  of  (Insulensis;  cf. C. E.,  IX-251c), 
in  the  department  du  Nord,  France,  is  suffragan 
to  the  Archdiocese  of  Cambran  The  territory  in¬ 
cluded  in  this  diocese  was  originally,  before  the 
French  Revolution,  divided  among  four  bishoprics; 
Tournai,  Ypern,  Saint  Omer,  and  Cambrai.  After 
the  Revolution  the  whole  department  du  Nord  was 


made  the  Diocese  of  Cambrai,  and  in  1842  it  was 
raised  to  an  archdiocese. 

By  a  pontifical  decree  of  5  February,  1913,  the 
General  Vicariate  of  Lille  was  founded,  including 
the  civil  districts  of  Lille,  Hazebouch,  and  Dun¬ 
kerque  under  a  vicar  general  having  the  title  of 
bishop  (Auxiliary  of  Cambrai,  Vicar  General  of 
Lille),  and  endowed  with  extensive  powers.  On  25 
October,  1913,  it  was  constituted  a  diocese  and 
officially  erected  by  Cardinal  Lugon  on  10  Decem¬ 
ber  of  the  same  year.  The  diocese  comprises  the 
same  territory  as  the  original  general  vicariate ; 
the  cathedral  is  Notre  Dame  de  la  Treille  and 
the  episcopal  seat  is  at  Lille. 

The  first  and  only  Vicar  General  of  Lille  was 
Mgr.  Alexis  Charost,  who  was  bom  at  Le  Mans 
in  1860,  ordained  a  priest  in  1883  and  later  re¬ 
ceived  his  degrees  of  Doctor  of  Divinity*  and  of 
Canon  Law.  He  also  won  the  title  "Agrege  de 
lTJniversite,”  which  is  the  highest  title  conferred 
by  the  French  University,  and  which  since  the  anti¬ 
clerical  persecution  is  no  longer  obtainable  by 
Catholic  priests.  He  Was  a  professor  at  the  College 
of  Saint-Croix  at  Le  Mans,  director  of  the  day 
school  of  Notre  Dame  de  Couture  and  in  1894 
became  secretary  to  Bishop  Laboure  of  Rennes. 
In  1896  he  was  made  chancellor  of  the  Diocese 
of  Rennes,  in  1899  vicar  general,  and  in  1913  he 
was  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  .Miletopolis,  auxil¬ 
iary  Bishop  of  Cambrai  and  Vicar  General  of  Lille. 
He  was  consecrated  13  May,  1913,  at  Rennes,  by 
Bishop  Dubourg,  and  transferred  to  the  diocese  of 
Lille  in  November  of  the  same-  year.  He  is  a 
Knight  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  and  a  Knight  of 
the  Order  of  Leopold.  Bishop  Charost  was  pro¬ 
moted  to  the  Titular  See  of  Chersonese  and  made 
coadjutor  to  the  Bishop  of  Rennes  in  1920. 

The  Most  Rev.  Hector  Raphael  Quilliet,  D.D., 
succeeded  him  as  the  second  and  present  Bishop  of 
Lille,  18  June,  1920.  He  was  born  at  Bois-Bernard, 
11  March,  1859,  and  ordained  in  1883.  He  was  a 
professor  and  dean  of  the  faculty  of  theology  at 
the  Catholic  University  of  Lille,  and  director,  with 
Mgr.  Chollet,  now  Archbishop  of  Cambrai,  of  the 
"Revue  des  sciences  ecclesiastiques”  and  of  "Ques¬ 
tions  ecclesiastiques.”  He  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Limoges  on  24  December,  1913,  and  consecrated 
19  March.  He  was  later  transferred  to  Lille,  taking 
possession  of  his  new  see  29  September,  1920. 

The  present  (1921)  statistics  of  the  diocese  of 
Lille  show  358  parishes,  1  abbey  for  men,  1200 
secular  priests,  1  theological  seminary  with  106 
seminarians,  1  philosophical  seminary  with  81  stu¬ 
dents,  1  academic  seminary  with  38  students  and 
1  lower  seminary  with  318  students,  13  secondary 
colleges  for  men  with  300  teachers,  and  12  for 
women,  1  university  (University  of  Lille),  2  high 
schools,  1  normal  school  for  girls,  330  elementary 
schools  with  1228  teachers.  The  diocesan  mis¬ 
sionaries  of  Cambrai  take  care  also  of  the  missionary 
work  of  Lille  and  in  addition  to  their  work  there 
are:  12  homes  for  working  women,  51  homes  for 
aged  men  and  women,  27  orphan  asylums,  21  hos¬ 
pitals,  3  refuge  homes,  6  dispensaries,  and  2  day 
nurseries.  A  daily  newspaper,  "La  Croix  du  Nord,” 
and  a  diocesan  weekly  are  published.  For  the  war 
record  of  this  diocese  see  Lille,  University  of. 

Lille,  University  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-252d). — At 
the  beginning  of  the  World  War  (August,  1914), 
the  University  of  Lille  was  transformed  into  a  vast 
hospital  under  the  direction  of  the  French  Red 
Cross,  assisted  by  those  members  of  its  medical 
faculty  whose  duties  retained  them  in  Lille.  Many 
of  its  halls  were  filled  with  wounded  from  the  bat¬ 
tlefields  of  Cambrai  and  Artois,  and  later  from  the 


LILLE 


459 


LIMBURG 


siege  oi  Lille,  those  who  succumbed  to  their  injuries  Mer  F,mi]p  Tocr>Q 

SK"  " — •  —  —  -  “»»  - SVi” ii.SK 


The  university  was  about  to  resume  its  courses 
in  the  unoccupied  halls,  when  the  bombing  of  the 
city  began.  Several  of  the  buildings  were  struck 
and  the  city  found  itself  in  the  hands  of  its  German 
jailers,  cut  off  by  a  steel  wall  from  the  rest  of 
France.  Notwithstanding  the  apparently  insur¬ 
mountable  drawbacks  of  such  a  situation,  the  Uni¬ 
versity  decided  to  continue  its  work.  Its  students, 
134  at  the  opening,  were  drawn  from  the  cities  of 
Lille,  Roubaix  and  Tourcoing,  until  1917,  when 
Lille  was  completely  isolated.  This  situation  was 
met  by  the  sectioning  of  the  work  of  the  university, 
certain  schools  being  maintained  in  each  city! 
Many  lasting  benefits  resulted  from  the  labor  of 
these  troubled  times;  a  school  of  applied  chemistry 
was  added  to  the  school  of  advanced  industrial 
studies;  women  preparing  for  liberal  careers  were 
admitted  to  the  various  faculties  and  schools  of  the 
university;  lectures  on  current  history  were  given 
to  large  audiences,  wherein  the  lecturers  were  able 
to  second  the  efforts  of  the  clergy  in  preaching 
the  invincible  confidence  that  sustained  the  people 
throughout  the  days  of  the  occupation.  A  Latin 
grammar  was  published  as  well  as  several  numbers 
of  “La  voix  de  l’eglise .” 

At  the  same  time  the  hospital  work  continued, 
40,602  consultations  being  held  at  the  dispensary 
of  St.  Raphael  from  1915-19.  The  Sisters  of  Mater¬ 
nal  Charity  and  the  Franciscan  Sisters  opened  their 
doors  to  the  sick  women  and  children  expelled  by 
the  enemy  from  the  municipal  hospital. 

The  most  wonderful  of  all  the  work  accomplished 
was  that  of  Professor  Joseph  Willot.  For  two  years 
he  was  the  soul  of  a  secret  publication  “La  Patience” 
or  “L’Oiseau  de  la  France,”  which  at  great  peril 
sustained  public  confidence.  Inevitably  discovered 
and  imprisoned  he  died  from  the  results  of  the 
hardships  of  his  captivity,  the  victim  of  his  heroism. 

The  university  was  not  less  distinguished  on  the 
battlefield;  242  of  her  sons  were  killed;  70  received 
the  cross  of  the  legion  of  honor;  26  the  military 
medal;  460  the  war  cross,  and  15  the  medal  of 
epidemics. 

In  1921  the  School  of  Advanced  Commercial 
Studies  was  separated  from  that  of  Advanced  Indus¬ 
trial  Studies  and  joined  to  the  faculty  of  law.  The 
number  of  students  in  the  schools  in  that  year  were : 
faculty  of  theology  and  philosophy,  35;  faculty  of 
law,  120;  school  of  social  and  political  sciences,  25; 
faculty  of  letters,  34;  faculty  of  medicine  and  of 
pharmacy,  90;  faculty  of  sciences,  45;  school  of  ad¬ 
vanced^  industrial  and  commercial  studies,  170; 
total,  519.  To  this  number  should  be  added  2000 
of  both  sexes  who  follow  the  public  courses  or¬ 
ganized  by  the  faculty  of  letters  and  the  school  of 
social  and  political  sciences. 

The  university  publications  include  the  following 
periodicals:  “Les  facultes  Catholiques  de  Lille” 

,  La  revue  de  Lille,”  “Le  pretre,”  “La  voix  de 
1  eglise,  Journal  des  sciences  medicales  de  Lille.” 
Memoirs  and  works  of  original  scientific  research 
are  published  by  the  professors  of  the  Catholic 
faculties. 


Lidy*  William  Samuel,  English  author  and  pub- 
iqiq’  bf‘  l^40  at  Iifehead,  England;  d.  29  August, 
19  9,  at  West  Kensmgton,  London.  He  was  edu¬ 
cated  at  Cambridge.  He  was  Under-Secretary  to 
India,  1869,  and  was  received  into  the  Church 
at  that  time.  Among  his  works  are:  “Ancient 
Religion  and  Modern  Thought,”  “Chapters  in 
£S°Pean  History,”  “A  Century  of  Revolution,” 

I  he  Great  Enigma,”  “Christianity  and  Modern 
Civilization,”  “Many  Mansions,”  and  “New  France  ” 
He  was  Secretary  of  the  Catholic  Union  of  Great 
Britain  for  nearly  fifty  years.  Mr.  Lilly  was  es¬ 
sentially  a  controversialist  with  a  wide  range  of 
reading.  He  wrote  with  grace  and  fluency,  but 
in  controversy  could  be  trenchant.  His  writings 
exercised  considerable  influence  in  the  religious 
and  historical  controversies  of  his  time. 

Lima,  Archdiocese  of  (Limanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-255a),  in  the  Republic  of  Peru,  South  America. 
1  his  see  was  filled  by  Most  Rev.  Pedro  Manuel 
Garcia-Naranjo  from  16  December,  1907,  until  his 
death,  17  September,  1917.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Pr^sen^  incumbent,  Most  Rev.  Emilio  Lisson, 
C.  M.,  born  in  Arequipa  1872,  entered  the  Congre¬ 
gation  of  the  Mission  in  1892,  was  appointed  Bishop 
°I  Chachapoyas  16  March,  1909,  but  was  never 
published  in  the  Consistory,  and  was  promoted  25 
February,  1918.  He  is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary,  Rt. 
Rev.  Manuel  Segundo  Ballon,  titular  Bishop  of 
Arabissus.  A  Brief  of  23  May,  1921,  erected  the 
chuich  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist  into  a  minor 
basilica.  The  population,  numbering  450,000,  is 
almost  entirely  Catholic,  with  the  exception  of  a 
small  percentage  of  Chinese  and  Protestants.  The 
1920  statistics  credit  the  diocese  with  66  first  class 
and  7  succursal  parishes,  498  churches  and  chapels, 
and  18  seminarians. 


The  number  of  consultations  held  at  the  chil¬ 
dren  s  hospital  of  St.  Anthony  of  Padua  (1919-20), 
was:  medical  department,  3957;  surgical  depart¬ 
ment,  402.  Americans  made  a  generous  response 
to  the  appeal  by  Canon  Dimmet  for  aid  in  this 
work,  notably  Mrs.  Lucius  Swift  and  others  from 
the  city  of  Indianapolis. 


Limburg,  Diocese  of  (Limburgensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-260a),  in  Germany,  suffragan  of  Freiburg.  In 
1913  occurred  the  death  of  Rt.  Rev.  Dominicius 
Willi,  former  abbot  of  the  Cistercian  monastery  at 
Marienstatt,  who  was  elected  Bishop  of  Limburg 
on  3  September,  1898.  During  the  fifteen  years  of 
his  administration  he  worked  incessantly  for  the 
welfare  of  the  diocese.  Many  parishes  and  mis¬ 
sions  were  erected  by  him,  two  theological  semi¬ 
naries  were  rebuilt,  and  a  large  number  of  founda¬ 
tions  were  made.  The  present  administrator  of 
the  diocese  is  Rt.  Rev.  Charles  Augustine  Kilian, 
b.  1856,  ordained  1881,  consecrated  bishop  1913.  In 
1921  the  diocese  celebrated  the  one  hundredth  anni¬ 
versary  of  its  foundation.  A  collection  taken  up 
for  the  support  of  seminarians  amounted  to  500,000 
marks.  In  August,  1921,  the  Catholic  Congress  was 
held  at  Frankfurt,  the  first  one  since  the  outbreak 
of  the  war.  Under  the  patronage  of  the  Apostolic 
Nuncio  a  large  number  of  Church  dignitaries,  and 
prominent  Catholics,  the  event  proved  a  brilliant 
success.  During  the  war  many  of  the  younger 
priests  served  as  military  chaplains  in  the  army 
or  in  field  hospitals.  The  religious  congregations, 
as  also  the  laity,  cared  for  the  sick  and  wounded 
soldiers.  Many  Catholic  organizations  were  actively 
engaged  in  distributing  religious  books  and  articles 
at  the  front  and  in  the  hospitals. 

At  the  present  time  (1921)  the  Catholics  number 
469,000.  The  diocese  contains  215  parishes  and 
mission  stations,  and  376  secular  priests.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  monasteries  for  men  exist  in  the  diocese: 
the  Cistercian  Abbey  at  Marienstatt,  27  priests,  9 


LIMERICK 


460 


LINCOLN 


clerics,  19  lay  brothers,  4  Franciscan  monasteries 
(Bornhofen,  Hadamar,  Kelkheim,  and  Marienthal), 
18  priests,  26  lay  brothers;  Capuchin  monastery  at 
Frankfort,  6  priests,  3  lay  brothers;  monastery  of 
the  Oblates  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  on  the 
Allerheiligenberg,  near  Niederlahnstein,  4  priests,  4 
lay  brothers;  mother-house  of  the  Missionary  Con¬ 
gregation  of  the  Pallottines  at  Limburg,  34  priests, 
26  scholastics,  73  lay  brothers ;  Jesuits  at  Frankfort, 

5  priests ;  Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  J esus  and 
Mary,  3  monasteries:  at  Arnstein,  5  priests,  15  lay 
brothers,  10  novices;  at  Niederlahnstein,  6  priests, 

4  lay  brothers;  at  Walderbach,  5  priests,  3  lay 
brothers,  35  pupils;  Brothers  of  Mercy,  mother- 
house  at  Montabauer,  55  professed  brothers,  35 
novices,  and  5  branch  houses  in  the  diocese.  The 
following  congregations  of  women  have  foundations 
in  the  diocese:  Benedictines,  abbey  of  St.  Hilde- 
gard  at  Eibingen,  38  professed  Sisters,  25  lay  Sis¬ 
ters;  Benedictines  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration  at 
Johannisberg  in  Rheingau  (formerly  in  Neider- 
lahnstein),  29  Sisters,  15  lay  Sisters,  8  extern 
Sisters;  Congregation  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul, 
branch  of  the  mother-house  at  Mainz  in  Limburg, 

18  Sisters;  Poor  Handmaids  of  Jesus  Christ,  mother- 
house  at  Dernbach,  332  Sisters,  86  postulants,  and 
about  100  branch  houses  in  the  diocese;  Francis¬ 
cans,  mother-house  at  Marienheim-Erlenbad,  near 
Achern  in  Baden,  2  houses,  10  Sisters;  Association 
of  the  Sisters  of  Providence  of  Mainz,  6  houses, 
44  Sisters;  Poor  Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  mother- 
house  at  Aachen,  2  houses,  45  Sisters;  Sisters  of 
the  Christian  Schools  of  Mercy,  mother-house  at 
Heiligenstadt,  5  houses,  35  Sisters;  Ursulmes,  5 
houses,  113  Sisters;  English  Ladies,  2  houses,  59 
Sisters;  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Good  Shepherd, 
mother-house  at  Munster,  Westphalia,  1  house,  41 
Sisters;  Congregation  of  the  Servants  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  of  Jesus,  mother-house  at  Vienna,  3  houses, 
15  Sisters;  Pallottine  Sisters,  mother-house  at  Lim¬ 
burg,  75  Sisters,  25  postulants,  and  4  branch  houses 
in  the  diocese  with  17  Sisters;  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  mother-house  at  Coblenz,  1  foundation,  24 
Sisters;  Alexian  Nuns,  2  houses,  27  Sisters.  The 
following  religious  associations  have  been  estab¬ 
lished:  73  Young  Men’s  Societies,  23  Journeymen’s 
Unions,  37  Working  Men’s  Associations,  91  Marian 
Congregations  for  Young  Women,  10  Servant  Girls’ 
Associations,  and  various  associations  for  mothers. 
Also  the  following  charitable  societies:  St.  Boniface 
Association,  Mission  Society  for  Catholic  Women 
and  Young  Women,  Guardian  Society  for  Women 
and  Young  Women,  Association  for  the  Making  of 
Vestments.  There  are  20  charitable  institutions 
under  the  care  of  religious,  including  orphanages, 
girls’  homes,  and  educational  institutions  for 
orphans. 

Limerick,  Diocese  of  (Limericiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-262a),  in  the  province  of  Munster,  Ireland, 
suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Cashel.  Rt.  Rev. 
Edward  Thomas  O’Dwyer,  born  in  Holy  Cross,  Ire¬ 
land,  in  1842  and  appointed  to  this  see  18  May, 
1886,  filled  it  for  over  thirty  years,  until  his  death, 

19  August,  1917;  during  his  long  administration  he 
was  known  as  an  ardent  defender  of  the  national 
rights  of  Ireland.  His  successor  was  appointed  in 
the  person  of  Rt.  Rev.  Denis  Hallinan,  born  in 
Limerick  in  1849,  studied  at  Limerick  and  at  the 
Irish  College  in  Rome,  was  ordained  in  1874  and 
served  as  a  pastor,  administrator,  and  vicar  general, 
was  named  a  prelate  of  the  Holy  See  in  1900,  a 
canon  in  1912,  vicar  capitular  in  1917,  and  appointed 
bishop  10  January,  1918.  The  religious  orders  estab¬ 
lished  in  this  diocese  include:  men,  Augustinians, 
Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Jesuits,  Redemptorists, 


Salesians,  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  and  Broth¬ 
ers  of  the  Christian  Schools;  women,  Presentation 
Sisters,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  of 
Marie  Reparatrice,  of  Charity,  of  St.  Paul,  Faithful 
Companions  of  Jesus,  Nursing  Sisters  of  the  Little 
Company  of  Mary,  and  Salesian  Nuns.  By  the 
latest  census  (1911)  the  total  population  of  the 
diocese  is  116,558,  of  whom  110,305  are  Catholic. 
According  to  1920  statistics  there  are  48  parishes, 
121  secular  and  65  regular  clergy,  94  parochial  and 
district  churches,  19  convents  with  490  members  in 
the  communities,  and  4  monastic  houses  with  38 
members  in  the  communities. 

Limoges,  Diocese  of  (Lemoricensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-263c),  in  the  department  of  Haute-Vienne, 
France,  suffragan  of  Bourges.  This  ancient  see  is 
now  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Alfred  Flocard,  born  in 
Jorquenay,  France,  1866,  ordained  in  1889,  served 
as  vicar  at  St.  Jean  de  Chaumont,  and  professor 
at  the  upper  seminary,  editor  of  the  “Semaine 
Religieuse,”  director  of  charities,  and  made  vicar 
general  in  1912,  appointed  16  December,  1920,  to 
succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Hector-Raphael  Quilliet,  trans¬ 
ferred  to  Lille  18  June,  1920.  In  1921  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  departmental  office  of  the  “Pupilles 
de  la  Nation.”  During  the  World  War  245  of  the 
clergy  of  this  diocese  were  mobilized,  and  of  this 
number  24  died,  3  won  the  legion  d’honneur,  7  the 
medaille  militaire,  54  the  croix  de  guerre,  and  4 
foreign  decorations.  By  latest  statistics  the  diocese 
comprises  384,736  Catholics,  of  whom  92,181  are  in 
Limoges  proper,  52  deaneries,  476  first  and  second 
class  parishes,  and  107  vicariates  formerly  supported 
by  the  state.  A  diocesan  periodical,  “La  Semaine 
Religieuse,”  is  published. 

Linares  (or  Monterey  or  Nuevo  Leon),  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  (de  Linares;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-265d),  in 
Mexico,  with  episcopal  residence  at  Monterey. 
Most  Rev.  Francesco  Plancarte  y  Navarrete,  pro¬ 
moted  to  this  see  27  November,  1911,  died  in 
Monterey  8  July,  1920,  and  was  succeeded  by  Most 
Rev.  Jose  Juan  de  Jesus  Herrera  y  Pina  after  a 
vacancy  of  a  year.  Born  in  Valle  de  Bravo,  Mexico, 
in  1865,  he  studied  at  the  South  American  College 
in  Rome,  was  ordained  in  1888,  returned  to  Mexico 
in  1890,  and  served  as  rector  of  the  seminary  and 
prefect  of  studies,  was  made  an  honorary  canon, 
prothonotary  apostolic  in  1904,  and  appointed 
Bishop  of  Tulancingo  16  September,  1907,  from 
which  see  he  was  promoted  7  March,  1921.  The 
1920  statistics  credit  the  archdiocese  with  a  Catholic 
population  of  357,000,  39  parishes,  80  secular  priests, 
20  seminarians,  75  churches  or  chapels,  and  4690 
children  in  Catholic  schools. 

Lincoln,  Diocese  of  (Lincolniensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-266b),  in  Nebraska,  is  suffragan  to  the 
Archdiocese  of  Dubuque.  The  first  bishop  of  the 
diocese,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  Bonacum,  who  was 
appointed  upon  the  erection  of  the  diocese  in  1887, 
died  on  4  February,  1911.  He  was  largely  respon¬ 
sible  for  the  rapid  development  of  the  young  dio¬ 
cese,  and  although  his  rigid  discipline  and  strict 
enforcement  of  canonical  legislation  often  brought 
him  into  conflict  with  certain  of  the  clergy  and 
their  lay  supporters,  and  forced  him  to  have  re¬ 
course  to  the  secular  tribunals,  he  was  usually  vin¬ 
dicated  and  the  purity  of  his  motives  cannot  be 
doubted.  The  chief  monument  of  his  labors  is  the 
St.  Thomas  Orphanage,  housing  120  inmates,  for 
which  he  personally  gathered  all  the  funds.  At 
his  request  he  was  buried  before  the  main  entrance 
of  this  institution. 

Bishop  Bonacum  was  succeeded  by  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Henry  Tihen,  chancellor  of  the  Wichita  diocese, 


LINDI 


461 


LINZ 


who  took  possession  of  his  see  in  July,  1911,  and 
ruled  over  it  until  21  September,  1917,  when  he 
was  transferred  to  Denver. 

The  third  and  present  Bishop  of  Lincoln  is  Rt. 
Rev.  Charles  F.  O'Reilly  who,  as  first  Bishop  of 
Baker  City,  had  for  fifteen  years  been  doing  pioneer 
missionary  work  in  that  churchless  section.  During 
his  incumbency  in  Lincoln  there  have  been  added 
to  the  diocese,  9  parishes,  5  parochial  schools, 
and  1  hospital,  while  the  services  of  the  Capuchin 
Fathers  (Irish  Province)  and  of  several  Sisterhoods 
have  been  enlisted. 

The  present  (1921)  statistics  of  the  diocese  show 
87  parishes,  137  churches,  50  missions,  94  secular 
and  12  regular  priests,  215  nuns,  11  seminarians,  1 
high  school  with  5  teachers  and  an  attendance  of 
60  boys  and  74  girls,  3  academies  with  42  teachers 
and  an  attendance  of  55  boys  and  215  girls,  32 
elementary  schools  with  126  teachers  and  an  at¬ 
tendance  of  2800.  In  addition  to  the  St.  Thomas 
Orphanage,  the  Lincoln  and  McCook  hospitals  are 
maintained  in  the  diocese ;  all  the  public  institutions 
permit  the  priests  of  the  diocese  to  minister  in 
them.  The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is 
approximately  37,000.  The  Knights  of  Columbus, 
Catholic  Order  of  Foresters,  Daughters  of  America, 
National  Council  of  Catholic  Men  are  established 
among  the  laity. 

Lindi,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (de  Lindi),  in 
East  Africa.  This  prefecture  was  erected  by  a 
decree  of  12  November,  1913,  which  divided  the 
vicariate  apostolic  of  Dar-es-Salaam.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Rivers  Mbenkuru  and  Ruhuje, 
on  the  west  by  Nyassa  Lake,  on  the  south  by 
German  Mozambique,  and  on  the  east  by  the 
ocean.  The  town  of  Lindi,  where  the  official  resi¬ 
dence  is  situated,  is  a  flourishing  port  about  fifty 
miles  from  Delgado.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Bene¬ 
dictines  of  St.  Odile;  Rev.  Galium  Steiger,  O.S.B., 
was  appointed  the  second  prefect  apostolic  22 
February,  1922,  to  succeed  Rev.  Willibrord  Lay. 
The  1920  statistics  credit  the  territory  with  11 
Benedictine  Fathers,  13  Brothers,  and  12  Sisters  of 
the  Sacred  Heart. 

Lindsay,  Lionel  St.  George,  author  and  editor, 
b.  at  Montreal,  Canada,  1849,  d.  at  Quebec,  Canada, 
1900.  He  was  educated  at  Laval  University, 
Quebec,  the  Gregorian  University,  the  Academy  of 
St.  Thomas,  and  the  Minerva,  Rome.  He  was 
ordained  priest  in  1875,  was  chaplain  of  the  Ursu- 
line  Monastery,  Quebec  (1894-98),  diocesan  in¬ 
spector  of  academies  and  convent  schools  (1898- 
1905),  secretary  (1905-1907),  and  archivist  (1905- 
1921)  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Quebec.  .  He  was  the 
author  of  “Notre  Dame  de  Lorette  en  la  Nouvelle 
France,”  and  editor  of  “La  Nouvelle  France,”  from 
1902  to  the  time  of  his  death.  He  was  also  the 
contributor  of  a  number  of  biographical  articles 
to  The  Catholic  Encyclopedia. 

Linz,  Diocese  of  (Linciensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-273c), 
suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Vienna,  includes 
a  part  of  Upper  Austria  and  some  townships  in 
Lower  Austria.  The  downfall  of  the  Austro-Hun¬ 
garian  Monarchy  in  1918  and  the  establishment  of 
a  republic  in  accordance  with  the  Treaty  of  Ver¬ 
sailles  brought  many  severe  trials  upon  the  diocese. 
Prosperity  decreased,  famine  and  intense  misery 
oppressed  the  larger  part  of  the  nation.  The  mid¬ 
dle  classes,  the  children,  the  numerous  institu¬ 
tions  and  above  all  the  religious  communities 
suffered  great  privations.  Only  the  generous  con¬ 
tributions  of  the  Catholics  of  foreign  countries, 
especially  America,  made  existence  possible.  The 
steady  depreciation  of  the  Austrian  exchange  causes 


daily  increase  in  the  cost  of  living  and  makes  the 
problem  of  supporting  the  numerous  hospitals  and 
charitable  institutions  more  and  more  difficult.  The 
religious  and  political  conditions  have  grown  stead¬ 
ily  worse.  The  destruction  of  the  monarchy  has 
given  the  revolutionary  Labor  Party  unlimited 
power,  which  they  try  to  increase  by  terror  and 
force.  They  constantly  wage  opposition  to  the 
Church  and  by  inciting  fear  and  distrust  cause  great 
harm  throughout  the  country. 

At  the  present  time  the  diocese  is  governed 
by  Rt.  Rev.  John  Maria  Gfollner,  b.  at  Waizen- 
kirchen,  17  December,  1867,  for  some  time  professor 
of  theology  and  rector  of  the  seminary  at  Linz, 
appointed  bishop  19  August,  1915,  consecrated  18 
October  following.  The  diocese  is  divided  into 
35  deaneries  with  420  parishes,  4  mission  stations 
and  49  benefices.  There  are  658  active  seculars,  14 
of  whom  for  divers  reasons  are  stationed  in  other 
parishes,  59  have  no  regular  duties,  310  regulars 
of  whom  36  are  principally  occupied  in  caring  for 
souls  in  other  dioceses.  Of  the  religious  orders 
of  men  there  are  the  following  establishments : 
the  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augustine  have  2  mon¬ 
asteries,  1  at  St.  Florian  near  Linz  (87  priests, 
10  clerics,  5  novices),  1  at  Reichersberg  (21  priests, 
3  clerics,  1  novice),  Premonstratensian  Canons  at 
Schlagl  (38  priests,  4  clerics,  1  novice),  Benedictines 
at  Kremsmunster  (89  priests,  8  clerics,  1  novice), 
and  Lambach  (16  priests,  1  cleric,  6  lay  brothers, 

1  novice),  Cistercians  at  Schlierbach(  21  priests,  3 
clerics,  2  novices),  at  Wilhering  (38  priests,  5  clerics, 

1  novice).  Besides  there  are  in  the  diocese  135 
priests  who  belong  to  other  orders  and  congrega¬ 
tions,  namely:  Franciscans  of  the  North  Tyrol 
Province,  7  establishments  (35  priests),  Capuchins 
of  the  Eastern  Hungarian  Province,  2  establishments 
(13  priests),  Capuchins  of  the  North  Tyrol  Province, 

2  establishments  (16  priests),  Discalced  Carmelites 
(8  priests),  Jesuits,  3  establishments  (27  priests), 
Redemptorists,  2  establishments  (9  priests),  Con¬ 
gregation  of  the  Divine  Redeemer  (8  priests  in  1 
convent),  Oblates  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  3  estab¬ 
lishments  (6  priests). 

The  following  religious  communities  of  women 
are  now  represented  in  the  diocese:  Ursulines  at 
Linz  (54  Sisters),  Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth  (46  Sis¬ 
ters),  Discalced  Carmelites  (46  Sisters),  Salesian 
Nuns  (33  Sisters),  Redemptorists  (35  Sisters), 
Ladies  of  Charity  of  the  Good  Shepherd  (48 Sisters), 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  (33  Sisters 
in  20  houses),  Sisters  of  Mercy  of  St.  Charles 
Borromeo  (90  Sisters  in  17  houses),  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Cross  (443  Sisters  in  76  houses),  School  Sisters 
of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  (124  Sisters  in 
32  houses),  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis 
of  Hallein,  Archdiocese  of  Salzburg  (7  Sisters,  3 
branch  houses),  School  Sisters  of  St.  Augustine 
of  Munich  (12  Sisters,  2  branch  houses),  Sisters  of 
the  Third  Order  of  Mt.  Carmel  (143  Sisters,  28 
houses)  Oblates  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  (17  Sis¬ 
ters)  Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of  Christian  Char¬ 
ity  (14  Sisters),  Daughters  of  the  Divine  Saviour 
(6  Sisters  in  1  house). 

The  Brothers  Hospitallers  of  St.  John  of  God 
have  a  hospital  at  Linz  (15  Brothers),  the  Congre¬ 
gation  of  Mary  (Brothers  of  Mary)  conduct  a 
theological  seminary,  a  private  normal  school,  a 
boarding  school  and  an  industrial  continuation 
school  at  Freistadt  (3  priests,  34  Brothers),  besides 
a  small  establishment  in  the  parish  of  Tragwein 
at  the  Greisinghof  with  a  novitiate  (11  novices). 

I  he  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  have  a 
school  and  an  asylum  at  Goisern  (10  Brothers). 
The  diocese  has  a  seminary  (4  years’  course)  with 
100  students,  which  is  under  the  care  of  the  secular 


LINZ 


462 


LISMORE 


clergy,  all  the  professors  being  secular  priests.  It 
has  likewise  a  diocesan  private  gymnasium  under 
the  direction  of  the  secular  clergy,  with  256  stu¬ 
dents,  who  have  the  privilege  of  continuing  their 
studies  at  the  preparatory  seminary,  “Collegium 
Petrinum.”  The  bishop  also  has  charge  of  a  train¬ 
ing  college  for  teachers,  a  boarding  place  for  teach¬ 
ers  and  students  called  the  “Salesianum.”  There 
are  2  Realschulen  (scientific  high  schools;  Latin  in 
curriculum),  2  Realgymnasia  (9  to  6  years’  curricu¬ 
lum,  Latin,  science,  and  modem  languages),  3 
gymnasia  (9  years’  classical  course),  which  are  all 
under  the  care  of  the  Government  but  in  which 
religious  instruction  is  given;  600  state  elementary 
schools,  in  which  the  resident  priest  instructs  the 
students  in  Christian  Doctrine.  In  larger  towns 
there  are  also  secondary  schools,  various  indus¬ 
trial  and  agricultural  schools  for  boys  and  girls 
(2  winter  agricultural  schools),  1  art  school,  1 
gymnasium  (girls),  1  training  school  for  male  and 
female  teachers,  housekeeping  schools.  Secular 
priests  have  charge  of  the  following  institutions: 
1  orphan  asylum  with  which  a  school  is  connected, 
1  asylum  and  school  for  the  blind,  1  asylum  and 
school  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  1  asylum  for  idiots, 
1  House  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  1  asylum  for 
epileptics  and  crippled  children  and  several  institu¬ 
tions  which  care  for  children. 

The  following  associations  have  been  organized 
among  the  clergy:  Association  of  Mission  Priests, 
Association  of  Perpetual  Adoration,  and  Association 
of  Catechists.  Besides  the  several  religious  soci¬ 
eties  such  as  the  League  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  the 
Holy  Rosary  Society,  and  the  Association  of  Chris¬ 
tian  Families,  there  is  the  Catholic  People’s  League, 
which  is  the  political  organ  of  the  Catholics 
throughout  the  country.  Connected  with  the  latter 
are  the  societies  of  the  various  classes,  such  as 
the  Association  of  Farmers,  Workingmen’s  Unions 
and  Mechanics’  Unions,  which  have  branches  in  the 
towns  throughout  the  diocese.  The  Zentralverein 
(Central  Union)  is  the  important  organization  for 
Catholic  women.  It  has  branches  and  many  mem¬ 
bers  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Affiliated  with  this 
union  are  the  Associations  of  Catholic  Working- 
women,  Association  of  Christian  Nurses  and  Asso¬ 
ciation  of  Young  Girls.  These  organizations  have 
planned  a  course  of  lectures  and  have  engaged  10 
teachers  who  travel  through  the  country,  holding 
meetings  and  lecturing  to  the  people.  This  organi¬ 
zation  conducts  a  home  with  which  are  connected 
an  industrial  school,  a  housekeeping  school,  a  home 
for  children,  primarily  for  those  of  invalided  sol¬ 
diers,  a  farm  with  an  agricultural  housekeeping 
school.  Its  members  dispense  charity  and  do  all 
in  their  power  to  mitigate  the  Existing  misery  and 
destitution.  Of  late  many  shelters  for  children 
have  been  established.  Mention  should  be  made 
of  the  Catholic  School  Association,  the  Piusverein 
(for  a  clean  press),  various  young  men’s  associa¬ 
tions,  journeymen’s  associations  (Gesellenvereine) , 
the  Marian  Congregation,  with  more  than  200 
branches,  the  Union  of  Christian  Workers  and 
Accountants,  and  a  Union  of  Christian  Housemaids 
and  Servants.  Besides  these  denominational  soci¬ 
eties  there  are  associations  to  improve  the  economic 
conditions  of  the  workingmen,  with  a  central  bureau 
at  Linz  and  branches  in  the  smaller  cities  and 
towns.  All  the  workingmen’s  associations  have 
formed  one  central  organization  which  publishes 
a  weekly  journal. 

The  Catholic  Press  Association  is  the  official 
organ  for  the  Catholic  press.  It  owns  several 
presses  and  has  a  large  book-selling  and  publishing 
establishment  at  Linz.  A  Catholic  daily  and  sev¬ 


eral  weekly  and  semi-weekly  periodicals  are  printed 
in  other  parts  of  the  diocese.  The  Association 
also  publishes  “Die  theologische  praktische  Quar- 
talschrift”  (The  Practical  Theological  Quarterly), 
a  scholarly  journal  which  has  a  large  circulation 
and  is  well  known  in  America. 

Lipa,  Diocese  of  (Lipanensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XVI- 
36a),  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  suffragan  of  Manila. 
This  diocese  was  first  erected  by  a  Bull  of  17 
September,  1902,  but  the  Bull  was  not  put  into 
execution  and  so  Pius  X  erected  the  diocese  anew 
10  April,  1910.  It  comprises  ^territory  which  was 
formerly  a  portion  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Manila, 
and  the  province  of  Fayabas,  formerly  part  of 
the  Diocese  of  Nueva  Caceres.  Rt.  Rev.  Giuseppe 
Petrelli  was  appointed  the  first  bishop  12  April, 
1910.  Born  in  Montegiorgio,  Italy,  11  February, 
1873,  he  made  his  studies  in  the  seminary  of 
Fermo  and  the  college  of  Capranica  in  Rome,'  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  apostolic  delegation  to 
Manila  in  1903,  and  a  private  chamberlain  in  1904. 
He  was  promoted  to  the  titular  metropolitan  see  of 
Nisibis  30  May,  1915,  and  appointed  Apostolic 
delegate  to  the  Philippines  10  June  following.  His 
successor  is  Rt.  Rev.  Alfred  Verzosa,  born  in  Vigan, 
in  the  Philippines,  in  1877,  appointed  6  September, 
1916.  By  the  1911  census  the  diocese  has  a  Catholic 
population  of  650,000  and  10,000  non-Catholics.  It 
is  served  by  75  priests  and  72  churches. 

Lisbon,  Patriarchate  of  (Lisbonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-281c),  the  primatial  see  of  Portugal.  The 
patriarch  is  always  named  a  cardinal.  At  present 
the  see  is  filled  by  His  Eminence  Cardinal  Mendes 
Bello,  born  in  Gouvea,  Portugal,  1842,  appointed 
titular  archbishop  of  Mitylene  24  March,  1884, 
transferred  to  Faro  13  November  following,  and 
promoted  to  the  Patriarchate  of  Lisbon  19  Decem¬ 
ber,  1907,  to  succeed  Cardinal  Netto,  retired.  He 
was  named  cardinal  in  petto  at  the  consistory  of 
27  November,  1911,  and  his  nomination  made  public 
25  May,  1914.  In  1917  the  cardinal  was  ordered  to 
leave  the  city  within  five  days,  and  forbidden  to 
live  in  the  district  of  Lisbon  or  the  neighboring 
districts  for  one  year.  However,  on  10  December 
following  a  new  revolution  abolished  his  exile  and 
he  was  enabled  to  return  to  the  city.  The  cardinal 
is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary,  Most  Rev.  Joao  Evan¬ 
gelista  Maria  de  Lima  Vidal,  titular  Archbishop  of 
Mitylene.  In  1918  fifty  parishes  were  taken  from 
the  archdiocese  of  Lisbon  to  reestablish  the  diocese 
of  Leiria.  The  population  comprises  728,739  Cath¬ 
olics  and  about  5000  Protestants  and  Jews.  By 
1920  statistics  there  are  in  the  archdiocese  662 
priests,  341  parishes,  and  1555  churches  or  chapels. 

Lismore,  Diocese  of  (Lismorensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-283d),  in  Australia,  suffragan  of  Sydney.  This 
see,  erected  in  1887  under  the  name  of  Grafton  and 
changed  to  its  present  title  in  1900,  is  under  the 
administration  of  its  second  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  John 
Carroll.  Born  in  Brenor,  Ireland,  in  1865,  he  served 
as  a  professor  at  the  English  college  in  Rome,  and 
was  appointed  bishop  2  December,  1909,  to  succeed 
Rt.  Rev.  Jeremiah  Doyle,  died  4  June,  1909.  The 
religious  orders  now -established  in  this  diocese  in¬ 
clude  the:  Marist  Brothers,  Presentation  Nuns, 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Sisters  of 
Our  Lady  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Sisters  of  the  Good 
Samaritan,  and  Ursuline  Nuns.  By  1922  statistics 
the  diocese  comprises  69  churches,  20  districts,  32 
secular  priests,  4  Religious  Brothers,  181  nuns,  9 
boarding  schools  for  girls  and  3  for  boys,  3  superior 
day  schools,  31  primary  schools,  1  orphan  asylum, 
3711  children  attending  parochial  schools,  and  128 
attending  superior  schools.  According  to  the  1911 


LITHUANIA 


LITOMfiRICE 


463 


?e^nlisAJile  'vliite  population  of  the  diocese 

is  106,000,  and  the  total  Catholic  population  26,000. 

Lithuania  (cf.  C  E  IX-292b).-An  independent 
Republic  which  includes  the  former  Russian  prov- 
°{  Kaunas  (Kovno),  the  province  of  Vilnius 
(\  llna),  minus  the  districts  of  Disna  and  Vileika, 
part  of  the  province  of  Gardinos  (Grodno),  the 
province  of  Suvalki  minus  the  southern  parts  of 
the  Suvalki  district  and  Augustovo  and  parts  of 
the  piownce  of  Courland  and  the  district  of 
llluksta.  The  boundaries  of  the  country  are  still 
in  dispute,  I  oland  claiming  certain  important  ter- 
i  it  ones  not  ceded  to  her  by  the  conference.  The 
latest  statistics  (1914)  give  an  area  of  59,633  sq. 
miles  and  a  population  of  4,800,000;  of  the  inhabi- 
r  Gi  Lithuanians  are  most  numerous,  forming 
d)%  of  the  total^  population;  the  Poles,  8%,  the 
Russians  and  White  Russians,  7%;  and  other 
nationalities,  2%.  Memel  with  an  area  of  1080  sq. 
miles  is  claimed  by  the  Lithuanians,  although  at 
present  it  is  administered  by  the  Allied  Powers. 

Religion.— The  Catholics  form  75%  of  the  popu- 
latmn  m  Vilna,  Kovno,  and  Suvalki,  the  Jews,  12%  • 

Greek  Orthodox,  9%;  Protestants  and  Calvinists, 
4%. 

Education  —Present  statistics  record  about  1630 
grammar  schools,  31  secondary  schools,  42  public 
high  schools,  and  several  technical  and  agricultural 
schools.  The  opening  of  Vilna  University  is  now 
under  consideration. 

Finance.— The  ,  budget  for  1920  which  planned 
for  a  revenue  of  684,000,000  marks  (1  mark  =  24 
cents)  and  an  expenditure  of  768,050,000  marks, 
revealed  a  deficit  of  84,050,000  marks.  In  the  recent 
treaty  with  Russia  at  Moscow,  in  place  of  the  in- 
'  demnity  for  the  damage  done  by  the  Russian  army 
^  Lithuania,  Russia  took  over  the  whole  of  the 
old  Russian  debt  devolving  on  Lithuania:  in  addi¬ 
tion,  Russia  was  to  give  Lithuania  3,000,000  rubles 
m  gold  and  to  concede  to  her  over  100,000  hectares 
forest.  During  the  war,  the  finances  of  the 
country  were  under  the  control  of  the  Germans 
who  issued  paper  money  and  exploited  the  resources 
of  the  country. 

PROD«cn°N.-0f  the  land  area,  45.8%  is  arable; 
'■y°  consists  of  meadow  and  pasture;  20  3% 
of  forest;  3.1%  is  unproductive,  and  6.5%  is  waste 
End.  1  he  chief  crops  in  1920  were  rye,  1,000,000,- 

SSn&°^ds;  W¥at’  150,000,000  pounds;  barley, 
300,000,000  pounds;  oats,  500,000,000  pounds;  pota¬ 
toes,  2,000,000,000  pounds;  peas,  120,000,000  pounds; 
flax  seed,  70,000,000  pounds. 

Commerce. — In  1920,  the  export  trade  of  this 
country  was  valued  at  521,797,163  marks;  the  im¬ 
port  trade,  428,728,541  marks  (the  Lithuanian 
mark  is  equal  to  the  German  mark),  but  owing 
to  fluctuations  in  the.  exchange  the  itemized  values 
are  not  converted  into  United  States  currency, 
mthuama  has  1550  miles  of  railway  lines,  of  which 
1178  miles  are  broad  gauge. 

Recent  History.— Lithuania  was  ruled  by  Russia 
until  1915,  when  the  Germans  invaded  the  land. 

As  a  part  of  the  Russian  Empire  she  shared  in  the 
revolutionary  outbreaks  of  1905.  The  Lithuanian 
mtional  Assembly  then  met  for  the  first  time,  two 
thousand  delegates  being  present  to  demand 
autonomy,  with  the  continuance  of  federation  with 
Russia.  This  attitude  continued  until  1917,  when 
the  idea  of  complete  independence  was  substituted 
for  federation.  In  February,  1918,  a  proclamation 
oi  independence  was  issued,  and  by  April,  1919,  a 
provisional  constitution  was  adopted,  to  remain  in 
force  until  a  permanent  constitution  was  framed.  In 
July,  1919,  Poland  agreed  to  recognize  the  new  state, 

and  a  few  days  later  a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed 
3  0 


with  Russia  at  Moscow,  defining  the  boundary. 
1  his  treaty  gave  to  Lithuania  territories  claimed 
y  the  Poles,  who  asserted  their  rights  over  the 
old  province  of  Suvalki,  a  part  of  Grodno,  the 
y  °£  Y Rself,  and  certain  other  portions,  cut¬ 
ting  oft  Lithuania  from  Russia  by  a  corridor  running 
between  Russian  and  Lithuanian  territories  to 
Latvia.  Hardly  had  this  treaty  been  concluded, 
when  the  Lithuanians  came  in  conflict  with  the 
Poles,  who  insisted  on  boundary  rectifications,  and 
also  on  occupying  Vilna  and  using  Lithuania’s  rail- 
roads  m  their  offensive  against  the  Bolsheviki.  Hos¬ 
tilities  ceased  for  a  while  pending  a  settlement  by 
the  League  of  Nations.  In  the  meantime  the  Polish 
adventurer,  General  Zeligowski,  decided  to  seize 
Vilna  on  9  October.  At  present  there  are  two 
governments:  the  Kovno  Government  (Lithuanian 
Government,  which  functions  at  Kovno,  a  short  dis¬ 
tance  south  of  V  ilna),  and  the  Vilna  provisional 
Government,  which  declared  on  20  February,  1922, 
for  union  with  Poland,  abrogated  all  treaties  with 
Soviet  Russia,  and  claimed  the  right  to  administer 
the  Vilna  territories  by  the  Polish  constitution  of 
May,  1921.  The  Lithuanian  Army  includes  about 
50,000  men. 

Litomerice  (Leitmeritz),  Diocese  of  (Litomer- 
icensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-141b),  in  Bohemia,  Czecho¬ 
slovakia.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  World  War 
the  Catholics  assembled  in  large  numbers  at 
seven  different  conventions  to  insist  upon  the  indis¬ 
solubility  of  the  marriage  state,  the  Catholic  edu¬ 
cation  of  the  young  in  the  schools,  and  to  preserve 
intact  the  union  of  Church  and  State.  The  defec¬ 
tion  from  the  faith  of  thirty-five  priests  and  several 
thousands  of  former  adherents  to  embrace  a  recent 
Czechoslovakian  heresy  is  a  matter  of  great  regret. 
During  the  War  the  Catholic  churches  raised  large 
sums  of  money  for  the  care  of  the  wounded  who, 
together  with  the  destitute  and  orphaned,  were 
sedulously  attended  by  clergy,  religious  and  laity. 
Provision  was  made  also  for  the  spiritual  care  of 
the  combatants.  Valuable  consecrated  church  prop¬ 
erty  and  lands  were  confiscated  by  the  Government 
for  military  purposes  and  the  present  poverty  of 
the  Catholics  makes  it  impossible  to  buy  them  back 
at  the  price  demanded.  Of  special  note  are  the  fol¬ 
lowing  recently  deceased:  Mgr.  Jacob  Kasper  of 
Georgswalde,  honorary  canon,  through  whose  benefi¬ 
cence  30  young  men  were  educated  for  the  priest¬ 
hood;  the  learned  Dr.  Otto  Willmann  of  Leitmeritz, 
professor  emeritus  of  philosophy  in  the  University 
of  Prague,  author  of  various  works  of  philosophy 
and  pedagogy,  among  which  are:  “Didaktik 
als  Bildungslehre,”  “Philosophia  Propadeutik,” 
Geschichte  des  Idealismus”;  the  Stadthalter  Prince 
Franz  von  Thun,  who  served  the  Church  in 
Bohemia  in  word  and  deed.  The  present  bishop  of 
the  diocese  is  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Gross,  consecrated 
5  June,  1910.  Recently  3  larger  (in  Semily,  Reichen- 
berg,  Warnsdorf)  and  4  smaller  churches  were 
built  and  consecrated  by  Bishop  Gross. 

The  Catholic  population  is  1,644,014,  of  whom 
two-thirds  are  German  and  the  rest  Czechoslovakian. 
The  secular  priests  number  822,  regular  priests  144, 
lay  brother*  37.  There  are  444  parishes  with  585 
churches,  21  monasteries  for  men  and  4  for  women, 

1  abbey  for  men  and  1  for  women,  2  convents  for 
men  and  84  for  women,  1  seminary,  1  theological 
university  with  6  professors  and  57  students,  1  col¬ 
lege  for  boys  with  14  teachers  and  210  students, 

13  colleges  for  girls  pensioned  by  the  Government, 

13  normal  schools  in  the  care  of  the  Sisters,  1  train¬ 
ing  school,  14  homes,  31  hospitals,  24  orphan  asy¬ 
lums  controlled  by  the  Sisters,  1  deaf  and  dumb 
asylum,  27  day  nurseries.  The  normal  schools  were 


LITTLE  PLOWER 


464 


LITURGICAL 


erected  by  and  are  under  the  Government  super¬ 
vision,  which  contributes  nothing  towards  the  sup¬ 
port  of  the  strictly  Catholic  institutions.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  Catholic  associations  exist:  for  the  clergy, 
Verband  der  Deutschen  geistlichkeit,  Ceicilien- 
Verein,  Kirchenbau-Verein,  Marian  Congregation, 
Association  for  Priestly  Perseverance,  Adoration 
Society;  for  the  laity,  Mariascheiner  Association  for 
the  support  of  Students,  Press  Association,  Young 
Men’s  and  Journeymen’s  Association,  Catholic 
National  League,  Catholic  School  Association, 
Marian  Congregations,  League  of  the  Sacred  Heart. 
There  are  1  Catholic  daily  and  5  periodicals  pub¬ 
lished. 

Little  Tlower  of  Jesus.  See  Teresa  of  the 
.Child  Jesus,  Sister. 

Little  Nellie  of  Holy  God.  See  Organ,  Nellie. 

Little  Rock,  Diocese  of  (Petriculanensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  IX-295a),  comprises  the  State  of  Arkansas, 
an  area  of  53,045  sq.  miles.  The  _  see  is 
filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  John  B.  Morris,  born  in  Hen¬ 
dersonville,  Minnesota,  1866,  ordained  in  1892, 
served  as  vicar  general  of  Nashville,  and  was 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Acmonia  and  coadjutor 
to  Bishop  Fitzgerald  of  Little  Rock  6  April,  1906, 
succeeding  to  the  see  upon  the  death  of  his  pre¬ 
decessor,  21  February,  1907.  The  episcopal  resi¬ 
dence  is  at  Little  Rock,  and  the  cathedral  is  dedi¬ 
cated  to  St.  Andrew.  In  1920  two  important  events 
occurred  in  the  diocese,  the  opening  of  a  boys’ 
protectory  at  Armstrong  Springs,  and  the  founding 
of  the  Diocesan  Catholic  Lay  Council,  8  September, 
for  the  purpose  of  looking  after  poor  missions.  The 
following  year  St.  John’s  Seminary  was  opened  at 
Little  Rock  on  28  September.  The  new  Little  Rock 
College  has  also  been  opened  at  a  cost  of  $250,000. 

The  diocese  counts  a  total  Catholic  population 
of  25,000,  comprising  about  1275  Italians,  700  Poles, 
500  Lithuanians  and  Slovaks,  and  455  negroes;  the 
remainder  are  Americans  of  German  and  Irish 
descent.  By  latest  statistics  there  are  in  the  diocese 
48  parishes,  113  churches,  65  missions,  122  mission 
stations,  1  monastery  for  men  (Carmelite),  1  abbey 
for  men,  1  house  of  Brothers,  14  convents  of  women, 
47  secular  and  45  regular  clergy,  10  lay  Brothers, 
505  nuns,  1  seminary,  40  seminarians,  2  colleges  for 
boys  with  28  professors  and  500  students,  8  acad¬ 
emies,  1  normal  school  with  10  teachers  and  100 
students,  45  elementary  schools  with  700  teachers 
and  attendance  of  2940,  and  an  industrial  school, 
which  will  open  this  year,  with  7  teachers  and  50 
pupils.  The  charitable  institutions  include  St. 
Joseph’s  Orphanage,  5  hospitals,  and  1  home  at 
Hot  Springs;  all  the  State  institutions  permit  the 
priests  to  minister  in  them.  The  Apostleship  of 
Prayer  and  the  Eucharistic  League  are  established 
among  the  clergy,  and  the  Knights  of  Columbus 
and  Diocesan  Lay  Council  among  the  laity.  “The 
Guardian,”  the  official  diocesan  organ,  was  founded 
in  1911  and  now  has  a  circulation  of  3000. 

Liturgical  Music,  Pius  X  Institute  of,  founded 
in  1918  and  established  at  the  College  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Manhattanville,  New  York  City,  by  Mrs. 
Justine  B.  Ward,  author  of  the  Justine  Ward  Method 
of  Teaching  Music,  for  the  purpose  of  concentrating 
on  the  systematic  working  out  of  the  reform  in 
church  music  decreed  by  Pope  Pius  X  in  his  Motu 
Proprio  on  the  subject.  At  the  request  and  through 
the  inspiration  of  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Thomas  Edward 
Shields,  Dean  of  the  Catholic  Sisters  College,  Wash¬ 
ington,  D.  C.,  one  of  whose  great  desires  was  to 
restore  music  to  its  true  place  in  the  field  of  Cath¬ 
olic  education,  and  finally  by  means  of  a  thorough 


musical  education  in  parochial  schools  to  enable  the 
people  to  take  part  in  the  liturgical  singing,  Mrs. 
Ward,  with  the  help  and  guidance  of  the  Rev.  J.  B. 
Young,  S.J.,  wrote  her  method  of  teaching  music 
in  which  she  has  accomplished  the  simplification  of 
a  great  art.  This  work  forms  the  basis  of  the  work 
of  the  Pius  X  Institute  of  Liturgical  Music.  The 
first  volume  of  the  Justine  Ward  Method  of  Teach¬ 
ing  Music  was  brought  out  in  1913.  In  this  volume 
and  in  those  which  followed,  music  is  treated  as  a 
basic  element  in  the  development  of  intellect  and 
in  the  formation  of  character.  Throughout  Mrs. 
Ward  has  carried  out  the  principles  and  methods 
which  Dr.  Shields  embodied  in  his  Catholic  Educa¬ 
tion  Series  of  Primary  Text  Books,  and  she  has 
correlated  as  closely  as  possible  with  all  the  ele¬ 
ments  of  the  curriculum,  always  stressing  those 
aspects  of  music  which  would  enable  the  child  and 
older  student  to  appreciate  and  take  an  effective 
part  in  liturgical  singing.  Her  idea  is  that  music 
being  basic  must  not  be  reserved  for  the  gifted  few, 
but  must  be  brought  within  the  grasp  of  every  child 
to  use  with  ease  and  joy.  To  accomplish  this  result, 
children  in  the  primary  grades  begin  with  the  basic 
principles  of  music  itself,  at  first  in  germinal  form, 
but  gradually  unfolding  in  greater  richness  and  com¬ 
plexity,  according  to  the  child’s  developing  capacity. 
In  the  plan  of  the  Justine  Ward  Method,  music 
takes  its  place  from  the  very  first  as  a  natural  form 
of  expression.  It  is  not  to  be  something  arbitrarily 
imposed  from  without,  arrived  at  through  imitation 
and  memorized  by  dreary  repetition,  but  it  is  pre¬ 
sented  in  such-  a  way  as  to  become  part  of  the 
child’s  own  thought.  He  is  t-s^ight  to  read  music 
as  naturally  as  he  reads  and  trunks  in  his  native 
language.  The  work  begins  with  a  single  note, 
always  sung,  for  all  music  comes  from  singing.  This 
original  note,  out  of  which  the  whole  system 
develops,  must  be  pure  in  quality,  that  the  voice 
may  be  well  placed  and  the  tone  beautiful  from 
the  start.  The  importance  of  the  vocal  work  in  the 
method  can  hardly  be  over-emphasized,  for  where 
there  is  no  beauty  of  tone,  there  is  no  music,  and 
therefore  the  vocal  exercises,  through  which  the 
smoothness,  flexibility  and  beauty  of  tone  are 
derived,  are  one  of  the  important  studies  of  the 
method. 

The  vocal  training  achieved  in  schools  where  the 
method  is  used  has  won  for  it  much  renown.  The 
vocal  exercises  used  are  the  work  of  the  Rev.  J.  B. 
Young,  S.J.,  whose  thorough  acquaintance  with 
voice  training  and  long  practical  experience  in  this 
field  entitles  him  to  be  regarded  as  a  leader  in  any 
movement  directed  to  the  improvement  of  musical 
education  and  liturgical  singing.  Father  Young 
gave  his  constant  assistance  to  the  author  of  the 
Justine  Ward  Method  of  Teaching  Music  and  placed 
at  her  disposal  material  which  he  had  already  copy¬ 
righted  and  which  he  had  tested  by  actual  use  in 
the  service  of  the  Church.  He  comes  frequently 
to  the  courses  given  at  the  Institute,  to  hear  and 
aid  the  vocal  work  of  the  students. 

In  1918,  when  Mrs.  Ward  founded  the  Pius  X 
Chair  of  Liturgical  Music  (the  term  “Chair”  was 
changed  to  that  of  “Institute”  when  the  scope  of  its 
work  was  no  longer  that  of  a  Chair),  at  the  Col-, 
lege  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  little  headway  had  been 
made  toward  carrying  out  the  Motu  Proprio  of 
Pope  Pius  X.  The  Supreme  Pontiff  had  urged  that 
music  be  restored  to  the  people  as  a  means  of 
sanctification;  that  such  music  as  was  used  by  the 
Church  must  adequately  express  the  content  of  her 
message  and  that  these  things  be  done,  not  in  a 
spirit  of  blind  obedience  but  with  that  alacrity  of 
will  that  springs  from  interior  conviction  of  its 


LITURGICAL 


465 


LITURGICAL 


necessity.  But  the  people  could  not  sing — nor  could 
they  understand  a  type  of  music  so  different  from 
anything  they  had  ever  heard.  The  task  of  the 
Pius  X  Institute  was  therefore  a  vast  one,  but  as 
the  only  hope  of  any  great  movement  is  in  the  ris- 
inf?  generation,  the  field  for  the  work  was  obviously 
in  the  parochial  schools.  4  he  teaching  of  music 
had.  been  largely  controlled  by  a  highly  specialized 
group  which  knew  its  own  subject  but  was  more  or 
less  out  of  touch  with  those  elements  of  general 
culture  which  would  enable  its  members  to  teach 
their  art  according  to  the  laws  of  psychological 
development.  The  rigid  didactic  methods  of  the  past 
had  served  their  purpose  because  they  attempted 
little  more  than  to  reach  the  pupils  with  special 
aptitude  for  music.  The  Pius  X  Institute  of 
Liturgical  Music  wished  to  reach  a  wider  field,  and 
has  done  so.  The  work  of  the  Institute  was  first 
developed  by  training  the  children  of  the  Annuncia¬ 
tion  School  for  Girls,  taught  by  the  Religious  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  and  thus  securing  practical  re¬ 
sults  which  might  be  used  in  the  training  of  teachers. 
In  the  summer  of  1917  courses  for  teachers  were 
first  given,  for  lasting  results  cannot  be  achieved 
through  any  method  of  instruction,  however  excel¬ 
lent  in  itself  unless  it  be  used  by  competent 
teachers  with  adequate  training  in  the  method  in 
question.  Under  the  direction  of  Mother  G.  Stevens, 
Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  who  has  been  from 
the  first  the  chief  teacher  and  interpreter  of  Mrs. 
W  ard’s  work,  the  Institute  has  flourished  and  won 
for  itself  a  unique  place  in  education  and  art.  This 
is  due  primarily  to  the  phenomenal  results  obtained 
with  the  children  in  the  schools  that  have  adopted 
the  method,  and  do  the  work  while  keeping  in  close 
touch  with  its  development  at  the  center.  The 
zeal  with  which  teachers  and  educators  have  taken 
up  Mrs.  Ward’s  work  and  carried  it  on  is  in  itself 
a  proof  of  its  value.  It  is  these  teachers,  for  the 
most  part  bodies  of  women  of  many  different  reli¬ 
gious  orders,  who  had  realized  the  object  to  be 
attained  and  who  are  pushing  the  work  in  their 
schools.  Practically  every  instance  of  its  adoption 
in  a  school  has  been  the  result  of  popular  acclaim; 
rarely  has  it  been  enforced  from  without.  With 
such  splendid  co-operation,  the  work  of  the  Insti¬ 
tute  has  progressed  healthily  and  normally.  In 
June,  1920,  two  years  after  it  was  established,  many 
people  in  the  United  States  witnessed  the  beginning 
of  the  liturgical  revival  in  this  country  when  thirty- 
five  hundred  children,  trained  by  teachers  of  the 
normal  school  of  the  Pius  X  Institute,  took  part 
in  the  International  Congress  of  Gregorian  Chant 
held  in  New  York  City  in  St.  Patrick’s  Cathedral, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Most  Reverend  Patrick 
J.  Hayes,  Archbishop  of  New  York.  The  beauty  of 
the  children’s  singing  was  praised  by  the  Monks  of 
Solesmes,  Dom  Andre  Mocquereau  and  Dorn  Gatard, 
who  led  the  Congress.  The  children,  drawn  from 
forty  schools  of  New  York  City  and  suburbs,  and 
several  groups  from  Philadelphia  and  suburbs,  sang 
the  Missa  de  Angelis  on  the  opening  day  of  the 
Congress.  They  had  had  but  three  ensemble  re¬ 
hearsals  before  the  event,  yet  they  sang  in  perfect 
unison  and  with  a  purity  of  tone  and  an  enthusiasm 
that  brought  tears  to  many  eyes.  For  many  years 
before  the  founding  of  the  Pius  X  Institute  of 
Liturgical  Music,  the  Society  of  St.  Gregory,  an 
organization  of  Catholic  organists  and  choirmasters 
and  others  interested  in  the  advancement  of  the 
cause  of  sacred  music,  together  with  the  Auxiliary 
Committee  of  the  Pontifical  Institute  of  Sacred 
Music,  had  been  laying  the  foundation  for  a  Con¬ 
gress  such  as  this,  but  it  was  the  work  done  by  the 
school  children  that  made  the  event  possible.  The 


Congress  was  a  milestone  in  the  history  of  the 
liturgical  revival  in  the  New  World. 

people  were  not  always  silent  onlookers  at 
the  liturgical  drama.  Their  part  originally  was  akin 
to  that  oi  the  chorus  in  the  Greek  drama;  they 
responded  to  the  prayers  of  the  priest  with  a  shout 
of  appi-ovai  “Amca”;  with  a  burst  of  joy, 
Alleluia!  The  Kyne  was  their  own  plea  for 
mercy;  the  Credo  their  own  act  of  faith.  But  for 
generations  the  voice  oi  the  people  had  been 
hushed.  I  he  .  Church  is  restoring  to  them  their 
musical  birthright.  Since  the  Renaissance,  public 
worship  has  suffered  a  gradual  deterioration 
btealthily  the  principle  of  art  for  art’s  sake  has 
crept  into  our  churches  through  the  choir.  Music 
j  u  treated  as  an  end  rather  than  as  a  means 
and  both  music  and  prayer  have  suffered.  To  com¬ 
bat  this  and  to  make  it  possible  to  obey  the  Motu 
Proprio  have  been  Mrs.  Ward’s  aim  and  sole  desire. 
Ine  liturgy,  the  complex  of  public  worship  through 
words,  through  gesture,  through  color,  through 
sound  is  the  most  powerful  means  towards  con- 
\  ei sion  and  sanctification.  The  arts,  as  humble 
handmaids  of  the  Lord,  are  admitted,  not  for  their 
°'VI1  uto  add  life  and  efficacy  to  the 

thoughts  and  by  so  doing,  to  “train  and  form  the 
minds  of  the  faithful  to  all  sanctity”  (Pius  X). 
Music  must  be  primarily  prayer,  and  furthermore, 
liturgical  prayer,  vesting  itself  with  the  exact  form 
and  spirit  of  the  liturgy.  “These  qualities  are  to 
be  found  m  the  highest  degree  in  Gregorian  Chant, 
which  is  consequently  the  chant  proper  to  the 
Roman  Church”  (Pius  X).  Gregorian  Chant,  being 
unison  music,  can  be  sung  by  the  entire  people  and 
even  by  little  children.  Besides  the  thirty-five  hun¬ 
dred  school  children  who  sang  during  the  Congress 
in  St.  Patrick’s  Cathedral,  there  were  many  adults 
delegates  from  all  over  the  United  States  and 
Europe.  The  seminaries  of  Baltimore,  Rochester 
and  other  cities  co-operated  with  those  of  Dun- 
woodie,  in  singing  the  offices.  Hundreds  of  dele¬ 
gates  from  religious  communities  from  all  over  the 
country  took  part  in  the  singing,  and  for  a  number 
of  weeks  before  the  event,  evening  rehearsals  both 
in  churches  and  at  the  College  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
were  conducted  under  the  auspices  of  the  Pius  X 
Institute  of  Liturgical  Music,  .  in  order  that  the 
laity  might  fit  themselves  to  join  in  the  singing 
of  the  Psalms.  For  three  days  the  body  of  St.  Pat¬ 
rick  s  Cathedral  was  filled  with  these  singers  under 
the  direction  of  the  greatest  living  authority  on 
Gregorian  Chant,  the  venerable  Dom  Andre  Moc¬ 
quereau,  with  his  late  pupil  Dom  Gatard,  then 
prior  of  Farnborough  Abbey,  England.  No  more 
rapid  and  effective  method  could  have  been  devised 
to  further  this  great  educational  movement  in  the 
Church  than  the  bringing  together  of  those  groups 
for  the  Congress  which  gave  not  only  a  model  of 
what  the  Holy  See  desires,  but  a  practical  illustra¬ 
tion  of  how  these  desires  can  most  easily  be  fulfilled. 

Through  the  new  interest  and  enthusiasm  aroused 
by-  the.  overwhelming  success  of  the  Congress, 
greater  impetus  was  given  to  the  work  of  the  Pius 
X  Institute,  and  in  two  years  following  the  Con¬ 
gress  the  work  broadened  in  scope.  Besides  the 
teaching  of  the  method  to  the  children  of  the 
Annunciation  Parish  School  and  those  of  the  Acad¬ 
emy  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  the  work  of  the  Institute 
is  divided  into  three  departments:  (1)  the  training 
of  teachers  in  the  normal  school ;  (2)  the  super¬ 
vision  of  the  teaching  of  music  in  all  the  schools 
that  have  adopted  the  Justine  Ward  Method; 
(3)  Extension  Work,  from  which  department  teach¬ 
ers  are  sent  out  all  over  the  country  to  give 
normal  courses  in  schools  and  colleges  to  bodies  of 


LITURGICAL 


466 


LIVERPOOL 


teacher-students  in  the  Justine  Ward  Method. 
This  extension  teaching  is  carefully  followed  up  by 
the  faculty  of  the  Institute.  Written  examinations 
are  required  and  certificates  are  awarded  upon  the 
successful  passing  of  these  examinations,  which  are 
conducted  on  the  plan  of  the  State  Regents’  tests. 
Sealed  questions  are  sent  out  from  the  Institute  and 
the  examination  papers  are  returned  to  the  center 
for  correction  and  rating.  Records  are  kept,  and  the 
work  of  all  teachers  trained  through  the  Extension 
Work  Department,  as  well  as  that  of  teachers  who 
come  to  the  Institute,  is  carefully  followed  up  from 
the  center  through  its  staff  of  supervisors.  Diplomas 
are  awarded  for  practical  work.  In  this  way  the 
work  has  been  made  a  living  thing,  constantly  being 
developed  to  meet  new  needs  discovered  in  the  ex¬ 
perience  of  teaching  it.  Two  sessions  a  year  are 
conducted  by  Mrs.  Ward  and  Mother  G.  Stevens  in 
the  normal  school,  a  summer  session  and  a  winter 
session.  The  courses  given  include  the  Justine 
Ward  Method,  harmony,  psychology,  pedagogy  and 
elementary  and  advanced  Gregorian  Chant.  The 
courses  in  the  Chant  are  always  given  by  well 
known  authorities  on  the  subject.  In  the  summer 
session  of  1922,  advanced  Gregorian  Chant  was 
given  by  the  great  master,  Dom  Andre  Mocquereau, 
and  a  course  in  Gregorian  Chant  Accompaniment 
was  given  by  Dom  Desroquesttes,  organist  of  Quarr 
Abbey,  Isle  of  Wight,  England.  As  an  aftermath  of 
the*  Congress,  widespread  interest  in  the  movement 
showed  itself  in  the  greatly  increased  attendance  at 
the  courses  of  study  given  in  the  Normal  School  of 
the  Institute.  The  student  body  includes  Sisters  of 
almost  every  teaching  order,  priests  and  seminarians, 
organists  and  choirmasters,  as  well  as  many  pianists 
and  singing  teachers  among  the  laity  who  are  in¬ 
terested  in  new  and  progressive  methods.  Although 
the  work  of  the  Institute  is  distinctly  Catholic  in 
aim  and  purpose,  the  phenomenal  musical  results 
obtained  everywhere  in  the  schools  that  are  working 
under  its  supervision,  have  aroused  the  interest  of 
non-Catholic  educators.  The  Justine  Ward  Method 
has  been  adopted  in  many  of  their  private  schools 
and  the  directors  of  these  schools  are  working  in 
close  co-operation  with  the  faculty  of  the  Pius  X 
Institute.  This  branching  out  into  the  non-Catholic 
field  of  education  was  partly  brought  about  by  a 
number  of  influential  ladies  who  attended  the  In¬ 
ternational  Congress  of  Gregorian  Chant  and  were 
deeply  impressed  by  the  beauty  of  the  children’s 
singing  and  who  witnessed  at  a  public  demonstration 
given  in  Cathedral  Hall  during  the  days  of  the  Con¬ 
gress  an  exhibition  of  the  method  as  it  is  conducted 
in  the  class  room.  The  beautiful  quality  of  the 
children’s  voices  and  their  power  of  sustaining  an 
absolutely  true  pitch  without  the  support  of  an  in¬ 
strument  have  amazed  all  who  have  heard  them, 
among  whom  have  been  many  musicians  of  inter¬ 
national  reputation.  The  children  can  read  at  sight 
a  new  melody  with  as  much  ease  as  they  read  a 
printed  statement.  They  can  write  down  a  melody 
at  first  hearing  with  equal  facility.  They  analyze 
intelligently  the  melodies  they  hear,  both  as  to 
content  and  form.  They  improvise  phrases  and 
responses  with  ease  and  delight  and  compose  orig¬ 
inal  melodies  of  musical  value  in  two  and  three 
parts  as  well  as  in  unison.  After  the  meeting  of 
the  Congress,  these  ladies  under  the  leadership  of 
Mrs.  Adrian  Iselin,  formed  themselves  into  a  com¬ 
mittee  to  work  for  the  spread  of  the  Justine  Ward 
Method  of  Teaching  Music  in  both  public  and 
private  schools,  for  they  recognized  in  it  an  educa¬ 
tional  movement  of  power,  i.  e.,  this  bringing  of 
a  great  art  into  the  lives  of  the  people  instead  of 
to  the  cultured  few  alone.  For  this  purpose  they 
have  given  the  Institute  substantial  financial  sup¬ 


port  as  well  as  lending  to  it  valuable  influence. 
But  in  spite  of  financial  aid  secured  from  various 
sources,  the  work  of  the  Institute  is  not  yet  self- 
supporting.  This  will  probably  take  years  to  accom¬ 
plish  ana  at  present  its  needs  arising  from  the 
mass  of  work  connected  with  the  movement,  are 
great.  Established  as  a  Chair  of  the  College  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  it  has  long  since  outgrown  the  space 
allotted  to  it  by  the  College  and  an  adequate  build¬ 
ing  and  funds  for  supervisors  are  greatly  needed. 

Through  its  extension  work,  schools  in  many  im¬ 
portant  cities  from  Maine  to  California  are  working 
in  close  co-operation  with  it  in  methods  and  pur¬ 
pose.  In  May,  1922,  the  Society  of  Saint  Gregory 
held  its  fifth  annual  convention  at  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  F. 
Hickey,  Bishop  of  Rochester.  The  Institute  was 
represented  by  a  class  of  children  from  the  parochial 
school  of  the  Annunciation,  New  York  City,  taught 
by  Mother  G.  Stevens,  who  gave  a  demonstration 
in  the  advanced  work  of  the  Justine  Ward  Method. 
School  children  of  Rochester  also  took  part  in  the 
demonstration  of  the  Method. 

Mrs.  Ward  has  completed  three  volumes  of  her 
work  and  the  fourth  is  nearly  finished.  The  latter 
deals  exclusively  with  Gregorian  Chant  and  has 
been  written  in  close  collaboration  with  Dom  Moc¬ 
quereau,  who  gives  it  the  highest  possible  praise  in 
the  introduction  which  he  himself  has  written. 
Dom  Mocquereau,  more  than  any  single  figure,  has 
contributed  by  his  researches  to  the  restoration  of 
the  Gregorian  melodies  to  their  original  purity  in 
the  form  now  embodied  in  the  Vatican  edition  of 
the  Gradual,  which  since  its  publication  has  become 
a  matter  of  musical  dogma  to  the  Church.  He 
is  the  authoritative  interpreter  of  his  own  dis¬ 
coveries  of  rhythmic  principles,  which  break  away 
from  some  of  the  rules  which  musicians  of  the  last 
few  centuries  have  held  as  axiomatic,  but  from 
whose'  shackles  modern  musicians  are  gradually  free¬ 
ing  themselves.  Like  Vincent  d’lndy  and  other 
composers  of  our  day,  Dom  Mocquereau  denies  the 
dominance  of  the  first  beat  of  the  measure  as  being 
of  necessity  a  stressed  beat;  the  stressed  beat  for 
the  first  measure  he  considers  suitable  only  to  the 
most  obvious  types  of  music.  Those  who  have  been 
privileged  to  hear  the  Gregorian  melodies  as  they 
are  sung  at  Quarr  Abbey  realize  that  they  are  shorn 
of  their  charm  when  they  move  with  a  heavy  beat, 
when  they  crawl  or  ascend  with  painful  jerks.  They 
only  become  themselves  when  they  rise  and  fall  like 
clouds  or  like  the  flight  of  a  bird.  When  our 
musical  perceptions  are  lifted  into  a  seraphic  region 
where  the  art  of  singing  becomes  a  matter  of  the 
spirit  rather  than  the  vocal  organs,  then  it  is  that 
we  begin  to  understand  the  meaning  of  that  art 
which  the  Holy  Spirit  whispered  into  the  ear  of 
St.  Gregory  and  we  realize  why  it  is  that  the 
Church  preserves  for  us  one  of  her  holiest  treasures 
— the  traditional  phrases  of  her  Gregorian  melodies. 
“What  is  more  pleasing  to  God  than  to  hear  the 
whole  Christian  people  sing  to  Him  in  unison?” 
(St.  Clement  of  Alexandria).  To  teach  the  people 
to  sing  to  God  is  the  task  that  the  Pius  X  Institute 
of  Liturgical  Music  aims  to  carry  on  under  the 
inspiration  of  Mrs.  Ward  to  whom  it  owes  its 
foundation  and  life. 

Liverpool,  Archdiocese  of  (Liverpolitanensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  IX-314a),  in  Lancaster  County,  England. 
On  28  October,  1911,  Most  Rev.  Thomas  Whiteside 
was  promoted  to  this  see  and  filled  it  until  his 
death,  28  January,  1921.  During  his  administration 
he  made  an  energetic  campaign  against  the  three 
great  evils  which  he  found  in  the  diocese — mixed 
marriages,  drinking,  and  poverty.  He  was  sue- 


LJUBLJANA 


LOBBEDEY 


467 


cceded  by  Most  Rev.  Frederick  William  Keating, 
born  in  Birmingham,  England,  in  1859,  made  his 
studies  there  and  at  Sedgley  Park,  Douai,  and 
Olton,  where  lie  was  ordained  in  1882,  served  as  a 
professor  at  Oakmoor,  Oscott,  and  Olton,  pastor 
at  Wednesbury,  administrator  of  the  cathedral  of 
Birmingham,  made  a  canon  in  1900,  and  appointed 
Bishop  of  N  orthampton  5  Febmary,  1908,  from 
which  see  he  was  promoted  13  June,  1921  The 
religious  orders  established  in  the  Archdiocese  of 
lav  ei  pool  include :  men,  Benedictines,  Franciscans 
(briars  Minor),  Jesuits,  Oblates  of  Mary  Immacu¬ 
late,  Passiomsts,  Redemptorists,  Holy  Ghost  Fa¬ 
thers,  society  of  St.  Joseph  for  Foreign  Missions, 
Brothers  of  Charity,  and  Christian  Brothers; 
women,  Sisters  of  Adoration  Reparatrice,  Augus¬ 
ts  man  Sisters,  Benedictines,  Bon  Secours,  Carmelites, 
Daughters  of  Wisdom,  Faithful  Companions  of 
"fsu s,  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  of  the  Holy 
Child  Jesus,  of  the  Holy  Cross  and  Passion,  Insti¬ 
tute  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Retreat  in  the  Cenacle, 
Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  of 
Notre  Dame,  Poor  Servants  of  the  Mother  of 
Good,  Poor  Clares,  Poor  Sisters  of  Nazareth,  Pre¬ 
sentation  Nuns,  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Mary  St.  Joseph  Missionary  Sisters,  various 
branches  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  and  Sisters  of 
the  Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary. 

The  last  civil  census  of  this  territory,  taken  in 
19il,  counts  a  total  population  of  2,069,854,  and 
the  last  Catholic  census  (1917)  gives  the  total  num- 
/fnoo3/  Catholics  as  390,173.  The  latest  statistics 
(1922)  credit  the  archdiocese  with  322  secular  and 
182  regular  clergy,  74  convents,  204  public  churches, 
chapels,  and  stations,  69  private  chapels  with  Sun¬ 
day  Mass,  182  public  elementary  schools  receiving 
Go\  ernment  aid,  and  2  not  receiving  aid,  6  second¬ 
ary  schools  for  boys  and  24  for  girls,  86,486  children 
in  elementary  schools,  6981  children  in  other  schools, 

4  hospitals,  33  residential  institutions  for  poor  chil¬ 
dren,  and  9  othef  homes  and  refuges  caring  in  all 
for  3850  children. 


Gotschce.  The  cathedral  chapter  consists  of  12 
regular  and  6  honorary  canons. 

.  k-^nco  1493  a  collegiate  chapter  has  existed  also 
in  connection  with  the  parish  church  of  St.  Nikolaus 
at  Novomesto  (New  City) ;  it  consists  of  a  mitred 
provost  and  4  members.  The  consistory  of  the 
prince-bishop  is  made  up  of  the  cathedral  chapter, 
2  honorary  canons,  and  2  other  members.  The 
training  of  the  clergy  is  provided  for  by  a  diocesan 
clerical  seminary  with  92  students;  and  a  seminary 
for  boys,  the  College  of  St.  Stanislaus,  with  gym¬ 
nasium,  founded  in  1900,  which  has  340  students 
which  is  affiliated  the  smaller  seminary 
called  Collegium  Aloysianum,  founded  in  1846.  The 
University  of  Ljubljana,  which  was  founded  in  1919 
provides  for  theological  study  with  15  professors 
and  instructors  and  112  theological  students.  Eccle¬ 
siastical  professors  give  religious  instruction  in  the 
gymnasium  of  St.  Vid  near  Ljubljana  (340  stu- 
dents),  in  the  3  gymnasia  and  the  upper  high  school 
at  Ljubljana,  also  in  other  schools. 

•  Ti16  j?^§^ous  orders  and  congregations  for  men 
m  the  diocese  are :  Cistercians,  1  abbey  at  Sittich, 
10  pnests,  3  clerics,  14  lay  brothers;  Carthusians, 

1  monastery  at  Pletrije,  29  priests,  31  brothers; 
brandscans,  5  monasteries,  48  priests,  15  clerics, 
32  lay  brothers;  Capuchins,  2  monasteries,  9  priests, 
6  brothers ;  Brothers  of  Mercy,  1  monastery,  1 
priest,  18  brothers;  Jesuits,  1  residence,  8  priests, 

3  lay  brothers;  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  1 
mission  house,  21  missionaries,  9  brothers;  Priests 
oi  the  Teutonic  Order,  1  branch  monastery,  10 
priests,  2  clerics,  1  lay  brother;  Salesians,  2  houses, 
12  priests,  24  clerics,  33  novices,  7  brothers.  The 
total  number  of  Sisters  of  Christian  Charity  is 
340  in  17  houses. 

.  The  Cathedral  of  St.  Nikolaus  was  built  1700-07 
in  Barocco  style  by  the  Jesuit  Andrea  Pozzo.  Other 
fine  examples  of  Barocco  architecture  are  the  Fran¬ 
ciscan  Church  at  Ljubljana  (1628),  the  Church  of 
St.  Peter  (eighteenth  century)  at  the  same  place, 
and  the  Church  of  St.  Jakob  (1615)  also  at  Ljubljana. 


Ljubljana  (Lubiana,  German  Laibach),  Dio¬ 
cese  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-743c),  bishopric  in  Jugo¬ 
slavia,  rightfully  still  a  suffragan  of  Gorizia  (Gorica, 
Gorz),  but  in  fact  now  separated  from  that  metro¬ 
politan  see  which  belongs  to  Italy.  The  diocese 
embraces  the  territory  of  the  former  Austrian 
crown-land  of  Carniola  (Kranjsko;  Krain). 
t  ^ocese  divided  into  5  archdeaneries; 
Ljubljana,  Upper  Krain  Interior  Krain,  Middle 
Krain,  and  Lower  Krain.  These  are  subdivided  into 
22  deaneries.  Beginning  with  1922  the  see  contains 
12  cathedral  and  5  collegiate  prebends,  301  parishes 
(of  which  30  are  vacant),  1  vicarship,  1  ancient 
chaplaincy  17  Exposituren  (i.  e.,  filial  churches 
joined  to  the  mother  church  only  by  some  unim¬ 
portant  link  to  recall  their  former  relations),  235 
positions  for  assistant  clergy  (86  vacant),  36  other 
benefices,  321  parish  churches,  1000  dependent 
churches,  11  monastery  churches,  230  chapels,  4 
deaneries  (with  44  curates  and  45  priests)  ad¬ 
ministered  by  the  Archdiocese  of  Gorzia,  since 
according  to  the  treaty  of  St.  Germain  and  Rapallo 
they  belong  to  Italy,  and  a  new  partition  of  the 
diocese  has  not  yet  been  made.  Besides  the  prince- 
bishop  there  are  16  canons,  457  parish  priests,  72 
ecclesiastics  in  other  positions,  68  priests  retired 
on  pensions,  127  regulars.  The  population  con¬ 
sists  of  500,000  Catholics,  200  Protestants,  1000 
Orthodox  Greeks,  200  Jews.  The  language  spoken 
by  about  97  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants  is  Slo- 
venian.  German  is  spoken  in  the  larger  cities  like 
Ljubljana,  and  in  the  German-speaking  center  of 


Loango  (or  French  Lower  Congo),  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  (de  Loango  or  Congi  gallici  in- 
ferioris;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-317a),  erected  in  1890,  had 
its  boundaries  somewhat  changed  in  1894  and  again 
m  1911.  By  this  second  change  the  mission  of 
Linzolo  was  detached  and  joined  to  the  vicariate  of 
brench  Upper  Congo.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Fathers 
of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  includes  a  population  of 
1,500,000,  of  whom  5117  are  Catholic,  and  3000 
catechumens.  The  mission  is  served  by  24  mis¬ 
sionary  and  1  native  priests,  15  Brothers,  45  cate¬ 
chists,  11  Sisters,  8  stations,  13  chapels,  62  second¬ 
ary  stations,  6  schools,  and  6  orphanages.  Rt. 
Rev.  Leon-Charles-J oseph  Girod,  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Obba  and  vicar  apostolic  of  Loango  died 
at  Mayumba,  13  December,  1919,  and  his  successor 
has  not  yet  been  appointed. 

Lobbedey,  Emile-Louis-Cornil,  heroic  Bishop  of 
Arras,  b.  at  Bergues  in  the  Diocese  of  Lille,  on  29 
February,  1856;  d.  at  Boulogne  on  26  December, 
1916.  He  studied  at  Rome,  winning  a  doctorate  in 
theology  and  a  licentiate  in  canon  law  as  in 
philosophy,  and  served  in  the  mission  at  Cambrai, 
Pradelles,  and  Hazebrouck,  being  named  vicar 
general  in  1857.  On  5  August,  1906,  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  to  the  see  of  Moulins  and  on  5  May,  1911, 
was  transferred  to  Arras.  When  the  war  broke 
out  he  was  the  personification  of  the  bravery  that 
characterized  the  French  clergy,  both  secular  and 
regular.  He  was  decorated  by  the  President  with 
the  cross  of  the  Legion  d’honneur  with  the  follow¬ 
ing  citation  in  the  “Journal  Officier  (17  October, 


LODZ 


468 


LORETTO 


1916)):  “From  October,  1914,  till  June,  1915,  he 
remained  at  Arras  within  the  first  French  lines 
exposed  at  times  to  violent  bombardment,  devoting 
himself  to  his  ministry  without  counting  the  cost, 
visiting  our  soldiers,  burying  the  dead,  aiding  the 
ambulance  department,  giving  everyone  an  inspir¬ 
ing  example  of  calm,  coolness,  energy  and  duty  well 
done  in  imminent  danger  from  the  enemy.” 

Lodi,  Diocese  of  (Laudensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-322c), 
in  the  province  of  Milan,  Northern  Italy,  suffragan 
of  Milan.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Pietro 
Zanolini,  born  in  Merlara,  Iffily,  1866,  served  as 
professor  of  moral  theology  in  the  seminary, 
appointed  Bishop  of  Fabriano  4  March,  1910,  and 
transferred  *  6  July,  1913,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev. 
Giovanni-Battista  Rota,  died  24  February,  1913. 
During  the  World  War  142  priests  and  clerics  of 
this  diocese  served  in  the  army,  15  as  officers,  5  as 
chaplains;  of  this  number  8  were  killed  and  5  re¬ 
ceived  decorations.  Those  at  home  joined  the  citi¬ 
zens  in  zealously  assisting  in  all  patriotic  works, 
serving  in  the  hospitals,  homes  for  refugees,  and 
other  charitable  organizations.  _  By  latest  statistics 
the  diocese  comprises  109  parishes,  7  convents  of 
men  and  61  of  women,  268  secular  and  27  regular 
priests,  19  Brothers,  1  seminary,  100  seminarians, 
4  secondary  schools  for  boys,  7  for  girls,  7  high 
schools,  and  2  normal  schools.  The  charitable  in¬ 
stitutions  include  a  missionary  union  of  the  clergy, 
9  homes,  6  orphanages,  asylums  in  all  tl-t  parishes, 
7  hospitals,  and  2  day  nurseries.  Most  of  the  public 
institutions  permit  the  clergy  to  minister  in  them, 
and  all  the  public  schools,  but  no  religious  schools, 
are  assisted  by  the  government.  A  mutual  aid 
society  is  formed  among  the  clergy,  and  a  number 
of  Catholic  periodicals  are  published. 

Lodz,  Diocese  of  (Lodzensis),  in  Poland,  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Warsaw.  This  diocese  was  erected  by  a 
consistorial  Decree  of  10  December,  1920,  which 
took  the  western  part  of  the  archdiocese  of  Warsaw, 
comprising  three  deaneries,  and  formed  it  into  the 
new  diocese.  The  church  of  St.  Stanislas  Kostka 
was  made  the  cathedral  and  granted  a  chapter.  The 
former  pastor  of  this  church,  Rt.  Rev.  Vincent 
Tymieniecki,  born  in  1872  and  ordained  in  1895, 
private  chamberlain  and  prelate  of  the  Holy  See, 
was  appointed  the  first  bishop  11  April.  1921.  Statis¬ 
tics  are  not  yet  published. 

Loja,  Diocese  of  (Lojanensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX- 
332b),  suffragan  of  Quito  in  Ecuador,  South  America, 
includes  the  greater  part  of  the  provinces  of  Loja 
and  El  Oro.  Rt.  Rev.  Carlos  Maria  Xavier  de  La 
Torre,  appointed  to  this  see  30  December,  1911,  was 
transferred  to  the  diocese  of  Riobamba  21  August, 
1919.  He  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  William  Harris,, 
who  was  born  in  this  diocese,  served  as  chancellor 
and  rector  of  the  seminary  and  was  appointed  7 
May,  1920.  Statistics  of  1920  credit  the  diocese 
with  80,530  Catholics,  61  secular  and  20  regular 
clergy,  38  parishes,  and  84  churches  or  chapels. 

London,  Diocese  of  (Londinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-353c),  in  Canada,  has  as  its  present  bishop 
Rt.  Rev.  Michael  Francis  Fallon,  who  was  ap¬ 
pointed  fifth  Bishop  of  London  in  December,  1909. 
In  1920  a  society  called  “The  Catholic  Unity  League 
of  Canada”  was  established  by  the  bishop,  having 
as  its  object  the  propagation  of  Catholic  truth 
and  the  refutation  of  errors  and  slanders  against 
the  Church.  The  work  is  carried  on  by  the  dis¬ 
tribution  of  pamphlets  prepared  or  procured  by 
the  society  as  the  need  arises. 

During  the  World  War  seven  of  the  priests  of 
this  diocese  acted  as  chaplains,  going  overseas  with 


the  troops,  and  at  home  both  clergy  and  laity 
united  in  all  patriotic  endeavors. 

The  religious  communities  now  established  in  the 
diocese  are:  Men:  Basilians,  Franciscans,  and  Re- 
demptorists.  Women:  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  of  the 
Precious  Blood,  Ursuline  Sisters,  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  Loretto  Nuns  and  Hos¬ 
pital  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph. 

The  present  (1921)  statistics  of  the  diocese  show 
a  Catholic  population  of  approximately  77,000. 
There  are  63  parishes,  25  missions  with  churches, 
88  churches,  1  monastery  for  women,  3  convents  for 
men,  29  for  women,  99  secular  and  33  regular 
clergy,  5  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  486 
Sisters,  1  seminary  with  10  seminarians  and  2  uni¬ 
versities,  Sandwich  College  for  men  and  Brescia 
Hall  for  women,  which  are  affiliated  with  Western 
University,  London.  There  are  23  professors  and 
68  students  in  these  colleges  and  in  addition  to 
these  are  5  academies  with  40  teachers  and  600 
girl  students  and  80  elementary  schools  with  260 
teachers  and  12,000  students.  The  charitable  in¬ 
stitutions  of  the  diocese  comprise  1  orphanage  with 
180  children,  3  hospitals,  1  home  for  the  aged  and 
indigent ;  all  the  public  institutions  admit  the 
priests  to  minister  in  them. 

The  Priests’  Eucharistic  League  and  Total  Ab¬ 
stinence  Association  are  organized  among  the  clergy 
as  well  as  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  Holy  Name 
Society,  and  various  parish  societies  among  the 
laity.  The  “Catholic  Record”  is  published  in 
London. 

Longhaye,  Georges,  literary  historian,  b.  at 
Rouen,  8  September,  1839;  d.  at  Paris,  17  January, 
1920.  Having  studied  at  Brugelette  and  Vaugirard, 
Paris,  and  won  his  baccalaureate  with  distinction, 
he  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Issenheim,  Alsace. 
As  a  scholastic  he  began  to  write  his  college  dramas, 
like  “Campion”  and  “Bouvines,”  which  are  of  high 
merit  in  their  genre,  and  cultivated  the  lyric  muse. 
His  active  life  after  ordination  was,  owing  to  the 
anti-Catholic  laws  of  France,  mostly  passed  in  Great 
Britain,  as  professor  of  Classics  and  literature  to  the 
young  Jesuits.  To  this  we  owe  his  “Theorie  des 
belles-lettres”  (1885),  a  philosophy  of  rhetoric,  a 
work  of  permanent  value;  “La  predication:  grands 
maitres  et  grandes  lois”  (1888),  which  we  followed 
by  his  more  ambitious  “Histoire  de  la  litterature 
frangaise  au  dix-septieme  siecle”  (4  vols.,  1895-96), 
crowned  by  the  French  Academy,  and  “Dix- 
neuvieme  siecle.  Exquisses  litteraires  et  morales” 
(5  vols.,  1901-08),  which  has  the  special  merit  of 
dealing  thoroughly  with  the  Catholic  writers  like 
Veuillot,  Ozanam,  and  de  Maistre. 

Loreto,  Diocese  of.  See  Recanati  and  Loreto. 

Loretto,  Sisters  of,  at  the  Foot  of  the  Cross 
(cf.  C.  E.,  IX-360d).— Within  the  last  ten  years  of 
the  Loretto  Society  has  established  eighteen  new 
schools,  and  the  Sisters  are  now  located  in  the 
three  Archdioceses  of  St.  Louis,  Chicago,  and  Santa 
Fe,  and  the  fourteen  Dioceses  of  Louisville,  Rock¬ 
ford,  Belleville,  Columbus,  Cleveland,  Mobile,  Kan¬ 
sas  City,  St.  Joseph,  Wichita,  Lincoln,  Oklahoma, 
Denver,  El  Paso,  and  Tucson.  Recognizing  the  need 
of  higher  education  for  women,  the  Society  has  also 
opened  two  colleges.  The  first  of  these,  Loretto 
College,  Webster  Groves  (a  suburb  of  St.  Louis), 
was  erected  in  1915-16,  opening  its  doors  to  stu¬ 
dents  in  the  fall  of  the  latter  year.  Two  years 
later,  Loretto  Heights  College,  Loretto,  Colorado, 
opened  with  a  good  enrollment.  Both  institutions 
were  early  placed  upon  the  list  of  standard  col¬ 
leges  by  the  Catholic  Educational  Association.  On 
the  teaching  staff  of  each  are  the  Vincentian  Fath- 


LORETTO 


469 


LOUISIANA 


ers,  and  the  Sisters  of  the  faculty  hold  degrees  from 
the  leading  universities.  Loretto  College  is  affiliated 
W  j  J;he.  Catholic  I  Diversity,  St.  Louis  University, 
and  Creighton,  and  has  a  preparatory  department 
at  Webster  Groves,  called  Loretto  College  Academy 
Loretto  Heights  College  is  affiliated  with  the  Catho¬ 
lic  University  and  De  Paul  University.  Fifteen 
academies,  fifty-six  parochial  schools,  and  five  public 
schools,  totaling  an  enrollment  of  nearly  18,000 
pupils,  complete  the  number  of  educational  institu¬ 
tions  conducted  by  the  Sisters.  Their  work  in  the 
public  schools^  under  their  charge  in  Kentucky, 
Kansas,  and  New  Mexico  is  held  in  high  regard 
At  Bernalillo,  N.  M.,  and  Pawhuska,  Okla.,  the 
Sisters  have  industrial  schools  for  Indian  girls,  in 
which  work  they  have  met  with  great  success. 

The  mother-house  is  at  Loretto,  Kentucky,  sixty 
miles  from  Louisville.  Every  Sister  of  Loretto  is 
an  educator  in  some  true  sense  of  the  word,  for 
aside  fi  om  the  actual  duties  of  teaching  there  are 
many  tasks  about  a  convent  which,  assigned -by 
good  judgment,  aid  the  work  of  the  order  as  a 
whole.  The  postulate  is  six  months,  followed  by  a 
novitiate  of  one  year  spent  exclusively  in  the  study 
of  the  spirit  and  rules  of  the  Order.  At  the  com¬ 
pletion  of  the  novitiate  simple  vows  are  taken  and 
renewed  annually  until  at  the  end  of  the  third 
year  they  are  taken  in  perpetuity.  After  profession 
a  normal  course  of  training  as  teachers  is  given, 
and  each  year  the  Sisters  are  given  opportunity  to' 
advance  in  educational  excellence.  The  Society 
now  numbers  819  members.  The  rules  have  been 
revised  in  accordance  with  the  new  Code  of  Canon 
Law,  and  the  corrections  ratified  by  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Religious,  29  July,  1920.  The  most 
important  change,  noted  above,  is  the  taking  of 
perpetual  vows  at  the  end  of  three  years,  instead  of 
five  as  formerly.  On  25  April,  1912,  Loretto  Order 
celebrated  the  centennial  of  its  foundation.  The 
destruction  by  fire  in  January,  1919,  of  the  Loretto 
Academy,  Florissant,  Missouri,  was  a  great  disaster. 
The  aged  Sisters  of  the  community  were  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  mother-house,  only  seven  of  the 
younger  members  remaining  to  conduct  St.  Ferdi¬ 
nands  parochial  school  which  adjoins  the  Sister’s 
property.  The  Sisters  took  up  their  residence  in 
one  of  the  buildings  near  the  old  historic  convent, 
formerly  occupied  by  the  Ladies  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  who  were  succeeded  there  in  1847  by  the 
Sisters  of  Loretto.  A  disastrous  flood,  a  few  years 
previous  to  the  fire,  had  necessitated  the  vacating 
of  .  the  convent.  To  provide  suitable  accommoda¬ 
tions  for  the  Sisters,  it  was  decided  to  discontinue 
the  high  school  grades  at  Florissant,  limiting  the 
school  to  the  eight  grammar  grades,  and  to  erect 
Within  the  environs  of  St.  Louis  a  boarding  academy 
and  college.  This  was  the  origin  of  Loretto  Col¬ 
lege. 

Since  1896  the  Society  has  been  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  Mother  Praxcdes  Carty,  superior  general. 
She  was  born  in  Bawnboy,  County  Cavan,  Ireland, 
and  came  with  her  parents  to  St.  Louis  in  May’ 
1865,  there  received  her  education,  and  entered 
Loretto  Order  in  1874.  Volunteering  for  the  west¬ 
ern  missions,  she  made  the  journey  by  caravan  to 
Santa  Fe,  where  she  made  her  first  vows,  was 
appointed  superior  at  Bernalillo,  N.  M.,  in  1880  as¬ 
signed  to  the  same  office  at  Las  Cruses,  later  called 
east  to  fill  the  superiorship  at  Florissant,  Mo.,  and 
elected  superior  general  in  1896.  She  was  ably 
assisted  in  the  beginning  of  her  administration  by 
Mother  Francisca  Lamy  (d.  1912),  a  native  of 
France,  and  niece  of  Archbishop  Lamy.  Mother 
Wilfrid  La  Motte,  vicaress  of  the  society  since 
1910,  formerly  directress  of  studies  and  mistress  of 


voices,  is  the  author  of  many  poems  published  in 
periodicals  under  the  pen  name  “Balbus,”  and 
°  uib?°  ,  °f  veiSG  entitled  “Flowers  of  the  Cloister,” 
published  in  1913.  Mother  Rosine  Green,  second 
assistant  to  the  superior  general,  has  filled  the 
offices  of  local  superior,  directress  of  studies,  prefect 
of  Loretto  training  school,  secretary  general,  assis¬ 
tant  general,  and  supervisor  of  schools. 

Among  notable  deceased  members  of  the  order 
are:  Mother  Bridget  Spalding,  cousin  of  Arch- 
bishop  Spalding  b.  near  Calvary,  Ky.,  received  the 
habit  from  Fr.  Isennckx,  25  March,  1824,  at  the  age 
ot  thirteen  mother  superior  of  the  society  1825-58: 
Mothers  Magdalen,  Bridget,  and  Elizabeth  Hart- 
liayden,  three  sisters,  of  whom  Mother  Magdalen 

°unei°f  the  P10neer.  Sisters  of  Santa  Fe,  Mother 
Elizabeth  was  successively  local  superior,  general 
treasurer  and  superior  general,  and  Mother  Bridget 
labored  long  among  the  Indians  at  Osage  Mission, 
Kansas,  and  upon  the  removal  of  the  Osage  Indians 
turther  west  continued  her  zealous  labor  at  St.  Ann’s 
Academy  for  young  ladies,  established  on  the  mis- 
sion  site,  and  died  in  1890,  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
six,  'oeing  among  the  hardy  pioneers  of  the  State 
whose  Pictures  hang  in  the  capitol  at  Topeka, 
Kansas;  Mother  Generose  Mattingly,  diamond 
jubilanan  and  the  last  Sister  of  Loretto  to  receive 
the  habit  from  Father  Nerinckx;  Mother  Bertha 
Bowles,  superior  general  1864-70;  Mother  Dafrosa 
Smythe,  superior  general  for  two  terms;  Mother 
Ann  Joseph  Mattingly,  superior  general  1882-88; 
Sister  Joanna  Walsh,  one  of  the  early  western 
pioneers,  later  assistant  to  mother  superior  and 
twice  elected  mistress  of  novices;  Mother  Catherine 
Connor,  successively  filled  high  offices  until  her  elec¬ 
tion  as  superior  general  in  1894;  Mother  Evangelista 
Eindewald,  for  many  years  assistant  general  (d. 
1916) ;  Mother  Victorine  Kelly,  elected  secretary 
general  in  1910  (d  1914) ;  Mother  Pancratia  Bonfels, 
erected  Loretto  Heights  Academy  (d.  1915) ;  Mother 
Elaget  HiH,  efficient  manager,  niece  of  Rev.  Walter 
Hdl  S.J  and  sister  of  Rev.  Joseph  Hill,  S.J.; 
Mother  Austin  Gough,  mistress  of  novices. 

Los  Angeles,  Diocese  of.  See  Monterey  and 
Los  Angeles. 

Louise  de  Marillac,  Blessed  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-133c), 
beatified  9  May,  1920,  by  Benedict  XV.  Her  feast 
is  celebrated  on  15  March. 

Louisiana  (cf.  C.E.,  IX-378c)  .-The  area  of  the 
fetate  of  Louisiana  is  48,506  sq.  miles  of  which  3097 
are  water  surface.  There  are  5363  miles  of  railroad 
besides  318  miles  of  electric  railway.  The  popula¬ 
tion  of  the  State  in  1910  was  1,656,388;  in  1920  it 
had  increased  to  1,798,388. 

Industries.— The  report  of  the  United  States  De¬ 
partment  of  Agriculture  for  1919  gives  the  agricul¬ 
tural  output  as  follows: 


Cotton  . 

Com  . 

Sugar  . . . 

Molasses  . . 

Cleaned  Rice  . 
Sweet  Potatoes 
Irish  Potatoes  . 
Hay  . 


302,224  bales 
32,375,000  bushels 
15,142,290  pounds 
28,049,000  gallons  (1918) 
19,712,000  pounds 
6,300,000  bushels 
1,600,000  bushels 
450,000  tons 


1,445,000  acres 
1,850,000  acres 
264,000  acres 

560,000  acres 
70,000  acres 
25,000  acres 
250,000  acres 


Total  area  under  cultivation,  5,095,000  acres. 


.  Manufactures. — 1  he  value  of  manufactures  has 
increased  remarkably  in  the  last  five  years.  In 
1914  there  were  2211  manufacturing  establishments, 
employing  about  77,665  wage  earners;  the  capital 
invested  was  8261,635,000,  and  the  value  of  products 
$255,313,000.  In  1919  the  number  of  establishments 


LOUISIANA 


470 


LOUVAIN 


was  2617;  wage  earners,  about  98,344;  capital  in¬ 
vested,  $463,860,000;  value  of  products,  $676,190,000. 

Recent  History. — The  Constitutional  Convention 
of  1913  was  so  limited  in  power  that  all  it  accom¬ 
plished  was  to  take  the  constitution  of  1898  and 
insert  in  its  proper  place  each  amendment  that  had 
been  adopted  since  that  time,  the  continuous  text 
thus  produced  being  the  constitution  of  1913.  Re- 
cents  amendments  limit  the  state  tax  rate  to  3 
mills  and  the  local  tax  rate  to  5  mills,  and  require 
every  parish  and  the  city  of  New  Orleans  to  levy 
a  tax  of  one  and  a  half  mills  annually  for  public 
schools.  In  a  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  23 
March,  1915,  reading  of  the  Bible  and  recitation 
of  the  Lord’s  prayer  in  the  opening  of  the  public 
schools  in  Caddo  Parish  was  prohibited.  The  case 
was  brought  by  the  Catholics  and  the  Jews.  In 
1916  a  State  Board  of  state  affairs  was  created. 
More  recent  legislation  has  dealt  mainly  with  prob¬ 
lems  rising  from  the  World  War.  Louisiana’s  con¬ 
tribution  was  65,988  soldiers  or  1.76  per  cent  of  the 
United  States  Army,  stationed  either  in  the  39th 
Division  at  Camp  Beauregard,  Louisiana,  or  in  the 
87th  Division  at  Camp  Pike,  Ark.  The  summary  of 
casualties  among  the  Louisiana  members  of  the 
American  Expeditionary  Force  was  as  follows:  de¬ 
ceased,  27  officers  and  796  men;  prisoners,  1  officer 
and  26  men;  wounded,  71  officers  and  2098  men  In 
August,  1918,  Louisiana  ratified  the  national  prohibi¬ 
tion  amendment,  the  fourteenth  state  to  do  so.  The 
state  refused  to  adopt  the  federal  suffrage  amend- 
mend  15  June,  1920.  The  Constitutional  Conven¬ 
tion  met  in  1921  to  revise  the  State  Constitution. 

Principal  Religious  Denominations. — The  latest 
available  statistics  of  religious  denominations  are 
given  in  the  United  States  Census  bulletin  for  1916, 
from  which  we  take  the  following  figures,  except 
the  number  of  Jews  which  is  taken  from  the  “Jewish 
Year  Book”  for  1920:  Catholics,  509,910;  Baptists, 
213,692;  Methodists,  88,566;  Jews,  12,723;  Protestant 
Episcopalians,  11,632;  Presbyterians,  11,820;  Luth¬ 
erans,  8247;  German  Evangelicals,  4,009;  Disciples, 
3615;  Congregationalists,  1765;  all  other  denomina¬ 
tions  4662. 

Catholicism.— The  State  now  comprises  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  New  Orleans  and  the  Dioceses  of  Alex¬ 
andria  (formerly  Natchitoches)  and  La  Fayette. 
The  Catholic  Directory  for  1921  gives  the  following 
figures:  1  archbishop;  3  bishops;  1  abbot;  188 
secular  and  205  regular  priests;  197  churches  with 
resident  priests;  about  235  missions,  stations  and 
chapels;  1  preparatory  seminary  with  44  students; 
11  colleges  and  academies  for  boys  with  3216  stu¬ 
dents;  18  academies  for  young  ladies  with  3266 
students;  110  parishes  with  parochial  schools.  The 
Catholic  population  is  537,851 ;  the  baptisms  in 
1920  were  21,042. 

Education. — Educational  statistics  are  as  follows: 
Educable  youth:  white  335,854;  colored  228,939; 
total,  564,793.  Enrollment  in  schools:  white, 223,308 ; 
colored,  99,757;  total,  323,065.  Teachers  employed 
in  public  schools:  white,  6732;  colored,  1500;  total, 
8232.  Teachers  employed  in  agricultural  schools: 
white,  16;  colored,  21.  Pupils  in  agricultural 
schools:  white,  237;  colored,  323;  total,  560.  Num¬ 
ber  of  public  schools:  white,  2113;  colored  1168; 
total,  3281.  Number  of  private  colleges:  white,  7; 
colored,  2.  Receipts  from  public  school  funds  in 
1919 :  $7,849,779 ;  the  non-revenue  receipts  were 
$3,332,090 ;  disbursements,  $6,465,549.  The  Louisiana 
State  University  has  73  instructors  and  1860  stu¬ 
dents.  Tulane  University,  with  an  endowment  of 
$5,162,243,  has  348  instructors  and  2908  students. 
In  1919  the  State  Normal  School  had  36  instructors 
and  1649  students;  the  Ruston  Industrial  Institute 


had  36  instructors  and  1027  students;  Lafayette  In¬ 
dustrial  Institute  had  21  instructors  and  931  stu¬ 
dents;  the  Southern  University  for  colored  youth 
had  564  students. 

State  laws  relative  to  private  and  parochial 
schools  are  as  follows:  No  funds  raised  for  the 
support  of  the  public  schools  of  the  state  shall  be 
appropriated  to  or  used  for  the  support  of  any 
private  or  sectarian  schools  (Art.  253) ;  all  buildings 
and  property  used  exclusively  for  colleges  and  other 
school  purposes  shall  be  exempt  from  taxation,  pro¬ 
vided  that  the  property  so  exempted  be  not  leased 
for  purposes  of  private  or  corporate  profit  or  income 
(Art.  230) ;  the  state  board  may  prescribe  teacher 
training  courses  for  public  and  private  school  doing 
work  two  years  in  advance  of  high  schools.  Graduates 
of  normal  schools  offering  a  two-year  course  and 
operating  a  practice  school  with  sufficient  teaching 
force  may  be  certified  without  examination;  the 
branches  of  spelling,  reading,  writing,  drawing, 
arithmetic,  geography,  grammar,  United  States  his¬ 
tory,  the  laws  of  health,  including  the  evil  effects 
of  alcohol  and  narcotics,  shall  be  taught  in  every 
elementary  school;  the  teaching  of  German  is  for¬ 
bidden  in  all  schools,  colleges,  and  universities. 

Louisville,  Diocese  of  (Ludovicopolitanensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  IX-386b),  comprises  22,714  sq.  miles  in 
the  State  of  Kentucky.  Rt.  Rev.  William 
George  McCloskey,  who  came  to  this  see  in  1868, 
as  its  fourth  bishop,  died  17  September,  1909.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Denis  O’Donahue,  born 
in  Daviess,  Indiana,  1848,  ordained  6  September, 
1874,  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Pomario  and 
auxiliary  at  Indianapolis  25  April,  1900,  and  trans¬ 
ferred  7  February,  1910.  The  year  1912  witnessed 
several  important  events  in  the  diocese:  in  April 
the  centenary  of  the  Sisters  of  Loretto  at  the  Foot 
of  the  Cross  was  celebrated,  in  August,  the  national 
convention  of  the  Federation  of  Catholic  Societies 
met  here,  and  in  October  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of 
Nazareth  celebrated  their  centennial.  The  one  hun¬ 
dredth  anniversary  of  the  dedication  of  the  old 
cathedral  (St.  Joseph’s  Church)  at  Bardstown  took 
place  in  1916,  and  in  1920  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
of  Nazareth  celebrated  the  centenary  of  their 
academy,  St.  Vincent’s,  in  Union  County,  Ken¬ 
tucky.  During  the  World  War  5  priests  of  the 
diocese  served  as  chaplains,  3  of  them  going  over¬ 
seas. 

By  latest  statistics  the  Catholic  population  num¬ 
bers  120,289,  chiefly  of  Irish  or  German  descent, 
with  a  small  number  of  Italians.  The  diocese  com¬ 
prises  108  parishes,  163  churches,  55  missions,  3 
monasteries  for  men,  1  abbey  for  men,  4  convents 
for  men,  9  mother-houses  of  religious  congregations 
of  women,  114  secular  and  96  regular  clergy,  32 
seminarians,  1  college  for  women,  4  high  schools 
with  44  teachers  and  907  boy  students,  14  academies 
with  227  teachers  and  605  boy  and  2266  girl  students, 
88  elementary  schools  with  388  teachers  and  a  total 
attendance  of  15,972,  and  2  industrial  schools  with 
40  teachers  and  308  pupils.  The  charitable  institu¬ 
tions  include  3  homes,  3  asylums,  and  4  hospitals, 
and  a  number  of  the  public  institutions  permit  the 
priests  to  minister  in  them.  Six  schools  taught  by 
Sisters  receive  financial  assistance  from  the  State. 
A  Clerical  Aid  Society  is  organized,  and  a  diocesan 
paper,  “The  Record,”  is  published. 

Lourdes,  Diocese  of.  See  Tarbes  and  Lourdes. 

Louvain,  University  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-391c). — 
The  destruction  of  the  University  of  Louvain  is  one 
of  the  outstanding  features  of  the  Great  War.  On 
the  night  of  25  August,  1914,  the  invading  Germans 
set  fire  to  the  city  of  Louvain,  and  three  of  the 


LOW  CHURCH 


471 


LOYOLA 


University  buildings  were  destroyed — the  Ecole 
commerciale  et  consulaire,  the  ancient  and  world 
famous  library— which  according  to  the  Hague  Con¬ 
vention  was  inviolable — and  the  administration  of¬ 
fices  situated  in  Les  Halles.  The  conflagration 
destroyed  300,000  volumes,  a  thousand  incunabula, 
and  hundreds  of  manuscripts,  as  also  the  University’s 
title  of  nobility  and  its  charter  of  foundation,  dating 
from  1425.  On  27  August  the  faculty  and  students 
were  dispersed.  Classes  were  not  resumed  until 
21  January,  1919,  when  Mgr.  Ladeuze,  rector 
magm ficus,  delivered  the  opening  discourse  in  the 
auditorium  of  the  .College  du  Pope  Adrian  IV. 
Meanwhile  the  interest  and  sympathy  of  the  intel¬ 
lectual  world  had  been  aroused  in  behalf  of  the 
University  and  a  movement  was  set  on  foot  in 
Europe  and  America  to  assist  in  the  work  of  re¬ 
storing  the  library.  In  the  Peace  Treaty  it  was 
provided  that  Germany  should  repair  to  the  full 
the  damage  done  to  the  University,  which  benefited 
further  by  being  the  recipient  of  a  share  of  the 
150,000,000  francs  distributed  among  the  four  Bel¬ 
gian  universities  by  the  American  Committee  of 
Relief  at  the  conclusion  of  its  activities.  On  2 
August,  1921,  the  cornerstone  of  the  new  library 
was  laid  in  the  presence  of  the  King  and  Queen, 
the  Cardinal  of  Malines,  bishops,  ambassadors,  gen¬ 
erals,  and  representatives  of  institutions  of  learning, 
President  Nicholas  Murray  Butler  of  Columbia  lay¬ 
ing  the  stone.  At  the  end  of  1921  about  500,000 
volumes  had  been  received,  about  half  by  gift,  and 
the  other  half  by  German  reparation.  The  number 
of  students  enrolled  in  1920-21  was  3248,  divided 
as  follows:  theology  57,  law  478,  political  and  social 
sciences  22,  school  of  commerce  218,  medicine  845, 
philosophy  and  letters  357,  Thomistic  philosophy  68, 
science  477,  special  courses  444,  Ecole  de  Brasserie 
10,  preparatory  institute  40.  The  University  has 
announced  its  intention  of  admitting  women  to  the 
full  course  of  studies. 


!X“?Upi?d,wU1:  purely  Catholic  interests,  his 
r1”  activities  lessened.  His  wife  died  in  1899. 

HnirfnM  he  Joined  the  Dominicans  at  Venlos  in 
anf,  was  ordained  on  8  December,  1908, 
being  thereafter  known  as  Father  Raymundus.  At 
£IS  Sonera  held  in  the  chapel  of  the  castle  of  Klein- 
neubach  the  officiating  priest  was  a  convert  a 
former  army  captain,  one  of  the  princes  of  the 

family>  the  Lowenstein- 

Wertheim-Freudenbergs. 


Low  Church.  See  Anglicanism;  Book  of  Com¬ 
mon  Prayer;  Ritualists. 

Lowenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg,  Prince  Karl 
H.  von,  statesman  and  Dominican,  b.  on  31  May, 
1834,  at  the  Castle  of  Haid,  Bohemia;  d.  in  the 
Dominican  convent  at  Cologne  on  16  November, 
1921.  His  mother  was  Princess  Agnes  of  Hohenlohe- 
Langenburg,  and  his  father  the  head  of  the  junior 
branch  of  the  Lowenstein  family,  with  its  chief 
German  residence  at  Kleinheubach,  the  elder 
branch  being  Protestant.  He  married  Princess 
Adelheid  of  Isenburg  in  1859,  who  died  two  years 
later,  and  later  (1863)  took  as  wife  Princess  Sophie 
of  Liechtenstein.  Two  of  his  daughters  became 
religious,  Franziska  de  Paula  joining  the  Sisters  of 
bt.  Francis  at  Aachen,  and  Agnes  entering  the 
Benedictine  convent  in  the  Isle  of  Wight;  a  third 
daughter  became  Princess  Miguel  of  Braganza. 
Prince  Lowenstein  was  a  Knight  of  the  Golden 
Ileece,  and  a  hereditary  member  of  the  Bavarian 
Parliament  and  of  the  Upper  House  in  Wiirtem- 
burg,  Baden,  and  Hesse.  He  was  a  leader  in  the 
most  intensely  Catholic  element  in  Germany,  and 
was  active  in  social  reform.  He  was  the  founder 
and  president  of  the  Anti-duelling  League.  For 
years  he  had  been  in  charge  of  the  committee  pro¬ 
moting  Catholic  congresses;  he  was  Windthorst’s 
chief  associate  in  forming  the  Center  Party,  and 
fought  Bismarck  energetically  during  the  Kultur- 
kampf.  \\  hen  Bishop  Blum  of  Limburg  was  exiled 
in  1876  for  refusing  to  obey  the  anti-Catholic  legis¬ 
lation,  Prince  Lo\venstein  invited  him  to  his  castle 
at  Haid  in  Bohemia,  and  kept  him  there  during  his 
seven  years’  exile.  When  the  Center  Party  became 


Toyol,a  University  in  Chicago,  Illinois,  con¬ 
ducted  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  is  the  outgrowth  of 
bt.  Ignatius  College,  founded  1869.  In  June,  1921 
the  golden  jubilee  of  the  university  was  celebrated! 
Durmg  half  a  century  it  had  grown  from  a  strug- 
ghng  high  school  with  two  classes  and  ninety-nine 
students  to  a  university  with  six  departments  and 
more  than  two  thousand  enrolled  in  over  fifty 
classes  The  growth  since  1906  has  been  phe¬ 
nomenal.  The  last  fifteen  years  have  been  marked 
by  the  purchase  of  a  splendid  site  on  Lake  Michi¬ 
gan,  in  Rogers  Park,  the  erection  of  Loyola  Acad¬ 
emy  and  the  Cudahy  Engineering  Building,  the 
opening  of  the  departments  of  law,  medicine,  en¬ 
gineering,  and  sociology,  and  the  inauguration  of 
an  Extension  Department  with  fifteen  centers  in 
various  parts  of  the  city,  and  an  enrollment  of 
over  a  thousand  students. 

t  department  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  at  Blue 
Island  Avenue  and  Roosevelt  Road,  is  the  oldest 
m  the  university.  For  half  a  century  it  has  fur- 
3  ri  t0i  Dwyers,  doctors,  engineers,  and  priests 
the  libeial  education  which  was  a  necessary  pre¬ 
requisite  for  their  postgraduate  studies.  The  locality 
, W("1C,,  ^  ,1S  situated  has  become  the  city’s 
Lrhetto  ;  and  present  plans  contemplate  moving 
the  college  to  the  site  on  the  lake  front  at  Devon 
Avenue  and  Sheridan  Road  as  soon  as  the  necessary 
funds  are  available.  At  present  the  college  has 
about  150  students,  and  there  are  about  5000  alumni 
in  or  near  Chicago.  The  dean  of  this  department 

ri nonV'i  ooc°’  ^hanley,  S.J.  Total  registration 
viy^l)  1825. 

,  Th®  Department  of  Law,  established  in  Septem- 
Jer,  1908,  was  due  to  the  persevering  energy  of 
Mr.  Patrick  H.  O’Donnell,  who  had  urged  the 
opening  <af  a  law  school  for  several  years,  and  had 
actively  interested  himself  in  securing  a  represen¬ 
tative  faculty.  With  the  co-operation  of  Rev 
Francis  Cassilly,  then  vice-president  of  St.  Ignatius 
College,  the  project  was  launched  in  the  fall  of 
1908  in  the  Ashland  Block  under  the  name  of  “The 
Lincoln  College  of  Law.”  This  name  was  subse¬ 
quently  changed  to  “The  Loyola  Law  School.”  For 
thirteen  years  it  has  maintained  a  night  school, 
with  a  four-year  course  leading  to  the  degree  of 
LLD.,  and  the  present  year  marks  the  opening  of 
a  three-year  day  course  with  a  prerequisite  of  two 
yea_rs  of  Acollege  work-  The  dean  of  the  law  school 
is  Mr.  Arnold  McMahon,  and  the  faculty  regent 
Rev.  Frederick  Siedenburg,  S.J.  Total  registra¬ 
tion  (1921)  155. 

The  Department  of  Medicine  represents  the 
fusion  of  no  less  than  four  pre-existing  medical 
schools,  the  Illinois  Medical  College,  the  Bennet, 
Reliance,  and  Chicago  Colleges  of  Medicine.  These 
schools  were  for  the  most  part  what  are  known  as 
“proprietary  schools,”  and  the  long  and  difficult 
task  of  raising  them  to  a  standard  which  complied 
with  the  exacting  Class  A  requirements  of  the 
American  Medical  Association  is  a  story  of  splendid 
achievement  in  medical  education.  The  credit  for 
this  successful  accomplishment  is  due  in  large 
measure  to  the  faculty  regent  of  the  department, 
Rev.  Patrick  J,  McMahon,  S.J.,  the  dean,  Doctor 


LUBLIN 


472 


LUCERA 


Louis  Moorhead,  and  the  energetic  and  devoted 
staff  which  they  have  gathered  around  them  m 
medicine  and  surgery.  Total  registration,  193. 

The  School  of  Sociology  was  founded  m  1914  by 
the  Rev.  Frederick  Siedenburg,  S.  J.,  after  his  return 
from  several  years  of  post-graduate  work  in  soci¬ 
ology  in  various  European  universities.  Quarters 
were  secured  in  the  Ashland  Block  in  connection 
with  the  law  department,  and  the  first  school  in 
the  United  States  under  Catholic  auspices  for  the 
training  of  social  workers  was  opened.  Its  success 
from  the  beginning  was  marked.  Students  with  a 
high  school  training  are  granted  a  certificate  ol 
social  economy  at  the  conclusion  of  a  two-year 
course ;  those  who  have  finished  two  years  of  col¬ 
lege  work  are  given  the  degree  of  Ph.B.  As  m  all 
professional  schools  of  sociology,  the  time  is  divided 
between  the  history  and  theory  of  sociology  and 

actual  field  work.  ' 

Shortly  after  the  School  of  Sociology  was  estab¬ 
lished,  extension  courses,  with  full  academic  credit, 
were  offered  in  the  Ashland  Block,  in  philosophy, 
pedagogy,  English,  history,  and  modern  languages. 
As  the  quarters  became  too  small  to  accommodate 
the  number  of ’students,  centers  were  opened  in 
various  parts  of  the  city,  and  the  staff  of  lecturers 
increased.  In  this  way  opportunities  for  educa¬ 
tional  work  are  afforded  members  of  the  teaching 
Sisterhoods  in  Chicago.  Rev.  Frederic  Siedenburg, 
S.J.,  is  also  dean  of  this  department,  assisted  by 
Rev.  Claude  J.  Pernin,  S.J. 

There  are  two  preparatory  high  schools  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  university:  St.  Ignatius  High 
School  on  the  West  Side,  with  an  attendance  of 
about  600,  and  Loyola  Academy  in  Rogers  Park, 
with  an  attendance  of  some  350.  These  figures 
represent  the  capacity  of  the  two  schools.  Hun¬ 
dreds  must  be  turned  away  because  of  the  lack  of 
accommodations. 

Rev.  Wm.  H.  Agnew,  S.  J.,  former  editor  of  “The 
Queen’s  Work,”  has  been  appointed  president  of 
Loyola  University  and  St.  Ignatius  College  to  re¬ 
place  Rev.  John  Furay,  S.J.,  who  is  resigning  to 
become  director  of  St.  Mary’s  of  the  Lake,  which 
will  open  in  September  (1922).  For  the  last  few 
years  Father  Agnew  has  been  in  St.  Louis,  but 
his  new  appointment  will  continue  for  six  years. 


Lublin,  Diocese  of  (Lublinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-403a). — The  Diocese  of  Podlachia,  suppressed 
by  the  Russian  Government  in  1867  and  placed 
under  the  administration  of  the  Bishop  of  Lublin 
and  subsequently  incorporated  in  that  diocese,  was 
restored  to  its  original  dignity  in  1918  following 
upon  the  expulsion  of  the  Russians  from  Poland 
in  1915  and  the  recent  re-establishment  of  Polish 
independence.  The  first  bishop  of  the  restored  dio¬ 
cese  is  Henry  Przezdziecki,  born  1873,  consecrated 
1918.  The  building  of  the  Catholic  University  of 
Lublin  was  completed  in  1918.  It  was  founded  by 
Charles  Jaroszyiski  and  /Egidius  Radzizzewski,  the 
latter  of  whom  was  appointed  its  first  rector.  In 
the  same  year  the  houses  and  convents  of  the 
religious  were  restored.  Both  clergy  and  laity  re¬ 
sponded  patriotically  to  the  call  of  their  country 
during  the  World  War.  The  clergy  remaining  at 
home  devoted  themselves  to  the  care  of  the  desti¬ 
tute  and  orphaned,  and  in  every  parish  stations 
were  erected  for  the  relief  of  suffering.  In  this 
work  the  Jesuits,  Redemptorists,  Lazarists,  and 
Franciscans  deserve  special  mention.  One  priest 
was  unjustly  put  to  death  by  the  Hungarian  soldiers, 
and  one  was  exiled  into  Austria. 

The  present  bishop  is  Marianus  Leo  Fulman, 
born  27  March,  1866,  ordained  1  May,  1889,  pre- 
conized  24  September,  1918,  consecrated  17  Novem¬ 


ber,  and  enthroned  1  December  of  the  same  year. 
The  present  auxiliary  bishop  is  Adolph  Jelowicki, 
born  25  February,  1863,  ordained  7  December,  1890, 
preconized  9  November,  1918,  consecrated  23  March, 
1919,  vicar  general  and  domestic  prelate  of  His 
Holiness,  titular  Bishop  of  Loryma.  Among  the 
clergy  of  note  recently  deceased  are:  Francis  Jac- 
zewski,  Bishop  of  Lublin,  born  9  May,  1832,  or¬ 
dained  1855,  administrator  of  the  diocese  1885, 
consecrated  bishop  18  May,  1890,  domestic  prelate, 
assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne,  died  23  July,  1914; 
Anthony  Nojszewski,  rector  of  the  diocesan  semi¬ 
nary,  d.  10  September,  1921 ;  Victor  Suski,  Dean  of 
Zaklikow,  d.  22  April,  1919;  Anthony  Komorow- 
skii,  Dean  of  Lubartow,  d.  14  June,  1919;  Adolph 
Majewski,  prelate  of  the  collegiate  chapter  of 
Zamosc,  d.  7  December,  1919;  Adam  Decjusz,  canon 
of  the  collegiate  chapter  of  Zumosc,  dean  of  Krasny- 
staw,  d.  25  December,  1920;  Venceslaus  Koscielnia- 
kowski,  honorary  cathedral  canon,  dean  of  Krasny- 
staw,  d.  7  March,  1920. 

The  diocese  is  divided  into  21  deaneries.  The 
Cathedral  chapter  consists  of  4  prelates,  8  canons, 
and  3  honorary  canons;  there  is  also  a  collegiate 
chapter  at  Zamosc  with  3  prelates,  and  12  canonries, 
of  which  3  are  vacant.  The  Catholic  population 
numbers  909,912  Poles.  There  are  325  secular  and 
20  regular  priests,  and  10  lay  brothers;  190  parishes 
with  249  churches;  5  convents  for  men  and  20  for 
women;  1  diocesan  seminaiy  at  Lublin  with  11 
professors  and  102  students;  1  university  at  Lublin 
with  a  teaching  faculty  of  38  professors  and  a 
student  body  of  1250;  1  college  for  girls  with  350 
students;  11  asylums;  2  hospitals.  The  Govern¬ 
ment  does  not  contribute  to  the  support  of  the 
Catholic  institutions.  Among  the  clergy  there  is 
an  association  called  “Unitas.”  The  religious  organi¬ 
zations  among  the  laity  are  numerous,  totaling 
about  400.  One  Catholic  monthly  is  published, 
called  “Wiadamosci  Diecezjalue  Lubelskie.”  The 
statistics  of  religious  orders  within  the  diocese  are 
are  follows:  2  Jesuits,  3  Discalced  Carmelites,  4 
Capuchin  Friars  Minor,  6  of  the  Observance,  17 
Ursulines,  44  Sisters  of  Charity  with  7  establish¬ 
ments;  6  Sisters  of  Divine  Providence;  16  Sisters 
of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  with  3  orphan¬ 
ages,  10  Little  Servants  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  with 
2  orphanages. 

Lucca,  Archdiocese  of  (Lucanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IN-405a),  in  the  province  of  the  same  name,  in 
Tuscany,  Central  Italy,  directly  dependent  on  the 
Holy  See.  This  see  was  filled  by  His  Eminence 
Benedetto  Cardinal  Lorenzelli  from  14  November, 
1904,  until  April,  1910,  when  he  retired.  His  suc¬ 
cessor  was  appointed  in  the  person  of  Most  Rev. 
Angelo  Arturo  Marchi,  born  in  Copparo,  Italy,  in 
1846,  ordained  in  1868,  made  canon  and  pastor  of 
the  cathedral  of  Bologna,  appointed  archbishop  of 
Reggio-Emilia  16  December,  1901,  and  transferred 
27  November,  1911.  The  1920  statistics  credit  the 
archdiocese  with  221,432  Catholics,  246  parishes, 
512  secular  priests,  120  seminarians,  and  623  churches 
or  chapels. 

Lucera,  Diocese  of  (Lucerinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-406b),  in  the  province  of  Foggia,  Southern 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Benevento.  This  see  is  filled 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Giuseppe  di  Girolamo,  born  in  Val- 
lecorsa,  Italy,  1872,  was  made  an  assistant  in  the 
office  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Council  in  1917, 
was  named  an  honorary  chamberlain  in  1918,  and 
appointed  21  April,  i920,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev. 
Lorenzo  Chieppa,  transferred  to  this  see  23  June, 
1909,  died  15  October,  1918.  During  the  vacancy 
the  diocese  was  administered  by  His  Eminence 
Cardinal  Ascalesi,  Archbishop  of  Benevento.  The 


LUCK 


473 


LUNI  SARZANA 


Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  numbers  76,870, 
and  by  1920  statistics  there  are  18  parishes,  187 
secular  and  20  regular  clergy,  40  seminarians,  12 
Brothers,  40  Sisters,  and  110  churches  or  chapels. 
By  a  Decree  of  1908  the  diocese  was  united  to  that 
of  Troia,  and  a  Decree  of  4  March,  1914,  gave  to 
it  the  territory  of  Roseto  Valforte,  while  another 
Decree  of  23  February,  1916,  gave  it  another  parish. 

Luck  and  Zytomierz,  Diocese  of  (Luceoriensis 
et  Zytomeriensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-463d),  in  the 
Russian  provinces  of  Volhynia  and  Kiev  (part  of 
Volhyma  is  now  in  the  new  republic  of  Poland), 
suffragan  of  Mohileff.  It  is  a  diocese  of  both  the 
Latin  and  Ruthenian  Rites,  but  for  the  latter  rite 
it  is  a  suffragan  of  Lwow.  From  1866  until  24  June, 
1918,  the  Bishop  of  this  see  also  administered  the 
diocese  of  Kamenetz-Podolski.  The  Latin  see  is 
filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Ignatz  Dubowski,  born  in  the 
diocese  in  1874,  ordained  in  1899,  made  an  honorary 
canon  of  Mohileff,  pastor  and  vice  rector  of  the 
cathedral  of  Zytomierz,  named  an  honorary  cham¬ 
berlain  in  1910  and  again  in  1914,  appointed  bishop 
16  October,  1916,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Charles  An¬ 
thony  Niedzialkowski,  died  7  April,  1911.  The 
bishop  is  usually  assisted  by  three  auxiliaries  resid¬ 
ing  at  Luck,  Zytomierz,  and  Kiev,  but  at  present 
there  is  only  one,  Rt.  Rev.  Michel  Godlewski,  titular 
Bishop  of  iEgea,  who  resides  at  Luck.  The  1920 
statistics  credit  Zytomierz  with  8  deaneries  76 
parishes,  and  242,917  Catholics,  while  Luck  has  10 
deaneries,  92  parishes,  1  collegiate  chapter  at  Olyka, 
the  provost  of  which  is  mitred,  and  303,683  Cath¬ 
olics. 

As  a  bishopric  of  the  Ruthenian  Rite  this  see  is 
of  very  ancient  origin,  but  it  was  suppressed  in 
the^  eighteenth  century  and  only  re-established  in 
1915.  Its  re-establishment  had  not  yet  been  ap¬ 
proved  by  the  Polish  Government.  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph 
Bocian  was  appointed  and  consecrated  for  the  see 
in  1915  by  Most  Rev.  Andrew  Szeptyski,  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Lwow,  in  virtue  of  special  powers  con¬ 
ferred  by  Pius  X.  The  appointment  was  confirmed 
by  the  Holy  See  23  February,  1921.  Statistics  are 
not  published  for  this  Rite. 


Bishop  of  Amatha  1917,  and  administrator  apostolic 

berJai919tranSferred  t0  the  See  °f  Lug0  18  Decem- 

The  seminary  at  Lugo  was  founded  in  1591,  and 
the  present  building  was  erected  by  Rt.  Rev 
Gregorio  Mario  Aguirre,  then  Bishop  of  Lugo! 
afterwards  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Toledo.  The 
cathedral  is  dedicated  to  the  Blessed  Virgin. 

,,  Present  G921)  statistics  the  inhabitants  of 
this  diocese  number  392,500  ;  there  are  950  priests 
63o  parishes,  452  missions,  5  religious  orders  of 
men,  5  cloistered  orders  of  women,  and  6  other 
orders  of  women. 

Lugoj  (or  Lugos),  Diocese  of  (Lugosiensis 
Rumenorum;  cf.  -C.  E.,  IX-419b),  a  diocese  of 
Greek  Rumanian  Rite,  in  Rumania,  suffragan  of 
Fogaras  The  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Valerius 
1  raj  an  krentiu,  bom  in  this  diocese  in  1875  named 
vicar  forain,  and  appointed  bishop  14  December, 
1912,  succeeding  Bishop  Hosszu,  transferred  to 
Gherla  15  December,  1911.  On  12-13  August,  1920, 
a  diocesan  synod  was  held  and  the  following  sub¬ 
jects  weie  brought  up  for  discussion:  a  diocesan 
seminary,  diocesan  boarding  houses  in  connection 
with  the  secondary  schools,  a  diocesan  normal 
school  for  young  girls,  the  recruiting  of  priests, 
the  association  of  priests  adorers,  singing  schools 
associations  for  women,  etc.  By  1920  statistics  the 
diocese  comprises  5  deaneries  and  1  vicariate  forain 
divided  mto  15  archpresbyteries  and  174  parishes! 
of  which  three  are  outside  of  the  newly  established 
frontier  2  being  in  Jugoslavia  and  1  in  Hungary 
186  secular  priests,  and  188  churches  or  chapels 


Lugon,  Diocese  of  (Lucionensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX- 
413a),  in  the  province  of  La  Vendee,  France,  suf¬ 
fragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Bordeaux.  Rt.  Rev. 
Clovis-Nicholas-Joseph  Catteau,  appointed  to  this 
see  21  September,  1877,  filled  it  for  over  thirty- 
seven  years,  until  his  death,  28  November,  1915. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Gustav-Lazare  Gar- 
mer,  born  m  Chatillon-en-Bazois  1857,  made  his 
studies  at  Pignelin  and  Nevers,  ordained  in  1881, 
served  as  a  professor  in  the  lower  seminary,  pastor, 
vicar  general,  and  made  superior  of  the  upper 
seminary  in  1903,  named  a  prothonotary  apostolic 
m  1911,  and  appointed  bishop  27  May,  1916.  By 
1920  statistics  the  diocese  has  a  total  population 
of  438,520,  301  parishes,  4  archpriests,  30  deaneries, 
271  succursal  parishes,  146  vicariates,  and  10  annexes 
or  stations. 

Ludden,  Patrick  A.  See  Syracuse,  Diocese  of. 
Lugano,  Diocese  of.  See  Basle-Lugano. 

Lugo,  Diocese  of  (Lucensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-417d), 

^a^c^a>  Spain,  is  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese 
oi  Compostela.  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop  Basulto  y  Jimenez, 
who  came  to  this  see  in  1909,  was  transferred  to 
the  diocese  of  Jaen  18  December,  1919,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev. 
Placido  Angel  Rey-Lemos,  O.  F.  M.  Bishop  Rey- 
Lemos  was  born  at  Lugo  1867,  ordained  1890,  en¬ 
tered  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor  1892,  made  procur¬ 
ator  general  of  the  Order  1911,  appointed  titular 


Lungro,  Diocese  of  (Lungrensis),  a  diocese  of 
tne  Greek  Rite,  in  the  Province  of  Calabria,  Italy, 
directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  This  diocese 
wa?  ,erec^e(^  by  a.  Decree  of  13  February,  1919, 
which  took  the  eighteen  Greek  parishes  included 
in  the  Latin  dioceses  of  Rossano,  Bisignano,  Cas- 
sano,  and  Anglona,  to  form  the  new  diocese.  The 
bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Mele,  of  the  Greek 
J k°rn  in  Calabria  in  1888  and  appointed  10 
March,  1919,  has  jurisdiction  over  all  the  Greek 
Catholics  scattered  through  the  Latin  parishes  of 
Rossano.  The  church  dedicated  to  St.  Nicholas  of 
Myra,  at  Lungro,  was  made  the  cathedral.  The 
seminary  is  at  Grotta  Ferrata.  Latest  statistics 
credit  the  diocese  with  21  parishes,  21  churches,  30 
secular  priests  and  a  Catholic  population  of  35,000; 
four  associations  are  organized  among  the  laity 
During  the  World  War  about  400  men  from  this 
diocese  gave  up  their  lives  for  their  country,  and 
those  at  home  took  an  active  part  in  all  patriotic 
works. 

Luni-Sarzana  and  Brugnato,  Diocese  of  (Lunen- 
sis)  Sarzanensis  et  Brugnatensis  ;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX- 
436a),  in  the  province  of  Genoa,  Italy.  The  first 
of  these  dioceses  is  directly  dependent  on  the  Holy 
See,  while  the  second  is  suffragan  of  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Genoa.  The  episcopal  residence  is  at 
Sarzana.  These  united  sees  are  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Bernardo  Pizzorno,  born  in  Varazza,  Italy,  1861, 
canon  provost  of  the  cathedral,  professor  of  moral 
theology  in  the  seminary,  and  vicar  general, 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Comana  29  April,  1909, 
and  auxiliary  to  the  Archbishop  of  Sassari,  named 
administrator  apostolic  of  the  diocese  12  April, 

1910,  transferred  to  the  see  of  Crema  14  January,’ 

1911,  retired  and  transferred  to  the  titular  see  of 
Flaviopolis  6  December,  1915,  and  again  transferred 
to  Luni  Sarzana  and  Brugnato  7  March,  1921. 
According  to  statistics  of  1920  Luni  Sarzana  counts 
a  Catholic  population  of  161,755,  91  parishes,  225 
secular  and  70  regular  clergy,  94  seminarians,  30 


LUTHERANISM 


474 


LUXEMBURG 


Brothers,  136  Sisters,  and  300  churches  or  chapels. 
Brugnato  is  credited  with  19,403  Catholics,  27 
parishes,  53  secular  and  14  regular  clergy,  32  semi¬ 
narians,  8  Brothers,  57  Sisters,  and  75  churches  or 
chapels. 

Lutheranism  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-458a)  continues  in 
Germany  and  Scandinavia  to  be  agitated  by  heated 
controversies  between  orthodox  and  rationalistic 
elements  and  tends  in  the  United  States  toward 
central  administrative  organization  or  at  least 
larger  denominational  combinations. 

I.  History. — The  third  centenary  of  Martin 
Luther’s  revolt  was  commemorated  in  1817  with 
such  enthusiasm  that  it  constituted  one  of  the 
outstanding  events  in  the  history  of  Lutheranism 
in  the  nineteenth  century.  An  even  more  extrava¬ 
gant  glorification  of  the  heresiarch  and  of  his 
pseudo-reform  was  to  signalize  in  1917  the  fourth 
centenary  of  the  publication  of  Luther’s  ninety-five 
theses.  But  the  World  War  then  in  progress  and 
the  internal  dissensions  among  Lutherans  prevented 
celebration  on  any  extensive  scale.  Germany  was 
too  much  absorbed  in  the  war  and  other  nations 
were  too  hostile  to  glorify  the  memory  of  Luther. 
Moreover,  some  of  his  own  followers  in  Germany 
saw  little  reason  and  showed  no  eagerness  to  com¬ 
memorate  the  establishment  of  a  church  then  in 
rather  precarious  condition.  Hansen,  a  zealous  de¬ 
fender  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy,  frankly  declared  in 
1917  that  “Protestantism  had  no  ground  for  cele¬ 
brating  jubilees,  but  ample  reason  for  doing 
penance  in  sackcloth  and  ashes.”  To  outsiders  the 
multiplicity  of  opinions  among  Lutherans  them¬ 
selves  as  to  what  constitutes  the  essentials  of 
Lutheran  faith  and  practice  suggests  the  conclusion 
that  Luther  confused  rather  than  “freed”  the  human 
mind.  To  the  confusion  of  religious  ideas  were 
added,  with  the  separation  of  Church  and  State 
in  1918,  uncertainty  of  financial  support  and 
diversity  of  administrative  direction  in  the  Lutheran 
churches  of  Germany  (see  Evangelical  Church). 
Lutheranism,  however,  still  remains  the  state 
church  in  the  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms  of  Den¬ 
mark,  Norway,  and  Sweden. 

In  the  United  States  two  important  combinations 
were  recently  effected  among  Lutherans.  The 
Lutheran  General  Synod,-  Lutheran  General  Council 
and  Lutheran  United  Synod,  South,  combined  and 
formed  the  United  Lutheran  Church  in  America 
(15  November,  1918).  Three  Norwegian  synods, 
the  Norwegian  Evangelical  Lutheran  Synod  of 
North  America,  the  Norwegian  Hauge  Synod  and 
the  United  Norwegian  Lutheran  Church  took 
similar  action  and  formed  the  Norwegian  Lutheran 
Church  of  America.  In  foreign  missionary  work 
Lutheranism  has  been  adversely  affected  by  the 
issue  of  the  war  and  the  consequent  exclusion  of 
German  missionaries  from  most  of  their  fields  of 
evangelistic  endeavor.  American  Lutherans  have 
made  efforts  to  add  these  territories  to  those 
already  in  their  charge.  They  also  conduct  home 
missions  among  the  negroes  and  Indians  of  the 
United  States,  but  have  for  generations  sustained 
heavy  losses  because,  differing  in  race,  language  and 
customs,  they  found  it  difficult  to  adapt  themselves 
to  religious  life  in  America.  A  campaign  among 
them  for  $500,000  to  be  spent  in  reconstruction 
service  was  eminently  successful  in  1919.  The 
denomination  maintains  a  large  number  of  educa¬ 
tional  institutions  in  America,  and  is,  as  the  Cath¬ 
olic  Church,  a  strong  believer  in  and  defender  of 
parochial  schools.  Among  its  institutions  for 
higher  education  are  the  following:  in  Pennsyl¬ 
vania,  Muhlenberg  College  at  Allentown,  and  Sus¬ 
quehanna  University  at  Selinsgrove;  in  Illinois, 


Carthage  College  at  Carthage  and  Augustana  Col¬ 
lege  at  Rock  Island;  in  Kansas,  Bethany  College 
at  Lindsborg  and  in  various  States  many  Con¬ 
cordia,  Wartburg,  Luther  or  Lutheran  colleges  or 
seminaries. 

II.  Statistics. — There  are  at  present  approxi¬ 
mately  60,000,000  Lutherans  in  the  world.  They 
are  most  numerous  in  Germany  which  has  to-day 
39,000,000  Evangelicals.  In  this  number  are  in¬ 
cluded  not  only  Lutherans,  but  also  millions  of 
members  of  the  Reformed  Church.  The  relative 
strength  of  these  two  denominations  in  German 
lands  cannot  be  accurately  determined.  Sweden 
has  5,800,000  Lutherans;  Finland,  3,283,000;  Den¬ 
mark,  3,100,000;  Norway,  2,600,000;  Poland,  1,500,- 
000;  Esthonia,  1,458,000;  Hungary  and  Rumania 
together,  1,360,000;  Latvia,  1,200,000. 

In  the  United  States  the  Lutherans  are  the  fourth 
largest  denomination  ranking  after  the  Catholics, 
Methodists,  and  Baptists.  They  had  in  1921, 
2,493,000  members  with  14,000  churches  and  10,000 
ministers.  Canada  has  approximately  65,000 
Lutherans. 

Finck,  Lutheran  Landmarks  and  Pioneers  in  America  (Phila¬ 
delphia,  1913);  Neve,  A  Brief  History  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
in  America  (2nd  ed.  Burlington,  1916);  Kissling,  Der  deutschc 
Protest antismus,  1817-1917  (Munster,  1918) ;  Rade,  The  Present 
Situation  of  Christianity  in  Germany  in  American  Journal  of 
Theology,  XXIV,  1920,  339-367 ;  Lempp,  Church  and  Religion 
in  Germany  in  Harvard  Theological  Review,  XIV,  1921,  30-52; 
Schneider,  Kirchliches  Jahrbuch  (annual) ;  Religious  Bodies 
1916  (Washington,  1919);  The  Statesman’s  Year-Book  (New 
York  annual);  Year-Book  of  the  Churches  (New  York); 
Lutheran  Church  Year-Book  (New  York). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Lutzk,  Diocese  of.  See  Luck. 

Luxemburg,  Diocese  of  (Luxemburgensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  IX-465a),  comprising  the  duchy  of  the  same 
name,  is  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See,  and 
was  erected  a  vicariate  apostolic  in  1833  and  raised 
to  a  diocese  in  1870.  The  second  bishop  of  this 
diocese,  Rt.  Rev.  Jean-Joseph  Koppes,  b.  in  Luxem¬ 
burg  1843,  appointed  bishop  28  September,  1883, 
assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  1896,  d.  30  Novem¬ 
ber,  1918,  was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent, 
Rt.  Rev.  Pierre  Nommesch.  Bishop  Nommesch  was 
born  in  this  diocese,  was  made  bishop  8  March, 
1920,  and  consecrated  25  March.  The  duchy  is 
almost  entirely  Catholic;  the  total  number  of  in¬ 
habitants  was  246,000  by  the  1920  statistics,  and  of 
this  number  242,272  are  Catholics,  1230  Protestant, 
and  970  Jews.  The  language  of  the  people  is  a 
dialect  of  their  own,  a  kind  of  Low  German  with 
many  words  borrowed  from  the  French.  With  the 
death  of  the  Grand  Duke  William  the  male  line  of 
rulers  became  extinct,  and,  according  to  the  Nassau 
pact  of  1783  and  the  statute  of  1907,  his  daughter 
Marie  Adelaide  succeeded  him,  taking  the  throne 
in  1912.  On  1  August,  1914,  two  days  after  Ger¬ 
many’s  declaration  of  war  on  France,  German  troops 
invaded  the  duchy,  and  throughout  the  war  vast 
quantities  of  war  materials  passed  over  the  railways 
of  this  country,  in  spite  of  the  convention  of  11 
November,  1902,  which  forbade  such  transportation. 
During  the  whole  war,  in  spite  of  blockade,  isolation, 
and  hardship,  the  people  of  the  little  duchy  showed 
heroic  charity  toward  the  sufferers  of  France  and 
Belgium,  sending  trainloads  of  food  and  clothing. 
After  the  signing  of  the  armistice  the  same  charity 
was  shown  toward  the  suffering  people  of  Central 
Europe,  particularly  Austria  and  the  Tyrol.  In 
1918,  upon  the  heels  of  the  retiring  enemy,  the  vic¬ 
torious  armies,  headed  by  the  Americans,  passed 
through  the  gayly  decorated  capital  and  were 
viewed  from  the  palace  steps  by  the  Grand  Duchess 
and  General  Pershing. 

In  1912  the  religious  convictions  of  the  Grand 


LUXEMBURG 


LYONS 


475 


Duchess,  a  staunch  Catholic,  made  her  hesitate  to 
sign  the  education  bill  which  would  banish  all 
religious  instruction  from  the  schools,  and  although 
she  finally  signed  it,  the  Liberals  and  Socialists 
attacked  her  severely.  Thenceforth  serious  accusa¬ 
tions  were  launched  against  her,  particularly  that 
of  pro-Germanism  during  the  war.  The  charges  had 
\  013  slight  foundation,  and  many  of  them  were 
gross  calumnies,  but  in  an  effort  to  bring  peace  to 
her  country,  she  abdicated  in  1919  and  entered  a 
Carmelite  convent.  On  28  September  of  the  same 
year  a  referendum  was  taken  in  Luxemburg  to  de¬ 
cide  on  the  political  future  of  the  country,  and  a 
continuation  of  the  existing  government  was  favored 
°  .one*  Princess  Charlotte,  younger  sister 
of  Marie  Adelaide,  then  ascended  the  throne,  and 
shortly  after  her  accession  she  married  Prince  Feli* 
of  Boui bon -Parma.  A  son  was  born  in  February, 
1921,  and  christened  John  Benedict,  after  John  the 
Blind,  King  of  Bohemia,  and  the  present  Holy 
Father  Benedict  XV.  The  papal  nuncio  came  from 
Brussels  to  represent  His  Holiness,  both  at  the 
marriage  of  their  Highnesses  and  at  the  baptism  of 
the  infant  prince. 

October,  1915,  Paul  Eyschen,  the  well  known 
minister  of  state,  died,  having  filled  this  office  since 
1888.  The  present  Prime  Minister  is  Herr  Emile 
Reuter.  In  1918  a  change  was  made  in  the  con¬ 
stitution,  granting  universal  suffrage  to  all  citizens 
of  both  sexes  over  twenty-one  years  of  age.  In 
recent  years  the  duchy  also  lost  two  prominent 
ecclesiastics,  Mgr.  Frederick  Loch,  of  the  parish  of 
Aotre  Dame  of  Luxemburg,  and  Rev.  Peter  Schilz, 
D.  D.,  canon  and  member  of  the  Legislature  and 
director  of  the  diocesan  boarding  school. 

Since  1881  education  in  the  grand  duchy  has 
been  obligatory,  but  gratuitous.  The  educational 
bill  of  1912,  anti-Catholic  in  spirit,  was  so  vigorously 
protested  by  the  bishop  and  clergy  that  in  1921 
some  slight  changes  were  made  in  it,  and  the  priests 
are  again  permitted  to  go  into  the  schools  to  give 
religious  instruction.  Primary  education  is  given 
to  all  children  from  six  to  thirteen  years  of  age, 
when  secondary  education  begins.  Priests  are 
allowed  to  teach  in  the  secondary  schools,  provided 
they  hold  university  degrees  and  have  passed  the 
State  examining  board.  Primary  education  is  under 
a  board  of  inspectors  and,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
education  is  entirely  under  State  control,  and  all 
parish  priests,  vicars,  chaplains,  professors,  and 
teachers  are  paid  by  the  government.  In  the  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  both  French  and  German  are 
taught. 

The  statistics  of  1919-20  show  19,376  boys  and 
18,662  girls  attending  the  primary  schools;  5476 
boys  and  5390  girls  attending  other  schools  prepara¬ 
tory  for  secondary  education;  2632  boys  and  girls 
m  kindergartens.  For  secondary  education  there 
are  3  Athenaeums,  1  at  Luxemburg  with  43  pro- 
lessors  and  650  boys,  1  at  Echternach  with  20  pro- 
and  300  boys,  1  at  Diekirch  with  16  professors 
and  320  boys;  3  lyceums  or  high  schools  for  girls, 

1  at  Luxemburg  with  24  professors  and  220  girls, 

1  at  Sainte  Sophie  with  15  professors  and  250  girls; 
a  normal  school  for  men  and  one  for  women  at 
Luxemburg;  2  industrial  and  commercial  schools, 

1  at  Luxemburg  with  35  professors  and  461  boys 
and  1  at  Esch  with  22  professors  and  200  boys! 
in  addition  to  these  there  are  State  schools  for 
mechanics  and  handicraft,  for  agriculture,  a  school 
ot  mines,  a  school  for  deaf  mutes,  for  the  blind,  and 
or  the  weak-minded.  The  charitable  institutions 
include  a  lunatic  asylum  in  charge  of  Sisters,  a 
borne  of  correction,  and  homes  for  foundlings  and 
orphans,  in  charge  of  Sisters.  The  religious  com¬ 


munities  established  in  the  duchy  are:  men,  Bene¬ 
dictines,  Dominicans,  Jesuits,  Redemptorists,  White 
Fathers  Sacred  Heart  Fathers,  Christian  Brothers, 
and  Brothers  of  Mercy;  women,  Sisters  of  Notre 

a?e<^T?itmlS’  Pomjnicans,  Franciscans,  Sis- 
SV  Elizabeth,  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount 

Phdd  t  °f  SV  0?harr  es  ,Borrome°>  of  the  Poor 
o  h  JosePh  of  Mercy,  the  School 
Sisters  and  the  Sisters  of  St.  Zita.  There  are  381 

secular  and  61  regular  clergy,  27  of  these  teach 
m  the  secondary  schools.  The  “Unio  Sacerdotalis  ” 
a  mutual  aid,  and  support  union  is  formed  among 
the  clergy;  and  the  unions  of  Catholic  people,  of 
Catholic  workmen,  and  of  Catholic  young  men  and 
women,  besides  various  sodalities  of  men,  women 
and  children  are  established  among  the  laity! 
thirteen  Catholic  newspapers  are  published. 

Luxemburg,  Rosa.  See  Spartacus  Group. 

(t^berg),  Archdiocese  op  (Leopoliensis; 
cf.  C.  E  IX-144d),  in  Poland,  a  see  for  three  Rites, 
Latin,  Armenian,  and  Greek-Ruthenian.  For  the 
Latm  Rite  the  present  incumbent  is  Most  Rev. 
Joseph  Bilczewski,  born  in  the  Diocese  of  Cracow 
1860,  appointed  17  December,  1900,  made  a  mem¬ 
ber  ot  the  academy  of  science  of  Cracow  and 
appomted  an  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  11 
May,  1904.  He  is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary,  Rt.  Rev 
«°  tnoSn  Twardowski,  titular  Bishop  of  T-elmessus. 
±Jy  1920  statistics  the  diocese  is  divided  into  ?9 

?onniirieiS  •  ,this  rite’  and  comprises  256  parishes, 
129  filial  parishes,  649  secular  priests,  49  clerics,  and 
convents  of  men  with  178  religious. 

.  Most  Rev.  Joseph-Theophilus  Teodorowicz  born 
m  Zywaczow,  Poland,  in  1864,  was  appointed  bishop 
tor  the  Armenian  Rite  16  December,  1901,  at  the 
age  of  thirty-seven.  In  1919  he  was  appointed  a 
deputy  to  the  Diet  of  Poland.  According  to  1920 
statistics  the  diocese  comprises  3878  Catholics  of 
this  rite,  and  about  800  Armenian  Schismatics,  10 
parishes,  14  Armenian  and  7  Latin  priests,  and  24 
churches  and  chapels. 

For  the  Greek-Ruthenian  Rite  the  diocese  also 
bears  the  title  of  Halicz  and  includes  the  diocese 
of  Kamenetz  Podolski  in  Russia.  The  see 
is  now  filled  by  Most  Rev.  Andrew  Alexander 
de  Szeptyckyi,  Basilian,  born  in  Poland  of  a  noble 
family  -in  1865,  studied  at  the  universities  of 
Cracow,  Vienna,  and  Breslau,  ordained  1892,  served 
as  a  missionary,  professor,  and  master  of  novices, 
proving  himself  especially  valuable  because  of  his 
knowledge  of  languages.  He  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Stanislawow  at  the  age  of  thirty-four  19  June, 
1899,  and  promoted  17  December,  1900.  In  1914 
he  was  deported  to  Kiev  by  the  Russians,  and  in 
the  press  made  a  false  announcement  of  his 
death.  The  Holy  See  was  unsuccessful  in  trying 
to  obtain  his  liberation  from  Nicholas  II,  and  it 
was  only  after  the  abdication  of  the  Tsar  that  he 
was  freed,  in  March,  1917,  and  in  August  he  re¬ 
turned  to  Vienna.  By  1920  statistics  there  are  in 
the  diocese  1,335,977  Catholics  of  this  Rite,  1017 
secular  priests,  20  regular  clergy,  754  parishes,  519 
filial  parishes,  1250  churches  and  35  chapels. 

Lyons,  Archdiocese  of  (Lugdunensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-472a),  in  France,  is  under  the  administration  of 
His  Eminence  Louis-Joseph  Cardinal  Maurin,  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Lyons  and  Primate  of  Gaul,  b.  1859  in 
the  diocese  of  Marseilles,  ordained  1882,  appointed 
Bishop  of  Grenoble  1911,  and  promoted  to  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Lyons  1  December,  1916,  made  cardinal 
4  December  of  the  same  year.  On  11  September, 
1912,  Cardinal  Coullie,  who  had  filled  the  see  of 
Lyons  from  1893,  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Hector-Irenee  Sevin,  b.  Simandre  1852,  ap- 


LYONS 


476 


LYONS 


pointed  Bishop  of  Chalons  1908,  and  Archbishop  of 
Lyons  2  December,  1912,  created  cardinal  1914. 
Cardinal  Sevin  died  4  May,  1916,  and  was  succeeded 
by  the  present  incumbent. 

During  the  World  War  about  800  priests  of  the 
Archdiocese  were  mobilized,  and  of  these  57  gave 
up  their  lives,  as  well  as  93  seminarians,  from  450 
to  500  priests  were  wounded,  about  350  received  the 
croix  de  guerre,  30  were  decorated  with  the  legion 
d’honneur  and  50  with  the  medaille  militaire. 

Numerous  religious  orders  are  represented  in  this 
district,  but  it  is  impossible  to  give  exact  statistics, 
as  since  the  persecution  many  of  then?  aT3L  n0 
longer  permitted  to  wear  the  religious  habit.  How¬ 
ever,  the  famous  property  of  the  Chaitreux  which 


had  been  awarded  to  the  city  by  the  Law  of  Sepa¬ 
ration,  has  been  bought  back  by  a  lay  society  and 
turned  over  to  the  monks.  . 

Statistics  for  1921  give  688  parishes,  700 
churches,  1990  secular  priests  and  300  regulars, 
1  university  with  50  professors  and  about  400  stu¬ 
dents,  15  secondary  schools  for  boys  with  300 
teachers  and  4500  students,  48  secondary  schools 
for  girls  with  360  teachers  and  3100  students,  2 
normal  schools  with  16  teachers  and  90  pupils,  11 
professional  schools  with  58  teachers  and  1050 
pupils,  720  elementary  schools  with  1790  teachers 
and  60.000  pupils.  The  charitable  institutions  in¬ 
clude  about  60  hospitals.  Numerous  societies  are 
formed  among  the  clergy  and  laity,  and  70  daily 
or  weekly  journals  are  published. 


M 


McAndrew  James,  major-general  in  the  United 
States  army,  b.  at  Hawley,  Penna.,  in  1862;  d.  at 
Washington  on  30  April,  1922.  Graduating  from 
the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point  he  took  part 
m  the  Spanish  American  War  in  Cuba  and  the 
I  mlippines.  When  the  United  States  entered  the 
VYorld  War,  McAndrew  was  sent  across  with  the  first 
detachment  of  the  American  troops  in  1917,  command¬ 
ing  the  Eighteenth  Infantry  of  the  first  Division. 

^  Wa!  d(failed  to  organize  the  army  staff  college 
and  schools  at  Langres,  where  the  army  officers 
received  a  course  in  modern  warfare  as  it  had  de- 
veloped  during  the  past  three  years.  On  1  Mav, 
1918,  he  became  General  Pershing’s  right-hand  man 
as  chief  of  staff  of  the  American  Expeditionary 
rorce.  It  was  he  who  directed  from  headquarters 
the  operations  at  Chateau  Thierry,  St.  Mihiel  and  the 
Argonne  Meuse;  and  his  work  in  both  the  defensive 
and  offensive  campaigns  placed  him  in  the  first  rank 
of  the  great  generals  of  the  United  States.  After 
the  war  he  received  an  honorary  degree  in  law  from 

ordham  university  and  was  made  commandant 
u  ul  peaeral  Staff  College  in  Washington,  but  his 
health  broke  down  toward  the  end  of  1920,  though 
he  lingered  for  fifteen  months  in  hospital. 

Macao,  Diocese  of  (Macaonensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IN- 
481  b)  m  the  Portuguese  settlement  of  Macao  in 
the  Island  of  Hueng-Shan,  adjacent  to  the  coast  of 
the  Chinese  Province  of  Kwang-tung.  Rt.  Rev 
Joao  Paul  Azeredo  e  Castro,  appointed  to  this  see 
9  jj’.9??’  dIed  17  February,  1918,  and  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Jose  da  Costa  Nunes,  vicar  gen¬ 
eral  of  the  diocese,  appointed  16  December,  1920. 
Bv  a  decree  of  3  February,  1903,  which  became  ef- 
fectn  e  m  1908,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  diocese  ex¬ 
tends  over  the  neighboring  islands  as  far  as  the 
mouth  of  the  river  (with  the  exception  of  Hong- 
Kong),  the  prefecture  of  Tchao-King  with  twelve 
sub-prefectures,  the  prefecture  of  Hiang-Chan,  a 
part  of  Timor  and  the  Portuguese  Missions  of 
Malacca  and  Singapore.  The  territory  has  a  total 
population  of  8,000,000,  of  whom  40,000  are  Catho- 
lics.  Statistics  for  1920  credit  it  with  3  parishes, 
22  missions,  52  European  and  9  native  priests  1 

Portuguese  and  Chinese  students, 

74  churches  and  chapels,  6  convents  for  girls  1 
uoarding  school  for  boys,  2  asylums,  36  schools,  and 
1  hospital. 

MacDonagh,  Thomas,  Irish  poet,  scholar  and 
Pjtnot,  born  m  Cloughjordan,  County  Tipperary, 
1878,  d.  Dublin,  1916.  His  father  and  mother  were 
both  teachers  in  the  primary  schools.  He  was 
trained  by  a  religious  order  and  even  entered  a  novi¬ 
tiate  in  his  early  youth.  He  became  a  teacher  in  a 
college  in  Kilkenny  and  later  in  Fermoy.  Afterwards 
he  went  to  the  Aran  Islands  and  to  Irish-speaking  dis¬ 
tricts  in  Munster  and  made  himself  fluent  in  the  lan- 

,Jl!SNfc  before  Pcarse  (q.  V.)  opened  his  school 
(fet.  Enda’s)  MacDonagh  came  to  Dublin  to  try  to 
get  a  play  of  his  (“When  the  Dawn  Is  Come")  pro- 
duced  The  scene  was  laid  in  the  revolutionary 
IreEnd  of  t  he  future .  When  the  play  wasjproduced  in 
the  Abbey  Theatre  MacDonagh  had  already  joined 
the  staff  of  St.  Enda’s  school.  MacDonagh’s  two 


passions  were  love  of  art  and  love  of  country  and  his 
greatest  interest  was  poetry,  which  he  knew  well  in 
English,  French,  Latin  and  Irish.  He  was  drawn  to 
the  classical  poets  but  after  coming  to  Dublin  he 
wrote  more  personal  poetry.  During  the  period  before 

/io^le  t/?,D*ub  S  he  Published  “The  Golden  Joy" 
(1906) ,  and  later  Songs  of  Myself."  After  publishing 
this  work  he  went  to  Paris  to  do  some  reading.  Then 
he  took  his  M.A.  in  the  National  University.  Padraic 
>°  aF1’  James  Stephens,  and  a  professor  in  the  College 
o  science  and  MacDonagh  started  the  “Irish  Review" 
as  associate  editors  and  after  an  interregnum,  he  took 
over  the  paper  and  edited  it  with  his  friend  and  pupil, 
Joseph  Plunkett.  MacDonagh  wrote  a  thesis  on 
1  homas  Campion  and  English  Poetry”  and  was  made 
assistant  professor  of  English  literature  in  the  National 
University,  Dublin.  In  1916  he  published  a  critical 
prose  work,  Literature  in  Ireland."  MacDonagh’s 
country  was  always  in  his  mind  and  he  would  have 
welcomed  a  reasonable  settlement  of  Irish  political 
conditions  from  the  Government  of  Gr;  ,t  Britain 
He  was  happily  married  and  his  first  son  was  born  in 
1J12,  and  a  second  one  six  months  before  the  insur¬ 
rection.  VVhen  the  nationalists  created  their  volun- 
eers  MacDonagh  had  a  place  in  the  Executive  and 
command  of  a  corps.  From  this  time  until  the  Easter 
Kebelfion  that  ended  with  his  death,  MacDonagh  was 
associated  with  the  Volunteer  movement  with  his 
friends  Pearse  and  Plunkett.  Like  them  he  was  a 
combatant-poet,  fighting  a  combat  that  was  passion¬ 
ate,  intellectual,  spiritual. 

Colum,  Introduction  to  Poems  of  the  Irish  Revolu- 
tionary  Brotherhood  (Boston,  1916). 

Samuel  Fowle  Telfair,  Jr. 

MacDonMd,  Walter,  theologian  and  philosopher, 

b7if  u  1  kenny  m  18541  d<  on  2  May,  1920.  While 
still  busy  with  what  is  called  “the  most  controversial 

of  all  modern  books,"  “Some  Ethical  Questions  of 
Peace  and  War,"  Dr.  MacDonald’s  death  was  ap¬ 
proaching.  After  his  preparatory  studies  he  went  to 
Maynooth  College,  and  on  his  ordination  in  1876, 
he  became  rector  of  St.  Kieran’s  College,  where  he 
had  formerly  been  a  pupil .  He  returned  to  Maynooth 
in  1881  where  he  served  as  librarian,  Prefect  of  the 
Dunboyne  Establishment,  and  professor  of  theology. 
He  founded  the  “Irish  Theological  Quarterly"  in 
1906.  One  of  his  treatises,  on  “Motion,"'  was 
withdrawn  from  circulation  because  of  certain  pecu¬ 
liar  views  it  presented. 

McDonnell,  Charles  E.  See  Brooklyn,  Diocese 
of. 


477 


Macedonia,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Mace- 
doniensis  Bulgarorum),  a  vicariate  in  Greece,  for 
the  Greek-Bulgarians,  with  residence  at  Salonica. 
The  present  vicar  is  Rt.  Rev.  Epiphanius  Scianow 
of  the  Greco-Slavic  Rite,  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Livias,  23  July,  1895.  By  1920  statistics  the  ter¬ 
ritory  comprises  a  Catholic  population  of  10,200- 
41  missionary  priests  and  33  churches  and  chapels’. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Balkan  War  (September 
1912)  this  vicariate  was  much  more  flour iSing 
counting  27  parishes  and  36  priests.  The  Greeks’ 
however,  destroyed  12  parishes  and  forced  six  others 


MACEIO 


478 


MADRAS 


to  pass  to  the  Orthodox  Church,  while  the  Serbs 
seized  two  more  and  forced  them  to  become 
schismatic,  putting  to  death  one  of  the  pastors. 
Large  numbers  of  Catholics  were  massacred  but 
the  exact  number  is  not  known. 

Maceio,  Archdiocese  of  (Macejensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
I-244c),  in  the  State  of  Alagoas,  Brazil.  This  see 
was  erected  in  1900  under  the  name  of  Alagoas,  but 
a  Decree  of  27  August,  1917,  changed  it  to  the 
present  title,  and  a  subsequent  Decree  13  February, 
1920,  raised  it  to  the  dignity  of  a  metropolitan  see. 
The  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio  Manuel  de 
Castilho-Brandao,  died  in  Maceio,  15  March,  1910, 
and  his  death  was  deeply  mourned  throughout  the 
diocese,  his  zeal  and  devotion  having  been  greatly 
appreciated  by  his  people.  He  had  made  himself 
much  loved,  and  almost  all  the  dioceses  of  Brazil 
held" solemn  services  for  the  repose  of  his  soul.  The 
second  bishop  was  appointed  in  the  person  of  Rt. 
Rev.  Manuel  Antonio  de  Oliveira  Lopes,  born  in 
Sao  Gongalo  de  Campos,  Brazil,  in  1861,  ordained 
1886,  served  as  a  pastor  and  canon  of  the  cathedral 
of  Bahia,  founded  the  journal  “O  Mensageiro  de 
Fe,”  was  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Tabia  25 
January,  1908,  and  made  coadjutor  to  the  Bishop 
of  Fortaleza,  and  transferred  26  November,  1910. 
By  the  Decree  which  raised  Maceio  to  an  archdio¬ 
cese  he  was  named  first  archbishop.  This  territory 
covers  an  area  of  about  22,525  sq.  miles  and  com¬ 
prises  a  total  population  of  800,000.  No  statistics 
are  published. 

Macerata  and  Tolentino,  United  Dioceses  of 
(Maceratensis  et  Tolentinensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX- 
492a),  in  the  Marches,  Central  Italy,  suffragan  of 
Fermo.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Domenico 
Pasi,  born  in  Faenza,  Italy,  1870,  served  as  a  pastor 
and  was  named  a  prelate  of  the  Holy  See  in  1909, 
prot.honotary  apostolic  3  August,  1912,  and  ap¬ 
pointed  titular  Bishop  of  Philadelphia,  9  September, 
1913,  and  made  auxiliary  and  vicar  general  of  the 
Diocese  of  Comacchio,  and  then  administrator  of 
the  Diocese  of  Ferrara.  He  was  promoted  15 
December,  1919,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Romolo 
Molaroni,  appointed  30  September,  1916,  died  14 
August,  1919.  By  a  Brief  of  21  April,  1921,  the 
Sanctuary  of  Our  Lady  at  Macerata,  which  bears 
the  title  of  Mary,  Mother  of  Mercy,  was  erected 
into  a  minor  basilica.  The  statistics  of  1920  credit 
Macerata  with  a  Catholic  population  of  31,112 
Catholics,  17  parishes,  65  secular  and  6  regular 
clergy,  30  seminarians,  5  Brothers,  53  Sisters,  and 
92  churches  and  chapels.  Tolentino  has  15,090 
Catholics ;  8  parishes,  28  secular  and  9  regular 
clergy,  and  48  churches  and  chapels. 

McGloin,  Frank,  jurist  and  publicist,  b.  at 
Gort,  Galway,  Ireland,  on  22  February,  1846;  d. 
in  New  Orleans  in  September,  1921.  The  son  of 
Patrick  and  Nora  (Comber)  McGloin,  he  was  brought 
to  New  Orleans  in  early  childhood,  and  fought  in 
the  Confederate  Army,  after  which  he  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  bar.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  assistants 
of  the  late  Chief  Justice  White,  in  his  fight,  as  an 
attorney,  against  the  Louisiana  lotteries.  In  1880  he 
was  appointed  Justice  of  the  Louisiana  State  Court  of 
Appeals.  A  zealous  Catholic,  he  was  one  of  the 
great  forces  in  upbuilding  the  Church  in  Louisiana; 
he  was  the  editor  of  the  “Hibernian,”  the  “Holy 
Family,”  the  founder  and  president  of  the  Society 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  builder  of  St.  George’s  Chapel, 
Siegen,  Louisiana,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Catholic  Winter  School.  In  1910  he  was  made  a 
Knight  Commander  of  the  Order  of  St.  Gregory  by 
Pope  Pius  X.  Among  his  writings  are:  “The  Story 


of  Norodom,”  a  romance  of  the  Far  East;  “The 
Conquest  of  Europe;”  “The  Light  of  Faith”  (1905); 
“The  Mystery  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in  Oldest  Judaism” 
(1916). 

Mackenzie,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (de  Mac¬ 
kenzie;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-504a),  in  Canada,  suffragan 
of  Edmonton,  with  episcopal  residence  at  Fort 
Resolution.  By  a  decree  of  1908  the  limits  of  this 
vicariate  were  somewhat  changed  and  it  now  com¬ 
prises  that  part  of  the  Northwest  Territory  which 
lies  north  of  the  60°  latitude,  east  of  Yukon  Ter¬ 
ritory  and  west  of  the  100°  longitude.  The  terri¬ 
tory^  entrusted  to  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Immacu¬ 
late,  the  present  vicar  being  Rt.  Rev.  Gabriel- 
Joseph-Elie  Breynat,  appointed  in  1901  and  conse¬ 
crated  titular  Bishop  of  Adramattium  6  April, 
1902.  Latest  statistics  (1922)  credit  the  vicariate 
with  a  Catholic  population  of  4500 ;  19  regular 
clergy,  31  religious  women  (Gray  Nuns),  2  hospitals, 

2  dispensaries,  12  churches,  and  4  schools. 

MacSwiney,  Terence;  the  famous  Lord  Mayor 
of  Cork,  b.  on  28  March,  1879;  d.  at  Brixton  prison 
of  a  hunger  strike  on  25  October,  1920,  which  he 
began  as  a  protest  against  English  rule.  The  strike 
lasted  seventy-three  days.  When  the  Irish  “Rising” 
occurred  he  was  frequently  in  jail,  and  at  one  time 
in  exile;  when  his  intimate  friend,  Thomas  Mac- 
Curtain,  the  Lord  Mayor  of  Cork,  was  murdered, 
MacSwiney  was  elected  in  his  place.  He  is  the 
author  of  “Principles  of  Freedom.” 

Madagascar.  See  Diego-Suarez,  Fianarantsoa, 
Tananarive,  Vicariates  Apostolic  of;  Antsirabe 
Prefecture  Apostolic  of. 

Madeleine-Sophie  Barat,  Blessed  (cf.  C.  E., 
II-283b),  was  beatified  24  May,  1908,  by  Pope  Pius 
X,  and  her  feast  is  celebrated  25  May. 

Madras,  Archdiocese  of  (Madraspatan;  cf.  C. 
E.,  VI-603c),  now  has  a  Catholic  population  of 
about  58,246,  divided  as  follows:  30,000  Telegus, 
20,000  Tamilians,  and  8000  Anglo-Indians,  out  of 
a  total  heathen  population  of  nine  million.  On 
12  February,  1911,  Archbishop  Colgan  died  after 
twenty-nine  years  in  this  see.  He  was  nominated 
Bishop  of  Aureliopolis  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Madras  in  1882,  and  raised  to  the  archiepiscopal 
dignity  by  the  decree  of  25  November,  1886,  and 
was  nominated  assistant  at  the  papal  throne  on 
the  occasion  of  his  golden  jubilee.  He  died  at  the 
age  of  eighty-six,  and  was  buried  in  the  Cathedral 
of  St.  Mary  of  the  Angels.  His  successor  is  the 
Most  Rev.  Jean  Aelen,  D.D.,  of  the  Mission  Hill 
Fathers.  He  was  born  at  Waspite,  Holland,  in 
1854,  and  was  named  titular  Bishop  of  Themisonium 
in  December,  1901,  and  coadjutor  to  the  Archbishop 
of  Madras  in  1902. 

In  1921,  on  4,  5  and  6  of  January,  the  All  Indian 
Marian  Congress  was  held  at  Madras,  and  was  pre¬ 
sided  over  by  the  Apostolic  Delegate  to  India, 
Archbishop  Pisani.  This  congress,  originally  in¬ 
tended  to  be  held  in  1914,  had  the  war  not  in¬ 
terfered,  was,  when  finally  accomplished,  an  impres¬ 
sive  manifestation  of  the  Catholic  Faith.  It  was 
the  first  Marian  Congress  ever  held  on  the  continent 
of  Asia,  and  gathered  a  vast  variety  of  Catholics, 
from  the  uncultured  Telegu  to  the  refined  Brahmin, 
from  the  Burmese,  with  his  flat  Chinese  face  to  the 
distinctive  Madrassi;  at  least  twenty  different  lan¬ 
guages  were  being  spoken  in  this  great  gathering. 
All  the  bishops  and  archbishops  of  India  attended 
or  sent  representatives  and  the  apostolic  delegate, 
speaking  to  the  1200  assembled  in  the  hall,  which 


MADRID-ALCALA 


MAINE 


479 


had  been  especially  erected,  declared  that  the  time 
was  near  when  India  would  have  her  own  clergy 
irnder  her  own  hidiim  bishops.  A  daily  bulletin, 
The  Marian  Congress  Bulletin,”  giving  the  events 
°  mi  °  “2^  was.  Published  during  the  congress. 

■if  statistics  of  the  diocese  show:  44 

parishes,  42  churches,  5  missions,  269  stations,  nearly 
all  having  chapels,  2  convents  for  men  and  27  for 
women,  27  secular  priests  and  38  regular  (Foreign 
Missionaries  of  Mill  Hill,  London),  8  lay  brothers, 
7*4  biters,  20  seminarians,  5  high  schools  with  60 
teachers  and  attendance  of  682  boys  and  494  girls 
2  training  schools  with  11  teachers  and  55  students,’ 
98  elementary  schools  with  312  teachers  and  6965 
students,  and  1  industrial  school  with  2  teachers. 
Chanty  is  administered  through  2  homes  for  the 
aged,  2  homes  for  babies  and  4  refuge  homes,  while 
oi  the  government  hospitals  and  1  government 
training  school  and  college  permit  Catholic  priests 
to  minister  in  them.  The  Catholic  schools  are  aided 
financially  by  the  Government,  but  none  of  the 
institutions.  A  “Sick  Fund”  is  organized  among 
the  clergy,  and  among  the  laity  the  Catholic  Indian 
Association  and  a  philanthropic  society.  The  dio- 
f vG i Pllbbshes  the  “Catholic  Leader”  (weekly),  the 
Nalla  Ayan  (monthly),  and  the  Catholic  Direc¬ 
tory  of  India,  Burma,  and  Ceylon  yearly. 


Madrid-Alcala,  Diocese  of  (Matritensis-Alca- 
hensis  or  Complutensis;  cf.  C.  E„  IX-516a),  in 

fnainhSUmagSn  °fi5Toiedo'  These  united  sees  are 
filled  by  Rt  Rev.  Prudencio  Melo  y  Alcalde,  born 

n  Burgos,  1860,  ordained  in  1883,  served  as  vice- 
secretary  to  the  Archbishop  of  Burgos,  professor 
University  of  Valladolid,  Central  University, 
and  the  Seminary,  grand  chaplain  of  the  Sisters 

Wtlr  f  I?uatl0n;l  v,lca,r  general,  named  a  canon 
lector  of  the  cathedral  of  Burgos  in  1898  then 

pro-vicar  general,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Olympia  19  December  1907,  and  auxiliary  at 
I  oledo  transferred  to  Vitoria  18  July,  1913  and 
again  transferred  to  Madrid  4  December,  1916 
to  succeed  Rt  Rev.  Jose  Maria  Salvador  y  Barrera’ 

4  December,  1916.  According 
_  * i  0  statistwa  the  diocese  comprises  a  Catholic 
population  of  1,500,600  ;  251  parishes  divided  into  18 
archpresbytenes,  1170  priests,  776  churches  and 

Sistpr  i2°n GT'rntS  Wlth  536  religious,  and  736 
oisters.  A  Catholic  university  was  founded  in  the 

diocese  m  1908,  with  the  faculties  of  philosophy  and 

umtfnnClefnC+en‘  Sn  m  May’  1919’  the  solemn  inaug- 
uratmn  of  the  Basilica  of  the  Sacred  Heart  took 

mnnv  Ahe  ^ence  of  the  ro^al  family  and 
many  of  the  Spanish  bishops. 

(°r  Magallanes),  Vicariate  Apostolic 
OF  (Magellanensis),  in  Chili,  suffragan  of  San¬ 
tiago,  with  episcopal  residence  at  Punta  Arenas 
1  his  vicariate  was  erected  by  a  Decree  of  4  October 
t  “uprises  the  territory  of  the  old  pre^ 
lecture  of  Southern  Patagonia.  It  extends  from  the 
rC  latitude  on  the  North  to  the  Mai  vine  Islands 

WestTmind  ?ngl*nd,’  whicb  form  the  South  and 
West  boundaries,  and  on  the  East  as  far  as  the 

boundary  line  between  Chili  and  Argentina  It  is 

entrusted  to  the  Salesians,  the  present  vicar  being 

Bishon  of  TAbrah7.m  Aguilera,  appointed  titular 
ifisfiop  of  Issus  22  December,  1916.  In  1990  the 

Slf.T""8611  2  [Tshes  “nd  a  number  of 
priSts  1  t,0ns’  served  b-v  “bout  40  missionary 

Michael,  psychologist,  b.  at  Leighlin- 
Lrd  1  <1 d' at  Pctworth,  England,  on  3  Septem- 
*  1918'  received  his  early  education  at  Tulla- 

u  1 


more,  Mt.  St.  Mary’s  and  Tullaby,  and  became  a 
Jesuit  in  England  in  1880  when  he  was  twenty  years 
ot  age.  Immediately  after  his  course  of  philosophy 

1L1  °j  taug^t  psychology  from  1885  to 

1891  and  subsequently  from  1897  to  1903.  He  at¬ 
tempted  some  missionary  work  at  Edinburgh  but 
was  unable  to  continue  on  account  of  ill-health.’  He 
then  wrote  for  the  “Stonyhurst  Series”  his  volume 
on  “Psychology,”  which  was  declared  by  the  London 
L  niversity  to  be  of  such  special  excellence  that  no 
further  test  was  required  for  according  his  application 
r  e  degree  °f  Doctor  of  Literature.  Another 
of  his  works  was  “Tatian’s  Diatessaron,”  and  he 
contributed  several  articles  to  The  Catholic  En¬ 
cyclopedia, 

Mahnic,  Anthony.  See  Krk,  Diocese  of. 

Maine  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-541c). — Industries. — The 
manufacturing  census  of  1919  shows  a  decrease  in 
o«2r.n-um^er  manufacturing  establishments  from 
3378  in  1914  to  2996  in  1919.  There  was,  however 

1  nCre-aSe  in  caPital  ($233,844,000  in  1914,  $420,- 
651,000  in  1919),  and  in  value  of  products  ($200  - 
450,000  in  1914;  $461,415,000  in  1919). 

Agriculture. — In  1918  the  potato  crop  of  the 
entire  State  brought  nearly  $25,000,000.  In  1919 
five  million  barrels  of  apples  were  grown.  The 
agricultural  products  of  the  entire  State  equal 
$100,000,000  in  an  average  year,  while  through  its 
varied  industries  Maine  produces  $275  to  $400  for 
each  inhabitant. 

-.<?°^UI^ATI0N-“Tlle  Population  of  the  State  was 
742,271  m  1910;  768,014  in  1920.  The  latest  census 
shows  an  increase  of  25,643,  or  2.5  per  cent  from 
1910  to  1920,  smaller  than  the  increase  during  the 
previous  decade  of  47,905,  or  6.9  per  cent.  The 
Catholic  population  is  153,225. 

Education.— According  to  the  report  of  the  State 
superintendent  for  the  year  1919,  the  number  of 
school  children  in  the  State  was  228,489,  and  the 
amount  expended  for  school  purposes  was  $5,149,386. 

.  1  he  following  favorable  opinion  on  the  subject 
oi  Bible  reading  in  the  public  school  was  rendered 
by  the  Supreme  Court  of  Maine:  “If  the  Bible, 
or  any  particular  version  of  it,  may  be  excluded 
irom  the  schools  because  its  teachings  may  be 
opposed  to  the  teachings  of  the  authorities  of  any 
church,  the  same  result  may  ensue  as  to  any  other 
book.  If  any  sect  may  object,  the  same  right  may 
be  granted  to  others.  This  would  give  the  authori- 
ties  of  any  sect  the  right  to  annul  any  regulations 
of  the  constituted  authorities  of  the  State  as  to 
the  course  of  study  and  the  books  to  be  used.  It 
is  placing  the  legislation  of  the  State,  in  the  matter 
of  education,  at  once  and  forever  in  subordination 
to  decrees  and  teachings  of  any  and  all  the  sects, 
when  their  members  conscientiously  believe  such 
teachings.  It  at  once  surrenders  the  power  of  the 
State  to  a  government  not  emanating  from  the 
People  nor  recognized  by  the  Constitution.” 

1  he  State  laws  relative  to  private  and  parochial 
schools  are  as  follows :  The  basic  language  of  in¬ 
struction  in  the  common  branches  of  all  schools 
public  and  private,  shall  be  the  English  language. 
Nothing  in  this  section  shall  be  construed  to  pro¬ 
hibit  the  teaching  in  elementary  schools  of  any 
language  as  suchj  the  State  superintendent  shall 
prescribe  or  approve  courses  of  study  and  methods 
of  instruction  of  public  and  private  schools;  all 
professors  and  instructors  and  teachers  in  public 
and  private  institutions  shall  teach  humanitv, 
morality,  etc.,  American  history  and  civil  govern- 
ment  aie  to  be  taught;  for  children  attending 
private  schools  certificates  of  attendance  must  be 
filed  with  the  public  school  officials;  all  private 


MAINZ 


MAITLAND 


480 


schools  shall  make  such  statistical  and  other  re¬ 
ports  as  the  State  superintendent  may  require. 

State  Government— The  following  have  been 
added  as  heads  of  State  departments:  2  highway 
commissioners,  1  bank  commissioner,  3  public 
utilities  commissioners,  a  deputy  secretary  of  State 
commissions  and  corporations,  a  commissioner  of 
labor  and  industry,  a  superintendent  of  public  build¬ 
ings,  a  commissioner  of  health,  3  industrial  acci¬ 
dent  commissioners,  a  commissioner  of  harbor  and 
tidal  waves,  a  live  stock  sanitary  commissioner,  3 
prison  commissioners,  and  one  woman  factory  in¬ 
spector.  The  commission  of  inland  fisheries  has 
been  reduced  from  three  to  one  member.  There 
are  also  appointed  3  for  the  board  of  accountancy, 

4  instead  of  8  for  the  public  health  council,  4  em- 
balming  examiners,  and  3  for  the  board  of  arbitra¬ 
tion  and  conciliation. 

Judicial  Department— Superior  Courts  have 
been  established  in  the  counties  of  Cumberland, 
Kennebec,  Androscoggin,  and  Penobscot.  Maine 
has  20  cities,  434  towns,  and  69  plantations.  The 
State  Board  of  Charities  and  Corrections, .  estab¬ 
lished  by  the  Legislature  of  1913,  is  composed  of 
five  members,  unsalaried,  one  of  them  a  woman, 
appointed  by  the  governor  and  with  the  consent 
of  the  council.  The  board  appoints  a  salaried 
secretary  and  other  agents.  The  board  is  required 
to  investigate  and  inspect  the  whole  system  of 
public  charities  and  correctional  institutions  of  the 
State,  to  examine  into  the  conditions  and  the 
management  of  all  prisons,  jails,  reform  schools, 
schools  of  a  charitable  and  correctional  nature,  and 
all  such  institutions  as  hospitals,  houses,  sani¬ 
tariums,  orphanages,  to  give  its  opinion  of  their 
organization  and  to  pass  upon  all  plans  for  new 
institutions  under  their  supervision.  It  acts  ex 
officio  as  a  board  of  mother’s  aid,  and  also  as  a 
board  of  children’s  guardians.  A  number  of  asso¬ 
ciations,  hospitals,  and  other  institutions  receive 
appropriations  from  the  State,  and  are  subject  to 
supervision  by  the  State  board,  as  long  as  they 
receive  such  aid.  Appropriations  are  made  for 
certain  charitable  and  benevolent  institutions,  not 
owned  by  the  State,  for  the  care,  support  and 
medical  treatment  of  dependent  persons;  among 
these  are  St.  Elizabeth’s  Orphan  Asylum,  Portland, 
and  St.  Mary’s  General  Hospital  at  Lewiston. 
Overseers  of  the  poor,  not  to  exceed  seven  in  num¬ 
ber,  are  chosen  by  each  town.  The  semi-inter¬ 
mediate  sentence  law  is  applicable  to  all  State 
institutions,  for  each  of  which  the  governor  acts 
as  a  parole  board.  Any  property  left  to  educa¬ 
tional,  charitable,  religious  or  benevolent  institu¬ 
tions  is  exempt  from  the  inheritance  tax.  A  legis¬ 
lative  Act  of  1913  allowed  any  corporation  or 
association  holding  funds  bequeathed  for  religious, 
moral,  and  benevolent  purposes  to  transfer  the 
same  to  another  corporate  body  for  similar  pur¬ 
poses  with  the  approval  of  the  resident  judge. 

Legislative  Changes. — Maine  was  the  first  State 
to  enact  prohibition.  The  first  prohibition  law, 
passed  through  the  influence  of  Neal  Dow  in  1851, 
was  repealed.  In  1850  another  law  went  into  effect, 
but  the  enforcement  was  very  lax.  In  1884  an 
amendment  was  voted  into  the  State  constitution, 
forbidding  the  sale  of  liquor  except  to  invalids. 
Though  the  Legislature  of  1905  enacted  the  Sturgis 
Law,  creating  a  State  Enforcement  Commission, 
prohibition  has  always  been  considered  a  farce  in 
the  State.  The  extreme  bitterness  of  the  campaign 
and  the  accompanying  charges  of  fraud  led  to  the 
initiation  and  passage  of  the  Davies  Direct  Primary 
law,  which  applies  to  the  election  of  county  officials 
as  well  as  federal  officials.  In  1912  the  constitu¬ 


tional  amendment  was  re-submitted  to  a  popular 
vote,  and  retained  by  a  majority  of  758  votes.  The 
national  Prohibition  Act  was  ratified  in  1919  by 
the  State  legislature. 

The  State  constitutional  amendment  of  1841  for¬ 
bidding  the  legislature  to  loan  the  credit  of  the 
State,  directly  or  indirectly,  or  to  increase  the  State 
debt  over  $300,000,  except  in  emergency  cases,  was 
felt  by  many  to  be  a  serious  obstacle  to  the 
development  of  Maine,  but  in  1912  the  State  was 
allowed  to  increase  a  debt  of  not  over  $2,000,000 
for  highway  purposes.  In  1913  another  law  allowed 
the  legislature  to  tax  intangible  personal  property 
without  regard  to  the  rate  applied  to  other  classes 
of  property.  In  1915  child  labor  was  prohibited  in 
factories  or  mercantile  establishments,  and  in  the 
same  year  the  Workmen’s  Compensation  Act  was 
passed.  In  1916  the  first  national  park  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  comprising  500  acres,  known  as 
the  Sieur  de  Montes  National  Monument,  was 
created  on  Mount  Desert  Island.  In  1918  the  legis¬ 
lature  passed  an  Act  forbidding  the  feeble-minded 
to  marry.  The  federal  suffrage  amendment  wras 
ratified  on  5  November,  1919. 

Prisons  and  Reformatories. — There  is  a  county 
jail  in  each  county,  except  Lincoln  and  Sagadorhoe, 
which  use  jails  in  other  counties.  There  is  an  In¬ 
dustrial  School  for  Girls  at  Hallowell,  a  State 
Reformatory  for  Women  at  Skowegan  (1915),  and 
one  for  men  at  Windham  (1919). 

Recent  History. — During  the  European  War 
Maine  contributed  24,252  soldiers  to  the  U.  S. 
Army  (0.65%).  The  members  of  the  national,  guard 
joined  the  26th  Division,  and  those  of  the  national 
drafted  army  the  76th  Division,  both  at  Camp 
Devens.  The  summary  of  casualties  among  the 
Maine  members  of  the  American  Expeditionary 
Forces  is  as  follows:  deceased,  21  officers,  497  men; 
prisoners,  2  officers,  15  men;  wounded,  64  officers, 
1491  men. 

For  ecclesiastical  history  see  Portland,  Diocese 
of. 

Mainz  Diocese  of,  (Maguntinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX — 552c),  in  Germany.  The  present  incumbent 
is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Ludwig  Hugo,  who  was  named  coad¬ 
jutor  to  Rt.  Rev.  George  Heinrich  Kirstein  (d.  15 
April,  1921)  with  the  right  of  succession,  succeeding 
7  March,  1912,  consecrated  10  April,  1921,  published 
15  April,  1921.  The  diocese  is  divided  into  deaneries 
and  188  parishes  and  contains  186  parish  priests,  1 
rector,  80  curates,  43  priests  in  other  positions,  and 
20  who  are  pensioned  or  on  leave  of  absence.  The 
diocesan  seminary  has  10  professors  and  60  students. 
The  only  male  order  existing  in  the  diocese  is  that  of 
the  Capuchins  with  3  houses  (Mainz,  Bausheim  and 
Dieburg),  19  Fathers  and  17  brothers.  The  female 
orders  are:  Sisters  of  Mercy  from  the  mother-house 
at  Trier,  2  houses,  26  Sisters;  English  Ladies,  7  houses, 
271  Sisters;  Franciscan  Sisters  from  Aachen,  3  houses, 
27  Sisters;  Franciscan  Sisters  of  the  Perpetual  Ador¬ 
ation,  1  house,  42  Sisters,  Sisters  of  Divine  Provi¬ 
dence,  mother-house  at  Mainz,  85  filial  houses,  657 
Sisters;  Sisters  of  the  Most  Sacred  Redeemer,  mother- 
house  at  Niederbronn,  23  houses,  230  Sisters;  Sisters 
of  the  Good  Shepherd,  1  house,  29  Sisters;  Sisters  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  9  houses,  137  Sisters. 

Maitland,  Diocese  of  (Maitlandensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  IX-555d),  in  New  South  Wales,  Australia,  is 
suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Sydney.  It  has 
been  growing  steadily  in  recent  years  during  the 
incumbency  of  the  present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Patrick 
Vincent  Dwyer,  and  now  numbers  a  Catholic  popu¬ 
lation  of  some  38,000,  of  whom  36,000  are  Aus- 


Majorca 


481 


MALINES 


tralians,  100  Irish,  500  German,  300  Syrians,  and 
about  200  of  other  nationalities. 

By  the  present  (1921)  statistics,  there  are  21 
parishes,  85  churches,  30  mission  stations,  36  con¬ 
vents  for  men,  48  secular  priests,  and  7  regular* 
ift  aI  brothers  (10  Marists  and  4  Redemptorists) 
340  Sisters  (Dominicans,  Sisters  of  Mercv,  and 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph);  5  high  schools  with  20 
teachers  and  an  attendance  of  230  boys  and  420 
girls;  52  elementary  schools  with  120  teachers  and 
an  attendance  of  5300.  The  only  Catholic  Institute 
for  Deaf  Mutes  in  Australasia  is  conducted  at 
vyaratah  by  the  Dominican  nuns,  and  counts  55 
girls  and  small  boys  among  its  pupils;  an  orphan- 
age  for  girls  is  conducted  at  Maitland  by  the  Sisters 
of  Mercy  and  has  85  children,  and  a  hospital  at 
\\  aratah  is  also  under  the  direction  of  these  Sisters. 
A  number  of  the  public  institutions  admit  the 
priests  of  the  diocese  to  minister  in  them,  and  the 
government  allows  a  small  grant  tp  the  Catholic 
orphanages  for  their  support.  The  Sick  Clergy 
und  and  the  Priests  Eucharistic  League  are  estab- 
lished  among  the  clergy,  and  the  Australian  Cath- 
ohc  Gmld  Benefit  Society  and  the  Hibernian  Aus- 
trahan  Catholic  Benefit  Society  among  the  laity, 
i  he  Diocesan  Almanac  is  published  annually. 

Majorca  and  Iviza,  Diocese  of  (Majoricensis 
et  Ibusensis;  cf.  C  E.,  IX — 556d),  suffragan  of 
\  alencia,  with  the  residential  seat  at  Palma  on  the 
Island  of  Majorca.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt  Rev 
Rigobert  Domenech  y  Vallo,  b.  15  November,  1870’ 
at  Valencia,  ordained  19  May,  1894,  honorary  chap- 

fcth  and^reachfo1t?  HlS  ¥^jesty  in  I906>  appointed 
bishop  5  May,  1916,  proclaimed  4  Decemberfollow- 

mg,  succeeding  Mgr.  Pietro-Juan  Campins  y  Baicelo 

b'*14  January,  1859;  d.  1915.  The  cathedral  church 

was  restored  in  1904.  In  1909  the  remains  of  King 

Jaime  III  were  transferred  from  Valencia.  There 

are  in  the  diocese  (1922):  71  parishes  and  23  affiliated 

parishes;  371  churches;  684  secular  and  60  regular 

priests;  9  monasteries  for  women;  41  convents  for 

men  and  142  for  women;  244  lay  brothers;  1674 

bisters;  1  seminary  with  244  seminarians;  4  colleges 

for  boys  with  75  teachers  and  219  pupils;  11  colleges 

for  girls  with  125  teachers  and  1200  pupils; 6  4 

academies  with  20  teachers  and  90  pupils*  204 

elementary  schools  with  546  teachers  and  18  120 

Pupifv i3  asylums;  10  hospitals,  2  refuges;  3  ’lav 
charitable  centres,  4  day  nurseries.  The  Govern- 
ment  maintains  200  schools;  an  Institute  and  a  normal 
school  for  men  and  women  teachers.  Three  societies 
are  organized  among  the  clergy.  There  are  60 
organizations  among  the  laity  in  Palma  and  200 
in  the  towns.  The  Catholic  press  is  represented  bv 
eleven  periodicals.  The  population  of  297  194  is 
entirely  Spanish  and  Catholic  with  the  exception  of 
60  French  and  20  English.  The  diocese  lost  two  of 
its  prominent  men  by  the  death  of  Don  Miguel 
Mauro,  brother  of  Antonio  Mauro,  present  president 
of  the  Council  of  Ministers,  and  Don  Jose  Mari 
Guadrado,  polemist,  archadogist,  and  histoiian. 


Barillon  hP  1  srw\  ReYo* Mane-Luc-Alfonse-Einile 
lOMflv’  lory8  0ctober>  I860,  at  Chartres,  appointed 

4  NoVrnbf;  Cr.f Cmted  18  SePtemher,  proclaimed 
MU  fix  I  ,Kowin^  succeeding  Mgr.  Rene- 
Michel  Fee,  b.  4  February,  1856,  d.  20  January  1904 
Since  27  November,  1920,  the  bishop  has  a  coadiutor 

of  Corona  °nTLMb§rh  Louisf%riGhon,  titular  Bishop 
ot  corona.  The  bishop  and  all  the  clergy  belomr  to 

WG  ?nCwy  °/  F?reign  Missions  of  Paris.  ‘During^the 
\\  odd  War  twelve  of  the  priests  were  mobilized  of 
whom  three  were  killed,  and  ten  died  of  exhaustion 
mission,  so  that  the  number  of  missionaries 
fhrleCre?fd  Smce  th?  war>  but  native  dergv 
ihe.vVT  herVS  a  sem!nary  Penang,  are  beginning 
S  lwT"  '  mission.  There  are  in  the  diocese: 
33  priests  having  charge  of  69  churches  and  chapels 
52  schools  with  10,675  pupils,  25  orphanages  and 
creches  with  808  children,  49  Brothers  of  the  Christian 

Jesus  S  a,nd  86  Sisters  of  the  Infant 

Jesus.  Ihe  English  schools  receive  a  “grant-in-aid” 
from  the  government.  6 

Diocese  of  (Malacitanensis;  cf.  C.  E 

It  ■  oh?  ®paiffi  suffragan  of  Granada.  This 
see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Manuel  Gonzalez  y  Garcia 
born  m  Seville,  1877,  named  archpriest  of  Huelva 
and  made  a  private  chamberlain  in  1913,  appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  Olympia  6  December,  1915  and 

Anri?  io9nlam  ar>  MaITaga’  where  he  succeeded  22 
Apnl,  19_0,  Rt.  Rev.  Juan  Munros  y  Herrera  (d 

26  December  1919).  The  1920  statistics  credit  the 

tr  ,Tth  I42’44?  Catholies;  135  parishes  divided 
among  16  archpresbyteries,  373  priests,  147  chapels 

andS  84^  Sisters  68  COnvents  with  106  religious 


Malacca>  Diocese  of  (Malacensis;  cf .  C.  E. ,  IX— 
562c),  m  the  Malay  Peninsula,  comprises  Singapore 
island,  the  Malacca  territory  proper,  Penang  Island, 
Province  Wellesley  Perak,  Selangor,  Negri-Sembilau , 
Pahan,  Johore,  Kedah,  Trenganu,  Kelantan,  Patani 
r'erlis  and  several  Siamese  provinces  on  the  west  coast 
up  to  the  Isthmus  of  Krah,  with  an  area  of  about  700 
miles  from  north  to  south,  and  200  miles  from  east  to 
west.  The  diocese  is  suffragan  to  Pondicherry,  with 
episcopal  residence  at  Singapore.  It  has  a  total 
population  of  about  3,500,000  and  a  Catholic  popula- 
tV  41,/60,  of  whom  about  8000  arc  Europeans 
and  Eurasians,  18,000  Chinese,  and  16,000  Indians. 


Malines  (or  Mechlin),  Diocese  of  (Mechli- 
niensis;  cf.  C.  E.  X-104a),  comprises  the  two 
Belgian  provinces  of  Antwerp  and  Brabant.  The 

of  Malines  is  co-extensive 

Tnnrni7eTB'e  glaS  kmgd°?  (suffragan  bishoprics, 
lournai,  Liege,  Namur,  Ghent,  and  Bruges)  The 

ancient  metropolitan  cathedral  of  St.  Rombaut  is 

the  church  of  the  Archbishop  of  Malines,  who  is 

the  primate  of  Belgium.  His  Eminence  Desire- 

Joseph  Cardinal  Mercier,  Archbishop  of  Malines 

founder  of  the  Institute  of  Philosophy  at  Louvain 

and  eminent  patriot,  is  known  throughout  the  world 

ior  his  bearing  towards  a  triumphant  enemy  and 

his  devotion  and  unceasing  labor  for  his  people 

country  and  God  during  the  late  war.  Cardinal 

„™S at  B[aine-l’Alleud  in  the  Diocese 
of  Malines,  21  November,  1851,  entered  the  semi- 

°l  ¥al*me f’ t1  0ct°ber,  1870,  ordained  4  April, 
1874,  student  at  Louvain,  professor  at  seminary  of 
Malines,  professor  at  Louvain  (1822),  director  of 
Institute  of  Philosophy  at  Louvain  1891,  president 

f^h\Le°Tt  Tu1?92’  Prlate  to  HoIy  See 

1886,  named  Archbishop  of  Malines  7  February, 
1906,  consecrated  by  the  Apostolic  nuncio,  Mgr! 

V  ico,  at  Malines  25  March  and  enthroned  16  April 
ollowing,  succeeding  Cardinal  Goossens,  deceased 
Created  cardinal  15  April,  1907,  received  the  hat 
and  title  of  San  Pietro  in  Vincoli  18  April  follow¬ 
ing.  During  the  German  occupation  Cardinal  Mer¬ 
cier  was  kept  under  constant  surveillance  and 
suspicion,  shut  in  his  palace  many  times  and  hin¬ 
dered  in  his  ministry  but  he  dared  to  face  the 
enemy,  to  protest  to  German  authorities  in  person 
and  by  letter  against  their  actions  in  Belgium  The 
Cardinal  became  recognized  as  a  spokesman  for 
tta  oppressed  country,  his  letters  to  the  German 
officials  and  German  bishops  and  to  his  own  flock 
effected  good  results  and  showed  the  Cardinal  to  be 
one  of  the  greatest  figures  of  the  age.  Cardinal 
Mercier  has  been  decorated  and  honored  by  many 


MALINES 


482 


MALINES 


countries,  receiving  the  croix  de  guerre  fiom  France 
and  Italy,  the  croix  civile  and  grand  cordon  ot 
the  Order  of  Leopold  from  Belgium,  prizes  and 
honors  from  French  and  Spanish  Academies  of 
Political  and  Moral  Sciences,  degrees  from  numer¬ 
ous  universities  and  many  other  rewards,  rrom 
September  to  November,  1919,  Cardinal  Merciei  re¬ 
ceived  a  continuous  tribute  when  he  traveled  m 
the  United  States.  The  Cardinal  has  published 
many  important  works  on  Scholastic  philosop  y 
and  besides  his  letters  of  war  times,  which  included 
the  famous  pastoral,  “Patriotism  and  Endurance, 
has  written  works  on  spiritual  life.  In  1919  was 
published  “La  Vie  interieure,  appel  aux  ames 
sacerdotales,”  which  will  be  followed  by  other  simi¬ 
lar  works.  In  1920  a  provincial  council  was  held  at 

Malines.  .  B 

There  are  two  auxiliaries  to  the  archbishop,  Kt. 
Rev.  Louis-Joseph  Legraive,  b.  at  Chain,  18  Decem¬ 
ber,  1858,  consecrated  titular  bishop  of  Parnassus 
17  November,  1907,  and  made  superior  of  the  Upper 
Seminary  at  Malines  in  1909,  and  Rt.  Rev.  Antoine 
Alphonse  de  Wachter,  b.  at  Puers  10  April  1855, 
and  consecrated  titular  bishop  of  Dionysias  25  July, 
1909.  Mgr.  Legraive  was  brought  before  the  council 
of  war  at  Antwerp,  16  March,  1917,  for  having 
given  hospitality  to  a  Frenchman  unfit  for  service 
who  wished  to  return  to  his  own  country  ;  he  was 
condemned  to  nine  month  s  detention  and  sent  to 
Germany.  In  the  beginning  of  April,  upon  the  in¬ 
tervention  of  the  Pope,  he  recovered  his  liberty. 

The  statistics  for  1912  are  the  latest  available. 
They  give  2,527,850  inhabitants  in  52  deaneries 
with  768  parishes,  secular  priests  2410,  regular 
priests  1137,  scholastics  596,  lay  brothers  319,  Broth¬ 
ers  1308,  novices  560,  total  religious  men  39w0, 
religious  women,  including  novices,  13,331. 

The  communities  for  men  include  3  abbeys  and 
1  house  for  Benedictines,  2  Cistercian  abbej  s,  5 
Norbertine  abbeys  and  1  priory,  11  colleges  and 
houses  of  Jesuits,  16  convents  of  orders  destined 
for  foreign  missions,  22  monasteries  for  other  or¬ 
ders,  65  convents  for  religious  priests,  total  126;  70 
convents  of  Brothers,  985  convents  of  women ;  gen¬ 
eral  total  of  convents  1181.  Many  of  these  convents 
have  only  a  few  Brothers  or  Sisters  who  teach  in 
the  schools  or  Sisters  who  look  after  sick  oi  aged 
in  hospitals  and  refuges  of  rural  communities. 

Education,  Seminaries. — There  is  a  seminary 
at  Malines  with  an  upper  division  for  theology  with 
250  students  and  a  lower  division  for  philosophy 
with  151  students.  Also  a  seminary  for  vocations 
that  come  late  in  life  with  27  students.  There  is 
a  preparatory  seminary  at  Hoogstraeten  and  2 
others,  these  schools  teaching  almost  exactly  the 
same  courses  .in  classical  study  as  the  colleges.  The 
Seminary  of  Leo  XIII  attached  to  Institute  of 
Philosophy  at  Louvain  is  interdiocesan,  and  there  is 
also  an  American  seminary  at  Louvain  under  direc¬ 
tion  of  American  bishops  with  all  foreign  students. 

Higher  Education,— The  University  of  Louvain, 
founded  in  1834  by  the  Belgian  episcopate  with 
140  professors  (secular  priests,  1  regular  and  lay¬ 
men),  3248  students,  of  whom  141  are  foreigners 
(1921);  the  faculty  of  philosophy  and  letters  at 
the  Institut  St.  Louis  at  Brussels  has  5  professors 
and  103  students  (December,  1921),  while  the 
scientific  section  of  the  same  school  has  9  profes¬ 
sors  and  68  students;  the  Institut  Supevieur  de 
Commerce  under  the  Jesuit  fathers  with  23  in¬ 
structors  and  177  students.  These  schools  confer 
degrees  in  the  same  title  as  similar  State  institu¬ 
tions,  the  university  being  fully  independent,  the 
other  schools  having  a  board  of  examiners  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  Government.  A  school  ( ecolc 


superieure)  for  young  ladies  at  Brussels  has  17 
professors  and  89  pupils;  a  similar  school  at  Ant¬ 
werp  in  the  Flemish  language  has  23  professors 
and  160  pupils.  The  diplomas  have  no  legal  value, 
but  as  a  guarantee  of  their  scientific  value  they  are 
countersigned  by  the  rector  of  the  University  ot 
Louvain. 

Secondary  Education. — Twenty-five  colleges  or 
institutes  with  intermediate  instruction  of  higher 
degree  and  under  direct  authority  of  the  arch¬ 
bishop,  have  about  430  instructors  and  10,000  stu¬ 
dents,  7  establishments  of  the  same  degree  m  charge 
of  religious,  (5  Jesuit,  1  Josephite,  1  Crosier  Father) 
with  about  4000  students,  1  establishment  of  Greco- 
Latin  studies  in  charge  of  Ursuline  nuns  at  Wavre- 
Notre-Dame  and  a  very  great  number  of 
institutions  in  charge  of  religious  with  about  19,000 
students.  Many  schools  with  intermediate  instruc¬ 
tion  of  a  lower  degree  are  run  by  the  Brothers 
(of  Mercy,  Christian  Schools,  St.  Gabriel,  etc.). 
The  diplomas  given  by  schools  of  higher  degree 
have  the  same  value  as  those  of  Government 
schools.  The  Government  intermediate  schools  ot 
higher  and  lower  degree  have  religion  as  part  of 
the  program  and  the  course  is  given  by  a  secular 
priest  appointed  by  the  bishop.  The  same  arrange¬ 
ment  exists  in  the  official  normal  schools  and  two 
communal  colleges.  Thirty-eight  priests  are  as¬ 
signed  to  this  instruction.  The  regimental  and 
cadet  schools  as  well  as  Vecole  mihtaire,  have  chap¬ 
lains  and  their  course  in  religion.  The  church 
schools  of  this  degree  do  not  receive  any  govern¬ 
ment  subsidy  except  two  colleges  at  Gheel  ana 
Herenthals  and  four  institutes  at  Antwerp  which  are 
supported  by  the  commune. 

Normal  Schools— There  are  two  schools  .of 
regents  for  the  training  of  professors  of  intermediate 
schools  of  lower  degree  under  the  authority  of  the 
archbishop,  also  7  schools  of  regents  m  charge  of 
the  nuns.  Then  there  are  3  primary  normal  schools 
for  instructors  in  primary  schools  and  2  others  of 
same  sort  for  girls  under  direct  charge  of  the 
archbishop,  with  .11  normal  schools  for  girls  under 
the  nuns,  1  school  for  regents  and  2  primary  normal 
schools  under  the  Brothers.  These  normal  schools 
receive  large  subsidies  and  also  burses  in  favor 
of  pupils.  The  diplomas  from  these  schools  have 
the  same  value  as  those  of  the  governmental  nor¬ 
mal  schools.  . 

Primary  Schools— There  exists  nearly  every¬ 
where  in  the  diocese  a  primary  school  of  the  Sis¬ 
ters.  Often  in  the  Flemish  section  of  the  diocese 
the  Sisters  have  charge  of  the  communal  schools 
and  usually  these  Sisters’  schools  are  the  only  ones 
for  girls  in  the  commune.  The  school  for  boys 
is  directed  by  instructors  in  whom  the  icligious 
authority  has  confidence.  In  the  cities,  except 
Antwerp,  Brussels  and  their  suburbs,  religious  in¬ 
struction  is  given  in  all  the  schools  as  a  blanch 
of  the  program  from  which  parents  can  exempt 
their  children.  In  localities  where  the  religious 
interest  of  population  demands  it  the  clergy  have 
erected  free  schools  directed  by  the  Sisters,  Broth¬ 
ers  or  lay  persons.  The  total  of  these  schools  is 
650  with  ‘about  150,000  pupils.  There  are  204  pro¬ 
fessional  and  industrial  free  schools,  102  for  boys 
with  14,000  pupils  and  102  for  girls  with  6700  pupils. 
The  Government  pays  the  entire  salary  of  the 
lay  instructors  who  have  diplomas,  assigned  to 
free  primary  schools  which  accept  the  program  and 
instruction  of  the  State,  which  is  practically  in 
every  case,  and  also  that  of  the  religious  on  a 
reduced  basis.  Besides  the  government  pays  eight- 
tenths  of  the  salary  of  the  teachers  personnel  and 
the  same  percentage  of  several  other  parts  of  the 


MALTA 


MANCHURIA 


483 


budget  ol  the  industrial  and  professional  schools. 
I  he  city  of  Antwerp  pays  a  subsidy  of  2,000,000 
francs  to  the  Catholic  schools. 

At  1  urnhout  there  is  an  apostolic  school  under 
the  Jesuits  for  young  boys  who  propose  to  enter 
the  congregations  whose  members  are  destined  for 
mission  w ork ;  and  2  apostolic  schools  under  the 
hat  hers  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 

Hospitals. — Since  the  confiscation  of  hospitals, 
hospices,  and  charitable  establishments  during  the 
hrench  occupation  (1794-1815),  these  institutions 
have  been  under  civil  control,  but  the  religious 
continued  their  care  ol  the  sick,  for  which  they 
receive  a  slight  remuneration.  Lately  some  lay 
nuises  hav  e  been  introduced.  The  Sisters  serve  in 
the  military  hospitals,  and  nearly  all  others  in 
the  country,  besides  owning  numerous  hospitals 
sanatoriums,  and  clinics  themselves. 

Associations.— In  all  the  urban  communes  there 
exists  a  Catholic  political  organization,  working 
men  s  and  youth  s  circles,  military  training  classes, 
^'niniiaa^ics’  e^c*  fbe  rural  communities  nearly 
all  the  interests  are  affiliated.  In  the  Flemish  region 
^eis  a  powerful  agricultural  organization  which 
has  90,000  members  in  the  Flemish  provinces. 
Newspapbrs.— The  principal  Catholic  dailies  are 
La  Libre  Belgique,”  “Le  XXe  siecle,”  “De 
Handaard,  Brussels;  “La  Metropole,”  “De  Mor- 
?^n(fport,  “Het  Handelsblod,”  Antwerp;  in  Flem¬ 
ish,  “De  Gazet  van  Antwerpen,”  Antwerp  and  “Het 
Aiieuws  van  der  lag,”  Brussels;  less  important 
dadies  are  Le  Democrat,”  Brussels  and  “De  Gazet 
van  Mechelen,”  Malines. 


hospital  was  established  at  Malta,  the  largest  num- 
bei  of  patients  received  at  one  time  being  25,000. 

Managua,  Archdiocese  of  (Managuensis;  cf. 
n  1  46d) ,  in  the  Republic  of  Nicaragua, 

Central  America.  Erected  26  February,  1531 ,  under 
the  name  of  Nicaragua,  it  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a 
metropolitan  see  by  Pius  X,  2  December,  1913,  with 
two  suffragan  dioceses  under  its  jurisdiction.  It, 
comprises  the  provinces  of  Managua,  Masaya, 
Garazo,  Matagalpa,  and  Ginotega,  with  an  area  of 
about  6563  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
and  west  by  the  Diocese  of  Leon,  on  the  east  by  the 
Diocese  of  Granada  and  the  Vicariate  of  Bluefields 
and  on  the  south  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  popu- 
lation  is  estimated  at  250,000.  The  first  archbishop 
is  Most  Rev.  Jose  Antonio  Lezcano  y  Ortega,  b.  10 
Apnl,  1865,  at  Granada,  ordained  15  April  1888 
elected  archbishop  10  December,  1913,  enthroned  3 
•  r  147  Pro(4aimed  28  May  following,  elected 
iP1*4  1916  president  of  the  Supreme  Congress 
of  the  Republic.  The  auxiliary  for  Matagalpa  is 
Rt.  Rev.  Canllo  y  Salazar,  titular  Bishop  of  Torone. 

1  here  are  in  the  archdiocese  :  30  parishes,  45  churches, 

1  mission,  27  secular  and  3  regular  clergy,  18  Brothers, 
24  Sisters,  1  seminary  with  19  seminarians,  4  hospitals. 


Diocese  of  (Melitensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX- 
j(6b),  comprising  the  Island  of  Malta,  is  imme¬ 
diately  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  The  bishop,  also 
titular  Archbishop  of  Rhodes,  is  Rt.  Rev.  Maurus 
Garuana,  O  S.B.,  b.  16  November,  1867,  in  Malta, 
studied  at  the  College  of  St,  Ignatius  and  at  Fort- 
Augustus,  professed  11  November,  1885,  ordained 
*  ,  arch,  1891,  missionary  in  Scotland,  appointed 
at  the  Consistory  of  22  January,  1915,  consecrated 
at  Rome  10  February,  by  the  Cardinal  Merry  del 
’  ^throned  25  February  following,  succeeding 
Mgr.  Pietro  Pace  (b.  9  April,  1831,  d.  26  July,  1914). 
1  he  diocesan  statistics  for  1921  are;  46  parishes 
510  secular  and  248  regular  priests,  2  abbeys  for 
women  (Benedictine),  26  convents  for  men  and 
4/  for  women,  105  lay  brothers,  611  Sisters,  1  semi¬ 
nary  with  44  seminarians,  1  university  with  84  stu¬ 
dents  2  colleges  for  men  with  220  students,  4  high 
schools  with  510  boys  and  640  girls,  1  training 
school  with  120  pupils,  102  elementary  schools  with 

77fkteiarSrerS  a?d  16,407  PuPils,  1  industrial  school 
with  100  pupils.  A  diocesan  missionary  institute 
was  founded  in  1920  for  missionary  work  among 
Maltese  emigrants;  there  are  3  homes,  1  asylum  3 
hospitals,  1  refuge  (Good  Shepherd),  1  settle- 
house,  3  day  nurseries.  All  public  institutions  have 
chaplains  paid  by  Government,  and  all  the  schools 
except  the  high  schools  are  supported  by  the  Gov¬ 
ernment.  Four  societies  are  organized  among  the 
clergy  I  he  Catholic  press  is  represented  by 
monthly  magazines  or  bulletins  issued  bv  almost 
ah  the  religious  orders  in  connection  with  their 
specml  works  The  diocese  comprises  200,000 
Maltese  Catholics. 

+  kIni921  5?aI*a  was  granted  self-government,  and 
the  New  Parliament  was  opened  by  the  Prince 
of  Wales,  1  November,  1921;  two  out  of  seventeen 
members  of  the  senate  are  nominated  by  the  arch¬ 
bishop.  During  the  World  War  twelve  priests 
acted  as  military  chaplains  on  the  various  fronts. 
Trom  the  time  of  the  Gallipoli  Expedition  a  base 


Manchester,  Diocese  of  (Manchesteriensis; 
ct.  C.  E.,  IX — 584d),  comprising  the  State  of  New 
Hampshire,  an  area  of  9305  sq.  m.,  suffragan  of 

?,°iSt°i17,  Th-is-  see  is.  fiIled  hy  Rt-  Rev-  George 
Albert  Guertin,  born  in  Nashua,  New  Hampshire, 

1869,  studied  at  Brighton,  Sherbrooke  and  St.  Hya- 
cmthe,  ordained  in  Manchester  in  1892,  served  as 
.  pastor  of  St.  Anthony’s  Church  and  appointed  bishop 
at  the  age  of  thirty-eight,  16  December,  1906,  to 
succeed  Rt.  Rev.  John  B.  Delaney,  died  11  June 
of  the  same  year.  The  religious  orders  established  in 
the  diocese  include,  men:  Benedictines,  Christian 
Brothers,  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Marist 
Brothers  of  the  Schools,  and  Xaverian  Brothers; 
women:  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Sisters  of  Jesus  Mary, 
Presentation  Sisters,  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Providence, 
Gray  Nuns,  Sisters  Adorers  of  the  Precious  Blood  and 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  and  of  the  Seven  Dolors. 
By  latest  statistics  1922,  the  Catholic  population  of 
the  diocese  numbers  141,489;  it  comprises  81  churches 
with  resident  priests,  31  missions  with  churches,  144 
secular  and  14  regular  clergy,  28  chapels,  39  mission 
stations,  36  seminarians,  1  college  with  250  students, 

1  high  school  with  160  boys,  2  academies  with  225 
pupils,  41  parochial  schools  with  19,900  pupils,  7 
orphan  asylums  caring  for  1009  orphans,  4  hospitals, 

2  homes  for  the  aged,  2  homes  for  working  girls,  and  1 
.nfant  asylum. 


Manchuria,  Northern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Manciurensis  Septentrionalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX- 
585d),  one  of  the  two  ecclesiastical  divisions  of  the 
civil  province  of  the  same  name,  in  China.  It 
comprises  territory  separated  from  the  vicariate 
apostolic  of  Southern  Manchuria,  10  May,  1898, 
is  entrusted  to  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions* 
or  Pans  the  present  Vicar  Apostolic  being  Rt.  Rev! 
Pierre-Marie-Frangois  Lalouyer,  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Raphana  24  July,  1897,  and  named  first 
vicar  of  this  territory  16  May,  1898.  He  is  assisted 
by  a  coadjutor,  Rt.  Rev.  Auguste-Ernest  Gaspais, 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Canopus  16  December, 
1920,  and  named  coadjutor  20  December  following. 
Out  of  a  total  population  of  10,000,000  this  vicariate 
counts  23,311  Catholics  and  2556  catechumens.  The 
1920  statistics  credit  it  with  700  Protestants,  25 
missionaries,  11  native  secular  priests,  32  catechists, 
21  churches,  66  chapels,  1  upper  and  2  lower  semi¬ 
naries  with  50  students,  123  schools  teaching  nearly 


MANCHURIA 


484 


MANILA 


3000  children,  and  9  orphanages.  The  religious 
congregations  working  here  include  the  Franciscan 
Missionaries  of  Mary,  who  came  to  the  mission  in 
1911,  35  native  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Mary, 
and  about  135  Chinese  women  who  have  taken 
religious  vows  but  live  with  their  families  and  work 

in  the  mission. 

Manchuria,  Southern  (or  Liao-tong),  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  (Manciurensis  Meridionalis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  IX-585d),  one  of  the  two  ecclesiastical  divisions, 
of  the  civil  province  of  the  same  name  in  China. 
It  is  entrusted  to  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions 
of  Paris,  the  present  Vicar  Apostolic  being  Rt.  Rev. 
Marie-Felix  Choulet,  appointed  19  February,  1901, 
and  named  titular  Bishop  of  Zela,  two  days  later. 
According  to  1920  statistics,  out  of  a  total  popula¬ 
tion  of  10,000,000,  this  territory  counts  27,847  Catho¬ 
lics;  the  vicariate  is  credited  with  3814  catechumens, 
32  European  and  16  native  priests,  95  catechists,  144 
churches  or  chapels,  190  stations,  35  seminarians,  63 
schools,  11  orphanages,  15  Sisters  of  Portieux,  and 
30  Chinese  religious.  These  native  religious  belong 
to  the  Congregation  of  the  Most  Pure  Heart  of 
Mary,  wdiich  in  1919  had  two  convents,  one,  the 
mother-house,  at  Siao-Pa-Kia-Tse,  in  the  province 
of  Ghirin,  the  other  at  Houlan,  in  the  province  of 
He-Lung-Kiang.  In  1920  this  congregation  fur¬ 
nished  forty-one  teachers  to  the  vicariate. 

Manfredonia,  Archdiocese  of  (Sipontinensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  IX — 588b),  in  the  province  of  Foggia, 
Southern  Italy,  with  the  perpetual  administration  of 
the  diocese  of  Viesti  (Vestanensis) .  For  twenty-five 
years  this  see  has  been  filled  by  Most  Rev.  Pasquale 
Gagliardi,  born  in  Tricarico  7  December,  1859,  ap¬ 
pointed  19  April,  1897.  The  statistics  of  1920  credit 
Manfredonia  with  101,800  Catholics,  16  parishes,  140 
secular  and  14  regular  clergy,  7  Brothers,  15  Sisters 
and  154  churches  and  chapels.  Viesti,  comprising 
only  the  city  of  that  name,  counts  8005  Catholics,  2 
parishes,  36  priests  and  11  churches  and  chapels. 

Mangalore,  Diocese  of  (Mangalorensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  IX — 588d),  in  the  province  of  Madras  (India), 
suffragan  of  Bombay,  with  residence  at  Codialboil. 
It  has  a  total  Catholic  population  of  112,000.  The 
bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Paul-Charles  Perini,  S.  J.,  b.  12 
January,  1867,  ordained  in  1897,  consecrated  4 
December,  proclaimed  3  November,  1911,  succeeding 
Mgr.  Abbondio  Cavadini,  S.  J.,  b.  5  February,  1846, 
d.  26  March,  1910.  The  diocesan  statistics  for  1922 
are:  61  parishes,  61  churches,  8  chapels,  2  missions, 
8  mission  stations,  82  secular  and  43  regular  priests, 
1  convent  for  men  and  3  for  women,  14  lay  brothers, 
165  Sisters,  1  seminary  with  86  seminarians,  1  college 
for  men  and  1  for  women,  2  high  schools  for  boys  and 
3  for  girls,  2  normal  schools,  1  training  school  for 
catechists,  90  elementary  schools,  5  industrial  schools, 

1  home  for  the  aged  and  infirm,  4  asylums  (2  for  men, 

2  for  women),  3  hospitals,  1  settlement. house  for 
Korgars.  The  Government  Civil  Hospital  and  the 
Government  Civil  Jail  admit  the  ministry  of  priests, 
and  schools  such  as  are  on  the  Government  list  of 
recognized  schools  receive  Government  grants.  Two 
associations  are  organized  among  the  clergy  and  five 
among  the  laity.  There  are  published  in  the  diocese: 
“Trumpet  Can,’'  the  organ  of  the  Priests’  Apostolic 
Union;  “Ange,”  the  messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
in  Konkany;  Indian  Catholic  Truth  Society  publi¬ 
cations  in  Konkany;  “The  Catholic  Educational 
Review;”  and  the  Konkany  “Driven,”  a  bi-monthly 
publication.  The  total  Catholic  population  of  the 
diocese  is  112,000,  of  whom  107,000  are  Konkany 
Catholics  of  Aryan  origin,  3500  Malabar  and  Tamil 
Catholics  of  Dravidian  origin,  and  800  Eurasians, 


mostly  of  Indo-Portuguese  descent.  Clergymen  of 
note  deceased  since  1910  are:  Rev.  Augustus  Muller, 
S.  J.,  of  the  New  York  province  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  who  founded  the  charitable  institutions  now 
called  “Father  Muller’s  Charitable  Institutions;” 
labored  for  over  thirty  years,  and  died  1  November, 
1910,  aged  69,  his  services  being  recognized  by  the 
late  King  Emperor,  Edward  VII,  who  honored  him 
with  the  Kaiser-i-Hind  Medal;  Rev.  E.  Frachetti, 
S.  J.,  who  spent  twenty-nine  years  in  the  mission, 
filling  important  posts,  and  died  8  June,  1915.  “The 
Father  Frachetti  Memorial  Ward”  in  Father  Muller’s 
Hospital  was  erected  in  his  memory  by  the  Catholic 
Community  of  Mangalore.  During  the  World  War 
Mangalore  was  the  first  diocese  in  India  to  send  out 
an  Indian  chaplain  for  the  Indian  army  in  Mesopo¬ 
tamia.  The  Indian  army  is  not  entitled  to  have  a 
chaplain,  but  during  the  war  the  Indian  Government 
initiated  a  departure  from  its  usual  policy ,  and  it  was 
Mangalore  that  volunteered  the  first  chaplain. 

Manifestation  of  Conscience  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-597). 
It  is  strictly  forbidden  for  any  religious  superior 
whosoever  to  induce  in  any  way  his  subjects  to 
manifest  their  consciences  to  him;  but  subjects  may 
open  their  souls  to  their  superiors,  if  they  so  desire ; 
it  is  even  laudable  for  them  to  show  this  filial  trust 
in  their  superiors,  and  if  the  latter  are  priests  to 
discuss  their  doubts  and  troubles  of  conscience  with 
them.  There  is  no  longer  any  obligation  to  de¬ 
nounce  a  superior  who  violates  this  law,  as  was 
prescribed  in  the  decree  “Quemadmodum”  of  Leo 
XIII. 

Manila,  Archdiocese  of  (de  Manila;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX-597c),  comprises  the  city  of  Manila,  the  prov¬ 
inces  of  Bataan,  Bulacan,  Cavite,  Nueva  Ecija, 
Pampanga,  Rizal,  Tarlac,  Pangasinan,  and  Zam- 
bales.  The  area  of  the  territory  is  9276  square 
miles.  The  population,  nearly  all  Catholics,  is  esti¬ 
mated  at  2,026,269.  By  the  appointment  (March, 
1910)  of  the  Rt.  Rev.  Jose  Petrelli  as  first  Bishop 
of  Lipa,  Batangas,  the  provinces  of  Batangas,  Taya- 
bas,  and  Laguna  were  separated  from  the  arch¬ 
diocese,  of  which  they  had  until  then  been  a  part. 
The  archdiocese  includes  some  200  towns  with  a 
population  of  two  or  three  thousand  each.  On 
16  May,  1916,  Archbishop  Harty  was  translated  to 
Omaha,  and  Rt.  Rev.  M.  J.  O’Doherty,  Bishop  of 
Zamboanga,  elevated  to  the  see  of  Manila.  Bishop 
Petrelli,  who  had  succeeded  Mgr.  Agius  as  Apos¬ 
tolic  Delegate,  established  a  permanent  residence 
of  the  Papal  Delegation  in  the  district  of  Malate, 
Manila,  but  was  later  appointed  Nuncio  at  Lima, 
and  left  the  islands  in  July,  1921. 

The  second  organic  Act  of  Congress  for  the  gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  called  the  “Jones 
Law”  (1916),  prohibited  the  use  of  public  money 
for  the  support  of  any  sectarian  institution.  As 
the  result  of  this  clause  of  the  law  it  became  neces¬ 
sary  to  close  the  Catholic  Boys’  Reformatory  at 
Lolomboy,  theretofore  aided  by  the  city  of  Manila; 
the  Hospital  de  San  Jose  de  Cavite,  where  a  large 
number  of  insane  persons  (partially  maintained  by 
Government  grants),  had  been  cared  for  by  Sisters 
of  Charity;  and  the  Hospicio  de  San  Jose,  also 
suffering  from  the  withdrawal  of  government  aid 
for  its  orphans,  has  become  partially  converted  into 
a  scholastic  institution.  The  repeated  declarations 
of  the  Government  to  change  the  official  language 
from  Spanish  to  English  has  necessitated  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  English-speaking  communities  and  con¬ 
gregations.  Prior  to  the  American  regime  the 
Assumption  Mothers  were  the  only  English-speak¬ 
ing  community  in  the  islands. 

In  response  to  appeals  the  Christian  Brothers 


MANIZALES 


485 


MARDIN 


came,  in  1910,  and  established  a  school;  Benedic¬ 
tine  Mothers,  a  girls’  academy;  Sisters  of  the  Divine 
Word,  Holy  Ghost  College;  the  Belgian  Canon- 
nesses  Mission,  the  Tondo  Orphanage,  St.  Teresa’s 
Hall,  and  the  Immaculate  Conception  Sisters, 
Chinese  Hospital.  In  1921  Sisters  of  the  Good 
Shepherd  established  their  first  house  in  the  Philip¬ 
pines  in  the  District  of  Sta  Ana,  Manila,  and  the 
same  year  the  historic  academy  of  the  Jesuits,  the 
alma  mater  of  the  most  famous  Filipinos,  recogniz¬ 
ing  the  needs  of  the  hour,  in  the  course  of  1921 
declared  English  the  official  language  of  the  Ateneo 
de  Manila,  and  the  staff  is  now  mainly  composed 
of  American  Fathers. 

The  unprecedented  experiment  of  the  United 
States  in  undertaking  to  educate  in  the  English 
language  on  secular  lines  an  illiterate  Catholic 
population  of  at  least  one  million  children  has 
been  responded  to  by  the  Filipinos  with  enthusiasm. 
The  Government  schools,  primary,  intermediate, 
high,  and  university,  are  crowded  with  pupils,  for 
whom,  however,  no  religious  education  is  provided. 
Keenly  alive  to  the  urgent  necessity  of  making 
provisions  for  the  teaching  of  the  faith  to  the 
young  people,  the  archbishop  erected  the  Catholic 
dormitory,  St;  Rita’s  Hall,  at  a  cost  of  $300,000 
in  1917  for  350  Catholic  students,  and  in  1918  he 
purchased  a  suitable  building,  St.  Mary’s  Hall,  as 
a  Catholic  dormitory  for  130  young  women  stu¬ 
dents.  Since  1917  in  parishes  in  this  diocese  Cath¬ 
olic  elementary  schools  recognized  by  the  Govern¬ 
ment  are  educating  a  majority  of  the  municipal 
students  of  school  age  according  to  Government 
standards.  The  Christian  Brothers  in  1910  estab¬ 
lished  an  elementary  and  secondary  school  for 
boys;  this  has  increased  and  now  magnificent  build¬ 
ings  are  being  erected  which  will  make  La  Salle 
College  one  of  the  foremost  academic  establish¬ 
ments  in  the  Orient.  Another  costly  building 
which  was  erected  in  1913  is  St.  Escolastica  College, 
where  upwards  of  400  girl  students  are  in  daily 
attendance.  Besides  the  royal  university  of  St. 
Tomas  there  are  now  twenty  Catholic  scholastic 
institutions  offering  academic  courses  to  young  men 
and  women,  several  of  which  are  recognized  by 
the  Government  as  qualified  to  grant  the  bac¬ 
calaureate  and  other  degrees.  There  is  also  estab¬ 
lished  in  almost  every  parish  an  elementary  school 
of  Christian  doctrine.  The  attendance  in  these 
schools  fluctuates,  but  may  be  estimated  at  not 
less  than  8000.  Regarding  Catholic  schools  recog¬ 
nized  by  the  Government,  the  figures  can  not  be 
ascertained  accurately;  the  total  number  in  at¬ 
tendance  in  November,  1921,  was  13,460. 

The  Knights  of  Columbus  have  grown  from  one 
council  to  three  and  are  expecting  the  establishment 
of  more.  The  year  1921  records  the  death  of  the 
Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  Cayetano 
Arellano,  a  Knight  of  Columbus,  an  eminent  jurist, 
and  a  humble  minded  Christian  gentleman.  A 
month  or  two  later  the  Hon.  Norberto  Romualdez, 
then  Grand  Knight  of  the  Manila  Council,  was 
appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States 
an  Associate  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court. 

Shortly  after  his  installation  Archbishop 
O’Doherty  established  a  Catholic  Federation  of 
Men,  and  another  of  Women,  both  of  which  are 
doing  good  work.  Lately  an  American  Women’s 
Catholic  Club  has  also  come  into  existence  to  take 
its  part  in  social,  economic,  and  charitable  activities 
in  Manila  and  the  nearer  provinces. 

The  old  established  Dominican  daily  paper, 
“Libertas,”  withdrew  from  publication  in  April' 
1917.  Shortly  after  “La  Defensa,”  a  successful  daily 


e\  ening  paper,  came  into  being  and  has  acquired 
a  wide  circulation,  under  the  direction  of  ‘The 
Association  of  the  Catholic  Press.” 

By  1921  statistics  there  are  in  the  archdiocese 
42  secular  priests,  150  priests  representing  9  re¬ 
ligious  orders,  187  parishes  (144  of  which  have  resi- 
dent  priests),  70  lay  brothers,  309  members  of  9 
ltligious  communities  of  women,  1  general  seminary 
and  3  preparatory,  1  university,  43  colleges,  acad¬ 
emies,  and  schools,  with  a  total  attendance  of  about 
13,500,  and  3  charitable  institutions  with  approxi- 
mately  200  inmates. 

r,  ^nizJles>  Diocese  of  (Manizalensis;  cf. 

^  ’’  Colombia,  Central  America, 

suffragan  of  Medellin.  This  see  was  erected  in  1900 
and  Rt.  Rev.  Gregory  Nazianza  Hoyos,  born  in 
Vahos  in  1849,  was  appointed  the  first  bishop,  11 
May,  1901.  He  died  26  October,  1921,  and  his  suc¬ 
cessor  has  not  yet  been  appointed.  A  decree  of  the 
Consistory  of  11  June,  1920,  separated  the  territory 
of  Balsa  from  this  diocese  and  united  it  to  the  diocese 
of  Cali.  The  cathedral  is  dedicated  to  Our  Lady 
No  statistics  are  published. 

Mantua,  Diocese  of  (Mantuanensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  IX— 611b),  in  Lombardy,  northern  Italy,  suffra¬ 
gan  of  Milan.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Paolo 
Carlo  Francesco  Ongo,  born  in  Milan  in  1840,  or¬ 
dained  in  1863,  appointed  18  March,  1895,  to  succeed 
Bishop  Sarto  who  was  promoted  to  Venice,  and  who 
later  became  Pope  Pius  X.  Bishop  Origo  was  named 
an  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  16  November, 
1903.  The  Catholic  population  of  this  diocese  num¬ 
bers  257,500;  the  1920  statistics  credit  it  with  153 
parishes,  307  secular  and  25  regular  clergy,  120 
seminarians,  10  Brothers,  270  Sisters  and  259  churches 
or  chapels. 

Maranon,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of.  See  San 
Gabriel  dell’  Addolorata  de  Maranon. 

Marash,  Diocese  of  (Marascensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX  636b),  a  see  of  the  Armenian  Rite,  in  Cilicia, 
Asiatic  Turkey.  The  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Nonce- 
Avedis  Arpiarian,  born  in  Eghin,  Armenia,  1856, 
appointed  Bishop  of  Karpouth  23  September,  1890, 
promoted  to  the  titular  metropolitan  see  of  Anazarbe 
5  April,  1898,  and  made  auxiliary  to  the  Patriarch  of 
Cilicia,  transferred  27  August,  1911,  succeeding 
Bishop  Monradian,  who  died  in  1906.  During  the 
Vorld  War  the  Abbes  Stephen  Paramian  and  Joseph 
Akrabian,  both  of  whom  had  studied  at  the  Seminarv 
of  St.  Francis  Xavier  at  Beirut,  were  martyred.  In 
all  70,000  Armenians  of  this  region  perished,  leaving 
now  about  30,000,  of  whom  1600  are  Catholics.  The 
diocese  is  served  by  11  missionary  priests,  7  regulars 
and  4  churches  or  chapels. 

Marbeau,  Emmanuel-Jules-Marie,  Bishop  of 
Meaux,  b.  at  Paris  on  12  November,  1844;  d.  on  31 
May,  1921.  He  was  ordained  at  Orleans  in  1874. 
When  the  city  of  Meaux  was  deserted  by  all  the  au¬ 
thorities  during  the  World  War,  Bishop  Marbeau 
remained  at  his  post  and  practically  administered  the 
affairs  of  the  municipality.  This  made  him  one  of 
the  heroes  of  the  Marne.  For  this  defensio  civitatis 
he  was  awarded  the  Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 
He  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Meaux  in  1910  and  died 
two  or  three  days  after  celebrating  his  golden  jubilee 
as  a  priest. 

Mardln,  a  mission  in  Mesopotamia,  Asia  Minor, 
erected  in  1627,  made  a  prefecture  apostolic  in  1842, 
and  again  returned  to  the  status  of  a  mission  12 
September,  1896.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Capuchins, 
with  official  residence  at  Diarbekir,  The  present 


MARDIN 


486 


MARQUETTE 


Superior  is  Rev.  Ange  de  Clamecy,  born  in  Clamecy, 
France,  1  July,  1863,  entered  the  Congregation  of 
Capuchins  in  1892  and  was  named  head  of  this  mission 
18  March,  1910.  According  to  1920  statistics  the 
mission  comprises  1445  Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite, 

9  stations  with  resident  priests,  11  churches  or  chap¬ 
els,  18  schools  with  2585  children,  1  college  with  48 
students,  and  2  orphanages  with  22  orphans.  The 
mission  is  served  by  10  Capuchin  Fathers  and  5 
Brothers,  6  secular  priests  and  22  Sisters,  Tertiaries 
of  Lons-le-Saunier. 

Mardin,  Archdiocese  of  (Mardensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  IX— 650d)  of  the  Syrian  Rite  and  a  diocese  of  the 
Armenian  and  Chaldean  Rites  in  Mesopotamia, 
Asiatic  Turkey.  This  is  a  patriarchal  see  of  the 
Syrian  Rite,  the  Patriarch  of  Antioch,  His  Excel¬ 
lency  Ignatius  Dionysius  Rahmani,  resides  here. 
A  patriarchal  vicar  also  resides  here,  at  present,  Most 
Rev.  Behnan  Kalian,  titular  Archbishop  of  Sarugh. 
The  diocese  comprises  4200  Syrian  Catholics,  3900 
Schismatics,  350  Protestants,  10,000  Mussulmans 
and  1000  Jews.  The  1920  statistics  credit  it  with 
14  secular  and  13  regular  clergy,  and  8  churches  or 
chapels. 

The  see  for  the  Armenian  Rite  is  vacant,  the  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Hussig  Ghulian,  having  died,  18  February, 
1922.  The  diocese  comprises  6500  Armenian  Catho¬ 
lics  and  20,000  Schismatics;  14  missionary  priests,  2 
regulars  and  14  churches  or  chapels.  The  diocese  is 
administered  for  the  Chaldeans  by  Rt.  Rev.  Israel 
Audo,  born  in  Alkosch,  Mesopotamia,  1859,  studied 
at  the  Seminary  of  Mossul  and  was  ordained  in  1886, 
served  as  patriarchal  vicar  at  Bassorah  in  1892  and 
appointed  bishop  11  May,  1909.  Statistics  of  1920 
credit  the  diocese  with  1670  Chaldean  Catholics,  6 
regular  clergy,  3  churches  or  chapels,  2  stations  and 
3  schools. 

Margaret  Mary  Alacoque,  Saint  (cf.  C.  E., 
IX-653b),  canonized  by  Benedict  XV,  on  13  May, 
1920. 

Margaret  of  Lorraine.  Blessed  (cf.  C.  E., 
IX-655b). — Her  cultus  was  approved  at  Rome,  20 
March,  1921. 

Mariana,  Archdiocese  of  (Marianensis;  cf  C. 
E.,  IX — 660b),  in  the  state  of  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil. 
This  see  is  filled  by  Most  Rev.  Silvere  Gomes  Pimenta, 
born  in  Congo nhas  do  Campo,  in  this  diocese,  in 
1840,  ordained  in  1862,  made  a  professor  in  the 
seminary,  vicar  capitular,  vicar  general  ,and  pro- 
thonotary  apostolic  in  1878,  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Camachus  20  June,  1890,  and  transferred  to 
Marianna  3  December,  1897.  When  the  diocese  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  an  archdiocese  in  1906,  he 
was  made  its  first  archbishop  1  May  of  that  year. 
On  19  June,  1912,  he  was  made  an  assistant  at  the 
pontifical  throne,  and  on  28  May,  1920,  he  was  made 
a  member  of  the  literary  academy.  He  is  assisted 
by  an  auxiliary,  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio- Augusto  de  Assis, 
titular  Bishop  of  Diocletianopolis,  appointed  2 
August,  1918.  By  a  decree  of  22  February,  1921,  the 
limits  of  the  archdiocese,  as  well  as  those  of  the 
diocese  of  Aterrado  were  slightly  changed.  The 
diocese  of  Aterrado  had  been  erected  in  1918  by  a 
division  of  the  archdiocese.  Statistics  of  the  arch¬ 
diocese  have  not  been  published  since  this  division 
was  made. 

Mariana  and  Caroline  Islands,  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  (Marianensis  et  Carolinensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  IX — 660d),  formerly  a  prefecture  Apostolic 
and  raised  to  a  vicaiiate  1  March,  1911.  On  18  June, 
1907,  this  territory  was  entrusted  to  the  Capuchins 
of  Westphalia,  the  present  vicar  apostolic  being  Rt. 


Rev.  Salvator  Peter  Walleser,  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Tanagra,  21  August,  1912.  He  is  the 
author  of  a  Palan  dictionary  and  grammar.  Having 
submitted  to  Japanese  domination,  these  islands  are 
dependent  on  the  apostolic  delegate  for  Japan,  since 
3  March,  1921.  The  official  residence  is  atPonapa. 
In  1911  the  Caroline  Islands  had  a  total  population 
of  20,000,  of  whom  1700  aie  Catholic;  12  missionaries, 
12  Brothers,  11  religious,  11  stations,  11  churches 
or  chapels  and  14  schools  with  600  pupils.  The 
Mariana  Islands  count  a  Catholic  population  of 
2800,  and  1000  non-Catholics;  3  Capuchin  priests,  2 
Brothers,  3  stations,  3  churches.  The  mission  does 
not  conduct  any  schools  here  as  the  Government 
holds  complete  control  over  education. 

Mariannhill,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Mari- 
annhillensis),  in  South  Africa.  On  27  July,  1921,  a 
portion  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Natal  was  taken 
and  entrusted  to  the  missionaries  of  Mariannhill,  and 
on  10  September,  following,  it  was  erected  into  a 
separate  vicariate  under  the  name  of  Mariannhill. 
It  extends  from  East  to  West  between  the  Rivers 
Umkomaas  and  Umlaas,  and  is  bounded  on  the  North 
by  the  Division  of  Impendhle,  on  the  West  by  the 
I)rackensburg  and  on  the  South  by  the  Great  Key 
River.  Rev.  Father  Fleischer  has  just  been  appointed 
vicar  apostolic  and  titular  Bishop  of  Tiberiopolis. 
Statistics  are  not  yet  published. 

Marquesas  Islands,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Insularum  Marchesi;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX — 688c),  in 
Polynesia,  with  residence  at  Atouona,  on  the  Island 
of  Hiva.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Congregatmn  of 
Picpus,  the  present  vicar  being  Rt.  Rev.  David  Le 
Cadre,  made  provincial  of  these  islands  29  June, 
1912,  administrator  apostolic  11  November  following, 
named  vicar  apostolic  30  December,  1920,  and  ap¬ 
pointed  titular  Bishop  of  Demetrias  5  January,  1921. 
The  population  comprises  2750  Catholics,  450  Pro¬ 
testants  and  100  pagans.  By  1920  statistics  the 
vicariate  is  served  by  8  missionary  priests,  2  Brothers, 
9  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny,  9  cathechists,  and 
37  churches  or  chapels.  The  schools  were  closed  in 
1904  by  order  of  the  French  Government,  which  has 
had  control  of  these  islands  since  1841. 

Marquette  (Sault  Ste  Marie  and  Marquette), 
Diocese  of  (Marianapolitana  et  Marquettensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  IX-689a) ,  is  under  the  administration  of 
the  fourth  bishop,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Frederick  Eis,  D.  D., 
who  was  consecrated  24  August,  1899.  The  present 
(1921)  statistics  for  this  diocese  show  a  Catholic 
population  of  approximately  85,896 ;  90  secular 
priests  and  8  regulars,  76  churches  with  resident 
priests,  61  missions  with  churches,  54  mission  sta¬ 
tions,  29  chapels,  12  ecclesiastical  students,  3  acad¬ 
emies,  27  parochial  schools,  8413  pupils  in  schools, 
1  orphan  asylum  with  100  orphans,  1  school  for 
Indians,  and  4  hospitals.  The  diocese  comprises 
the  northern  peninsula  of  the  State  of  Michigaan 
and  is  suffragan  of  Milwaukee. 

Marquette  University,  situated  in  Milwaukee, 
Wisconsin,  was  founded  by  the  Jesuits  in  1857  as 
St.  Aloysius  Academy  and  incorporated  in  1864 
as  Marquette  College  until  1907,  when  a  new  char¬ 
ter  was  obtained  and  the  institution  became  a 
university.  This  same  year  the  Milwaukee  Medical 
College  was  affiliated  with  the  University,  and  in 
1908  the  Milwaukee  Law  School,  the  College  of 
Applied  Science  and  Engineering  being  begun  at 
the  same  time.  In  1910  the  College  of  Economics, 
School  of  Business  Administration  and  School  of 
Journalism  were  opened.  The  affiliation  between 
Marquette  University  and  the  Milwaukee  Medical 
School  was  discontinued  in  1912  when  the  Univef- 


MARRIAGE 


MARRIAGE 


487 


si  tv  acquired  complete  control  of  the  schools  of 
Medicine  and  Dentistry,  and  the  Training  School 
foi  Nurses  of  Trinity  Hospital.  The  following  year 
property  was  purchased  from  the  Wisconsin  Col- 
lege  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  and  the  two  Medi¬ 
cal  Colleges  of  Milwaukee  were  merged  into  the 
new  medical  department  of  the  university.  A 
complete  reoiganization  of  the  College  faculties 
took  place  after  this  and  in  February,  1915,  Mar- 
quette  School  of  Medicine  was  accorded  a  “Class 

t  inaioDgi  b£,  the  American  Medical  Association. 
In  1918  the  Carnegie  Foundation  offered  the  Uni¬ 
versity  two-thirds  of  a  million  dollars  for  the  Medi¬ 
cal  School  on  condition  that  the  University  raise 
one-third,  and  this  having  been  done,  the  Medical 

School  now  has  an  endowment  fund  of  one  million 
dollars. 

The  present  organization  of  the  University  com¬ 
prises  the  College  of  Arts  and  Sciences  with  a  total 
registration  of  325;  College  of  Applied  Science  and 
Engineering,  registration  500;  College  of  Dentistry 

rnn8^!'011!  College  of  Economics,  registration 
oOO;  school  of  Journalism,  registration  70;  College 
°‘  ,  .250  ;  School  of  Medicine,  155;  Conservatory 

of  Music,  1100;  Training  School  for  Nurses,  62- 
and  University  High  School,  450.  Rev.  Herbert 
L-.  JNoonan,  S.  J.,  is  president  of  the  university,  with 
a  faculty  of  264. 


Marriage  (cf.  C.  E„  IX-699).-In  1921  the  Holy 
bee  instructed  ordinaries  to  insist,  even  by  the  in¬ 
fliction  of  penalties,  that  their  priests  should  ob- 
ser\  e  most  carefully  the  canons  prescribing  the 
investigation  of  the  status  of  parties  wishing  to  get 
mairied  and  the  notification  of  the  parish  priest 
of  their  place  of  baptism  after  the  marriage  cere¬ 
mony.  The  Code  prescribes  that  before  a  marriage 
takes  place  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  if  the  parties 
{ire  free  to  marry  validly  and  licitly.  If  there  was 
danger  of  death  the  oaths  of  the  contracting  par¬ 
ties  affirming  their  baptism  and  freedom  to  contract 
would  in  case  of  necessity  suffice.  Ordinarily  the 
proceduie  is  to  publish  the  banns  of  marriage-  in 
addition  the  parish  entitled  to  assist  at  the  cere¬ 
mony  must  examine  the  parties  separately  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  regulations  to  be  drawn  up  by  the  local 
ordinary,  and  ascertain  from  them  if  there  is  any 
impediment  and  if  they,  especially  the  woman,  are 
contracting  freely.  If  they  have  not  been  baptized 
m  his  territory  the  parish  priest  who  is  to  assist  at 
the ;  mamage  must  obtain  baptismal  certificates  from 
both  parties,  or  from  the  Catholic  party  if  a  dis¬ 
pensation  has  been  granted  from  the  impediment 
of  disparity  of  worship.  Moreover,  those  who  have 
not  been  confirmed  are  to  receive  that  sacrament 
before  marriage,  if  that  can  be  arranged  without 
grave  inconvenience.  The  parish  priest  must  exhort 
minors  not  to  marry  without  the  knowledge  or 
reasonable  consent  of  their  parents;  should  the 
minors  disregard  this  advice  he  must  not  assist 
at  their  marriage  without  first  consulting  the  local 
ordinary;  finally,  he  must  instruct  the  parties 
according  to  circumstances,  on  the  sanctity  of  the 
sacrament,  the  duties  they  are  about  to  assume,  and 
earnestly  exhort  them  to  go  to  confession  and  re- 
ceive  Holy  Communion  before  their  marriage. 

Matrimonial  Consent. — A  simple  error  concerning 
the  unity,  indissolubility,  or  sacramental  dignity 
o  marriage,  even  if  it  gave  rise  to  the  contract, 
does  not  vitiate  matrimonial  consent;  nor  does 
knowledge  or  belief  that  the  marriage  is  void  nec¬ 
essarily  exclude  it  A  valid  marriage  cannot  be 
contracted  unless  the  parties  are  present  personally 
or  by  proxy;  consequently  marriage  cannot  now 
be  contracted  by  letter,  the  parties  must  express 


their  consent  verbally,  and  may  not  employ  equiv- 

r  «P  ,,g  h/  theyar?  ?bl?  9>cak.  If  the  mar- 
m  JL  ]  ,-v  I" fl|e  diocesan  regulations 

must  be  observed;  (b)  for  validity,  the  proxy  must 
ave  a  special  commission  to  contract  with  a  speci- 
hed  person;  the  commission  must  be  signed  bv  the 
principal  and  either  the  parish  priest  or  the  ordi¬ 
nary  of  the  place  where  the  commission  is  given 
or  by  a  priest  delegated  by  either,  or  by  at  least’ 
two  witnesses;  (c)  if  the  principal  does  not  know 
how  to  write,  the  fact  is  to  be  noted  in  the  com¬ 
mission  and  another  witness  added  who  must  also 
sign  the  document;  if  these  provisions  are  not  ob¬ 
served  the  commission  is  invalid;  (d)  if  prior  to  the 
contracting  of  the  marriage,  the  principal  should 
withdraw  the  commission  or  become  insane,  even 
without  the  knowledge  of  the  proxy  or  of  the  other 
principal,  the  marriage  would  be  invalid;  (e)  the 
proxy  must  discharge  his  commission  personallv 
otherwise  the  marriage  would  be  void.  Marriage 
can  be  contracted  also  with  the  aid  of  an  inter¬ 
preter,  but  the  parish  priest  must  not  assist  at  a 
marriage  by  proxy  or  by  the  help  of  an  interpre- 
tei  without  just  cause,  and  unless  the  authenticity 
of  the  commission  or  the  trustworthiness  of  the 
interpreter  is  undoubted;  if  time  permits  he  must, 
moreover,  get  permission  from  the  ordinary 
In  all  cases  of  marriage  a  record  should  be  made 
as  soon  as  possible  ( quamprimum ,  the  word  statim 
immediately  was  used  in  the  earlier  law)  by  the 
parish  priest  or  his  substitute,  even  when  another 
priest  was  delegated  to  assist.  The  marriage  is  to 
be  recorded  also  in  the  baptismal  registers;  conse¬ 
quently  if  either  or  both  of  the  principals  were  bap¬ 
tized  elsewhere  the  parish  priest  who  assisted  the 
marriage  must  personally  or  through  the  episcopal 
curia  and  without  delay  notify  the  pastor  of  the 
place  of  baptism.  This  notification  must  give  the 
age  and  names  of  the  parties,  the  names  of  their 
parents,  the  place  and  date  of  the  ceremony  the 
names  of  the  witnesses,  and  of  the  parish  priest; 
the  document  must  be  stamped  with  the  parochial 
seal  and  should  be  sent  through  the  diocesan  chan¬ 
cery.  The  Holy  See  has  recently  called  the  atten¬ 
tion  of  parish  priests  to  the  fact  that  many  of 
the  emigrant  workers  are  vagi  or  if  not  it  is  difficult 
to  be  sure  that  there  is  no  impediment  to  their 
marriage  and  that  in  such  cases  it  is  necessary  for 
the  priest  to  refer  the  matter  to  the  ordinary  before 
assisting  at  their  marriages.  If  marriage  took  place 
under  circumstances  in  which  no  priest  was  neces- 
sary  for  validity,  the  obligation  of  procuring  its 
record  in  both  books  devolves  primarily  on  the 
priest,  if  any,  who  assisted,  and  secondarily  on  the 
witnesses  and  the  contracting  parties. 

Marriages  of  conscience,  that  is  secret  marriages 
for  which  the  banns  have  not  been  published,  can 
be  authorized  by  the  local  ordinary,  but  not  by 
the  vicar  general  without  a  special  mandate,  for  a 
very  ui  gent  and  grave  reason  only.  The  assistant 
pi  lest,  the  wit  nesses,  the  ordinary  and  his  successors, 
and  either  spouse  unless  with  the  consent  of  the 
other  are  bound  to  secrecy.  The  marriage  is  to  be 
recorded  in  a  special  book  kept  in  the  secret  curial 
archives.  The  promise  of  secrecy  does  not  bind  the 
ordinary  if  its  observance  would  constitute  a  danger 
of  scandal  or  reflect  gravely  on  the  sanctity  of 
marriage,  or  if  the  parents  neglect  to  have  the  off¬ 
spring  of  such  a  marriage  baptized,  or  if  they  have 
them  baptized  under  fictitious  names  without  noti- 
l>ing  the  ordinary  of  the  birth  and  baptism  with 
the  real  names  of  the  parents  within  thirty  days, 

or  if  they  neglect  to  give  the  children  a  Christian 
education. 

Mariiage  may  be  contracted  at  any  time  of  the 


MARRIAGE 


MARTINELLI 


488 


year  but  the  solemn  nuptial  blessing  is  forbidden 
from  the  first  Sunday  of  Advent  till  Christmas  Day 
inclusive  and  from  Ash  Wednesday  to  Easter  Sun¬ 
day  inclusive;  the  local  ordinary,  however,  may  lor 
just  cause  permit  the  blessing  during  those  periods, 
while  observing  the  liturgical  laws  regarding  the 
Mass  to  be  said;  but  the  parties  are  to  be  admon¬ 
ished  to  abstain  from  too  great  a  display,  ine 
marriages  of  Catholics  are  to  be  celebrated  in  ^  e 
parish  church  and  not  in  another  church  or  public 
or  semi-public  oratory  without  the  permission  o 
the  local  ordinary  or  the  parish  priest,  fiscal  ordi¬ 
naries  can  allow  marriage  in  private  buildings  only 
in  extraordinary  cases  when  there  is  a  just,  and 
reasonable  cause;  they  are  allowed  in  churches  or 
oratories  of  seminaries  or  of  nuns  only  m  case  ol 
urgent  necessity,  when  due  precautions  have  been 
taken  Mixed  marriages  are  to  be  celebrated  out¬ 
side  the  church  without  sacred  rites;  an  ordinary 
may,  however,  dispense  from  this  to  avoid  gi eater 
evils  but  he  may  not  allow  Mass  to  be  celebrated. 

Codex  jur.  can.,  1019-33;  1094-1109;  Vlaming,  Praelect.  jur. 
matr.  (1920-21);  Ayrinhac,  Marriage  Legislation. 

Marriage,  Mixed  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-698). — Before 
granting  a  dispensation  for  a  mixed  mariiage,  which 
the  Church  forbids  most  severely  and  commands 
ordinaries  and  other  pastors  of  souls  to  deter  the 
faithful  from  contracting  as  far  as  they  can,  there 
must  be  grave  and  just  reasons,  and  guarantees, 
ordinarily  to  be  in  writing,  that  the  non-Cathohc 
party  will  remove  from  the  Catholic  party  the 
danger  of  perversion,  and  the  promise  of  both  par¬ 
ties  that  all  the  children  will  be  baptized  and 
brought  up  exclusively  in  the  Catholic  Faith.  There 
must  be,  moreover,  moral  certainty  that  the  prom¬ 
ises  will  be  fulfilled.  As  was  said  above  in  treating 
of  disparity  of  worship  (q.v.),  the  parties  must 
be  married  only  by  a  Catholic  ceremony. 


Marseilles,  Diocese  of  (Massiliensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  IX— 715b),  in  the  province  of  Bouches-du-Rhone , 
France,  suffragan  of  Aix.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Joseph- Antoine  Fabre,  born  in  La  Ciotat, 
France,  1844,  ordained  in  1867,  served  as  a  curate 
and  rector,  made  pastor-dean  of  Roquevaiie  25  May, 
1881,  named  an  honorary  canon  in  1898  and  a  titular 
canon  in  1904,  vicar  general  in  1906,  prothonotary 
apostolic  29  January,  1908,  vicar  capitular  in  1909, 
and  appointed  bishop  the  same  year,  29  April,  suc¬ 
ceeding  Cardinal  Andrieu,  promoted  to  Bordeaux,  2 
January  preceding.  He  is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary, 
Rt.  Rev.  Daniel  Champavier,  titular  Bishop  of  Sora. 
In  1921  Bishop  Fabre  was  named  a  commander  of  the 
Order  of  Leopold  by  the  Belgian  King,  and  received 
the  cross  on  6  May,  from  the  Belgian  Consul.  The 
first  diocesan  synod  since  1907  was  held  in  1920  and 
presided  over  by  Bishop  Fabre,  assisted  by  Mgr. 
Durand.  A  new  upper  seminary  was  opened  at  St. 
Joseph  the  same  year,  in  the  former  school  of  the 
Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart;  it  comprises  a  large 
chapel,  the  old  chateau  of  the  Barony  of  St.  Joseph, 
a  new  building,  and  the  old  boarding  school,  which  is 
used  for  the  seminary  proper,  and  a  number  of  small 
buildings.  During  the  World  War  127  priests  and  67 
seminarians  were  mobilized  from  this  diocese,  and  of 
this  number  21  were  killed  or  disappeared,  6  were 
decorated  with  the  Medaille  Militaire,  44  with  the 
Croix  de  Querre  and  2  with  the  M edaille  des  Epidemi es . 

Latest  statistics,  collected  in  1911  give  the  total 
population  of  this  diocese  as  622,056,  of  whom 
492,663  are  Catholics.  It  comprises  8  first  class,  3 
second  class  and  82  succursal  parishes,  115  vicariates, 
1  church  for  the  Greek  Uniat  Rites,  1  church  for 
Italian  speaking,  and  1  for  German  speaking  Catho¬ 
lics,  1  upper  and  1  lower  seminary,  and  3  colleges  and 


ecclesiastical  institutions.  The  "Ordo”  of  1920  gives 
399  secular  and  regular  clergy;  37  priests  deceased  in 
1918  and  15  in  1919. 

Marshall  Islands,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Insularum  Marchall;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX  718c),  in 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  is  entrusted  to  the  Congregation  ot 
the  Sacred  Heart  of  Issoudun,  the  present  Superior 
of  the  mission  being  Rev.  Bruno  Sching,  named  in 
November,  1911 .  These  islands  have  become  subject 
to  Japan  and  therefore  are  dependent  on  the  apostolic 
delegate  for  Japan,  since  3  March,  1921.  Although 
erected  into  a  vicariate  in  1905  this  territory  is  not 
yet  invested  with  the  full  episcopal  character.  It 
comprised  in  1920,  6  stations,  8  missionary  priests,  8 
Brothers,  13  religious  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  4  churches,  6  stations  and  6  schools  with  ZZ 5 

children. 

Marsi,  Diocese  of  (Marsorum;  cf.  C.  E., 
IX — 718d),in  the  province  of  Aquila,  Southern  Italy, 
directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  The  episcopal 
residence  is  at  Pescina  and  for  this  reason  the  bishopric 
is  sometimes  known  by  that  name.  The  see  is  at 
present  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Pio  Marcello  Bagnoli, 
O.C.D.,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Florence,  1859,  dehm- 
tor  general  of  his  Order,  named  consultor  to  the  Con¬ 
gregation  of  Bishops  and  Regulars  in  1907,  then  to 
that  of  the  Council  in  1908,  and  later  consultor  of 
the  Congregation  of  Religious,  appointed  bishop  14 
December,  1910,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Niccolo  Cola, 
transferred  to  Nocera  26  August,  1910.  This  diocese 
has  a  Catholic  population  of  165,000,  80  parishes,  132 
secular  and  25  regular  clergy,  30  seminarians,  30 
Brothers,  60  Sisters  and  303  churches  or  chapels. 

Marsico  Nuovo  and  Potenza,  Diocese  of  (Mar- 
ci  sen  sis  et  Patentinensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-719a),  in 
the  province  of  Potenza,  Southern  Italy.  The  first 
see  is  a  suffragan  of  Salerno  and  the  second  ol 
Acerenza.  Rt.  Rev.  Roberto  Achille  Razzoli, 
O.  F.  M,.  b.  29  January,  1863,  studied  at  the  college 
of  Giaccherino,  entered  the  Order  of  Friars  Minor 
29  August,  1879,  ordained  9  August,  1885,  provincial 
definitor  in  1901,  custodian  of  the  Holy  Land  from 
January,  1906,  to  January,  1913,  appointed  to  this 
see  27  August,  1913,  consecrated  m  Florence,  18 
September  following,  enthroned  21  May,  1914, ^  sue- 
C66ding  Mgr.  Igncizio  IVIontcnsi  (b.  6  Octobci,  loou, 
d.  16  February,  1913).  The  united  sees  comprise 
24  parishes,  104  churches,  70  secular  priests,  1  mon¬ 
astery  and  7  convents  for  women,  60  nuns,  10  semi¬ 
narians,  2  missionary  societies,  2  homes,  5  asylums, 

1  hospital  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity, 

2  orphanages.  Five  public  institutions  admit  the 
ministry  of  the  priests.  Seven  associations  are 
organized  among  the  clergy  and  seven  among  the 
men  and  women.  “L’ Aurora,”  the  diocesan  bul¬ 
letin,  is  published  here.  The  diocese  has  an  entirely 
Latin  population  of  100,000  Catholics.  The  District 
Catholic  Congress  was  held  in  1911  and  the 
Women’s  Social  Week  in  1921. 


Martinelli,  Sebastiano,  Cardinal,  b.  at  Santa 
Anna,  near  Lucca,  Italy,  on  20  August,  1848;  d.  at 
Rome  on  4  July,  1918.  He  was  the  successor  ol 
Cardinal  Satolli  as  Delegate  Apostolic  in  the  United 
States,  became  an  Augustinian  when  he  was  15.  He 
was  ordained  in  1871.  After  teaching  theology  m  his 
Order  he  was  made  Prior  General  in  1869,  and  re" 
elected  in  1896,  and  after  being  made  Archbishop  ol 
Ephesus  in  1896,  went  to  Washington.  He  was 
elevated  to  the  Cardinalate  in  1901,  and  in  1909  he 
was  Prefect  of  the  Congregation  of  Rites.  He  was 
member  of  the  Canon  Law  Commission  from  1906 
till  1917. 


MARTINIQUE 


489 


MARY 


Martinique  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Petri  et  Arcis 
Gallic^;  cf.  C.  E.,  IX-731b),  one  of  the  French 
Lesser  Antilles,  was  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese  of 

fr^1S50  to  ,1905»  when  it  was  restored 
to  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Propaganda  and  bv 

a  decree  of  4  March,  1912,  it  was  entrusted  to  the 
Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  1 

Bishop  Marie-Charles-Alfred  de  Cormont,  who 
(Time  to  this  see  in  1899  as  successor  to  Bishop 
Tanoux,  died  in  1911,  and  was  succeeded  by  rT 

?e'\  J?uepi^ran^Vs  MalJeret  (1912-14).  Upon 
his  death,  Bishop  Malleret  was  succeeded  by  the 

Ieaufen  -RE  Re/-  P^l-Louis-Joseph 

quien,  C.  S.  Sp.,  b.  in  the  diocese  of  Lille  1872 

appointed  bishop  15  March,  1915.  The  town  of 

St.  Pierre,  which  was  completely  destroyed  by  the 

eruption  of  Mont  Pelee  in  1902,  is  in  process  of 

reconstruction  and  the  parish  has  been  re-eSab 

hshed  since  1914.  A  modest  chapel  has  been  built 

mesent  (1922MhSnS  °f  ^  °ld  cathedral  and  at 

the  territo^  Th  ^i  a+b°Ut  ?0(!0  inhabitants  in 
tne  territory.  The  population  of  the  whole  diocese 

numbers  about  190,000,  comprising  European? 

Creoles  half-breeds,  Blacks,  and  .some  four  or  five 

hundred  Indians;  with  the  exception  of  these  last 

STpaShes'Sfi  C?tholic  The  has 

'7  Parishes,  36  churches,  1  convent  of  men  and  2 

o  women,  37  secular  and  22  regular  clergy  1  sec¬ 
ondary  school  tor  boys  with  9  teachers7 and  75 

2  7°ri  girl?  18  teachers  and  128  pupils 
asylum,  7  hospitals  and  1  nursery.  Six  public 
institutions  permit  the  priests  of  the  diocese  to 
nunistei  in  them.  A  Catholic  journal  and  a  reli 
gious  bulletin  are  published 


1  b  Is  J°R  PpANNONHalma,  cf.  C.  E.,  IX— 
734c),  an  archabbey,  belonging  to  the  Benedictines 
in  Hungary  about  fourteen  miles  south  of  Gyor  It 

Protestants Catho  1C  Population  of  33,333  and  6230 

Mary,  Little  Brothers  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-749b)  — 
The  Institute  of  the  Little  Brothers  of  Mary  gener- 

(^M  lTepiaSb  Br°therS  of  theyS?hools 

tioninS'l91 7  eth!tfd  ce1nJenmaI  of  its  founda- 
n  in  1917,  the  festal  celebrations  being  auspi- 

ciously  inaugurated  at  St.  Ann’s  Hermitagi 

Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  2  January,  1917.  The  progress’ 

is  ahno?ib?r  firSt  Centmy  of  hsexistence 

IS  a  notable  achievement  in  the  face  of  almost 

“oriTof ^  e  Obstacles.  It  marks  the  success  of 

diet  Ph?  the.  f,ounder>  Venerable  Joseph  Bene- 
diet  Champagnat  (q.v.),  a  humble  curate  of  a  poor 

parish  with  nothing  to  sustain  him  but  his  trust  in 
God  and  a  desire  to  do  something  to  promote  ILs 
glory  by  bringing  children  closer  to  Him.  By  a 

thaUthl  1  vin  y'  kl92°’r,i'0pe  Benedict  XV  declared 
Wrtuet  had  PraCticed 

bein'! xgTnera,1  clmPter  of  the  order  was 
•  bv  R,-ul  H  hf’G-  June,  1920,  and  was  attended 
by  Brothers  from  all  parts  of  the  world  Thp 

VeTRtUKevmr'tyb  ^  aS  -peZr  genS 

tn  Hrrffi  gV*  Prot^r  Diogene,  assistant  general 
elect i^n ^ ^en °r-  ^tratonique,  who  declined  re- 
Elght  assistants,  together  with  a  procu- 

elected8  foerrat’heSeCretarV  gene,ra1’  etc-  wereP  also 
i  cted  tor  the  ensuing  twelve  years.  Brother 

Hiogene,  for  many  years  head  of  one  of  the  largest 

fn/ma  A/fCb°°  S  0  t^ie  institute,  had  moulded  the 

Late?  «anSt  tea?h,ers  °,n  hroad  and  thorough  lines 

he  was  LPor0V1,n,Cml  and  then  as  assistant  general 

whiTwfere  sWlAl611  USt!d  ,wit£.  delicate  missions, 
occunaHon  *'lf''l  J’,e«"W.  Dut,ng  the  German 

remateed  in  tfhBeJgl"m  and  Northcrn  France,  he 
remained  in  the  danger  zone  for  more  than  three 


years,  devoting  himself  to  the  welfare  of  some 
aged  and  infirm  Brothers,  and  of  the  neighboring 

taXlaof0BeaiiltmtherSPfCial  re?uest  of  the  inhabi- 
tants  ot  Beaucamp  (a  few  miles  from  Lille)  and 

of  the  neighboring  townships  he  accepted  the  dif 

ficu  t  position  of  Mayor,  and  thus  became  the  com 

authonties k  HfcT' “  i‘he  people  ?nd  the  German 
authorities  His  fearlessness  carried  him  through 

this  and  other  critical  situations.  Shortly  after  the 

gning  of  the  armistice  the  people  whom  lie  had 

Sf?h?  Legmn  ofCtlHonordaimed  fW  ““  tho  Cross 

schools,  professional  and  religious  training,  and 
imerous  commissions  were  appointed  to  deal  with 

oieioWwP°dlebWOr+ki  °f  £dllcatl0£’  the  system  of  teaching 
followed  by  the  Manst  Brothers  being  modified 

tiW?  neLessay  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
times.  Varied  outlooks  upon  the  educational 
question  arising  out  of  personal  knowledge  and 
experience  were  considered,  and  the  result  published 

Method  ™dAfie<?  ‘,Edllfcatl*onal  Guide  and  School 
thpnrrj  \  A j  stucty  °f  the  .  complete  statistics  of 
Uje  ordei  evidenced  the  vitality  and  power  of  the 

Manst  Institute.  Despite  persecutions  in  certain 
Znh™’  the  faf  that  nearly  a  thousand  of  its 
iv.  ca  •  ^d  to  the  colors  during  the  World 

War,  and  opposition  to  the  development  of  its 

plied  Th  Van°US  Places  has  grown  and  mul £ 

70W?  members?6  at  PreS6nt  °921)  25  provinces  and 

In  1921  the  canonical  visitation  of  the  Marist 
educational  establishments  was  made  by  special 

visdgnfeSth°f  ^he  supenor  general.  The  canonical 
'  lsit  of  the  Marist  institutes  in  the  United  States 
was  made  by  Very  Rev.  Brother  Stratonique,  for¬ 
mer  general  of  the  order,  and  Very  Rev.  Brother 
Angehcus,  assistant  general,  who  had  previously 
had  several  years  of  successful  educational  work  in 
Canada  and  the  United  States.  During  the  course 

Rrn+hlh  vlsltatl01J  the  corporation  of  the  Marist 
Brothers  secured  the  site  for  a  juniorate  or 
junior  novitiate  in  the  Diocese  of  Boston  where 
tkey  have  several  schools.  It  is  known  as  Tvngsboro 
^an.slon’  a  house  erected  by  Captain  Tyng  (d 
1 772),  an  important  landmark  of  the  country-side 
and  admirably  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  the 
Manst  institution.  The  juniorate  is  a  preparatory 
school  for  boys  from  thirteen  to  sixteen  years  of 
vge,  who  are  willing  to  consecrate  their  lives  to 
In st dm ’°f  Gatholic  education  in  the  Marist 
wht  'n?e  juniorate  is  to  the  regular  novitiate 
preparatory  seminary  is  tp  the  theological 
seminary  of  the  diocesan  clergy.  It  brings  the  asni 
rant  simpiy  to  the  thresholds  the  novitkte  Pto 
uhich  he  is  promoted  when  he  has  attained ’the 

eSLl  qualifications.6"  Pr°°f  °f  P°“g  the 

of  the  highest  points  of  the  Bronx,  N.  Y  for  the 
purpose  of  erecting  a  boarding  and  day  school 
ork  on  the  buildings  will  be  begun  within  two 
or  three  years,  and  meanwhile  parts  of  the  grounds 
are  used  as  the  athletic  field  of  St.  Ann’s  Academy 
conducted  by  the  Marist  Brothers  on  Lexington 
Avenue  and  76th  Street.  St.  Ann’s,  established  1892 
the  chief  Marist  institution  in  New  York  Citv 
is  a  high  school  where  graduates  of  parochial 
schools  may  find,  besides  all  the  advantages  of  an 
incorporated  school,  every  safeguard  for  mind 
conscience,  and  heart.  St.  Ann’s  Camp,  conducted 
by  the  Marist  Brothers  on  Lake  Champlain,  N  Y 
solves  the  vacation  problem  for  Catholic  boys  '  ’’ 


MARY 


490 


MARYLAND 


Mary,  Saint,  Sisters  of.  See  Saint  Mary 
Sisters  of. 


Mary,  Servants  of  (Order  of  Servites;  cf.  C  E., 
IX-750b) . — At  the  general  chapter  of  the  order, 
held  in  Florence  in  1913,  Rev.  Alexis  Lepicier,  b. 
at  Vancouleurs,  France,  and  professor  of  dogma 
at  Propaganda,  was  elected  prior  general  to  succeed 
Rev.  Guiseppe  Lucchesi.  On  account  of  tlre  trovibl- 
time  the  next  general  chapter  was  not  held  until 
1920,  and  Fr.  Lepicier  ruled  the  order  for  seven 
instead  of  six  years.  His  successor  is  Aloysims  1  aba- 
nelli,  professor  of  moral  theology  at  the  .Bologna 
Seminary,  elected  prior  general  at  the  general  C“^.P" 
ter  held  at  Monteberico,  Vicenza,  1920  In  1913, 
the  order  assumed  a  mission,  detached  from  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Natal,  in  Swaziland,  Ih® 
superior  of  the  mission  resides  <it  the  capital, 
Nbabanc.  In  1914  apostolic  work  was  also  taken 
up  at  S.  Antonio  de  Obligado,  Santa  Fe,  Argentina. 
In  1920  Mgr.  Prosper  Bemardi,  consecrated  titular 
Bishop  of  Paltus,  became  the  first  prelate  of  the 
Prelature  of  Acre  and  Purus  in  Brazil,  detached 
from  the  Diocese  of  Manaos.  He  reached  his  new 
official  residence,  Senna  Madureira,  in  August.  In 
1910  two  new  houses  of  the  order  were  opened, 
one  in  Chicago,  and  one  at  Ladysmith,  Wis.,  and 
also  two  missions  in  Missouri,  one  at  Malden,  and 
one  at  Wilhelmina;  in  1912  Notre  Dame  de  la 
Defense,  Montreal,  Canada;  in  1913  Notre  Dame 
du  Mont  Carmel,  also  at  Montreal,  and  one  at 
Vancouver,  B.  C.;  in  1914  one  at  Ottawa;  in  1916 
one  at  Welby,  Col.;  and  in  1917  one  at  Portland, 
Ore.  The  novitiate  of  the  American  Sisters  has 
been  transferred  from  Cheropee,  la.,  to  Omaha, 
Neb.  Mgr.  Pellegrino  Stagni,  former  prior  general 
of  the  Servites  and  Apostolic  Delegate  to  Canada, 
died  23  September,  1918. 


members,  located  in  59  establishments  of  which  6  are 
colleges,  20  high  schools,  and  the  remainder  parish 
schools.  St.  Mary’s  College  at  Dayton,  Ohio,  was 
established  as  the  University  of  Dayton  in  1920,  in 
which  year  colleges  of  Education  and  of  Finance  and 
Commerce,  and  the  School  of  Sociology  were  added; 
the  College  of  Engineering  was  opened  in  1911;  and 
the  pre-Medical  School  began  its  courses  in  1915. 
The  Society  has  2  provinces  in  the  United  States: 
the  Cincinnati  Province  with  39  institutions  and  370 
members;  and  the  St.  Louis  Province  with  20  in¬ 
stitutions  and  181  members.  The  latter  has  its 
provincial  house  and  novitiate  at  Maryhurst,  near 
Kirkwood,  Mo.,  with  a  normal  school  under  erection' 
The  residence  of  the  provincial  of  the  Cincinnati 
Province  is  at  Mount  St.  John,  Dayton,  Ohio. 
New  foundations  in  the  Cincinnati  Province  are: 
Cathedral  Latin  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio;  West 
Philadelphia  Catholic  High  School  for  Boys,  Phila¬ 
delphia,  Pa.;  Mount  St.  John  Normal  School,  Dayton, 
Ohio;  and  a  new  Juniorate  at  Beacon,  N.  Y. 


Mary,  of  St.  Philip,  Sister.  See  Lescher, 

Frances  Mary. 


Maryknoll.  See  Foreign  Mission  Society  of 
America,  Catholic. 


Mary,  Society  of,  of  Paris  (Marianistes;  cf. 
C.  E.,  IX— 752b).— In  1917  the  Society  had  170 
houses  and  1800  religious.  The  superior  general, 
Very  Rev.  Joseph  Hiss,  celebrated  his  sacerdotal 
golden  jubilee  in  1921,  the  occasion  being  com¬ 
memorated  throughout  the  order.  For  its  scholarly 
works  in  Japan  the  Society  was  awarded  a  prize  of 
10,000  francs  by  the  French  Academy,  25  November, 
1920.  This  prize  was  instituted  for  spreading  a 
knowledge  of  the  French  language  outside  of  France. 
And  according  to  a  statement  in  “Tunisie  catholique” 
(2  Oct.,  1920)  it  is  through  the  Marianistes  that  the 
intellectually  elite  of  the  bourgeoisie  and  the  official 
world  in  Japan  have  learned  to  know  France  in  her 
language,  her  history,  and  her  spirit,  as  have  also 
the  common  people.  They  reach  all  classes  of  people 
in  Japan,  through  their  academies,  commercial 
schools,  night  schools  and  vocation  schools  for  adults, 
and  normal  school.  The  academy  at  Tokio  numbers 
1200  pupils,  of  whom  553  are  in  the  primary  classes 
and  647  in  secondary  classes;  the  commercial  school 
at  Osaka  has  868  pupils;  and  the  academy  at  Nagasaki 
has  547.  There  are  54  students  at  the  apostolic 
school  at  Urakami.  The  College  of  St.  Joseph  at 
Yokohoma  has  253  pupils  recruited  chiefly  from  the 
foreign  settlement  in  the  city  composed  mostly  of 
English  and  Americans.  The  Marianistes  wish  to 
found  other  schools  at  Osaka  and  Fukuoha,  but  the 
losses  suffered  by  the  Society  during  the  war  and  the 
lack  of  subjects,  due  to  difficulties  in  the  recruiting 
of  religious  since  1903,  make  this  at  present  impos¬ 
sible.  In  Hawaii  the  Marianistes  direct  the  College 
of  St.  Louis  at  Honolulu,  with  950  pupils  of  whom 
400  are  non-Catholics.  Since  its  foundation  in 
1883  there  have  been  273  conversions  to  the  faith  at 
this  college,  and  in  1920  alone  there  were  74. 

In  the  United  States  the  Society  numbers  551 


Maryland  (cf.  C.  E.,  IX-755b). — The  total  area 
of  the  State  of  Maryland  is  12,327  square  miles, 
of  which  2386  are  water. 

Population. — The  total  population  in  1920  was 
1,449,661,  an  increase  of  154,315  or  of  11.9  per  cent 
since  1910.  The  average  number  of  persons  to 
the  square  mile  was  145.8.  The  urban  population 
was  60  per  cent;  the  rural  population  40  per  cent. 
The  numerical  rank  of  the  State  has  decreased  in 
every  census,  being  sixth  in  1790  and  twenty-sev¬ 
enth  in  1920.  The  negro  population  is  about  244,000. 
Baltimore  increased  31  per  cent  in  population  dur¬ 
ing  the  census  decade  1910-20.  The  federal  census 
of  1920  gives  it  733,826  inhabitants  as  against  558,485 
in  1910.  The  religious  census  of  1916  shows  2936 
church  organizations  with  a  membership  (communi¬ 
cants)  of  602,587.  The  Census  Bureau  dropped  the 
word  “communicants”  and  accepted  from  each  body 
its  own  report  of  members.  The  number  of  Catho¬ 
lics  is  therefore  put  down  in  1916  as  219,530.  Other 
totals  are:  Baptists,  44,866;  Disciples,  or  Christians, 
5719;  Dunkers,  6538;  Friends,  4790;  Methodists, 
166,445;  Presbyterians,  21,551;  Reformed  Presby¬ 
terians,  15,801 ;  United  Brethren,  8428.  The  total 
number  of  church  edifices  reported  was  2879,  with 
a  valuation  of  $29,162,381. 

Resources. — There  were  4937  manufacturing  es¬ 
tablishments  in  the  State  in  1919,  with  140,400  wage 
earners.  The  capital  invested  was  $619,607,000  and 
the  total  value  of  products  $873,945,000.  In  1920 
Maryland  had  47,908  farms  valued  at  $463,638,120. 
In  the  same  year  the  value  of  the  agricultural 
crops  was  $109,811,164;  corn,  wheat,  hay,  and  to¬ 
bacco  are  the  principal  crops.  The  fisheries  of  the 
state  are  very  valuable,  especially  the  oyster  fish¬ 
eries  which  yield  more  than  those  of  any  other 
state.  There  are  ample  facilities  for  traffic  both 
by  sea  and  land,  the  state  having  1409  miles  of 
railway  track,  while  30  or  more  steamboat  lines 
enter  the  port  of  Baltimore.  The  construction  of  a 
Chesapeake  and  Delaware  ship  canal  by  the  Federal 
Government  is  in  progress  and  its  extension  from 
Norfolk  to  North  Carolina  has  been  recommended. 

Education. — In  1920  there  were  in  Maryland 
64,434  illiterates  over  10  years  of  age.  Of  the  native 
whites,  13,884  illiterates  or  2  per  cent,  were  of  native 
parentage,  1484  or  9  per  cent,  were  of  foreign  or 
mixed  parentage.  The  illiterates  among  the  foreign 


MARYMOUNT 


491 


MASS 


born  whites  numbered  13,575  or  13.4  per  cent- 
among  the  negroes,  35,404  or  18  per  cent.  The 
decrease  ot  illiteracy  among  negroes  from  23  per 
cent  m  1910  to  18  per  cent  in  1920  shows  the  gain 
in  Maryland  s  educational  standards.  In  1920  there 
loTL?423!  Public  elementary  and  high  schools  with 
and  43,543  colored  elementary  pupils 
and  1  a,541  white  and  987  colored  high  school  pupils 
.  he  state  expenditure  was  $8,918,441.  Bible  reading 
is  neither  permitted  nor  excluded  in  the  public 
schools.  The  State  Board  of  Education  (seven 
members  appointed  by  the  governor)  selects  the 
state  superintendent  as  the  executive  officer  of  the 
board  and  through  him  has  control  of  the  public 
school  system.  The  appointment  of  county  super¬ 
intendents  and  supervisors  is  made  by  county  boards 
of  education,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  state 
superintendent. 

The  State  laws  governing  private  and  parochial 
schools  are  as  follows:  The  State  Board  shall  require 
all  pm  ate  educational  institutions  to  report  as  to  en¬ 
rollment  and  courses  of  study ;  no  private  institution 
not  approved  shall  issue  any  certificate,  diploma, 
or  degree.  St  Charles  College  at  Ellicott  City 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1911;  the  new  St.  Charles 
was  built  at  Cantonsville.  For  Catholic  educa¬ 
tional  details,  see  Baltimore,  Archdiocese  of 
CHAEITIES.-There  are  (1921)  8  Catholic  hospitals, 
12  orphan  and  infant  asylums,  and  6  trial  reform 
schools  m  the  state. 

ReceNT  Legislation  .-fo  1913  an  amendment  to 
the  Constitution  placed  the  penalty  of  bribery  at 
elections  on  the  buyer  of  votes  as  well  as  the  seller. 

“  *h5  f xt  year..  a  State  Tax  Commission  was 
created  to  supervise  and  equalize  assessment  of 
property  and  taxation;  a  Workmen’s  Compensation 
Act  was  passed  and  a  measure  providing  for  the 

TnUlQ^  f mt  °f  eIfcting  United  States  Senators. 

f our  amendments  to  the  constitution  pro¬ 
dded  for  referendum,  reclassification  of  property 

hnrJ?Xati10r  pi£p,os.es’  Parole  in  criminal  cases,  and 
home  rule  for  Baltimore.  A  State  Board  of  Prison 
Conti  ol  was  established  in  1916.  In  1918  child 

oMQ?n°man  Ja+b°r  WaS  reguIated-  The  legislation 
iA  d  to  ??-rrect,  some  abuses  in  state  gov- 
fnr  thDt  by  Providing  for  the  merit  system,  and 

ment  a  T  n  the-  purchasinS  depart¬ 

ment,  a  State  Athletic  Commission  was  created  to 

upervise  boxing  and  another  commission  was  cre- 

£  to  MnPrerrSS  andr  prepare  industrial  and  welfare 
qJX  Maryland  refused  to  ratify  the  Woman’s 

theffsi?t h  •  J 7  Eeb™ary>  1920>  and  was 

tne  sixth  State  to  ratify  the  National  Prohibition 

Amendment,  12  February,  1921.  n 

War  Record— During  the  European  War  Mary- 
lands  contribution  of  soldiers  numbered  47,054  or 
125  per  cent  of  the  United  States  Army  The 

Sfen—  °f  Guar<3  united 

S  t*  ,hihd3."’ISI0TnAat  McC1?llan-  Alabama,  and 
those  of  the  National  Army  with  the  79th  Division 

at  Camp  Meade,  Maryland.  A  summary  of  casu- 
altms  among  the  Maryland  members  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Expeditionary  Force  gives  the  following  figures  • 

oSs^an^lloq06^  Rnd  913,  ™en;  Prisoners,  54 
2675  men  d  H°9  W0Unded’  129  officers  and 


Udm  1 arei  ad?itted  to  the  lectures  and 
,w^k'  matriculated,  non-matric ulated ,  and 
special  two-year  course  students.  A  special  secre- 

eTtteCortLffi^red’  and  a  ver/ distinetTve 

teature  of  the  institution  is  its  Paris  branch  situ¬ 
ated  m  the  most  desirable  quarter  of  Paris  ’where 
prls  of  he  junior  year  of  college  may  spend  a  year 

Institute  Uo  qlliy’  takmg  courses  at  the  Catholic 

and  th.e  conservat°ries  of 
music  and  ait.  Various  societies  and  clubs  are 

Prater26  A  limo^  th?  students;  Apostleship  of 
Association  of  the  Children  of  Mary,  La 

Chssffia/cinb6  n  °hnSttanCQ  Engllsh  Dramatic  Club, 
OIpp  p.  Society,  Orchestral  Society, 

Mother  mV  /  ^Qbira^  AthIetic  Association! 

dean  of  °  M’  1S  the  Present  (1922) 

dean^of  the  college;  the  faculty  number  8  religious 

and  o  lay  professors;  total  registration  of  students, 

tycoon  Cahapter  and  Conventual  (cf.  C.  E 
tin Jbiif  ^  conventual  Mass  should  ordinarily  be 
S’  but  tbe  chanting  may  be  omitted  when  the 
bishop  or  his  substitute  says  Mass  pontifically  in 

n'gene^-  Tf  mU8t  be  appIied  the  beneSors 
in  general.  If  a  canon  is  unable  through  illness 

priert’Jho^dfilf  nt°h  b°md  t0-  give  an  alms  to  the 
priest  who  fulfills  the  obligation  for  him  unless 

othemise11  aF  Statutes  or  a  special  custom  provide 


Yofk  rYThi?lt  Tarrytown-on-Hudson,  New 

This  institution,  conducted  by  the  Relieious 

?908hthfnCrhd,?eart  °.f,.  Mar>’,  was  established  in 

leVVr  rgh  fhx-  m™!fil;en;=e  of  Mr.  James  But- 
vT’  -^-G.  C.,  of  New  York  City,  who  also  founded 

Marymount  School  for  Girls.  The  colLe  com 
prises  four  buildings,  and  has  a  well  equipped 
laboratory,  conservatory,  and  gymnasium^  Tffiee 


Mass,  Sacrifice  of  the  (cf.  C.  E.  X-20) _ All 

yearStSbithon?UPddt0  S‘7 -Mass  severaI  times’ each 
yuar’i  j  blsboPs  and  religious  superiors  however 
should  see  that  they  all  do  so  more  frequently  on 

carding +hnd Mher  feaStS  of  precePt  at  least.  Re- 
gardmg  the  Mass  pro  populo,  the  Code  provides 

nffirVf  d  fA^St  u  transferred  so  that  not  only  the 

and  of bUr  the  obbgation  of  hearing  Mass 

to  anofthpr  dami  ^r°m  S?rvile  work  is  transferred 

orient ^  toj,  rn bJshops’  vicars  capitular,  and  parish 
priests  (parochial  vicars  representing  chapters  or 

other  moral  persons;  also  vicars  Jconomi)  a?e 

davgbut°nnfply  %***  fo-  t^eir  flocks  on  the  latter 
day,  but  not  on  the  original  feast.  If  a  bishop  or 

hprnphpdPrifl-St  ha?  Charg^  °f  more  than  one  territory 

TO  mnltfl  k°“e  Maf ;  hitherto  his  obligation 
was  multiple.  The  parish  priest  should  say  the 

Mass  for  the  people  in  the  parish  church  unless 

it  is  necessary  or  advisable  to  say  it  elsewhere  and 

for  a  just  cause  the  local  ordinary  may  allow’  him 

,,  CTja?geo  4bei  day  °f  celebration.  In  May  1911 
the  Holy  See  declared  that  in  parish  churches’ where 

Awt  ^ivrSS  WaS  Said  parish  Priests  were  obliged 
of  Th  t5e  ^ass  pro  'populo,  according  to  the  office 

tr,n!f  da/+ren  ,on  Sundays  to  which  had  been 
transferred  the  solemnization  of  the  feasts  of 

Epdiany,  Corpus  Christi,  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  {he 

would^not  fffiffi  ntpnd  °krer  f-east?’  and  that  they 
would  not  fulfil  their  obligation  by  the  Mass  of 

the  solemnizations  mentioned.  If  a  priest  is  obliged 

to  say  a  conventual  Mass  and  the  Mass  for  the 

people  on  the  same  day,  he  must  celebrate  and 

daUnmrt  f offer rtfIa?tPteI'STally’  and  the  fo|i°wing 
day  must  offer  the  latter  himself  or  get  another 

d°  S°' •  u  1CaTS  Apostolic,  prefects  Apostolic 
and  quasi-parish  priests  are  bound  to  do  so  at 
least  on  the  feasts  of  Christmas,  the  Epiphany 
Chr  qB  SCTenS1°n  Thursday,  Pentecost,  ^orpi’ 

‘■on, jU?Saints" 

reguIatlon^llT  fibs*  matter?  b°lmd  by  *he 

scribedln  Use  thc  illtar  bread  pre- 

scribed  m  his  Rite  when  saying  Mass.  It  is  mm 

impious  thing,  even  in  case  of  extreme  necessity, 


MASSA 


492 


MASSACHUSETTS 


to  consecrate  the  bread  without  the  wine  or  vice- 
versa  or  to  consecrate  them  when  not  celebrating 
Mass’.  All  customs  to  the  contrary  being  repro¬ 
bated,  priests  in  saying  Mass  must  observe  the 
rubrics  of  the  liturgical  books,  and  beware  of  adding 
any  ceremonies  or  prayers  of  their  own  accord , 
they  must,  moreover,  use  the  liturgical  language 
prescribed  for  their  Rite. 

Massa  di  Carrara,  Diocese  of  (Massensis;  cf.  C. 
E  X-24c),  in  Central  Italy,  is  suffragan  of  Modena. 
It  is  under  the  administration  of  the  Rt  Rev. 
Giusseppe  Bertazzoni  (b.  at  San  Rocco,  1865),  who 
was  consecrated  12  September,  1917,  succeeding 
Rev.  Bishop  Marenco.  The  diocese  comprises  a 
Catholic  population  of  165,000  and  includes  213 
parishes,  280  churches,  4  convents  for  men  and  12 
for  women,  230  secular  priests  and  15  regular  b 
lay  brothers,  100  religious  women,  3  seminaries  with 
56  seminarians,  1  college  for  men  with  40  students. 
4  colleges  for  women  with  14  instructors  and  loo 
students.  The  various  charitable  institutions  in¬ 
clude  1  female  orphanage,  15  asylums  for  children 
and  2  homes,  in  addition  to  schools  and  oratories. 
A  Mutual  Aid  Society  is  established  among  the 
clergy  and  a  Catholic  Young  Men’s  Society  among 
the  laity. 

Massa  Maritima,  Diocese  of  (Massanensis; 
cf  C  E  X— 30a),  in  the  province  of  Grosseto, 
Central  Italy,  with  the  united  title  of  Populoma, 
suffragan  of  Siena.  The  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Giovanni  Battista  Boracchia,  born  in  Santa  Croce  di 
Beverino,  Italy,  1849,  appointed  11  July,  1892.  Thls 
diocese  counts  80,000  Catholics,  29  parishes  60  secu¬ 
lar  and  7  regular  clergy,  10  seminarians,  6  Brothers, 
54  Sisters  and  64  churches  or  chapels. 


Massachusetts  (cf.  C.  E.,  X-24d).— The  total 
land  area  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts  is  8039 

square  miles.  _9 

Population. — In  1920  the  population  w’as  3,8o2, 
356:  less  than  6  per  cent  lived  in  communities 
having  a  population  of  2500  or  less.  In  19--0  t  ie 
ratio  of  decrease  in  the  foreign-born  of  the  popula¬ 
tion  was  3.2  per  cent;  the  number  of  native-born 
in  the  total  population  being  2,725  990,  and  that 
of  the  foreign-born  1,045,106.  Ireland  has  furnished 
17.0  per  cent  of  the  total  of  foreign-born.  Canada 
(exclusive  of  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  and 
Prince  Edward  Island)  is  second,  with  a  population 
of  14  2  per  cent  of  the  total  foreign-born  popula¬ 
tion.  In  1920  Russia  supplied  the  largest  increase 
in  foreign  born,  having  risen  from  one-half  of  one 
per  cent  in  1885  to  8.5  per  cent.  Italy’s  contribu¬ 
tion  in  the  same  period  rose  from  .76  per  cent  to 
10.9  per  cent.  In  the  cities  of  Fall  River,  Lawrence, 
and  New  Bedford  it  runs  over  70  per  cent  of  the 
entire  population.  In  Boston  the  population  of 
foreign  parentage  forms  63  per  cent,  while  at 
Holyoke  it -has  risen  to  66  per  cent;  at  Worcester 
to  67  per  cent;  at  Lowell  it  is  66  per  cent;  the 
Greeks,  who  formed  1.1  per  cent  of  the  foreign-born 
population  in  1910,  now  form  1.9  per  cent  of  the 
foreign-born  population.  In  the  city  of  Boston 
Irish  parentage  gives  a  total  of  57,011  out  of  a 
census  of  238,919  persons  of  foreign  parentage,  and 
this  nationality  predominates  in  every  ward  except 
five,  where  either  the  Russians  or  the  Italians  have 

the  majority.  „ 

The  present  order  of  religious  denominations  m 
this  State  is:  Catholics,  71.3  per  cent,  or  1,140,208; 
Congregationalists,  6.8  per  cent,  or  133,509;  Bap¬ 
tists  4  4  per  cent,  or  86,551 ;  Methodists,  3.8  per 
cent’,  or  75,965;  Episcopalians,  3.8  per  cent,  or 

75,217. 


Economic  Conditions. — According  to  the  State 
statistics  of  manufactures  for  1918,  in  rank  of  in¬ 
dustries  by  gross  value  of  product,  cotton  goods 
came  first,  with  $537,631,796;  boots  and  shoes 
second,  with  $479,400,878;  woolen  goods  third,  with 
$464,067,705.  According  to  the  Federal  census  ot 
manufactures  for  1919  Massachusetts  had  11,90 
manufacturing  establishments  with  a  product  valued 
at  $4,007,452,000.  The  total  capital  devoted  to 
production  in  the  State  was  $2,964,177,000,  and  the 
average  number  of  wage  earners  716,600. 

Massachusetts  laws  prohibit  more  than  forty-eight 
hours’  weekly  employment  for  women  and  children, 
and  limit  the  day’s  labor  to  nine  hours.  No  woman 
or  minor  may  be  employed  for  purposes  of  manu¬ 
facturing  between  five  o’clock  p.  m.  and  six  o  clock 
a.  m.  In  1912  the  State  Board  of  Labor  and  Indus¬ 
tries  was  created  to  take  over  the  enforcement  of 
all  the  labor  laws  in  the  State.  In  the  same  year 
Massachusetts  was  a  pioneer  in  establishing  a  com¬ 
mission  to  provide  for  the  determination  of  mini¬ 
mum  wages  for  women  and  children.  Refusal  to 
pay  the  minimum  wage  incurs  only  the  penalty  ol 
publicity;  this  is  abrogated  when  the  prosperity  ol 
the  establishment  is  threatened. 

Recent  Legislative  Changes. — The  new  constitu¬ 
tion  submitted  by  the  Constitutional  Com  ention 
(1917-19)  and  constituting  a  re-arrangement  of  the 
previous  instrument,  was  ratified  on  4  November.  It 
provided  for  direct  legislation  by  the  people  by 
means  of  the  initiative  and  referendum,  gave  the 
Legislature  far-reaching  powers  to  engage  m  trad¬ 
ing,  and  to  promote  the  general  welfare  by  utilizing 
the  natural  resources  of  the  State.  It  established 
a  modern  budget  system  and  formulated  the  “anti- 
aid”  amendment,  refusing  State  money  to  all 
schools  under  private  control.  It  authorized  the 
Legislature  to  provide  for  compulsory  voting  at 
elections.  Most  far-reaching  was  it's  reform  of  the 
State  administration.  The  administrative  and 
executive  branches  were  reorganized  into  not  more 
than  twenty  departments,  in  one  of  which  every 
executive  and  administrative  office,  board,  and  com¬ 
mission,  except  those  serving  directly  under  the 
governor  and  council,  must  find  place.  The  Public 
Utilities  Department  was  created  in  1919  to  take 
over  the  duties  of  two  of  the  old  boards.  Massa¬ 
chusetts  was  the  eleventh  State  to  ratify  the  Pro¬ 
hibition  Amendment,  2  April,  1918,  and  the  eighth 
to  ratify  the  Federal  Suffrage  Amendment,  25  June, 
1919.  The  Board  of  Charity  is  now  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Public  Welfare,  and  its  secretary  has  the 
title  of  Commissioner.  The  annual  election  of  the 
governor,  to  which  Massachusetts  clung  so  long,  is 
replaced  by  the  biennal  election,  although  the  Legis¬ 
lature  meets  every  year.  In  1920  Governor  Calvin 
Coolidge,  of  Northampton,  was  elected  Vice-Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  United  States. 

Education. — The  amendment  of  1855  was  modi¬ 
fied  in  1918,  to  prohibit  the  appropriation  of  public, 
money  not  only  to  sectarian  institutions,  but  also 
to  any  institution  not  under  public  control.  The 
State  laws  governing  private  and  parochial  schools 
are  as  follows:  To  satisfy  compulsory  education 
laws  children  must  attend  public  day  schools  or 
some  other  day  school  approved  by  the  (town  or 
city)  school  committee;  school  committees  shall 
approve  private  schools  only  when  the  instruction 
in  all  the  studies  required  by  law  is  in  the  English 
language;  studies  taught  in  private  schools  must 
be  those  required  for  public  schools,  and  instruction 
must  equal  in  thoroughness  and  efficiency  that  given 
in  public  schools;  private  and  paroclual  schools 
report  annually  to  the  State  Board  of  Education 
such  statistics  as  it  shall  prescribe  relative  to  the 


MATADI 


493 


MAZARA 


number  of  pupils  and  instructors,  courses  of  study, 
cost  of  tuition,  and  the  general  condition  of  the 
institution  or  school  under  their  charge;  school 
moneys  shall  never  be  appropriated  to  any  religious 
sect  for  the  maintenance  exclusively  of  its  own 
schools.  Cities  and  towns  containing  more  than 
500  families  must  maintain  high  schools.  Cities  of 
20,000  inhabitants  must  provide  manual  training, 
and  cities  of  50,000  inhabitants  must  maintain  eve¬ 
ning  high  schools.  A  system  of  continuation 
schools  provides  for  the  education  of  illiterate 
minors  between  fourteen  and  sixteen  who  are  at 
work.  There  are  also  stringent  provisions  as  to 
the  employment  of  minors  between  sixteen  and 
twenty-one,  intended  to  prevent  illiteracy.  A  de¬ 
partment  of  University  Extension  under 'the  State 
Board  of  Education  organizes  and  maintains  a  com¬ 
prehensive  system  of  extension  teaching.  The 
student  enrollment  between  January,  1916,  and 
December,  1920,  was:  in  courses,  43,455;  correspon¬ 
dence  courses,  13,012.  The  recent  establishment  of 
Smith’s  Agricultural  School  in  Northampton  and 
the  Independent  Industrial  Shoe-making  School 
in  Lynn  show  the  trend  of  education  in  Massa¬ 
chusetts. 

There  are  (1918)  181  teachers  in  the  normal 
schools  of  the  State;  in  the  public  schools  there 
are  630,878  pupils  with  an  average  attendance  of 
93  per  cent.  The  proportion  of  teachers  is  2089 
male  and  16,913  female.  The  total  support  of  the 
public  schools  amounts  annually  to  $36,614,623. 

The  State  law  relative  to  Bible  reading  in  the 
public  schools  reads:  A  portion  of  the  Bible  shall 
be  read  dailyr  in  the  public  schools,  without  written 
note  or  oral  comment;  but  a  pupil  whose  parent, 
or  guardian,  informs  the  teacher  in  writing  that  he 
has  conscientious  scruples  against  it,  shall  not  be 
required  to  read  from  any  particular  version,  or  to 
take  any  personal  part  in  it.  The  school  committee 
shall  not  purchase  or  use  school  books  in  the  public 
schools  calculated  to  favor  the  tenets  of  any  par¬ 
ticular  religious  sect.  There  are  97  high  schools 
and  academies  with  10,645  pupils.  The  local  annual 
tax  for  school  support  per  child  between  the  ages 
of  five  and  fifteen  is  $43.  The  total  valuation  of 
all  public  school  property  is  $94,608,586.  There  are 
within  the  State  17  colleges  or  universities,  5  of 
them  devoted  to  the  education  of  women.  There 
are  3  medical  schools ;  2  additional  law  schools 
have  been  recently  opened.  The  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology  is  the  only  college  receiving 
State  and  Federal  subsidies.  There  are  forty  schools 
for  the  dependent  and  the  afflicted. 

For  Catholic  educational  and  religious  statistics 
see  Boston,  Archdiocese  of;  Fall  River,  Diocese 
of;  Springfield,  Diocese  of. 

Recent  History— During  the  European  War  the 
State  contributed  132,610  soldiers  to  the  U.  S.  Army 
(3.53  per  cent).  As  in  the  case  of  all  New  England 
regiments,  the  soldiers  were  stationed  at  Camp 
Devens,  which  was  established  near  Ayer,  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  incorporated  either  in  the  26th  Division 
as  were  the  Massachusetts  national  guards,  or  in  the 
76th  Division  as  the  members  of  the  national  army. 
The  summary  of  casualties  among  the  Massachusetts 
members  of  the  American  Expeditionary  Force  is  as 
follows:  deceased,  206  officers,  2749  men;  prisoners, 
25  officers,  205  men;  wounded,  456  officers,  9864 
men.  The  Massachusetts  men  served  valiantly  at 
Belleau  Wood,  Argonne  Wood,  and  Soissons,  and 
were  in  the  thick  of  the  fight  in  France  when  the 
armistice  came. 

Matadi,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (De 
Matadi),  erected  through  a  separation  of  the  Vi¬ 


cariate  Apostolic  of  Belgian  Congo,  and  entrusted  to 
the  Redemptorists.  By  a  Decree  of  31  May,  1921, 
the  boundaries  were  somewhat  enlarged  by  the 
addition  of  certain  territory  taken  from  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  Leopoldville.  The  present  and  first 
prefect  apostolic  is  Rev.  Joseph  Heintz,  appointed 
1  August,  1911.  Statistics  are  not  yet  published. 

^  Matanzas,  Diocese  of  (Matanzansis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XVI — '36a),  in  Cuba,  suffragan  of  Santiago  de 
Cuba.  The  first  bishop  of  this  see,  Rt.  Rev.  Charles 
Warren  Currier  was  transferred  to  the  titular  see  of 
Hetalonia  in  June,  1915,  and  his  successor  was  ap¬ 
pointed  in  the  person  of  Rt.  Rev.  Severiano  Sainz  y 
Bencamo,  11  February  of  the  same  year.  Born  in 
Cuba  in  1871  he  served  as  vicar  general  of  San  Cristo- 
foro  de  Laguna,  and  was  named  a  prelate  of  the  Holy 
See  14  July,  1914.  The  diocese  covers  an  area  of  5728 
sq.  miles  and  embraces  a  total  population  of  230,000. 
According  to  1920  statistics  it  comprises  21  secular 
and  30  regular  clergy,  3  schools  for  boys  and  2  for 
girls. 

Matera,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Acerenza. 

Maturin,  Basil — Churchman,  b.  in  1847  in  Ireland, 
where  his  father,  an  Episcopalian  clergyman,  had  a 
living  at  Grangegorman;  drowned  in  1915  in  the  “Lusi¬ 
tania”  catastrophe.  After  graduating  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege,  Dublin,  he  went  to  England  and  became  Dr. 
Jebb’s  curate  at  Peterstorv.  He  remained  there  for 
three  years  and  then  joined  the  Cowley  Fathers  and 
was  sent  to  St.  Clement’s  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  where 
he  achieved  great  popularity  as  a  preacher.  In  1897 
he  became  a  Catholic  at  Beaumont,  was  ordained  in 
1898,  and  was  made  Chaplain  of  the  Oxford  under¬ 
graduates.  He  is  the  author  of  several  books  on  the 
piritual  life. 

Maximalists.  See  Bolshevism. 

Mayotte,  Nossi-Be  and  Comores,  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of  (Insularum  Majottae,  Nossibe^  et 
Comor^e;  cf.  C.  E.,  X — 90d),  off  the  coast  of  Africa. 
These  islands,  with  the  rest  of  the  Comoro  group, 
are  entrusted  to  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  At 
present  the  prefecture  is  administered  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Auguste  Fortineau,  C.  S.  Sp.,  titular'  Bishop  of 
Chytri  and  vicar  apostolic  of  Diego-Suarez.  It 
embraces  a  total  population  of  50,810,  and  by  1916 
statistics  (the  latest  available)  is  credited  with  5000 
Catholics,  6  churches  and  4  missionaries. 

Mazara  del  Vallo,  Diocese  of  (Mazariensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  X-94c),  in  the  province  of  Trapani  (Sicily), 
suffragan  of  Palermo,  has  a  Catholic  population  of 
300,000.  The  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Nicola  Audino,  b. 
15  October,  1861,  at  Caltanisetta,  appointed  to  the 
see  of  Lipari,  28  November,  1898,  transferred  to 
the  Diocese  of  Mazaro  del  Vallo,  22  June,  1903, 
succeeding  Mgr.  Gaetano  Quattrocchi,  deceased*. 
The  diocese  numbers  27  parishes,  6  convents  for 
men,  300  secular  priests,  30  Brothers,  80  Sisters, 

1  seminary  with  30  seminarians,  16  elementary 
schools  with  16  teachers  and  250  pupils,  1010  homes, 

8  asylums,  14  hospitals,  2  day  nurseries.  Eleven 
associations  are  organized  among  the  clergy  and 
twenty-eight  among  the  laity.  One  diocesan  and 
fourteen  parochial  bulletins  are  published  in  the 
diocese. 

Persons  of  importance  deceased  since  1910  in¬ 
clude  Can.  Prof.  Antonio  Castiglione,  orator,  his¬ 
torian,  and  founder  of  a  charitable  institution,  and 
Can.  Davide  Ajello,  educator,  and  founder  of  the 
Mutual  Aid  Association. 

4  diocesan  synod  was  held  in  1908,  the  first 
diocesan  Eucharistic  Congress  in  1910,  and  the  sec- 


MEATH 


494 


MELFI 


ond  in  1921.  During  the  World  War  the  diocese 
contributed  two  military  chaplains,  Can.  Dr. 
Giovanni  Battista  Quinci  in  the  navy  and  Can. 
Dr.  Benedetto  Yivona  in  the  army.  Two  priests, 
officers  in  the  army,  were  decorated,  73  were  non¬ 
commissioned  officers  or  soldiers. 

Meath,  Diocese  of  (Midensis);  in  the  province 
of  Leinster,  Ireland,  suffragan  of  Armagh,  with 
episcopal  residence  at  Mullingar.  Rt.  Rev.  Lawrence 
Gaughran  was  appointed  to  this  see  16  April,  1906. 
Born  in  Lobinstown,  this  diocese,  in  1842,  he  studied 
at  Navan  and  Maynooth,  was  ordained  in  1868, 
served  as  a  professor  at  Navan,  was  made  adminis¬ 
trator  of  Mullingar  in  1877,  pastor  of  Kells  and  vicar 
forane  in  1885,  vicar  general  in  1894,  and  named  a 
prelate  of  the  Holy  See  24  January,  1896.  The 
various  religious  orders  established  in  the  diocese 
include  men:  Franciscans,  Carmelites,  Jesuits,  Chris¬ 
tian  Brothers  and  De  la  Salle  Brothers;  women: 
Sisters  of  Loretto,  Presentation  Nuns  and  Sisters  of 
Mercy.  By  the  1911  census  the  total  population  of 
the  diocese  is  computed  at  137,595,  of  whom  127,729 
hre  Catholics.  The  1922  statistics  credit  it  with 
66  parishes,  153  secular  and  21  regular  clergy,  144 
churches,  13  convents  of  nuns  with  124  members  in 
the  communities,  and  3  monastic  houses  with  17 
members  in  the  communities. 

Meaux,  Diocese  of  (Meldensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
X— 98b),  in  the  department  of  Seine-et-Marne, 
France,  suffragan  of  Paris.  Rt.  Rev.  Emmanuel- 
Jules-Marie  Marbeau,  appointed  to  this  see  3  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1910,  was  made  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  30  October,  1920,  and  an  assistant  at  the 
pontifical  throne  19  April,  1921,  on  the  occasion  of 
the  golden  jubilee  of  his  ordination.  He  died  31  May , 
1921,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Louis  Gaillard, 
born  in  Beauvais,  1872,  studied  at  St.  Sulpice  and 
was  ordained  in  1902,  made  an  honorary  canon  and 
director  of  charities  in  1907,  vicar  general  in  1908, 
named  a  private  chamberlain  the  same  year,  and 
again  in  1915,  served  as  a  hospital  chaplain  from  1914 
to  1918,  and  appointed  bishop  21  November,  1921. 
During  the  World  War  150  priests  were  mobilized  from 
this  territory  and  a  large  number  of  seminarians.  Out 
of  the  total  number  12  priests  and  16  seminarians  gave 
up  their  lives,  3  were  decorated  with  the  Legion 
d’honneur,  4  with  the  medaille  militaire ,  40  with  the 
croix  de  guerre  and  1  with  the  cross  of  St.  George. 

By  1920  statistics  the  diocese  counts  a  Catholic 
population  of  363,561,  39  parishes,  402  succursal 
parishes  and  8  vicariates  formerly  supported  by  the 
state. 

Mechlin,  Diocese  of.  See  Malines. 

Medellin,  Archdiocese  of  (Medellensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  X — 116c),  in  Colombia,  South  America.  This 
see  is  filled  by  Most  Rev.  Manuel  Jose  Cayzedo  y 
Cuero,  born  in  Bogota  1850,  made  his  studies  in  the 
South  American  College  in  Rome,  ordained  in  1883, 
served  as  prefect  of  studies  and  vice  rector  of  the 
Seminary  of  Bogota,  appointed  Bishop  of  Pasto  11 
February,  1892,  transferred  to  Popayan  2  December, 
1895,  made  archbishop  14  December,  1901  and 
transferred  14  December,  1905.  He  was  made  an 
assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  15  February,  1917. 
The  statistics  of  1920  credit  the  archdiocese  with 
363,710  Catholics,  110  secular  and  15  regular  clergy, 
55  parishes,  75  churches  or  chapels  and  141  Catholic 
schools  with  16,035  pupils. 

Meissen,  Diocese  of  (Misnensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  X — 
148d),  in  Saxony,  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See. 
This  ancient  see,  founded  in  968  and  suppressed  after 
the  Reformation  and  changed  to  the  Vicariate 


Apostolic  of  Saxony,  was  reestablished,  amidst  great 
rejoicing  24  June,  1921.  The  religious  ceremonies 
were  presided  over  by  the  papal  nuncio,  Mgr.  Pacell i, 
and  on  26  June,  the  seven-hundredth  anniversary  of 
the  foundation  of  the  Cathedral  of  Bautzen,  the 
residential  city,  was  celebrated.  Rt.  Rev.  Christian 
Schreiber,  born  in  1872,  studied  in  Rome  and  was 
ordained  in  1899  and  later  professor  and  rector  of  the 
Seminary  of  Fulda,  was  appointed  first  bishop  of  the 
newly  established  see,  12  August,  1921,  he  is  the 
forty-second  bishop  since  the  foundation  of  the  see. 
The  new  diocese  covers  an  area  of  6741  square  miles, 
and  embraces  the  old  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Saxony 
and  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Lusactia.  It  includes 
the  ancient  Kingdom  of  Saxony  and  the  Principality 
of  Saxe-Altenburg .  About  forty-five  per  cent,  or 
236,000,  of  the  entire  population  are  Catholic  and 
these  are  served  by  100  priests.  Only  about  a  quarter 
of  the  population  belong  properly  to  Saxony,  about  a 
quarter  are  Germans,  and  the  rest  foreigners,  with 
a  large  majority  of  Austrians. 

Melbourne  Archdiocese  of  (Melburnensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  X— 155a),  in  Australia,  is  at  present  under 
the  incumbency  of  Rt.  Rev.  Daniel  Mannix,  b.  4 
March,  1864,  in  the  Diocese  of  Cloyne,  studied  at  St. 
Solman  Fermoy  and  Maynooth,  where  he  was  by 
turns  professor,  vice-president,  and  president  from 
1903  to  1912,  titular  chancellor  in  1904,  senator  of 
the  University  of  Ireland,  prelate  of  the  Holy  See,  20' 
March,  1906,  appointed  Archbishop  of  Pharsalus  3 
July  1912,  and  coadjutor  of  the  Archbishop  of  Mel¬ 
bourne,  proclaimed  2  December  following,  succeeded 
6  May,  1917,  Mgr.  Thomas  Carr,  b.  7  January,  1840, 
d.  6  May,  1917,  the  outstanding  feature  of  whose 
episcopate  being  the  building  up  of  the  Catholic 
primary  school  system.  The  statistics  for  1921  are: 
82  districts,  198  churches,  158  secular  and  48  regular 
clergy,  100  Brothers,  1091  nuns,  2  colleges  within  the 
University  of  Melbourne  with  135  students,  2  train¬ 
ing  colleges  with  65  students,  10  superior  schools  for 
boys,  27  for  girls,  with  5262  pupils,  126  parochial 
primary  schools  with  31,145  students.  The  total 
number  receiving  education  in  Catholic  Colleges  and 
schools  is  37,607.  Charitable  institutions  comprise 
4  orphanages,  2  industrial  schools,  1  for  boys  and  1 
for  girls,  1  reformatory  for  girls,  2  Magdalen  Asylums 
for  penitent  women,  1  home  for  neglected  children, 
1  home  for  the  aged  poor,  1  home  for  women  and  girls 
out  of  employment,  1  foundling  hospital,  1  receiving 
home  in  connection  with  the  foundling  hospital.  The 
Catholic  population  is  estimated  at  193,924  souls. 
Since  1910  the  archdiocese  lost  two  clergymen  of  note 
in  the  persons  of  the  Archbishop  of  Melbourne  and 
the  Rev.  S.  A.  Robinson  (died  6  July,  1921),  who  had 
erected  a  beautiful  church  at  Camberwell  as  a  national 
tribute  to  Our  Lady  of  Victories.  Events  of  import¬ 
ance  were  the  opening  of  Newman  College  for  men 
and  St.  Mary’s  Hall,  college  for  women  within  the 
University  of  Melbourne  in  1918.  Twenty-five  new 
parishes  were  instituted,  and  twenty  new  Catholic 
primary  schools  opened.  During  the  War  eleven 
chaplains  from  the  archdiocese  served  overseas  with 
the  troops  of  whom  one  received  the  military  cross 
and  another  the  croix  de  guerre. 

Melfi  and  Rapolla,  Diocese  of  (Melfiensis 
ac  Rapollensis;  cf.,  C.  E.,  X— 165a),  in  the  province 
of  Potenza,  Southern  Italy,  is  immediately  subject  to 
the  Holy  See.  Rt.  Rev.  Alberto  Costa,  b.  at  Borgo 
San  Donnino,  15  March,  1873,  vicar  general,  professor 
at  the  seminary  and  private  chamberlain  24  Novem¬ 
ber,  1908,  appointed  4  January,  1912,  consecrated 
28  April  following,  Bishop  of  Melfi  and  Rapolla, 
succeeding  Mgr.  Giuseppe  Camassa  retired  and 
appointed  Patriach  of  Jerusalem. 


MELO 


495 


MERCY 


The  united  sees  include  (1921  census)  14  parishes, 
17  churches,  52  secular  priests,  5  convents  for  women' 
450  Brothers,  32  Sisters,  1  seminary  with  4  seminar¬ 
ians,  1  asylum,  1  hospital,  1  day  nursery  at  Rapolla; 
one  war  hospital  only  is  supported  by  the  Government. 
The  Juvenile  Circle  is  organized  among  the  laity  in 
Rapolla.  In  May,  1913,  the  Peace  of  Constantine 
was  solemnly  commemorated,  and  a  great  mission 
was  preached  by  the  Capuchin  Fathers  in  1914  and 
1921.  During  the  World  War  the  clergy,  with  the  co¬ 
operation  of  the  laity,  ministered  to  the  needy  spiritu¬ 
ally  and  materially. 

Melo,  Diocese  of  (Melensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  X— 
169b),  in  Uruguay,  suffragan  of  Montevideo.  This 
see  is  filled  by  its  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Jose  Marcos 
Semena,  born  in  Tacuarembo,  Uruguay,  19  March, 
1855,  served  as  vicar  general  and  was  appointed 
bishop  3  July,  1919.  Although  erected  by  a  decree 
of  14  April,  1897,  the  see  was  never  actually  estab¬ 
lished  until  1919.  Its  establishment  was  one  of  the 
conditions  named  upon  the  restoration  of  diplomatic 
relations  with  the  Holy  See. 

Mende,  Diocese  of  (Minntensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
X— -180a),  in  the  department  of  Lozere,  France, 
suffragan  of  Albi.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Jacques  Gely,  born  in  Rigols,  France,  in  1849,  ordained 
in  1873,  served  as  chaplain  of  St.  Louis  of  France, 
diocesan  missionary  and  vicar  general,  and  appointed 
bishop  21  February,  1906.  He  is  assisted  by  a  co¬ 
adjutor,  Rt.  Rev.  Jules- Alexandre  Cusin,  titular 
Bishop  of  Nyssa.  During  the  World  War,  205  priests 
and  150  seminarians  were  mobilized  from  this  terri¬ 
tory,  and  of  this  number,  17  priests  and  24  seminar¬ 
ians  gave  up  their  lives,  2  were  decorated  with  the 
Legion  d’Honneur,  93  with  Croix  de  Guerre  and  2  with 
the  Medaille  M ililaire.  The  1920  statistics  credit  the 
diocese  with  a  population  of  122,738,  29  first  class 
parishes,  191  succursal  parishes  and  143  vicariates 
formerly  supported  by  the  state,  and  23  chaplaincies. 

Mendez  y  Gualaquiza,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(de  Mendez  ac  Gualaquiza;  cf.  C.  E.,  X-183a),  in 
the  province  of  Oriente,  Ecuador,  with  residence 
at  Sig-Sig,  is  entrusted  to  the  care  of  the  Salesians. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Apatemona 
River,  on  the  south  the  Zamora  River,  on  the 
east  the  Maranon  and  Morona  rivers,  on  the  west 
with  the  dioceses  of  Loja  and  Cuenca;  the  popula¬ 
tion  is  composed  of  20,000  Jibaros  and  2000  whites 
and  Indians. 

The  vicar  apostolic,  Rt.  Rev.  Domingo  Comin, 
oalesian,  titular  Bishop  of  Obba,  b.  9  Septem¬ 
ber,  1874,  appointed  at  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
the  Consistory'  of  8  March,  1920,  consecrated  at 
Cuenca  17  October  following,  appointed  Vicar  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  Mendez  y  Gualaquira  5  March  preceding, 
to  succeed  Mgr.  Santiago  Costamagua,  titular 
Bishop  of  Colonia  (b.  2  January,  1846  \  retired  in 
1919;  d.  8  September,  1921,  aged  seventy-six). 

There  are  (1922  census)  6  churches,  1  mission, 

4  stations,  4  convents  for  men,  6  regular  priests 
3  Brothers,  1  seminary  with  21  seminarians. 

During  the  administration  of  Mgr.  Santiago 
Costamagua  the  mission  was  supported  by  the  alms 
collected  by  him,  and  the  headquarters  of  the 
mission,  the  seminary  and  the  residence  of  the 
Vicar  Apostolic  in  Cuenca  were  built  by  him.  In 
918  he  celebrated  his  jubilee,  and  for  the  occasion 

JuClyV1918  letter  °f  PmiSe  fr°m  the  P°Pe’  datcd  31 

Menevia,  Diocese  of  (Menevensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
A— 187d),  comprises  all  of  Wales,  except  Glamor¬ 
ganshire,  and  is  suffragan  of  Cardiff.  The  see  is 
32 


administered  by  Most  Rev.  Francis  Mostyn,  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Cardiff,  who  had  filled  this  see,  as  its  first 
bishop  until  his  promotion  7  March,  1921.  The 
religious  communities  established  in  the  diocese 
include,  men:  Benedictines,  Franciscans,  Jesuits, 
Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate  and  Passionists;  women: 
Benedictines,  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
Institute  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy,  Sisters  of  Charity  of 
~C  Paul ,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  of  the  Good  Saviour,  of 
,  5vv  Ghost>  Sainte  Marie,  and  Ursulines.  The 
total  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  estimated 
at  9822.  Latest  statistics  credit  it  with  29  secular 
and  62  regular  clergy,  19  convents,  52  public  churches 
or  chapels,  6  private  chapels  with  Sunday  mass, 
13  public  elementary  schools  receiving  Government 
grants,  and  4  without  grants,  with  2159  pupils,  11 
other  schools  with  416  boys  pupils,  1  residential 
institution  for  poor  children  and  1  home. 

Mennonites  (cf.  C.  E.,  X-l 90b). —There  are  now 
(1922)  16  branches  of  this  sect  in  the  United  States 
instead  of  12  as  reported  in  1906.  There  has  been 
an  attempt  in  the  last  two  decades  to  bring  about 
a  union  ^he  different  branches.  As  a  result 
there  are  now  two  conference-groups  which  loosely 
unite  the  major  portion  of  the  sect.  In  1918  the 
Mennonites  reported  11  missionaries  in  Latin  Amer¬ 
ica.  In  Asia,  Africa,  and  Oceania  they  reported 
in  1920,  107  missionaries,  5747  members,  and  15 
hospitals  and  dispensaries.  The  total  number  of 
members  in  the  world  is  less  than  300,000.  In  the 
United  States  the  16  bodies  reported  (1921)  887 
churches,  1488  ministers,  and  82,722  members. 
About  1500  Mennonites  are  now  migrating  to 
Durango,  Mexico,  from  Manitoba  and  Saskatche¬ 
wan,  owing^  to  differences  of  opinion  with  the 
Canadian  Government  regarding  war  and  edu¬ 
cation. 

/cP°ASC?l  Simons:  His  Life,  Labors  and  Teachings 

(Scottsdale,  Pa.,  1916);  Smith,  The  Mennonites:  A  Brief 
I/dfn°rXr°^Their  Origin  (Bern,  Ind.,  1920);  Religious  Bodies, 
1916  (Washington,  1919);  Year  Book  of  the  Churches  (New 
i  oik,  annual). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Mercy,  Fathers  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  V-794c).— At  the 
general  chapter  of  the  society  held  in  Rome,  July, 
1909,  Eugene  Porcile,  founder-rector  of  Our  Lady 
of  Lourdes  Parish,  Brooktyn,  was  elected  superior 
general.  Owing  to  ill  health  he  resigned  in  less 
than  a  year  after  taking  office,  and  retired  to 
Ciply,  Belgium,  where  he  died  2  January,  1912.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Peter  Hattais,  who  was  appointed 
vicar  general  of  the  society  by  the  Congregation  of 
Religious  in  January,  1910.  At  the  general  chapter 
held  in  Rome,  July,  1919,  Rene  Delaplanche  was 
elected  superior  general  of  the  society  for  the 
regular  term  of  six  years.  In  1910,  at  the  request 
of  Cardinal  Farley,  the  Fathers  opened  the  new 
parish  of  Notre  Dame  located  at  114th  Street  and 
Morningside  Drive.  This  magnificent  church,  whose 
style  is  Classical  Renaissance,  represents  an  expendi¬ 
ture  of  more  than  one  million  dollars.  The  first 
pastor  of  Notre  Dame  was  Fr.  Maurice  Reynaud, 
who  enlisted  in  the  French  Army  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  World  War.  He  was  the  first  priest  from 
the  United  States  to  enter  the  war,  and  the  first 
to  lay  down  his  life  in  his  country’s  cause,  having 
fallen  in  battle  23  October,  1917.  His  remains  are 
interred  in  the  Military  Cemetery  at  Montgarni. 
In  order  to  further  more  rapidly  the  development 
of  the  American  province,  the  new-elected  superior 
general,  Rene  Delaplanche,  applied  for  and  received 
from  Rome  a  rescript  empowering  him  to  establish 
in  America  a  novitiate  for  the  reception  of  Amer¬ 
ican  subjects.  The  novitiate  is  located  at  Oregon. 


MERCY 


496 


METHODISM 


N.  Y.,  near  Peekskill,  on  the  banks  of  the  Hudson 
River.  In  addition  to  conducting  missions,  their 
real  end  and  aim,  the  Fathers  of  Mercy  have  care 
of  both  French  and  English  speaking  parishes  in 
America. 

Mercy,  Sisters  of,  of  St.  Borromeo  (cf.  C.  E., 
X-201b). — During  the  World  War  45  institutions 
of  the  order  were  given  over  to  the  care  of  wounded 
soldiers  and  137,000  soldiers  were  nursed  in  these 
hospitals.  Owing  to  the  privations  and  hardships 
of  the  war  the  death  rate  of  the  members  doubled. 
Sister  Salesia  Backes,  mother  general  of  the  order 
at  Trier,  died  10  March,  1912.  Her  successor  Sis¬ 
ter  Eugenia  Coenzler,  died  14  December,  1920.  The 
present  general  superior  is  Sister  M.  Aloysia  Schmitz. 
After  a  postulate  of  eight  to  ten  months,  candi¬ 
dates  remain  at  the  mother-house  for  the  canon¬ 
ically  prescribed  novitiate  of  one  year.  Temporary 
vows  are  then  made  for  three  years,  after  which 
final  vows  are  taken.  At  the  present  time  (1921) 
the  order  at  Trier  numbers  1400  members,  66  branch 
houses,  56  hospitals  and  orphanages,  10  boarding 
schools,  day  schools,  and  sewing  schools.  On  6 
March,  1921,  the  constitutions  of  the  order,  with 
mother-house  at  Prague,  were  definitely  approved. 

Merida,  Diocese  of  (Emeritensis  in  Indus; 
cf.  C.  E.,  X — 202a),  in  Venezuela,  suffragan  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Venezuela.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Antonio  Raimondo  Silva,  born  in  Caracas  1850, 
ordained  in  1873  and  appointed  21  May,  1894.  He 
was  named  an  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  17 
January,  1916.  Statistics  of  1920 credit  the  diocese 
with  425,000  Catholics,  20,000  Indians  and  300 
Protestants,  (census  of  1888);  100  priests,  and  150 
churches  or  chapels. 

Meschler,  Moritz,  ascetical  writer,  b.  at  Brig, 
Switzerland,  on  16  September,  1830;  d.  at  Exaeten, 
Holland,  on  2  December,  1912.  He  entered  the 
Society  of  Jesus  in  1850,  when  his  native  land  was 
persecuting  it.  He  had  studied  first  at  the  Bene¬ 
dictine  School  of  Engleberg,  and  then  at  a  little 
college  of  his  Jesuit  compatriots.  He  studied  phil¬ 
osophy  for  two  years  at  Bonn,  taught  humanities  to 
the  junior  scholastics;  made  his  theology  at  Ratisbon, 
was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  in  1862,  and  finished 
his  theology  at  Maria  Laach.  He  passed  his  life  of 
sixty-two  years  as  a  Jesuit,  almost  exclusively  among 
his  fellow-countrymen,  engaged  mainly  in  writing. 
He  was  eighty-two  years  old  when  he  published  his 
last  book,  and  for  still  another  year  he  wrote  for  the 
“Stimmen.”  He  never  taught  theology,  but  because 
of  his  profound  studies  in  that  particular  science  and 
his  thorough  knowledge  of  Suarez  in  particular,  his 
works  on  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  Sacred  Heart,  St. 
Joseph,  the  Blessed  Virgin,  his  life  of  Christ,  and  his 
“Meditations”  place  him  in  the  ranks  of  theological 
specialists.  He  was  twenty-one  years  master  of 
novices,  sixteen  years  rector  of  great  colleges;  he 
served  three  times  as  provincial  and  fourteen  years  as 
assistant  general.  In  1872  he  was  thought  to  be  at 
the  end  of  his  career,  but  it  was  precisely  then  that 
his  literary  activity  began  to  display  itself,  and  books 
and  articles  came  from  his  pen  year  after  year. 

Mesopotamia. — An  independent  State,  under 
Great  Britain  as  mandatory,  which  has  an  area  of 
143,259  square  miles,  and  a  population,  according 
to  the  census  of  1920,  of  2,849,282. 

Religion. — The  following  statistics  are  given  in 
the  1920  census: 

Vilayet  Sunni  Shi’ah  Jews  Christian  Others 

Baghdad  524,414  750,421  62,565  20,771  2,133 

Basra...  42,558  721,414  10,088  2,551  8,989 

Mosul..  579,713  22,180  14,835  55,470  31,180 

Total..  1,146 ,685  1,494,015  87,488  78,792  42,302 


Government. — In  1920  a  Council  of  State  was 
formed  to  administer  the  country  until  the  future 
government  is  decided  upon.  Municipalities  have 
been  established  wherever  possible. 

Education. — Before  the  war  the  Department  of 
Public  Instruction  under  the  Ottoman  government 
maintained  in  every  sanjak  and  caza,  a  primary 
school,  in  which  Turkish  and  Arabic  were  taught 
free  of  charge.  The  various  religions  had  their  own 
schools  in  Baghdad  and  Basra.  In  1906  the  German 
consul  at  Baghdad  offered  to  subsidize  the  Car¬ 
melite  schools  in  the  country  if  they  wmuld  undertake 
to  teach  German.  The  French  Dominicans  and 
nuns  at  Mossul  conducted  over  a  dozen  schools  in 
the  neighborhood  and  carried  on  educational  work 
among  the  Chaldeans.  The  people  as  a  whole  are 
very  illiterate  and  education  is  the  crying  need  of 
the  country.  Since  their  occupation,  the  British 
have  opened  up  about  90  schools. 

Economics. — Mesopotamia  is  a  land  of  great 
potentialities,  especially  in  the  matter  of  oil  deposits. 
In  June,  1919,  the  ancient  canal  Saqlawiyah,  near 
Fellujah,  was  formally  reopened,  and  the  waters  of 
the  Euphrates  allowed  to  pass  through.  Before  the 
war  the  only  railway  in  Mesopotamia  was  the  small 
section  of  the  Baghdad  Railway  running  from 
Baghdad  north  to  Samarra  (80  miles),  which  was 
built  by  the  Germans.  During  the  war  several 
lines  were  built  for  military  purposes  (1100  miles) 
On  15  January  the  line  running  from  Bassorah  to 
Baghdad  was  opened  to  traffic.  A  railway  from 
Teheran  to  Baghdad  is  under  consideration.  The 
total  commerce  in  1919  amounted  to  $95,453,362, 
of  which  the  total  exports  were  $35,751,342;  the 
imports,  $59,702,020.  Cotton  constituted  about 
50  per  cent  of  the  imports. 

Recent  History. — Mesopotamia  belonged  to  tho 
Turkish  empire  until  the  World  War  when  it  was 
conquered  by  Indian  and  British  troops,  who  oecu- 
occupied  Basra  on  22  November,  1914,  and  Baghdad 
on  11  March,  1917.  In  the  Treaty  of  Versailles 
(1919)  Mesopotamia  is  recognized  as  an  independent 
state,  to  be  placed  under  mandatory  power.  The 
Supreme  Council  awarded  the  mandate  to  Great 
Britain. 

Messina,  Archdiocese  of  (Messanensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  X— 216c),  in  Sicily,  also  bears  the  title  of  the 
Archimandritate  of  San  Salvatore  (Sanctissimi  Salva- 
toris  Messame.)  The  present  incumbent  is  Most 
Rev.Letterio  d’Arrigo  Ramondini,  born  in  Messina, 
15  November,  1849,  appointed  24  March  1898.  He 
is  assisted  by  a  coadjutor,  Most  Rev.  Angelo  Paino, 
promoted  to  the  titular  see  of  Antinoe  and  named 
coadjutor  10  January,  1921.  This  diocese  has  a 
Catholic  population  of  313,932,  and  comprises  139 
parishes,  300  priests  and  540  churches  or  chapels. 
The  Archimandritate  of  San  Salvatore  of  Messina 
has  9  parishes,  1  vicar,  6  vicarial  chapels,  58  priests, 
59  churches  or  chapels  and  a  Catholic  population  of 
22,000,  (1920  statistics). 

Methodism,  following  the  general  Protestant 
trend,  has  in  recent  years  agitated  the  question 
of  union,  but  without  definite  results.  Negotiations 
for  the  union  of  the  Methodists,  Congregational ists, 
and  Presbyterians  in  Canada  were  in  1917  post¬ 
poned  until  the  second  year  after  the  war.  No 
definite  action  has  yet  (1922)  been  taken.  Efforts 
to  unite  the  Methodists  and  the  United  Brethren 
came  to  naught  and  negotiations  for  the  proposed 
union  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  and  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South,  were  finally 
abandoned  in  1918,  the  chiet  obstacle  being  the 
status  of  the  colored  Methodists.  The  proposals 
of  the  Lambeth  Conference  of  1920  on  church 


METROPOLITAN 


497 


MEXICO 


union  were  definitely  rejected  by  the  Methodists 
in  1922,  they  refusing  to  submit  to  reordination 
as  a  condition  of  reunion.  The  proposal  to  extend 
laity  rights  to  women  has  been  generally  accepted, 
the  Canadian  General  Conference  (1918)  being  the 
first  to  grant  such  rights,  with  the  proviso  that 
women  be  not  considered  as  eligible  for  the  min¬ 
istry.  Despite  the  general  trend  in  Methodism  on 
this  point,  a  radical  departure  is  reported  on  the 
part  of  the  Northeastern  Oklahoma  Conference 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  which  in  1922 
is  declared  to  have  granted  a  license  to  preach 
to  a  .thirteen-year-old  girl. 

A  summary  of  the  foreign  missionary  work  of 
all  Methodist  bodies  in  1916  showed  34  countries 
occupied;  552  stations;  1937  American  missionaries; 
14,134  native  helpers;  3316  churches;  518,000  mem¬ 
bers;  3342  schools;  118,631  pupils;  120  hospitals, 
dispensaries,  and  orphanages.  Methodist  propa¬ 
ganda  has  of  late  been  particularly  aggressive  in 
the  city  of  Rome,  and  the  late  Pope  Benedict  XV 
called  on  the  Knights  of  Columbus  and  the  Paulists 
of  America  to  help  counteract  it.  The  domestic 
missions  in  the  United  States  reported  for  all 
Methodist  bodies  in  1916,  4576  missionary  workers, 
258  colleges  and  89,134  students,  and  194  hospitals, 
orphanages,  and  homes  for  the  aged,  of  which  about 
45  were  hospitals.  Among  the  better  known  educa¬ 
tional  institutions  controlled  by  the  Methodists  are 
Boston  University,  Cornell  College,  De  Pauw  Uni¬ 
versity,  Dickinson  College,  Goucher  College,  and 
N  orthwestern  University.  An  important  factor  in  the 
general  work  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  is 
the  Deaconess  movement,  which  had  its  origin  in 
1887  in  connection  with  the  Chicago  Training  School 
for  Missions.  There  were  in  1916  about  200  dea¬ 
coness  institutions  of  various  kinds  in  the  United 
States  and  foreign  countries,  the  general  purpose 
being  to  care  for  the  sick  and  unfortunate.  There 
were  in  1916  in  the  United  States  922  licensed 
deaconesses,  130  probationers,  and  546  associate 
workers;  in  Europe,  668  deaconesses;  there  were  600 
nurses  in  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary  (1916), 
and  deaconess  hospitals  in  Berlin,  Hamburg,  Frank¬ 
fort,  and  Zurich.  The  Board  of  Temperance,  Pro¬ 
hibition  and  Public  Morals  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  with  headquarters  in  Washing¬ 
ton,  D.C.,  played  a  prominent  part  in  obtaining 
the  passage  of  the  18th  amendment  (prohibition) 
to  the  constitution  of  the  United  States. 

The  official  list  of  Methodist  bodies  includes,  be¬ 
sides  those  enumerated  in  the  article  Methodism 
(1)  the  Colored  Methodist  Protestant  Church,  or¬ 
ganized  along  the  same  lines  as  the  Methodist 
Protestant  Church,  by  Negro  Methodist  churches 
in  Maryland  and  adjoining  states  in  1840;  (2)  the 
African  American  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
organized  in  Baltimore  in  1873,  as  a  “reformed 
Methodism”  and  reported  in  the  government  statis¬ 
tics  for  the  first  time  in  1916;  (3)  the  Reformed 
Methodist  Union  Episcopal  Church,  a  colored  or¬ 
ganization  formed  in  1885  as  the  Independent 
Methodist  Church,  the  present  name  being  adopted 
in.  1896.  Since  1916  it  is  in  full  accord  with  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  doctrine  and  polity. 
The  Zion  Union  Apostolic  Church  is  officially  the 
Reformed  Zion  Union  Apostolic  Church.  The 
Evangelist  Missionary  Church  has  not  reported 
any  statistics  since  1890  and  has  in  all  probability 
disappeared.  In  1921,  all  Methodist  bodies  in  the 
United  States  reported  67,493  churches,  46,364  min¬ 
isters,  7,867,863  members  (7,797,991  in  1922).  Five 
bodies  of  Methodists  reported  836,113  members 
in  Great  Britain  in  1915;  the  latest  figures  for 
Ireland  (1911)  claim  62,382;  South  Africa  (1918), 


91,199  Europeans  and  456,018  non-Europeans;  Aus¬ 
tralia,  547,800;  Canada  and  Newfoundland,  1,148,000. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  for  Ireland  and  for  the 
British  colonies  the  above  figures  are  for  con¬ 
stituents  (communicants  and  their  families),  while 
in  all  other  cases  communicants  onlv  are  listed 
(see  Protestantism).  The  total  of  Methodist  com¬ 
municants  in  the  world  is  between  nine  and  ten 
million.  The  total  Methodist  constituency  in  the 
world  is  placed  by  some  writers  as  high  as  35,000,000. 
In  all  probability  it  is  between  25,000,000  and 
30,000,000. 

Neely,  Doctrinal  Standards  of  Methodism  (New  York, 
1918);  Rucker,  The  Separation  of  the  Methodists  from  the 
Church  of  England  (New  York,  1918);  Arms,  History  of  the 
It  m.  Taylor  Self-supporting  Missions  in  South  America  (New 
York,  1921);  Hartman,  Foreign  Missionaries  in  Action  (New 
York,  1918);  Fisher,  Under  the  Crescent  and  Among  the 
Kraals  (Boston,  1917) ;  Barstow,  Methodist  Trails  in  the 
African  Jungle  (New  York,  1917)  ;  Munhall,  Breakers! 
Methodism  Adrift  (New  York,  1913)  ;  Religious  Bodies, 
1916  (Washington,  1919)  ;  Year  Book  of  the  Churches 
(New  York,  annual)  ;  Statesman’s  Year  Book  (London, 
annual)  ;  Methodist  Year  Book  (New  York,  annual). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Metropolitan.  See  Archbishop. 

Metz,  Diocese  of  (Metensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  X— 
247a),  in  Lorraine,  France,  is  immediately  subject  to 
the  Holy  See,  and  comprises  a  Catholic  population 
of  540,000  French  and  44,000  Germans.  The  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Jean-Baptiste  Pelt,  b.  6  April,  1863,  ordained 
in  1886,  doctor  of  canon  law  and  theology,  author  of 
a  manual,  vicar  at  St.  Martin,  professor  and  superior 
of  the  Upper  Seminary,  vicar  general  and  archdeacon 
in  1906,  prelate  to  the  pontifical  throne,  nominated  by 
the  French  Government  24  April,  1919,  appointed  by 
the  Pope  1  August,  consecrated  29  September,  1919, 
succeeding  Mgr.  Willibrord  Benzler,  retired  in  1919, 
with  the  title  of  Archbishop  of  Attalia,died  16 
April,  1921. 

The  diocesan  statistics  for  1922  are:  646  parishes, 
726  churches,  836  secular  and  46  regular  clergy,  3 
monasteries  for  men,  2  for  women,  1  abbey  for 
women,  4  convents  for  men,  21  for  women,  45  Broth¬ 
ers,  2786  nuns  in  the  various  houses.  Besides  the 
religious  houses  existing  in  the  diocese  in  1910,  there 
are  now:  the  Fathers  of  the  Assumption  with  1  house, 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny,  1  house;  Sisters  of 
Perpetual  Adoration  (at  Biding),  1  house;  Sisters  of 
the  Faith  (at  Herrenwald),  1  house;  3  seminaries  (1 
upper  and  2  lower),  with  494  seminarians,  1  College 
for  boys  with  22  teachers  and  400  boj^s,  10  high 
schools,  1  normal  school  with  50  students,  about  1500 
elementary  schools  (public  and  private),  2  lunatic 
asylums  and  1  for  the  aged,  and  17  hospitals.  The 
ministry  of  priests  is  unrestricted  in  public  institu¬ 
tions.  All  public  piimary  schools  receive  Govern¬ 
ment  aid.  Four  associations  are  organized  among  the 
clergy:  The  Apostolic  Union,  Priest  Adorers,  Priests 
of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  and  the  Retreat  Fund;  among 
the  laity:  “Action  populaire  catholique  lorraine,” 
French  Women's  Patriotic  League,  Societies  for  young 
people  and  Federation  of  Works  of  Charity.  The 
periodicals  published  are:  in  French  “Le  Lorrain,” 
“Le  Couirier  de  Metz,”  “Le  Courrier  de  la  Sarre”; 
in  German:  “Die  Lothringer  Volkszeitung,”  “Lothr. 
Volksblatt.” 

Mexico,  (cf.  C.  E.,  X — 250b). — With  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  one  term  (1880-1884),  Porforio  Diaz  filled  the 
office  of  President  from  1877  to  1911,  the  law  against 
re-elections  being  repealed  in  1887.  Diaz  aimed  from 
the  first  at  setting  up  an  efficient  dictatorship  under 
which  economic  development  was  possible  and  which 
would  gain  the  good  opinion  of  foreign  statesmen  and 
capitalists.  To  this  end  he  reorganized  the  “guardias 
rurales,”  a  force  of  mounted  police  to  deal  with 


MEXICO 


498 


MEXICO 


brigandage.  He  changed  none  of  the  laws  against 
the  church;  neither  did  he  enforce  them.  Religious 
orders  were  quietly  permitted  to  resume  their  mis¬ 
sionary  activities.  Supposed  to  be  a  constitutional 
president,  Diaz  headed  a  government  more  auto¬ 
cratic  than  Russia.  Herein  lay  the  seed  of  the 
disaster  that  overwhelmed  Mexico  after  his  departure, 
for  he  had  trained  no  one  for  the  task  he  might  lay 
down.  He  maintained  close  relations  with  the  state 
governors  and  through  them  controlled  the  jefes 
politicos  who  administered  the  districts.  No  outside 
interference  was  possible  as  the  elections  were  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  the  administrative  hierarchy.  This 
together  with  the  ever  present  perplexing  land  ques¬ 
tion  was  the  cause  of  the  discontent  that  led  to  Diaz’s 
overthrow.  Under  the  law  of  Disamortization  (1856) , 
the  common  lands  were  enclosed  at  the  same  time 
that  the  Church  lands  were  sold.  The  failure  of  the 
Indians  to  maintain  their  holdings  led  to  the  con¬ 
centration  of  large  areas  in  the  hands  of  a  few. 
According  to  the  Mexican  census  of  1910,  seven 
thousand  families  of  Spanish  creole  descent  owned 
nearly  all  the  fertile  soil  of  Mexico,  each  feudal  estate 
averaging  over  100  square  miles.  The  Terrazas  estate 
in  Chihuahua  contained  13,000,000  acres,  an  area  as 
large  as  Holland  and  Belgium  combined.  Insurgency 
soon  spread  all  over  Mexico.  To  save  the  country 
from  further  bloodshed,  Diaz  resigned  and  a  pro¬ 
visional  government  was  formed  under  Sefior  de  la 
Barra.  On  2  October,  1911,  Francesco  I.  Madero 
was  unanimously  elected  president,  with  Suarez  as 
vice-president.  The  new  Government  failed  utterly 
to  put  an  end  to  the  disorder  which  had  broken  out 
everywhere  on  the  fall  of  Diaz.  Zapata  and  his 
Indians  revolted  in  Morelos.  General  Bernardo 
Reyes  attempted  an  unsuccessful  insurrection.  Gen¬ 
eral  Pascual  Orozco  rebelled  and  captured  Juarez. 
General  Felix  Diaz  took  Vera  Cruz,  but  was  captured 
and  imprisoned.  General  Mondragon,  backed  by  his 
own  troops  and  students  of  the  Military  Training 
School  at  Tlapam,  rose  against  the  Government 
9  February,  1913,  liberated  General  Reyes  and 
General  Felix  Diaz,  and  the  three  marched  to  the 
capital,  where  Reyes  was  killed  in  an  attack  on  the 
National  Palace.  In  a  meeting  arranged  by  the  medi¬ 
ation  of  H.  Lane  Wilson,  United  States  Minister, 
Madero  was  forced  to  resign  and  Huerta  became  pro¬ 
visional  president  of  Mexico  until  the  formal  election 
of  Diaz.  On  23  February  President  Madero,  his 
brother  Gustavo,  and  Vice-president  Suarez  were 
murdered.  Felix  Diaz  escaped  to  Europe.  The  new 
dictator,  Huerta,  was  recognized  by  Congress  and  by 
the  States,  except  along  the  frontier.  Here  the  Con¬ 
stitutionalists,  Gonzalez,  Maytorena,  and  Carranza 
refused  to  compromise  or  to  recognize  the  new  Gov¬ 
ernment.  It  is  doubtful  whether  their  hesitation 
would  have  had  any  important  result,  had  not  Huerta 
driven  them  to  desperation  by  the  murder  of  Gonzalez 
who  had  withdrawn  his  opposition.  Maytorena, 
thereupon,  fled  to  the  United  States  and  Carranza 
launched  his  revolution  in  1913.  Villa,  a  former 
bandit,  who  had  a  genius  for  military  leadership, 
joined  the  revolution,  the  progress  of  which  was 
largely  due  to  the  favorable  attitude  of  the  United 
States  which  refused  to  recognize  Huerta  on  account 
of  the  murder  of  the  Maderos  and  threw  its  strength 
into  the  rebellion.  A  division  among  the  revolu¬ 
tionists,  however,  prevented  them  from  getting  full 
control  of  the  country,  for  Villa  turned  against  Car¬ 
ranza. 

The  programme  of  the  Constitutionalists  was  of  an 
extreme  revolutionary  nature.  It  included  the  owner¬ 
ship  and  control  of  land  and  natural  resources,  the 
solution  of  the  land  question  by  the  division  of  large 
estates,  and  by  the  return  to  the  villages  of  all  common 
lands  confiscated  or  sold.  Moreover,  the  Constitu¬ 


tionalists  felt  that  in  order  to  make  Mexico  a  true 
democracy  it  was  necessary  that  the  influence  of  the 
Church  should  be  utterly  and  finally  suppressed.  The 
end  was  to  be  attained  by  the  prohibition  of  all  re¬ 
ligious  education,  whether  public  or  private,  the  con¬ 
fiscation  of  Church  property,  and  strict  Government 
supervision  of  the  clergy.  The  action  of  the  Consti¬ 
tutionalist  leaders  went  far  beyond  this  official  pro¬ 
gramme  and  the  victory  of  the  revolution  was  fol¬ 
lowed  by  a  campaign  of  extermination  against  the 
Church,  the  higher  clergy  being  driven  out  of  the 
country,  the  churches  in  several  States  being  closed, 
and  many  members  of  the  clergy  and  religious  orders 
being  executed  or  imprisoned.  During  the  confused 
period  of  civil  war  after  1914  several  religious  upris¬ 
ings  broke  out  in  districts  where  the  anti-clerical 
measures  were  most  severe,  especially  in  Michoacan 
The  rising  in  Oaxaca  was  also  partly  of  religious 
origin.  The  fall  of  Huerta  was  hastened  by  the  action 
of  the  United  States  in  raising  the  embargo  on  the 
export  of  arms  in  favor  of  the  Constitutionalists  only 
and  by  the  occupation  of  Vera  Cruz  by  an  American 
armed  force  on  21  April,  1914.  At  this  juncture 
Argentine,  Brazil,  and  Chile,  known  as  the  A.  B.  C. 
powers,  offered  to  serve  as  mediators  and  sent  their 
diplomatic  representatives  to  Niagara  Falls,  but  failed 
to  obtain  any  results.  In  the  meantime  Obregon  en¬ 
tered  Guadalajara,  Villa,  the  noted  bandit  leader, 
took  Zacatecas  with  great  slaughter,  while  Monterey 
and  Saltillo  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Constitutional¬ 
ists.  The  capture  of  Tampico  on  13  May  deprived 
Huerta  of  his  base  in  the  north  and  his  chief  remaining 
source  of  revenue.  A  new  war,  however,  broke  out 
among  the  revolutionists.  Maytorena,  supported  by 
the  Yaqui  Indians,  rose  against  Carranza,  and  Villa 
allied  himself  with  Mayorena.  A  convention  at 
Aguascalientes  demanded  the  resignation  of  Car¬ 
ranza  and  declared  Eulalio  Gutierrez  provisional  pres¬ 
ident.  Villa  and  Zapata  occupied  Mexico  City  in  his 
name.  Gutierrez  was,  however,  disowned  by  the 
convention,  which  ruled  the  city  until  its  occupation 
by  Obregon,  the  Carranza  commander.  He,  in  turn, 
was  forced  to  retreat  by  the  incoming  Zapatist  force 
on  10  March,  and  Gonzalez  was  now  recognized  as 
President.  The  north  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Con¬ 
stitutionalists.  The  siege  of  the  Carranist  forces  in 
Sonora  called  forth  the  vigorous  protests  of  the 
United  States  and  the  concentration  of  the  United 
States  troops  along  the  frontiere.  The  climax  came 
when  an  armed  band  of  Villistas  attacked  Columbus, 
New  Mexico,  killing  eight  soldiers  and  nine  civilians. 
The  United  States  Government  acted  at  once,  sending 
12,000  soldiers  under  General  Pershing  to  “take 
Villa  dead  or  alive.”  Further  trouble  was  caused 
when  President  Wilson  of  the  United  States  de¬ 
manded  the  release  of  seventeen  United  States  pris¬ 
oners  taken  in  a  collision  between  the  Carranzist 
troops  and  a  body  of  negro  cavalry.  The  new  Gov¬ 
ernment  of  Mexico,  however,  was  gradually  recog¬ 
nized  by  the  different  powers  (the  South  American 
Republics  in  October,  1915,  Austria-Hungary,  21 
October;  Germany,  10  November;  France,  Great 
Britain,  Italy,  and  Russia,  4  December).  In  No¬ 
vember,  1916,  a  national  convention  met  at  Queretaro 
to  consider  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution  and 
on  31  January,  1917,  it  was  signed.  In  March,  1917, 
Carranza  was  elected  president.  The  new  Govern¬ 
ment  was  doomed  like  the  rest,  for  in  another  revo¬ 
lution  (1920),  centering  at  Sonora,  Carranza  was 
forced  to  flee  the  capital,  and  de  la  Huerta  became 
provisional  president.  Carranza  was  murdered  later 
by  his  own  troops.  In  September,  1920,  Alvero 
Obregon  was  elected. 

The  new  Constitution,  while  declaring  “that  Con¬ 
gress  shall  not  enact  any  law  establishing  or  forbidding 
any  religion  whatsoever,”  not  only  eliminates  freedom 


MEXICO 


499 


MICHIGAN 


of  worship  but  makes  provisions  which  tend  to  the 
destruction  of  religion  itself.  This  is  apparent  from 
article  130,  which  runs  as  follows:  (1)  The  Federal 
authorities  shall  have  exclusive  power  to  exercise  in 
matters  of  religious  worship  and  out  ward  ecclesiastical 
forms,  such  intervention  as  by  law  authorized.  (2) 
Marriage  is  a  civil  contract.  (3)  The  law  recognizes 
no  corporate  existence  of  the  religious  associations 
known  as  churches.  (4)  The  ministers  of  religious 
sects  shall  be  considered  as  persons  exercising  a  pro¬ 
fession  and  shall  be  directly  subject  to  the  laws 
enacted  on  the  subject.  (5)  The  State  legislatures  shall 
have  the  exclusive  power  of  determining  the  maximum 
number  of  ministers  of  religious  sects  according  to  the 
needs  of  the  locality.  (6)  Ministers  of  religious  sect 
shall  not  any  any  public  gathering  or  private  meeting 
criticize  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  country,  the 
authorities  in  particular,  or  the  government  in  gen¬ 
eral;  they  shall  have  no  vote,  either  directly  or  indi¬ 
rectly,  nor  shall  they  be  allowed  to  assemble  for 
political  purposes.  (7)  Before  consecrating  new  tem¬ 
ples  of  worship  to  public  use  permission  must  be  ob¬ 
tained  from  the  Department  of  the  Interior.  (8)  The 
caretaker  of  each  place  of  worship,  together  with  ten 
other  citizens  of  the  place  shall  promptly  advise  the 
authorities  of  the  minister  appointed  or  of  any  change 
of  ministers.  (9)  Under  no  conditions  shall  studies 
carried  on  in  ecclesiastical  institutions  be  ratified  or 
be  granted  any  other  dispensation  or  privilege  which 
shall  have  for  its  purpose  the  ratification  of  the  said 
studies  in  official  institutions.  (10)  Periodical  reli¬ 
gious  publications  shall  not  comment  on  any  political 
affairs  of  the  nation,  nor  publish  any  information 
regarding  the  act  of  the  authorities  of  the  country  or 
of  private  individuals  in  public  life.  (11)  Every  kind 
of  political  association  whose  name  shall  bear  any 
word  or  any  indication  relating  to  any  religious  belief 
is  forbidden.  (12)  No  minister  of  any  religious  sect 
may  inherit  on  his  own  behalf  or  by  means  of  a  trustee 
any  real  property  occupied  by  any  association  for 
religious  or  charitable  purposes,  (i.3)  Any  real  and 
personal  property  pertaining  to  the  clergy  or  to  reli¬ 
gious  institutions  shall  be  governed  in  conformity  to 
article  27  of  this  constitution.  (Article  27,  clause  2 
reads:  The  religious  associations  known  as  churches 
irrespective  of  creed  shall  in  no  case  have  legal  capa¬ 
city  to  acquire,  own,  or  administer  real  property  or 
loans  made  on  such  property.  All  such  real  property 
shall  vest  in  the  nation  and  any  one  shall  have  the 
right  to  denounce  property  so  held.  Presumptive 
proof  shall  be  sufficient  to  declare  the  denunciation 
well  founded.  Places  of  public  worship  are  the  prop¬ 
erty  of  the  nation  as  represented  by  the  Federal  gov¬ 
ernment  which  shall  determine  which  of  them  may 
continue  to  be  devoted  to  their  present  purposes. 
Episcopal  residences,  rectories,  seminaries,  orphan 
asylums,  collegiate  establishments  of  religious  asso¬ 
ciations  and  convents  or  any  other  buildings  built  or 
designed  for  the  administration,  propaganda,  or 
teaching  of  the  tenets  of  any  religious  sect,  shall  forth¬ 
with  vest  as  of  full  right  directly  in  the  nation  to  be 
used  exclusively  for  the  public  services  of  the  Federa¬ 
tion  or  of  the  States  within  their  respective  jurisdic¬ 
tion.  All  places  of  public  worship  which  shall  be  late 
erected  shall  be  the  property  of  the  nation.)  (14)  No 
trial  by  jury  shall  ever  be  granted  for  the  infraction  of 
any  of  the  preceding  provisions.  Back  of  the  refusal 
of  the  United  States  to  recognize  the  present  govern¬ 
ment  of  Mexico  is  the  discriminating  Clause  5  of 
Article  27  which  reads  as  follows:  “Only  Mexicans  by 
birth  or  naturalization  have  the  right  to  acquire  owner¬ 
ship  in  lands,  waters  and  their  appurtenances,  or  to 
obtain  concessions  to  develop  mines  or  waters  in 
Mexico.  The  nation  may  grant  the  same  right  to 
foreigners,  provided  they  agree  to  be  Mexicans  and 
not  invoke  the  protection  of  their  governments  under 


penalty  of  forfeiture.  Within  a  zone  of  100  kilometers 
from  the  frontiers  and  50  kilometers  from  the  coast, 
no  foreigner  shall  acquire  direct  ownership  of  lands 
and  waters.  The  United  States  refused  to  consider 
this  as  annulling  its  obligation  to  protect  its  citizens. 

Mexico,  Archdiocese  of  (Mexicanensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  X — 269c),  a  metropolitan  see  of  Mexico, 
comprising  the  city  and  state  of  the  same  name.  It 
is  filled  by  Most  Rev.  Jos6  Mora  y  del  Rio,  born  in 
Pajacuarcin,  Mexico,  1854,  studied  at  Zamora  and  the 
South  American  College  in  Rome,  ordained  in  1879, 
served  as  director  of  a  number  of  Mexican  colleges 
and  secretary  to  the  archbishop,  appointed  first 
bishop  of  Tehuantepec  19  January,  1893,  transferred 
to  Tulancingo  12  September,  1901,  again  transferred 
to  Leon  15  September,  1907,  and  promoted  to  Mexico 
2  December,  1908.  He  was  named  an  assistant 
at  the  pontifical  throne  6  October,  1910,  and  by  a 
decree  of  the  consistory,  the  following  November  he 
was  made  president  of  the  Mexican  episcopate.  He 
is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary,  Rt.  Rev.  Maximino  Ruiz, 
whose  titular  see  is  Derbe.  An  important  event  has 
taken  place  in  Mexico  in  the  restoration  of  the  Apos¬ 
tolic  Delegation  which  since  the  beginning  of  the 
more  violent  political  troubles  has  been  in  the  hands 
of  the  apostolic  delegates  at  Washington.  Mgr. 
Filippe  was  appointed  titular  Archbishop  of  Sardica 
and  named  delegate,  22  July,  1921.  Another  impor¬ 
tant  development  in  the  archdiocese  has  been  the 
organization  of  a  Confederation  of  Catholic  Associa¬ 
tions,  on  the  lines  of  the  National  Catholic  Welfare 
Council  of  the  United  States;  the  official  organ  of  this 
association  is  “The  Bond  of  Union.”  On  19  March, 
1919,  the  archbishop,  separated  from  his  flock,  and 
exiled  from  his  country,  celebrated  the  silver  jubilee 
of  his  episcopate,  with  a  few  intimate  friends,  at  the 
mother-house  of  the  Sons  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  at 
San  Antonio,  Texas.  According  to  1920  statistics 
the  archdiocese  counts  a  Catholic  population  of 
1,839,250;  620  secular  and  218  regular  clergy,  230 
parishes  and  1000  churches  and  chapels. 

Michigan — The  total  land  area  of  the  State  of 
Michigan  is  57,980  square  miles.  In  1920  the 
population  was  3,663,412,  an  increase  of  30.5  per 
cent  over  that  of  1910  (2,810,173).  The  average 
number  of  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile  was  63.8, 
as  against  48.9  in  1910.  Of  the  population  61  per 
cent  was  urban. 

Economic  Conditions. — The  agricultural  products 
for  the  year  1920  included  64,350,000  bushels  of 
corn,  20,234,000  bushels  of  wheat,  36,875,000  bushels 
of  oats.  The  value  of  wool  was  $26,243,000.  The 
state  had  2,224,000  sheep,  640,000  horses,  1,646,000 
neat  cattle,  and  1,450,000  swine.  In  1916  the  fish 
catch  in  the  Great  Lakes  was  worth  $1,430,322. 
The  manufacturing  statistics  of  Michigan  are  as 
follows:  establishments,  8285;  capital,  $2,337,003,000; 
persons  engaged  in  manufacure,  547,925;  value  of 
products,  $3,447,984,000.  Michigan  manufactures 
about  75  per  cent  of  the  entire  output  of  motor 
vehicles  in  this  country.  The  value  of  the  output 
of  the  mines  was  $199,264,604  for  the  year  1918. 
In  1919  there  were  in  the  state  8982  miles  of 
railway  and  947  miles  of  electric  railway;  during 
the  year,  50,089,000  net  tons  with  68,235,542  short 
tons  of  freight  passed  through  the  St.  Mary’s  Canal, 
situated  at  Sault  Ste  Marie. 

Education. — There  are  23,051  teachers  in  the  pub¬ 
lic  schools  and  683,373  pupils;  the  total  appropria¬ 
tion  from  all  sources  in  the  last  fiscal  year  was 
$32,141,150.  All  children  are  compelled  by  law  to 
attend  some  school  at  least  five  months  in  the  year, 
unless  shown  to  be  properly  taught  at  home. 

The  state  laws  governing  public  and  private  schools 


MICHOACAN 


MICHOACAN 


500 


are  as  follows:  The  superintendent  of  public  in¬ 
struction  has  supervision  of  all  the  private,  denomi¬ 
national  and  parochial  schools  of  the  State.  The 
sanitary  conditions  of  such  schools,  the  courses  of 
study  therein,  and  the  qualifications  of  the  teach¬ 
ers  thereof  must  be  of  the  same  standard  as  pro¬ 
vided  by  the  general  school  laws  of  the  State.  No 
person  can  teach  in  any  of  the  regular  or  elemen¬ 
tary  grades  in  any  private,  denominational,  or 
parochial  school  without  a  certificate  qualifying 
him  or  her  to  teach  in  like  grades  of  the  public 
schools  of  the  State.  No  money  can  be  appropri¬ 
ated  or  drawn  from  the  treasury  for  the  benefit 
of  any  religious  sect  or  society,  theological  or  re¬ 
ligious  seminary,  nor  can  property  belonging  to 
the  State  be  appropriated  for  any  such  purpose. 
Incorporated  academies  or  other  literary  institu¬ 
tions  must  annually  report  to  the  State  Superin¬ 
tendent  property,  income,  enrollment,  course  of 
studies,  textbooks,  etc.  In  1920  great  bitterness 
arose  over  a  proposed  amendment  to  the  State 
Constitution,  designed  to  compel  all  children  below 
eighth  grade  to  attend  the  public  schools.  It  was 
defeated  by  a  2  to  1  vote.  The  proposal  was  bit¬ 
terly  fought  by  the  private  school  interests  and 
those  religious  denominations  who  maintain  schools 
of  their  own,  as  well  as  by  many  who  oppose  re¬ 
ligious  strife.  Although  the  State  attorney-general 
declared  the  amendment  unconstitutional,  the 
supreme  court  decided  that  it  should  be  submitted 
to  the  people. 

The  University  of  Michigan  in  1919  had  555  in¬ 
structors,  and  8857  enrolled  students,  the  State 
Agricultural  College  had  158  instructors  and  1753 
students,  and  is  supported  by  interest  on  endow¬ 
ment  fund,  one-fifth  of  a  mill  tax  and  appropria¬ 
tions  from  the  United  States  Treasury  and  State 
Legislature,  students’  fees,  and  receipts  for  produce. 
The  College  of  Mines  had  27  instructors  and  140 
students.  The  four  normal  schools  in  the  state 
employ  266  instructors  and  have  an  average  of 
340  pupils.  The  School  for  the  Blind  has  18 
instructors  and  about  165  pupils;  the  Employment 
Institute,  8  instructors  and  90  pupils,  the  State 
Public  School,  8  teachers,  9  cottage  managers,  and 
about  632  inmates.  A  State  Training  School  for 
Women  was  established  in  1917. 

Religion. — The  Federal  Religious  Census  of  1916, 
published  in  1918,  gives  the  following  statistics: 
Catholics,  1,171,381;  Methodist  Episcopalians,  287,- 
931;  Episcopalians,  40,726;  Baptists,  170,452;  Pres¬ 
byterians,  114,857;  Disciples  of  Christ,  116,639; 
Lutherans,  187,746;  Jews,  33,377;  Congregationalists, 
57,926. 

Recent  Legislative  Changes. — These  include  a 
new  State  Constitution,  adopted  3  November,  1908. 
It  has  been  amended  several  times  to  give  the 
people  the  initiative  and  referendum  on  legislative 
matters  and  constitutional  amendments,  and  author¬ 
ity  to  recall  elective  officers,  except  judges.  In 
1912  the  Presidential  Primary  Bill  was  passed,  as 
well  as  an  Employer’s  Liability  Bill.  On  1  May, 
1918,  state-wide  prohibition  went  into  effect  by 
means  of  an  amendment  to  the  State  Constitution. 
In  1919  the  Legislature  permitted  religious  societies 
to  receive  gifts,  although  the  real  estate  received 
must  be  sold  if  unused  for  ten  years;  prohibited 
sex  discrimination  in  payment  of  wages,  and  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  primary  election  of  township  officials. 
The  following  were  created  in  that  year:  State 
Police,  Public  Utilities  Commission,  State  Athletic 
Board  of  Control,  Board  of  Examiners  of  Architects, 
Surveyors,  and  Engineers,  an  Industrial  Commis¬ 
sion,  and  a  Commission  to  investigate  the  disputed 
boundary  between  Wisconsin  and  Michigan.  Both 


Houses,  without  a  single  dissenting  vote,  ratified 
the  Federal  Woman  Suffrage  Act  on  10  June,  1919, 
and  the  Federal  Amendment  on  2  January,  1919. 
In  that  year  also,  boxing  was  prohibited  on  Sunday, 
and  on  Saturday  if  continued  into  Sunday. 

History. — On  22  December,  1917,  five  Germans 
were  convicted  and  sentenced  in  the  United  States 
District  Court  at  Detroit,  on  indictments  for  inaugu¬ 
rating  in  Michigan  military  enterprises  against  Can¬ 
ada  while  the  United  States  was  still  at  peace 
with  Germany.  The  leader  was  connected  with 
attempts  to  blow  up  the  Welland  Canal  and  other 
structures  of  military  importance.  In  1918  the  trial 
of  United  States  Senator  Newberry  for  exceeding 
the  expenditure  limit  in  securing  his  nomination 
and  election  roused  a  great  deal  of  interest.  It 
culminated  in  his  conviction  and  sentence  to  two 
years  in  Leavenworth  Penitentiary.  The  case  was 
appealed.  On  12  January,  1921,  the  Senate  voted 
46  to  41  to  seat  him  but  expressed  their  disap¬ 
proval  of  his  election  expenditures. 

During  the  European  War  Michigan  sent  into 
the  United  States  Army  135,465  soldiers,  or  3.61 
per  cent  of  the  force.  The  Michigan  members  of 
the  national  guard  formed  a  part  of  the  32d  Division 
at  MacArthur,  Texas,  and  those  of  the  national 
army  joined  the  85th  Division  at  Custer,  Michigan. 
The  summary  of  casualties  of  the  Michigan  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  American  Expeditionary  Force  was  as 
follows:  deceased,  124  officers,  2627  men;  prisoners, 
6  officers,  84  men;  wounded,  251  officers,  7277  men. 

For  ecclesiastical  history  see  Detroit,  Diocese  of; 
Grand  Rapids,  Diocese  of;  Marquette,  Diocese  of. 

Michoacan  (or  Mechoacan),  Archdiocese  of 
(Michoacanensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  X — 282c),  in  Mexico,  is 
a  metropolitan,  with  residence  at  Morelia.  The  Most 
Rev.  Leopold  Ruiz  Flores,  b.  13  November,  1865, 
studied  in  Mexico,  later  at  the  South  American 
College,  Rome,  doctor  of  theology,  philosophy,  and 
canon  law  in  1887,  ordained  17  March,  1888,  ap¬ 
pointed  1  October,  1900,  consecrated  27  December 
following,  promoted  as  Archbishop  of  Linares,  14 
September,  1907,  transferred  to  Michoacan  at  the 
consistory  of  27  November,  1911,  to  succeed  Most 
Rev.  Antinogenes  Silva  (b.  26  August,  1848;  d.  26 
February,  1911).  In  1914  Mgr.  Ruiz  y  Flores  went 
into  exile  disguised  as  a  drover.  The  Revolutionists 
set  a  price  upon  his  head,  but  in  1919  he  safely 
returned  to  his  see. 

Statistics  of  the  Archdiocese  for  1922  give:  63 
parishes,  400  churches,  57  succursal  parishes,  5 
chaplaincies,  246  secular  and  91  regular  clergy,  1 
seminary  with  299  seminarians,  1  home,  2  asylums, 
2  hospitals.  No  priests  are  admitted  in  public 
institutions;  none  of  the  schools  or  institutions  receive 
Government  grants.  Associations  organized  among 
the  laity  are:  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  the  Associa¬ 
tion  of  the  Fathers  of  Families,  the  Catholic  Workers, 
the  Catholic  Association  of  Mexican  Youth,  the 
Society  of  Catholic  Workmen.  Two  weeklies  are 
published.  The  Catholic  population  is  estimated  at 
900,000,  of  Spanish  and  Indian  descent. 

Events  of  importance  since  1914  are:  the  perse¬ 
cution  against  the  Church,  confiscation  of  churches, 
colleges,  schools;  religious  instruction  prohibited  in 
private  schools  and  the  clergy  forbidden  to  direct 
educational  institutions;  30  priests  exiled,  the  exile  of 
the  priests  of  Morelia  being  prevented  because  of  the 
protest  of  the  people  en  masse;  the  2  most  ancient 
churches  of  Morelia,  built  in  1541,  were  demolished, 
the  stones  being  employed  to  macadamize  the  streets. 
The  Socialists  penetrated  the  cathedral  and  broke 
with  their  fists  the  statue  of  Our  Lady  of  Guadeloupe; 
the  Catholic  Association  of  Mexican  Youth  was 
severely  persecuted,  of  whom  about  ten  were  im- 


MIDDLE  AGES 


501 


MIDDLE  AGES 


prisoned  each  day.  On  20  June,  1920,  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  MichoacaU  ceded  a  large  portion  of  its 
territory  for  the  formation  of  the  Diocese  of  Tacam- 
baro,  with  Rt.  Rev.  Leopoldo  Lara  as  its  first  bishop. 

Middle  Ages, — Meaning  of  Name. — By  the 
“Middle  Ages”  there  is  now  commonly  understood 
the  period  intervening  between  antiquity  and  mod¬ 
ern  times,  or  between  the  Fall  of  the  Roman  Em¬ 
pire  of  the  West  in  476  and  the  capture  of  Con¬ 
stantinople  by  the  Turks  in  1453.  Thus  the  Middle 
Ages  cover  the  period  of  about  one  thousand  years 
between  the  Greco-Roman  civilization  and  the 
wider  diffusion  of  classical  learning  at  the  time  of 
the  Renaissance.  The  very  appellation  Middle 
Ages  seems  to  imply  that  they  are  an  inter¬ 
mediary  period  between  two  civilizations,  a  break 
in  the  course  of  civilization,  a  time  of  darkness 
separating  the  light  of  the  Greco-Roman  world 
from  the  light  of  the  modern  world.  A  brief  exami¬ 
nation  into  the  origin  of  the  term  and  a  summary 
statement  of  the  nature  and  the  achievements  of 
the  Middle  Ages  will  dispel  this  colossal  error. 
Our  authority  in  this  treatment  will  be  Godfrey 
Kurth,  the  eminent  Belgian  historian. 

Origin  of  the  Term. — Originally,  the  term  “Mid- 
dle  Age  ’  was  used  philologically.  In  studying  the 
development  of  the  Latin  tongue  from  its  origin 
down  to  their  own  time,  the  philologists  had  noted 
its  several  epochs  and  had  given  each  epoch  a  name. 
The  first  epoch  was  that  of  the  classical  Latin, 
which  witnessed  the  birth  of  the  masterpieces  of 
Roman  literature.  It  extended  from  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  Roman  State  down  to.  the  reign  of 
Constantine  the  Great  (312-337).  The  second  epoch 
was  that  of  the  barbarian  Latin,  when  the  Latin 
language  was  inherited  and  disfigured  by  the  in¬ 
vading  Germanic  tribes.  It  lasted  down  to  the 
reign  of  Charlemagne  (742-814).  The  third  period 
of  Latinity  began  at  the  death  of  Charlemagne 
and  witnessed  the  birth  of  the  Italian,  Spanish, 
French,  and  the  other  neo-Latin  tongues.  The 
three  periods  of  Latinity  were  called  respectively 
the  High,  the  Middle,  and  the  Low  Age.  Later 
the  Humanists  extended  the  limits  first  assigned 
to  the  “Middle  Age”  of  Latinity.  They  began  to 
look  upon  their  own  time  as  a  fourth  and  new  age 
of  Latinity.  They  loved  to  think  that  they  had 
restored  the  Latin  tongue  to  its  pristine  purity, 
and  they  saw  in  the  period  beginning  with  the 
sixteenth  century  a  new  period  of  Latinity.  Thence¬ 
forth  they  united  the  second  and  third  periods, 
both  of  which  had  marked  the  decline  of  the 
Latin  tongue,  and  called  them  the  middle  period. 
Thus  they  extended  the  Middle  Age  of  the  Latin 
language  to  a  period  stretching  from  the  decline 
of  the  Roman  Empire  under  Constantine  the  Great 
to  the  Renaissance.  Thus  the  Middle  Age  of 
Latinity  became  synonymous  with  declining 
Latinity.  It  was  used  in  this  sense  by  the 
Humanists,  also  by  the  French  historian  and 
philologist  Ducange  (1610—1688)  wdien  he  gave  to 
his  celebrated  dictionary  the  title  of  “Glossarium 
Mediae  et  Infimae  Latinitatis.” 

The  historians  borrowed  the  term  “Middle  Age” 
from  the  philologists,  and  transferred  it  to  the 
domain  of  historiography.  They  adopted  both  the 
name  and  period  which  it  covered,  and  designated 
that  historical  and  political  period  as  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  from  the  standpoint  of  civilization  marked 
as  blank  the  period  wThich  the  philologists  had 
marked  blank  from  the  standpoint  of  Latinity 
The  unfortunate  exchange  of  terms  brought  about 
the  exchange  of  viewpoints  and  confusion  of  ideas 
resulted  from  the  confusion  of  words. 


1  he  term  “Middle  Ages”  was  used  in  this,  its 
present  sense,  as  early  as  1639,  by  Rausin  of  Liege 
in  his  “Leodium”  (p.  103).  Christopher  Keller 
followed  in  the  footsteps  of  Rausin  in  “Historia 
medii  aevi  a  temporibus  Constantini  Magni  ad  Con- 
stantinopolim  a  Turcis  captam  deducta,”  published 
in  Jena,  1688.  Loescher  introduced  the  wTord  into 
a  German  work  published  in  the  year  1725.  Since 
then  the  expression  has  been  in  constant  use  in 
pedagogical  works,  and  gradually  found  its  way 
into  literary  productions.  But  not  before  the  sec¬ 
ond  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  does  the  term 
appear  in  literary  works,  and  the  great  writers 
of  that  epoch  in  France  as  well  as  in  Germany  use 
it  seldom  and  with  hesitancy.  The  French  Academy, 
the  final  authority  in  matters  pertaining  to  the 
French  language,  did  not  admit  the  term  into  the 
official  repertoire  of  the  language  until  the  publi¬ 
cation  of  the  sixth  edition  of  its  dictionary,  in- 
1835.  It  is  not  unlikely,  as  Kurth  predicts,  that 
future  lexicographers  will  discard  the  term  “Middle 
Ages.” 

Nature  and  Achievements. — Not  only  was  the 
introduction  of  the  philological  term  “Middle  Ages” 
into  historiography  unwarranted,  but  the  implica¬ 
tion  that  it  is  an  appropriate  name  for  an  inter¬ 
mediary  period  is  historically  false.  Far  from 
being  intermediary  between  the  ancient  and  modern 
civilizations,  the  Middle  Ages  are  the  beginning  of 
modern  civilization,  which  began  when  the  pagan 
civilization  of  Rome  collapsed.  On  the  ruins  of 
pagan  civilization  new  societies  were  built  which 
were  Christian  in  principle.  These  societies  still 
stand  on  their  original  foundation,  Christian 
morality.  They  were  begun  during  the  centuries 
of  the  Middle  Ages  and  continued  to  flourish  dur¬ 
ing  subsequent  centuries.  We  are  the  heirs  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  not,  as  some  would  have  it,  the  heirs 
of  Greece  and  Rome.  Whatever  of  institutions  and 
ideas  is  lasting  in  modern  society  has  its  roots  deep 
in  the  fertile  soil  of  the  first  Christian  centuries. 

The  achievements  of  the  Middle  Ages  are  known 
to  students  of  history.  The  Middle  Ages  gradually 
put  an  end  to  ancient  slavery  and  called  all  men 
to  freedom.  Under  the  inspiration  of  the  Church 
of  the  Middle  Ages  governments  and  individuals 
emancipated  their  slaves,  and  the  laws  of  Christian 
rulers  encouraged  and  favored  the  suppression  of 
slavery.  To  loosen  link  by  link  the  chain  of  slavery 
was  the  work  of  centuries,  which  finally  brought 
about  the  complete  and  universal  emancipation  of 
the  slave.  The  Middle  Ages  rent  the  imperial  unity 
of  the  world  and  substituted  the  modern  nation¬ 
alities.  The  Middle  Ages  created  the  modern  lan¬ 
guages  and  thereby  gradually  eliminated  the  Latin. 
These  are  the  languages  which  we  speak  to-day  and 
which  hold  unprecedented  eminence  in  the  world 
of  thought.  The  Middle  Ages  accepted  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Faith  with  love,  and  defended  it  vigorously 
and  constantly,  with  word,  pen,  and  sword.  The 
Middle  Ages  made  the  papacy  the  most  respected 
institution  of  the  world,  and  it  was  the  papacy 
that  saved  civilization  “by  defending,  in  the  name 
of  religion,  the  natural  rights  against  the  usurpa¬ 
tions  of  the  State,  of  the  rulers,  and  even  against 
the  people  itself.  It  was  the  papacy  that  knew 
how  to  conciliate  the  weak  with  the  powerful  by 
recommending  everywhere  and  always  justice,  peace, 
respect  for  duty,  and  assumed  obligations;  and  it 
was  in  this  way  that  the  papacy  laid  the  corner¬ 
stone  of  international  law,  by  standing  forth  as  a 
bulwark  against  the  pretensions  and  passions  of 
brutal  force”  (Guizot,  “L’Eglise  et  la  Societe,” 
1861). 

The  Middle  Ages  enforced  the  distinction  between 


MIDDLESBROUGH 


502 


MILAN 


the  temporal  and  the  spiritual,  the  great  principle 
which  flows  from  the  Gospel  and  which  in  the 
past  has  renovated  and  to-day  upholds  the  political 
and  social  spirit  of  the  civilized  world.  The 
Middle  Ages  founded  the  constitutional  monarchy 
and  representative  government,  both  unknown  to 
antiquity,  but  which  are  indispensable  conditions 
for  the  political  existence  of  modern  nations.  Under 
the  shelter  of  these  public  liberties,  which  were 
guaranteed  by  covenant  between  prince  and  subject, 
the  Middle  Ages  gave  impetus  to  all  forms  of 
association,  from  the  municipal  corporation  down 
to  the  labor  union,  and  bequeathed  to  us  models 
to  which,  in  spite  of  the  storms  of  revolution, 
humanity  unceasingly  turns  for  imitation.  The 
art  of  the  Middle  Ages  has  become  our  art.  The 
name  Gothic,  which  at  first  was  applied  to  the 
architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages  as  a  term  of 
.reproach,  is  now  bestowed  on  our  art  as  a  title,  of 
glory,  and  to-day  we  draw  inspiration  from  the 
monuments  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  poets  of  the 
seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  gloried  in 
their  ignorance  of  the  national  poetry  of  the 
Middle  Ages;  we  love  it,  we  admire  it,  we  have 
given  it  our  undying  affection. 

In  art  and  poetry  we  shall  not  have  surpassed 
the  Middle  Ages  until  we  shall  have  erected  a 
more  beautiful  cathedral  than  that  of  Reims, 
painted  a  more  inspiring  canvas  than  the  Van 
Eycks’  Adoration  of  the  Lamb,  and  written  a  poem 
more  powerful  than  Dante’s  “Divina  Commedia.” 

All  that  we  have — our  religion  and  our  political 
ideas,  our  nationality  and  our  language,  our 
aesthetics  and  our  social  economy — all  these  con¬ 
nect  us  with  the  Middle  Ages  and  separate  us  from 
antiquity.  We  are  the  heirs  of  the  Middle  Ages; 
we  continue  their  work.  The  Middle  Ages  are  the 
period  of  our  younger  years.  They  do  not  repre¬ 
sent  the  ideal  perfection  of  society,  they  had  defects 
peculiar  to  childhood.  Without  desiring  a  return 
to  the  conditions  then  prevailing,  we  prize  the 
Middle  Ages  as  the  time  of  our  vigorous  youth,  a 
youth  freely  and  proudly  developed  in  the  light 
and  sunshine  of  the  Gospel.  When  we  pride  our¬ 
selves  on  the  present  status  of  our  civilization  we 
honor  the  vigorous  red  blood  of  our  ancestors. 
From  its  birth  Christian  society  has  marched  on 
its  checkered  course  towards  the  realization  of  its 
sublime  ideal.  The  centuries  of  the  Middle  Ages 
began  the  work,  the  modern  centuries  followed, 
and  our  age,  heir  of  both,  continues  the  task  and 
will  hand  down  the  work  unfinished  to  future  cen¬ 
turies. 

Kurth,  What  are  the  Middle  Ages?;  Kurth ,L’egliseaux 
tournants  de  Vhistoire,  tr.  Day,  The  Church  at  the  Turning 
Points  of  History;  Kurth,  Les  Origines  de  la  Civilisation 
Moderne. 

Victor  Day. 

Middlesbrough,  Diocese  of  (Medioburgensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  X — 286a),  comprises  the  North  and  East 
Ridings  of  York  County,  England,  and  the  city  of 
York  north  of  the  Ouse.  The  see  is  suffragan  of 
Liverpool  and  is  at  present  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Richard 
Lacy,  born  in  Navan,  England,  in  1841,  ordained  in 
1867  and  appointed  12  September,  1879.  He  is  the 
first  bishop  of  the  diocese,  and  was  named  an  assistant 
at  the  pontifical  throne  20  December,  1917.  The 
religious  orders  of  men  established  in  the  diocese 
include:  Benedictines,  Canons  Regular  of  the  Lateran, 
Hospitallers  of  St.  John  of  God,  Jesuits,  Marists,  and 
Brothers  of  the  Christian  Sohools;  women:  Sisters  of 
the  Assumption,  Dominicans,  Canonesses  Regular 
of  St.  Augustine,  Faithful  Companions  of  Jesus, 
Ladies  of  Mary,  Poor  Clares,  Poor  Sisters  of  Nazareth, 
Serietes,  Sisters  of  Charity,  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St. 


Paul,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Sisters  of  the  Presentation, 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  Notre  Dame,  and  Sisters  of 
Misericorde.  The  latest  statistics  (1922)  credit  the 
diocese  with  77  secular  and  43  regular  clergy ,  25  con¬ 
vents,  73  churches,  33  private  chapels  having  Sunday 
Mass,  43  elementary  schools  receiving  ^Government 
grants  and  2  without  grants,  with  11,676  pupils,  11 
other  schools  teaching  407  boys,  2  hospitals  and  5 
residential  institutions  for  poor  children.  The  Cath¬ 
olic  population  is  estimated  at  46,920. 

Mignot,  Eudoxe-Ir^nee.  See  Albi,  Arch¬ 
diocese  of. 

Milan,  Archdiocese  of  (Mediolanensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  X — 298d) ,  in  Lombardy,  Northern  Italy. 
The  city  of  Milan,  situated  on  the  Olona  river,  is 
Italy’s  industrial  center  and,  next  to  Naples,  the 
largest  city,  with  a  population  of  663,000  in  1915. 
The  diocese  is  the  largest  in  Italy  and  the  most 
important.  The  distinguished  and  universally  be¬ 
loved  Cardinal  Archbishop  Andrea  Ferrari  (q.  v.) 
died  2  February,  1921,  and  on  13  June,  1921,  Mgr. 
Achille  Ratti,  titular  Archbishop  of  Adana,  was 
created  cardinal  priest  and  named  Archbishop  of 
Milan;  on  6  February,  1922,  he  was  elected  Pope, 
taking  the  name  of  Pius  XI.  The  Holy  Father  lost 
no  time  in  providing  his  city  of  Milan  with  a  pastor, 
Mgr.  Eugenio  Tosi,  of  the  Oblates  of  St.  Charles, 
born  in  Busto  Arsizio,  diocese  of  Milan,  6  May,  1863, 
elected  bishop  of  Squillace  5  April,  1911,  transferred 
to  Andria  22  March,  1917,  and  to  Milan  in  March, 
1922. 

During  the  war  481  priests  of  the  archdiocese  were 
in  the  army,  110  as  chaplains,  29  as  assistant  chap¬ 
lains,  10  as  officers,  and  331  as  soldiers;  of  these  9 
died,  7  were  wounded,  9  made  prisoners,  and  14 
decorated  for  valor;  300  seminarians  served  in  the 
army,  18  were  killed,  5  were  wounded  and  27  were 
taken  prisoner.  Ten  churches  were  requisitioned  by 
the  military  authorities,  24  diocesan  institutions 
were  used  as  hospitals,  29  congregations  of  Sisters 
served  as  nurses,  committees  for  needs  of  war  were 
formed  in  each  parish,  organizations  were  formed 
to  assist  refugees,  institutions  were  opened  for  war 
orphans,  committees  of  assistance  for  prisoners  and 
also  to  locate  prisoners  were  organized,  besides  the 
committee  of  religious  assistance  for  soldiers.  At  the 
end  of  the  war  the  commander-in-chief  solemnly 
praised  the  work  of  the  clergy  of  the  diocese  and  the 
archbishop  was  decorated. 

Two  recent  institutions  inaugurated  m  1921  and 
both  founded  by  Cardinal  Ferrari  are  the  Catholic 
University  of  the  Sacred  Heart  and  the  “ Casa  del 
Popolo”  called  L’Opera  Cardinale  Ferrari.  The  first, 
the  only  one  of  its  sort  in  Italy,  is  limited  to  the  study 
of  philosophy  and  social  sciences  and  is  located  in  an 
ancient  palace,  has  52  professors,  about  100  students, 
with  a  great  hall,  laboratories,  rich  library,  offices, 
chapel,  etc.  The  second,  started  by  a  gift  of  the 
diocese  to  the  cardinal  at  his  episcopal  jubilee,  follows 
the  activities  of  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  providing 
all  safe  forms  of  social  activities  for  the  workers, 
artisans,  students  and  clerks  gathered  together  in  the 
great  metropolis  which  is  the  moral  capital  of  Italy. 
Still  in  the  course  of  formation  on  a  vast  site,  at  the 
present  time  (January,  1922)  there  has  been  started 
a  technical  school,  school  for  secretarial  course,  for 
preparation  of  elementary  teachers,  technical  school 
for  daughters  of  workers,  school  of  popular  music, 
economical  restaurant  for  students,  workers,  and 
clerks,  a  free  employment  bureau,  a  school  for  the 
unemployed,  free  course  in  popular  culture,  a  board¬ 
ing  place  for  university  students,  and  a  dopo-scuolo 
for  students  from  high  schools.  Many  other  activ¬ 
ities  are  to  be  started  and  the  complete  Casa  will 


MILETO 


503 


MINNESOTA 


include  a  theatre,  large  dormitory,  baths,  moving 
pictures,  field  for  sports,  etc. 

1  he  new  Catholic  press  includes  a  political  daily, 
7  weeklies,  10  business  papers  and  16  cultural  ones, 
with  12  editorial  houses  and  8  religious  libraries. 
The  diocese  contains  nearly  3,000,000  Catholics 
(2,967,876  in  1919),  795  parishes  (54  in  city),  2162 
secular  priests,  92  regular  priests,  141  churches  in  the 
citv;  1724  outside,  total  1865;  18  orders  of  men  with 
35  houses,  50  congregations  of  women,  103  houses  in 
city ,  397  in  the  diocese;  155  lay  brothers,  5  seminaries, 
750  seminarians;  16  colleges  for  men,  28  for  women; 
1  university;  1  mission  work;  29  refuges,  10  hospitals, 
61  day  nurseries;  1  organization  among  the  clergy  and 
49  for  the  laity. 

Mileto,  Diocese  of  (Miletensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
^  303b),  in  the  province  of  Catanzaro,  Southern 
Italy,  directly  dependent  on  the  Holy  See.  This  see 
is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Giuseppe  Morabito,  born  in 
Reggio-Calabria  in  1858,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Dioclea  15  June,  1898,  and  transferred  15  December 
following.  On  14  February,  1919  Rt.  Rev.  Paolo 
Albera,  Bishop  of  Bova,  was  named  apostolic  admin¬ 
istrator  ot  the  diocese.  It  embraces  a  Catholic  pop¬ 
ulation  of  220,000,  126  parishes,  27  vicariates,  300 
secular  and  8  regular  clergy,  120  seminarians,  10 
Brothers,  35  Sisters  and  300  churches  and  chapels. 

Mill  Hill.  See  Foreign  Missions,  Saint  Joseph’s 
Society  for. 

Milwaukee,  Archdiocese  of  (Milwauchiensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  X-319a),  in  the  State  of  Wisconsin,  U. 
S.  A.,  covers  an  area  of  9321  sq.  miles  with  a  Cath¬ 
olic  population  of  about  274,329.  The  see  is  filled 
by  Most  Rev.  Sebastian  Gebhard  Messmer,  D.  D., 
D.  C.  L .,  b.  20  August,  1847,  at  Goldach,  ordained 
28  July,  1871,  appointed  Bishop  of  Green  Bay  14 
December,  1891,  consecrated  27  March,  1892,  trans¬ 
ferred  and  raised  to  the  archiepiscopal  dignity  10 
December,  1903,  proclaimed  14  November,  1904, 
succeeding  Mgr.  Frederick  Xavier  Katzer  (b.  11 
February,  1844;  d.  20  July,  1903);  made  assistant 
at  the  pontifical  throne  16  November,  1906. 

According  to  1922  census  there  are:  233  parishes, 
70  missions,  338  secular  and  102  regular  clergy, 

6  monasteries  for  men,  11  convents  for  women, 

3  clerical  seminaries  with  524  clerical  students,  1 
university  with  274  professors  and  4300  students,  1 
college  for  men  with  100  boys,  1  high  school  with 
260  boys  and  girls,  7  academies  with  1080  girls,  165 
parochial  schools  with  45,000  pupils,  1  industrial 
school  for  girls  with  95  pupils,  5  homes  for  the 
aged,  4  for  girls,  1  for  working  men,  7  asylums  for 
orphans  and  dependent  children  with  680  inmates, 
14  hospitals,  1  institute  for  deaf-mutes  with  85 
pupils,  1  institute  for  the  feeble-minded  with  190 
pupils,  1  day  nursery.  Most  of  the  public  institu¬ 
tions  admit  the  ministry  of  priests.  None  of  the 
Catholic  institutions  or  schools  are  supported  by 
state  or  government  aid.  Three  societies  are  or¬ 
ganized  among  the  clergy:  Eucharistic  League, 
Purgatorial  Society,  St.  Michael’s  Priest  Fund  for 
Indigent  Priests;  among  the  laity:  Holy  Name 
Society,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society,  League  of 
Catholic' Women,  Missionary  Association  of  Cath¬ 
olic  Women,  Association  of  Catholic  Hospitals. 
Four  Catholic  weeklies  are  published:  “Catholic 
Herald,”  “Catholic  Citizen,”  “Columbia,”  “Excel- 
fjgj’  ;  three  Catholic  monthlies:  “Hospital  Progress,” 
The  Ligorian,”  “Mater  Dolorosa.”  Catholic 
nationalities  represented  in  the  archdiocese  are: 
169  English-speaking  parishes,  89  German,  21  Polish, 
o  Lithuanian,  5  Italian,  4  Slovak,  3  Slovene,  1  each 
for  Frencht  Croatian,  Syrian,  and  negroes.  Since 


1910  the  iollowing  religious  orders  have  come  into 
the  diocese :  Redemptorist  Fathers,  at  Oconomo- 
woc;  Palatini  Fathers,  at  Wauwatosa;  Dominican 
Fathers,  at  Madison;  3  houses  of  Carmelite  Sisters 
ot  the  Sacred  Heart. 

Archbishop  Messmer  celebrated  his  golden  jubilee 
27  July,  1921. 

During  the  World  War  the  diocese  contributed 
13  chaplains  to  the  army  and  13,000  soldiers. 


Mind  Healing. 

Thought. 


See  Christian  Science;  New 


Minguella  y  Arnedo,  Toribio,  Bishop  of  Sigiicnza 
and  historian,  was  born  at  Eg^o  de  Cornago,  Logrono, 
Spain,  on  16  April,  1836;  d.  at  Monteagudo  on  1 
August,  1920.  After  completing  his  secondary 
studies  with  distinction  at  Tarragona,  he  joined  the 
Discalced  Augustinians  at  Monteagudo  and  after 
being  ordained  was  sent  to  the  Philippines  Islands  in 
1858.  He  labored  at  Las  Pinas,  Selang,  Imus, 
Rosam,  and  Cavite  Viejo  and  was  secretary  general 
and  chronicler  of  the  Philippine  province  of  iiis  order. 
He  was  sent  later  to  Madrid  as  commissary  procurator 
and  was  nominated  rector  of  San  Mullan  and  elected 
a  corresponding  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
History.  In  1894  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Porto  Rico, 
where  he  displayed  extraordinary  pastoral  zeal;  three 
years  later  he  was  transferred  to  the  See  of  Siguenza, 
from  which  after  an  episcopate  of  twenty  years  he 
resigned  in  1916,  at  the  age  of  eightv-one,  and  was 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Basilopolis.  Mgr. 
Minguella  is  recognized  as  one  of  the  greatest  scholars 
in  Spain  in  his  day.  Among  his  linguistic  published 
works  may  be  mentioned  his  Spanish-Tagal  Grammar 
(Manila,  1878),  and  “Metodo  practico  para  que  los 
ninos  y  ninas  de  las  provincias  tagalas  aprendan  a 
hablar  espanol”  (Manila,  1886),  a  work  crowned  by 
the  Government  and  published  at  its  expense; 
“Unidad  de  la  especie  humana  probada  por  la  filo- 
logia”  (Madrid);  an  extensive  treatise  on  Filipino 
palaeography,  the  fruit  of  long  and  varied  research, 
is  as  yet  unprinted.  His  chief  historical  contribu¬ 
tions  are  “San  Mull&n  de  la  Cogulla”  (Madrid,  1883); 
“Conquista  espiritual  de  Mindanao  por  los  agostinoo 
recoletos”  (Valladolid,  1885);  “Cronologia  de  Roma 
P.  fray  Gabino  Sanchez  Cortes”  (Madrid,  1894); 
“Historia  del  P.  Ezequial  Moreno,  obispo  de  Pasto” 
{Madrid,  1904),  and  “Historia  de  la  diocesis  de 
Siguenza  et  de  sus  obispos”  (3  vols.  Madrid,  1910-13), 
a  masterly  wnrk  crowned  by  the  Academy  of  History. 

Minnesota — The  total  land  area  of  Minnesota 
is  84,682  square  miles.  In  1920  the  population  was 
2,387,125,  an  increase  of  15  per  cent  over  that  of 
1910  (2,075,708).  Of  this  55  per  cent  was  rural. 
The  average  number  of  inhabitants  to  the  square 
mile  was  29.5.  The  largest  cities  are:  Minne¬ 
apolis,  380,582;  St.  Paul,  234,585;  Duluth,  98,917; 
Winona,  19,143;  Stillwater,  12,435. 

Economic  Conditions. — According  to  the  census 
of  1919  there  weie  in  the  State  622o  manufacturing 
establishments,  in  which  were  employed  115,600 
wage  earners.  The  capital  invested  amounted  to 
8690,384,000,  and  the  total  value  of  products  was 
$1,218,130,000.  In  the  same  year  Minnesota  had 
178,478  farms,  with  an  acreage  of  51,749,120.  The 
value  of  the  crops  was  $506,020,665,  the  principal 
crops  being  maize  (118,125,000  bushels),  wheat 
(29,116,000  bushels),  oats  (126,488,000  bushels),  bar¬ 
ley  (25,000,000  bushels).  The  wool  clip  amounted 
to  3,594,000  pounds  of  wool.  The  national  forest 
area  is  1,044,233  acres.  In  1917  Minnesota  had 
9161  miles  of  railway,  besides  732  miles  of  electric 
railway.  St.  Paul  is  a. famous  railway  center  through 
which  ton  railroads  pass.  The  Groat  Northern  Rail- 


MINOR 


504 


MIREPOIX 


way  Company  of  St.  Paul  has  a  line  of  steamers 
which  sail  between  Puget  Sound  and  China,  Japan, 
and  the  Philippines,  the  railway  of  the  company 
carrying  vast  loads  of  merchandise  from  bt.  Paul 
to  the  port  of  shipment  at  very  low  freight  rates. 
About  44,000,000  tons  of  iron  ore  were  mined  and 
shipped  from  Minnesota  in  191/. 

Education  .-The  laws  governing  private  and 
parochial  schools  are  as  follows:  iNo  public  P“one>s 
or  property  shall  be  appropriated  or  used  o  _ 
support  of  schools  wherein  the  distinctive  doctrines 
of  any  particular  Christian  or  other  religion  are 
promulgated  or  taught.  To  satisfy  the  require¬ 
ments  of  compulsory  attendance  a  school  must  be 
one  in  which  all  the  common  branches  are  taught 
in  the  English  language.  A  foreign  language  may 
be  taught  for  a  period  not  to  exceed  one  hour  m 
each  day.  By  a  decision  of  the  Attorney  General 
Bible  reading  is  excluded  from  the  public  schools. 
State  support  is  from  the  income  on  the  permanent 
school  fund  and  one  half  the  income  from  the 
state  swamp  land  fund,  from  revenue  derived  from 
a  one  mill  tax  and  from  biennial  appropriations 
by  the  Legislature.  The  appropriated  funds  are 
distributed  from  a  special  State  aid  and  the  income 
from  trust  funds  and  the  State  tax,  exceeding 
SI 50 ,000,  is  distributed  to  the  districts  according  to 
the  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  public  schools 
for  forty  days  or  more.  Local  support  consists  of 
a  tax  on  the  property  of  the  district,  including 
a  one  mill  tax  required  by  law  to  be  levied  m 
each  district.  There  are  six  public  normal  schools. 
In  1920  the  9136  public  elementary  schools  of  the 
State  had  16,896  teachers  and  439,537  pupils;  240 
public  high  schools  with  2244  teachers  and  64,060 
pupils  The  total  expenditure  on  education  in  the 
same  year  was  $38,358,555.  In  1920  the  State  Uni¬ 
versity  had  5560  students  and  800  professors;  Ham¬ 
line  University,  30  instructors  and  418  students; 
St.  John’s  University  at  Collegeville,  51  instructors 
and  420  students.  Among  the  most  recently  estab¬ 
lished  State  institutions  are:  the  Willmar  State 
Asylum,  opened  in  1912  as  a  hospital  for  inebriates, 
and  in  1917  as  an  asylum  for  the  insane;  the  State 
Reformatory  for  Women,  at  Shakopee,  opened  m 
1920;  a  new  Home  School  for  Girls,  formerly  at 
Red  Wing  (1907),  now  at  Sauk  Center  (1911) ;  Hos¬ 
pital  for  Crippled  and  Deformed  Children  near 
St.  Paul  (1910);  Minnesota  Sanitarium  at  Leech 
Lake  (1908). 

Religious. — The  LTiited  States  Religious  Census 
for  1916,  published  in  1918,  gives  the  following  statis¬ 
tics:  Catholics,  415,664;  Lutherans,  264,649 ;  Metho¬ 
dist  Episcopalians,  59,576;  Presbyterians,  32,494; 
Congregationalists,  22,987 ;  Episcopalians,  22,635 ; 
German  Evangelical  Synod,  10,048.  See  also  St. 
Paul,  Archdiocese  of;  Duluth,  Diocese  of; 
Winona,  Diocese  of;  St.  Cloud,  Diocese  of; 
Crookston,  Diocese  of. 

Legislative  Changes. — Minnesota’s  recent  legis¬ 
lation  has  been  most  progressive.  In  1911  a  primary 
election  law  for  candidates  in  State  public  office 
was  passed.  In  1913  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court  unanimously  upheld  the  right  of  the  State 
to  regulate  railroad  rates  within  its  borders.  In 
the  same  year  the ‘congressional  and  legislative  dis¬ 
tricts  were  re-apportioned;  a  workmen’s  compensa¬ 
tion  law  was  passed:  a  Minimum  Wage  Com¬ 
mission  appointed  to  regulate  the  wages  of  women 
and  children ;  the  Presidential  Primaries  Bill  was 
passed  and  the  non-partisan  primary  was  extended 
to  all  members  of  the  Legislature,  requiring  them 
to  appeal  to  the  electors  on  their  ability  to  do 
the  work  required  of  them,  instead  of  making  their 


work  a  political  issue.  A  Mothers  Pension  was 
also  provided  for.  In  1914  the  International  Har¬ 
vester  Company  was  declared  to  be  a  trust,  and  l  s 
dissolution  ordered  by  the  United  Stat.^  P1®t-r1^ 
Court.  The  administration  of  all  State  institutions 

is  now  under  a  Central  Board  of  Co^r°T|; 

Federal  Prohibition  Act  was  ratified  on  17  January , 
1919;  the  Federal  Suffrage  Act  on  8  September, 

Sttarf  in  the  War. — IMinnesota  s  contribution  to 
the  World  War  was  99,116  soldiers  or  2.64  per  cent 
of  the  United  States  Army.  The  Minnesota  sol¬ 
diers  of  the  national  guard  formed  a  part  of  the 
34th  Division  at  Camp  Cody,  New  Mexico,  and 
those  of  the  national  army  part  of  the  88th  Division 
at  Fort  Dodge,  Iowa.  The  summary  of  casualties 
among  the  Minnesota  members  of  the  American 
Expeditionary  Force  was  as 

officers,  2088  men;  prisoners,  10  officers,  91  men, 
wounded,  105  officers,  4979  men. 

Minor.  See  Age. 

Minor  Orders  (cf.  C.  E.,  X-332).  Vicars  Apos¬ 
tolic,  prefects  Apostolic,  and  abbots  or  prelates 
nullius,  even  if  they  have  not  received  episcopal 
consecration,  are  authorized  by  law,  but  only  dur¬ 
ing  their  term  of  office  and  within  their  own  terri¬ 
tory,  to  confer  first  tonsure  and  minor  orders  on 
their  own  secular  subjects  and  on  others  exhibit¬ 
ing  the  requisite  dimissorial  letters;  a  regular  abbot 
has  the  same  power  in  regard  to  those  subject 
to  him  by  profession,  provided  he  is  a  priest  and 
has  legimately  received  the  abbatial  blessing;  his 
power,  however,  is  similarly  limited  unless  he  has 
received  episcopal  consecration,  all  privileges  to  the 
contrary  being  now  revoked. 

.Minorca,  Diocese  of  (Minoricensis;  cf.  C.  E. 
X — 332a) ,  suffragan  of  Valencia  ,  comprises  the  Island 
of  Minorca,  the  second  largest  of  the  Balearic  Islands, 
which  belong  to  Spain.  The  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
John  Torres  y  Rivas,  born  in  Iviza  1844,  ordained  in 
1868,  served  as  a  pastor,  professor  of  Latin  at  the 
University  of  Madrid,  vice  rector  of  the  Spanish 
College  in  Rome  and  chancellor  of  Iviza,  made  a  dean 
and  vicar  capitular  in  1898,  prothonotary  apostolic 
in  1900  and  chaplain  to  His  Majesty,  appointed 
bishop  9  June,  1902.  This  diocese  extends  over  an 
area  of  273  square  miles,  making  it  the  smallest  of  the 
Spanish  dioceses.  It  embraces  a  Catholic  population 
of  40,000,  80  Protestants,  17  parishes,  111  priests, 
38  churches,  8  oratories,  and  7  convents  with  2U 
religious  and  77  Sisters. 

Minsk,  Diocese  of  (Minscensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
X — 333d),  in  Western  Russia,  erected  in  1798,  was 
suppressed  bv  the  Russian  Government  m  1869,  and 
only-  re-established  by  a  Decree  of  1917 .  The  diocese 
is  dedicated  to  St.  Michael  the  Archangel  and  em¬ 
braces  a  Catholic  population  of  288,980,  9  deaneries, 
66  filial  parishes  and  84  secular  priests.  The  first 
bishop  since  the  re-establishment  is  Rt.  Rev.  feigis- 
mund  Losinski,  born  in  the  diocese  in  1870,  made 
chancellor  of  Mahileff  and  professor  at  the  seminary 
and  appointed  2  November,  1917.  In  December, 
1920,  the  Russian  papers  circulated  a  false  report 
that  Bishop  Losinski,  held  as  a  hostage  by  the  Boi- 
sheviki,  had  died  of  typhus  at  Smolensk.  As  a  result 
of  the  intervention  of  the  Holy  See,  however,  the 
bishop  was  liberated  in  1921  and  returned  to  Warsaw 
on  14  July. 

Miranda,  Diocese  of.  See  Braganqa. 

Mirepoix,  Diocese  of.  See  Pamiers, 


MIRIDITE 


505 


MISSION 


Miridite,  Abbey  of  (Miriditarum,  cf.  C.  E. 
X  352c.),  situated  in  the  diocese  of  Alessio,  at 
Oroschi,  in  the  province  of  Scutari,  Albania.  It  is 
an  abbey  nullius,  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See. 
The  present  abb6  is  Rt.  Rev.  Giuseppe  Gionalli, 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Callinicus21  November, 
1921.  In  the  territory  under  his  jurisdiction  are: 
25,000  Catholics,  25  churches  and  8  chapels;  13 
native  priests  of  whom  1 1  are  secular  and  2  Friars 
Minor. 

Misericorde,  Congregation  of  the  Sisters  of.— 
At  present  the  congregation  numbers:  professed 
Sisters,  250;  novices,  25;  postulants,  18.  Branch 
houses  have  been  established  throughout  Canada 
and  the  United  States.  At  the  mother-house  in 
Montreal  there  are  81  nuns ;  with  this  is  associated 
an  orphan  asylum  with  7  Sisters  and  525  children; 
also  a  hospital  giving  accommodation  to  175 
patients,  with  t  nuns  and  30  attendants;  patients 
treated  during  the  year  2837.  At  Sault-au-Recollet 
the  nuns  conduct  an  orphan  asylum  with  accommo¬ 
dations  for  150  children,  attendants  25,  nuns  15. 
The  hospital  at  Ottawa,  founded  in  1879,  was 
•  destroyed  by  fire  in  1900.  The  new  building,  com¬ 
pleted  in  1904,  accommodates  100  patients,  nuns 
14,  nurses  12.  A  new  addition,  called  the  Annex, 
was  added  in  1920,  with  accommodation  for  35 
patients.  A  hospital  was  opened  at  Winnipeg  in 
1898  to  commemorate  the  golden  jubilee  of  the 
order.  Patients  treated  during  the  year  of  1920 
2640,  nuns  19,  nurses  30.  In  the  same  year  a 
hospital  was  opened  at  Edmonton,  Alta.:  nuns  14, 
nurses  20,  patients  treated  during  the  year  190l! 
In  1904  a  branch  house  was  founded  at  St.  Norbert, 
Man.,  for  children,  and  accommodates  200  little 
ones.  In  the  United  States  the  nuns  have  a  large 
hospital  in  New  York  City:  nuns  28,  nurses  30, 
patients  treated  during  the  year  3896.  In  Green 
Bay,  Wis.,  a  hospital  was  established  in  1900:  nuns 
2a2.  nurses  30,  patients  treated  during  the  year  1698. 
At  Oak  Park,  a  suburb  of  Chicago,  a  beautiful  hos¬ 
pital  was  opened  in  1905:  nuns  20,  nurses  25 
patients  treated  during  the  year  2740.  In  1912  a 
hospital  was  opened  at  Pana,  Ill.,  in  the  coal 
regions .  nuns  9,  nurses  12,  patients  treated  during 
the  year  652.  The  establishment  at  Milwaukee  has 
accommodation  for  35  patients;  nuns  10,  nurses  5. 
In  connection  with  the  institution  is  a  nursery  with 
50  babies.  In  Toronto  a  hospital  was  opened  for 
mothers  and  babies  (1917),  accommodating  35 
mothers  and  50  babies.  Perpetual  vows  are  now 
taken  by  the  religious  three  years  after  first  vows 
are  made,  these  first  vows  having  been  renewed 
annually. 

Misocco  and  Calanca,  Prefecture  Apostolic 
of  (Mesancinae  et  Calancae;  cf.  C.  E.,  X — 354c) 
in  the  Canton  of  Grisons,  Switzerland,  with  official 
residence  at  Cama-Loggia.  This  territory  is  admin¬ 
istered  by  a  vice-prefect  apostolic,  Rev.  Emile  de 
Seravalle,  a  member  of  the  Capuchin  Order,  to  whom 
the  prefecture  is  entrusted .  The  population ,  number¬ 
ing  4250,  is  almost  entirely  Catholic.  The  prefecture 
comprises  9  residences,  8  parishes,  10  secular  priests, 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  Chur,  12  reg- 

ul"  $?Jpy,22  churches  or  chapels,  and  24  schools 
with  346  children. 

Mission,  Congregation  of  the  (cf.  C.  E.,  X-357). 
General  Administration. — During  the  twenty-six 
years  of  the  generalship  of  Fr.  Fiat  (1878-1914), 
the  number  of  Lazarists  and  of  Sisters  of  Charity  ' 
increased  almost  twofold.  In  China  alone,  to  give 
one  remarkable  instance,  the  number  of  Lazarist 
vicariates  increased  from  four  in  1878  to  ten  in 


1914.  The  chief  events  of  general  interest  which 
took  place  in  the  congregation  during  Fr.  Fiat’s 
term  of  office  were  the  beatification  of  John  Gabriel 
Peiboyre  and  krancis  Regis  Clet,  the  former 
martyred  in  China  in  1840,  the  latter  in  1820,  and 
the  introduction  of  the  cause  of  Louise  de  Marillac 
co-foundress  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity,  and  that  of 
the  Sisters  of  Arras  put  to  death  during  the  French 
Revolution.  These  servants  of  God  were  solemnly 
beatified  by  Benedict  XV  in  1920.  Several  other 
causes  actually  before  the  Court  of  Rome,  notably 
those  of  Justin  de  Jacobis,  Vicar  Apostolic  in 
Abyssinia,  Catherine  Laboure,  to  whom  the  Miracu¬ 
lous  Medal  was  revealed;  John  le  Vacher,  and  many 
others,  were  zealously  promoted  by  him.  The 
Geneial  Assembly  of  1914  accepted  Fr.  Fiat’s  resig¬ 
nation,  lie  having  reached  the  age  of  eighty-two 
Born  in  Auvergne  29  August,  1832,  he  made  his 
theological  studies  in  the  Seminary  of  St.  Flour 
and  his  novitiate  at  Paris,  was  ordained  priest  and 
sent  to  the  grand  seminary  of  Montpellier,  where 
he  labored  for  ten  years,  was  recalled  to  Paris  and 
named  sub-director  of  novices,  and  later  assistant 
superior  of  the  mother-house,  and  was  elected 
superior  general  in  1878  in  succession  to  Fr.  Bore 
deceased. 

Fr.  Fiat’s  successor  was  Fr.  Emile  Villette,  procu¬ 
rator  general  of  the  congregation,  elected  superior 
general  31  July,  1914.  Frs.  Alfred  Louwyck,  Francis 
Verdier,  Philip  Meugniot,  and  Augustine  Veneziani 
werG  elected  assistant  superiors.  Emile  Villette  was 
born  at  Somain  in  the  Diocese  of  Cambrai  in 

1855,  entered  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission  in 
1873,  after  ordination  was  sent  as  professor  to  the 
grand  seminary  of  Oran,  Algiers,  in  1886  was  named 
superior  of  the  seminary  of  Solesmes,  and  in  1898 
superior  of  the  grand  seminary  of  Cambrai,  and  in 
1903  was  appointed  procurator  general  of  the  con¬ 
gregation.  His  generalship  fell  within  the  troubled 

of  the  World  War.  For  the  congregation 
this  was  a  fratricidal  war.  Members  were  found 
in  both  camps,  and  many  on  both  sides  met  death 
on  the  battlefields  of  Europe.  The  strain  of  the 
conflict  told  upon  the  health  of  the  superior,  who 
died  7  November,  1916.  Owing  to  the  war  it  was 
practically  impossible  to  summon  a  general  assem¬ 
bly  at  this  time  to  elect  a  successor  to  Fr.  Villette, 
so  according  to  the  constitutions  the  government 
of  the  congregation  was  assumed  by  a  vicar  general, 
and  Fr.  Alfred  Louwyck,  the  assistant  superior, 
became  vicar.  Fr.  Louwyck  was  born  near  St. 
Omer  24  January,  1851,  entered  the  congregation 
in  1876,  was  master  of  novices  and  director  of 
students  at  the  mother-house,  and  did  excellent 
work  on  the  constitutions  and  rules  of  the  congre¬ 
gation.  He  died  17  February,  1918,  and  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  as  vicar  general  by  Fr.  Francis  Verdier,  who 
had  been  elected  second  assistant  in  1914.  The 
possibility  of  convoking  a  general  assembly  re¬ 
maining  indefinite,  the  Holy  See  granted  to  the 
new  vicar  general  the  full  powers  of  a  superior 
general,  so  that  the  congregation  should  not  suffer 
for  lack  of  adequate  authority.  The  armistice  put¬ 
ting  an  end  to  hostilities,  Fr.  Verdier  summoned  a 
general  assembly  for  27  September,  1919.  The 
deputies  to  the  assembly  of  nearly  100  chose  Fr. 
Verdier  superior  general,  and  Frs.  Emile  Cazot, 
Louis  Planson,  Patrick  McHale,  and  Augustine 
Veneziani,  assistants.  Fr.  Verdier  was  born  1  March, 

1856,  at  Lunel,  Diocese  of  Montpellier,  and  was 
received  into  the  Congregation  of  the  Mission  in 
1874;  after  his  ordination  he  taught  in  the  grand 
seminary  of  Nice,  received  the  doctorate  of  theology 
in  Rome  in  1887,  and  was  superior  of  the  grand 
seminary  of  Montpellier  from  1895  to  1903,  when 


MISSION 


MISSION 


506 


the  seminaries  in  France  were  closed  by  the  Gov¬ 
ernment,  and  he  was  sent  as  superior  to  the  semi¬ 
nary  of  Noto,  Italy,  remaining  there  for  ten  years; 
elected  superior  general  by  an  almost  unanimous 
assembly.  The  congregation  has  accepted  80  new 
houses  within  the  last  ten  years.  A  few  of  these, 
however,  are  revivals  of  institutions  suppressed  dur¬ 
ing  various  European  revolutions.  The  new  founda¬ 
tions  are  chiefly  in  countries  outside  of  Europe, 
and  the  restorations  in  France,  Germany,  and  Po¬ 
land.  Recently  deceased  notable  members  of  the 
congregation  are  the  former  assistants,  Frs.  Allou, 
Meout,  and  Forrestier. 

The  canonical  status  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Mission  conforms  to  Book  II,  title  XVII,  De 
j T&dzQzosts, 

Europe. — In  Europe  the  Congregation  of  the  Mis¬ 
sion  suffered  serious  losses  during  the  great  war. 
Many  priests,  students,  novices,  and  Brothers  either 
fell  on  the  battlefield  or  died  of  wounds  contracted 
during  military  service.  The  dismemberment  of 
the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire  brought  on  a  national 
crisis  which  had  both  civil  and  religious  effects. 
In  fact,  it  became  expedient  to  divide  the  Austrian 
province  of  the  congregation  according  to  racial 
groupings  into  Austrian,  Hungarian,  and  Jugoslav. 
The  restored  nationality  of  Poland  had  a  cor¬ 
responding  effect  upon  the  religious  and  ecclesias¬ 
tical  organization  of  the  nation.  In  particular  the 
Priests  of  the  Mission,  who  had  been  established 
in  Warsaw  by  St.  Vincent  himself  about  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  were,  after  long  absence, 
recalled  to  that  city  by  the  present  archbishop. 
The  Church  of  the  Holy  Cross,  founded  in  Warsaw 
in  1651,  and  twenty-two  seminaries  were  under  the 
direction  of  the  Priests  of  the  Mission,  when  Russia 
endeavored  to  quench  the  spirit  of  Polish  nation¬ 
ality  and  extinguish  Catholicity  in  the  country  in 
1864.  Passports  to  return  to  Warsaw  and  take 
possession  of  Holy  Cross  Church  were  granted  to 
the  Polish  Lazarists  by  the  German  Government 
in  1918.  The  Missionaries  have  thus  resumed  the 
work  first  undertaken  by  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  in 
1651.  Young  priests  who  are  taking  graduate 
courses  in  theology  in  the  University  of  Warsaw 
are  under  the  direction  of  the  Lazarists,  one  of 
whom  is  professor  of  Sacred  Scripture  and  another 
director  of  the  diocesan  seminary.  The  parish  in 
Vilna  has  also  been  restored  to  the  congregation. 
The  Province  of  Holland  was  constituted  in  1920. 
It  embraces  also  the  missions  of  Bolivia  in  South 
America  and  the  Vicariate  of  Eastern  Chi-li  in 
China. 

Africa. — The  Province  of  Algiers,  to  which  is 
attached  Abyssinia,  has  been  revived  and  the  semi¬ 
naries  of  Constantine  and  Oran  are  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  the  Priests  of  the  Mission.  John  Baptist 
Coulbeaux,  who  died  at  the  mother-house  in  Paris 
in  1921,  had  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  missionary 
life  in  Abyssinia,  where,  during  his  apostolic  labors, 
he  became  proficient  in  the  language  of  the  coun¬ 
try,  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  was -preparing  for 
publication  a  dictionary  of  the  Amhara  tongue. 

Asia. — Chino. — The  Lazarists  now  have  eleven 
vicariates  in  China.  By  Apostolic  Brief  of  27  April, 
1912,  the  Vicariate  of  Maritime  Chi-li,  with  resi¬ 
dence  at  Tien-tsin,  was  created  by  division  of  the 
Vicariate  of  Northern  Chi-li.  Fr.  Paul  Dumond, 
C.  M.,  was  named  its  first  Vicar  Apostolic,  and 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Curubis  30  June,  1912. 
The  vicariate  is  territorially  the  smallest  in  China, 
but  numerically  one  of  the  largest.  In  1920  the 
Holy  See  created  a  new  vicariate  in  Southern 
Kiang-si  and  entrusted  it  to  the  Eastern  Province 
of  the  United  States,  Bishop  Dumond,  formerly  of 


Tien-tsin,  is  at  present  apostolic  administrator.  ‘In 
the  autumn  of  1921  the  first  American  Lazarists  to 
undertake  mission  work  in  the  Celestial  Empire 
reached  Kan-chow,  the  seat  of  the  new  vicariate. 
The  first  superior  is  Fr.  John  O’Shea,  and  his  com¬ 
panions  are  Frs.  Daniel  McGillicuddy,  Leo  Cahill, 
Francis  Meade,  Thomas  Crossley,  with  four  stu- 
dents,  Messrs.  Stauble,  Colbert,  McLaughlin,  and 
Erbe.  As  soon  as  the  Americans  are  sufficiently 
acquainted  with  the  language  and  customs  of  the 
country,  one  of  them  will  be  chosen  vicar  apostolic. 
In  1918  Bishop  Jarlin  of  Peking  invited  the  Irish 
Province  to  take  charge  of  St.  Josephs  Church, 
Peking.  Fr.  Patrick  O’Gorman  volunteered  for  that 
mission,  and  on  his  arrival  in  the  capital  at  once 
set  about  opening  a  school  for  natives  and  for 
Europeans.  That  school  is  now  flourishing. 

Persia. — The  Province  of  Persia  barely  exists. 
Constant  political  changes,  Mohammedan  fanati¬ 
cism,  and  fury  render  the  existence  of  Catholic 
missions  in  Persia  extremely  difficult.  When  in 
1918  the  Russians,  who  had  held  the  Turks  and 
Kurds  in  check,  abandoned  Urmiah,  these  last  were 
determined  to  return  and  exterminate  the  Chris¬ 
tians.  On  two  different  occasions  they  were  re¬ 
pulsed  by  the  Assyrian  Christians,  but  at  length 
forcing  their  way  by  superior  numbers  they  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  capturing  Urmiah,  where  they  ruthlessly 
massacred  Archbishop  Sontag,  Delegate  Apostolic 
and  Provincial  of  the  Lazarist  Province  of  Persia. 
Frs.  Dinkha,  L’Hotellier,  and  Miraziz  met  with  a 
like  fate.  Archbishop  James  Sontag  was  born  at 
Dinsheim,  Diocese  of  Strasburg,  in  1869.  He  made 
his  early  studies  at  Prime  Combe,  and  was  received 
into  the  congregation  in  1887.  Ordained  priest  m 
1895  he  was  sent  first  to  Urmiah  and  afterwards  to 
Teheran.  After  the  death  of  Archbishop  Lesne, 
Fr.  Sontag  was  made  Apostolic  Delegate  and  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Ispahan,  and  was  consecrated  in  the 
chapel  of  the  mother-house  of  the  Lazarists  in 
Paris  in  1910  by  Archbishop  Amette.  He  was 
decorated  by  the  Shah  of  Persia  in  1917,  and  re¬ 
ceived  the  croix  de  guerre  in  the  same  year.  At 
the  cost  of  his  life  he  remained  with  his  afflicted 
flock  when  threatened  by  the  Turks.  The  present 
superior  of  the  Lazarist  mission  is  Aristide  Chatelet, 
appointed  in  1919.  Fr.  Paul  Bedjan,  C.M.,  the 
distinguished  Orientalist,  who  died  at  Cologne  9 
June,  1920,  was  born  at  Kosrova,  Persia,  in  1840. 
He  was  of  Chaldean  origin  and  modest  parentage. 
His  early  studies  gave  promise  of  his  future  suc¬ 
cess  in  mastering  Syriac  and  Neo-Aramaic.  With 
indefatigable  energy  Fr.  Bedjan  edited  some  forty 
volumes  upon  every  variety  of  ecclesiastical  science, 
and  his  work  has  been  universally  esteemed  by 
Oriental  scholars  and  by  missionaries  in  Persia. 

India.— In  1920  the  Province  of  Madrid,  at  the 
request  of  Propaganda,  sent  four  priests  to  Surada, 
district  of  Gan  j  an,  Diocese  of  Vizagapatam,  India, 
that  district  to  be  made  a  vicariate  within  a  few 

years.  ^  .  __ 

America. — In  1913  Rt.  Rev.  Wm.  Rojas,  C.  M., 
Bishop  of  Panama,  requested  the  Visitor  of  the 
Eastern  Province  of  the  United  States  to  send 
some  American  priests  to  attend  to  the  spiritual 
needs  of  the  Catholic  employees  of  the  United 
States  Government  in  the  Zone.  Fr.  Thomas  Mc¬ 
Donald  volunteered  for  that  mission.  Within  a 
few  years  he  built  a  church  at  Balboa  and  chapels 
at  stations  along  the  Canal.  Fr.  Peter  Burns,  his 
assistant,  has  been  equally  active  at  Christobal  and 
'  Colon.  The  missions  of  Bocas  del  Toro  and 
Almirante  also  have  for  some  years  been  served 
by  Lazarists.  At  present  seven  priests  are  engaged 
in  the  Panama  mission,  In  Central  America  a  new 


MISSIONARIES 


507 


MISSISSIPPI 


province  was  formed  in  1914  with  headquarters  at 
Guatemala  City.  In  Colombia  a  novitiate  of  the 
province  of  that  name  was  established  at  Bogota. 
In  Chile  the  Archbishop  of  Valparaiso  entrusted 
to  the  French  Lazarists  the  suburb  of  Playa  Ancha 
of  that  city.  The  territory  of  Arauca  in  Colombia 
was  erected  into  a  prefecture  apostolic  in  1916. 
Fr.  Emile  Larquere  is  first  prefect  apostolic.  In 
the  same  republic  the  district  of  Tierra-dentro,  Dio¬ 
cese  of  Popayan,  is  entrusted  to  the  Congregation 
of  the  Mission.  In  1921  Fr.  August  Blessing,  Vice- 
Visitor  of  Costa  Rica,  was  named  Vicar  Apostolic 
of  Port  Limon,  recently  created  a  vicariate.  The 
new  Kenrick  Seminary  and  the  preparatory  school 
of  the  diocese  of  St.  Louis  are  recent  foundations 


in  the  Western  Province  of  the  United  States,  and 
St.  Joseph’s  College,  Princeton,  N.  J.,  in  the  Eastern 
Province.  During  the  Mexican  revolution  most 
of  the  houses  of  the  congregation  in  that  republic 
were  closed  and  property  confiscated.  By  degrees 
the  province  is  being  slowly  reconstituted. 

Statistics. — The  present  number  of  houses  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Mission  is  348,  of  which  85  are 
seminaries,  and  the  remaining  parish  houses  or 
mission  houses.  .There  are  33  provinces,  of  which 
17  are  in  Europe,  4  in  Asia,  2  in  Africa,  5  in  North 
America,  and  1  in  the  East  Indies.  The  present 
number  of  members  is  about  3000.  Owing  to  the 
great  war  vocations  in  France,  Germany,  Austria, 
and  Italy  have  dwindled  considerably.  In  Poland, 
Spain,  Ireland,  and  the  United  States  the  number 
of  vocations  has  rather  increased  than  diminished. 
In  the  Latin  American  provinces  there  is  great 
dearth  of  vocations  to  the  religious  state.  Statistics 
of  number  and  class  of  seculars  cared  for  are  not 
available  except  for  foreign  missions  and  parishes. 
In  the  Northern  Province  of  China,  which  com¬ 
prises  five  vicariates,  there '  are  466,683  Catholics 
in  a  total  population  of  about  21,000,000.  There 
were  in  1921 :  20,554  catechumens,  10,484  pagan 
adults  baptized,  8245  children  of  Christian  parents, 
and  36,022  children  of  pagans.  In  the  Southern 
Province  there  are  six  vicariates  with  a  Catholic 
population  of  139,742,  an  increase  of  62,547  in  ten 
years.  China  is  the  most  promising  mission  field 
in  charge  of  the  congregation.  Whilst  French 
Lazarists  are  still  in  the  majority  in  the  Chinese 
missions,  other  provinces  of  the  congregation  are 
imitating  the  apostolic  zeal  of  those  pioneers  who 
for  more  than  a  century  have  borne  the  burden  of 
the  day  and  the  heats.  American,  Irish,  and  Italian 
provinces  have  already  begun  to  help  towards  the 
conversion  of  the  Celestial  Empire  to  the  One 

Faith  of  Christ.  r>  Tt 

Patrick  McHale. 


Missionaries  of  the  Consolata-(TuRiN).—  Canon 
Giuseppe  Allamano,  rector  of  the  Sanctuary  and 
Convent  of  the  Consolata  in  Turin  realized  the  need 
of  an  Institute  to  train  foreign  missioners  in  that 
region,  so  in  1890  he  composed  a  rule  planned  prin¬ 
cipally  for  missionaries  destined  to  evangelize  Africa. 
In  1900  his  idea  was  approved  and  in  June,  1901, 
he  opened  the  Institute  in  Turin  and  two  missionary 
priests  were  sent  to  Tuso,  in  the  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  Zanzibar  (Eastern  Africa),  arriving  there  in  June, 
1902.  Here  the  work  was  started  anong  uncivilized 
natives  of  the  Kenya  district,  and  in  spite  of  dif¬ 
ficulty  of  language  and  other  hardships,  the  king  was 
baptised  and  in  three  years  12  stations  were  es¬ 
tablished.  The  Sisters  of  Blessed  Cottolengo  came 
to  aid  them.  In  1905  this  province  of  Kenya  was 
erected  into  an  independent  Mission  and  in  1909  into 
a  vicariate  apostolic  with  Mgr.  Filippo  Perlo  (one 
of  the  first  two  missioners)  as  vicar,  with  residence  at 
Limourou.  To  day  over  20  stations  are  established 


in  the  vicariate  and,  besides,  4  orphanages,  1  college 
for  sons  of  native  chiefs,  2  colleges  for  catechists, 
1  college  (scholastic-catechistical)  to  develop  native 
teachers,  recognized  by  English  Government,  2 
seminaries  (upper  and  lower)  with  60  native  students, 
1  monastery  with  a  number  of  young  native  women 
who  aspire  to  become  auxiliary  Sisters,  1  printing 


establishment  where  a  monthly 


periodical  and  school 


and  religious  books  are  printed,  1  large  industrial 
school  where  houses  and  movable  churches  are  built 
to  be  carried  to  the  stations,  and  a  vast  farm  which 
provides  food  supplies  for  all  the  stations.  There 
are  60  priests  in  the  vicariate  and  each  station  has  a 
school. 

In  view  of  the  success  of  this  first  mission,  the 
Prefecture  of  Kaffa  in  southern  Abyssinia  was  erected 
in  1913  and  entrusted  to  the  missionaries  of  the  Con¬ 
solata.  Missionaries  had  been  banished  from  this 
territory  in  1904  and  were  forbidden  to  enter,  so  it 
was  1917  before  the  Fathers  entered  as  civilians  and 
established  five  stations.  Their  work  is  still  hampered 
and  clandestine.  The  vicar  apostolic  is  Mgr. 
Gaudentius  Barlassina,  with  residence  at  Kaffa. 
In  the  past  year  the  Missionaries  of  the  Consolata 
have  been  invited  to  another  field  in  Iringa,  which  is 
part  of  the  Vicariate  apostolic  of  Dar-es-salam,  former 
German  East  Africa,  now  British  territory,  and  en¬ 
trusted  to  the  German  Benedictines. 

The  mother-house  of  the  institute,  which  in  the 
beginning  could  scarcely  shelter  40  persons,  has  now 
been  transferred  to  a  new  and  commodious  building, 
with  a  capacity  for  250  persons,  divided  into  four 
distinct  parts  namely:  collegio  for  students,  seminary, 
novitiate,  and  independent  house  for  missionary 
Sisters.  This  last  institute  was  established  twelve 
years  after  the  founding  of  the  other  institute.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  war  all  the  clerics  in  the  seminary  were  called 
to  the  army  but  a  relatively  numerous  personnel  was 
maintained  at  the  mission  stations. 


Missionary  Church  Association. 
Thought. 


See  New 


Missionary  Society  of  St.  Paul  the  Apostle. — 
Since  1911  new  foundations  have  been  made  as  fol¬ 
lows:  In  New  York  City  the  Good  Shepherd  parish 
and  Newman  Hall  at  Columbia  University;  in 
Toronto,  Canada,  St.  Peter’s  parish  and  Newman 
Hall  at  the  University  of  Toronto;  in  Minneapolis, 
Minn.,  St.  Lawrence  parish;  in  Portland,  Oregon, 
St.  Philip  Neri’s  parish;  and  in  Rome,  Italy,  a 
residence  and  house  of  studies.  At  present  the 
number  of  priests  is  75,  and  the  number  of  Paulist 
students  in  preparation  for  the  priesthood  is  50. 

In  1919,  on  the  death  of  Very  Rev.  John  J. 
Hughes,  Very  Rev.  Thomas  F.  Burke  succeeded  him 
as  superior  general.  Among  the  recently  deceased 
are:  Fr.  George  M.  Searle,  a  former  superior  gen¬ 
eral;  Fr.  Michael  P.  Smith,  a  noted  missionary; 
Fr.  Gilbert  Simmons,  for  many  years  associated 
with  the  work  of  the  Catholic  World;  Fr.  Charles 
J.  Powers,  one  of  the  consultors;  and  Fr.  Hugh 
Swift,  of  the  Tennessee  foundation. 

Mississippi — The  area  of  the  State  of  Mississippi 
is  46,865  square  miles.  In  1920  its  population  was 
1,789,384,  of  which  853,962  were  whites  and  935,184 
negroes,  with  1105  Indians  and  364  Chinese.  There 
were  4968  males  and  4968  female  foreign-born;  total, 
8019.  The  number  of  males  of  voting  age  was 
441,331;  of  females,  434,775.  Of  these  215,098  males 
and  206,561  females  were  white;  225,700  males  and 
227,963  females  of  negro  blood.  Of  the  illiterate 
males  of  voting  age  9801  were  native  whites,  489 
were  foreign-born  whites,  81,671  were  negroes;  of 
the  illiterate  females  8063  were  natives,  493  were 
foreign-born,  and  81,210  were  negroes.  Illiteracy 


MISSOURI 


508 


MISSOURI 


in  the  total  population  amounts  to  17.2  per  cent, 
a  remarkable  decrease  since  the  census  of  1900  (32 
per  cent).  Uliterac}'  of  the  native  white  population 
is  3.6  per  cent;  of  foreign  born  whites  13.3  per 
cent;  of  negroes  29.3  per  cent.  Of  the  population 
13.4  per  cent  was  urban,  86.6  was  rural.  The 
largest  cities  are  Meridian  (23,399),  Jackson  (22,- 
817),  Vicksburg  (18,072). 

Economic  Conditions. — Mississippi  is  pre-emi¬ 
nently  an  agricultural  state,  but  there  is  an 
increase  in  manufacturing.  The  number  of  estab¬ 
lishments  in  1919  was  2455;  the  number  of  persons 
engaged  64,452;  the  capital  invested  $154,117,337; 
salaries  and  wages  paid  $59,182,535;  value  of  prod¬ 
ucts  $197,746,987.  The  number  of  farms  in  the 
State  in  1920  was  272,101,  and  the  value  of  all 
farm  property  was  $964,751,855.  Cotton  is  the 
principal  crop,  the  value  of  the  cotton  yield  in 
1919  being  $183,845,184,  a  great  increase  over  that 
of  1909,  which  was  valued  at  $83,148,805.  Other 
important  crops  are  corn,  oats,  and  sugar.  The 
value  of  the  sugar  crop  for  1919  was  $3,923,140; 
in  1909,  $1,506,887.  In  1919  the  bonded  debt  of  the 
State  was  $8,443,254.  According  to  the  Council  of 
Foreign  Bondholders,  the  State  has  a  defaulted  debt 
of  $7,000,000.  The  assessed  value  of  real  and  per¬ 
sonal  property  is  $649,644,340.  Although  there  are 
mineral  deposits  in  Mississippi,  such  as  limestone, 
coal,  and  gypsum,  there  is  but  little  mining.  Ihe 
railway  mileage  of  the  State  in  1919  was  4480. 
Lumbering  is  an  important  industry,  the  present 
value  of  the  lumber  in  the  State  being  not  less 
than  $350,000,000. 

Education. — Education  is  not  compulsory  in 
Mississippi.  The  number  of  children  enrolled  in 
1918  was  540,756,  and  the  average  attendance  was 
345,952.  The  average  attendance  in  1913  was  301,- 
922,  showing  an  increase  in  1918  of  44,030.  There 
are  7266  schools  in  the  school  districts,  and  of  these 
3377  are  for  negro  children.  Counting  the  colored 
private  schools  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  about 
4500  colored  teachers  with  150,000  colored  pupils. 
The  school  expenditure  in  1917-18  was  as  follows: 
for  teachers’  salaries  $13,498,882;  for  grand  total 
current  expenses  $4,263,954;  the  statistics,  outlays, 
and  capital  acquisition  are  not  available.  There 
are  6  universities  and  colleges,  and  1  public  normal 
school.  The  Mississippi  Normal  College  was  opened 
in  1912. 

The  laws  governing  private  and  parochial  schools 
are  as  follows:  No  public  funds  shall  be  appro¬ 
priated  toward  the  support  of  any  sectarian  school. 
The  flag  shall  be  displayed  within  or  without  every 
school  building.  In  19i2  the  Legislature  abolished 
all  Greek-letter  fraternities  and  sororities  in  the 
State  colleges  or  schools,  this  being  the  first  legis¬ 
lation  of  the  kind.  The  matter  was  brought  before 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  which  decided 
(1  June,  1915)  that  the  Greek-letter  fraternity  men 
could  not  attend  any  of  the  state  schools  of  Mis¬ 
sissippi,  thus  upholding  the  law  passed  in  1912. 
Bible  reading  is  neither  permitted  nor  excluded  in 
the  public  schools  of  Mississippi. 

Religion. — The  Catholic  population  of  the  State 
in  1920  amounted  to  30,792,  including  2675  colored 
and  344  Indian  Catholics.  According  to  the  relig¬ 
ious  census  of  1916  other  religious  denominations 
numbered:  Baptists  441,293;  Methodist  Episcopal, 
South,  114,469;  Methodist  Episcopalians  45,483; 
colored  Methodist  Episcopal  33,070;  African  Meth¬ 
odist  Episcopal  26,133;  Presbyterian  19,758;  African 
Methodist  Episcopal  Zion  Church  7202;  all  others 
43,410.  For  Catholic  educational  and  religious 
statistics  see  Natchez,  Diocese  of. 

Administration. — There  are  now  six  'judges  of 


the  -State  supreme  court,  who  serve  eight  years, 
seventeen  Circuit  Court  judges,  and  ten  chancellors. 
An  amendment  to  the  State  constitution  in  1914 
provides  for  the  election  of  district  judges  and 
chancellors  in  the  popular  election,  and  also  for 
the  election  of  supreme  court  judges.  There  are 
State  hospitals  at  Natchez,  Vicksburg,  and  Jackson. 
The  State  owns  28,750  acres  of  cotton  and  farm 
lands,  upon  which  the  entire  prison  population  of 
about  1300  prisoners  is  worked.  The  annual  cash 
income  to  the  State  from  the  labor  of  the  prisoners 
is  not  less  than  $200,000.  Among  the  holidays  of 
the  State  are  19  January  (Robert  E.  Lee’s  birth¬ 
day),  Thanksgiving  Day,  and  Labor  Day. 

Recent  Legislation. — In  1912  tipping  was  pro¬ 
hibited  and  child  labor  regulated.  The  new  bank 
law  of  1914  provided  for  an  inspection  system  and 
a  tax  on  banks  to  provide  a  fund  for  paying 
depositors  of  insolvent  banks.  In  the  same  year 
the  initiative  and  referendum  was  adopted.  In 
1916  a  State  board  of  law  examiners  was  created, 
women  were  admitted  to  the  practice  of  law,  and 
public  hangings  were  prohibited.  The  law  requir¬ 
ing  registration  of  all  voters  four  months  prior  to 
the  election  barred  out  women  enfranchised  by  the 
Federal  Amendment  of  November,  1920.  In  1919 
a  highway  commission  composed  of  eight  men  was 
created.  The  Federal  Suffrage  Amendment  was 
defeated  on  21  January,  1920.  Mississippi,  how¬ 
ever,  was  the  first  State  to  ratify  the  Federal  Pro¬ 
hibition  Act  (8  January,  1918). 

History. — During  the  European  War  Mississippi’s 
contribution  was  54,295  soldiers,  or  1.44  per  cent  of 
the  United  States  Army.  The  Mississippi  members 
of  the  National  Guard  joined  the  39th  Division  at 
Camp  Beauregard,  Louisiana,  and  those  of  the 
National  Army  the  87th  Division  at  Camp  Pike, 
Arkansas.  The  summary  of  casualties  among  the 
Mississippi  members  of  the  American  Expeditionary 
Force  is  as  follows:  deceased,  18  officers,  886  men; 
prisoners,  23  officers,  542  men;  wounded,  53  officers, 
1320  men. 

Missouri  (cf.  C.  E.,  N-398a). — The  area  of  the 
State  is  69,420  square  miles.  According  to  the 
census  of  1920  its  population  is  3,404,055,  which 
shows  an  increase  of  110,720  during  the  period 
1910-20,  or  of  3.4  per  cent,  a  smaller  increase  than 
that  of  the  preceding  decade,  when  it  was  186,670, 
or  6  per  cent.  The  largest  cities  are  St.  Louis, 
with  a  population  of  772,897,  Kansas  City  (324,410), 
St.  Joseph  (77,939),  Springfield  (39,631),  Joplin 
(29,855).  The  urban  population  is  1,586,963;  the 
rural  population  1,817,152,  making  the  urban  popu¬ 
lation  46  per  cent. 

Economic  Conditions. — In  1917  Missouri  ranked 
as  the  chief  lead-producing  State  of  the  Union. 
The  returns  from  the  smelters  show  that  the  State 
mined  enough  lead  ore  to  produce  234,156  tons  of 
primary  lead.  The  total  valuation  of  the  lead 
produced  in  1917  was  $40,274,832;  of  zinc,  $27,115,- 
272;  of  iron  ore,  $134,906;  of  lime,  cement,  brick, 
$12,202,000.  The  quantity  of  cobalt  and  nickel 
sulphides  varies  considerably  in  the  different  work¬ 
ings.  In  1918  the  coal  produced  in  the  State  was 
worth  $17,126,498.  The  products  of  the  forests  of 
Missouri  included  (1918)  over  272,000,000  feet  of 
lumber,  the  greatest  production  being  in  oak  lum¬ 
ber  (112,897,000  feet),  yellow  pine  lumber  (31,118,- 
000  feet),  cypress  lumber  (26,981,000  feet),  and  gum 
lumber  (24,981,000  feet).  The  value  of  the  output 
of  farm  crops  alone  for  the  year  1919  was  $566,050,- 
000.  Of  the  total  crop  valuation  $214,469,000  con¬ 
sisted  of  Indian  corn,  in  the  production  of  which 
Missouri  was  the  first  State  in  the  Union.  The 


MOBILE 


509 


MOBILE 


greater  portion  of  the  crop  is  consumed  by  live 
stock  within  the  State. 

The  surplus  in  live  stock  for  the  year  beginning 
January,  1920,  consisting  of  cattle,  horses,  hogs, 
mules,  and  sheep,  was  9,909,000  head,  valued  at 
§378,840,000.  Missouri  is  constantly  gaining  as  a 
wool-producing  State,  §3,807,000  worth  of  wool  being 
sold  in  1920.  The  surplus  of  poultry  and  eggs  for 
the  year  1919  was  about  §36,500,000.  The  statistics 
in  1904  show  an  estimated  total  value  from  the 
dairies  of  §4,900,000,  while  the  statistics  of  1919 
give  a  total  value  of  §125,351,000.  The  cotton  crop 
of  1919  brought  §11,051,000.  The  number  of  farms 
in  1919  was  263,124,  showing  a  decrease  of  14,120, 
or  of  5  per  cent  since  1910.  Missouri  has  prosperous 
manufacturing  industries,  the  more  important  of 
which  depend^  on  agriculture  and  forestry.  In  1919 
there  were  8593  establishments  with  a  capital  of 
§939,691,255,  employing  245,826  persons,  and  an  out¬ 
put  valued  at  §1,599,313,923.  There  are  8230  miles 
ot  railroads  and  113  miles  of  electric  railway.  A 
municipal  free  bridge  across  the  Mississippi  River 
at  St.  Louis  for  the  accommodation  of  railroads, 
electric  roads,  wagons,  and  pedestrians  was  recently 
completed. 

Religion. — According  to  the  United  States  reli¬ 
gious  census  of  1916  the  total  population  of  church 
members  in  Missouri  was  1,370,551,  and  the  prin¬ 
cipal  religious  denominations  were  as  follows:  Cath¬ 
olics  445,352;  Baptists  268,468;  Congregationalists 
10,479;  Disciples  or  Christians  145,403;  German 
Evangelicals  37,374;  Lutherans  45,313;  Methodists 
228,135;  Presbyterians  17,435;  Episcopalians  14,309; 
Reformed  bodies  1204;  United  Brethren  bodies, 
4286;  Churches  of  Christ  15,160;  Latter  Day  Saints 
9947;  Jewish  congregations  8347.  Thus  32.5  per  cent 
of  the  total  number  of  church-going  people  in  the 
State  are  Catholics,  the  Baptists  having  the  next 
highest  percentage  (18.4),  and  the  Methodists  being 
third  (16.7).  The  selling  of  any  wares  or  merchan¬ 
dise  is  forbidden  on  Sunday,  and  one  cannot  recover 
for  Sunday  work.  Athletics  are  allowed.  For  Cath¬ 
olic  educational  and  religious  statistics  see  St. 
Louis,  Archdiocese  of;  St.  Louis,  University  of; 
Kansas  City,  Diocese  of;  St.  Joseph,  Diocese  of. 

Education.— The  State  is  divided  into  9807  school 
districts.  The  number  of  teachers  in  the  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  in  1920  was  21,126,  pupils  672,483,  high 
school  teachers  2800,  pupils  62,438.  Attendance 
for  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  school  term  is 
compulsory  for  children  between  eight  and  fourteen 
years  of^age.  The  school  expenditure  in  1917  was 
§28,048,051,  and  the  school  fund  in  1918  amounted 
to  §14,390,306.  There  are  eleven  colleges  in  the 
State,  besides  sixteen  junior  colleges.  A  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Education  has  been  recently  established  in 
the  State  University,  which  had,  in^  1919,  3536  stu¬ 
dents  and  128  professors,  53  instructors,  and  64 
assistants.  The  School  of  Administration  was 
opened  in  1914.  The  State  laws  governing  private 
and  parochial  schools  are  as  follows:  No  public 
money  shall  be  used  to  help  support  any  school  con¬ 
trolled  by  any  religious  sect  or  denomination.  Lots 
and  buildings  used  exclusively  for  religious  worship, 
for  schools,  or  for  religious  or  charitable  purposes 
may  be  exempt  from  taxation.  Bible  reading  in 
the  public  schools  is  neither  permitted  nor  ex¬ 
cluded. 

Recent  Legislation.— In  the  past  twenty  years 
only  two  amendments  to  the  constitution  have  been 
adopted,  despite  the  fact  that  it  required  only  a 
majority  vote  to  adopt  amendments.  In  1919  nine 
were  voted  for.  The  good  roads  bond  issue  amend¬ 
ments,  providing  for  bond  issues  of  §60,000,000,  and 
the  so-called  constitution  amendment  were  most 


important.  The  latter  changed  the  method  of  call¬ 
ing  a  constitutional  convention  and  made  the  con¬ 
vention^  bi-partisan.  One  was  of  prime  importance 
from  Kansas  City’s  standpoint,  for  it  gave  that 
city  home  rule  in  charter-making  power  and  in¬ 
creased  the  limit  of  indebtedness  to  an  extent  that 
will  permit  necessary  public  improvements,  and,  if 
desired,  the  purchase  of  utilities.  Two  referendum 
measures  referred  the  Prohibition  Act  of  Missouri 
and  the  Workmen’s  Compensation  Act,  both  passed 
by  the  1919  legislature.  The  Prohibition  Act  passed, 
but  the  other  was  defeated.  Missouri  has  its  Chil¬ 
dren’s  Code  Commission,  appointed  by  the  gover¬ 
nor.  In  1919  it  introduced  its  revised  code  of  fifty- 
one  bills  and  succeeded  in  having  twenty-five 
adopted,  some  of  which  merely  harmonized  existing 
law,  while  others  introduced  new  standards.  The 
use  of  school  property  for  recreational  purposes  was 
permitted,  the  school  board  furnishing  free  light, 
heat,  and  care-taking.  Agricultural  education  is 
provided  for.  Capital  punishment  was  abolished 
in  1917.  The  juvenile  court  now  takes  care  of 
committing  children  to  other  than  public  institu¬ 
tions,  placing  them  as  far  as  possible  with  an  asso¬ 
ciation  controlled  by  persons  of  the  same  religious 
faith  as  the  parents  of  the  child.  The  Smith- 
Hughes  Act,  providing  for  vocational  education,  was 
accepted  by  the  State  in  1917  and  elaborate  arrange¬ 
ments  have  been  made  relative  to  its  administra¬ 
tion.  An  act  was  passed  in  1919  exempting  from 
the  inheritance  tax  all  property,  benefit,  or  income 
passing  to  any  hospital,  religious,  or  educational 
or  scientific  institutions  to  be  used  for  such  pur¬ 
poses.  Recent  legislation  permits  gifts  for  religious 
purposes.  A  state  prison  board  of  three  members 
was  established  by  the  Legislature  in  1917.  This 
board  appoints  two  chaplains  for  the  penitentiary. 
The  Federal  Suffrage  Amendment  was  ratified  on 
3  July,  1919;  the  Federal  Prohibition  Act  on  16 
January,  1919. 

War  History. — The  total  number  of  Missourians 
who  served  in  the  war  against  Germany  was  128,- 
000  in  the  army,  6910  in  the  navy,  and  3400  in  the 
marine  corps.  The  Missouri  members  of  the 
national  guard  were  mobilized  at  the  State  Rifle 
Range  at  Nevada,  on  5  August,  under  command  of 
Brigadier  General  Harvey  C.  Clark,  and  on  28 
September  entrained  with  the  35th  Division  at 
Camp  Doniphan,  Oklahoma.  Arriving  in  France 
in  May,  1918,  they  were  attached  to  the  American 
contingent  in  the  St.  Mihiel  salient,  forming  a  part 
of  the  reserve.  Transferred  to  the  Argonne  they 
participated  in  the  fiercest  fighting  of  the  battle. 
They  went  into  action  on  26  September,  1918,  and 
on  October,  after  six  days  of  fighting,  had  cap¬ 
tured  every  objective  from  Vouquois  Hill  to  Exer- 
mont.  The  drafted  men  formed  a  part  of  the  89th 
Division  under  General  Leonard  Wood  at  Camp 
Funston,  and  also  made  a  fine  record  in  the  battles 
of  St.  Mihiel  and  Argonne.  Another  Missouri  unit 
which  acquitted  itself  with  much  credit  was  the 
12th  Engineers,  composed  largely  of  railroad  men 
from  St.  Louis.  The  casualties  of  Missouri  men 
in  the  American  Expeditionary  Force  were  as  fol¬ 
lows:  deceased,  106  officers,  2456  men;  prisoners, 
10  officers,  101  men;  wounded,  298  officers,  7414  men. 

Mobile,  Diocese  of  (Mobiliensis),  in  Alabama. 
This  diocese  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
civic  celebration  of  the  bi-centenary  of  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  the  City  of  Mobile,  26  February,  1911.  In 
the  presence  of  His  Eminence  Cardinal  Gibbons, 
Archbishop  Blenk,  of  New  Orleans,  and  all  the 
bishops  of  the  archdiocese,  a  pontifical  Mass  was 
sung  in  the  historic  cathedral  by  Bishop  John  W. 


MODENA 


510 


MOHILEFF 


Shaw,  a  native  of  Mobile,  and  at  that  time  Bishop 
of  San  Antonio,  but  since  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
Archbishop  of  New  Orleans.  In  the  afternoon  there 
was  a  great  demonstration  in  honor  of  the  anni¬ 
versary,  a  parade  of  Catholic  laymen  taking  place, 
which  in  numbers  had  never  before  been  equaled 
in  this  city.  The  celebration  was  directed  by  the 
present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Patrick  Allen,  who  was 
consecrated  by  Cardinal  Gibbons  on  16  May,  1897. 
In  his  address  the  cardinal  spoke  a  word  of  praise 
for  the  splendid  work  Bishop  Allen  had  accom¬ 
plished,  and  for  the  spiritual  and  temporal  benefits 
which  he  felt  would  be  gained  for  the  diocese  by 
his  marked  interest  in  this  event. 

During  the  same  year  the  Rev.  C.  T.  O’Calloghan, 
D.  D.,  who  had  been  vicar  general  of  the  diocese 
during  four  administrations,  died  on  5  October.  On 
7  February,  1915,  Rev.  Henry  O’Grady,  Dean  of 
North  Alabama  and  for  several  years  missionary 
to  the  non-Catholics  of  the  Diocese  of  Mobile, 
died  in  Birmingham,  and  in  1918  Rev.  Wm. 
Demony,  one  time  secretary  to  the  Papal  Dele¬ 
gate,  Mgr.  Bonzano,  an  author  of  considerable 
promise,  died  on  8  December.  On  August  11,  1921, 
the  diocese  was  shocked  by  the  murder  of  one  of 
its  priests,  Rev.  James  E.  Coyle,  by  a  Protestant 
minister.  Father  Coyle  was  Dean  of  North  Ala¬ 
bama,  and  a  model  priest,  zealous  in  the  perform¬ 
ance  of  his  duty,  and  a  noted  writer,  with  some 
poems  also  to  his  credit.  Upon  trial  the  murderer 
was  dismissed  without  punishment. 

During  the  World  War  the  diocese  of  Mobile 
responded  generously  to  the  needs  of  the  country, 
with  a  full  quota  of  priests  serving  as  chaplains 
and  numbers  of  young  men  in  the  service;  42  of 
these  gave  up  their  lives,  either  in  action  or  through 
sickness. 

The  Diocese  of  Mobile  comprises  a  Catholic 
population  of  46,512,  of  whom  5266  are  colored. 
It  includes  63  parishes,  48  missions,  1  monastery 
for  men,  1  convent  for  men,  71  secular  priests  and 
72  regulars,  9  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  19 
Benedictine  and  5  Jesuit  Brothers,  1  seminary  with 
26  seminarians,  1  high  school  with  5  teachers  and 
an  attendance  of  146  boys,  8  academies,  and  1  in¬ 
dustrial  school.  A  number  of  the  priests  devote 
themselves  to  various  missionary  works,  and  a 
home  is  maintained  for  the  evangelization  of  the 
colored  people  as  well  as  three  orphan  asylums  and 
seven  hospitals;  all  public  institutions  permit  priests 
to  minister  in  them.  The  Clergy  Relief  Society 
is  organized,  as  well  as  the  Knights  of  Columbus, 
the  Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians,  and  the  Holy 
Name  Society;  a  Catholic  monthly  is  published 
by  St.  Paul’s  Church  in  Birmingham. 

Modena,  Archdiocese  of  (Mutinensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  X — 13a),  in  Emilia,  Northern  Italy,  was 
united  perpetually  in  1821  with  the  Abbey  of  Nonan- 
tola,  a  former  Benecditine  monastery  and  prelature 
nullius.  The  present  bishop  is  Mgr.  Natale  Bruni, 
born  in  Nociveglia,  diocese  of  Piacenza,  25  December, 
1856,  elected  17  December,  1900,  to  succeed  Mgr. 
Borgognoni,  deceased.  During  the  War  the  clergy 
opened  a  casa  del  soldato  in  the  archepiscopal  palace 
and  the  seminary  was  used  as  a  military  hospital. 
According  to  1919  statistics,  there  are  in  the  diocese 
220,400  Catholics,  179  parishes,  455  secular  and  50 
regular  priests,  60  seminarians,  20  lay  brothers,  244 
Sisters,  450  churches  or  chapels. 

Modernism  (cf.  C.  E.,  X-421). — In  reply  to  a 
query  whether  the  regulations  contained  in  the 
motu  proprio  “Sacrorum  Antistitum”  and  the  en¬ 
cyclical  “Pascendi”  of  Pius  X  were  revoked  by 


the  Code,  the  Holy  Office  replied  on  22  March, 
1918,  that  these  anti-modernistic  precautions  were 
still  in  force  and  were  to  continue  so  until  the 
Holy  See  decreed  otherwise. 

Modigliana,  Diocese  of  (Mutilensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
X — 421a),  in  the  province  of  Florence,  Northern 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Florence.  The  see  is  filled  by 
Rt.  Rev.  Ruggero  Bovelli,  born  in  Pantalla,  Italy, 
1875,  served  as  vicar  general  of  Todi  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed  5  August,  1915,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Luigi 
Capotosti,  transferred  to  the  titular  see  of  Thermse 
22  January,  1915.  The  Catholic  population  of  this 
diocese  is  recorded  by  1920  statistics  as  40,000;  the 
diocese  comprises  83  parishes,  146  secular  and  16 
regular  clergy,  40  seminarians,  7  Brothers,  99  Sisters 
and  114  churches  or  chapels. 

Modjeska,  Helena,  actress,  b.  at  Cracow,  Poland, 
on  12  October,  1840;  d.  at  Bay  City,  California,  on 
8  April,  1909;  daughter  of  Michael  Opid,  a  high- 
school  teacher  and  talented  musician .  She  studied  at 
St.  John’s  Convent,  Cracow,  and  at  an  early  age  gave 
proof  of  her  histrionic  talent.  On  leaving  school  she 
made  an  enthusiastic  study  of  the  Polish  patriotic 
writers,  especially  of  the  great  poets  Mickiewicz, 
Slowacki,  and  Zaleski,  and  also  of  Shakespeare,  by 
whom  she  was  fascinated.  In  1857  she  married 
Gustave  Sinnmayer  Modrzejewski,  a  theatrical  im- 
pressario.  A  few  years  later  she  decided  to  follow  the 
stage  and  joined  a  travelling  company.  In  1865 
she  came  under  the  guidance  of  Jasinski,  a  noted 
stage  director  in  Warsaw,  and  achieved  a  decided 
success  at  Cracow  in  Schiller’s  “Don  Carlos.”  A 
little  later  her  husband  died,  and  on  12  September, 
1868,  she  married  Count  Karol  Bozenta  Chlapowski. 
The  following  month  she  appeared  in  the  Imperial 
Theatre,  Warsaw,  and,  playing  “Adrienne  Lecouv- 
reur,”  scored  a  great  triumph,  establishing  her  record 
as  Poland’s  premiere  actress.  A  few  weeks  later  she 
had  signed  a  life  contract  to  play  at  the  Warsaw 
Theatre.  Her  success,  however,  raised  a  hurricane 
of  professional  jealousy,  and  in  1876  she  emigrated 
to  California,  which  was  thenceforward  her  home. 
She  made  her  first  American  appearance  at  San 
Francisco  in  1877,  when  for  the  convenience  of 
Americans  she  modified  her  name  to  Modjeska.  Her 
success  as  Adrienne  was  immediate .  She  repeated  her 
triumphs  through  America  in  Shakespearean  and 
lighter  roles,  and  then  captured  England  and  Ire¬ 
land,  in  the  latter  country,  she  being  a  patriot  from 
a  sister  oppressed  nation,  was  dogged  by  British 
secret  service  agents.  Madame  Modjeska  was  most 
successful  probably  in  the  roles  of  Lady  Macbeth, 
Mary  Stuart,  and  Beatrice. 

Modjeska,  Memories  and  Impressions;  an  autobiography 
(New  York,  1910). 

Mohileff,  Archdiocese  of  (Mohiloviensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  X — 428d),  in  Russia,  with  episcopal  residence 
at  Petrograd.  Most  Rev.  Vincent  Kluczynski  pro¬ 
moted  to  this  see  7  April,  1910,  retired  and  was 
transferred  to  the  titular  see  of  Philippopolis  22  Sep¬ 
tember,  1914.  He  was  succeeded  by  Most  Rev. 
Edward  de  Ropp,  bom  in  the  archdiocese  in  1851, 
ordained  in  1886,  appointed  Bishop  of  Tiraspal  9 
June,  1902,  transferred  to  Vilna  9  November,  1903, 
exiled  by  the  Imperial  Russian  Government  from 
1907  until  1917,  and  promoted  25  July  of  that  year. 
He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Bolsheviki,  but  liber¬ 
ated,  through  the  intervention  of  the  Pope  and 
permitted  to  go  to  Rome  in  1920.  The  archdiocese 
has  the  privilege  of  three  suffragan  bishops,  residing 
at  Mohileff,  Polotsk  and  Livonia,  but  at  present 
there  is  only  one,  Most  Rev.  John  Felix  Cieplak, 
titular  Archbishop  of  Acheida,  who  resides  at  Mohi¬ 
leff.  Mohileff  is  the  primatial  see  of  Russia  and  the 


MOLFETTA 


511 


MONGOLIA 


Metropolitan  for  all  the  bishoprics  of  the  Latin  Rite, 
and  is  the  largest  archdiocese  in  the  world,  comprising 
three  quarters  of  European  Russia  and  all  of  Asiatic 
Russia.  It  embraces  a  Catholic  population  of 
747,709,  and  according  to  1920  statistics  comprises 
171  parishes,  56  filial  parishes,  324  secular  and  4 
regular  clergy. 

Molfetta,  Terlizzi  and  Giovianzzo,  Diocese  of 
(Melpichtensis,  Terlitiensis  and  Jurenacensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  X — 434a)  ,  in  the  province  of  Bari,  Southern 
Italy,  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  These  sees 
are  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Pascale  Gioia,  appointed  30 
September,  1921,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni 
Jacono,  transferred  to  Caltamisetto  18  March,  1921; 
the  dioceses,  although  united,  each  preserves  its 
own  rights.  According  to  1920  statistics  Malfetta 
has  4  parishes,  70  secular  and  9  regular  clergy,  150 
seminarians,  7  Brothers,  10  Sisters  and  15  churches 
or  chapels;  it  comprises  the  city  and  commune  of 
Malfetta,  a  territory  of  some  50,000  inhabitants. 
Terlizzi  counts  2  parishes,  40  secular  and  2  regular 
priests,  16  churches  or  chapels  and  a  population  of 
24,100.  Giovinazzo  comprises  2  parishes,  37  secular 
and  6  regular  clergy,  34  churches  or  chapels,  6 
Brothers,  24  Sisters  and  12,150  inhabitants. 

Monaco,  principality  and  diocese,  situated  on 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  covers  an  area  of  eight 
square  miles  and  comprises  the  towns  of  Monaco, 
La  Condamine,  and  Monte  Carlo,  with  a  total 
population  (1913  census)  of  22,956. 

The  present  ruler,  Prince  Albert  III,  was  an 
absolute  ruler  until  1911,  when  on  7  January  a  con¬ 
stitution  was  promulgated  which  provides  for  a 
National  Council  elected  by  universal  suffrage  and 
vote  by  ballot.  The  Government  is  carried  out 
under  the  authority  of  the  Prince,  by  a  Ministry 
assisted  by  a  Council  of  State.  The  legislative 
power  is  exercised  by  the  Prince  and  the  National 
Council,  which  consists  of  21  members  elected  every 
four  years.  The  territory  of  the  principality  is 
divided  into  three  communes  administered  by 
municipal  bodies,  in  the  election  of  which  women 
are  entitled  to  take  part.  It  has  its  own  coinage 
(it  issues  only  100  franc  pieces),  which  is  current 
since  1876  in  all  the  states  of  the  Latin  union,  and 
also  issues  its  own  postage  stamps  and  has  its  own 
flag. 

In  1887,  by  the  Apostolic  letter  of  His  Holiness 
Leo  XIII,  the  principality  was  erected  into  a  dio¬ 
cese  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See  and  Mgr. 
Bonaventure  Theuret  was  appointed  its  first  bishop. 
He  died  11  November,  1901,  and  the  see  was 
vacant,  administered  by  the  vicar  capitular,  Mgr. 
Guyotte,  until  1903  when  Rt.  Rev.  Jean-Charles 
Arnal  du  Curel  was  appointed  second  bishop  of  the 
see.  Bishop  Curel  died  5  June,  1915,  and  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Victor-Augustin  Vie,  born  at 
Escrennes  1849,  preconized  Bishop  of  Monaco  8 
May,  1916,  died  10  June,  1918.  After  Bishop  Vie’s 
death  the  see  was  again  vacant,  administered  by 
the  vicars  capitular,  Leon  Pauthier  (1918-20)  and 
Lazare  Perruchot  (1920).  On  16  December,  1920, 
the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Georges-Prudent- 
Marie  Bruley  des  Varennes,  was  appointed  bishop 
and  took  possession  of  the  see  25  January,  1921. 

By  a  decision  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Con¬ 
sistory  6  May,  1921,  the  Archdiocese  of  Aix  was 
constituted  the  court  of  appeal  for  the  Diocese  of 
Monaco,  which,  though  still  remaining  directly 
under  the  Holy  See,  has  been  reattached,  for  its 
provincial  councils,  to  the  metropolitan  province 
of  Aix. 

The  religious  orders  established  in  the  diocese 
are:  men,  Carmelites,  Friars  Minor,  Jesuits,  Clerks 

55 


Regular  of  .  the  Mother  of  God,  Fathers  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  Christian  Brothers;  women,  Sisters  of 
the  Infant  Jesus,  Sisters  of  Bon  Secours,  Daughters 
of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Dominican  Sis¬ 
ters,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Rosary,  and  Sisters  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament.  The  Christian  Brothers  have 
charge  of  3  communal  schools:  1  at  Monaco  with 
307  students,  1  at  La  Condamine  with  402  students, 
and  1  at  Monte  Carlo  with  480  students;  the 
Sisters  of  the  Infant  Jesus  also  conduct  a  com¬ 
munal  school  in  each  town,  and  in  addition  to 
these  they  have  1  boarding  school  with  145  pupils 
and  3  day  schools  at  Monaco  with  145  pupils,  1  at 
La  Condamine  with  100  pupils,  and  1  at  Monte 
Carlo  with  114  pupils.  The  charitable  institutions 
comprise  3  infant  asylums  with  a  total  number  of 
220  children,  1  orphanage  and  industrial  school 
under  the  Daughters  of  Charity,  1  orphanage,  in¬ 
dustrial  school  and  school  under  the  Dominicans, 
and  1  nursery  and  dispensary  under  the  Daughters 
of  Charity.  Various  archconfraternities  are  or¬ 
ganized  in  the  diocese,  of  Penitents,  of  Our  Lady  of 
Assistance,  of  Christian  Mothers,  of  the  Holy  Rosary 
and  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis. 

Among  the  prominent  clergy  deceased  in  recent 
years  are:  Mgr.  J.  B.  Guyotte,  vicar  capitular  (d. 
1915);  Mgr.  J.  Baud  (d.  1917)  ;  Mgr.  Pierre  Mercier 
(d.  1918);  Rev.  Demetrius  Giannecchini  (d.  1919), 
and  Mgr.  Leon  Pauthier  (d.  1920). 

Mondonedo,  Diocese  of  (Minfoniensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  X — 477a),  suffragan  of  Compostela,  Spain. 
The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Juan  Jose  Solis  y 
Ferndndez,  consecrated  1907.  The  diocese  has  an 
area  of  1622  square  miles,  603  parishes  divided  into 
27  arch  presbyterates,  403  priests,  410  churches,  512 
chapels  or  sanctuaries,  27  convents,  57  members  of 
religious  orders  of  men,  and  213  Sisters.  The  Cath¬ 
olic  population  is  275,000. 

Mondovi,  Diocese  of  (Montis  Regalis  in 
Pedemonte;  cf.  C.  E.,  X— 478a),  suffragan  of  Turin, 
Italy.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni 
Battista  Ressia,  elected  1897.  The  Catholic  popu¬ 
lation  of  the  diocese  is  170,400.  There  are  150 
parishes,  490  secular  priests,  145  seminarians,  12 
Brothers,  135  Sisters,  20  regular  priests  and  1760 
churches  and  chapels. 

Mongolia,  Central,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Mongoliae  centralis;  cf.  C.  E.,  X — 482b),  in 
China,  with  residence  at  Si-wan-tse,  contains  a 
Catholic  population  of  46,867  and  is  entrusted  to  the 
Congregation  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary 
(Scheutveld).  The  vicar  apostolic,  Rt.  Rev.  Jerome 
Van  Aertseler,  b.  at  Hoogstraeten,  Belgium  1  Novem¬ 
ber,  1845),  titular  Bishop  of  Zarai,  has  filled  this  see 
since  1898.  The  vicariate  numbers  (1921)  52  districts, 
52  missions  with  resident  priests,  297  stations,  181 
churches  and  chapels,  40  European  priests  of  the  Con¬ 
gregation  of  Scheutveld,  24  native  priests  (secular)  4 
convents  for  women,  1  seminary  with  57  seminarians, 

1  college  for  boys  with  90  pupils,  1  for  girls  with  40 
pupils,  28  Franciscan  Missionaries  of  Mary,  267 
teachers  and  catechists  (men),  162  (women),  11,135 
catechumens,  136  schools  for  boys,  99  schools  for 
girls,  11  refuges  with  541  inmates,  iO  orphan  asylums 
with  1495  girls. 

On  15  November,  1914,  Rt.  Rev.  Edward  Ter 
Laak  was  consecrated  as  coadjutor. 

Mongolia,  Eastern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Mongolia  Orientalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  X-479b),  erected 
21  December,  1883,  by  Leo  XIII,  who  divided 
Mongolia  into  three  vicariates  apostolic,  Eastern, 
Central,  Southwestern.  The  vicariate  is  entrusted 


MONGOLIA 


512 


MONREALE 


to  the  Belgian  Missionaries  of  the  Congregation  of 
Scheutveld,  and  embraces  the  province  of  Jehol, 
part  of  the  province  of  Chi-li  lying  without  the 
Great  Wall,  and  part  of  the  province  of  Mukden 
commonly  called  Pien.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south 
by  that  part  of  the  province  of  Chi-li  beyond  the 
Great  Wall;  on  the  west  by  the  vicariate  of  Central 
Mongolia;  and  on  the  north  and  east  by  Man¬ 
churia.  The  climate  is  severe  and  dry,  especially 
in  the  north;  in  the  southern  part  the  heat  of  the 
summer  and  the  cold  of  the  winter  are  intense. 
Epedimics  are  frequent,  especially  typhoid,  scarlet 
fever,  influenza,  bubonic  plague  and  pneumonia. 
Many  of  the  newly  arrived  missionaries  succumb  to 
typhoid.  The  vicariate,  is  divided  into  3  districts 
and  subdivided  into  25  residences  (churches  with 
resident  missionaries),  whence  the  priests  administer 
to  151  Catholic  centers  (single  congregations  com¬ 
posed  of  30  or  more  members),  and  to  1581  affiliated 
localities  (with  less  than  30  Catholics  in  a  single 
congregation).  The  total  population  approximates 
5,000,000;  the  total  Catholic  population  (July, 
1921)  is  35,031  Chinese.  The  secular  priests  are 
Chinese  and  number  15;  the  regular  priests  (Con¬ 
gregation  of  Scheutveld)  number  38,  and  are 
assisted  by  1  lay  brother.  There  are  70  churches 
and  chapels,  1  convent  for  Chinese  Brothers  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  1  convent  for  Chinese  women  living 
in  community,  1  seminary  with  29  seminarians,  2 
colleges  for  boys  with  138  students,  2  normal  schools 
for  girls  with  51  pupils,  55  elementary  schools  for 
boys  with  1360  pupils  and  66  for  girls  with  1641 
pupils,  76  catechetical  centers  with  2627  catechu¬ 
mens,  1  home  for  men  with  32  inmates,  and  1  for 
women  with  18  inmates,  14  orphanages  with  676 
children,  81  orphans  in  the  care  of  nurses,  and  20 
in  the  care  of  Catholic  families.  The  number  of 
orphans  adopted  yearly  is  127.  The  sect  of  Nai-li-ti 
on  17  November,  1891,  martyred  Fr.  Petro  Sin  and 
60  neophytes  and  burnt  the  churches  at  Pakow 
and  Sanshekiatze.  In  1900  the  Boxers  laid  waste 
the  entire  vicariate  with  fire  and  sword.  Fr.  Joseph 
Segers,  at  the  age  of  thirty-two,  at  the  command 
of  the  sub-prefect  of  Lwanpinghsien,  was  buried 
alive  for  the  Faith;  his  cause  has  been  introduced 
at  Rome. 

The  following  are  the  more  recent  events  of 
note:  1908,  founding  of  2  new  residences,  in  Chan- 
wan-tzen  and  Kong-ye-fu;  1909,  founding  of  the 
college  for  boys  in  Hata;  1910,  founding  of  a  new 
residence  in  Ta-ing-tzen  in  Barin;  1911,  epidemic 
of  pneumonia;  proclamation  of  Mongolian  inde¬ 
pendence;  1912,  rebellion  of  the  soldiers  in  Chao- 
yang-fu;  the  destruction  by  fire  of  the  college  for 
boys  at  Sung-shu-tsoei-tze ;  battle  between  Mongol¬ 
ians  and  Chinese  with  the  latter  the  victors;  1913, 
rebellion  of  the  soldiers  in  Jehol;  victory  of  the 
Mongolians  over  the  Chinese;  Chinese  soldiers  de¬ 
spoil  the  church,  residences  and  settlement  of  Ta- 
ing-tzen  in  Barin,  and  after  dispossessing  the  mis¬ 
sionaries  and  more  than  1000  Catholics  force  them 
to  seek  refuge  among  the  churches  of  the  south; 
1914,  building  of  the  church  in  Kongil-fou;  1916, 
founding  of  a  home  for  aged  women  in  Sung-shu- 
tsoei-tze  ;  erection  of  three  new  residences  in 
Choei-zen-chan,  Fang-chenn,  and  Fong-ning-hein ; 
1918,  famine  in  Chao-yang-hien ;  building  of  the 
church  of  Taing-tzen  in  Barin;  1918-19,  death  of 
eight  missionaries;  1920,  deaths  of  four  missionaries; 
1920-21,  great  famine  in  Chao-yang-hien. 

Since  the  year  1908  death  has  claimed  from  the 
vicariate  eighteen  missionary  priests,  sixteen  Euro¬ 
peans,  and  two  Chinese,  among  whom  were  the 
following:  Wilhelm  Meyer  (1838-1909),  labored 
among  the  missions  of  the  vicariate  for  forty-three 


years,  delegate  of  Eastern  Mongolia  to  the  general 
congregation  of  his  order  in  Europe;  Albert  Botty 
(1875-1919),  called  from  the  vicariate  to  become 
superior  general  of  his  order  and  being  forced  to 
resign  through  sickness  returned  to  the  missions  as 
professor  of  theology  in  the  seminary;  John  Vyt 
de  Willegen  (1866-1911),  for  nineteen  years  among 
the  missions  of  the  northern  district,  of  which  he 
was  finally  elected  superior;  Ernest  G.  van  Obberge 
(1875-1919),  director  of  the  southwestern  district, 
whose  labors  of  twenty-one  years  in  the  vicariate 
resulted  in  many  converts;  Patrick  Tcheng  (1841- 
1919),  a  zealous  missionary  for  forty-three  years; 
Marcus  Tchao  (1869-1920),  dedicated  to  the  work 
of  the  missions  for  twenty-one  years,  rector  of  the 
residence  of  Liukiatze,  cruelly  put  to  death  by  the 
pagans.  Among  the  laity  recently  deceased  is  J oseph 
Tchang-tchenn-tong,  catechist  in  Chao-yang-hien, 
whose  zeal  converted  many  and  whose  counsel  was 
sought  by  both  the  lowly  and  prominent,  elected 
president  of  the  council  of  the  civil  prefecture,  ap¬ 
pointed  mandarin  by  the  Manchurian  government. 

Mongolia,  Southwestern,  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  (Mongolia  occiduo-meridionalis;  cf.  C.  E., 
X — 482b),  in  China,  with  residence  at  Eul-che-se- 
king-ti,  is  entrusted  to  the  Congregation  of  the 
Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary  (Scheutveld).  This 
mission  has  an  approximate  population  of  2,000,000, 
of  whom  32,072  are  Christians,  and  16,004  catechu¬ 
mens.  Having  been  modified  again  12  December, 
1914,  it  now  comprises  the  territory  in  the  ring 
formed  by  the  Yellow  River  and  the  Great  Wall. 
The  vicar  apostolic,  Rt.  Rev.  Ludovic  Van  Dyck,  b. 
21  January,  1862,  ordained  30  May,  1885,  was  ap¬ 
pointed  12  August  1915,  titular  Bishop  of  Abbir  and 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Southwestern  Mongolia,  conse¬ 
crated  22  January,  1916.  The  1921  statistics  credit 
the  vicariate  with  187  Christian  communities,  33 
residences,  154  churches  and  chapels,  42  European 
and  6  native  priests,  72  native  nuns,  occupied  in  the 
hospitals  and  schools,  165  instructors  and  catechists 
(men),  and  126  women  instructors,  1  seminary  with 
2  seminarians,  4  students  of  philosophy  and  42 
Latinists,  3  colleges  with  120  students,  1  normal 
school  for  girls  with  21  students,  37  primary  schools 
for  boys  with  1122  pupils. 

Events  of  special  importance  include:  from  1911-12 
the  war  occasioned  on  the  declaration  of  the  Republic, 
the  massacre  of  the  missionaries  and  the  Christians 
by  the  Ko-lao-hoei  sect  in  1912;  the  great  famine  from 
1915-1916;  the  influenza  epidemic  from  1917-1918, 
which  caused  great  ravages. 

Monopoli,  Diocese  of  (Monopolitana;  cf. 
C.  E.,  X — 497a),  in  Italy,  dependent  directly  on  the 
Holy  See.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Agostino 
Migliore,  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Domitiopolis 
in  1918  and  transferred  to  Monopoli  in  1920.  The 
Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  62,503.  There 
are  8  parishes,  137  secular  priests,  10  seminarians, 
and  29  churches  and  chapels. 

Monreale,  Archdiocese  of  (Montis  Regalis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  X — 508a),  metropolitan  see  in  the  Province 
of  Palermo,  Sicily.  The  present  archbishop  is  Rt. 
Rev.  Antonio  Augusto  Intreccialagli,  O.  C.  C.,  b. 
1852,  consecrated  Bishop  of  Caltanisetta  in  1907, 
promoted  titular  Archbishop  of  Sardica,  and  coad¬ 
jutor  of  the  Archbishop  of  Monreale  in  1914,  suc¬ 
ceeded  to  the  see  in  1919  upon  the  death  of  Bishop 
Lancia  di  Brolo.  The  Catholic  population  of  the 
archdiocese  is  228,600.  There  are  30  parishes,  352 
secular  priests,  66  regular  priests,  120  seminarians, 
29  Brothers,  94  Sisters,  and  218  churches  and  chapels. 


MONT-LAURIRR 


513 


MONTAUBAN 


Mont-Laurier,  Diocese  or.— Erected  26  April 
1913  by  separation  from  the  Diocese  of  Ottawa! 
1  he  first  bishop,  F rangois  Xavier  Brunet,  born  at 
bt-Andre  dArgenteuil  27  November,  1868,  ordained 
1893,  elected  bishop  of  Mont-Laurier  6  August, 
1913,  died  in  Montreal  7  January,  1922,  and  was 
buried  in.  liis  cathedral  at  Mont-Laurier  11  January 
following.  Rev.  J.  E.  Limoges,  cure  of  St.  Jovite, 
is  admin istrateur  Scd&  1  Gccmtc.  The  Catholic  popu¬ 
lation  is  38,969;  the  secular  priests  number  53  and 
regular  priests  13.  There  are  42  parishes  and  42 
churches  with  resident  priests,  10  missions  with 
chinches,  3  monasteries  for  men  and  7  for  women, 
1  corn  ent  for  men  and  7  for  women,  1  seminary 
with  13  seminarians  and  classical  college  attached 
with  140  pupils,  21/  parochial  schools,  1  high  school, 
7  academies,  1  training  school,  1  asylum.  The 
Society  of  Saint  Joseph  exists  among  the  clergy. 
For  the  laity  there  are  the  following  associations: 
Ladies  of  St.  Anne,  Union  of  St.  Joseph,  French- 
Canadian  Artisans,  Catholic  Foresters,  League  of 
the  Sacred  Heart.  The  Government  contributes  to 
the  support  of  Catholic  institutions. 

Montalcino,  Diocese  of  (Ilcinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
X— 513b),  in  Italy,  dependent  directly  on  the  Holy 
See.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Alfredo  del 
Tomba,  consecrated  1909.  The  Catholic  population 
of  the  diocese  is  39,150.  There  are  34  parishes,  74 
secular  priests,  3  regular  priests,  10  seminarians,  and 
85  churches  and  chapels. 

Montalto,  Diocese  of  (Montis  Alti;  cf.  C.  E., 
X— 516a),  suffragan  of  Fermo,  Italy.  The  present 
bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Luigi  Ferri,  consecrated  1911. 
The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  33,500. 
There  are  33  parishes,  /5  secular  priests,  3  regular 
priests,  18  seminarians,  and  97  churches  and  chapels. 

Montana. — The  area  of  the  State  of  Montana  is 
146,997  square  miles.  The  population  in  1920  was 
548,889,  an  increase  of  46  per  cent  over  that  of 
3/6,653  in  1910.  Of  this  31.3  per  cent  was  urban; 
64.5  per  cent  was  rural.  There  were  605,289  native 
whites  (440,640  of  native  parentage,  101,910  of 
foreign  parentage,  62,919  of  mixed  parentage),  and 
93,620  foreign  born.  The  Indians  number.  10,956, 
the  Chinese  872,  and  the  Japanese  1074.  The  per¬ 
centage  of  illiteracy  was  2.3  for  the  whole  State. 
The  largest  cities  are  Butte  41,611;  Great  Falls 
24,121;  Billings  15,100;  Helena  12,037;  Missoula 
12,668. 

Economic  Conditions.— There  are  57,677  farms 
in  the  State,  with  an  acreage  of  35,070,656.  In 
1919  Montana  raised  7,799,647  bushels  of  wheat 
on  1,698,531  acres;  2,583,908  bushels  of  oats  on 
191,096^  acres;  346,972  bushels  of  barley  on  75,979 
acres;  73,824  tons  of  sugar  beets  on  8600  acres.  The 
number  of  farms  irrigated  was  10,807,  or  18.7  per 
cent,  the  capital  invested  being  $52,143,363.  In 
1917  copper  to  the  value  of  $74,928,283  was  pro¬ 
duced,  silver  to  the  value  of  $10,817,589,  and  gold 
to  the  value  of  $3,517,253.  The  number  of  cattle 
m  the  State  is  in  excess  of  200,000;  the  annual 
production  of  wool  is  about  17,000,000  pounds. 
Manufacturing  is  on  the  increase,  for  in  1919  there 
were  1290  establishments,  as  against  939  in  1914. 
The  number  of  persons  engaged  were  20,692;  the 
capital  invested  $137,476,277;  value  of  products 
♦166,664,518.  The  principal  products  were  flour  and 
gristmill  products,  and  lumber  and  timber  products; 
important  industries  are  car  and  general  repair  shop 
construction,  and  meat  packing.  The  bonded  debt 
of  the  State  in  1921  was  $2,852,588;  the  assessed 
valuation  of  real  property  $1,271,722,246;  of  per¬ 
sonal  property  $396,301,869.  There  were  in  1918 


1913  miles  of  main  line  of  railway,  205  miles  of 
double  track  main  line,  and  1594  miles  of  branches, 
etc. 

Education. — The  State  laws  governing  private  and 
parochial  schools  are  as  follows:  No  public  mone3r 
shall  be  used  in  support  of  any  school  controlled 
in  whole  or  part  by  any  sect.  Such  property  as 
may  be  used  exclusively  for  educational  purposes 
may  be  exempt  from  taxation.  Teaching  certificates 
are  issued  only  to  citizens  or  declarants.  Any 
accredited  high  school  may  establish  normal  train¬ 
ing  courses.  In  1920  the  3619  public  elementary 
schools  had  5305  teachers  and  111,721  enrolled 
pupils.  In  the  178  public  high  schools  there  were 
910  teachers  and  14,517  pupils.  The  school  expendi¬ 
ture  was  $12,904,270.  The  average  monthly  salary 
paid  to  male  teachers  in  1917  was  $104,  and  to 
female  teachers  $70.  The  College  of  Agriculture 
and  Mechanic  Arts  at  Bozeman,  the  School  of  Mines 
at  Butte,  the  Normal  School  at  Dillon,  and  the 
State  University  at  Missoula  (founded  in  1895) 
constitute  the  University  of  Montana.  In  1919  the 
State  university  had  1134  students  and  65  instruc¬ 
tors,  and  an  income  from  the  State  of  $280,000, 
the  sum  of  $60,000  being  appropriated  for  new  build¬ 
ings.  According  to  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation 
Report  (1920)  Montana  stands  first  among  all  the 
States  in  percentage  of  school  population  attending 
school,  in  average  number  of  days,  attendance  by 
each  child  of  school  age,  and  in  expenditure  per 
pupil  for  purposes  other  than  teachers’  salaries. 

Religion. — According  to  the  United  States  census 
of  1916  there  were  in  the  State:  Catholics  78,113; 
Methodist  Episcopalians  13,872;  Presbyterians  6792 ; 
Episcopalians  4607 ;  Baptists,  North  Convention, 
4073;  Lutherans  9129;  Servian  Orthodox  2700;  Con- 
gregationalists  3841;  Disciples  of  Christ  3719;  Latter 
Day  Saints  1460;  all  other  denominations  9259. 
For  Catholic  religious  and  educational  statistics 
see  Helena,  Diocese  of,  and  Great  Falls,  Diocese 
of. 

Recent  Legislation— In  1911  a  white  slave  law 
was  passed,  juvenile  courts  established,  and  a  tuber¬ 
culosis  sanatarium  provided  for.  In  1913  a  corrupt 
practice  law  went  into  effect,  and  in  1917  an  eight- 
hour  day  law  for  women  was  passed.  In  that  year 
attorneys  were  required  to  pay  a  license  fee. 
Changes  were  made  in  the  mode  of  elections,  in 
the  taxation  laws,  and  in  the  mining  laws.  The 
Prohibition  Act  was  ratified  on  19  February,  1918, 
and  the  Federal  Suffrage  Act  on  30  July,  1919. 

History. — As  a  result  of  the  election  in  1916  the 
distinction  came  to  Montana  of  being  the  first 
State  to  send  a  woman  to  Congress,  Miss  Jeannette 
Rankin,  of  Missoula,  being  chosen.  In  1917  Frank 
Little,  organizer  and  agitator  for  the  Industrial 
Workers  of  the  World,  came  to  the  State  to  organize 
a  strike  in  the  mines.  The  State  authorities  were 
about  to  prosecute  him  when  he  was  lynched  at 
Butte. 

During  the  European  War  Montana  contributed 
36,293  soldiers,  or  .97  per  cent  of  the  United  States 
Army.  The  State  members  of  the  national  guard 
joined  the  41st  Division  at  Fremont,  California, 
and  those  of  the  national  army  the  91st  Division 
at  Camp  Lewis,  Washington.  The  summary  of 
casualties  among  the  Montana  members  of  the 
expeditionary  force  was  as  follows:  deceased,  13 
officers,  921  men;  prisoners,  2  officers,  37  men; 
wounded,  43  officers,  2426  men. 

Montaubon,  Diocese  of  (Montis  Alrani;  cf. 
C.  E.,  X-524c),  Tarn-et-Garonne  (France)  is  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Toulouse,  comprises  a  Catholic  population 
of  160,000  French  and  a  few  hundred  Spaniards. 
The  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Pierre  Marty,  b.  31  October, 


MONTE  CASSINO 


514 


MONTEREY 


1S50.  at  Beaumont,  professor  at  the  upper  seminary 
in  1883,  titular  chancellor  in  1888,  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Acmonia  4  August,  1907,  and  coadjutor 
at  Montaubon,  consecrated  21  September,  pro¬ 
claimed  19  December  following,  to  succeed  10  Jan¬ 
uary,  1908,  Mgr.  Adolphe  Josue  Frederic  Fiard  (b. 
12  December,  1821 ;  d.  10  January,  1908) . 

There  are,  according  to  1922  census:  327  parishes, 
335  churches,  340  secular  priests,  10  regulars  con¬ 
sidered  as  diocesan  missionaries,  14  congregations 
of  women,  contemplative  or  hospitaler  in  37  houses, 
convents,  hospitals,  and  orphanages;  2  seminaries, 
upper  and  lower,  with  22  seminarians  in  the  upper 
and  65  in  the  lower  seminary,  1  college  for  boys 
with  26  teachers  and  270  boys,  2  for  girls  with  25 
teachers  and  205  pupils,  119  elementary  schools 
with  41  men  and  208  women  instructors,  with  1412 
boys  and  3134  girls,  1  home  for  men  (La  Bastiolle), 
10  orphan  asylums,  16  hospitals,  1  refuge,  1  day 
nursery.  The  departmental  prison  has  an  official 
chaplain.  Three  societies  are  organized  among  the 
clergy:  Society  of  St.  John  the  Evangelist  (for 
defunct  priests),  Priests  Adorers,  Apostolic  Union; 
among  the  laity:  Catholic  Union,  Catholic  Youth, 
Patronages  of  boys  and  girls.  “La  Croix,”  of  Tarn- 
et-Garonne,  “Catholic  Bulletin”  (Semaine  reli- 
giuse),  and  the  “Parochial  Bulletin”  are  published 
in  the  diocese. 

In  June,  1921,  Mgr.  Marty  ordained  the  former 
colonel  of  the  artillery  Rollin,  officer  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor,  croix  de  guerre,  and  the  son-in-law  of 
the  former  senator  from  Tarn-et-Garonne,  Count 
Henri  Delbreil. 

Monte  Cassino  (cf.  C.  E.,  X-526d),  a  Benedictine 
abbey  nullius  of  the  Cassinese  Congregation,  in  the 
province  of  Caserta,  Italy,  with  an  extensive  terri¬ 
tory  comprising  58  parishes,  214  churches,  and  a 
population  of  130,000,  with  90  secular  priests.  The 
present  abbot  is  Dom  Gregorio  Diamare,  born 
1865,  professed  1888,  ordained  1891,  claustral  prior 
1908,  elected  Archabbot  of  Monte  Cassino  1909,  and 
president  of  the  Cassinese  Congregation  1915.  The 
community  of  Monte  Cassino  numbers  26  priests, 
2  clerics,  and  21  lay  brothers.  The  total  number 
of  students  in  the  college  is  100,  and  there  are 
50  clerics  in  the  seminary.  A  monastery  of  Bene¬ 
dictine  Nuns,  with  a  community  of  15  Sisters,  is 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  Monte  Cassino. 

Monte  Oliveto  Maggiore,  Abbey  Nullius  of 
(S.  Mariae  Montis  Oliveti  Majoris;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 245a),  in  the  province  of  Siena,  Italy,  dependent 
directly  on  the  Holy  See.  The  abbey  was  the  birth¬ 
place  of  the  Olivetans,  and  was  founded  in  1313  by 
St.  Bernard  Tolomeo.  The  Piccolomini  family 
increased  the  resources  of  the  abbey,  the  abbey  church 
being  one  of  the  most  remarkable  in  Italy.  The 
abbey  was  declared  exempt  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Bishop  of  Piacenza  and  erected  as  an  abbey 
nullius  by  Clement  XIII,  18  Jan.,  1765,  confirmed 
as  such  by  Leo  XIII  in  1899.  The  present  abbot 
nullius  is  Dom  Mauro  Parodi,  b.  1856,  became  abbot 
10  Sept.,  1917. 

Monte  Vergine,  Abbey  Nullius  of  (Montis 
Virginis;  cf.  C.  E.,  X— 538d),  a  Benedictine  abbey 
of  the  Cassinese  Congregation  of  Primitive  Observ¬ 
ance,  situated  in  the  province  of  Avellino,  Italy. 
The  present  abbot  nullius  is  Dom  Ramiro  Marcone, 
b.  1882,  professed  1898,  ordained  1906,  became  abbot 
in  1918.  The  abbey  nullius  comprises  7  parishes 
with  9000  souls  and  27  secular  priests.  There  are 
16  clerics  in  the  seminary.  Dependent  on  the  abbey 
are  3  convents  of  Sisters.  In  the  Benedictine  abbey 
there  are  9  priests,  9  clerics,  3  novices  and  8  lay 
brothers. 


Monteagudo,  Anna  de  los  Angeles,  saintly 
Dominican  religious,  b.  at  Arequipa,  Peru,  in  1602; 
d.  there  on  10  January,  1686;  daughter  of  Sebastiano 
and  Francisca  (de  Leon)  Monteagudo.  She  was 
educated  in  the  Dominican  convent  of  St.  Catherine 
of  Siena,  Arequipa,  and  later,  after  overcoming  the , 
objections  of  her  parents,  she  entered  the  same  order, 
where  she  reproduced  the  life  of  virtue  of  her  sainted 
countrywoman,  Rose  of  Lima.  In  1648  she  was 
appointed  mistress  of  novices,  and  after  a  life  of  virtue 
she  died  in  the  odor  of  sanctity  in  her  eighty-fourth 
year.  The  cause  of  her  canonization  was  introduced 
at  Rome  on  13  June,  1917. 

Montefeltro,  Diocese  of  (Feretrana;  cf.  C.  E.> 
X — 528d),  in  the  province  of  Urbino,  Italy,  suffragan 
of  Urbino.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Raffaele 
Santi,  b.  1863,  elected  1912.  The  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  the  diocese  is  60,350.  There  are  121  parishes, 
173  secular  priests,  30  regular  priests,  20  seminarians, 
24  brothers,  96  Sisters,  and  260  churches  and  chapels. 

Montefiascone,  Diocese  of  (Montis  FalisciI 
cf.  C.  E.,  X — 529a),  in  the  province  of  Viterbo,  Italy, 
dependent  directly  on  the  Floly  See.  The  present 
bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Rosi,  b.  1872,  elected 
1910.  The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is 
30,000.  There  are  17  parishes,  69  secular  priests, 
16  regular  priests,  50  seminarians,  12  Brothers,  80 
Sisters,  and  77  churches  and  chapels. 

Montenegro.  See  Jugoslavia. 

Montepulciano,  Diocese  of  (Montis  Politiani), 
in  the  Province  of  Siena,  in  Tuscany.  The  diocese 
is  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  Its  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Giuseppe  Batignani,  born  in  the  diocese 
of  Siena  in  1856,  who  came  to  this  see  28  November, 
1898,  died  9  November,  1921.  The  population  of 
the  diocese  numbers  about  16,000.  There  are  18 
parishes,  26  churches,  1  monastery  (Capuchin),  1 
convent  for  men,  30  secular  and  6  regular  priests, 
3  Brothers,  12  Sisters,  1  diocesan  college  with  35 
students,  a  conservatory  for  women  with  5  teachers 
and  20  students,  1  normal  school  with  8  teachers 
and  40  students,  an  elementary  school  with  18 
teachers,  1  asylum,  and  1  hospital.  During  the 
World  War  the  diocese  contributed  its  quota  of 
priests  and  men  to  the  army,  while  the  laity  and 
clergy  at  home  took  an  active  part  in  Red  Cross 
and  other  war  work. 

Monterey  and  Los  Ang<eles,  Diocese  of  (Mon- 
tereyensis  et  Angelorum),  comprises  the  lower 
part  of  the  State  of  California.  Right  Rev. 
Thomas  James  Conaty,  who*  filled  this  see  from  27 
March,  1903,  died  at  Coronado,  Cal.,  18  September, 
1915,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent, 
Rt.  Rev.  John  J.  Cantwell.  Bishop  Cantwell  was 
born  at  Clonmel,  Tipperary,  Ireland,  in  1874,  made 
his  studies  at  the  college  of  St.  Patrick  at  Thurles, 
was  ordained  1899,  became  vicar  general  of  San 
Francisco  and  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Monterey 
and  Los  Angeles  21  September,  1917.  During  the 
World  War  this  diocese  sent  four  chaplains  over¬ 
seas,  three  others  took  charge  of  local  encamp¬ 
ments,  and  a  good  proportion  of  the  men  of  the 
diocese  went  into  the  service,  while  the  activities 
of  those  at  home  received  the  commendation  of 
State  officials. 

The  Catholic  population  has  kept  pace  with  the 
general  growth  of  Southern  California,  and  has 
increased  from  60,000  in  1910  to  190,000  in  1921. 
New  parish  schools,  Catholic  high  schools  for 
girls  and  religious  communities  have  been  estab¬ 
lished  in  the  diocese.  The  religious  communities 
found  here  at  present  are :  men,  Benedictines, 


MONTESCLAROS 


MONTREAL 


515 


Franciscans,  \incentians,  Jesuits,  Redemptorists, 
and  Christian  Brothers;  women,  Sisters  of  the  Im¬ 
maculate  Heart  of  Mary,  Sisters  of  Mercy  of  the 
Good  Shepherd,  of  the  Visitation,  Little  Sisters  of 
the  Poor,  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Jesus,  Daughters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul, 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Carondelet,  Presentation 
Sisters,  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic,  of  the  Holy  Cross 
°i  l  e  Blessed  Sacrament,  of  the  Precious  Blood’ 
of  the  Holy  Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  and  Sisters 
of  Notre  Dame. 

By  1921  statistics  there  are  164  parishes,  284 
churches,  120  missions,  60  mission  stations,  8  con¬ 
vents  for  men,  12  for  women,  225  secular  and  90 
regulai  pnests,  160  Sisters,  1  Franciscan  seminary 
with  54  seminarians,  besides  80  diocesan  seminarians 
in  other  seminaries,  1  college  for  men  with  11 
teachers  and  420  students,  1  college  for  women 
with  18  teachers  and  280  students,  10  high  schools 
vith  45  teachers  and  650  girls,  16  academies  with 
50  teachers,  40  elementary  schools  with  110  teachers 
and  lo  000  pupils,  1  industrial  school  with  6  teachers 
and  no4  students.  The  charitable  institutions  in¬ 
clude  3  homes  for  the  aged,  8  orphanages,  7  hos¬ 
pitals,  1  settlement  house,  and  4  day  nurseries  in 
Los  Angeles  The  orphanages  receive  some  aid 
from  the  State,  and  the  Sherman  Indian  School 
county  hospitals,  and  the  soldiers’  home  permit  the 
pnests  to  minister  in  them.  The  Eucharistic  League 

established  among  the  clergy,  and  the  Holy 
JSame,  Isational  Catholic  Welfare  Council  and 
Jm.cr  societies  among  the  laity.  A  diocesan  paper, 

4  he  Tidings,”  is  published. 


Montesclaros  Diocese  of  ,  (Montesclarensis; 

V*  AA  I— -36a) ,  suffragan  of  Diamantina, 
Hrazd  The  first  and  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Joao  Antonio  Pimenta. 

•  Montevideo,  Archdiocese  of  (Montisyidei 

W,  !-)  ’  !n  Uruguay.  This  see  was 
vacant  from  26  September,  1908,  when  Most  Rev. 
Manen  Soler  died,  until  the  appointment  of  the 
present  incumbent  3  July,  1919.  Archbishop  Soler 
was  the  third  bishop  and  first  archbishop  of  this  see 
and  also  governed  the  dioceses  of  Salto  and  Melo 
which  are  united  to  the  archdiocese.  The  appoint¬ 
ment  of  a  new  archbishop  was  delayed  by  political 
troubles  and  during  the  vacancy  Rt.  Rev.  Richard 
issa,.  titular  Bishop  of  Anemurmm,  was  appointed 
administrator.  The  see  is  now  filled  by  Most  Rev 
Juan  4  rancisco  Aragone,  who  was  born  in  Carmelo 

n/ Qg  uay’  mA88,3.  and  served  as  visitor  of  the  diocese 
ol  Salto  until  his  appointment.  By  a  Consistorial 
decree  of  17  June,  1921,  a  metropolitan  chapter  was 
erected  here  According  to  1920  statistics  this 
territory  includes  a  Catholic  population  of  964  577 
of  whom  273,655  are  Catholics  in  the  province  of 
Montevideo;  it  comprises  46  parishes,  7  filial  parishes, 
12w  pnests  and  about  500  churches  and  chapels. 

pf  B£)nS)el!jer ’^ocese  of  (Montis  Pessulani; 
ti,  ^  545a),  suffragan  of  Avignon,  Francfe. 

hpiLr°CT  i1^8  £a,d  -76  bishoPs>  the  last  bishop 
iQ9ig  Cardmal  de  Cabrieres  (q.  v.)  who  died  21  Dec., 
nnnni  /  the  see  is  vacant.  The  Catholic 

population  of  the  diocese  is  480,484,  of  whom  80  230 
are  in  the  city  of  Montpellier.  There  are  43  first 
class  parishes,  103  succursal  parishes,  and  27  vicarages 
formerly  supported  by  the  state.  g 

Montreal,  Archdiocese  of,  metropolitan  see  of 
the  ecclesiastical  Province  of  Montreal,  has  as 
ju  tragans  the  five  dioceses  of  Montreal,  Saint- 
«  ac,nthG’  Sherbrook,  Valleyfield,  and  Joliette,  and 
comprises  a  Catholic  population  of  633.538,  con¬ 


sisting  largely  of  French  Canadians,  but  with  a 
considerable  number  of  Irish  as  well  as  Italians, 
folds,  Lithuanians,  Germans,  Ruthenians,  Syrians, 
Armenians,  and  Rumanians.  The  diocese  of  Mon¬ 
treal  at  the  present  time  (1922)  is  under  the  direc¬ 
tion  of  Mgr.  Paul  Bruchesi,  consecrated  in  1897, 
assisted  by  an  auxiliary  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Georges 
Gauthier.  Bishop  Gauthier  is  the  successor  of  Mgr. 
Racicot,  auxiliary  bishop,  and  one  time  vicar  rector 
of  Laval  University,  d.  14  September,  1915.  In 
1918  Mgr.  Martin,  archdeacon  of  the  diocese,  died 
10  July,  and  in  1919  the  diocese  lost  two  prominent 
clergymen  by  the  deaths  of  Mgr.  Emile  Roy,  vicar 
(d>  7  April)  and  the  Abbe  Troie,  superior 
of  Saint  Sulpice  (d.  15  March). 

During  recent  years  this  diocese  has  been  the 
scene  of  a  series  of  events  which  demonstrate  its 
steady  growth.  In  1911  the  foundation  was  laid 
for  the  College  of  St.  Jean,  and  in  1917  the  Fran¬ 
ciscan  Missionaries  of  Mary  arrived  in  the  diocese, 
followed  in  1920  by  the  Capuchin  Fathers.  On  29 
April,  1919,  tho  cathedral  of  Montreal  became  a 
basilica,  and  by  a  Rescript  of  Benedict  XV,  on  8 
May  of  the  same  year,  Laval  University  was  made 
the  University  of  Montreal.  During  the  World 
War  50,000  men  from  this  territory  went  into  the 
Canadian  Army,  and  at  least  one-third  of  these 
were  Catholic.  The  diocese  gave  seven  military 
chaplains,  and  hundreds  of  its  men  were  killed  at 
the  front  while  great  numbers  of  others  came  home 
wounded. 

The  present  statistics  of  the  diocese  show  170 
parishes,  170  churches,  13  missions,  4  monasteries 
for  men  and  5  for  women,  1  abbey  for  men,  548 
secular  priests  and  362  regulars,  1738  Brothers* 
and  6845  religious  women.  Under  these  different 
communities  of  women  there  are  9  mother-houses 
and  254  other  institutions.  The  educational  institu¬ 
tions  under  the  direction  of  the  Church  are:  1 
theological  seminary  with  297  students,  1  phi¬ 
losophical  seminary  with  160  students;  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Montreal,  which,  in  addition  to  the 
van ous  university  courses,  has  connected  with  it 
1  high  school  with  148  students  and  7  religious 
professors  and  2  normal  schools,  one  with  101  boy 
students  and  10  teachers,  the  other  with  249  girl 
students  and  29  teachers.  Independent  of  the 
university  there  are  12  professional  schools,  424 
elementary  schools  with  25,163  students,  74  model 
oi  26,734  students,  70  academies  with 

31,975  students,  19  independent  schools  which  re¬ 
ceive  financial  aid  from  the  Government,  with  2732 
students,  and  44  which  do  not  receive  aid  with 
6021  students. 

In  all  there  are  2391  religious  teachers  and  996 
lay  teachers.  The  charitable  institutions  include  55 
asylums,  10  hospitals,  26  refuges,  and  2  day  nurseries 
while  a  great  number  of  the  public  institutions 
allow  the  priests  of  the  diocese  to  minister  in  them 
Among  the  clergy  a  society  is  organized  for  the 
study  of  social  work,  as  well  as  associations  for 
the  Foreign  Missionaries  Seminary  and  the  Union 
of  Saint-Jean,  an  insurance  association.  Among  the 
laity  there  are  a  number  of  societies  formed  in 
each  parish,  the  principal  ones  being  the  Associa¬ 
tion  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  the  Catholic  Associa¬ 
tion  for  Canadian  Youth,  and  the  Society  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Pan.  The  Catholic  press  in  this  diocese 
is  very  active,  nil  the  papers  published  in  French 
being  Catholic,  and  the  Anglo-Protestant  papers 
being  usually  in  sympathy  with  the  Church.  The 
“Semaine  Religieuse,”  edited  by  the  archbishop,  is 
the  official  organ  of  the  diocese  and  has  a  circula¬ 
tion  of  many  thousands. 


MORAVIA 


MOSSUL 


516 


Moravia.  See  Czechoslavia. 

Moravian  Brethren.  See  Plymouth  Brethren. 

Mormons  (cf.  C.  E.,  X— 570c).— I.  Church  of 
Jesus  Christ  of  Latter  Day  Saints.  According  to 
the  United  States  reports  for  1906  and  1916  this 
organization  showed  considerable  growth  in  eveiy 
particular  in  the  United  States  during  the  decade 
In  1916  it  reported  403,388  members  (as  compared 
with  205,796  in  1906),  905  church  edifices  and  con¬ 
tributions  of  $1,192,980  for  missions  and  benevo¬ 
lences.  The  total  number  of  ministers  was  4790. 
Foreign  missionary  work  is  carried  on  in  Australia, 
Great  Britain,  the  Netherlands,  New  Zealand,  the 
Scandinavian  countries,  Switzerland,  Mexico  Japan, 
India,  the  Society  Islands,  Africa,  Samoa,  and  many 
islands  of  the  Pacific.  Missionary  work  in  Ger¬ 
many,  Austria,  and  Turkey,  including  Palestine,  was 
discontinued  during  the  war.  In  1916  the  chuich 
reported  in  the  foreign  fields  1183  missionaries,  4679 
native  helpers,  and  75,450  communicants.  me 
president  of  the  Mormon  church  (1921)  is  Heber  J. 
Grant. 

II.  Reorganized  Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of 
Latter  Day  Saints.— The  death  of  Joseph  Smith,  m 
1844,  was  followed  by  the  development  of  several 
factions  among  the  Latter  Day  Saints.  According  to 
many  it  was  one  of  these  factions  and  not  the  ong- 
inarbody  which,  under  the  leadership  of  Brigham 
Young,  settled  in  Salt  Lake  City.  According  to 
this  view  the  original  body  was  scattered  through¬ 
out  the  Mississippi  valley.  Some  of  these  scat¬ 
tered  members  and  a  few  congregations  that  had 
preserved  their  identity  effected  a  partial  reor¬ 
ganization  in  Wisconsin  in  1853,  which  was  after¬ 
wards  completed  under  the  name  “Reorganized 
Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter  Day  Saints.”  This 
organization  claims  to  be  the  true  and  lawful  con- 
tinuation  of  and  successor  to  the  original  Church 
of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter  Day  Saints.  The  chief 
point  of  doctrinal  difference  was  the  repudiation  of 
the  revelation  of  plural  marriage.  In  1860  they 
were  joined  by  Joseph  Smith,  the  son  of  the 
prophet.  He  was  presiding  officer  until  his  death 
in  1914,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son.  The 
headquarters  of  this  church  are  now  at  Lamoni, 
Iowa,  although  the  largest  branch  is  at  Indepen¬ 
dence,  Mo. 

The  two  bodies  reported,  in  1921,  1740  churches, 
9790  ministers,  and  494,388  members  in  the  United 
States.,, 

La  Rue,  Foundation  of  Mormonism  (New  York,  1919)  ; 
Religious  Bodies,  1916  (Washington,  D.  C.,  1919)  ;  Year 
Book  of  the  Churches.  1920  (New  York,  1922). 

N.  A.  Weber. 


Morocco,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of;  (cf.  C.  E., 
X — 574b) . — Morocco  is  the  country  which  forms  the 
northwest  corner  of  Africa,  formerly  an  independent 
sultanate  but  now  occupied  by  Spanish  and  French 
troops.  The  country  is  today  in  an  unsettled  con¬ 
dition  and  there  has  been  considerable  fighting  with 
the  Moors  in  the  Spanish  zone,  which  lies  on  the 
Mediterranean;  the  French  have  a  protectorate  over 
a  large  part  of  the  country  and  a  small  section  in  the 
extreme  northwest  which  includes  Tangier  (Tanger), 
the  most  important  port,  is  a  neutral  zone.  The 
mission  in  Morocco  (Marreucos)  dates  from  the 
thirteenth  century.  In  1219  St.  Francis  of  Assisi 
sent  five  of  his  order  to  evangelize  the  Moors.  The 
five  Franciscans  were  martyred  in  the  city  of  Morocco 
(Marrakich)  in  1220.  For  reasons  completely  for¬ 
eign  to  the  Franciscan  order  the  mission  suffered  a 
short  period  of  decadence  but  was  restored  in  the 
year  1630  by  the  martyr  St,  Juan  do  Prado,  from 


Andalusia.  In  1677  the  Franciscans  were  expelled 
by  the  Sultan  Muley  Ismael,  but  they  returned m 
1688  to  take  up  their  work.  From  that  date  tne 
Mission  continued  to  flourish  until  the  secularization 
of  the  religious  orders  in  Spain,  when  the  Mission  was 
almost  extinguished,  only  two  missionaries  being  left 
in  Morocco.  In  1859  the  Mission  was  restored  and 
a  college  was  established  in  Cuenco  for  missionaries 
to  the  Holy  Land  and  Morocco.  This  college  was 
transferred ‘in  1862  to  Santiago  de  Compostella,  where 
it  exists  today.  With  this  aid  the  Mission  experienced 
more  favorable  years,  the  prefecture  apostolic  was 
restored,  and  continued  until  1908,  when  it  was 
raised  to  a  vicariate.  Father  Francisco  Maria  Cer- 
vera,  O.  F.  M.,  who  had  been  prefect  since  1896  was 
made  vicar  and  titular  bishop  of  Fessese,  wit  resi 
dence  at  Tangier. 

The  vicariate  contains  22  quasi-parishes,  oO 
churches;  15  chapels  and  oratories;  42  stations;  1 
convent  with  13  religious;  69  regular  priests  (Fran¬ 
ciscans);  100  secular  priests  (chaplains);  3b  lay 
brothers;  158  Sisters;  9  schools  for  boys,  19  teachers 
1500  pupils;  8  schools  for  girls,  17  teachers,  1400 
pupils;  4  schools  for  small  children,  5  teachers,  200 
Dupils;  2  Franciscan  Colleges  for  secondary  education, 

1  Marist,  1  Marianist;  schools  for  catechists  with 
1186  pupils;  1  higher  school  in  Tangier  where  the 
missionaries  give  a  course  in  law,  3  hospitals, 
are  numerous  schools  sustained  by  the  different 
Governments,  some  of  which  the  missionaries  visit 
and  explain  Christian  doctrine  to  the  students. 
There  are  numerous  institutions  for  both  sexes,  ten 
of  which  are  religious,  the  others  are  charitable  and 
under  the  vigilance  of  the  missionaries,  there  are 
numerous  daily  papers  which  have  a  Catholic  char¬ 
acter  but  are  independent  of  the  Mission.  T 
Mission  possesses  a  printing  establishment,  where 
many  works  of  importance  are  printed  and  edited. 
The  missionaries  have  also  an  official  meteorological 

observatory.  .  , 

The  indigenous  element  of  the  country  is  composed 
of  five  distinct  races,  Moors,  Arabs,  Berbers,  and 
negroes,  who  profess  the  religion  of  Mohammed,  and 
the  Jews.  There  are  besides  numerous  foreigners  oj 
different  European  and  American  nationality,  me 
area  is  about  496,990  square  miles  and  the  population 
is  estimated  at  10,000,000,  which  include  300,000 
Hebrews,  100,120  Catholics,  and  the  rest,  excepting 
a  few  Protestants,  are  Mohammedans. 

Among  the  recent  missionaries  of  especial  note  who 
have  died  is  Father  Jose  Tuchundi,  prefect  apostolic 
from  1877-96,  an  excellent  religious,  a  worthy  supe¬ 
rior,  diplomat  and  Arabist.  He  took  part  in  nurn£r" 
ous  diplomatic  errands,  the  most  important  of  whic 
was  when  he  carried  Sultan  Muley  Hassan  s  felicita¬ 
tions  to  Pope  Leo  XIII  at  his  sacerdotal  jubilee  in 
1888.  He  wrote  many  works  concerning  the  Arabs, 
facilitating  to  the  Spanish  the  study  of  their  language. 
His  funeral  was  attended  by  the  consular  and  dip¬ 
lomatic  services  of  the  different  nations  and  an 
immense  crowd  of  Christians,  Moors  and  Jews,  who 
venerated  him  as  a  scholar  and  saint. 

The  French  part  of  Morocco  has  been  separated 
and  entrusted  to  the  French  Franciscans,  whose 
superior,  Father  Marie-Lucien  Dane,  is  vicar  genera 
of  that  district  for  Mgr.  Cervera. 


Mossul  (cf.  C.  E.,  X— 598d),  in  Asia  Minor,  the 
seat  of  a  Chaldean  archdiocese,  a  Syrian  diocese,  and 
an  Apostolic  mission.  The  Chaldean  patriarch, 
resident  in  Mossul,  is  His  Excellency  Emmanuel 
Joseph  Thomas,  b.  1852,  ordained  ^  elected 
Bishop  of  Seerth  1890,  promoted  to  the  Chaldean 
patriarchate  of  Babylon  1900  In  the  Chaldean 
archdiocese  there  are  31,900  Catholics,  46  secular 


MOSTAR 


517 


MULRY 


priests,  39  regular  priests,  27  churches  and  chapels, 
17  schools,  and  2  stations.  The  Syrian  bishop  is 
Rt.  Rev.  Gregory  Peter  Habra,  b.  1856,  elected  1901, 
succeeding  Bishop  Bermi,  deceased.  In  the  Syrian 
diocese  there  are  7100  Catholics,  50  priests,  20 
religious,  2  convents,  20  churches,  10  schools  for  boys 
and  5  schools  for  girls.  The  Apostolic  mission's 
confided  to  the  Dominicans.  The  superior,  Dom 
Berre,  O.P.,  appointed  1907,  was  transferred  in  1921 
to  the  Latin  Diocese  of  Bagdad.  A  new  superior 
has  not  yet  been  appointed.  Under  the  Latin  Rite 
there  are  about  53,000  Catholics,  administered  to  by 
23  Dominican  priests. 

Mostar  and  Markana-Trebinje,  Diocese  of  (cf.  C. 
E.,  X — 599c),  in  Herzegovina,  Jugoslavia,  formerly, 
with  Bosnia,  part  of  Austria-Hungary.  The  diocese 
of  Mostar,  suffragan  of  Serajevo,  has  also  the  title  of 
Duvno,  a  former  see,  and  the  perpetual  administra¬ 
tion  of  the  united  sees  of  Markana  and  Trebinje. 
Rt.  Rev.  Louis  Stephen  Misic,  O.F.M.,  b.  at  Grad- 
iska,  in  this  diocese,  10  November,  1859,  was  elected 
29  April,  1912,  and  consecrated  in  Rome  18  June  to 
succeed  Mgr.  Buconjic  deceased.  Mgr.  Paschal 
Buconjic,  O.F.M.,  Bishop  of  Mostar,  who  had 
labored  for  many  years  in  the  diocese,  and  Father 
Didaens  Buntic,  a  scholar  who  had  done  a  great  deal 
for  the  orphans  and  poor  boys  of  the  diocese,  have 
died  since  1910. 

The  population  is  Croatian  and  for  Bosnia-Herze- 
govina  the  religious  allegiance  is  827,051  Greek 
Schismatics,  583,233  Mohammedans  and  437,778 
Catholics.  The  Catholic  population  of  the  city  of 
Mostar  is  4079  from  a  total  of  16,313,  that  of  the 
diocese  149,000.  There  are  62  parishes,  32  churches, 
2  missions,  3  Franciscan  monasteries,  5  convents  for 
women,  15  secular  and  88  regular  priests,  1  seminary, 
2  colleges  for  boys  and  2  for  girls,  4  normal  schools 
with  460  students,  2  industrial  schools,  1  hospital, 

1  day  nursery,  1  political  (twice  a  week)  and  2  relig¬ 
ious  papers,  a  sacerdotal  association,  the  Third  Order 
of  St.  Francis  and  Marian  Congregation  for  the  laity. 
The  Government  pays  10  dolar  a  year  for  each  pupil 
in  the  Catholic  schools  of  the  diocese.  Nine  new 
parishes,  9  parish  churches  and  5  orphanages  have 
been  erected  since  1910. 

Motu  proprio  (cf.  C.  E.,  X-602).— If  a  rescript  in 
reply  to  a  petition  contains  the  clause  motu  proprio, 
it  is  valid,  even  when  the  petition  did  not  tell  the 
whole  truth,  but  it  is  invalid  if  there  was  only 
one  final  cause  advanced  and  it  was  false;  however, 
even  under  such  circumstances  a  dispensation  from 
a  minor  matrimonial  impediment  is  valid.  A 
rescript  granted  motu  proprio  to  a  person  who  by 
canon  law  is  disqualified  from  obtaining  the  favor 
in  question,  or  if  it  is  contrary  to  a  legitimate  local 
’custom,  private  statute,  or  acquired  right  is  ineffec¬ 
tive,  unless  it  expressly  contains  a  derogating  clause. 

Moulins,  Diocese  of  (Molinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
X—-603d),  in  the  department  of  Allier,  France 
suffragan  of  Sens.  Rt.  Rev.  Emile-Louis  Lobbedey, 
appointed  to  his  see  5  August,  1906,  was  transferred 
to  Arras  5  Ma3r,  1911 ,  and  his  successor  was  appointed 
m  the  person  of  Rt.  Rev.  Jean-Baptiste  Penon.  Born 
m  Simiane,  France,  in  1850,  he  was  ordained  in  1873, 
served  as  a  professor  at  the  lower  seminary  of  Aix  and 
the  Catholic  College,  pastor,  vicar  general  under 
Archbishop  Gouthe-Soulard ,  and  made  an  honorary 
canon  and  vicar  capitular,  denied  the  office  of  vicar 
general  by  the  Government,  named  pastor-dean  of 
St.  Remy  of  Provence  in  1904,  of  St.  Madeleine  of 
Aix  in  1906,  and  appointed  bishop  8  May,  1911. 
The  diocese  comprises  a  Catholic  population  of 
406,291,  31  parishes,  281  succursal  parishes  and  55 


vicariates  formerly  supported  by  the  state,  (1920 
statistics) . 

Mount  St.  Vincent,  College  of,  was  established 
in  1910  at  the  mother-house  of  the  Sisters  of 
Charity,  at  Mount  St.  Vincent  under  the  direction 
of  these  Sisters.  The  institution  was  founded  for 
the  higher  education  of  Catholic  young  women,  and 
has  a  faculty  of  19  professors  and  8  associate  pro¬ 
fessors  with  a  member  of  the  community  as  dean,, 
and  classified  as  follows:  clergy  7,  religious  8,  lay 
12.  There  are  in  all  eight  college  buildings,  includ¬ 
ing  well  equipped  laboratories,  gymnasium,  library, 
museum,  and  art  studios.  The  Most  Rev.  Patrick 
J.  Hayes,  D.  D.,  Archbishop  of  New  York,  is  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  college.  In  1921  the  college  registered 
175  students,  of  whom  25  were  graduated. 

Mozambique,  Prelature  Nullius  of  (Mozam- 
bicensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  X — 610d),  in  the  Portuguese 
colonies  of  South  Africa,  directly  dependent  on  the 
Holy  See.  The  present  Prelate  Nullius  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Joachim  Pitinho,  of  the  Friars  Minor,  to  whom  this 
territory  is  entrusted,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Augusta  16  December,  1920.  The  statistics  of  1920 
credit  the  territory  with  177,060  Catholics,  6  secular 
and  6  regular  clergy,  and  10  parishes. 

Muenster,  Abbey  Nullius  of,  in  Saskatchewan 
(Canada).  This  abbey  was  erected  in  1892  under 
the  name  of  Cluny,  in  Illinois,  was  transferred  to 
Canada  in  1903  under  the  name  of  St.  Peter,  and 
made  an  abbey  15  August,  1911.  On  6  May,  1921, 
the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Consistory  dismem¬ 
bered  the  Diocese  of  Prince  Albert  and  the  “Colony 
of  St.  Peter/’  comprising  fifteen  townships  with  the 
parishes  of  Muenster,  Humboldt,  Annaheim,  Dead 
Moose  Lake,  Fulda  St.  Benedikt,  Leofeld,  Bruno, 
Engelfeld  and  Watson,  was  formed  into  an  abbey 
nullius  and  entrusted  to  the  Abbot  of  the  Benedictine 
Monastery  of  St.  Peter,  near  Muenster. 

The  present  administrator  is  Abbot  -  Ordinary 
Michael  Ott,  O.S.B.,  b.  18  March,  1870,  professed 
24  June,  1889,  ordained  29  June,  1984,  appointed 
abbot  23  July,  1919,  made  abbot  nullius  in  May, 
1921,  proclaimed  at  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the 
Consistory,  13  June  following. 

According  to  (1922)  statistics  there  are:  12  par¬ 
ishes,  24  churches,  15  missions,  2  stations,  1 
monastery  for  men,  1  abbey  for  men,  5  convents  for 
women,  3  secular  and  17  regular  clergy,  5  lay 
Brothers,  54  nuns,  1  seminary,  1  college  for  men  with 
60  boys,  3  academies  with  125  girls,  69  elementary 
schools  with  85  teachers  and  2500  pupils,  1  hospital 
(St.  Elizabeth’s  Hospital).  Associations  organized 
among  the  laity:  Knights  of  Columbus,  Foresters, 
Volksverein.  The  Catholic  periodicals  published  are: 
St.  Peter's  Bote,  German  Catholic  Weekly,  published 
by  the  O.  S.  B.  of  St.  Peter’s  Abbey.  The  Catholic 
population  numbers  about  10,000  Germans,  chiefly 
settlers  from  the  United  States. 

Mulholland,  Rosa.  See  Gilbert,  Lady. 

Mulry,  Thomas  Maurice,  American  banker  and 
philanthropist,  b.  1855,  New  York  City,  d.  there  in 
1916.  He  was  second  son  among  fourteen  children. 
Four  of  his  brothers  became  priests  in  the  Society  of 
Jesus  and  a  sister  joined  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  He 
was  educated  at  St.  Joseph’s  parochial  school  and 
De  La  Salle  Academy.  He  became  a  contractor  at  the 
beginning  of  his  business  career,  and  in  his  maturer 
years  he  became  an  influential  figure  in  banking,  real 
estate,  life  insurance,  religious  and  official  circles. 
In  1906  he  was  elected  President  of  the  Emigrant 
Industrial  Savings  Bank,  New  York,  one  of  the  largest 
banks  of  its  kind  in  the  world,  and  held  this  position 


MUN 


518 


MUNICH -FREISING 


until  his  death.  He  is  perhaps  most  widely  known  for 
his  work  as  an  ardent  worker  in  the  St.  Vincent  De 
Paul  Society,  New  York  City,  of  which  he  became 
President,  and  of  his  general  activities  in  charitable 
work  of  all  kinds.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Charity 
Organization  Society  of  New  York,  of  the  State 
Board  of  Charities,  of  the  Board  of  Managers  and  its 
president  for  many  years,  of  the  Manhattan  State 
Hospital  for  the  Insane;  one  of  the  founders  and 
president  of 'the  Fourth  State  Conference  (1903)  of 
the  New  York  State  Conference  of  Charities  and 
Correction,  etc.  He  wrote  a  number  of  papers  upon 
charitable  matters,  characterized  by  soundness  of 
judgment,  practicality,  wide  sympathy  and  a  tren¬ 
chant  and  lucid  style. 

Mun,  Adrien- Albert  Marie,  Comte  de,  French 
statesman  and  orator,  b.  at  Lumigny,  Seine-et-Marne, 
on  23  February,  1841;  d.  at  Bordeaux,  on  6  October, 
1914.  The  future  modern  crusader  of  the  Church  in 
France  was  the  great-grandson  of  Helvetius,  the 
materialist  philosopher  whose  writings  did  so  much 
injury  to  religion,  but  his  mother  was  the  saintly 
Eugenie  de  la  Ferronnays,  sister  of  Mme.  Augustus 
Craven.  He  graduated  from  Saint-Cyr,  served  in 
the  cavalry  in  Algeria  and  was  decorated  for  bravery 
in  the  Franco-German  War,  in  which  he  was  captured. 
While  imprisoned  at  Aachen  with  his  fellow-officer, 
Rene  de  la  Tour  du  Pin,  he  heard  with  deep  interest 
of  Bishop  von  Ketteler’s  social  work.  After  his 
release  he  was  adjutant  to  the  military  governor  of 
Paris  during  the  Commune.  Reflecting  on  the  horrors 
he  was  witnessing,  he  blamed  these  fundamentally  on 
the  neglect  by  the  rich  and  the  educated  of  the  social 
duties  imposed  on  them  by  the  Christian  Law.  His 
Catholic  patriotic  soul  was  stirred;  henceforth  his  life 
and  talents  were  devoted  to  two  objects:  to  save 
France  from  being  undermined  by  the  anti-militarists 
and  anti-clericals  and  to  strengthen  it  to  resist  future 
aggression;  and  the  social  regeneration  of  France  and 
the  betterment  of  the  workers  by  activities  and  legis¬ 
lation  based  on  Christian  principles.  In  1872  with 
La  Tour  du  Pin  and  Eugene  Meignen,  he  founded  at 
Belleville  the  first  of  the  famous  Cercles  Catholiques 
d’ouvriers  (Catholic  workingmen’s  clubs),  in  which 
the  workers  could  meet  for  social  enjoyment  and  also 
participate  in  lectures  and  conferences  on  social  and 
religious  topics,  the  programme  and  principles  of 
which  were  set  forth  in  their  review,  “L’ Association 
catholique.”  Under  the  influence  of  de  Mun  and 
Leon  Harmel,  the  Council  of  studies  of  the  Cercles 
catholiques  gradually  advanced  beyond  the  Le  Play 
and  Perin  conservative  schools  of  Catholic  sociology, 
emphasizing  the  necessity  of  social  legislation, 
approaching  the  programme  of  the  German,  Austrian 
and  Swiss  Catholics.  They  were  subjected  to  a  very 
vigorous  attack  by  the  Perin  school  aided  by  Mgr. 
Freppel  for  some  years,  but  finally  the  de  Mun-Coun- 
cil  of  Studies  program  was  approved  by  the  Interna¬ 
tional  Congress  of  Catholic  sociologists  at  Liege  in 
1890. 

To  give  himself  up  to  this  work  de  Mun  resigned 
from  the  army  in  1875  and  was  elected  from  Pontivv 
(Morbihan)  in  1876  as  deputy  to  the  French  Chamber, 
where  he  was  to  reveal  his  intense  patriotism  and  his 
great  oratorical  gifts  for  so  many  years.  He  has  the 
glory  of  initiating  beneficial  legislation  for  the  work¬ 
ing-class,  even  before  the  Swiss  Government  invited 
the  nations  to  confer  on  this  matter.  He  is  found 
advocating  legislation  to  bring  about  the  joint  associa¬ 
tion  of  labor  and  capital  as  early  as  1872;  the  Sunday 
day  of  rest,  old  age  pensions  and  sickness  insurance 
in  1886;  the  eight-hour  day,  prohibition  of  child 
labor,  the  forbidding  of  woman  labor  in  certain 
unhealthy  and  dangerous  work  in  1889.  How  con 
formable  his  social  programme  was  with  the  principles 


of  Christian  morality  and  justice  is  apparent  from  the 
fact  that  so  many  of  his  proposals  find  expression  in 
the  programme  of  reform  laid  down  by  Pope  Leo  XIII 
in  his  Encyclical  “Rerum  Novarum’’  (cf.  Moon,  op. 
ait.  infra,  163-65).  He  unhesitatingly  accepted  the 
Encyclical  of  Leo  XIII  in  1892,  directing  Catholics  to 
accept  the  Republic  as  a  fait  accompli ,  this  act  cost 
him  his  seat  at  Pontivy,  but  he  was  soon  returned 
to  the  Chamber  from  Morlaix  (Finistere).  In  1897 
he  was  elected  to  the  French  Academy.  In  1901  he 
became  vice-president  of  the  new  Popular  Liberal 
Party,  which  the  religious  intolerance  of  Waldeck- 
Rousseau’cs  Government  had  forced  the  Social  Catho¬ 
lic  deputies  to  found  in  order  to  safeguard  democratic 
political  liberty  and  carry  out  their  plan  of  Christian 
social  legislation.  He  continued  to  warn  the  Socialists 
and  the  pacifists,  who  were  the  mainstay  of  the  anti¬ 
clerical  politicians,  that  while  they  could  find  time 
to  attack  religion  and  destroy  the  Catholic  schools 
they  were  not  only  neglecting  the  opportunity  of  aid¬ 
ing  the  workingmen  but  by  their  unpatriotic  policies 
were  rapidly  bringing  about  the  collapse  of  France. 
Filled  with  patriotism,  he  declared  to  them  that 
Agadir,  Algeciras,  Tangiers  and  Casablanca  proved 
that  war  with  Germany  was  inevitable,  and  that  they 
were  neglecting  preparations.  It  was  only  shortly 
before  the  cataclysm,  however,  that  the  government 
listened  to  his  warnings.  When  old  age  rendered 
public  speaking  more  difficult  for  him,  de  Mun 
redoubled  his  efforts  with  his  pen.  When  the  war 
began  his  daily  articles  in  the  Echo  de  Paris  nerved  his 
countrymen,  and  his  cheery  messages  to  the  soldiers 
in  the  midst  of  the  initial  disasters,  inspired  them  with 
the  thought  that  they  had  still  God  and  Joan  of  Arc 
with  them;  and  with  the  Marne  victory ,  he  announced 
to  them  that  their  final  triumph  was  assured.  He  died 
four  weeks  later  just  after  penning  his  last  daily 
message  of  hope.  Among  Comte  de  Mun’s  published 
works  are:  “Discours  et  ecrits  divers’’ (7  vols.)j  “Ma 
vocation  sociale’’:  and  “Combats  d’hier  et  d’aujourd  - 
hui”;  “Contre  la  separation’’;  “La  loi  des  suspects’’; 
“Les  congregations  religieuses  devant  la  Chambre.’’ 

Giraud,  Un  grand  Frangais ;  de  Grandmaison,  Le  Comte 
Albert  de  Mun  in  Etudes  (CXLI),  25-52;  Browne,  A  Modern 
Crusader  in  The  Catholic  World  (Dec.,  1921),  370-80;  Moon, 
The  Labor  Problem  and  the  Social  Catholic  Movement  m  France 
(New  York,  1921). 

Munich,  LTniversity  of. — The  number  of  matric¬ 
ulated  students  at  the  University  of  Munich  during 
the  Winter  term  1920-21  was  8395,  of  whom  897  were 
women.  To  these  may  be  added  1030  non-matric- 
ulated  auditors  ( horer )  and  230  non-matriculated 
women  auditors  (horerinnen) .  The  total  number  of 
students  was  9565. 

Munich-Freising,  Archdiocese  of  (Monacensis 
et  Frisingensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  X-631a),  in  Bavaria. 
His  Eminence  Franz  Cardinal  Bettinger,  who  filled, 
this  see  1909-17,  was  chiefly  responsible  for  the 
present  organization  of  the  diocese.  Under  his 
direction  the  Kirchengenilinde-Ordung  was  formed 
to  collect  funds  for  the  establishment  of  new  par¬ 
ishes  and  the  building  of  new  churches.  He  gave 
particular  attention  to  the  care  of  Catholic  youth, 
with  which  object  he  encouraged  Dr.  Michael 
Buchberger  in  the  foundation  (1910)  of  the  Katho- 
lischer  Jugendfuers  orge-Verein  and  took  a  firm 
stand  against  the  enemies  of  the  Church  in  the 
press  by  the  spreading  of  Catholic  writings  and 
the  foundation  of  the  Catholic  Press  Organization 
of  Bavaria,  the  growth  of  which  was  largely  due  to 
the  efforts  of  Dr.  Lewis  Muller  of  Munich. 

During  the  World  War  the  spiritual  welfare  of 
the  Bavarian  troops  was  directed  from  the  diocese 
of  Munich  and  all  orders  came  from  the  arch¬ 
bishop,  who  acted  as  field  bishop  of  the  army. 


MUNKACS  t 

t 

There  were83  division  clergymen  in  the  service  and 
154  chaplains;  from  the  archdiocese  of  Munich- 
Freising  alone  there  were  33  chaplains  in  the  field, 
80  in  hospitals  at  home  and  30  more  in  other  kinds 
of  service.  Over  200  seminarians  from  the  archdio¬ 
cese  served  and  of  these  101  were  killed. 

Cardinal  Bettinger  did  much  for  the  religious 
needs  of  the  Catholic  soldiers  in  the  line  and  in 
1917,  with  the  approval  of  King  Ludwig  III,  he 
dedicated  Bavaria  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  He 
died  suddenly  on  12  April,  1917,  and  was  succeeded 
by  the  present  incumbent,  Most  Rev.  Michael 
Faulhaber.  Archbishop  Faulhaber  was  bora  at 
Klosterheidenfeld  1869,  ordained  1892,  professor  of 
theology  in  the  University  of  Munich,  appointed 
Bishop  of  Speyer  1911,  and  promoted  to  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Munich  24  July,  1917.  He  was  nomi¬ 
nated  cardinal  7  March,  1921.  Rt.  Rev.  John 
Neudecker,  titular  Bishop  of  Helenopolis,  was  ap¬ 
pointed  auxiliary  to  the  archbishop  in  1911  and 
and  in  1921  Rt.  Rev.  Aloysius  Harthl,  titular  Bishop 
of  Germanica,  was  also  made  an  auxiliary. 

The  various  religious  orders  established  in  this 
diocese  are :  men,  Benedictines  with  4  abbeys  and 

2  colleges,  90  Fathers,  25  scholastics  and  139  Broth¬ 
ers;  Franciscans  with  5  convents,  58  Fathers,  35 
scholastics  and  51  la}'  brothers;  Capuchins  with  5 
convents,  57  Fathers,  11  novices  and  44  lay  broth¬ 
ers;  Carmelite  Friars  with  8  Fathers,  2  novices 
and  4  lay  brothers;  Minorities  with  3  Fathers  and 

3  lay  brothers;  Redemptorists  with  28  Fathers,  31 
scholastics  and  20  lay  brothers;  Augustinians  with 
3  Fathers  and  6  lay  brothers;  Missionaries  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  with  3  Fathers  and  6  lay  brothers; 
Salvatorians  with  3  Fathers  and  6  lay  brothers; 
Jesuits  with  32  Fathers  and  18  lay  brothers;  Sale- 
sians  with  3  Fathers  and  1  lay  brother;  Marist 
Brothers  with  7  Brothers  and  30  scholastics;  Mis¬ 
sion  Seminary  of  the  Pallottines  with  3  Fathers, 
and  the  Brothers  of  Mercy  with  38  friars  and  13 
oblates;  women,  Benedictines,  Servites,  Brigittines, 
Carmelites,  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  English  Ladies  of  the  Institute  of  Mary, 
Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  of 
St.  Crescentia,  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Poor  School 
Sisters,  Ursulines,  Sisters  of  the  Most  Holy  Re¬ 
deemer,  of  the  Holy  Cross,  of  St.  Paul,  and  Sisters 
of  St.  Elizabeth. 

The  archdiocese  is  divided  into  36  deaneries,  3 
town  commissariats,  442  parishes,  205  benefices  and 
113  districts  with  their  own  clergy.  By  1921  statis¬ 
tics  there  is  a  Catholic  population  of  1,195,150  and 
a  total  number  of  1666  priests;  438  pastors,  205 
invested  beneficiaries,  749  other  secular  priests  and 
274  regulars.  There  are  113  mission  churches,  30 
monasteries  for  men,  3  convents  for  men  and  312 
for  women,  4  abbeys  for  men  and  1  for  women, 
363  lay  brothers  and  4698  nuns.  A  lower  seminary 
in  Scheyern  has  176  students  and  one  in  Freising 
has  200  students  and  in  addition  to  these  there 
are  the  archiepiscopal  seminary  in  Freising  with 
138  students,  the  Georgianum  with  100  students,  of 
which  only  18  belong  to  this  diocese,  1  seminarian 
from  this  diocese  at  the  German  College  at  Rome, 
and  7  at  the  Canisianum  at  Innsbruck. 

A  Catholic  Union  for  parents  has  been  established 
by  Cardinal  Faulhaber  and  there  are  numerous 
other  unions  for  the  clergy,  for  teachers,  students, 
young  men  and  women,  working  men  and  women, 
and  servants,  as  well  as  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
Society  and  St.  Elizabeth’s  Guild. 

Munkacs,  Diocese  of  (Munshasiensis  Ruth- 
enorum;  cf.  C.  E.,  X — 634b),  in  the  Republic  of 
Czechoslovakia,  of  Greek-Ruthenian  Rite  is  sufFragan 


10  MUNSTER 

of  Esztergom,  with  residence  at  Ungvar,  and  com¬ 
prises  a  Catholic  population  of  440,000  Russian- 
Riithenian  speaking  Greek-Ruthenian  Catholics  and 
20.000  Hungarian  speaking  Catholics.  The  see  is 
filled  (1922)  by  Rt.  Rev.  Antonin  Papp,  b.  17 
November,  1867,  ordained  in  1893,  chancellor,  later 
vicar  general  of  Munkacs,  prothonotary  apostolic  3 
January,  1905,  appointed  titular  bishop  of  Lyrba  and 
coadjutor,  29  April,  1912,  consecrated  15  October, 
proclaimed  2  December  following  to  succeed  Mgr. 
Julius  Firczak,  b.  22  August,  1836;  d.  2  June,  1912; 
founder  of  the  Actio  Ruthenica?,  for  the  faithful  of  his 
diocese. 

According  to  1922  statistics  the  diocese  numbers 
321  parishes,  683  filial  parishes,  680  churches,  400 
secular  and  12  regular  priests,  5  monasteries  for  men, 
15  lay  brothers,  1  lower  seminary,  5  colleges  for  men, 
2  boarding  schools  for  girls,  450  normal  schools  with 
490  teachers  and  35,000  students.  The  Government 
pays  all  the  teachers’  salaries.  The  associations 
organized  among  the  clergy  are  the  Eucharistic 
League  and  the  Society  for  the  Conversion  of  Schis¬ 
matics;  among  the  laity:  Sodality  of  the  Holy  Rosary 
and  that  for  the  Adoration  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Jesus.  Four  periodicals  are  published. 

Important  members  of  the  clergy  recently  deceased 
were  Michael  Balogh,  formerly  vicar  in  Maramaros- 
Sihob,  who  made  great  efforts  for  the  promotion  of 
culture  in  his  vicariate  and  died  in  1916.  Dr.  Alex¬ 
ander  Mikita,  canon,  professor  of  theology  and 
founder  of  a  Catholic  periodical,  d.  in  1910.  Joannes 
Turjay,  canon,  a  great  benefactor,  d.  in  1914,  Col- 
omanus-Georgius  Zsatkovics,  historian,  author  of 
several  dissertations  on  the  history  of  the  diocese  of 
Munkacs,  d.  in  1920.  Andrea  Dudits,  pastor  and 
former  member  of  the  House  of  Deputies  in  Budapest, 
d.  in  1921;  among  the  laity:  Ignatius  Roskovics,  ail 
artist,  who  restored  the  domestic  chapel  of  the  lower 
seminary  in  Uzhorod.  Events  of  importance  include 
the  reform  of  the  Order  of  St.  Basil  the  Great,  estab¬ 
lishment  of  the  Order  of  Nuns  of  St.  Basil  the  Great 
(Basilissae) ,  convocation  of  the  diocesan  synod,  and 
the  institution  of  retreats  for  the  clergy  of  the  diocese. 

During  the  World  War  five  priests  died  fighting  for 
their  country,  and  the  clerics  in  the  military  hospitals 
deserve  great  credit  and  praise  for  their  work  for  the 
widows  and  orphans  of  the  diocese. 

Munster,  Diocese  of  (Monasteriensis),  in  the 
Prussian  Province  of  Westphalia,  suffragan  of 
Cologne.  From  1891  to  1911  the  diocese  passed 
through  a  period  of  great  prosperity  under  the 
wise  care  of  Bishop  Hermann  Dingelstadt  (b.  1835; 
d.  1911).  Attracted  by  the  flourishing  industries 
throughout  the  diocese,  the  number  of  Catholics 
increased  from  875,000  to  1,520,000.  Bishop  Dingel¬ 
stadt  established  53  new  parishes  and  erected  and 
enlarged  130  churches.  Prompted  by  great  zeal 
for  the  care  of  souls,  he  increased  the  devotion  to 
the  Blessed  Sacrament  by  introducing  perpetual 
adoration.  The  sodalities,  especially  the  Society 
of  Christian  Mothers,  received  a  new  impetus;  a 
diocesan  synod  was  held  at  which  diocesan  statutes 
were  enacted.  His  successor,  Rt.  Rev.  Felix  von 
Hartmann  (b.  at  Munster  15  December,  1831),  who 
as  spiritual  councillor  for  eleven  years  and  vicar 
general  for  six  merited  for  himself  the  respect  and 
esteem  of  all  who  knew  him,  was  to  hold  the 
office  for  only  a  short  period  of  time.  He  was 
elected  Bishop  of  Munster  6  June,  1911,  and 
administered  the  diocese  until  29  October,  1912, 
when  he  was  named  Archbishop  of  Cologne  by  the 
cathedral  chapter  of  Cologne. 

The  present  administrator,  Rt.  Rev.  Johannes 
Poggenburg,  b.  at  Ostbevern,  12  May,  1862,  elected 
7  May,  1913,  consecrated  16  October,  1913,  had  been 


MURO-LUCANO 


520 


MURPHY 


pastor  in  the  manufacturing  centers,  diocesan  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  young  men’s  societies,  president  of  the 
preparatory  seminary,  Collegium  Ludgerianum,  and 
vicar  general,  and  was  well  fitted  to  undertake  the 
exacting  duties  of  bishop  of  this  extensive  diocese, 
in  which  there  are  444  parishes,  444  churches,  and 
47  succursal  churches.  In  1921  the  Catholics  num¬ 
bered  1,695,147;  other  denominations  837,196.  Of 
the  1404  secular  priests  1121  are  engaged  in  parochial 
work  and  155  in  teaching.  There  are  166  regulars 
and  350  lay  brothers,  19  monasteries  and  1  abbey 
for  men,  7  convents  of  contemplative  orders  with 
325  Sisters  and  6  mother-houses  of  various  orders 
of  nuns.  Of  these  two  orders  having  190  houses 
are  engaged  in  caring  for  the  sick,  three  teaching 
orders  have  150  houses,  1  convent  for  the  education 
of  the  nuns  for  foreign  missions.  These  orders  have 
52  houses  in  other  German  dioceses,  and  162  outside 
of  Germany.  Twelve  orders,  whose  mother-houses 
are  not  situated  in  the  diocese  of  Munster,  have  61 
houses  in  this  diocese  engaged  in  the  care  of  the 
sick  and  in  educational  work. 

The  diocesan  seminary  is  at  Munster.  The  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Munster  is  a  state  institution  and  has 
thirteen  professors  in  the  theological  faculty. 
Among  the  state-aided  secondary  schools  there  are: 

1  diocesan  gymnasium  with  10  clerical  professors, 
15  gymnasia,  35  municipal  gymnasia,  51  secondary 
schools  of  various  kinds  for  boys,  either  public  or 
private,  68  secondary  schools  for  girls,  either  public 
or  private,  6  Catholic  normal  schools,  135  public 
and  private  continuation  schools,  industrial,  com¬ 
mercial,  and  agricultural.  The  common  elementary 
schools  are  denominational  municipal  schools  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Government.  Religious 
instruction  for  the  most  part  is  given  by  priests. 
There  are  4  diocesan  shelters  (3  for  boys,  1  for 
girls),  1  institution  for  epileptic  women  and  girls, 
17  hospitals  which  belong  to  parishes  or  political 
organizations,  and  33  homes  for  visiting  nurses 
scattered  throughout  the  diocese.  The  following 
religious  societies  exist  in  the  diocese:  180  young 
men’s  societies  under  the  direction  of  priests,  300 
Marian  sodalities  for  young  men,  90  journeymen’s 
unions  (Gesellenvereine),  40  merchants’  associations, 
109  men’s  associations,  12  working  girls’  unions,  12 
servant  girls’  associations,  325  congregations  of 
Catholic  young  men,  and  there  are  Christian 
mothers’  societies  in  all  parishes. 

During  the  war  50  priests  volunteered  as  nurses, 
later  they  were  appointed  war  chaplains  and  worked 
with  great  zeal  and  self-sacrifice.  The  members  of 
the  various  charitable  organizations  (Elizabeth 
Verein,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society,  Christian 
Mothers  and  the  Knights  of  Malta)  unselfishly  gave 
their  services  to  relieve  the  misery  and  distress  of 
the  war.  Beside  the  nuns  of  the  nursing  orders, 
countless  young  women  offered  their  services  as 
voluntary  nurses.  The  bells  and  chimes  of  numer¬ 
ous  churches  were  requisitioned  by  the  Government 
during  the  war. 

Muro-Lucano,  Diocese  of  (Muranensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  X — 646b),  in  the  province  of  Petenza,  North¬ 
ern  Italy,  suffragan  of  Conza.  This  see  is  filled  by 
Rt.  Rev.  Giuseppe  Scarlata,  born  in  the  diocese  of 
Caltanisetta  in  1859,  served  as  pastor  of  Villalba, 
named  a  prelate  of  the  Holy  See  10  November,  1910, 
and  appointed  bishop  27  November,  1911,  succeeding 
Cardinal  Ascelesi,  transferred  to  Santa  Agata  dei 
Goti,  19  June,  1911.  According  to  1920  statitsics 
this  diocese  embraces  a  Catholic  population  of 
40,180,  11  parishes,  85  secular  priests,  48  seminarians 
and  72  churches  or  chapels. 


Murphy,  John  Benjamin,  b.  near  Appleton, 
Wisconsin,  21  December,  1857;  d.  at  Mackinac 
Island,  Michigan,  11  August,  1916,  distinguished 
surgeon  and  teacher  of  medicine;  son  of  Michael 
and  Ann  (Grimes)  Murphy.  He  graduated  from 
the  public  high  school  of  Appleton,  taught  school 
for  a  year,  and  then  took  up  the  study  of  medicine 
at  Rush  Medical  College,  Chicago,  where  he 
obtained  his  degree  in  1879.  He  served  as  an 
intern  in  Cook  County  Hospital,  and  then  for  two 
years  was  a  partner  of  Dr.  Edward  Lee,  one  of 
the  attending  surgeons  in  the  hospital.  He  used 
the  first  money  obtained  in  his  practice  to  go  to 
study  in  the"  European  hospitals,  especially  in 
Vienna,  where  he  worked  under  Billroth,  Albert, 
Fenger,  and  others.  The  spirit  of  investigation  was 
rife  in  Europe.  Within  a  few  years  Koch  had 
introduced  cultures  of  bacteria,  Laveran  described 
the  parasite  of  malaria,  Woelfler  was  introducing 
gastro-enterostomy,  and  Hahn  had  done  the  first 
nephropexy,  while  Murphy’s  own  teacher  Billroth 
was  revolutionizing  the  surgery  of  the  stomach. 

Murphjr  came  back  to  America  inspired  to  go  on 
with  original  work.  In  his  early  thirties  he  in¬ 
vented  the  anastomosis  button  which  made  the 
hitherto  very  difficult  surgery  of  the  intestines  not 
only  possible,  but  even  easy.  It  came  to  be  known 
by  his  name  throughout  the  world  and  at  once 
called  attention  to  his  opening  career.  Though  no 
longer  used  it  literally  changed  the  whole  aspect 
of  intestinal  surgery.  After  this  his  studies  in  the 
possibilities  of  surgery  of  the  gall  tract  opened  up 
new  fields  for  investigation  and  achievement,  and 
he  did  excellent  pioneer  work  and  stimulated  others 
to  follow  him.  He  next  took  up  the  problem  of 
repairing  injured  blood  vessels  or  bringing  them 
together  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  them  patulous 
and  without  necessarily  shutting  off  the  circulation 
to  a  part.  Then  following  an  Italian  suggestion  of 
some  years  before  Murphy  took  up  the  problem  of 
setting  tuberculous  lungs  at  rest  by  injections  of 
nitrogen  into  the  pleural  cavity.  This  method  had 
not  attracted  attention  in  America  until  Murphy 
emphasized  its  possibilities,  but  it  has  since  been 
employed  continuously  in  many  parts  of  the  coun¬ 
try  for  selected  cases,  and  is  considered  a  life¬ 
saving  procedure.  Still  looking  for  further  fields 
of  surgical  development  he  took  up  the  study  of 
joint  diseases,  with  great  benefit  to  many  cripples. 
These  cases  had  to  be  studied  individually  and 
could  not  be  grouped  or  generalized,  but  Murphy 
showed  the  possibilities  of  affording  great  relief 
and  making  life  ever  so  much  more  livable  for 
these  poor  cripples. 

It  is  as  a  teacher  almost  more  than  a  surgical 
operator  that  Doctor  Murphy  deeply  influenced 
the  surgery  of  our  day  not  only  in  America,  but 
also  in  Europe.  His  first  teaching  position  was 
that  of  instructor  in  surgery  in  Rush  Medical  Col¬ 
lege  in  1884.  He  nexA  filled  the  position  of  pro¬ 
fessor  of  surgery  in  the  College  of  Physicians  and 
Surgeons  in  1892.  For  two  years  he  was  professor 
of  surgery  and  co-head  of  the  department  in  Rush 
Medical  College.  For  the  next  fourteen  years, 
with  the  exception  of  the  two  years  (1905-1907  at 
Rush),  he  was  head  of  the  Department  of  Surgery 
at  Northwestern  University  Medical  School.  For 
more  than  thirty  years  he  had  been  attending  and 
then  consulting  surgeon  at  Alexian  Brothers’  Hos¬ 
pital,  and  was  consulting  surgeon  for  St.  Joseph’s 
Hospital,  Columbus  Hospital,  and  the  Hospital  for 
Crippled  Children.  He  was  for  many  years  the 
attending  surgeon  and  chief  of  staff  at  Mercy  Hos¬ 
pital,  where  most  of  his  important  surgical  work 
was  done. 


MUSH 


521 


MYSORE 


Doctor  Murphy’s  reputation  as  a  surgeon  of  the 
greatest  skill  whose  technique  and  methods  of 
operating  were  enabling  him  to  accomplish  results 
secured  by  no  one  else  soon  spread,  and  literally 
physicians  from  all  over  the  country  crowded  to 
his  operating  room  in  Chicago  to  see  him  work. 
They  could  be  quite  sure  that  they  would  see  some 
surgery  done  in  a  new  way  that  would  be  adopted 
by  others  before  long.  His  work  was  thoughtful, 
suggestive,  and  eminently  valuable  for  practical 
men.  As  he  operated  on  his  patients — they  were 
never  cases  to  him — he  talked  freely  to  the  group 
of  physicians  and  students  who  followed  him.  No 
wonder  that  these  graduate  students  felt  that  they 
would  like  to  follow  Doctor  Murphy’s  lessons  when 
they  could  not  be  present  in  person,  and  'so  after 
a  time  arrangements  were  made  to  have  his  talks 
taken  down  and  printed  for  distribution,  under  the 
title  of  the  “Doctor  Murphy  Clinics.”  These  soon 
had  a  wide  circulation  and  were  in  demand  from 
the  surgeons  not  only  of  this  country,  but  of 
Europe  and  from  the  medical  libraries  all  over  the 
world. 

Honors  soon  came  to  Doctor  Murphy  from  many 
different  quarters.  In  1902  the  University  of  Notre 
Dame  awarded  him  the  Laetare  Medal;  in  1905  he 
was  given  the  degree  of  LL.D.  by  the  State  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Illinois;  the  Universitj'-  of  Sheffield, 
England,  conferred  the  degree  of  D.Sc.  in  1908; 
and  St.  Ignatius  College  that  of  M.A.  He  was  a 
life  member  of  the  Deutsche  Gesellschaft  fiir 
Chirurgie,  an  honorary  member  of  the  Societe 
chirurgicale  de  Paris,  an  honorary  fellow  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England,  and  a 
charter  member  of  the  American  College  of  Sur¬ 
geons.  He  was  president  of  the  American  Asso¬ 
ciation  of  Railway  Surgeons,  the  Chicago  Medical 
Society,  the  American  Medical  Association,  and 
the  Clinical  Congress  of  Surgeons  of  North  America. 
Pope  Benedict  XV  crowned  Doctor  Murphy’s  life 
work  by  making  him  Knight  Commander  of  the 
Order  of  St.  Gregory  in  1916. 

Probably  the  best  idea  of  Doctor  Murphy’s 
greatness  as  a  surgeon  will  be  secured  from  the 
oration  in  surgery  delivered  before  the  American 
College  of  Surgeons  at  Montreal  on  11  October, 
1920,  by  Sir  Berkeley  Moynihan,  the  leading  Eng¬ 
lish  surgeon  of  our  time.  He  said  of  him :  “Murphy 
was  beyond  question  the  greatest  clinical  teacher 

of  his  day . It  is  easy  now  to  see  how  great 

a  figure  he  was  in  the  world  of  surgery  of  his 
day.  When  all  his  work  is  reviewed,  when  not  only 
its  range,  but  the  wonderful  sincerity  and  the 
permanent  and  piercing  accuracy  of  so  large  a 
part  of  it  are  considered;  when  we  remember  his 
unequalled  gifts  as  teacher,  his  power  of  lucid 
exposition  and  of  persuasive  or  coercive  argument, 
his  devotion  for  many  years  at  least  to  experi¬ 
mental  research,  it  is  no  exaggeration,  I  think,  to 
say  of  him  that  he  was  the  greatest  surgeon  of 
his  time.”  His  great  American  colleague  and 
friend,  Dr.  WTilliam  J.  Mayo  of  Rochester,  Minn., 
in  delivering  the  second  John  B.  Murphy  Oration 
in  Surgery  before  the  American  College  of  Surgeons 
(1921)  said:  “The  Great  War  brought  to  a  close 
a  period  of  scientific  surgery,  of  which  Dr.  John 
B.  Murphy  was  the  most  brilliant  exponent. 
Murphy  was  a  voluminous  writer  and  greatly  en¬ 
riched  surgical  literature.  By  these  printed  pages 
posterity  will  know  him,  but  to  those  of  us  who 
have  been  inspired  by  his  magnetic  personality 
and  who  have,  with  rapt  interest,  followed  his 
clinical  teachings,  visible  evidences  of  the  printed 
page  are  but  the  ghost  hovering  over  the  grave  of 
the  greatest  surgeon  of  the  last  generation.” 


MOYNIHAN,  The  John  B.  Murphy  Oration  in  Surgery, 
Gynecology  and  Obstetrics  (December,  1920);  Mayo,  The 
Second  John  B.  Murphy  Oration  in  Surgery,  Gynecology 
and  Obstetrics  (1921);  Skillern,  A  Visit  to  the  Surgical 
Clinic  of  John  B.  Murphy  in  International  Clinics.  I, 
25th  series  (1915);  Doctor  Murphy’s  Clinics  (Philadelphia, 
1912-1916);  American  Medical  Journals  (1916)  passim. 

James  J.  Walsh. 

Mush,  Diocese  of  (Muscensis  Armenorum; 
cf.  C.  E.,  X— 647d),  a  see  of  the  Armenian  Rite  in 
Upper  Armenia,  at  present  vacant.  It  comprises  a 
total  population  of  160,000,  of  whom  95,300  are 
Christians  and  65,000  of  this  number,  Armenian 
Catholics.  These  are  served  by  7  secular  and  2 
regular  priests,  7  churches  or  chapels,  5  stations  and 
5  schools  with  300  pupils.  The  last  bishop,  Rt.  Rev. 
Jacques  Tapouzian,  was  put  to  death  by  the  Turks 
during  their  massacre  of  Armenians  from  June  to 
August,  1915,  and  his  body  was  cut  to  pieces.  He 
was  born  in  Baghgiagik,  Turkey,  in  1855,  ordained 
in  1879,  served  as  vicar  general  and  was  appointed 
bishop  27  August,  1911. 

Mykonos,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Naxos  and 
Tinos. 

^  Mysore,  Diocese  of  (Mysuriensis,  cf.  C.  E., 
X—661d),  in  India,  suffragan  of  Pondicherry,  with 
residence  at  Bangalore,  is  entrusted  to  the  Society 
of  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris.  The  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  is  composed  of  1571  Europeans,  5925  Anglo- 
Indians,  and  49,093  Indians.  The  recent  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Hippolyte  Teissier,  b.  8  November,  1853, 
appointed  22  August,  1916,  consecrated  at  Bangalore 
24  January,  1917,  died  28  January,  1922.  The  see 
at  present  is  vacant.  The  diocesan  statistics  for 
1922  are:  31  parishes;  128  churches;  2  missions; 
51  stations;  63  secular  priests;  2  convents  for  men 
and  8  for  women;  8  lay  brothers;  322  Sisters;  1 
seminary  (native)  with  53  seminarians;  2  colleges 
for  men  with  52  teachers  and  1174  pupils;  1  college 
for  women  with  20  teachers  and  300  pupils;  2  high 
schools  with  18  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  322 
girls;  3  secondary  schools  with  32  teachers  and 
609  students,  2  training  schools  with  7  teachers  and 
65  students,  60  elementary  schools  with  100  teachers 
and  4222  pupils,  3  industrial  schools  with  12  teachers 
and  150  pupils;  1  home  for  the  aged  with  125  in¬ 
mates,  10  orphanages  with  646  boys  and  girls; 
2  hospitals;  3  dispensaries;  4  refuges  for  women 
with  about  300  inmates;  5  Christian  settlements  or 
villages;  4  nurseries.  Religious  communities  of 
women  in  charge  of  educational  and  charitable 
institutions  are  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd, 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Tarbes,  Sisters  Catechists  of 
Mary  Immaculate,  and  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor. 
About  one-fourth  of  the  schools  are  aided  by  the 
government;’  all  the  others  are  supported  by  the 
mission.  One  society  is  organized  among  the  clergy: 
the  Indian  Clergy  Fund.  Among  the  laity  are  the 
Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  St.  Anne’s  Temper¬ 
ance  Society,  Cooperative  Societies  and  Benefit 
Fund,  libraries,  clubs,  St.  Anthony’s  Society  in  aid 
of  the  Poor  Whites.  One  Catholic  periodical  is 
published,  the  “Angel  of  the  Good  Shepherd.”  The 
Civil  and  Military  Hospitals  and  Military  Schools 
admit  the  ministry  of  priests.  Noteworthy  of  clergy¬ 
men  deceased  since  1910  were  Rt.  Rev.  Augustin 
Frangois  Basle,  d.  13  Sep.,  1915,  and  Rt.  Rev. 
Eugene-Louis  Kleiner,  d.  1915.  The  headquarters 
of  the  Apostolic  Delegation  for  India,  Burma,  and 
the  Strait  Settlements  has  been  established  at 
Bangalore.  During  the  World  War  10  priests  were 
mobilized,  several  receiving  decorations  for  their 
bravery,  and  369  former  students  of  the  college 
joined  the  colors  of  whom  27  were  killed.  Many  of 
the  Catholic  Indians  served  in  France,  Egypt,  and 
Mesopotamia. 


N 


Nabik,  Diocese  of  (Nabikensis  Syrorum), 
in  Syria,  was  erected  by  a  decree  in  1921  for  the  Syrian 
Rite,  and  is  suffragan  of  Damascus.  The  bishop  has 
not  yet  been  appointed. 

Nagasaki,  Diocese  of  (Nagasakiensis,  cf.  C.  E., 
X — 667c),  on  the  south-eastern  shore  of  the  Island 
of  Kiushiu,  Japan,  is  under  the  administration  of 
Rt.  Rev.  Jean-Claude  Combaz,  who  succeeded  to 
the  see  upon  the  death  of  Mgr.  Cousin,  d.  20  Sep¬ 
tember,  1911,  after  forty-five  years  of  fruitful  work 
in  the  Japanese  episcopacy.  Bishop  Combaz,  who 
is  a  member  of  the  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris, ^  was 
born  at  Saint-Beron  in  the  diocese  bf  Chambery  8 
December,  1856,  and  studied  at  the  seminary  of 
Pont-de-Beauvoisin,  entering  the  Foreign  Missions 
in  1877.  In  1880  he  was  sent  to  the  Japanese  Mis¬ 
sion  and  became  a  professor  in  the  Seminary  of 
Nagasaki.  He  was  elected  Bishop  of  Nagasaki  3 
June,  1912,  and  consecrated  the  following  8  Sep¬ 
tember. 

In  1912  the  mission  mourned  the  death  of  Mgr. 
Bonne,  director  of  the  Seminary  of  Nagasaki  for 
thirty  years  and  afterwards  Archbishop  of  Tokio, 
and  within  the  last  few  years  the  mission  has  lost 
fifteen  of  its  missionaries  and  four  Japanese  priests. 
During  the  World  War  its  ranks  were  still  further 
depleted  by  the  mobilization  of  eleven  mission¬ 
aries,  one  of  whom  was  killed  at  Champagne,  one 
received  the  medaille  militaire  as  well  as  the  croix 
de  guerre,  and  four  others  received  croix  de  guerre 
and  many  other  citations. 

According  to  the  1920  census  of  the  diocese  there 
is  a  Catholic  population  of  57,499  as  against  47,104 
in  1'910.  The  personnel  of  the  mission  is:  1  bishop, 
22  missionaries,  29  diocesan  priests,  440  native 
catechists  entrusted  with  the  instruction  of  the 
Christian  communities,  18  native  catechists  en¬ 
trusted  with  the  instruction  of  infidels,  20  itinerant 
baptizers  (female).  The  mission  auxiliaries  en¬ 
gaged  in  works  of  charity  and  education  are:  38 
Brothers  of  Mary,  11  of  them  foreigners,  including 
2  priests  and  27  Japanese;  27  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Child  Jesus  (Chaufailles),  of  whom  15  are  Japan¬ 
ese;  36  Franciscan  Sisters  (Missionaries  of  Mary), 
of  whom  17  are  Japanese ;  19  Sisters  of  St.  Paul  of 
Chartres,  of  whom  13  are  Japanese;  and  12  com¬ 
munities  of  native  women  with  227  members.  The 
establishments  include  48  mission  stations  with 
residences;  38  sub-stations;  165  Christian  com¬ 
munities;  77  blessed  churches  and  chapels;  54  un¬ 
blessed  oratories  and  chapels;  1  seminary  with  31 
students;  2  schools  for  female  catechists;  1  apos¬ 
tolic  school  with  57  pupils  (7  novices;  50  Brothers 
of  Mary);  1  college  with  600  pupils;  2  high  schools 
(boarding)  with  257  students;  2  primary  schools 
with  178  pupils,  2  professional  schools  with  62 
pupils;  2  kindergartens  with  323  children;  13  or¬ 
phanages  with  281  children,  12  asylums  with  942 
inmates;  1  farm  with  30  employees;  5  work  houses 
with  134  workers;  1  leper  asylum  with  56  patients; 
9  dispensaries  which  have  cared  for  27,333  patients 
in  the  year,  besides  nursing  done  in  the  homes,  and 
1  home  for  the  aged.  The  Brothers  of  Mary  have 
the  direction  of  the  apostolic  school  and  the  col¬ 


lege,  and  the  other  institutions  are  under  the  care 
of  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Child  Jesus,  Franciscan 
Missionaries  of  Mary  or  the  Sisters  of  St.  Paul  of 
Chartres.  The  administrative  statistics  for  the 
year  ending  15  August,  1921,  are:  baptisms  of 
adults  407  (116  in  articulo  mortis,  4  Protestants); 
infants  2596  (402  in  articulo  mortis) ;  annual  con¬ 
fessions  34,479;  Paschal  communions  33,489;  Holy 
Viaticums  619;  extreme  unctions  712;  marriages 
524;  known  deaths  1032;  increase  1160. 

Associations  are  formed  among  the  clergy  for 
saving  the  children  of  the  diocese  from  the  hands 
of  pagan  instructors  whenever  possible.  There  is 
no  Catholic  periodical  published  in  the  mission, 
but  a  great  number  of  religious  books  have  been 
printed. 

Nagl,  Franz  Xaver,  Cardinal,  Prince  Archbishop 
of  Vienna,  b.  there  on  26  November,  1855;  d.  there 
on  4  February,  1913,  after  wearing  the  scarlet  robes 
for  two  years.  He  made  his  academic  studies  at 
Krems  and  Seitenstettin,  was  trained  in  theology  at 
Sankt  Polten  and  ordained  on  14  July,  1878.  He 
continued  his  studies  in  his  native  land  and  in  Rome, 
returning  to  Austria  as  professor  of  exegesis.  In 
1855  he  was  imperial  and  court  chaplain  and  spiritual 
director  of  the  Augustinum  at  Vienna  and  from 
there  returned  to  Rome  as  rector  of  the  Austrian 
ambassadorial  church,  S.  Maria  dell’  Anima  Teu- 
tonicorum,  of  which  he  wrote  a  history  on  the  oc¬ 
casion  of  its  fifth  centenary.  In  1902  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  Trieste-Capo  d’lstria,  where  he  had  the 
difficult  task  of  managing  two  conflicting  races,  the 
Italians  and  Slovenians.  After  seven  years  of  this 
hardship  he  was  promoted  to  the  coadjutorship  of 
Vienna,  with  the  right  of  succession  to  Cardinal 
Gruscha,  the  incumbent  of  the  see.  In  1911  Car¬ 
dinal  Gruscha  died  and  Bishop  Nagl  succeeded  to  the 
dignity  of  archbishop  and  cardinal. 

Nagpur,  Diocese  of  (Nagplorensis;  cf.  C.  E. 
X — 669a),  in  India,  suffragan  of  Madras.  The  see 
is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Francois  Etienne  Coppel, 
O.  S.  F.  S.,  b.  at  Gets  5  January,  1867,  ordained  6 
July,  1890,  vicar  at  Devizes  and  Malmesbury  in 
England,  arrived  at  India  2  July,  1892,  superior  of 
St.  Francis  de  Sales  College  at  Nagpur,  appointed 
22  June,  1907,  consecrated  15  September,  1907, 
proclaimed  19  December  following,  to  succeed  Mgr. 
Etienne  Marie  Bona  venture,  b.  26  April,  1851;  d. 
12  March,  1907.  The  diocese  has  (1922)  a  total 
population  of  15,000,000  of  whom  19,000  are  Cath¬ 
olics,  7  churches,  33  chapels,  16  head-stations,  37 
priests  and  4  Brothers  of  the  Missionaries  of  St. 
Francis  de  Sales,  6  Franciscan  missionary  Brothers, 
50  Sisters  of  St..  Joseph,  22  Daughters  of  the  Cross, 
1  seminary,  5  high  schools  with  1395  pupils,  5  inter¬ 
mediate  schools  with  625  pupils,  1  industrial  school 
with  80  pupils,  5  primary  schools  with  815  pupils, 
there  are  about  100  schools  connected  with  the 
missions  to  the  pagans,  1  conference  of  the  Society 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  1  poor  house  with  100  in¬ 
mates,  8  charitable  dispensaries,  11  orphanages  for 
boys  and  girls  connected  with  the  schools. 

Nagy-Varad  (Oradea  Mare-Grosswardein),  Dio¬ 
cese  of  (Magno-Varadinensis;  cf.  C.  E.  VII — 40a) 


522 


NAMAQUALAND 


523 


NAMUR 


— This  diocese  which  contains  dioceses  of  both  the 
Latin  and  Greek  Rumanian  rites,  lay  in  the  old  king¬ 
dom  of  Hungary,  but  since  the  division'  of  Hungary, 
subsequent  to  the  treaty  of  St.  Germain,  nearly  half 
the  diocese  lies  in  territory  ceded  by  Hungary  to 
Rumania.  Statistics  of  1920  give  the  diocese  158,329 
Latin  Catholics,  164,495  Greek-Rumanian  Catholics, 
203,966  Schismatics,  103,835  Lutherans,  527,710 
Calvinists,  911  Unitarians,  53,292  Jews  and  1,289  of 
other  religions. 

Latin  Rite. — The  Latin  diocese  with  cathedral  chap¬ 
ter  at  Nagy-Varad  is  a  suffragan  of  Kalocsa  (Hun¬ 
gary).  The  bishop  is  Count  Nicholas  Szechenyi,  born 
at  Sopron,  Diocese  of  Gyor,  6  January,  1868,  elected 
Bishop  of  Gyor  1911,  to  succeed  Mgr.  Szmrecsanyi, 
who  died  in  1908.  Since  the  installation  of  Bishop 
Szechenyi  many  churches  and  schools  have  been 
erected  at  the  cost  of  10  million  crowns.  The  sick 
and  wounded  soldiers  during  the  war  were  cared  for 
by  the  clergy  and  for  many  months  nine  wounded 
officers  were  nursed  and  fed  in  the  episcopal  residence. 
Soldiers  on  the  march  were  fed  and  entertained,  and 
the  sick  nursed,  over  25  million  crowns  being  advanced 
for  this  purpose  by  the  bishop,  chapter,  and  "diocesan 
foundations. 

The  diocese  counts  (1922)  79  parishes,  87  churches, 
4  monasteries  for  men  and  1  for  women,  2  convents 
for  men  and  10  for  women,  137  secular  and  45  regular 
piiests,  159,000  Catholics,  1  seminary  with  16  semi¬ 
narians,  3  high  schools  with  24  teachers  and  250  stu¬ 
dents,  90  normal  schools  with  124  teachers  and  5,780 
pupils,  2  industrial  schools  with  6  teachers  and  70 
pupils,  4  homes  for  the  aged  poor,  3  orphanages,  1 
hospital,  5  day  nurseries  and  2  diocesan  periodicals. 

Greek-Rumanian  Rite. — The  diocese  of  the  Greek- 
Rumanian  Rite  is  suffragan  to  Fogaras  in  Transyl¬ 
vania  (Rumania).  The  see  is  at  present  vacant,  as 
the  last  bishop,  Demetrius  Radu,  born  at  Tompohaza, 
Diocese  of  Fogaras  16  October,  1862,  elevated  to 
Lugos  3  December,  1896,  transferred  to  Nagy-Varad 
25  June,  1903,  assistant  at  Papal  throne  5  December, 
1903,  and  senator,  was  killed  by  a  bomb  in  the  Ru¬ 
manian  senate  at  Bukarest  9  December,  1920.  The 
episcopal  seat  is  at  Oradea  Mare  (Nagy-Varad). 
There  are  (1922)  164,495  Catholics,  199  secular 
priests,  179  churches,  and  24  convents  of  men  and 
women,  having  in  all  307  members. 

« 

Namaqualand,  Great,  Prefecture  Apostolic 
of  (Magni  Nam ac  ual and;  cf.  C.  E.,  X — 268b),  in 
South  Africa,  comprises  an  area  of  119,970  square 
miles,  formerly  belonging  to  Germany,  and  since  the 
World  War  assigned  to  Great  Britain.  The  pre¬ 
fecture  was  erected  7  July,  1909,  by  separation  from 
the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Orange  River,  as  Germany 
was  unwilling  to  negotiate  with  Mgr.  Simon,  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Orange  River,  because  he  resided  at 
Pella  on  English  territory.  New  limits  were  as¬ 
signed  to  the  prefecture,  2  June,  1913.  It  is  entrusted 
to  the  Oblates  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales  of  Troyes,  and 
the  present  prefect  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Stanislas 
Krolikowski,  appointed  1910.  There  are  in  the  Pre¬ 
fecture  Apostolic  5  mission  stations  with  a  church  and 
resident  priest,  four  with  a  Sisters  convent  as  well. 
There  are  over  50  secondary  stations  which  are  visited 
several  times  every  year.  There  are  8  priests  (O.  F. 
F.  S.),  2  clerics,  2  lay  brothers  (O.  S.  F.  S.),  10  sisters 
(O.  S.  F.  S.),  8  native  catechists,  1  seminary,  5  schools 
for  native  children  and  4  orphanages. 

Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  (cf.  C.E.,  X-678c). — Since  1911  38  new  estab¬ 
lishments  have  been  founded,  28  in  Canada  and  10 
in  the  United  States.  This  expansion  has  necessi¬ 
tated  the  formation  of  four  further  provinces, 
raising  the  number  to  eleven.  Mother  Martin  of 


the  Ascension,  after  two  terms  of  ten  years,  was 
superseded  by  Mother  Marie  de  Bon  Secours 
(1916),  re-elected  by  the  Fifteenth  General  Chap¬ 
ter  of  the  Congregation  (October  6-16,  1921),  as 
Superior  General.  The  provincial  headquarters, 
located  in  Portland,  Ore.,  were  transferred  in  1911, 
with  the  provincial  novitiate,  to  Marylhurst,  Os¬ 
wego,  Ore.,  the  provincial  house,  New  York,  was 
removed  from  Schenectady  to  Albany  in  1912.  A 
College  of  the  Holy  Names  in  Oakland,  Cal.,  char¬ 
tered  1918,  began  work  as  junior  college  1915,  full 
college  1918.  In  the  Diocese  of  Valleyfield,  Que., 
a  normal  school  controlled  by  the  R.  C.  Board  of 
Education,  Quebec,  was  confided  to  the  Sisters  of 
the  Holy  Names  in  1911,  by  Rt.  Rev.  J.  M.  Emard; 
it  supplies  teachers  for  rural  and  other  schools. 
Among  notable  members  recently  deceased  are : 
Mother  M.  Stanislas  (Virginia  Duhamel),  ex- 
Superior  General,  whose  connection  with  the  ad¬ 
ministration  from  the  outset  (1853-1912)  helped  to 
shape  the  spirit  of  the  Institute,  Mother  M.  Thais 
(Thais  Lacoste),  Mother  M.  Lawrence  (Pamela 
Lafontaine),  and  Sister  Thomas  Aquinas  (Annie 
Fagan),  all  three  widely  known  as  educators  in 
Canada  and  the  United  States  during  nearly  half 
a  century.  The  Congregation  numbers  (1921): 
professed  sisters,  1920;  novices,  104;  postulants, 
114;  establishments,  168;  pupils  (June,  1921), 
40,743;  colleges,  2;  normal  schools,  4;  residential, 
select,  and  parochial  schools,  162. 

^Namur,  Diocese  of  (Namurcensis;  cf.  C.  E.  X— 
679a),  contains  the  provinces  of  Namur  and  Luxem¬ 
burg  in  Belgium,  and  is  a  suffragan  of  Malines.  The 
German  army  advanced  on  Namur  19  August,  1914, 
and  on  23  August  the  forts  around  the  city  fell  into 
the  enemies’  hands.  Later  the  entire  diocese  was 
occupied  by  hostile  troops. 

Rt.  Rev.  Thomas-Louis  Heylen,  O.  Prsem.,  born 
at  Casterle,  5  February,  1856,  entered  the  Premon- 
stratenseans  1875,  ordained  11  June,  1881,  elected 
abbot  of  Tongerloo  1  June,  1887,  and  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Namur  23  October  1899,  president  of  the 
permanent  committee  of  the  Eucharistic  Congress 
(1901),  assistant  at  the  Papal  throne  and  Roman 
Count  (1910),  and  officer  of  the  Order  of  the  Crown 
of  the  Congo.  Bishop  Heylen  defended  his  people 
and  faith  fearlessly  in  personal  and  written  protests 
to  the  German  authorities  throughout  the  occupation 
of  Namur  (August,  1914-November,  1918),  he  main¬ 
tained  the  rights  of  patriotism  in  his  churches  and 
applied  himself  to  relieving  pain  and  suffering  among 
the  deported  French  and  the  population  of  the  occu¬ 
pied  French  territories  adjacent  to  his  diocese,  as 
well  as  his  own  people.  For  his  many  works  for  God 
and  country,  the  bishop  has  been  made  a  Grand 
Officer  of  the  Order  of  Leopold  by  the  King  of  the 
Belgians  (18  July,  1919);  cited  in  the  Order  of  the 
Army  by  the  French  Republic  and  awarded  the  croix 
de  guerre  with  palm  (5  January,  1921);  on  17  January, 
1922,  he  was  made  an  honorary  commander  of  the 
civil  division  of  the  Order  of  the  British  Empire; 
also  named  honorary  canon  of  Reims  in  August,  1920, 
by  Cardinal  Lugon,  and  the  citizens  of  Namur 
bestowed  on  their  bishop  the  title  of  “Defender  of 
the  City.” 

One  hundred  and  sixteen  priests  and  seminarians 
were  mobilized,  27  of  whom  were  chaplains  and  89 
ambulance  men  or  hospital  attendants;  9  died  in 
battle  and  17  were  wounded.  Among  the  priests  who 
remained  in  the  occupied  territory  17  were  massacred 
by  the  German  army  in  August,  1914,  and  91  devoted 
themselves  especially  to  sustain  confidence  and  pa¬ 
triotism  or  took  an  active  part  in  the  service  of  espion¬ 
age.  Among  the  distinctions  attained  were  111  cita¬ 
tions  in  orders  of  allied  armies  or  the  country,  6 


NANCY 


524 


NARDO 


chevaliers  of  the  Order  of  Leopold,  3  with  palms;  8 
chevaliers  of  the  Order  of  the  Crown,  3  with  palms; 
19  chevaliers  of  the  Order  of  Leopold  II,  8  with  palms; 
36  Belgian  croix  de  guerre;  5  military  medals  of  2d 
class;  47  medals  of  the  Yser;  19  croix  civiques  of  the 
1st  class,  8  of  the  2d  class,  1  of  the  3d  class;  5  medals 
of  King  Albert;  1  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor 
(French);  2  French  croix  de  guerre;  4  medals  of  la 
reconnaissance  frangaise;  4  British  war  medals;  1 
Italian  croix  de  guerre;  1  medal  of  St.  George,  2d 
class  and  1  of  4th  class  (Russian);  110  commemorative 
medals  and  116  Victory  medals. 

In  the  diocese  there  are  583,722  Catholics,  in  36 
deaneries  with  726  parishes  and  911  churches,  6 
abbeys  for  men  and  7  for  women,  37  convents  for 
men  and  63  for  women,  1,316  secular  and  557  regular 
priests,  345  lay  brothers,  3,113  religious  women  (a 
great  number  of  communities  of  French  religious 
refugees  in  Belgium  have  re-entered  their  own  coun¬ 
try)  • 

The  diocesan  seminary  at  Namur  has  103  semina¬ 
rians,  while  at  the  preparatory  seminaries  at  Bastogne 
and  Floreffe  are  416  students.  The  seminary  at 
Floreffe  was  damaged  during  the  war  by  the  German 
troops  who  occupied  it  but  the  havoc  has  been  repaired 
and  the  old  abbey  now  shelters  18  priests  professors 
and  184  students.  There  are  17  colleges  and  estab¬ 
lishments  for  ancient  and  modern  classical  studies  for 
boys,  among  which  the  best  known  are  the  Jesuit 
college  at  Florennes ,  which  has  20  professors  and  150 
students,  the  College  Notre  Dame  at  Bellevue- Dinant 
and  the  College  St.  Joseph  at  Virton.  Other  schools 
include  a  secondary  school  for  girls,  attached  to  the 
University  of  Louvain,  with  10  professors  and  65 
students;  7  middle  schools  for  boys  with  1,866  stu¬ 
dents,  27  for  girls  with  3,660  students;  normal  schools, 

2  for  boys  with  30  professors  and  250  students,  4  for 
girls  with  68  professors  and  440  students;  3  profes¬ 
sional  and  industrial  schools  with  471  students;  424 
free  primary  schools  with  27,678  pupils,  many  of 
which  are  subsidized  by  state  or  local  government. 

There  are  5  houses  for  retreats;  2  asylums  for  the 
insane,  4  for  the  aged  and  1  for  the  deaf  and  dumb; 

3  hospitals  and  8  refuges.  The  ministry  of  priest  is 
allowed  in  all  State  institutions.  Eleven  religious 
journals  are  published  and  the  work  of  the  Bonne 
Presse  is  organized  in  many  parishes.  There  are  three 
organizations  among  the  clergy  and  many  and  varied 
associations  among  the  laity. 

Nancy  and  Toul,  Diocese  of  (Nanceiensis 
et  Tullensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  X — 680b),  comprises  the 
Department  of  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  France,  and  is 
a  suffragan  of  Besangon.  Rt.  Rev.  Charles-Frangois 
Turinaz  who  came  to  the  see  in  1882  d.  19  October, 
1918.  He  was  born  at  Chambery  in  1838,  made  his 
clerical  studies  at  the  French  seminary,  Rome,  was 
ordained  in  1862,  elected  Bishop  of  Tarentaise  1873, 
transferred  30  March,  1882;  in  1913  he  was  made 
titular  bishop  of  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  while  retaining 
the  title  of  Nancy.  During  his  episcopate  he  brought 
all  the  activities  of  his  diocese  to  a  magnificent  state 
of  development  and  during  the  war  was  known  as 
“the  old  Hon  of  the  frontier.”  He  was  succeeded  in 
1918  by  Rt.  Rev.  Charles-Joseph-Eugene  Ruch,  b. 
at  Nancy  in  1873,  ordained  in  1897,  vicar  general  in 
1907,  made  coadjutor  of  Nancy  and  titular  bishop  of 
Gerasa  in  1913.  He  was  a  military  chaplain  through¬ 
out  the  war  and  by  a  Decree  of  the  Consistory  (1917) 
was  named  inspector  in  ordinary  of  mobilized  priests. 
He  was  transferred  to  Strasburg  in  1919  and  succeeded 
(5  February,  1920),  by  the  present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev. 
Hippolyte  de  la  Celle,  b.  at  Beaune,  diocese  of  Mou- 
lins,  1863,  ordained  1886,  honorary  vicar  general  at 
Moulins  in  1910.  The  statistics  of  1920  credit  Nancy 
with  a  population  of  503,810  inhabitants,  486  parish 


churches  or  chapels,  an  upper  and  lower  seminary, 
756  priests,  3  ecclesiastical  colleges,  21  convents, 

5  of  which  are  mother  houses,  18  hospitals.  The  work 
accomplished  by  the  bishops,  priests,  and  nuns  of 
Nancy  during  the  years  of  the  war  is  described  in  the 
“Livre  d'Or”  (published  1920).  Six  societies  are 
carried  on  among  the  laity,  apart  from  the  usual 
parochial  associations,  and  among  the  clergy  there  is 
an  association  of  Prayer  for  Deceased  Priests. 

Nantes,  Diocese  of  (Nanceiensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  X — 681c),  comprises  the  entire  Department  of 
Loire-Inferieure,  France,  and  is  a  suffragan  of  Tours. 
Bishop  Rouard,  who  governed  the  diocese  from 
1896,  died  10  Feb.,  1914,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Eugene-Louis-Marie  Le  Fer  de  La  Motte,  b. 
at  St.  Servan,  Diocese  of  Rennes,  1867,  ordained 
1891,  elected  in  May,  1914,  and  enthroned  in  August 
before  his  consecration  (15  November),  because  of 
the  war.  The  diocese  has  (1922)  262  parishes  with 
churches,  1  abbey  for  men,  886  secular  priests,  7 
monasteries  for  women,  3  convents  for  men,  30  for 
women,  2  seminarians  with  334  seminarians,  4  col¬ 
leges  for  boys  with  86  teachers,  and  1074  students, ,  1 
training  school  with  5  teachers  and  50  pupils,  379 
elementary  schools  with  40,366  pupils.  Missionary 
work  is  being  carried  on  by  the  diocesan  Missionaries 
of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  The  population 
was  given  as  666,748  in  1916.  The  Apostolic  Union 
is  organized  among  the  clergy  and  there  is  a  diocesan 
branch  of  La  Jeunesse  Francaise.  The  Catholic 
periodicals  in  circulation  in  the  diocese  are  “L’Echo 
de  la  Loire”  (daily),  “La  Semaine  religieuse,” 
“L’Echo  de  Primbceuf,”  “L’Ami  de  la  Verise” 
(weekly) .  Three  hundred  and  eighty-five  priests  were 
mobilized  during  the  war  and  155  seminarians.  Of 
these  36  priests  and  34  seminarians  died,  5  were 
decorated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor  and  98  priests 
and  36  seminarians  received  the  croix  de  guerre. 

Naples,  Archdiocese  of  (Neopolitansis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  X — 686d),  in  Southern  Italy,  is  under  the 
administration  of  His  Eminence  Cardinal  Giuseppe 
Prisco,  b.  in  Naples  8  September,  1836,  professor  of 
philosophy  at  the  seminary  and  chancellor  of  the 
archdiocese  created  cardinal  deacon  of  St.  Csesarius 
in  Palatio,  30  November,  1896,  passed  to  the  order 
of  cardinal-priests  after  his.  appointment  as  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Naples,  24  March,  1898,  took  the  title 
of  San  Sisto,  consecrated  by  Pope  Leo  XIII,  29  May, 
1898,  succeeding  Mgr.  Sarnelli  di  Giorani,  deceased. 
Cardinal  Prisco  was  made  vicar  of  the  Pope  for  the 
sanctuary  of  Our  Lady  of  Pompeii  at  Valle  Pompei. 
Statistics  for  1920  credit  the  archdiocese  with  a 
Catholic  population  of  600,000,  106  parishes,  1875 
secular  and  800  regular  priests,  150  seminarians, 
150  Brothers,  2000  Sisters,  1105  churches  or  chapels. 
On  18  January,  1916,  the  name  of  the  sanctuary  of 
Our  Lady  of  Sorrows,  commonly  known  as  al  Fiumi - 
cello ,  was  declared  pontifical.  The  church  of  St. 
Anthony  the  Abbot  was  restored  to  the  Constantinian 
Order  13  December,  1916. 

Napo,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Napensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XVI — 84d),  in  Ecuador.  The  vicariate 
is  entrusted  to  the  Jesuits,  and  Very  Rev.  Andre 
Perez,  S.J.,  is  superior  of  the  mission.  The  ad¬ 
ministrator  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Emile  Cecco,  a 
Josephite,  appointed  in  1921.  The  vicariate  com¬ 
prises  the  provinces  of  Archidona  and  Avila,  with  a 
Catholic  population  of  9000  divided  into  18  centers, 
with  9  churches. 

Nardo,  Diocese  of  (Neritonensis,  cf.  C.  E., 
X — 703d),  in  the  province  of  Lecce,  Southern  Italy, 
directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  It  is  governed  by 
Rt.  Rev.  Nicola  Giannattasio,  b.  17  January,  1871, 


NARNI 


525 


NATAL 


appointed  Bishop  of  Nardo,  30  November,  1908, 
proclaimed  29  April,  1909,  to  succeed  Bishop 
Giuseppe  Ricciardi,  b.  10  June,  1839,  d.  18  June, 
1908.  On  7  December,  1916,  Bishop  Giannattasio 
refused  promotion  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Otranto. 
The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  80,373. 
There  are  16  parishes,  77  churches  or  chapels,  133 
secular  and  8  regular  clergy,  53  seminarians,  10 
Brothers,  and  24  Sisters.  Our  Lady  of  the  As¬ 
sumption  is  the  patron  of  the  cathedral  chapter. 

Narni  and  Terni,  United  Dioceses  of  (Narnien- 
sis  et  Interamensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  X — 704a),  in  the 
province  of  Perugia,  Central  Italy.  The  present  ad¬ 
ministrator  is  Rt.  Rev.  Cesare  Boccoleri,  b.  1875  in 
Rapollo,  elected  at  the  Consistory  of  13  June,  1921, 
consecrated  at  Rapollo  29  June,  enthroned  at  Terni 
11  December,  and  at  Narni  18  December  following, 
to  succeed  Mgr.  Francesco  Moretti,  promoted  to  the 
titular  see  of  Laodicea  of  Theodoriade.  Narni  has  a 
Catholic  population  of  32,600,  41  parishes,  46  secular 
and  9  regular  clergy,  73  churches  and  chapels. 
Terni  has  a  population  of  34,000,  16  parishes,  26 
secular  priests,  39  nuns,  54  churches  and  chapels. 

Nashville,  Diocese  of  (Nashvillensis;  cf.  C.E., 
X — 704d),  has  made  great  progress  since  1910  in  the 
erection  of  schools,  rectories,  institutions  and 
churches.  The  new  Cathedral  of  the  Incarnation 
at  Nashville  stands  as  a  monument  to  the  energy 
of  the  present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  Sebastian 
Bvrne,  D.D.  In  1916  a  great  fire  which  destroyed 
the  eastern  section  of  the  city,  wiped  out  St.  Co- 
lumba’s  parish  and  the  Home  for  the  Aged  Poor 
under  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor.  However, 
through  the  untiring  work  of  the  bishop,  a  new 
church,  school  and  rectory  soon  replaced  the  old 
parish  buildings,  and  a  fire-proof  building  was 
erected  on  new  property  for  the  Little  Sisters,  at 
a  cost  of  $200,000,  of  which  $50,000  was  subscribed 
through  a  campaign  conducted  entirely  by  non- 
Catholics.  In  1917  a  thoroughly  equipped  hospital 
building  was  erected  adjoining  and  forming  a  part 
of  St.  Thomas’  Hospital,  which  is  now  considered 
one  of  the  foremost  hospitals  of  the  South.  In 
1920  St.  Mary’s  Home  for  Incurables  was  opened 
under  the  Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  and  there  have 
been  numerous  other  additions  throughout  the 
diocese. 

The  opening  of  the  mission  field  in  East  Tennes¬ 
see  was  a  most  important  step  in  its  progress.  The 
first  mission  center  was  established  in  Johnson  City 
and  is  now  in  charge  of  the  Dominican  Fathers.  It 
provides  missionaries  for  the  contiguous  counties, 
and  chapels  have  been  erected  in  all  important 
towns.  A  second  center  was  opened  at  Harriman, 
and  a  third  at  Cleveland,  both  in  charge  of  the 
diocesan  priests.  From  these  centers  priests  work 
throughout  the  mountain  districts  of  Tennessee 
ministering  to  the  scattered  Catholics  and  meeting 
with  notable  success  in  the  conversion  of  non- 
Catholics. 

During  the  World  War  priests  and  people  re¬ 
sponded  generously  and  ten  of  the  total  number  of 
men  of  this  section  who  gave  up  their  lives  were 
Catholics.  The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese 
numbers  23,015,  of  whom  4500  are  Italians,  150 
Syrians  and  the  rest  American  negroes  or  whites. 
The  1921  statistics  show  30  parishes;  58  churches; 
28  missions;  129  stations;  42  secular  priests  and  16 
religious;  21  teaching  Brothers;  328  Sisters.  The 
educational  institutions  include:  1  college  for  men 
with  19  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  320;  12  high 
schools  with  52  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  481; 
5  academies  for  girls  with  729  students;  2  training 
schools  for  nurses  with  an  attendance  of  125;  32 


elementary  schools  with  122  teachers  and  an  at¬ 
tendance  of  5126;  2  industrial  schools  with  an 
attendance  of  150.  Missionary  work  is  carried  on 
through  the  East  Tennessee  missions  and  the 
Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith.  The 
charitable  institutions  include:  homes  for  the  aged 
poor  under  the  Little  Sisters,  and  for  incurables 
under  the  Franciscan  Sisters;  2  asylums;  2  hospi¬ 
tals;  1  House  of  the  Good  Shepherd  and  a  free 
medical  clinic.  The  Eucharistic  League  is  estab¬ 
lished  among  the  clergy  and  the  Holy  Name  Soci¬ 
ety,  Knights  of  Columbus,  Ancient  Order  of  Hiber¬ 
nians  and  Young  Men’s  and  Young  Ladies’  Insti¬ 
tutes  are  established  among  the  laity.  A  Catholic 
periodical  called  the  “Columbian,”  is  published  at 
Nashville  and  the  “Catholic  Journal  of  New  South” 
at  Memphis. 

Natal, Diocese  of  (Natalensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XVI — 
36b),  in  the  State  of  Rio-Grande  do  Norte,  was 
erected  11  November,  1909,  by  the  dismemberment 
of  the  Diocese  of  Parahyba,  of  which  it  is  suffragan. 
The  boundaries  are,  on  the  North  and  East  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  South  the  State  of  Parahyba 
and  on  the  West  and  Northwest  the  State  of  Cera, 
covering  an  area  of  about  21,936  sq.  miles.  It  is  gov¬ 
erned  by  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio  Dos  Santos  Cabral,  b.  8 
October,  1884,  studied  at  the  seminary  of  Bahia,  or¬ 
dained  1  November,  1906,  vicar  then  rector  of  Propria, 
chancellor  of  the  cathedral  4  August,  1912,  private 
chamberlain  15  October,  1914,  appointed  1  Sep¬ 
tember,  1917,  proclaimed  10  March,  1919,  succeeding 
Mgr.  Joachim- Antonio  de  Almeida,  transferred  to  the 
titular  see  of  Lares.  It  contains  a  Catholic  population 
of  500,000,  (80,000  natives)  and  28  parishes. 

Natal,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of;  (cf.  C.  E., 
X — 7(J7d) ,  in  South  Africa.  This  vicariate  underwent 
a  complete  transformation  in  the  course  of  1921,  a 
portion  of  its  territory  being  cut  off  by  a  decree  of  27 
July,  and  erected  into  the  vicariate  of  Mariannhill 
(q.  v.),  and  another  portion  by  a  decree  of  27  August 
being  separated  to  form  the  prefecture  of  Zululand 
(q.  v.).  As  a  result  of  this  division  the  total  popula¬ 
tion  of  Natal  has  been  reduced  to  1,100,000  and  the 
number  of  Catholics  to  12,000  (Europeans  6500, 
Asiatics  1500,  Natives  4000).  There  are  at  the  pres¬ 
ent  time  23  parishes  and  churches  and  15  stations,  36 
priests,  350  nuns,  11  teaching  Brothers  and  3  lay 
brothers.  The  religious  orders  represented  at  present 
are  the  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  Dominicans, 
Servites,  Marist  Brothers,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family, 
Augustinian  Sisters,  Sisters  of  Nazareth,  Franciscan 
Sisters,  Dominican  Sisters  of  Newcastle  and  Domini¬ 
can  Sisters  of  Oakford.  The  institutions  include 
1  convent  for  men,  16  for  women,  1  college  for  boys 
with  10  teachers  and  310  students,  7  for  girls  with  82 
teachers  and  1900  pupils,  12  elementary  schools,  with 
98  teachers  and  2500  pupils,  boys  and  girls,  4  asylums 
and  4  hospitals.  Ten  of  the  schools  and  hospitals 
receive  government  assistance.  A  needle- work  guild, 
the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society,  and  the  Ladies  of 
Charity  are  organized  among  the  laity.  Ten  priests, 
all  of  them  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  were  mobil¬ 
ized  during  the  late  war,  and  five  of  them  received 
different  decorations.  Rev.  Fr.  de  Louet  received  the 
British  WTar  Cross,  Fr.  Kerautret,  the  British  military 
medal,  Fr.  Maingot,  the  Medaille  des  Epidemies ,  and 
the  French  croix  de  guerre,  Fr.  Garrigon  the  medaille 
militaire,  the  French  croix  de  guerre,  the  Queen’s 
Medal,  and  the  British  War  Cross,  Fr.  Vialard,  the 
French  croix  de  guerre.  Two  years  and  a  half  ago,  at  a 
meeting  held  in  Durban  on  the  occasion  of  Bishop 
Delalle’s  jubilee  celebration,  the  idea  of  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  a  Catholic  newspaper  for  South  Africa  was 
expressed  by  Fr.  Sormany,  O.  M.  I.,  and  highly 


NATCHEZ 


526 


NATIONAL 


approved  by  the  bishops  and  clergy  assembled.  Fr. 
J.  O’Donnell,  visited  the  Transvaal  and  the 

Cape  Colony  in  connection  with  the  scheme  and 
twelve  months  later  the  "Southern  Cross"  was  an 
accomplished  fact. 

Natchez,  Diocese  of  (Natchesiensis,  cf.  C.  E., 
X — 704d),  in  the  State  of  Mississippi,  is  under  the 
administration  of  the  Rt.  Rev.  John  E.  Gunn,  who 
succeeded  to  this  see  upon  the  death  of  Bishop 
Heslin  on  22  February,  1911.  Bishop  Heslin  had 
filled  the  see  of  Natchez  for  twenty-two  years  and 
during  that  time  he  had  given  special  attention  to 
the  development  of  parochial  education  and  estab¬ 
lished  a  parish  school  in  nearly  every  parish  of  the 
diocese  which  had  a  resident  priest,  besides  direct¬ 
ing  the  building  of  a  number  of  the  largest 
churches  in  the  diocese. 

Bishop  Gunn  is  the  sixth  Bishop  of  Natchez  and 
was  born  in  County  Tyrone,  Ireland,  in  1863,  and 
educated  in  Ireland  and  Rome.  He  was  ordained 
for  the  Society  of  Mary  in  Rome  in  1890  and  was 
professor  of  Theology,  Washington,  D.  C.,  from 
1892-98.  He  was  pastor  of  Atlanta  from  1898  until 
his  consecration,  29  August,  1911.  During  his  ad¬ 
ministration  he  has  made  the  mission,  schools  and 
chapels  his  special  work  and  up  to  the  present 
time  (1921)  has  added  45  chapels  and  increased  the 
number  of  children  in  Catholic  schools  from  5000 
to  7000.  He  was  instrumental  in  securing  a  gov¬ 
ernment-built  school  for  the  Choctaw  Indians  and 
in  getting  the  Belgian  Missionaiy  Fathers  to  take 
charge  of  the  Mississippi  Indians,  and  under  his 
guidance  the  Fathers  of  the  Divine  Word  opened 
a  preparatory  seminary  at  Bay  St.  Louis  for  the 
training  of  colored  boys  for  the  priesthood.  Bishop 
Gunn  is  known  as  the  bishop  of  poor  churches  and 
especially  of  the  colored,  the  Indians  and  the 
abandoned  white  Catholics  of  Mississippi. 

In  addition  to  Bishop  Heslin  the  diocese  has 
lost  several  well  known  clergymen  in  recent  years; 
Dr.  Oliver  of  Jackson,  Father  Mallin  of  Vicksburg, 
Mgr.  Wise  of  Yazoo,  Fathers  Althoff  and  Ketels  of 
the  Coast,  and  in  1921  the  Rt.  Rev.  Patrick  C. 
Hayden,  vicar  general  of  the  diocese. 

The  various  religious  orders  established  in  the 
diocese  are:  men,  Fathers  of  the  Mission,  Divine 
Word  Fathers,  Josephites,  Belgian  Missionaries 
and  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  who  conduct 
high  schools  and  colleges  in  four  important  cen¬ 
ters;  women:  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Nazareth,  Sisters 
of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  Sisters  of  Per¬ 
petual  Adoration,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  of  Mercy, 
of  Notre  Dame  and  the  Holy  Ghost  Sisters  of 
Techny  and  of  San  Antonio.  The  total  Catholic 
population  is  30,477  of  whom  344  are  Indians,  2600 
negroes,  and  over  27,000  whites.  There  are  51 
priests,  143  churches,  41  of  which  have  resident 
priests,  42  Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  238  Sisters 
and  6352  children  in  parish  schools.  There  are  3 
colleges  for  boys  and  6  for  girls  and  2  orphanages, 
1  for  boys  and  1  for  girls. 

Natchitoches,  Diocese  of.  See  Alexandria, 
Diocese  of  (Louisiana). 

National  Catholic  Welfare  Council,  organized 
on  24  September,  1919,  at  the  Catholic  University 
of  America,  Washington,  D.  C.,  by  the  American 
Hierarchy.  The  Welfare  Council  is  the  successor 
of  the  emergency  organization,  the  National  Cath¬ 
olic  War  Council,  created  by  the  American  Hier¬ 
archy  at  the  time  of  America’s  entrance  into  the 
World  War.  A  general  convention  of  the  Catholics 
of  the  United  States  was  held  in  Washington  on 
11-12  August,  1917,  to  establish  the  National 


Catholic  War  Council.  Its  objects  were  to  promote 
the  spiritual  and  material  welfare  of  the  United 
States’  troops  at  home  and  abroad  and  to  study, 
co-ordinate,  unify  and  put  into  operation  all  Cath¬ 
olic  activities  incidental  to  the  war.  The  mag¬ 
nificent  record  of  Catholics  during  the  War  and 
reconstruction  period,  and  the  helpful  service  which 
they  rendered,  both  to  the  country  and  to  the 
Church,  in  the  great  variety  of  activities  handled 
by  the  emergency  war  organization,  impressed  upon 
the  members  of  the  Hierarchy  the  necessity  of 
continuing  in  times  of  peace  many  of  the  useful 
activities  of  the  war  period,  and  at  their  annual 
meeting  in  Washington  in  September,  1919,  the 
Hierarchy  determined  to  perpetuate  the  work  of 
the  War  Council  in  a  permanent  organization  to 
be  known  as  the  National  Catholic  Welfare 
Council. 

In  order  that  the  work  of  the  Welfare  Council 
might  be  organized,  co-ordinated  and  administered 
in  the  most  effective  manner,  the  Hierarchy  ap¬ 
pointed  an  administrative  committee  of  seven  of 
its  members  to  manage  the  affairs  of  the  Welfare 
Council.  The  administrative  committee  was  estab¬ 
lished  in  five  departments:  a  Department  of  Educa¬ 
tion,  a  Department  of  Social  Action,  a  Department 
of  Laws  and  Legislation,  a  Department  of  Lay  Or¬ 
ganizations  and  a  Department  of  Press  and  Pub¬ 
licity. 

The  Most  Rev.  Edward  J.  Hanna,  Archbishop 
of  San  Francisco  was  appointed  Chairman  of  the 
Administrative  Committee,  and  the  following  epis¬ 
copal  chairmen  of  the  various  departments  were 
elected  to  assist  him:  His  Eminence  Dennis  Card¬ 
inal  Dougherty,  Archbishop  of  Philadelphia,  Chair¬ 
man  of  the  Department  of  Laws  and  Legislation; 
Most  Rev.  Austin  Dowling,  Archbishop  of  St.  Paul, 
Chairman  of  the  Department  of  Education;  Rt. 
Rev.  Peter  J.  Muldoon,  Bishop  of  Rockford,  Chair¬ 
man  of  the  Department  of  Social  Action;  Rt.  Rev. 
William  T.  Russell,  Bishop  of  Charleston,  Chairman 
of  the  Department  of  Press  and  Publicity,  and  Rt. 
Rev.  Joseph  Schrembs,  Bishop  of  Cleveland,  Chair¬ 
man  of  the  Department  of  Lay  Organization. 
Later,  when  Cardinal  Dougherty  resigned  from  the 
Committee,  Rt.  Rev.  Edmund  F.  Gibbons,  Bishop 
of  Albany,  was  elected  Chairman  of  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Laws  and  Legislation,  and  Rt.  Rev.  Louis 
S.  Walsh,  Bishop  of  Portland,  was  elected  to  mem¬ 
bership  on  the  Committee.  While  some  of  the 
Departments  were  able  to  launch  certain  activities 
immediately,  the  whole  work  of  the  Welfare  Coun¬ 
cil  was  not  fully  organized  and  functioning  until 
the  early  part  of  1921. 

The  Executive  Department  has  the  supervision 
of  the  work  of  the  Welfare  Council  as  a  whole,  the 
co-ordination  of  all  its  departments  and  the  ulti¬ 
mate  responsibility  as  to  its  development,  as  well 
as  its  general  policy  and  action.  This  Department 
keeps  in  personal  touch  with  the  officials  of  the 
Government.  It  is  a  medium  of  communication,  of 
information  and  of  action  between  the  officials  and 
departments  of  the  Government  on  all  matters  that 
affect  Catholic  interests  and  Catholic  rights.  It  is 
a  medium  of  information  to  legislators,  national  or 
state,  and  to  others  who  wish  to  inform  themselves 
as  to  the  Catholic  attitude  on  matters  of  Catholic 
or  public  interest. 

The  Department  of  Education  is  under  the  Chair¬ 
manship  of  Most  Rev.  Austin  Dowling,  and  the 
Rev.  James  H.  Ryan,  D.D.,  Ph.D.,  is  its  executive 
secretary.  The  chief  purposes  of  the  Department 
are:  a  clearing-house  of  information  concerning 
Catholic  education  and  Catholic  education  agencies, 
for  Catholic  educators  and  students,  and  for  the 


NATURALIZATION 


NAXOS 


527 


general  public ;  an  advisory  agency  to  assist  Cath¬ 
olic  education  systems  and  institutions  in  their 
development;  a  connecting  Agency  between  Cath¬ 
olic  education  activities  and  Government  education 
agencies;  an  active  organization  to  safeguard  the 
interests  of  Catholic  education. 

The  Department  of  Press,  Publicity  and  Litera¬ 
ture,  among  its  other  activities,  has  taken  over  the 
news  service  from  the  Catholic  Press  Association, 
which  supplied  twenty-three  weekly  newspapers. 
Today  thiee  dailies  and  eighty-four  weeklies  receive 
the  N.  C.  W.  C.  service,  which  is  made  up  of  (1) 
a  printed  news  sheet  of  eight  columns,  full  news¬ 
paper  style;  (2)  a  supplementary  compilation  of 
news  features,  consisting  of  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty-five  full  foolscap  sheets  printed  by  a  mimeo¬ 
graph  machine;  (3)  a  Washington  news-letter;  (4) 
a  Monthly  Editorial  Sheet,  containing  editorials  on 
'  ital  topics  of  the  day,  special  articles  by  distin¬ 
guished  writers,  book  reviews  and  other  magazine 
features.  In  connection  with  the  Press  Department 
a  complete  exchange  and  clipping  bureau  is  main¬ 
tained.  One  of  the  important  developments  of  the 
news  service  has  been  its  adoption  for  teaching  pur¬ 
poses  in  colleges  and  schools. 

The  Department  of  Social  Action  was  organized 
in  December.  1919.  Rt.  Rev.  Peter  J.  Muldoon, 
D  D.,  is  its  Chairman.  There  is  a  general  commit¬ 
tee  of  twenty-eight  priests  and  laymen,  and  an 
executive  committee  in  immediate  charge  of  the 
department.  The  Department  of  Social  Action 
deals  v  ith  the  industrial  relations,  civic  education, 
social  welfare,  and  rural  life.  Rev.  John  A.  Ryan, 
D.D.,  is  Director  of  the  section  dealing  with  indus- 
tiial  relations;  Mr.  John  A.  Lapp,  LL.D.,  is  Direc¬ 
tor  of  Civic  Education  and  Social  Welfare,  and  Rev. 
Edwin  V.  O’Hara,  Ph.D.,  is  Director  of  the  Rural 
Life  Bureau  of  the  department.  The  purpose  of 
^ePar^menl;,  is  get  the  best  information  on 
all  of  these  subjects,  distribute  the  information  and 
serve  as  a  direct  help  to  the  rest  of  the  Welfare 
Council  and  to  the  Men’s  and  Women's  Council 
in  particular  in  all  matters  coming  under  its  prov¬ 
ince.  A  weekly  news  service  on  industrial  and  rural 
questions  is  being  conducted  for  the  Catholic  papers 
and  a  few  secular  papers.  The  department  also 
conducts  a  lecture  course  on  -economic  and  social 
topics  for  Catholic  seminaries  and  colleges  and 
Catholic  clubs  in  secular  universities. 

The  Department  of  Laws  and  Legislation  was 
organized  in  December,  1920,  its  purpose  being  to 
safeguard  Catholic  interests  in  both  State  and 
.Nation.  The  Department  keeps  in  close  touch 
with  the  activities  of  Congress  and  the  legislatures 
of  the  several  States,  and  is  ever  on  the  alert  to 
detect  those  measures  aversely  affecting  Catholic 
interests  and  morality  and  to  obtain  information 
as  to  the  source  of  such  matters. 

The  Department  of  Lay  Organizations,  having 
two  co-ordinate  departments — one  the  National 
Council  of  Catholic  Men  and  the  other  the  National 
Council  of  Catholic  W  omen — has  for  its  purpose 
the  unification  of  the  Catholic  lay  forces  through¬ 
out  the  country.  The  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Schrembs 
directs  the  organization  and  activities  of  these  two 
Councils.  Admiral  William  S.  Benson  is  President 
of  the  National  Council  of  Catholic  Men.  It 
conducts  a  Catholic  Bureau  of  Immigration  and 
a  Catholic  Service  School  for  Men.  At  the  head  of 
~*e  Council  of  Catholic  Women  is  Mrs. 

Michael  Gavin.  Its  object  is  to  accomplish  for 
Catholic  women  what  the  National  Council  of 
Catholic  Men  seeks  to  do  for  the  men.  The  hope 
of  these  two  Councils  is  to  reach  the  vast  majority 
ot  Catholics  not  affiliated  with  any  Catholic  societv 
34 


They  are  trying  to  infuse  into  them  some  of  its 
com  age,  opt  imism  and  spirit,  and  above  all  to  teach 
them  the  advantage  of  organized  effort  and  unity 
in  thought  and  action  outside  the  Church  as  well  as 
a  •  e  scatt,ered  forces  of  the  Catholic  body 
of  America  are  gradually  being  united  in  this  way 
into  a  compact  organization  which  will  soon  be 
able  to  make  Catholic  Faith,  principles  and  ideals 
command  the  influence  and  prestige  in  our  social 
and  civic  life  which  their  soundness  and  stability 
warrant.  In  Canada,  in  South  America,  in  Eng¬ 
land,  Ii  eland  and  other  countries  of  Europe  the 
work  of  the  Welfare  Council  is  attracting  much 
attention  and  many  of  its  programs  are  being 
studied  most  carefully,  and  some  of  them  are 
being  put  into  operation  by  the  Catholics  of  the 
countries  named.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the 
■^af1iona  Catholic  Welfare  Council’s  Press  service, 
which  is  being  carefully  studied  by  foreign  Catholic 
journalists. 

Naturalization.  See  Americanization. 

Navigators’  Islands  (or  Samoa),  Vicariate  Apos- 
tolic  OF  (Archipelagi  Navigatorum;  cf.  C.  E., 
AIII— 421a),  in  Polynesia,  is  entrusted  to  the 
Society  of  Mary  and  governed  by  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph 
arnand,  a  Manst,  titular  Bishop  of  Polemonium, 
b.  31  December,  1879,  professed  20  December,  1903 
ordained  16  July,  1905,  appointed  Vicar  Apostolic 
of  Navigators  Islands,  4  August,  1919,  and  con¬ 
secrated  16  May,  1920.  He  resides  at  Apia,  on  the 
Island  of  Upola  (Samoa).  The  vicariate  comprises 
the  western  islands  of  Samoa  (q.  v.)  formerly  belong¬ 
ing  to  Germany,  and  since  the  Treaty  of  Versailles 
governed  by  New  Zealand.  It  numbers  a  total  pop¬ 
ulation  of  38,000,  of  whom  6675  are  Catholics,  and  183 
catechumens,  15  districts,  92  stations,  22  regular 
pnests,  4  native  priests,  15  Little  Brothers  of  Mary 
28  Sisters,  101  catechists,  4  schools  of  Brothers,  6  of 
Sisters  with  2000  pupils,  82  primary  schools,  25 
churches  and  a  few  chapels,  1  professional  school. 

Naxos  and  Tinos,  Archdiocese  of  (Naxiensis  et 
Tinensis),  is  one  of  the  three  dioceses  of  the  Latin 
lite  in  the  Cyclades  Islands,  Greek  Archipelago, 
and  has  as  suffragans  Syra  and  Thera  (Santorin). 
a/  i8,  ^rie^  3  June,  1919,  the  sees  of  Tinos  and 
Mykonos  were  united  to  the  archdiocese  of  Naxos 
under  the  title  of  Naxos  and  Tinos.  The  silk  in¬ 
dustry  ,  once  flourishing  on  these  islands,  has  since 
disappeared,  Naxos  and  Tinos  being  now  given 
chiefly  to  cattle  raising,  Syra  is  a  manufacturing 
place  for  wool  and  cotton,  and  Thera  is  famous 
for  its  strong  wine  which  is  its  principal  source  of 
revenue. 

The  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Mathew  Vido, 
b.  in  the  diocese  of  Tinos  1847,  prelate  of  the  Holy 
See,  appointed  Bishop  of  Tinos  and  Mykonos  9 
March,  1915,  was  promoted  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
Naxos  and  Tinos  3  July,  1919,  to  succeed  Arch¬ 
bishop  Brindisi,  transferred  to  Corfu  after  filling 
the  see  of  Naxos  from  1909. 

There  are  only  about  150  Catholics  in  Naxos  and 
these  live  in  the  old  town.  In  Tinos,  however 
there  are  about  4000  Catholics  who  fully  live  up  to 
the  lequirements  of  their  faith  and  cling  to  many 
picturesque  and  ancient  Catholic  customs.  They 
are  all  peasants  and  live  by  themselves  in  25  small 
villages,  each  of  which  has  its  own  church  and 
curates,  the  pastors  are  usually  changed  every  two 
years.  On  each  of  these  islands  a  flourishing 
academy  is  conducted  by  the  Ursuline  Nuns  and 
these  institutions  are  famous  throughout  the 
Le\  ant.  At  Naxos  there  is  a  commercial  school’ 
for  boys  conducted  by  the  Oblate  Fathers  of  St. 


NAZARETH 


528 


NEBRASKA 


Francis  de  Sales  (oi :  Troyes)^  the  Jesuits  have  had 
ISSfiZSt  aSS  have  2  stations 

with  one  Father  each,  on  the  same  island  and  the  d»ga» '  PUP^ ^  and  2  private  normal 

Capuchin  Fathers  have  a  station  at  Naxos  with  1  in  fol9  was  *16,690,000. 

priest.  In  1918  $7;457;000  were  expended  for  salaries  among 

Nazareth,  Diocese  of  (Nazarensis  in  Brasilia)  12,758  teachers.  The  laws  governing  State  private 

in  Brazil  is  suffragan  of  Olinda.  It  was  erected  by  a  and  parochial  schools  are  as  follows  (compulsory 

decree  of  2  August,  1918,  but  was  not  published  education  act):  Grades,  qualifications  of  teachers, 

until  1  October .  1921.  The  territory  of  this  new  promotion  of  pupils,  courses  of  study  in  private 

diocese  is  taken  from  the  northeast  portion  of  that  schools  must  be  substantially  the  same  as  m  public 

of  Olinda  The  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Richard  Ramos  schools.  The  teachers  must  be  certificated.  History 

Da  Costa  Viella  b  at  Olinda  3  April,  1887,  rector  and  Civil  Government  must  be  'aught  and  patriotic 

BS Qravada ^appointed  at  the  Consistory  3  July,  1919,  exercises  held.  County  superintendents  of  county  or 

Bishop  of  Nazareth.  The  parish  church  of  Our  Lady  city  superintendents  of  city  where  any  private  denorn- 

of  Nazareth  became  the  cathedral  with  twenty-two  mational  or  parochial  school  is  located  shall  inspect 

parishes  in  the  diocese.  The  new  diocese  has  two  such  school  and  report  to  the  proper  officers  any  evi- 

SnrDnts  at  the  South  American  College,  Rome.  dence  of  failure  to  observe  any  provisions  of  this  Act. 

students  at  tne  tooutn  America  £  ’  No  pergon>  individually  or  as  a  teacher,  shall,  m  any 

Nazareth,  Sisters  of  Charity  of.  See  Charity  private,  denominational,  parochial  or  public  school, 

Sisters  of,  of  Nazareth.  teach  any  subject  to  any  person  in  any  other  language 

^  _  __  ^  (  i l  but  the  English  language.  Languages  other  than  the 

Nebraska  (cf.  C.  E.  X-/29c)  The  area  of  the  language  may  be  taught  as  languages  only 

State  of  Nebraska  is  7520  square  miles.  In  1920  when  &  n  shall  have  successfully  passed  the  eighth 

the  population  was  1,296,372,  an  increase  of  8.7  since  grac[e>  A  foreign  language  may  be  used  to  teach 

1910.  Of  this,  31.3  per  cent  was  urban;  68.7  per  cent  ®eli  ion  on  Sunday.  After  September,  1919,  all  teach- 
was  rural.  The  density  is  16.9  persons  to  the  square  epg  in  private,  parochial,  or  denominational  schools  are 
mile.  Of  the  native  whites,  (1,129,567),  757,064  were  forbidden  to  teach  without  a  certificate;  all  must  be 
of  native  parentage,  231 ,948  were  of  foreign  parentage,  full  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  they  must  attend 
140,555  mixed;  the  foreign-born  whites  were  149,652.  institutes  at  least  once  a  week.  Teachers  in  private 
There  were  13,242  negroes  and  2888  Indians,  and  gchoolg  must  keep  attendance  records.  The  wearing 
804  Japanese.  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  was  1.4,  of  religious  garb  while  teaching  in  a  public  school 
a  slight  decrease  since  1910  (1.9).  The  largest  cities  -g  a  misdemeanor.  The  State  shall  not  accept  any 
are  Omaha  (191,601) ,  Lincoln  (54,948) ,  Grand  Island  grard>  conveyance  or  bequest  of  money,  lands,  or 
(13,960),  Hastings  (11,647).  other  property  to  be  used  for  sectarian  purposes.  All 

Economic  Conditions.  As  an  agricultural  otate  normal  schools  must  be  incorporated  under  the  laws  of 

Nebraska  ranks  high,  containing  about  124, OUU  Nebraska  with  at  least  $50,000  invested  or  available 
farms  in  1920.  Of  these,  3021  were  irrigated,  lhe  for  gchool  use>  and  not  iess  than  five  teachers  on  full 
North  Platte  and  its  tributaries  supplied  water  to  ti  giving  instruction  as  required  by  the  State, 
nearly  85  per  cent  of  the  land  irrigated  m  1919.  i  ne  Th  must  pass  tbe  personal  inspection  of  the  State 
following  table  shows  the  agricultural  wealth  oi  e-  board  of  examiners  or  of  the  State  superintendent  of 
braska  in  1919:  public  instruction,  and  must  have  the  same  entrance 

- - -  "  requirements  as  the  State  normal  schools.  Of  the 

Com .  184,186,000  bushels  *^.W,000  original  grant  ot  3,000,000  acres  of  land  made  by  the 

.  69 SS  bushels  45,47b',(m  Federal  Government  for  permanent  endowment  of 

ntv '  4,299,000  tons  60,186,000  schools,  1,661,405  acres  are  now  held  by  the  State, 

Alfalfa.'.'..' .  2,527,834  tons  ?H?o’noo  further  sale,  with  minor  exceptions,  being  forbidden. 

Horses .  '  ’  ‘  ’  ’  70349 ’,000  The  value  of  the  endowment  is  $2,800,000.  Among 

Bariev  and  Rye  . .  12,227,000  bushels  13,225,000  recently  founded  State  institutions  are  the  hospital 

rS“  J  .  lushels  ‘I'SM  for  tuberculosis  (opened  in  1912),  and  the  State  public 

.  62, ^',000 pound,  siSooo  school,  created  in  1909 

Flaxseed . .  15,000  bushels  60,000  Religion.— The  U.  S.  religious  census  of '1916 

Buckwheat. ! ! ! ! ! .  16.000  bushe s  29'000  gives  the  following  statistics  for  the  State:  Catholics 

$775,105,862  135,537;  Methodists  81,879;  Lutherans  66,906; 

_  Presbyterians  26,233;  Disciples  (Christians)  24,140, 

Tbo  fourteenth  census  of  manufactures  in  Nebraska  Baptists  19,643;  Congregationalists  _19,423;  Episco- 

reveals  (1919) ,  2,884  81  879  ?  For  furth^relSous  and  educational  statis- 

-  -  hzssz&srx  “■  “ 0F; 

Silnmgahnad  the^S 

thelargest  in  the  United  States,  the  estimated  produc-  conservation  and  public  welfare  thg  dis- 

ttTre  wte8  stsfmUefof  railway  in  Rato  (total  S."tion  oTuS^tyW land  minor  ’judge* i  of 

liHil 

of  which  *212,697,098  was  personal  and  $355,759,828 

J=fr7m^t  «ST3  ^ 

than  12  weeks  in  the  school  term.  In  1918  the  726  adopt  an  amendment.  The  Code  Act  of  1919  con 


NELLIE 


529 


NEVADA 


solidated  the  several  boards  and  commissions  under 
the  governor  with  secretaries  forming  his  cabinet,  with 
the  purpose  of  unifying  the  administration  of  the 
State’s  business,  doing  away  with  duplications  and 
overlapping  jurisdiction.  The  legislature  of  1919 
reproduced  the  Sabbath-breaking  legislation  of  New 
England,  but  exempts  families  who  are  emigrating, 
watermen,  ferrymen,  keepers  of  toll  oridges,  railways 
running  necessary  trains.  Public  dancing  on  Sundays 
is  permitted  in  cities  of  the  metropolitan  class,  having 
a  public  welfare  board  with  authority  to  regulate  such 
dancing.  In  1916  there  were  1075  divorces  and  12,786 
marriages.  The  Constitutional  Convention  in  1919 
voted  41  amendments  to  the  constitution,  and  referred 
them  to  the  people  in  the  next  election.  The  Federal 
Suffrage  Amendment  was  ratified  on  31  July,  1919; 
the  Prohibition  Act  on  16  January,  1919. 

History.— -Nebraska’s  recent  history  is  mainly  a 
legislative  history.  In  1919  race  riots,  however, 
broke  out  in  the  city  of  Omaha.  The  mob  surrounded 
the  court  house  and  set  fire  to  the  interior  of  the  build¬ 
ing  in  order  to  force  the  sheriff  to  turn  over  a  negro 
prisoner  held  in  the  county  jail  wrhich  was  over  the 
roof.  \\  hile  the  sheriff  was  removing  the  prisoners, 
the  negro  was  secured  by  the  mob,  hung,  shot,  and 
cremated.  Mayor  Smith  was  captured  by  the  mob, 
and  narrowly  escaped  being  hung,  his  rescue  being 
effected  by  a  group  of  citizens.  During  the  European 
War  Nebraska’s  contribution  was  47’805  soldiers  or 
1.27  per  cent,  of  the  United  States  Army.  The  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  national  guard  formed  a  part  of  the  34th 
Division  at  Camp  Cody,  New  Mexico,  and  those  of 
the  national  army  joined  the  89th  Division  at  Fun- 
ston,  Kansas.  The  summary  of  casualties  of  the 
Nebraska  members  of  the  American  Expeditionary 
Force  was  as  follows:  deceased,  25  officers,  830  men; 
prisoners,  20  men;  wounded,  36  officers  and  2130  men. 

Erxlesiastical  History. — In  1912  the  western  part 
of  the  Diocese  of  Omaha  wras  erected  into  the  Diocese 
of  Kearney,  this  name  being  later  changed  to  Grand 
Island. 

Nellie  of  Holy  God,  Little.  See  Organ,  Nellie. 

Nepi  and  Sutri,  Diocese  of  (Nepesinsis  et  Su- 
trinsis,  cf.  C.  E.,  X — 750b),  united  sees  of  the  prov¬ 
ince  of  Home,  are  under  the  direction  of  Mgr. 
Olivares  who  was  appointed  to  the  diocese  upon  the 
death  of  Mgr.  Doebbing  14  March,  1916.  Mgr. 
Luigi  Olivares  was  bom  at  Corbetta  in  the  diocese 
of  Milan  in  1873.  He  received  his  degree  of  Doctor 
of  Theology  and  became  pastor  of  Santa  Maria 
Liberatrice  at  Testaccio  in  Rome.  He  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Bishop  of  Nepi  and  Sutri  15  July,  1916, 
and  consecrated  at  Rome  29  October,  of  the  same 
year.  During  the  World  War  the  clergy  and  laity 
of  this  diocese  took  an  active  part  in  assisting  the 
families  of  the  soldiers  and  war  prisoners.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  present  (1921)  statistics  there  are  in  the 
diocese,  30  parishes,  95  churches,  3  monasteries  for 
women,  13  convents  for  men,  16  for  women,  61 
secular  priests,  36  regulars,  23  Brothers,  148  Sisters, 

2  seminaries  with  23  seminarians.  Among  the 
charitable  institutions  are  14  asylums  in  charge  of 
Sisters  and  4  hospitals  in  charge  of  either  Sisters 
or  Brothers.  Sisters  teach  in  eight  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  schools.  The  total  Catholic  population  of 
the  diocese  is  approximately  49,000;  6  Catholic 
societies  are  organized  among  the  laity. 

Netto,  Joseph  Sebastian,  cardinal,  b.  in  1841,  at 
Lagos,  Portugal;  d.  in  1920  near  Seville,  Spain, 
Cardinal-priest  of  the  Church  and  occupant  of  the 
Patriarchal  See  of  his  native  land.  He  was  a  simple 
parish  priest  in  1873;  a  Franciscan  friar  in  1875; 
Bishop  of  Angola  and  Congo  in  Africa  in  1879; 


Patriarch  of  Lisbon  in  1883,  and  cardinal  in  1884, 
receiving  the  hat  in  1886.  In  1907,  he  resigned  his 
office  as  patriarch  to  become  once  more  an  humble 
friar  in  a  convent  of  his  Order,  and  when  the  Revolu- 
i  0Ij  u  broke  he  was  banished  from  his  native 
land  by  the  fanatical  mob.  He  found  a  refuge  in 
Spain  near  Seville  until  his  death. 

Neusohl,  Diocese  of.  See  Banska  Bystrica. 

Neutra,  Diocese  of.  See  Nitra. 

Nevada  (cf.  C.  E.,  X— 775b).— The  area  of 
the  State  of  Nevada  is  110,690  square  miles.  The 
population  in  1920  was  77,407,  a  decrease  of  4468  or 
of  5.5  per  cent  since  1910;  in  the  decade  1900-1910 
the  population  increased  from  42,335  to  81,875,  or 
93.4  per  cent.  Reno,  with  a  population  of  12,016, 
was  the  largest  city.  Of  the  population  19.7  per  cent 
is  urban;  80.3  per  cent  is  rural.  There  are  46,240 
males  and  31,167  females.  The  whites*  number 
70,699,  of  whom  2603  are  foreign-born.  There  are 
also  4907  Indians,  754  Japanese,  689  Chinese  and  346 
negroes.  The  illiteracy  of  the  population  of  ten  years 
of  age  and  over  is  5.9  per  cent,  a  decrease  of  .89  per 
cent  since  1910. 

Economic  Conditions.— Farming  is  on  the  increase 
for  since  1910  the  number  of  farms  has  increased  17.6 
per  cent.  At  present  there  are  3163,  with  an  area  of 
2,357,163  acres,  worth  $99,779,666.  The  agricultural 
products  of  Nevada  for  1919  were  valued  thus:  wheat 
$1,067,550;  oats  $86,252;  barley  $259,379;  potatoes 
$1,099,228;  hay  $10,946,159.  In  that  year  the  entire 
number  of  sheep  in  the  state  was  880,580,  and  the 
wool  clip  amounted  to  5,554,342  pounds.  The  Fed¬ 
eral  Irrigation  project  embraces  160,000  acres  in  the 
State.  The  development  of  Nevada  is  hindered  by 
lack  of  transportation  facilities.  In  1918  the  value 
of  the  entire  mineral  production  of  the  State  was 
$51,080,169;  the  gold  was  worth  $6,619,937;  the 
silver  $10,000,599,  both  totalling  $16,620,536.  The 
area  of  the  national  forests  in  the  State  is  4,971,335 
acres.  The  census  of  manufactures  in  1919  showed 
a  decrease  of  7.8  since  1914  in  the  number  of  estab¬ 
lishments.  There  are  altogether  166,  with  3563  per¬ 
sons  engaged,  earning  salaries  and  wages  totalling 
$14,905,687.  The  capital  invested  was  $16,834,561 
and  the  value  of  the  products  $22,874,311.  The 
principal  industries  were:  car  and  general  shop  con¬ 
struction  and  repairs  by  steam  railway  companies, 
flour  mill  and  grist-mill  products,  dairying,  printing 
and  publishing.  The  railway  mileage  in  1919  was 
2843,  of  which  2281  was  first  track.  In  1920  the  State 
debt  was  $165,000;  the  assessed  value  of  property 
being  $214,000,000. 

Education. — The  State  laws  governing  private 
and  parochial  schools  are  as  follows:  It  shall  be  unlaw¬ 
ful  for  any  board  of  school  trustees,  regents  or  board 
of  education,  or  for  any  teacher  or  other  person  teach¬ 
ing  in  the  public  or  private  schools  to  cause  to  be 
taught  or  to  teach  any  subject  or  subjects,  other  than 
foreign  languages,  in  the  public  or  private  schools  in 
any  language  but  English.  No  public  funds  of  any 
kind  shall  be  used  for  sectarian  purposes.  The  prop¬ 
erty  of  corporations  formed  for  charitable,  religious, 
or  educational  purposes  may  be  exempt  from  taxa¬ 
tion.  Education  is  compulsory  between  the  ages  of 
eight  and  sixteen.  There  were  (1920)  in  Nevada 
22,604  persons  under  21  years  of  age,  65  of  whom 
were  negroes  and  164  Mongolians.  Of  these,  12,936 
attend  the  public  schools  and  372  private  schools. 
The  total  number  of  schools  in  the  State  is  390,  with 
717  teachers.  The  educational  expenditure  was 
$1,318,396.  The  State  University  at  Reno  with  an 
attendance  of  295  and  a  faculty  of  35  in  1919  was 
given  $122,818  by  the  legislature  of  Nebraska.  Of 
this  $24,420  wrere  for  repairs.  The  annual  expenditure 


NEVERS 


530 


NEW  GUINEA 


is  about  $300,000.  In  accordance  with  recognized 
interpretation  of  school  law,  Bible  reading  is  not  prac¬ 
tised  in  the  public  schools. 

Religion. — According  to  the  United  States  Census 
of  Religious  Denominations  (1916),  there  were  in 
the  State  8742  Catholics  or  54.1  per  cent,  of  all  church 
members;  1207  Episcopalians  or  7.5  per  cent.; 
3429  Latter  Day  Saints  or  21.2  per  cent.;  777  Metho¬ 
dists  or  4.8  per  cent.;  501  Presbyterians  or  3.1  per 
cent.;  356  Baptists  or  2.2  per  cent.  For  further 
educational  and  religious  statistics  see  Salt  Lake, 
Diocese  of;  Sacramento,  Diocese  of. 

Recent  Legislation.— The  laws  passed  by  the 
Legislature  in  the  last  decade  provide  for  a  State  Bu¬ 
reau  of  Industry,  Agriculture,  and  Irrigation,  work¬ 
men’s  compensation,  a  juvenile  court,  industrial  in¬ 
surance,  an  eight-hour  requirement  for  working- 
women,  non-partisan  ballots  in  the  election  of  the 
judiciary,* an  inheritance  tax,  and  the  employment 
of  convict  labor  on  roads.  Woman  Suffrage  was 
adopted  in  1914.  The  1913  divorce  law,  requiring 
a  residence  of  one  year  in  the  State,  was  changed  in 
1915  so  as  to  exact  only  a  six  months’  residence  in  the 
State  before  filing  the  complaint. 

Recent  History.— During  the  European  War 
Nevada  contributed  5105  soldiers,  or  .14  per  cent  of 
the  United  States  Army.  The  national  guard  joined 
the  41st  Division  at  Camp  Fremont,  California. 
In  1917  Nevada  was  the  only  State  to  furnish  her 
draft  quota  for  entrainment  without  cost  to  the 
Government.  The  summary  of  casualties  among 
Nevada  men  of  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces 
is  as  follows:  deceased,  5  officers,  66  men;  prisoners, 

1  officer  and  2  men;  wounded,  6  officers  and  170  men. 

Nevers,  Diocese  of  (Nivernensis). — In  1910 
Mgr.  Pierre  'Chatelus  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Nevers  to  succeed  Mgr.  Ganthey,  promoted  to  the 
Archdiocese  of  Besangon.  He  was  born  at  St. 
Tomain-le-Puy,  diocese  of  Lyons,  27  November, 
1854;  was  ordained  in  1878;  was  rector  of  the  basilica 
Foruof  viere  in  1893,  and  pastor  of  the  Church  of  St. 
Francis  de  Sales  in  Lyons  when  he  was  appointed  to 
the  see  of  Nevers. 

In  1922  the  diocese  numbered  309  parishes,  313 
secular  and  5  regular  priests,  15  secularized  brothers 
300  sisters,  1  convent  of  men  and  24  of  women, 

2  seminaries  with  eleven  professors  and  22  seminarians 
in  the  higher  seminary  and  32  in  the  preparatory 
seminary,  3  colleges  for  boys  with  36  professors  and 
530  students,  6  academies  for  girls  with  33  teachers 
and  450  pupils,  88  elementary  schools  with  200 
teachers  and  5800  pupils,  1  home  for  the  aged,  1 
insane  asylum,  and  1  day-nursery. 

Priests  are  permitted  to  visit  the  prisons  and  one 
lycee.  Amongst  the  clergy  there  is  the  Association 
of  St.  Augustine  to  care  for  aged  and  infirm  priests 
and  the  League  for  Religious  Defense  to  support  the 
rights  of  the  clergy  before  civil  tribunals  and  to  defend 
their  reputation  when  attacked  by  the  press.  Amongst 
the  laity  there  are  many  professional,  commercial, 
charitable  and  social  associations.  There  is  a  Catholic 
newspaper,  La  Croix  du  Nivernais,  published  fort¬ 
nightly. 

The  seminarians  and  priests  of  the  diocese  mobilized 
during  the  World  War  fulfilled  their  duty  nobly. 
Many  of  them  won  the  Croix  de  Guerre,  two  the 
Medaille  Militaire,  two  the  Croix  de  la  Legion  d’Hon- 
neur.  The  diocese  lost  fifteen  seminarians  and  five 
priests.  The  event  of  greatest  importance  in  Nevers 
since  1910  was  the  apostolic  process  of  beatification 
and  canonization  of  Bernadette  Soubirous,  whose 
body  reposes  there  in  the  Mother-house  of  the  Sisters 
of  Charity  and  Christian  Instruction. 


New  Antwerp,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Novas 
Antverpi^e),  Belgian  Congo,  was  erected  by  a 
decree  of  3  April,  1919,  by  dismemberment  of  the 
former  vicariate  of  Belgian  Congo,  of  which  it  kept 
the  northern  portion.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Con¬ 
gregation  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary  of 
Scheut.  The  vicar  Apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Egidius  de 
Boeck,  C.  C.  I.  M.,  titular  Bishop  of  Azotus,  b. 
in  the  Diocese  of  M alines,  13  November,  1875,  or¬ 
dained  1  July,  1900,  nominated  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
New  Antwerp,  4  January,  1921,  consecrated  8  May, 
1921.  He  resides  at  New  Antwerp.  This  vicariate, 
comprising  territory  from  the  Tumba  Lake  to  the 
district  of  Ubanghi  and  of  Lower  Welle ,  contains  a 
Catholic  population  (1922  census)  of  about  60,000, 
with  19  mission  stations,  of  which  8  belong  to  the 
congregation  of  Scheut,  5  to  the  Trappists,  6  to  the 
English  Fathers,  and  1  seminary  for  the  training  of 
native  priests. 

New  Caledonia,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Novae  Caledoniae;  cf.  C.  E.,  X — 781c),  comprises 
the  French  colony  and  Island  of  New  Caledonia,  in 
Oceania,  with  its  dependencies,  the  Isle  of  Pines, 
Belep,  and  Loyalty  Islands.  The  population  con¬ 
sists  of  11,596  free  French  and  2310  of  convict  origin, 
27,100  natives  and  5224  foreigners  of  different  nation¬ 
alities.  For  twenty-five  years  (since  1897)  the  French 
government  has  ceased  to  send  convicts  to  this  colony , 
so  that  in  a  few  years  there  will  be  none  of  this  origin. 
The  vicariate  is  entrusted  to  the  Marist  Fathers. 
Rt.  Rev.  Claude-Marie  Chanrion,  S.M.,  titular 
Bishop  of  Chariopolis,  b.  in  the  Diocese  of  Lyon,  6 
October,  1865,  was  appointed  pro-vicar  apostolic  in 
July,  1905,  and  vicar  apostolic  of  New  Caledonia,  25 
March,  1906.  He  resides  at  Noumea.  There  are  in 
the  vicariate:  31  parishes  with  missions,  102  churches 
or  chapels,  41  regular  priests,  35  Brothers,  2  sem¬ 
inarians  in  Australia,  1  home  of  the  Little  Sisters  of 
the  Poor  with  11  Sisters  and  70  inmates.  There  are 
about  1400  pupils  in  the  European  public  schools,  and 
about  500  pupils  in  the  free  schools.  The  native 
Catholics  who  attend  the  schools  of  their  mission 
number  about  500.  Public  hospitals  admit  the 
ministry  of  priests.  The  Conference  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  and  the  Ladies  of  Charity  are  associations  of  the 
laity.  One  periodical,  “L’Echo  de  France  Catho- 
lique,”  is  published  here.  The  agricultural  products 
of  the  colony  are  coffee,  maize,  sugar,  copra  (about 
2500  tons),  and  others.  All  the  mining  companies 
are  French,  with  the  exception  of  one  Anglo-Amer¬ 
ican. 

New  Guinea,  British,  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of;  (cf.  C.  E.,  X — 784d);  Papua,  Oceania.  Mgr. 
Navarre,  who  resigned  in  1908,  was  succeeded  by  the 
present  Vicar  Apostolic,  Rt.  Rev.  Alain  Guynot  de 
Boismemi,  titular  bishop  of  Gabala.  About  200  of 
the  Catholic  population  of  8435  are  Australians,  the 
remainder  being  Papuans.  The  unhealthy  climate, 
the  uncivilized  conditions  of  the  country,  the  childish 
and  primitive  character  of  the  natives  and  the  Eras- 
tian  policy  of  the  Australian  Government  are  among 
the  causes  which  impede  religious  expansion.  At  the 
present  time  there  are  12  parishes,  37  churches,  27 
missions,  1  convent  for  men,  1  for  European  and  1 
for  native  Sisters,  1  seminarian  in  Europe,  43  elemen¬ 
tary  schools,  53  teachers,  2206  pupils,  9  orphanages 
and  asylums.  There  are  five  societies  established 
among  the  laity. 

New  Guinea,  Dutch,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of; 
(cf.  C.  E.,  X — 784d),  consisting  of  the  Dutch  islands 
between  125°  30r  and  141°  east  L.,  W.,  Halmaheira, 
Ternate,  Tidore,  Ceram,  Ambon,  Banda,  Kei,  Aroe, 
Tenimbar,  and  Dutch  New  Guinea.  The  mission  iu 


NEW  GUINEA 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


531 


the  Koi  Islands  was  at  first  attended  by  Father  Ras¬ 
ters,  S.J.,  and  his  companions  (1888-1903).  It  was 
separated  from  the  vicariate  of  Batavia,  22  December, 
1902,  the  Catholic  population  being  then  about  2000.’ 
As  the  prefecture  of  Dutch  New  Guinea  it  was  en¬ 
trusted  to  the  Dutch  province  of  the  Missionaries  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  (M.  S.  H.  Tilburg).  The  first  pre¬ 
fect  apostolic  was  Rev.  M.  Mevens,  1903-15;  the 
second  Rev.  H.  Nollen,  1915721.  In  1920  the  pre¬ 
fecture  was  erected  into  a  vicariate  and  Rt.  Rev. 
Johann  Aerts  became  the  first  vicar  with  the  titular 
see  of  Apollonia.  He  arrived  in  July,  1921,  and 
mahes  his  residence  at  Langgoer-Tolal,  Kei  Islands. 
Ihe  mission  now  (1922)  contains  5  districts  with  26 
priests  and  20  brothers  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  8  Sisters  of  Our 
Lady  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  90  native  catechists,  14,967 
Catholics,  2513  catechumens,  76  churches,  17  sta¬ 
tions  with  60  sub-statio  s,  71  schools  with  2891  pupils 
and  3  boarding  schools  (2  for  boys,  1  for  girls),  with 
139  pupils.  There  is  1  industrial  school  with  12 
pupils.  Forty  schools  receive  Government  aid.  Four 
sodalities  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  are  established  among 
the  young  people. 


New  Guinea,  German,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of. 
See  Kaiserwilhelmsland. 

New  Hampshire  (cf.  C.  E.  X-758a)— The  area 
of  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  is  9,341  square  miles, 
and  the  population  in  1920  was  443,083,  an  increase 
of  2.9  per  cent  since  1910.  Of  this  63.1  per  cent  was 
urban;  36.9  per  cent  was  rural.  The  average  number 
of  inhabitants  per  square  mile  was  49.1.  The  whites 
numbered  442,331,  of  whom  351,098  were  native- 
born,  and  91,233  were  foreign  born.  Of  the  native- 
born,  225,512  were  of  native  parentage;  81,039,  of 
foreign  parentage;  44,547  mixed.  The  negroes  num¬ 
bered  on  y  621.  Of  the  population,  ten  years  or  over, 
there  were  15,788  illiterates  or  4.4  per  cent.  The 
largest  cities  are:  Manchester  (78,384),  Nashua 
(28,379),  Concord  (22,167),  Keene  (11,210),  Laconia 
(10,879),  Portsmouth  (13,659). 

Economic  Conditions. — According  to  the  census 
of  manufactures  for  1919,  the  value  of  manufactured 
products  was  8405,739,000;  of  materials,  $238,641,- 
000;  capital  invested,  $328,438,000.  There  were 
89,999  persons  engaged  in  manufacturing  and  1497 
establishments.  The  chief  manufactures  are  boot, 
and  shoes,  leather  goods,  paper,  lumber,  woolens 
and  machinery.  There  is  less  interest  in  mining  at 
present,  the  number  of  mines  and  quarries  in  the  state 
being  33,  as  against  53  m  1910.  The  value  of  mineral 
products  in  1918  was  $1,568,195.  Although  the 
number  of  farms  (20,523  in  1920),  showed  a  decrease 
of  24.1  per  cent,  the  value  of  farm  property  in  1920 
was  $118,656,115,  which  is  a  gain  over  that  of  1910 
($103,704,196).  The  farming  area  of  the  State  is 
2,603,806  acres.  The  dairy  products  have  doubled  in 
value  since  1909,  the  value  in  1919  being  $10,224,888. 
The  principal  crops  of  the  State  are  corn  ($844,793), 
oats  ($485,367),  hay  ($13,616,378),  vegetables 
($5,228,489),  fruits  ($2,605,103).  There  are  1203 
miles  of  railway,  of  which  the  Boston  &  Maine  con¬ 
trols  1020.  The  State  debt  in  1920  was  $3,040,524, 
assessed  value  of  real  property  $412,591,376;  of 
personal  property,  $90,815,543. 

Religion. — According  to  the  United  States  Census 
of  Religious  Denominations  (1916),  the  largest 
denominations  were:  Catholics  136,020;  Congrega- 
tionalists  20,084;  Methodists  13,574;  Baptists  15,027; 

F ree  Baptists  2308;  Unitarians  3890;  Universalists 
1611.  For  further  religious  and  educational  statis- 
ticssee  Manchester,  Diocese  of. 

Education. — The  law  directs  that  every  child 
from  8  to  14  years  of  age  shall  have  at  least  36  weeks 


of  schooling.  If  he  has  not  completed  the  elementary 
grades,  the  school  age  is  extended  to  16.  All  those 
between  the  ages  ol  16  and  21  who  cannot  speak  or 
write  English  must  attend  part  time  school.  The 
btate  Board  of  Education  consists  of  the  Governor, 
exofficio,  and  five  persons,,  appointed  one  annually  by 
the  Governor  and  Council.  Besides,  there  are  a 
Commissioner,  appointed  by'  the  Board,  and  four 
Deputy  Commissioners.  In  1920,  there  were  64  205 
enrolled  pupils  and  2648  teachers  (220  men)  in ’the 
public  elementary  schools;  in  the  86  public  high 
schools  there  were  673  (170  men)  teachers  and  13,055 
pupils.  In  cities  of  2500  and  over,  1114  children 
attend  kindergartens.  The  Laconia  School  for  the 
feebleminded  has  282  pupils.  A  new  normal  school 
was  founded  in  Keene,  in  1909.  There  are  evening 
schools  in  8  cities  with  a  total  attendance  of  1509, 
916  of  whom  are  male.  The  expenditure  for  education 
in  1920  was  $3,960,075.  The  two  normal  schools 
have  31  teachers  and  286  students,  but  the  supply  of 
teachers  is  still  inadequate.  The  23  private  schools 
in  the  State  had  in  1917-18  altogether  2672  students. 
Of  the  659  students  in  the  New  Hampshire  College  of 
Agriculture,  61  women  were  in  the  home-economic 
course,  one  woman  and  119  men  were  in  the  agricul¬ 
tural  course  and  187  men  in  the  engineering  course. 
This  college  had  62  instructors  (1919).  In  the  same 
year,  Dartmouth  had  88  professors  in  the  collegiate 
departments,  and  1673  students,  29  professors  and 
65  students  in  the  professional  departments.  St. 
Anslem  s  (collegiate  and  academic)  had  25  professors 
and  294  students,  besides  278  in  the  high  school.  Bible 
reading  in  the  public  schools  is  neither  permitted  nor 
excluded. 

The  laws  governing  private  and  parochial  schools 
are  as  follows:  No  money  raised  by  taxation  shall  ever 
be  granted  or  applied  for  the  use  of  the  schools  or 
institutions  of  any  religious  sect  or  denomination.  In 
the  instruction  of  children  in  all  schools  including 
private  schools,  in  reading,  writing,  spelling,  arith¬ 
metic,  grammar,  geography,  physiology,  history,  civil 
government,  music  and  drawing,  the  English  language 
shall  be  used  exclusively,  both  for  purposes  of  in¬ 
struction  therein  and  for  purposes  of  general  adminis¬ 
tration.  The  exclusive  use  of  English  for  purposes  of 
instruction  and  administration  is  not  intended  to 
prohibit  the  conduct  of  devotional  exercises  in  private 
schools  in  languages  other  than  English.  A  foreign 
language  may  be  taught  in  elementary  schools,  pro¬ 
vided  the  course  of  study  or  its  equivalent  is  such  as 
outlined  by  the  State  Board  of  Education  in  the 
common  English  branches.  To  satisfy  the  compulsory 
education  law,  “Attendance  at  a  private  school  ap¬ 
proved  by  the  State  Board  shall  be  regarded  as 
attendance  at  the  public  schools.”  The  resolution  of 
the  State  Board  of  Education  has  been  as  follows: 
Resolved  that  the  approval  of  the  Board  shall  not  be 
given  to  any  private  school  which  does  not  comply 
with  the  following  requirements: 

(1).  Provide  instruction  and  other  educational  op¬ 
portunities  as  nearly  as  may  be  reasonably  possible  to 
those  given  in  the  public  schools  in  the  same  city  or 
town.  (2).  Be  maintained  for  36  weeks  in  each  year, 
at  least  five  hours  a  day,  and  five  days  a  week  in  a 
sanitary  building.  (3).  Be  equipped  with  reasonably 
suitable  furniture,  books,  maps,  and  other  necessary 
appliances.  (4).  Make  reports  required  of  public 
schools  of  the  same  grade  on  forms  provided  by  the 
Board.  (5).  Teach  substantially  the  same  subjects  as 
those  prescribed  by  the  Board  for  the  public  schools 
of  similar  grade.'  (6).  Use  the  English  language  as  the 
basic  language  of  instruction  and  administration  as 
prescribed  by  law.  (7).  Be  carried  on  in  such  a 
manner  as  effectively  to  prepare  the  pupils  for  the 
exercise  of  the  rights  and  discharge  the  duties  of 
American  citizenship  and  from  the  teaching  of  the 


NEW  JERSEY 


NEW  JERSEY 


532 


prescribed  studies 


produce  educational  results  equiv¬ 


alent  to  those  produced  by  the  teaching  of  the  same 
studies  in  the  public  schools.  If  any  private  school 
fails  to  comply  with  the  above  mentioned  require¬ 
ments,  it  is  the  legal  duty  of  the  Board  to  revoke  its 

approval  of  this  school.  ,  0_ 

Recent  Legislation  and  History.  I  here  has 
been  some  activity  oh  the  part  of  the  State  and 
Federal  Governments  to  preserve  the  natural  beauties 
of  New  Hampshire  by  extensive  purchases  of  forest, 
lands  and  mountain  peaks.  Inl911,  Crawf ord  N  otch 
,  was  purchased  by  the  State.  In  1915,  the  Unite 
States  Government  purchased  under  the  Weeks 
Forestry  Act  a  tract  of  550  acres  in  the  White  Moun¬ 
tains,  to  be  added  to  lands  already  acquired  and  set 
apart  for  reservation  purposes.  This  purchase  gave 
the  Government  control  of  practically  all  the  peaks 
of  the  Presidential  Range.  There  have  been  changes 
in  the  State  administration  in  the  creation  of  the 
following:  State  Tax  Commission  (1911),  Bureau  of 
Labor  (1911),  Board  of  Conciliation  and  Arbitration 
(1913),  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Highway 
Commission  (1915),  Child  Welfare  Department 
(1918).  The  Employers’  Liability  Act  was  passed  in 
1911*  mothers’  pensions  provided,  women  s  labor 
limited,  and  registration  of  foreign  corporations  re¬ 
quired  in  1913.  The  judiciary  was  authorized  in  1919 
to  order  an  allowance  by  the  husband  to  his  wife 
during  the  pendency  of  a  suit  for  divorce,  and  the 
governor  was  allowed  to  issue  marriage  licenses  to 
ministers  to  marry  persons  within  the  fetate.  me 
Federal  Prohibition  Act  was  ratified  on  15  January, 
1919,  and  the  Suffrage  Act,  10  September,  1919.  An 
inheritance  tax  went  into  effect  m  1918.  During  the 
European  War,  New  Hampshire  sent  into  the  United 
States  army,  14,374  soldiers,  or  .38  per  cent  of  the 
enrolment.  The  members  of  the  national  guard 
joined  the  26th  Division  and  those  of  the  national 
armv  the  76th  Division,  both  at  Camp  Devens.  lhe 
summary  of  casualties  of  the  New  Hampshire  members 
of  the  American  Expeditionary  Force  is  as  follows: 
deceased,  19  officers,  339  men;  prisoners,  2  officers, 
17  men;  wounded,  30  officers,  1128  men. 


New  Jersey  (cf.  C.  E.,  X  790a).  The  total 
area  of  the  State  of  New  Jersey  is  8224  square  miles 
of  which  710  are  water.  The  population  in  1920  was 
3  155,900,  an  increase  of  24.4  per  cent,  since  1910. 
The  density  is  420  persons  a  square  mile.  Oi  the 
population,  78.8  per  cent,  is  urban,  21.3  per  cent,  rural. 
Of  the  whites  628,402  were  foreign  born,  and  1,752,- 
736  were  native;  and  of  the  latter,  705,784  were  of 
native  parentage,  705,784  foreign  parentage,  209,- 
328  mixed.  Of  the  population  of  ten  years  and  over 
127,661  were  illiterate  (5.1  per  cent.)  The  largest 
cities  are:  Trenton  119,289;  Newark  414,524;  Jersey 
City  298,103;  Camden  116,309;  Paterson  135,875. 

Economic  Status. — During  the  war  the  accesi- 
bility  of  New  Jersey  to  foreign  ports  increased  the 
industrial  productivity  of  the  State.  Shipbuilding 
was  started  on  a  large  scale  on  the  flat-lands  of  the 
coast,  and  great  industrial  plants  were  buiit.  lhe 
manufacturing  census  of  1919  revealed  11,062  es¬ 
tablishments,  with  603,889  persons  engaged  earning 
for  their  services  $773,001,000.  The  caP^al  in¬ 
vested  was  $2,835,441,000,  and  the  value  of  the  pro¬ 
ducts  $3,677,165,000.  New  Jersey  has  valuable 
fisheries,  the  shell-fish  for  1919  bemg  valued  at 
$6,700,000.  Of  the  mineral  production  of  the  State, 
the  clay  and  clay  products  led,  with  a  value  of  $21,- 
837  396,  the  chief  output  being  sanitary  ware.  In 
the*  production  of  zinc  ore  the  State  ranked  second 
of  the  States  in  the  Union.  The  following  are  the 

most  important  mineral  Products  of 

their  value:  iron  ore  $1,945,651;  trap  rock  $1,475,358, 

limestone  $674,397;  sand  and  gravel  $2,462,864. 


The  agricultural  census  (1920)  gives  29,702  farms  in 
the  State,  a  decrease  of  11.3  per  cent,  since  1909. 
The  farm  area  is  2,282,585  acres,  the  value  of  farm 
property  $311,847,948,  an  increase  of  22.4  per  cen  t. 
since  1909.  The  chief  crops  are  cereals  $ 87 ,464, 445, 
vegetables  $40,669,147;  fruits  and  nuts  $11,809,078. 
The  railroad  mileage  of  the  State  is  2461,  the  length 
of  electric  railway  1593  miles;  of  canals  1/5  miles. 

There  is  no  State  debt.  . 

Education. — Education  is  compulsory  and  free 
for  all  between  the  ages  of  7  and  15.  A  child  of 
14-16  years  of  age  who  has  an  employment  certificate 
and  yet  is  temporarily  unemployed  must  attend 
school  at  least  20  hours  a  week;  if  employed,  he  must 
attend  for  6  hours  a  week  for  36  weeks  a  year.  Ail 
educational  institutions  and  public  libraries  are  tax 
exempt.  In  1919  educational  corporations  and  chari¬ 
table  organization  were  authorized  to  make  changes  in 
their  acts  or  certificate  of  incorporation  and  th®ir 
organizations.  In  1916  the  State  took  over  the 
Burlington  Colony  for  the  Feeble-minded,  which  is 
now  known  as  the  State  Colony  for  Feeble-minded 
Males.  In  1918  the  State  charitable,  penal,  and  re¬ 
formatory  institutions  were  centralized  under  the 
Department  of  Institutions  and  Agencies.  School 
authorities  are  forbidden  to  inquire  into  the  religious 
faith  of  teachers  seeking  appointment.  Bible  reading 
in  the  public  schools  is  obligatory .  The  laws  governing 
private  and  parochial  schools  are  as  follows:  Ine 

common  branches  shall  be  taught  in  English  to  all 
children  of  compulsory  school  age.  Private  schools 
shall  annually  make  such  reports  to  the  Commis¬ 
sioner  of  Education  as  he  may  require  Such  finan¬ 
cial  reports  shall  not  be  made  public  by  the  Com¬ 
missioner.  The  common  branches  of  elementary 
education  must  be  taught  by  competent  teachers  to 
all  children  of  compulsory  age.  Private  schools 
must  be  in  session  for  all  days  and  hours  of  public 
schools.”  According  to  the  New  Jersey  State  Report 
for  1919,  there  are  now  2163  public  schools  with  a 
seating  capacity  of  570,061  The  total  value  of  the 
school  property  is  estimated  at  $83,580,432.  -tuere 
are  18,007  teachers,  of  whom  2233  are  men  and  15,774 
are  women.  These  receive  an  average  yearly  salary 
of  $1083.27.  For1  the  school  year,  the  current  ex¬ 
penses  of  the  schools  amounted  to  $25,451,014;  the 
cost  of  permanent  improvements  was  $2,772,218. 
the  special  appropriation  amounted  to  $4,030,503, 
a  total  of  $32,253,825.  In  1920  the  expenditure  was 
$30,854,795.  In  the  seventy  public  high  schools 
there  were  2365  teachers  and  53,710  pupils.  The 
three  normal  schools  at  Trenton,  Montclair,  and 
Newark  (established  in  1912),  have  105  teachers  and 

2015  students.  ,  Tt  a 

Religion. — According  to  the  latest  United  btates 

Census  of  Religious  Denominations  (1916),  the 
Catholics  numbered  790,764,  or  59.1  per  cent.; 
Methodist  Episcopalians  131,211  or  9.8;  Presby¬ 
terians  102,290  or  7.6  per  cent.;  Protestant  Epis- 
copalians  67,996  or  5.1  per  cent.;  Jews  15,720  or 
1.2  per  cent.;  for  further  religious  and  educational 
statistics  see  Newark,  Diocese  of;  Trenton, 
Diocese  of* 

Recent  History  and  Legislation  .—In  1911  was 
enacted  the  Geran  Bill,  extending  the  application 
of  the  direct  primary,  providing  for  the  blanker 
Massachusetts  ballot,  and  for  the  prevention  ot 
fraud.  Acts  were  also  passed  to  prohibit  indecent 
publications;  to  make  it  a  misdemeanor  to  bribe  a 
representative  of  a  labor  organization;  t<?  provide 
for  the  challenging  of  jurors  in  civil  and  criminal  cases, 
to  create  a  Board  of  Utility  Commissioners,  to  es¬ 
tablish  a  Commission  of  Old  Age  Insurance  and 
Pensions,  to  provide  for  employers’  liability  and 
workmen’s  compensation.  In  1914  a  direct  in¬ 
heritance  tax  was  passed.  The  Bill  giving  cities. 


NEW  MEXICO 


533 


NEW  MEXICO 


under  commission  government  greater  latitude  in 
the  administration  of  local  affairs  was  declared  un¬ 
constitutional  by  the  Supreme  Court  on  22  May, 
1914.  In  1916  a  state  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  a  Workmen’s  Compensation  Aid  Bureau  were 
created,  in  1918  the  Department  of  Charities  and  Cor¬ 
rections,  the  Interstate  Bridge  and  Tunnel  Com¬ 
mission,  a  Board  of  Fisheries,  and  a  Boxing  Com¬ 
mission.  In  1920  the  legislature  passed  over  the 
governor’s/veto  a  measure  authorizing  a  bond  issue  of 
$28,000,000,  for  New  Jersey’s  share  in  the  building  of 
the  Delaware  River  Bridge  between  Camden  and 
Philadelphia,  and  the  Hudson  River  vehicular  tunnel 
between  Jersey  City  and  New  York  City.  A  bonus 
was  granted  to  all  veterans  of  the  Great 'War.  The 
County  Park  Boards  are  authorized  to  permit  Sunday 
ball  and  other  games,  if  no  admission  fee  is  charged. 

History. — During  the  European  War  New  Jersey 
furnished  to  the  United  States  Army  105,207  men 
(2.80  per  cent.);  the  members  of  the  national  guard 
joined  the  28th  Div  ision  at  Camp  McClellan ,  Alabama; 
those  of  the  national  army,  the  78th  Division  at  Camp 
Dix.  The  summary  of  casualties  of  the  New  Jersey 
members  of  the  American  expeditionary  force  is  as 
follows:  deceased,  117  officers,  2244  men;  prisoners, 
20  officers,  65  men;  wounded,  219  officers,  7401  men. 

New  Mexico  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI  —  la),  formerly 
a  territory  of  theUnited  States,  now  a  State,  admitted 
to  the  Union  on  6  January,  1912,  with  an  area  of 
122,634  square  miles.  The  population  in  1920  was 
360,350  of  which  18  per  cent. was  urban  and  82.0  rural. 
The  average  number  of  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile 
is  2.9  as  against  2.7  in  1910.  The  largest  cities  are 
Albuquerque  (15,157),  Santa  Fe  (7033),  and  Las 
Vegas  (4304).  The  composition  of  the  population  is 
as  follows:  whites,  334,673  (native  305,596,  foreign- 
born,  29,077);  negro  5773;  Indian  19,512;  Chinese 
171;  Japanese  251.  In  1910  the  illiterate  members  of 
the  population  over  10  years  of  age  numbered  48,697 
or  20.2  per  cent.;  in  1920,  41,637,  or  15.6,  a  decrease 
of  4.66  per  cent. 

Economic  Conditions.— Although  the  census  of 
1920  reveals  a  decrease  of  16.3  per  cent,  in  the  number 
of  farms  since  1910  (1920,  29,844),  the  farm  land  area 
shows  an  increase  of  116.6  percent.  (1910,  11,270,021 
acres;  1920,  24,409,633  acres).  The  chief  crops  are 
corn,  wheat,  oats,  and  kafir  and  milo.  The  output  of 
hay  and  forage  totalled  693,807  tons,  worth  $12,852,- 
751  in  1919.  Grazing  is  an  important  industry,  for 
in  1920  there  were  1,300,000  cattle,  valued  at  $63,- 
101,300.  Sheep-raising  is  still  on  the  decline,  8,300,- 
804  pounds  of  wool  being  produced  in  1919  as  against 
16,994,017  in  1909,  although  the  value  of  the  wool 
increased  from  $3,131,971  in  1909  to  $3,542,922  in 
1919.  The  farms  reported  a  total  of  1,640,475  sheep. 

In  1916  the  Elephant  Butte  Dam  was  completed 
after  five  years  of  labor.  It  is  the  work  of  the  United 
States  Reclamation  Service  and  forms  the  largest 
storage  reservoir  in  the  world,  feeding  an  irrigation 
system  which  covers  185,000  acres  of  land  in  New 
Mexico,  Texas,  and  Mexico.  The  dam  extends  across 
the  canyons  of  the  Rio  Grande.  In  1919  the  legisla¬ 
ture  provided  for  the  leasing  of  State  lands  for  mineral 
purposes  and  for  the  retaining  of  the  permanent 
ownership  of  all  oil  lands  with  one-eighth  royalty. 
New  Mexico  has  valuable  mineral  resources,  the  most 
important  being  coal  (4,023,239  tons  valued  at 
$10,787,082  in  1918),  and  copper  (98,264,562  tons 
valued  at  $24,271,347).  The  entire  mineral  produc¬ 
tion  was  worth  $40,631,024  in  1918.  The  summary 
for  manufactures  for  1919  gives  387  establishments, 
6646  persons  engaged  in  manufacturing,  earning  in 
salaries  and  wages  a  total  of  $7,685,803.  The  capital 
invested  was  $15,226,253  and  the  value  of  the  prod¬ 
ucts  $17,856,602.  The  principal  industries,  ranked 


b,y  the  value  of  the  products,  are  cars  and  general 
shop  construction  and  repairs  by  steam  railroad  com¬ 
panies,  lumber  and  timber  products,  and  flour  and 
grist-mill  products.  There  are  about  3000  miles  of 
State.  rI  he  bonded  indebtedness  in 
1920  was  $4,291,500;  the  assessed  value  of  real  and 
personal  property  in  1919,  $371,559,631.  There  are 
113  banks  (44  national  and  69  others)  in  the  State 
with  an  aggregate  capital  of  $56,966,000. 

Education. — New  Mexico  has  a  State  board  of 
education  and  a  county  board  of  education  for  each 
county.  Elementary  education  is  free  and  compul¬ 
sory  between  the  ages  of  six  and  sixteen  for  seven 
months  in  the  school  year.  About  8,500,000  acres  of 
public  lands  have  been  set  aside  for  the  common 
schools,  the  sales  of  land  and  rentals  furnishing  the 
necessary  funds.  School  taxes  are  likewise  levied  in 
each  county,  district  and  municipality.  In  1917  pro¬ 
vision  was  made  for  part  payment  of  transportation 
expenses  for  normal  students  from  distant  parts  of 
the  State.  The  State  maintains  the  University  of 
New  Mexico  at  Albuquerque,  the  College  of  Agricul¬ 
ture  and  Mechanic  Arts  near  Las  Cruces  in  the  Mesilla 
Valley,  the  New  Mexic<p  Normal  University  at  Silver 
City,  the  School  of  Mines  at  Socorro,  the  Military 
Institute  at  Roswell,  the  Spanish  and  American  School 
at  El  Rito,  the  Institute  for  the  Deaf  and  the  Insti¬ 
tute  for  the  Blind  at  Alamogordo.  In  1920  there  were 
1430  public  elementary  schools  in  the  State,  with 
81,399  enrolled  pupils  and  2752  teachers,  and  71 
public  high  schools  with  257  teachers  and  3870  pupils. 
The  private  schools  number  38  and  there  are  26  Indian 
schools  with  2291  pupils  and  141  teachers,  maintained 
by  the  Federal  Government  .  Religious  instruction  in 
public  schools  is  prohibited  by  law,  but  boards  of 
directors  may  open  school-houses  for  the  use  of  relig¬ 
ious  societies,  etc.,  at  times  outside  school  hours. 
Bible  reading  is  neither  permitted  nor  excluded.  The 
Sisters’  charitable  institutions  (hospitals,  etc.)  are 
State-aided,  the  appropriation  for  the  purpose  in  1919 
being  $12,000.  In  1917-18  the  university  received 
for  its  income  $133,169,  and  had  (1919)  a  teaching 
force  of  92  professors  and  406  students.  The  College 
of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts  with  95  teachers 
and  285  students,  received  both  Federal  and  State 
aid,  aggregating  $298,122  in  1917-18.  The  combined 
valuation  of  the  State’s  educational  institutions  is 
about  $2,000,000;  while  the  annual  expenditures 
aggregate  $1,300,000.  The  laws  governing  private 
and  parochial  schools  are  as  follows:  No  funds 
appropriated  or  levied  for  educational  purposes  shall 
be  used  for  the  support  of  any  sectarian,  denomina¬ 
tional  or  private  schools  (XII. 3).  All  church  prop¬ 
erty,  all  property  used  for  educational  or  charitable 
purposes,  not  used  for  private  or  corporate  profit, 
shall  be  exempt  from  taxation.  To  comply  with 
compulsory  education  regulations,  courses  of  study 
must  be  approved  by  the  school  board.  Private 
schools  shall  report  to  the  county  superintendent  with 
regard  to  enrolment,  number  of  teachers,  and 
branches  taught. 

Religion. — According  to  the  United  States  Census 
of  Religious  Bodies  (1916),  the  Catholics  were  more 
than  84  per  cent,  of  the  church  membership  of  the 
State,  which  was  209,809,  distributed  as  follows: 
Catholics  177,727;  Methodists  11,767;  Presbyterians 
4245;  Baptists  6721;  Disciples  of  Christ  2284;  Pro¬ 
testant  Episcopalians  1718;  other  sects  5862.  For 
further  religious  and  educational  statistics  see  Santa 
Fe,  Archdiocese  of;  Tucson,  Diocese  of. 

Recent  History. — New  Mexico  is  the  forty-sev¬ 
enth  State  to  be  admitted  to  the  Union.  On  16  June, 
1910,  the  Senate  passed  the  Bill  granting  statehood 
to  New  Mexico,  providing,  however,  that  the  pro¬ 
posed  State  should  hold  no  legislative  sessions  before 
12  January,  1912,  also  stipulating  that  the  State  set 


NEW  NORCIA 


534 


NEW  NORCIA 


aside  100,000  acres  for  a  penitentiary.  After  many 
efforts  an  enabling  act  was  approved  20  June,  1910, 
which  provided  for  a  Constitutional  Convention  to 
meet  at  Santa  Fe  on  3  October,  1910.  The  constitu¬ 
tion  was  ratified  on  21  January,  1911 ,  and  on  the  same 
day  the  President  signed  the  bill  for  the  admission  of 
New  Mexico  on  the  condition  that  it  amend  the 
article  providing  a  method  for  the  amendment  of  its 
constitution.  This  amendment  was  submitted  to  the 
people,  approved,  and  on  5  January,  1912,  President 
Taft  issued  a  proclamation,  making  effective  New 
Mexico’s  admission  as  a  State.  The  laws  passed  by 
the  succeeding  legislatures  have  provided  for  the 
following:  workmen’s  compensation,  income  taxes, 
commission  form  of  government  for  cities  of  10,000 
or  more,  a  State  mounted  police,  night  schools  tor 
illiterates,  an  annual  franchise  tax  on  corporations, 
a  permanent  budget  system,  a  child  welfare  board, 
and  a  department  of  health .  The  suffrage  amendment 
to  the  Federal  constitution  was  ratified  on  19  Febru¬ 
ary,  1920;  the  prohibition  amendment  on  20  January, 
1919.  New  Mexico’s  contribution  to  the  European 
War  was  12,439  soldiers  or  .33  per  cent,  of  the  United 
States  Army.  The  national  guard  members  joined, 
the  40th  Division  at  Fort  Kearney,  California;  those 
of  the  national  army,  the  92nd  Division  at  Camp 
Funston,  Kansas.  The  summary  of  casualties  ot 
the  New  Mexican  members  of  the  American  Expe- 
ditionary  Force  is  as  follows:  deceased,  10  officers, 
218  men;  prisoners,  8  men;  wounded,  20  officers, 
604  men. 

New  Norcia  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI— 5b),  a  Benedictine 
abbey  nullius  in  Western  Australia.  Since  the  report 
of  this  mission  published  in  1910  the  New  Norcia 
Mission  has  made  considerable  progress.  As  a 
native  or  aboriginal  mission  little  change  has  taken 
place,  but  as  regards  the  white  population  of  the 
Mission,  we  notice  this  progress  more  particularly 
in  the  all  important  matter  of  education  and  m  the 
higher  appreciation  of  the  fine  arts,  music,  painting, 
etc.  Indeed,  people  of  every  class  and  denomination 
are*  often  attracted  to  the  Mission  to  listen  to  the 
music,  or  to  see  the  many  excellent  paintings  to  be 
met  with  in  the  monastery,  church  and  colleges, 
many  of  which  are  from  the  brush  of  local  Benedictine 
artists  and  in  the  opinion  of  many  compare  favorably 
with  the  works  of  the  old  masters. 

In  the  first  edition  of  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia, 
there  was  not  much  to  say  on  the  subject  of  education 
at  New  Norcia.  St.  Gertrude’s  Ladies’  College  was 
not  long  enough  in  action  to  forecast  its  success,  and 
St.  Ildephonsus  Boys’  College  was  only  in  embryo. 
The  building  of  this  college  was  regarded  generally 
as  a  foolhardy  idea,  and  even  when  it  was  built  men 
of  position  and  experience,  gazing  on  its  magnificent 
dimensions,  were  inclined  to  be  skeptical  of  their 
future  usefulness.  These,  however,  were  false 
prophets,  although  it  was  hard  for  the  casual  observer 
to  see  how  these  colleges,  so  far  removed  from  civiliza¬ 
tion  in  the  wilds  of  the  Australian  bush,  could  be  a 
success.  Abbot  Torres,  however,  with  a  keener 
perspective  into  the  future  than  most  men,  persevered 
with  his  work,  furnishing  and  equipping  his  college 
in  an  up-to-date  fashion,  until  St.  Ildephonsus  was 
ready  to  recpive  students.  The  expense  of  building, 
etc.,  of  these  two  colleges  was  an  enormous  drain  on 
the  New  Norcia  Mission,  for  all  this  had  to  be  delved 
out  of  the  Mission  lands  by  the  Benedictine  monks, 
without  a  penny  of  -outside  help  from  any  quarter. 

When  the  college  was  ready  Bishop  Torres,  who 
had  set  his  heart  on  securing  the  Marist  Brothers  as 
teachers,  went  to  Italy  for  this  purpose  and  returned 
successful.  He  soon  after  opened  his  new  college 
with  an  ideal  staff  of  Marist  Brothers,  4  he  official 
opening  ceremony  took  place  22  February,  1913, 


His  Excellency,  Sir  Gerald  Strickland  did  the  honors 
on  the  occasion,  in  the  midst  of  brilliant  surroundings. 
Sir  John  Forrest,  Commonwealth  Treasurer,  State 
ministers  of  the  Crown,  and  many  leading  citizens 
from  the  capital,  motored  eighty-two  miles  to  New 
Norcia  to  emphasize  their  appreciation  of  Bishop 
Torres’  effoits  to  bring  the  benefits  of  a  sound  Chris¬ 
tian  secondary  education  within  the  reach  of  all. 

The  college  started  with  a  roll  call  of  fifty  boys, 
and  became  popular  from  the  start.  The  first  year 
ended  with  a  roll  of  117.  Boys  rushed  in  from  every 
quarter  and  soon  made  a  name  for  themselves  and 
their  college  at  the  public  examinations  and  continue 
to  do  so  vear  after  year.  St.  Gertrude’s  Young 
Ladies’  College  of  New  Norcia,  and  St.  Ildephonsus 
Boys’  College  are  amongst  the  most  popular  and  suc¬ 
cessful  secondary  schools  in  Australia,  and  do  an 
enormous  amount  of  good.  Bishop  Torres  had  now 
his  monastery,  his  diocese,  and  his  two  aborigine 
missions,  New  Norcia  and  Diisdale  River,  well 
equipped  with  priests,  churches,  convents,  and  schools. 
During  his  fourteen  years  as  superior,  abbot  ordinarius 
and  Bishop  of  New  Norcia,  His  Lordship  accom¬ 
plished  more  than  most  men  can  boast  of  in  a  life¬ 
time.  The  secret  of  Bishop  Torres'  success  may  be 
attributed  to  his  possession  of  a  keen  and  penetrating 
intellect,  his  great  determination  and  his  superhuman 
energy.  He  worked  perhaps  indiscreetly  hard,  rarely 
taking  five  hours  rest  out  of  twenty-four.  He  was 
his  own  draftsman,  his  own  architect,  his  own  super¬ 
visor  of  works.  He  directed  everyone  and  every¬ 
thing  within  his  monastery  and  his  diocese,  and  did 
so  to  the  complete  satisfaction  of  all.  He  died  15 
October,  1914,  at  the  age  of  fifty-three,  widely  and 
deeply  mourned,  and\eryRev.  Father  Bas,  O.  S.  B., 
prior,  continued  to  be  superior  during  the  interregnum. 

Rt.  Rev.  Anselm Catal'an,  O.  S.  B.,  Abbot  Visitator 
of  the  Spanish  Province  of  the  Benedictines,  was  sent 
from  Manila  to  preside  at  the  election  of  Bishop 
Torres’  successor,  and  to  his  own  surprise  was  elected 
to  succeed,  26  March,  1915.  In  a  few  days  after, 
the  newly  elected  abbot  set  out  for  Rome  to  have  the 
election  confirmed  by  Propaganda,  the  Congregation 
of  the  Council,  etc.  The  confirmation  of  an  abbatial 
election  ordinarily  belongs  to  the  abbot  general,  but 
in  the  case  of  New  Norcia  the  abbot  is  both  abbot 
and  ordinarius ,  and  as  such  the  confirmation  comes 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  Propaganda.  The  election 
being  canonically  confirmed,  Abbot  Catalan  returned 
to  his  monastery  and  diocese  in  Australia,  and  was 
installed  in  his  cathedral  after  High  Mass  on  the  fol¬ 
lowing  Sunday  in  the  presence  of  an  unusually  large 
congregation,  and  amidst  great  congratulations  and 
rejoicings.  During  his  seven  years  administration  as 
abbot  ordinarius  Abbot  Catalan  retained  his  hold 
on  the  affections  of  his  monks  and  people. 

The  term  of  his  office  so  far  is  not  marked  by  any 
great  improvements  in  -or  around  the  monastery, 
His  Lordship’s  attention  having  been  engaged  in 
other  directions,  viz.  in  improving  the  mission  prop¬ 
erties  outside  the  orbit  of  the  monastery,  and  stabil¬ 
ising  the  mission  finance  after  the  heavy  drain  of 
Bishop  Torres’  regime,  a  very  necessary  work  indeed, 
and  already  showing  good  results.  The  only  source 
of  revenue  the  Benedictines  of  New  Norcia  have  is 
the  product  of  the  soil,  and  the  spending  power  of 
the  mission  for  legitimate  undertakings  is  in  exact 
proportion  to  the  returns  from  the  land.  The 
Benedictines  never  trade  on  borrowed  money. 

After  a  period  of  hostility  on  the  part  of  the  natives, 
during  which  the  missionaries  were  sometimes  in 
danger  of  their  lives ,  they  have  succeeded  in  winning 
the  friendship  of  the  savages.  Some  hundreds  of 
these  nomads  flock  around  the  Mission  and  willingly, 
even  cheerfully,  help  the  Fathers  in  any  work  that 
turns  up,  clearing  the  land,  planting,  gardening,  etc. 


NEW  ORLEANS  5 

They  also  take  well  to  Christian  teaching,  and  give 
the  missionaries  promise  of  turning  out  good  Catho¬ 
lics.  Great  indeed  is  the  transformation  of  these 
hitherto  unfortunate  people.  Great  also  is  the  work 
of  the  Benedictine  Fathers  in  leading  them  out  of  the 
darkness  and  shadow  of  death  into  the  true  light  of 
Christian  civilization,  at  the  risk  of  their  own  lives. 

The  present  status  of  the  Mission  is  as  follows: 
parishes  4;  abbey  1,  abbey  nullius  of  New  Norcia, 
western  Australia;  churches  10,  missions  2,  New 
Norcia  and  Drisdale  River  missions;  monasteries  2; 
convents,  5  of  nuns,  and  1  of  men  (Marist  Brothers); 
priests,  regular  19;  secular  3;  monastic  students  20; 
lay  brothers  26;  college  of  men  1,  conducted  by 
Marist  Brothers,  10  Brothers  teaching;  ladies’  col¬ 
leges  2  with  18  nuns  teaching;  high  schools  3,  with 
28  teachers,  nuns  27.  There  are  one  boys’  high 
school  with  160  boarders;  2  girls’  high  schools  with 
190  in  attendance;  2  orphanages,  1  for  native  boys 
and  1  for  native  girls,  conducted  by  one  Benedic- 
tine  Brothers  and  5  Benedictino  Nuns  respectively. 
None  of  the  Mission  schools  or  charitable  institutions 
receive  any  Government  subsidy,  except  a  very  paltry 
sum  m  aid  of  the  native  orphanages.  All  the  rest, 
buildings,  food,  clothing,  and  general  upkeep,  is 
entirely  dependent  on  the  charity  of  the  Benedictine 
community .  The  Catholic  population  is  2700;  the 
children  attending  Catholic  schools  number  400. 

New  Orleans,  Archdiocese  of  (Nov.®  Aurel- 
l.®,  cf.  C.  E.,  XI  5d),  in  Louisiana.  On  4  January, 
1918,  thirteen  civil  parishes  in  the  southwestern  part 
of  Louisiana  were  detached  from  the  Archdiocese  of 
New  Orleans  and  erected  into  the  diocese  of  Lafayette 
(q.  v.).  In  1915  the  old  St.  Louis  cathedral  was  con¬ 
demned  by  the  civil  authorities  and  closed  to  public 
worship.  Through  the  generosity  of  a  non-Catholic 
gentleman  who  desired  to  remain  unknown,  the 
ancient  edifice  was  repaired  and  restored  to  public 
worship,  the  first  services  within  the  restored  edifice 
being  the  installation  of  the  Most  Rev.  John  William 
Shaw.  He  succeeded  the  Most  Rev.  James  H.  Blenk, 
who  died  20  April,  1917.  Archbishop  Shaw  was  b. 
at  Mobile,  16  December,  1863,  ordained  20  May, 
1888,  elected  titular  bishop  of  Castabala  7  February, 
1910,  consecrated  14  April  following  and  made  coadju¬ 
tor  bishop  of  San  Antonio,  published  27  November, 
1911  having  already  on  11  March,  1911,  succeeded 
the  late  Bishop  John  A.  Forest.  Xavier  University 
for  the  education  of  colored  youth  was  opened  in  1916, 
and  the  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  of  Cornwells, 
Pa.,  were  called  to  the  archdiocese  to  assume  charge. 
The  buildings  were  purchased  through  the  generosity 
of  Mother  Katherine  Drexel.  The  chapel-car,  “St. 
Paul,”  for  the  use  of  the  metropolitan  see  was  blessed 
at  Easter,  1915,  and  immediately  entered  upon  its 
missionary  labors  in  the  archdiocese  and  the  suffragan 
sees.  In  1921  a  drive  was  inaugurated  whereby  it  was 
hoped  to  raise  the  sum  of  SI, 000, 000  for  the  erection 
of  a  major  seminary  for  the  archdiocese.  The  drive 
opened  on  8  January  and  closed  on  20  January.  It 
was  under  the  personal  direction  of  the  Archbishop 
and  the  active  chairmanship  of  the  Very  Rev.  A.  J. 
Bruening,  the  chancellor  of  the  archdiocese.  The 
dnve  closed  with  its  purpose  realized.  Ground  has 
been  purchased  in  New  Orleans  for  the  seminary  site 
and  it  is  hoped  to  have  the  seminary  building  ready 
for  occupancy  by  October,  1922.  In  February,  1922, 
a  diocesan  synod,  the  first  held  since  the  administra¬ 
tion  of  Archbishop  Janssens  (1888-1897),  was  held  by 
the  Most  Rev.  Archbishop  Shaw.  The  Hotel-Dieu, 
an  exclusively  Catholic  hospital  in  charge  of  the  Sisters 
of  Charity,  was  enlarged  at  a  cost  of  $200,000  and  a 
department  for  incurables  established  through  the  gift 
of  $50,000  from  Mr.  J.  Burguieres,  a  Catholic  lay¬ 
man.  Many  new  parishes  have  been  erected  since 


35  '  NEW  ORLEANS 

the  accession  of  Archbishop  Shaw,  among  them  three 
lor  colored  people  and  an  old  mortuary  chapel  of 
Spanish  colonial  days  was  remodeled  for  the  use  of 
Spanish-speaking  Catholics  and  made  a  mission  of  the 
St.  Louis  cathedral. 

The  following  religious  orders  have  been  admitted 
to  the  diocese  1911:  The  Oblate  Fathers  of  Mary 
Immaculate,  Brothers  of  Mary,  Christian  Brothers 
Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  Fathers 'of  the  IJolv 
Ghost,  Sisters  Servants  of  Mary,  Sisters  of  Mary  of 
the  Presentation.  During  the  War,  Loyola  Univer¬ 
sity  suspended  many  of  its  courses  and  the  university 
building  and  grounds  were  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
the  United  States  Government.  The  Loyola  Hospital 
Unit  was  organized  by  the  medical  staff  of  Loyola 
University  and  financed  entirely  by  a  non-Catholic 
lady  at  an  outlay  of  $100,000,  and  was  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Government  for  service  in  the  camps  of 
Italy.  The  nursing  department  was  in  charge  of  the 
Sisters  of  Charity.  Thirty  Sisters  of  Charity  and  100 
trained  nurses  under  the  direction  of  the  head  nurse, 
a  Sister  of  Charity  from  the  province  of  New  Orleans! 
sailed  for  Italy  and  rendered  excellent  service  in  field 
and  camp.  Catholic  men  and  women  served  faith¬ 
fully  on  the  Red  Cross  committees  and  on  every  com¬ 
mittee  for  the  raising  of  lunds  by  the  Government 
the  Archbishop  and  clergy  were  faithful  workers. 

Among  the  deceased  since  1911  are:  Rev.  Daniel 
Mullane,  Provincial  of  the  St.  Louis  province  of 
the  Redemptorists  and  rector  of  St.  Alphonsus,  New 
Orleans.  Rev.  A. Otis,  S.J.,  died  at  Loyola  University 
of  which  he  had  been  president  for  six  years;  he 
erected  the  church  of  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus  on 
the  university  campus  and  was  recognized  as  one  of 
the  leading  educators  and  missionaries  of  the  far 
South.  Very  Rev.  Thomas  Lorente,  O.P.,  a  native 
of  Spain  and  for  many  years  professor  at  St.  Thomas’ 
College,  Manila.  During  the  administration  of  Arch¬ 
bishop  Chapelle  as  Apostolic  Delegate  Extraordinary 
to  the  Philippine  Islands  after  the  Spanish- American 
War,  Father  Lorente  acted  as  his  auditor  and  secre¬ 
tary.  Returning  with  Archbishop  Chapelle  to  New 
Orleans  in  1904,  Father  Lorente  became  his  secre¬ 
tary  for  a  few  months  until  the  Dominicans  were 
admitted  to  the  diocese  and  Father  Lorente  was  made 
the  pastor  of  St.  Anthony’s  Church.  Later  he  founded 
the  new  parish  of  St.  Anthony  in  New  Orleans  and 
the  Dominican  Seminary  for  Foreign  Missions  at 
Pontchatoula,  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  Rosary- 
ville.  Father  Lorente  was  subsequently  appointed 
vice-provincial  for  the  Spanish  Dominicans  in  Amer¬ 
ica  and  died  suddenly  in  August,  1915.  Edward 
Douglass  White  (q.  v.),  chief  Justice  of  the  United 
States  died  in  July  1921;  also  Hon.  Frank  McGloin 
(q.  v.),  K.S.G.,  in  September  of  the  same  year;  and 
his  son-in-law  Hon.  James  J.  McLoughlin,  K.S.G., 
who  had  been  prominent  in  State  and  city  affairs  and 
active  in  all  church  work  in  New  Orleans. 

The  Catholic  population  of  the  archdiocese  is  es¬ 
timated  at  440,000  and  is  cosmopolitan  in  character. 
It  comprises  descendants  of  the  original  French 
and  Spanish  settlers,  descendants  of  Irish  and 
German  immigrants,  negroes  (natives  and  descen¬ 
dants  of  San  Domingo  refugees,  1793),  Italians, 
Belgians,  Dutch,  Hungarians,  Slavs,  Syrians  and 
late  Spanish  immigrants  from  Mexico  and  South 
America.  According  to  the  statistics  of  1922  the 
archdiocese  contained  119  parishes,  83  missions,  202 
churches,  2  monasteries  for  men,  3  for  women,  1 
abbey  for  men,  10  convents  for  men,  26  for  women, 
122  secular  priests,  151  regulars,  56  lav  brothers! 
397  nuns,  1091  sisters,  2  seminaries  and  *99  semina¬ 
rians.  Educational  institutions  in  the  archdiocese  are: 

1  university,  150  professors,  900  students;  4  colleges 
for  men,  7l  teachers,  1118  students;  1  college  for 
women,  9  teachers,  30  students;  7  high  schools  for 


NEW  POMERANIA 


536 


NEW  THOUGHT 


boys,  68  teachers,  1291  students;  11  high  schools  and 
academies  for  boys,  125  teachers,  1615  students;  1 
normal  school,  3  teachers,  11  students;  89  elementary 
(parochial)  schools,  506  teachers,  25,000  pupils;  1 
high  school  for  colored  students  (Xavier  University); 

2  industrial  schools,  white  and  colored  (the  white 
school  has  8  teachers,  44  students;  the  colored,  9 
teachers,  89  students);  the  Catholic  Womens  Club 
also  conducts  classes  in  industrial  work.  There  is  a 
summer  school  connected  with  Loyola  University 
with  30  teachers  and  700  students.  The  missionary 
workers  of  the  archdiocese  are  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
Society  and  St.  Margaret’s  Daughters  among  the 
Poor.  The  following  charitable  institutions  have 
been  established  in  the  archdiocese:  5  homes,  among 
which  is  1  for  the  aged  colored  poor  conducted  by  the 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family;  9  asylums  (1010  orphans); 

3  hospitals;  1  refuge;  1  settlement  house;  1  day  nur¬ 
sery;  1  infant  asylum  (150  infants);  1  institute  for  deaf 
mutes  (100  inmates).  Fifteen  of  the  institutions 
admit  the  ministry  of  priests.  Eight  institutions 
receive  aid  from  the  City  of  New  Orleans.  The 
Catholic  Women’s  Club  has  been  organized  since 
1911  and  six  new  circles  were  added  to  St.  Margaret’s 
Daughters.  The  Catholic  periodicals  published  in 
the  Archdiocese  are:  the  “Morning  Star”  and  the 
“Vineyard  of  the  East.” 

New  Pomerania,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Nov^e  Pomeranle;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 17c)  in  Oceania, 
is  entrusted  to  the  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Issoudin.  Rt.  Rev.  Louis  Couppe,  M.S.H.,  titular 
Bishop  of  Leros,  b.  26  August,  1850,  consecrated  vicar 
Apostolic  of  New  Pomerania,  9  October,  1890,  still 
(1922)  governs  the  vicariate.  He  resides  at  Heberts- 
hohe  (New  Britain).  According  to  1920  statistics 
there  are  38  missionary  priests,  48  Brothers,  30  Sisters 
of  Our  Lady  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  31  principal  stations, 
130  substations,  26  churches  or  chapels,  116  schools 
with  4096  pupils,  13  orphanages,  a  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  20,419,  and  82  catechists. 

New  Thought  may  be  defined  as  a  philosophico- 
religious,  pantheistic,  pragmatist  system  of  life 
which  seeks  by  deifying  man  to  free  him  from  sick¬ 
ness,  error,  and  all  other  evils. 

Doctrine. — Criticism. — New  Thought  is  not  an 
organized  church;  it  is  not,  so  its  leaders  claim,  a 
fixed  system  of  thought,  philosophy  or  religion;  it 
has  no  fixed  creed  or  dogma.  There  is,  however,  a 
loosely  united  central  organization  of  teachers  and 
leaders,  which  is  known  as  the  International  New 
Thought  Alliance,  from  the  publications  of  which, 
in  conjunction  with  various  works  issued  by  New 
Thought  leaders,  a  summary  of  their  teachings  may  be 
gleaned.  According  to  the  Constitution  and  By- 
Laws  of  the  Alliance,  the  purpose  is:  “To  teach  the 
Infinitude  of  the  Supreme  One;  the  Divinity  of  Man 
and  his  Infinite  Possibilities  through  the  creative 
power  of  constructive  thinking;  and,  obedience  to  the 
voice  of  the  Indwelling  Presence,  which  is  our  source 
of  Inspiration,  Power,  Health,  and  Prosperity.” 
Its  motto  is  “Propaganda  and  Fellowship.”  The 
general  character  of  the  teaching  is  apparent  from  the 
following  statements  issued  by  the  Washington  head¬ 
quarters  for  use  in  Sunday  service.  “This  organiza¬ 
tion  has  for  its  prime  object  the  teaching  of  the 
Christianity  of  Christ,  and  not  the  Christianity  of 
any  sect;  the  doctrine  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  without 
theological  dogma.  We  believe  that  Jesus  meant 
just  what  He  said,  and  that  everything  that  He 
taught  is  not  only  true,  but  practical  and  practicable 
in  daily  life.  Whenever  He  is  said  to  have  healed, 
we  believe  and  teach  that  His  cures  were  effected,  not 
by  miracle,  or  by  violation  of,  or  exception  to,  the 
laws  of  his  Heavenly  Father,  but  in  compliance  with 


the  laws  of  the  Father.  We,  therefore,  believe  and 
teach  that,  when  the  doctrine  of  Jesus  and  the  Laws 
of  God  are  studied  and  followed  in  daily  life,  health, 
happiness,  abundance,  and  healing  of  the  sick  ‘follow 
them  that  believe.’  ” 

Statement  of  Being.— “There  is  One  Presence,  One 
Intelligence,  One  Substance,  One  Life,  the  Good 

Omnipotent.  ^  „ 

“God  is  the  name  of  the  Everywhere  Present 

Principle,  in  whom  I  live,  move,  and  have  my  being. 
“In  all,  and  through  all,  and  above  all,  God 

Almighty.  ~ 

“Thy  name  is  Spirit.  I  know  Thee  as  the  One 

All-Seeing  Mind.  .  ,  w.  , 

“Thou  art  always  with  me  as  indwelling  Wisdom 

and  Love.  ^  ,  .  ,  ...  .  T 

“Thy  law  is  now  the  Standard  of  my  life,  and  1 

am  at  peace. 

“I  in  Thee,  and  Thou  in  me.” 

The  Lord's  Prayer— In  present  tense:  Our 
Father  who  art  in  Heaven,  Hallowed  is  Thy  name. 
Thy  kingdom  is  come;  Thy  will  is  done  on  earth  as 
it  is  in  Heaven.  Thou  givest  us  each  day  our  daily 
bread.  Thou  forgivest  us  our  debts  as  we  forgive 
our  debtors.  Thou  leadest  us  not  into  temptation, 
but  dost  deliver  us  from  all  evil.  For  Thine  is  the 
kingdom,  the  power,  and  the  glory,  forever  and  ever. 
_ Amen 

The  foregoing  may  be  considered  as  the  official 
tenets  of  the  Alliance.  Their  full  meaning  is  made 
apparent  by  a  study  of  New  Thought  books,  Thus 
a  creed  is  impossible  for  followers  of  New  Thought 
because  “the  term  itself  conveys  the  idea  of  a  growing 
or  developing  thought.  When  New  Thought  is 
molded  and  formed  into  a  system  it  ceases  to  be 
‘New’  Thought.  Truth  is  not  susceptible  of  monop¬ 
oly  or  being  made  into  a  system.  ...  It  is  the  divine 
right  of  each  individual  to  believe  what  he  pleases.” 
This  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  the  Modernist 
doctrine  of  evolution  of  dogma,  holding  that  truth  is 
changeable,  as  opposed  to  the  Catholic  doctrine 
that  dogma  is  immutable,  that  truth  is  unchangeable. 
Yet  New  Thought  does  teach  various  “dogmas.” 
Pantheism  is  the  fundamental  error,  for  this  system 
teaches  the  “Divinity  of  Man,”  and  that  “man  is  a 
microcosm  of  God.”  Of  our  Lord  it  is  said,  He 
laid  down  his  life  for  men— an  expression  that  has  no 
reference  to  his  death.”  The  Atonement  of  Christ 
is  rejected  on  the  plea  that,  because  God  is  omnipotent 
there  is  no  need  for  intermediaries  or  for  a  vicarious 
atonement.  Naturally,  too,  the  doctrine  of  original 
sin  is  rejected,  for  according  to  the  New  Thought 
thesis  of  evolution  man’s  “only  fall  was  upward.” 
Hence  also  “all  forms  of  orthodoxy  implying  emphasis 
on  man’s  sinfulness,  and  a  future  punishment”  are 
rejected.  New  Thought  essentially  claims  to  offer 
a  means  of  healing  both  sin  and  sickness  and  other 
evils  through  a  “rediscovery”  of  the  method  which 
Jesus  employed,  which  it  claims  not  to  have  been 
miraculous  at  all  but  within  the  reach  of  all  “who 
fully  realize  their  oneness  with  God.”  This  funda¬ 
mental  idea  is  common  to  both  New  Thought  and 
Christian  Science  (q.  v.),  for  they  are  both  develop¬ 
ments  from  the  teachings  of  Phineas  Quimby.  New 
Thought,  however,  unlike  Christian  Science,  pro¬ 
claims  the  will  and  faith  (assurance,  confidence,  not 
theological  faith)  as  factors  in  its  healing  methods, 
faith  being  described  as  “a  spiritual  force  that  has 
accomplished  wonders.  .  .  .  To  believe  that  we  are  well 
or  that  we  are  going  to  become  so,  excites  a  spiritual 
force  within  us  that  goes  far  towards  making  us  so 
.  .  .  In  the  .  .  .  healer  it  is  a  positive  mental  force, 
in  the  patient  a  receptive  mental  state.”  Underly¬ 
ing  this  New  Thought  doctrine  of  faith  there  is,  of 
course,  the  psychological  truth  of  the  power  of  sug¬ 
gestion.  It  is  in  lowering  the  works  of  Jesus  to 


NEW  THOUGHT 


537 


NEW  THOUGHT 


practically  this  level  that  New  Thought  errs.  New 
employs  in  practice  various  methods: 
(1)  The  tactual,  e.g.  placing  the  hand  on  the  head  of 
the  patient;  this  the  exponents  claim  causes  contact 
of  mind  with  mind  and  the  transmission  of  healthy 
emotional  states  to  the  mind  of  the  patient.  This 
they  claim  to  be  the  explanation  of  manv  of  the  cures 
performed  by  Christ.  (2)  The  visual,  not  in  common 
use;  it  is  claimed  to  be  derived  from  the  Scriptural 
account  of  the  healing  of  the  lame  man  by  St.  Peter 
and  St.  John  (Acts,  iii).  (3)  The  silent  which  is 
practised  when  in  tactual  contact  with  the  patient  or 
when  he  is  at  a  distance;  a  telepathic  mental  message 
being  delivered  to  the  mind  of  the  latter.  This 
theory  enables  New  Thought  practitioners  to  carry 
on  their  trade  without  coming  in  contact  with  their 
patients,  and  in  some  New  Thought  magazines  ad¬ 
vertisements  of  such  practitioners  appear.  (4)  The 
verbal  method  consists  in  the  patient  audibly  repeat¬ 
ing  formulas  denying  the  existence  of  fear,  sickness, 
and  affirming  motives  of  trust,  confidence,  power, 
oneness  with  God.  These  four  methods  may  be 
designated  by  the  general  title  of  “health-affirmation 
method.  ’  (5)  There  is  another  quite  different 

species  that  can  be  designated  the  harmony-with - 
disease  method  in  which  the  patient  “vibrates”  with 
the  disease,  and  through  non-resistance  is  supposed 
•  to  recover  his  health.  (6)  An  extension  of  the  healing 
treatment  is  found  in  the  'prosperity  treatment  which, 
on  the  ground  that  failures  in  business  and  life  gen¬ 
erally,  are  due  to  the  same  causes  as  sickness,  namely 
fears,  beliefs  and  the  like,  seeks  by  “affirmation”  to 
destroy  povert}^. 

While  New7  Thought  is  not  an  organized  church, 
yet  it  bases  the  teachings  outlined  above  on  a  philo¬ 
sophy  of  life  which  it  heralds  as  an  “advance  on  the 
older  ethical  and  religious  systems;”  which  preaches 
“the  universality  of  religion”  (by  this  it  seems  to 
mean  simply  individualism)  and  receives  among  its 
followers  members  of  any  religious  denomination. 
Starting  with  the  idea  that  God  is  an  immanent, 
indwelling  spirit  (as  actually  applied  this  is  pantheis¬ 
tic,  and  must  not  be  confused  with  the  Catholic 
teaching  that  God  is  everywhere  and  that  He  dwells  in 
each  soul)  New  Thought  holds  that  therefore  evil  is 
merely  a  negative  quantity,  the  absence  of  good, 
that  “sin  and  moral  evil  are  largely  an  ignorant  sel¬ 
fishness  ’  and,  “it  would  proclaim  to  man  his  freedom 
from  the  necessity  of  belief  in  disease,  poverty,  and 
all  evil  as  a  part  of  God’s  plan.”  In  brief,  the  true 
and  eternal  nature  of  man  is  good;  he  is  not  hampered 
by  moral  inability,  by  natural  sinfulness;  he  is  god¬ 
like  and  spiritual  being  is  potentially  within  him; 
“the  spirit  of  man  is  sinless,  diseaseless,  deathless, 
sharing  the  very  nature  of  God  and  destined  to  im¬ 
mortal  glory.”  The  important  point  to  remember  in 
evaluating  these  enunciations  is  that  New  Thought 
holds  that  this  sharing  in  the  nature  of  God  takes 
place  here  and  now;  it  is  considered  as  the  natural 
state  of  man;  the  supernatural  is  denied;  man’s  heaven 
is  as  much  on  earth  as  elsewhere.  Hence,  prayer, 
grace,  the  sacraments,  find  no  place  in  this  system; 
the  “Affirmations  of  Being”  are  declared  to  be  the 
true  form  of  prayer  and  this  they  claim  will  finally 
supersede  the  older  forms  of  worship.  Hence  it  may 
be  seen  that  the  hope  and  intention  of  New 
Thought  is  to  establish  itself  as  the  universal  re¬ 
ligion,  despite  the  absence  of  any  such  apparent 
present  purpose.  In  point  of  fact  not  a  few  New 
Thought  churches  have  been  organized  in  which 
Sunday  services  are  held  wherein  “the  silence”  and 
“healing”  are  a  part  of  the  program,  while,  as  in 
Christian  Science,  Wednesday  “experience”  meetings 
are  also  conducted.  That  New  Thought  does  per¬ 
form  some  cures  is  not  to  be  denied;  nervous  diseases 
and  similar  disorders,  it  is  known  from  the  laws  of 


psychology,  will  yield  to  mental  treatment  and 
this  in  general  is  the  explanation  of  their  cures,  al¬ 
though  New  Thought  leaders  hold  that  their  system 
is  spiritual  rather  than  mental.  The  immoral 
tendency  of  New  Thought  (fortunately  New  Thought- 
lsts  do  not  always  follow  their  doctrines  to  their 
natural  conclusions)  is  evident  from  its  perversion  of 
the  teaching  on  sin,  from  its  rejection  of  the  super¬ 
natural,  of  the  Atonement  of  Christ,  of  the  doctrine 
of  future  punishment,  and  from  the  absence  of  super¬ 
natural  means  enabling  man  to  struggle  against 
temptation  and  overcome  the  promptings  of  his 
lower  nature. 

History. — The  New  Thought  movement  can  be 
traced  back  to  Phineas  Parkhurst  Quimby  (1802- 
1866),  a  native  of  New  Hampshire,  at  one  time  a 
pupil  of  Charles  Poyen,  a  French  mesmerist,  who 
visited  the  United  States  in  1836.  Beginning  in 
1840  to  practise  mesmerism,  Quimby  began  to  “heal” 
by  putting  a  “subject,”  one  Lucius  Burkmar,  into 
the  mesmeric  state,  Burkmar  then  diagnosing  the 
patient’s  disease  and  prescribing  the  remedy. 
Claiming  to  have  been  himself  cured  of  kidney  trouble 
(by  Burkmar  placing  his  hands  on  Quimby  and 
1  reuniting”  to  one  kidney  a  diseased  piece  three  inches 
long  which  had  become  almost  entirely  separated), 
Quimby  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  cure  had 
really  been  a  mental  process  on  his  own  part,  that 
disease  is  “a  deranged  state  of  mind,”  that  it,  its 
power  over  life  and  its  curability  “are  all  embraced 
in  belief,  and  that  the  curative  “principle”  consists  in 
producing  changes  in  the  belief  of  the  patient.  He 
then  gave  up  mesmerism  and  set  himself  to  reduce 
his  “discovery”  to  a  “science,”  asserting  that  it  was 
more  than  mental  suggestion  and  claiming  a  “spiritual” 
foundation  for  his  work.  Holding  that  “one  spirit 
may  operate  directly  on  another  spirit,  and  that 
the  basis  of  this  spiritual  activity  is  the  Divine  in  us,” 
he  claimed  to  have  “rediscovered  the  method  of 
healing  by  which  Jesus  wrought,  not  his  ‘miracles,’ 
but  his  highly  intelligible  works  of  healing.”  About 
1860  Quimby  began  to  formulate  his  ideas  in  writing, 
thus  bringing  into  being  the  “Quimby  manuscripts”, 
about  which  so  much  controversy  has  raged  in  con¬ 
nection  with  Christian  Science.  After  Quimby ’s 
death,  Julius  A.  Dresser,  one  of  his  patients,  resent¬ 
ing  Mrs.  Eddy’s  claims  (see  Christian  Science) 
took  up  the  practice  of  mental  healing,  following 
Quimby  s  system.  Another  of  Quimbj^’s  pupils, 
Rev.  Warren  Felt  Evans,  of  the  New  Church  (Sweden- 
borgian) ,  did  likewise,  publishing  in  1869  “The  Mental 
Cure,”  “Mental  Medicine”  in  1872,  “Soul  and 
Body”  in  1875,  and  “The  Divine  Law  of  Cure”  in 
1881,  the  last  named  being  especially  instrumental 
m  giving  impetus  and  direction  to  the  New  Thought 
movement.  By  1882  and  1883  the  movement  had  so 
many  “practitioners”  and  followers  in  Boston  that  it 
was  known  as  the  “mind-cure”  or  the  “Boston 
craze.”  In  1886  the  first  society  or  “church”  was 
founded  by  J.  W.  Winkley,  a  Unitarian  minister, 
under  the  title  of  the  “Church  of  the  Divine  Unity.” 
“Metaphysical  Clubs”  were  founded  in  many  places; 
and  in  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  New  York 
societies^  were  organized  under  the  name,  “Light, 
Love,  Truth.”  The  movement  spread  also  to  the 
West,  being  known  as  “Practical  Christianity”  in 
Kansas  City  (two  of  whose  branches  were  called  “The 
Society  of  Silent  Unity,”  and  the  “Unity  School  of 
•Christianity  ),  and  “Divine  Science”  in  Denver 
and  San  Francisco. 

Until  1890  the  general  name  of  the  movement  was 
“mental  science”;  after  that  date  the  term  “New 
Thought”  came  into  vogue,  being  first  officially 
applied  to  a  magazine  founded  in  1894.  The  first 
“New  Thought”  society  with  a  regular  organization, 
after  the  new  name  had  come  into  general  use,  was 


NEW  THOUGHT 


NEW  THOUGHT 


538 


the  “Church  of  the  Higher  Life,”  founded  in  Boston 
in  1894  by  Mrs.  Van- Anderson,  and  still  existing  in 
1919,  though  without  a  leader.  The  Greenacre 
Conferences,  also  founded  in  1894,  at  Eliot,  Maine, 
became  later  a  summer  center  for  New  Thought 
gatherings .  Afterwards  this  organization  was  opened 
to  Swamis  with  their  Vedantic  philosophy  from 
India,  and  Miss  Farmer,  the  founder,  finally  became  a 
devotee  of  Bahaism.  In  1895  the  Metaphysical  Club 
was  f ound6d  in  Boston ,  and  this  society ,  through  its 
active  propaganda,  was  the  first  which  made  a  de- 
termined  effort  to  spread  its  views  and  try  to  gain  a 
general  following,  and  from  it  in  a  sense  grew  the 
more  general  organization  which  later  sprang  up. 
The  first  national  convention  was  held  in  1894;  the 
first  to  be  held  under  the  name  of  New  Thought  was 
in  Boston  in  1899.  This  Boston  convention  organized 
“The  International  Metaphysical  League”  (in  passing 
we  may  note  that  included  in  the  purpose  of  this 
league,  was  “to  teach  the  universal  Fatherhood  and 
Motherhood”  [ !  ]  of  God),  which  met  in  1900,  electing 
officers  from  the  United  States,  England,  Australia 
and  New  Zealand.  Apparently  this  organization  was 
not  very  successful;  in  1903  an  “International  New 
Thought  Convention”  was  held  in  Chicago,  which 
met  annually  until  1906,  when  a  reorganization  was 
effected.  In  1908  the  name  was  changed  t<?  I  he 
National  New  Thought  Alliance,”  and  this  m  turn 
became  in  1914  “The  International  New  Thought 
Alliance,”  the  first  international  convention  being 
held  in  London  in  that  year,  there  being  present  rep¬ 
resentatives  of  the  American  body,  of  the  Higher 
Thought  Centre”  of  Great  Britain  and  of  the  Ligue 
Internationale  de  la  Nouvelle  Pensee,  and  La 
Societe  Unitive”  of  France.  The  first  international 
congress  was  held  at  San  Francisco  in  1915,  the 
Panama-Pacific  Exposition  dedicating  to  it  one  day 
known  as  New  Thought  Day.  The  international 
headquarters  are  now  in  Washington,  D.  C.  Cut- 
side  of  the  United  States  the  movement  has  (as  of  the 
year  1919)  organizations  or  representatives  in  tha 
Hawaiian  Islands,  England,  Scotland,  Ireland, 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  France,  Chile,  and  Brazil. 
It  is  impossible  to  give  any  accurate  statistics  since  its 
followers  are  also  in  many  cases  members  of  various 
sects.  Probably  it  has  its  greatest  strength  in  the 
central  and  western  states  of  the  United  States.  It 
is  claimed  that  the  Unity  Society  of  Kansas  City, 
Missouri,  has  a  membership  of  50,000  scattered 
throughout  the  country.  The  leaders  of  the  move¬ 
ment  claim  that  it  has  influenced  ‘  ‘millions .  ”  On  the 
basis  of  the  number  of  magazines  (they  are  quite  nu¬ 
merous)  devoted  to  the  propagation  of  New  Thought 
ideas  an  estimate  that  there  are  possibly  200,000 
devotees  in  the  world  may  be  hazarded,  but  the 
number  of  full  members  (those  not  affiliated  with 
any  other  church)  can  hardly  be  as  high  as  100,000 
in  the  United  States,  and  not  much  above  that 
figure  in  the  world. 

Other  Healing  Associations.— Besides  the  two 
leading  organizations,  Christian  Science  and  New 
Thought,  in  which  “divine  healing”  plays  a  promi¬ 
nent  part  there  are  many  others  in  which  this  doc¬ 
trine  finds  a  place.  Some  of  these  are  organized 
churches  (a  few  are  found  even  among  the  so-called 
“evangelicals”),  while  others  are  more  specifically 
healing  associations.  Although,  with  possibly  one 
or  two  exceptions,  they  are  not  genetically  connected 
with  New  Thought  they  may  be  briefly  summarized 
here: 

(1)  The  Emmanuel  Movement  arose  in  the  Prot¬ 
estant  Episcopal  Church  about  1906,  originating  in 
Emmanuel  Church,  Boston.  Practice  here  was  con¬ 
fined  to  treatment  of  functional  nervous  disorders, 
and  usually  in  connection  with  the  aid  of  regular 
physicians.  The  movement  spread  to  many  Piot- 


estant  Episcopal  churches  in  the  United  States  and 
to  some  Anglican  churches  in  Great  Britain  The 
usual  method  employed  is  the  laying  on  of  hands 
and  anointing.  This  practice  was  taken  up  as  a 
protection  against  Christian  Science,  utilizing,  as 
the  leaders  stated,  the  truth  underlying  the  latter, 
namely  the  influence  of  moral  over  physical  states. 
Some  other  Protestant  organizations  have  inaugurat¬ 
ed  a  similar  movement;  moreover,  especially  in  its 
earlier  history,  New  Thought  numbered  among 
its  adherents  hot  a  few  Protestant  ministers  whu  at 
the  same  time  retained  their  denominational  affilia- 

(2)  The  Assemblies  of  Ood,  General  Council,  or¬ 
ganized  in  Arkansas  and  Missouri  in  1914,  accept 
some  orthodox  doctrines.  4 hey  hold  the  coming 
of  Jesus  and  the  beginning  of  the  millenium  as  im¬ 
minent,  and  profess  to  have  the  gift  of  divine  healing 
They  reported  in  1921  about  118  organizations,  937 

ministers,  and  6703  members. 

(3)  The  Christian  Catholic  Church  m  Zion,  known 
formerly  as  the  Christian  Catholic  Apostolic  Church 
in  Zion  (the  Dowieites),  was  founded  by  John 
Alexander  Dowie  who,  claiming  to  have  been  mirac¬ 
ulously  cured,  organized  a  healing  association  in 
Australia,  in  1888.  Having  come  to  Chicago  m 
1890,  he  changed  the  name  of  his  “Divine  Healing 
Association”  to  that  listed  above,  in  1896.  In  1900 
he  founded  a  town,  Zion  City,  Illinois,  where  he  es¬ 
tablished  headquarters.  Though  he  proclaimed 
himself  “Elijah  the  Restorer  of  All  Things  in  1901, 
and  “First  Apostle”  in  1903,  he  was  ousted  by  his 
followers  in  1906,  and  Wilbur  G.  Voliva,  the  present 
leader,  succeeded  him.  This  sect  condemned  all  Chris¬ 
tian  denominations  in  general,  but  particularly  was 
Christian  Science  excoriated  by  Dowie,  who  also 
considered  doctors  as  inspired  by  the  devil.  Dowie 
claimed,  about  1905,  to  have  thousands  of  followers 
all  over  the  world.  The  government  statistics  for 
1906  reported  for  this  church,  17  organizations  (in 
10  states),  17  church  edifices  or  halls,  35  ministers  and 
5865  members,  of  whom  40  per  cent  were  males  and 
60  per  cent  females.  Since  then  the  association  has 
not  made  public  its  statistics;  the  population  of  Zion 
City,  which  since  1911  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and 
council  (quasi-ecclesiastical ,  however),  was  4789 

in  1910  and  5580  in  1920. 

(4)  The  Church  of  the  Universal  Messianic  Message 
is  an  outgrowth  of  the  Christian  Yoga  Society  which 
was  founded  at  Spokane,  Wash.,  in  1911,  by  A.  K. 
Mozumdar  after  a  study  of  oriental  religions.  1  his 
church  purposes  to  “bring  about  unity  with  Omni¬ 
present  God  on  the  part  of  its  members,  in  imitation 
of  the  Great  Master,  Jesus  Christ;  to  heal  the  sick 
by  an  appeal  to  God  for  an  interposition  of  divine 
power,”  and  to  teach  the  great  mystery  of  life.  It 
accepts  no  creed  and  recognizes  no  sacrament,  nor 
ministerial  office.  In  1921  there  were  5  organizations 

and  266  members.  .  . 

(5)  The  Apostolic  Faith  Movement  originated  in 
1900,  not  as  a  denomination  strictly  so-called,  but 
rather  as  a  loose  union  of  free-lance  evangelists.  The 
chief  doctrine  and  practice  is  that  of  healing,  the 
leaders  visiting  and  praying  for  the  sick  while  those 
at  a  distance  are  treated  by  correspondence,  and  by 
sending  them  objects  such  as  handerkerchiefs  that 
have  been  “blessed”  for  that  purpose.  Their  head¬ 
quarters  are  at  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  Portland,  Ore.,  and 

•  Minneapolis.  In  1921  they  had  24  churches,  26 
ministers  and  2196  members.  They  carry  on  foreign 
missionary  work  in  many  countries. 

(6)  The  Church  Transcendent,  known  also  as  the 
“Transcendental  Wav,”  founded  at  Warren,  Ohio, 
in  1915,  holds  as  one  of  its  principles  that  mind 
transcends  matter  and  is  the  conqueror  over  evil. 
It  aims  at  a  universal  religion  transcending  ‘  all  the 


NEW  YORK 


539 


NEW  YORK 


partial,  racial  and  national  religions. ”  In  1921  it 
had  3  churches,  2  ministers,  91  members. 

(7)  The  Missionary  Church  Association,  founded  at 
Berne,  Ind.,  in  1898,  accepts  many  of  the  orthodox 
teachings  of  Christianity.  It  believes  in  the  healing 
of  the  body  in  answer  to  the  prayer  of  faith.  In 
1921  it  had  25  organizations,  59  ministers,  1554 
members. 

(8)  An  organization  very  similar  to  the  preceding 
is  the  International  Apostolic  Holiness  Church, 
founded  at  Cincinnati  in  1897.  In  1921  it  reported 
325  churches,  640  ministers,  11,000  members. 

(9)  The  Mennonite  Brethren  in  Christ  in  common 
with  some  other  branches  (see  Mennonites),  hold 
the  doctrine  of  divine  healing  of  the  sick  by  the 
“laying  on  of  hands,  and  anointing  with  oil,  and 
praying  over,  them.” 

(10)  The  Pentecostal  Holiness  Church,  organized  at 
Anderson,  S.  C.,  in  1898,  accepts  in  general  the 
doctrines  of  Methodism.  It  believes  also  in  divine 
healing  but  does  not  condemn  the  practice  of  medicine 
as  essentially  evil.  In  1921  it  reported  192  churches 
282  ministers,  5353  members. 

(11)  The  Progressive  Spiritual  Church  is  a  very 
radical  Spiritualist  organization  holding  that  Jesus 
was  merely  a  medium  and  his  resurrection  a  ma¬ 
terialization.  As  to  healing  it  holds  that  divine 
metaphysics  guide  the  mind  of  the  medium  on  earth 
and  that  only  in  this  way  can  the  cause  of  disease  be 
detected  and  overcome.  In  1921  it  reported  11 
churches  20  ministers,  5831  members. 

(12)  There  are  also  a  few  independent  Reformed 
Christian  Science  churches.  (See  Christian  Science; 
also  in  the  original  edition,  Extreme  Unction; 
Lourdes;  Miracles;  Prayer;  Psychotherapy.) 

Dresser,  A  History  of  the  New  Thought  Movement  (New 
York,  1919);  Idem,  The  Religion  of  the  Spirit  in  Modern  Life 
(New  York,  1914);  Idem,  (ed.)  The  Spirit  of  the  New  Thought, 
with  extensive  bibliography  (NewYork,  1917),  Idem,  Handbook  of 
New  Thought  (New  York,  1917);  Idem,  Health  and  the  Inner  Life 
(New  York,  1906);  Idem,  The  Power  of  Silence  (New  York,  1902); 
Evans,  The  Divine  Law  of  Cure  (Boston,  1881);  Idem,  The 
Primitive  Mind-Cure  (Boston,  1884);  Allen,  The  Message  of 
New  Thought  (New  York,  1914);  Atkinson,  Dynamic  Thought 
(Los  Angeles,  1906).  Anderson,  New  Thought,  Its  Lights  and 
Shadows  (Boston,  1911);  Johnson,  Some  Modern  Isms  (Rich¬ 
mond,  1919);  Podmore,  Mesmerism  and  Christian  Science 
(Philadelphia,  1909). 

The  best  Catholic  treatment  is  found  in  Bellwald,  Christian 
Science  and  the  Catholic  Faith,  Including  a  Brief  Account  of  New 
Thought  and  Other  Modern  Mental  Healing  Movements  (New 
York,  1922);  see  also  Moore,  New  Thought  (C.  T.  S.  pamphlet, 
London,  1916).  A  brief  treatment  of  mind-healing  is  given  in 
Benson,  Non-Catholic  Denominations  (London  and  New  York, 
1915). 

On  the  Emmanuel  Movement  see  Worcester  (et  al.), 
Religion  and  Medicine  (New  York,  1908);  Idem  (et  al.),  The 
Christian  Religion  as  a  Healing  Power  (New  York,  1909);  Pan- 
Anglican  Congress  Report,  1908,  vol.  Ill,  sect.  B  (London, 
1908);  on  the  Christian  Catholic  Church  in  Zion  see  Harlam, 
John  Alexander  Dowie  and  the  Christian  Catholic  Apostolic  Church 
in  Zion  (Chicago,  1906),  and  Thurston,  Christian  Science  in 
vol.  V.,  of  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Religions  (St.  Louis,  1911); 
for  other  organizations  see  Religious  Bodies,  1916  (Washington, 
1919),  and  Year  Book  of  the  Churches  (New  York,  annual). 

Gerald  Shaughnessy. 

New  York  (cf.  C.  E.  XI-19c) — The  area  of  the 
State  of  New  York  is  49,204  square  miles.  The 
population  in  1920  was  10,385,227,  a  gain  of  14  per 
cent  since  1910.  Of  this,  82.7%  was  urban;  17.3  was 
rural.  In  130  years  the  population  of  the  state  has 
increased  36  times.  The  average  number  of  inhab¬ 
itants  per  square  mile  was  217.9,  as  against  191.2  in 
1910,  and  152.5  in  1900.  There  were  59  cities,  of 
which  6  have  over  100,000  inhabitants  and  16  have 
from  25,000  to  100,000  inhabitants.  The  proportion 
of  the  population  of  New  York  living  in  places  of  2500 
or  more  increased  from  72.9  per  cent  in  1900,  to  78.8 
per  cent  in  1910,  and  to  82.7  per  cent  in  1920.  The 
six  largest  cities  are  New  York,  with  a  population  of 
5,620,048;  Buffalo  506,775;  Syracuse  171,717;  Albany 
113,344;  Yonkers  100,176;  Utica  94,156.  About  two 


million  and  a  half  live  outside  the  New  York  City 
limits.  There  are  within  the  State  7  Indian  reserva¬ 
tions,  inhabited  by  4458  Indians. 

Economic  Status. — In  1919  New  York  had 
49,374  manufacturing  establishments  employing 
1,229,900  people  as  wage  earners.  The  capital  in¬ 
vested  was  $6,033,852,000;  the  cost  of  materials, 
$4,947,991,000;  the  value  of  the  products,  $8,875,- 
007,000. 

Commerce. — In  1920  New  York  was  the  first 
shipping  port  in  the  world,  surpassing  even  the 
ports  of  London  and  Liverpool.  Its  imports  were  of 
the  value  of  approximately  $1,251,790,373;  and  its 
exports,  $2,616,850,680.  The  tonnage  movement  of 
foreign  trade  for  the  year  ending  30  June,  1920,  was: 
entered,  15,049,744;  cleared,  14,275,255. 

Agriculture. — In  1920  there  were  in  the  State 
193,195  farms  of  a  total  area  of  20,632,803  acres, 
of  which  13,158,781  acres  were  improved  land.  The 
value  of  the  farms  was  $1,908,483,201;  of  live  stock, 
$313,554,695.  Though  the  number  of  farms  showed 
a  decrease  of  10.4  per  cent  since  1910,  the  crop  value 
revealed  an  increase  of  119  per  cent,  being  $417,046,- 
864  in  1920.  The  principal  crops  were:  cereals,  $82,- 
524,839;  hay  $169,494,524;  vegetables  $104,070,460; 
the  wool  clip  was  3,350,824  pounds,  valued  at 
$1,976,986.  The  dairy  industry  is  still  important  as 
the  receipts  from  the  sale  of  dairy  products  in  1920 
were  $174,155,050.  The  fruit  crop  in  the  same  year 
was  worth  $34,891,361. 

Mining. — The  mines  of  the  State  in  1918  yielded 
products  valued  at  $54,997,036;  the  quarries  pro¬ 
duced  building  stone  valued  at  $5,208,752.  The  salt 
springs  produced  in  the  same  year  15,218,071  barrels 
of  salt  worth  $2,176,472,  while  the  petroleum  wells 
yielded  $3,307,814  worth  of  crude  petroleum.  New 
York  is  still  the  wealthiest  State  in  the  United  States, 
the  aggregate  value  of  all  the  property  within  the 
State  in  the  year  1919  (latest  estimate)  being  $12,- 
758,021,954,  of  which  $12,322,150,324  represented 
real  property  and  improvements.  The  personal  prop¬ 
erty  was  worth  $435,871,630.  The  property  in  New' 
York  City  alone  was  worth  $1,225,055,569.  The 
revenue  of  the  State  government  was  $86,433,925 
(1918-19).  The  city  of  New  York  received  the  enor¬ 
mous  revenue  of  $905,733,841.  The  bonded  debt  of 
the  State  in  1919  was  $236,744,660.  The  State  in¬ 
come  is  derived  mainly  from  taxes  on  assessable  prop¬ 
erty,  fees  from  foreign  corporations,  licenses,  taxes 
on  certain  public  franchises  and  trusts  and  banks. 
New  York  has  a  personal  income  tax  modelled  on  the 
Federal  law'.  Personal  property  yielding  an  income 
is  exempt  from  the  property  tax.  The  State  Tax 
Commission  administers  all  the-  tax  statutes  in  the 
State. 

Transportation. — There  are  8,534  miles  of  rail¬ 
way  track  and  6,039  miles  of  electric  railway.  The 
canals  cover  638  miles,  of  which  361  miles  belong  to 
the  Erie  Canal.  The  State  Barge  Canal  has  just 
been  completed  at  a  cost  of  $150,000,000.  It  is  12 
feet  deep  and  has  a  capacity  of  20,000,000  tons. 
In  1919  goods  carried  free  on  these  State  canals  were 
valued  at  $35,000,000.  The  port  of  New  York  has 
a  total  water-front  of  578.4  miles. 

Education. — School  attendance  is  compulsory 
for  all  children  between  seven  and  sixteen  years  of 
age.  A  recent  amendment  to  the  educational  law 
makes  instruction  in  physical  training  or  kindred  sub¬ 
jects  compulsory  for  all  over  8  years  of  age,  and  mili¬ 
tary  training  for  all  between  16  and  19  at  least  three 
hours  a  week  between  September  and  June  15.  At¬ 
tendance  in  part-time  schools  is  required  of  children 
14-17  years  of  age,  wrho  are  not  high  school  graduates, 
and  who  are  not  regularly  attending  school.  Every 
minor  between  16  and  21  years  of  age  w'ho  does  not 
possess  the  ability  to  speak,  read,  and  write  the  Eng- 


NEW  YORK 


540 


NEW  YORK 


lish  language  as  required  for  the  completion  of  the 
fifth  grade  of  the  public  or  private  schools  shall  at¬ 
tend  some  day,  evening  or  private  school.  Bible  read¬ 
ing  in  the  public  schools  is  neither  permitted  nor  ex¬ 
cluded.  The  laws  governing  private  or  parochial 
schools  are  as  follows:  The  Regents  of  the  University 
of  the  State  of  New  York  shall  prescribe  courses  m 
citizenship  and  patriotism  to  be  maintained  and  fol¬ 
lowed  in  all  schools  of  the  State.  Similar  courses 
shall  be  prescribed  in  private  schools.  The  Commis¬ 
sioner  of  Education  shall  be  responsible  for  the  en¬ 
forcement  of  this  Act  and  shall  cause  to  be  inspected 
and  supervised  the  instruction  to  be  given  in  such 
subjects.  The  instruction  required  shall  be:  At  a 
public  school  in  which  at  least  the  six  common  school 
branches  of  reading,  spelling,  writing,  arithmetic,  the 
English  language,  and  geography  are  taught  in  Eng¬ 
lish;  elsewhere  than  a  public  school,  in  the  same  sub¬ 
jects,  taught  in  English  by  a  competent  teacher.  No 
public  money  shall  be  used  for  the  support  of  any  ed¬ 
ucational  institution  of  any  religious  denomination 
(1X4).  Subjects  taught  in  private  schools  must  be 
substantially  equivalent  to  those  taught  in  public 
schools.  Courses  in  patriotism  and  citizenship  shall 
be  prescribed  in  all  public  and  private  schools.  The 
school  term  of  private  schools  must  be  equal  in  length 
to  that  of  public  schools. 

In  1918  there  were  2,421,283  children  of  school  age 
(5-18),  11,898  public  schools  with  1,672,311  pupils, 
52,858  teachers,  964  public  high  schools  and  academies 
with  197,119  pupils  and  8375  teachers.  In  the  10 
normal  public  normal  schools  there  were  348  teachers 
and  7020  students.  Moreover,  the  State  has  133 
vocational  schools.  The  total  expenditure  on  edu¬ 
cation  in  1919  was  $126,050,044;  the  city  of  New 
York  with  1862  pupils  and  46,020  teachers  spent 
$45,765,043  in  1919.  The  136  universities,  pro¬ 
fessional  and  technical  schools  had  5634  teachers  and 
52,043  students.  The  New  York  City  College  has  an 
enrolment  of  14,473;  West  Point  701.  The  public 
statistics  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education 
(1920,  Bulletin  No.  3)  show  that  117  private  schools 
and  academies  (not  parochial  schools)  were  con¬ 
ducted  under  the  auspices  of  the  Catholic  Church  in 
New  York  in  1918.  In  1920  there  were  300,000  in  the 
Catholic  schools.  The  United  States  Education 
Bureau  (1920)  reported  that  in  1918,  10,674  were 
registered  in  the  Catholic  secondary  schools  alone. 
The  Catholic  Directory  estimates  the  number  of  peo¬ 
ple  under  Catholic  care,  including  the  orphans  and 
other  inmates  of  charitable  institutions,  as  350,198. 
Tho  New  York  State  Public  Library  has  506,000 
volumes;  the  New  York  City  Public  Library  has 
2,306,471  books  and- 320,464  pamphlets,  in  all  2,626,- 

935  volumes.  '  _  - 

Religion. — According  to  the  latest  United  States 
Census  of  Religious  Denominations,  the  members 
of  all  denominations  numbered  4,315,404,  divided  as 
follows:  Catholics,  2,745,552;  Methodist  Episcopali¬ 
ans,  328,250;  Protestant  Episcopalians,  227,685; 
Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  of  America, 
222,888;  Baptists  Northern  Convention,  182,443; 
Jewish  Congregations  112,924;  Lutheran  General 
Council  73,582;  Reformed  Church  in  America  66,773; 
Congregational  Churches  65,021;  all  other  denomi¬ 
nations,  289,287.  There  were  8,780  church  edifices, 
867  halls,  and  5319  parsonages  (valued  at  $28,782,- 
609).  The  total  value  of  church  property  was  $293,- 
210, 904 ,  and  the  debt  $36 , 20 1 . 46 .  The  Sunday  schools , 
8616  in  number,  were  attended  by  1,296,956  scholars. 
The  present  law  of  New  York  limits  the  income  of  the 
religious  and  charitable  corporations  of  the  State  to 
$1,000,000;  and  the  value  of  their  property  to  $10,- 
000,000.  The  Catholics  formed  63.6  per  cent,  of  the 
total  of  the  religious  communicants,  but  only  44.6 
claimed  any  membership  whatever.  There  were  281 


Catholics  for  every  1000  of  the  population,  a  gain  df 
7.3  per  cent,  oqer  the  censes  of  1890:  24  Protestant 
Episcopalians  for  each  1000.  For  further  statistics 
see  New  York,  Archdiocesr  Of  and  its  suffragans 
in  the  State. 

Marriage. — A  marriage  license  must  be  ob¬ 
tained  from  the  clerk  of  the  town  or  city  where  a 
woman  resides  or,  if  she  is  a  non-resident,  where  the 
marriage  is  solemnized.  Both  parties  must  appear 
before  the  issuer  of  the  license.  A  city  clerk  of  a 
city  of  over  1,000,000  inhabitants  may  solemnize  a 
marriage  upon  a  license  issued  by  himself.  To  take  or 
harbor  any  girl  under  eighteen  years  of  age  for  the 
purpose  of  marriage  without  the  consent  of  her 
parents  or  guardian  constitutes  abduction.  An  action 
to  annul  her  marriage  may  be  brought  by  a  woman 
where  she  was  under  eighteen  years  of  age  at  the  time 
of  the  marriage  and  the  consent  of  her  parents  or 
guardian  was  not  had  and  the  marriage  was  not  con¬ 
summated  and  not  ratified  by  mutual  consent  after 
she  attained  the  age  of  eighteen.  After  a  divorce  is 
granted,  re-marriage  is  forbidden  to  the  guilty  party 
during  the  life  of  the  spouse,  unless,  after  three  years 
have  elapsed,  proof  is  made  of  his  or  her  uniform  good 
conduct,  when  the  defendant  may  be  permitted  by 
the  court  to  marry  again. 

Sunday  Laws. — The  New  York  laws  permit 
barbers  to  work  on  Sundays  only  before  one  o’clock 
and  only  in  the  city  of  New  York  and  the  village  of 
Saratoga  Springs.  Local  authorities,  either  on  their 
own  initiative  or  upon  the  result  of  a  local  referendum , 
are  authorized  to  license  Sunday  baseball  and  other 
sports.  The  question  of  Sunday  theatres  is  left  to  the 
community. 

Militia. — Under  the  provisions  of  the  Military 
Law  of  the  State  a  new  active  organization  was 
created  in  1917  to  take  the  place  of  the  National 
Guard,  which  was  then  in  Federal  service.  It  is  part 
of  the  active  militia  of  the  State,  is  partly  subject  to 
Federal  control,  and  receives  rifles  and  ammunition 
from  the  Federal  Government. 

Recent  History. — In  1911  laws  were  passed, 
re-apportioning  Congressional  districts  of  the  State, 
providing  for  a  direct  State  tax  and  direct  primary 
voting,  and  regulating  child  labor.  In  1913  Governor 
William  Sulzer  was  impeached  and  removed  from 
office  for  misapplication  of  party  funds.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Martin  Glynn,  a  Catholic,  through 
whom  State  conventions  were  abolished  and  a  short 
ballot  law  and  workmen’s  compensation  Act  were 
adopted.  Vocational  and  industrial  education  and 
medical  inspection  in  schools  were  provided  for  by 
law;  vital  statistics  were  put  under  the  State  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Health.  A  new  Education  Bill  (1916)  made 
provision  for  town  boards  of  education  and  for  a 
school  board  in  every  city  of  the  State,  making  their 
powers  unform.  The  former  clause  was  repealed  in 
the  1918  session.  A  constitutional  convention  was 
held  in  1915,  but  the  revised  constitution  was  over¬ 
whelmingly  defeated  in  the  November  election.  A 
Child  Welfare  Board  has  been  set  up  in  each  county 
and  mothers’  pensions  allowed.  The  constitution  was 
amended  in  1918  to  require  that  all  voters  after 
1  January,  1920,  read  and  write  English.  An  income 
tax  in  the  same  year  was  placed  on  all,  even  non¬ 
residents,  who  had  their  source  of  income  in  New 
York  State.  The  constitutionality  of  the  law  was 
referred  to  the  Supreme  Court.  State  scholarships 
for  all  veterans  of  the  late  war  have  been  established. 
A  bridge  to  be  known  as  the  Great  Western  Highway, 
is  to  be  built  across  the  Mohawk  River  at  Schenec¬ 
tady. 

A  Department  of  State  Police  was  established  in  the 
1918  session  of  the  legislature.  The  1920  session  will 
be  memorable  for  the  expulsion  of  the  Socialist 
members  of  the  Assembly,  who  were  charged  with 


NEW  YORK 


541 


NEWARK 


belonging  to  a  party  disloyal  to  the  Government  and 
with  having  been  elected  on  a  platform  hostile  to  the 
interest  of  the  State  and  country.  The  Socialist 
party  amended  their  constitution  in  1920  and  two 
of  the  expelled  members  were  re-admitted.  A  bonus 
was  voted  to  all  military  and  naval  veterans  of  the 
late  war,  the  bond  issue  not  to  exceed  $45,000,000. 
The  housing  situation  in  New  York  city  became  so 
acute  that  innumerable  rent  laws  were  passed  as 
means  of  relief.  The  Federal  Prohibition  Act  was 
ratified  on  29  January,  1919,  and  the  Suffrage  Amend¬ 
ment  on  16  June,  1919.  The  enforcement  of  the 
Prohibition  Act  is  outlined  in  the  Mullane-Gage 
Law  of  1921.  The  prevailing  liquor  tax  law  is  re¬ 
pealed,  as  well  as  the  city  local  option  law  and  the 
duty  of  enforcement  was  transferred  from  the  excise 
department  (abolished)  to  the  State  attorney- 
general.  The  term  intoxicating  liquor  is  construed  to 
mean  liquor  containing  more  than  one-half  of  one 
per  cent  alcohol.  Sacramental  wines  and  medical 
liquors  are  excepted. 

During  the  European  War  New  York  contributed 
the  greatest  number  of  soldiers  to  the  United  States 
Army  (9.79  per  cent).  Most  of  the  New  York  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  national  guard  joined  the  27th  Division 
at  Camp  Wadsworth,  South  Carolina;  those  of  the 
national  army,  the  77th  Division  at  Camp  Upton, 
New  York,  or  the  78th  Division  at  Camp  Dix,  New 
Jersey.  Flying  regiments  were  quartered  at  Mineola, 
Long  Island.  The  summary  of  casualties  among  New 
York  men  is  as  follows:  deceased,  476  officers,  8720 
men;  prisoners,  42  officers,  835  men;  wounded,  1203 
officers,  28,946  men. 

New  York,  Archdiocese  of  (Neo  Eboracensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 20b) K  comprises  4717  square  miles 
of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  the  Bahama  Islands, 
an  area  of  4466  sq.  miles.  On  15  September,  1902, 
Rt.  Rev.  John  M.  Farley,  who  had  been  Titular 
Bishop  of  Zeugma  and  auxiliary  of  Archbishop  Cor¬ 
rigan  since  21  Dec.,  1895,  was  promoted  to  the 
archiepscopal  see.  On  25  April,  1904,  Rev.  Thomas 
F.  Cusack  was  made  auxiliary  of  the  archbishop, 
and  Titular  Bishop  of  Themiscvra,  until  he  was 
promoted  (5  July,  1915)  to  the  see  of  Albany. 
Archbishop  Farley  was  created  Cardinal  Priest  on 
27  November,  1911,  and  died  17  September,  1918. 
His  auxiliary,  Rt.  Rev.  Patrick  J.  Hayes,  succeeded 
him  10  March,  1919.  Born  in  New  York  20  Novem¬ 
ber,  1867,  he  made  his  studies  at  Manhattan  College, 
the  seminary  of  Troy  and  the  Catholic  University, 
was  ordained  8  September,  1892,  and  served  as  curate 
of  St.  Gabriel’s  and  secretary  to  Cardinal  Farley, 
was  made  chancellor  of  the  archdiocese  in  1903, 
named  a  prelate  of  the  Holy  See  15  October,  1907,’ 
and  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Tagasta  and  auxiliary 
to  the  archbishop  3  July,  1914.  On  29  November, 
1917,  he  was  named  ordinary  of  all  Catholics  mob¬ 
ilized  in  the  army  and  navy,  and  in  February,  1920, 
Chaplain  in  Chief  of  the  American  army,  and  navy, 
and  decorated  by  France  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  The  same  year  he  was  decorated  with  the 
Order  of  the  Crown  of  Italy,  in  recognition  of  the 
services  he  rendered  Italy  during  the  War.  In  1921 
an  auxiliary  Bishop  was  appointed  in  the  person  of 
Rt.  Rev.  John  J.  Dunn,  consecrated  titular  Bishop 
of  Camuliana  28  October,  1921.  Born  in  New  York 
in  1870,  Bishop  Dunn  was  ordained  in  1896,  and 
named  a  private  chamberlain  in  1914.  He  was  placed 
in  charge  of  the  Society  of  the  Propagation  of  the 
Faith  in  New  York,  in  1904,  and  served  in  this 
capacity  until  his  appointment  as  bishop.  Rt.  Rev. 
John  J.  Collins,  S.  J.,  retired  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
Jamaica,  and  titular  Bishop  of  Antiphello,  also 
resides  in  the  archdiocese,  at  Fordham  University. 

The  Catholic  population  of  the  archdiocese  numbers 


1,473,291,  an  increase  of  148,291  since  1919.  The 
latest  statistics  (1922)  credit  it  with  313  parish 
churches,  82  missions  with  churches,  204  chapels,  31 
mission  stations,  728  secular  and  413  regular  clergy, 
1  theological  seminary  with  219  students,  1  prepara¬ 
tory  seminary  with  350  students,  1  university,  31 
colleges  and  academies  for  boys  with  8995  students, 

4  colleges  for  girls  with  817  pupils,  46  academies  for 
girls  with  J896  pupils,  119  parochial  schools  for  boys 
with  39,477  pupils,  119  parochial  schools  for  girls 
with  43,153  pupils  within  the  city,  and  69  parochial 
schools  outside  of  the  city  with  8256  boys  and  8704 
girls,  making  a  total  of  99,590  children  ‘in  parochial 
schools.  The  various  institutions  include  8  adminis¬ 
tration  offices,  14  protective  agency  offices,  19  child¬ 
caring  institutions,  32  day  nurseries  and  settlements, 

5  homes  for  the  aged,  20  homes  and  residences  for 
women,  3  correctional  homes  for  women,  29  hos¬ 
pitals,  sanitariums  and  convalescent  homes,  and 
9  immigrant  homes.  A  total  of  175,538  young 
people  are  under  Catholic  care.  To  co-ordinate  all 
these  vast  activities  a  Bureau  of  Catholic  Charities 
was  established  in  the  Terminal  Building,  near  the 
Grand  Central  Station.  It  has  a  staff  of  seven 
priests  directing  the  clerical  and  visiting  work  of  a 
great  number  of  lay  employees.  It  has  also  local 
offices  in  Richmond,  Dutchess,  Orange,  Sullivan  and 
Westchester  Counties,  the  purpose  of  this  centraliza¬ 
tion  being  to  prevent  overlapping  and  duplication 
of  work,  thus  achieving  the  double  end  of  economy 
and  efficiency.  An  appeal  of  the  archbishop  to 
finance  this  great  enterprise  brought  a  ready  response 
of  over  two  million  dollars,  though  the  average  con¬ 
tribution  from  each  person  was  not  much  over  three 
dollars  payable  at  the  convenience  of  the  donor.  A 
very  valuable  aid  in  the  work  of  preaching  was 
obtained  by  two  volumes  of  splendid  dogmatic  and 
moral  instructions,  distributed  to  the  clergy  by  the 
archbishop,  which  insured  uniformity  of  instructions 
throughout  the  archdiocese.  It  is  the  work  of  Fathers 
Charles  J.  Callan  and  John  M.  McHugh  of  the 
Order  of  Preachers.  The  Knights  of  Columbus  are 
continuing  their  activities  in  the  New  York  Arch¬ 
diocese  with  ever  increasing  ardor.  They  have 
established  scholarships  in  the  colleges  of  Man¬ 
hattan  and  Fordham,  and  besides  providing  generally 
for  their  own  sick  or  needy  members,  furnish  recrea¬ 
tion  of  various  kinds  to  thousands  of  orphans,  irre¬ 
spective  of  creed,  race,  or  color,  and  distribute 
baskets  to  the  poor  for  a  bountiful  Christmas  dinner. 
Their  greatest  effort  has  recently  been  launched  in  a 
great  building  campaign  for  the  erection  of  an  im¬ 
mense  central  headquarters,  and  on  17  April,  1922, 
$1,100,000  in  pledges  and  $400,000  in  cash  had  been 
received  for  this  purpose.  This  structure  is  to  be 
used  first  for  the  requirements  of  the  club  for  welfare 
work  of  various  kinds,  for  archdiocesan  meetings,  a 
center  for  free  employment  and  hospitalization  work , 
educational  course,  a  social  secretarial  center  with 
gymnasium  and  swimming  pools,  and  a  great  audi¬ 
torium  for  public  gatherings  and  civic  and  social 
events.  Of  the  140  evening  schools  established  by 
the  Knights  after  demobilization,  there  are  four 
schools  in  New  York  giving  sixty  courses  in  more 
than  forty  subjects.  Apart  from  the  Knights  of 
Columbus,  the  Catholic  writers  and  stage  folk  have 
been  formed  into  guilds,  the  Most  Reverend  Arch¬ 
bishop  frequently  attending  their  meetings. 

Newark,  Diocese  of  (Novarcensis;  cf.  C.  E., 

X — 779d),  in  New  Jersey.  According  to  the  statis¬ 
tics  of  1922  the  diocese  contains  206  churches,  37 
missions,  with  churches,  6  stations,  114  chapels,  1 
Abbey  (Benedictine)  for  men  with  50  priests,  23 
clerics,  3  novices,  17  lay  brothers,  15  scholastics, 

1  monastery  for  women  (Dominican),  1687  Sisters,  ( 


NEWPORT 


542 


NICOPOLIS 


362  secular  priests,  221  regulars,  1  diocesan  seminary 
with  52  seminarians,  4  seminaries  for  religious  orders, 
161  students.  Five  diocesan  students  are  at  Rome 
and  two  at  Louvain.  The  educational  institutions 
in  the  diocese  are:  6  colleges  and  academies  for  boys 
(1195  pupils),  1  college  for  women,  15  academies 
for  girls  (1900  pupils),  137  parochial  schools  (70,588 

pupils),  1  industrial  school  (200  inmates);  total  young 

people  under  Catholic  care  67,412.  The  following 
charitable  in  stitutions  exist  in  the  diocese:  4  homes 
for  the  aged,  1  institute  for  the  blind,  1  home  for 
incurables,  1  nursery  and  babies’  hospital,  3  homes 
for  working  girls,  1  for  orphans,  1  for  boys.  Since 
1911  the  Capuchins  have  been  established  in  the 
diocese.  In  1922  the  Catholic  population  numbered 
598,143.  The  present  incumbent  is  the  Rt.  Rev. 
John  J.  O’Connor,  who  has  administered  the  diocese 
since  1901. 

Newport,  Diocese  of.  See  Cardiff. 

Ngan-Hwei,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of;  (cf.  C. 
E.,  VIII— 634d),  in  China,  erected  by  papal  brief 
of  8  August,  1921,  comprising  the  province  of  Ngan- 
hwei,  heretofore  part  of  the  former  \  icariate  Apostolic 
of  Kiang-nan.  The  vicariate  is  under  the  care  of  the 
Jesuits  of  the  provinces  of  Castile,  Leon,  and  Turin 
and  is  accordingly  divided  into  three  distinct  parts, 
conforming  to  the  three  intendencies  which  Ngan- 
hwei  comprises,  each  having  at  its  head  a  regular 
superior  in  the  capacity  of  vicarius  delegatus.  The 
vicar  apostolic  has  not  yet  been  appointed.  For  the 
year  1920-21,  there  were  in  Ngan-hwei:  464  Christian 
communities,  73,912  Catholics,  53,531  catechumens. 
The  records  show  1794  baptisms  of  adults,  4964 
baptisms  of  children,  1028  confirmations,  39,576  an¬ 
nual  confessions,  39,386  annual  communions,  187 ,399 
confessions  of  devotions,  338,777  communions  of  de¬ 
votion,  578  who  received  extreme  unction,  712  mar¬ 
riages,  115  schools  for  boys  and  3223  Catholic  and 
1386  pagan  pupils,  65  schools  for  girls  with  2047 
Catholic  and  623  pagan  pupils,  217  men  teachers 
and  124  women  teachers.  For  further  statistics  see 
Kiang-su. 

Niagara  University,  founded  in  1856  by  the 
Rev.  John  J.  Lynch,  C.  M.,  afterwards  first  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Toronto,  and  directed  by  the  Priests  of  the 
Congregation  of  the  Mission,  has  had  a  steady  and 
rapid  growth  since  its  inauguration.  The  erection  of 
another  building  became  necessary  in  1906,  and  since 
then  the  Convent  of  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Family  has  been  added.  The  University  comprises 
the  College  and  the  High  School  departments;  the 
total  registration  for  1921  was  3000.  In  1920  the 
University  conferred  the  following  degrees:  B.A.  6; 
Ph.B.ll;  M.A.  3;  LL.D.  6. 

Nicaragua,  Diocese  of.  See  Granada;  Leon; 
Managua. 

Nicastro,  Diocese  of  (Neocastrensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XI — 47b),  in  the  province  of  Catanzaro, 
Southern  Italy,  is  suffragan  of  Reggio,  Rt..  Rev. 
Eugenio  Giambro,  b.  in  the  Diocese  of  Caltamsetta, 
12  October,  1866,  penitentiary  chancellor  and  rector 
of  the  Nicastro  Seminary,  appointed  Bishop  of 
Sarsina  10  February,  1911,  proclaimed  30  November 
following,  transferred  to  Nicastro  22  May,  1916,  to 
succeed  Mgr.  Regine,  promoted  to  the  rank  of  Apos¬ 
tolic  Administrator  of  Nicastro  from  16  March,  1920, 
to  11  September,  1921.  According  to  1920  statistics 
there  are  53  parishes,  9  vicariates,  130  secular  and  5 
regular  priests,  20  seminarians,  71  churches  or  chap¬ 
els,  and  a  Catholic  population  of  110,100  souls. 

Nice,  Diocese  of  (Niciensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI— 48b),  comprises  the  department  of  Alpes- 


Maritimes,  France.  It  is  suffragan  of  Aix.  The 
bishop,  who  also  bears  the  title  of  Count  of  Drap,  is 
Rt.  Rev.  Henri-Louis  Chapon,  b.  at  St.  Brieuc  14 
March,  1845,  appointed  25  June,  1896,  consecrated 
at  Orleans  29  September  following  to  succeed  Mgr. 
Balain,  was  given  the  personal  privilege  of  the 
pallium  in  1916,  and  was  promoted  as  assistant  to 
the  pontifical  throne  6  August,  1921.  There  are  in 
the  diocese  172  parishes,  of  which  33  are  curacies  and 
139  succursal  parishes,  397  secular  priests,  1  upper 
and  1  lower  seminary,  and  3  ecclesiastical  institutions. 
The  total  Catholic  population  is  356,338  of  whom 
142,940  are  in  Nice.  On  11  June,  1913,  the  relics  of 
the  ancient  bishops  Sts.  Veran  and  Lambert  were 
discovered  and  canonically  recognized. 

Nicolet,  Diocese  of  (Nicoletana,  cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 
69a)  in  the  Province  of  Quebec,  Canada,  suffragan 
of  Quebec.  The  present  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph 
Simon  Herman  Brunault,  is  the  second  bishop  of 
this  diocese  and  has  filled  the  see  since  1904.  Since 
1911  the  diocese  has  lost  two  of  its  most  prominent 
clergy  by  the  deaths  of  Mgr.  Douville,  P.A.,  Vicar 
General  of  the  diocese,  and  Mgr.  Suzor,  P.D.,  also 
Vicar  General,  and  in  addition  to  these  one  priest 
of  the  diocese,  Captain  R.  Crochetiere,  serving  as 
chaplain  during  the  war,  was  killed  in  action  2 
April,  1918,  and  buried  in  the  cemetery  of  Bailleui- 
mont,  France. 

The  present  (1921)  statistics  show  69  parishes 
69  churches,  1  mission  with  mission  station  at 
Odonak,  1  monastery  for  women,  6  convents  for 
women,  164  secular  priests,  130  brothers,  560  sisters, 

1  seminary  with  30  seminarians,  3  colleges  for  men 
with  130  professors  and  900  students,  5  academies 
with  35  teachers  and  1100  students  (boys),  1  nor¬ 
mal  school  with  10  teachers  and  98  students,  611 
elementary  schools  with  670  teachers  and  2400 
pupils,  4  hosiptals  and  2  orphan  asylums.  All  the 
public  institutions  permit  the  priests  of  the  diocese 
to  minister  in  them  and  the  Catholic  schools  are 
aided  by  the  Government.  The  total  Catholic 
population  comprises  approximately  89,000  French 
Canadians,  1000  Irish,  and  400  Italians. 

Nicopolis,  Diocese  of  (Nicopolitana,  cf. 
C.  E. ,  XI— 70d) ,  in  Bulgaria,  not  the  ancient  Nictppoli. 
which  has  become  a  titular  Latin  see,  on  the  site  of 
which  stands  the  present  village  of  Nicup,  near 
Tirnow,  where  extensive  ruins  mark  the  place  of  the 
cathedral,  but  a  modern  city  built  about  629  by  the 
Emperor  Heraclius.  Rt.  Rev.  Henri  Doulcet,  who 
had  been  bishop  since  1895,  resigned  13  March, 
1913,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Leonard  von 
Baumbach  (b.  1856),  who  had  been  coadjutor  since 
1910.  Bishop  von  Baumbach  died  at  Rome  in  1915 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  bishop,  Damian 
John  Theelen,  a  Passionist,  b.  at  Beesel,  Holland, 
4  April,  1877,  ordained  23  Sept.,  1899,  appointed 
to  the  see  of  Nicopolis  21  May,  1915,  and  conse-- 
crated  at  Rome  on  15  August  following.  Like  his 
predecessors  he  resides  at  Rustchuk.  The  Catholic 
population  of  the  diocese  consists  of  14,000  Bul¬ 
garians,  with  about  1000  foreigners,  Poles,  Croats 
and  Belgians.  There  are  17  parishes,  20  churches, 
18  mission  stations,  4  secular  and  21  regular  priests, 
3  lay  brothers,  3  monasteries  for  men  and  4  for 
women  with  42  Sisters.  There  is  a  diocesan  seminary 
with  9  seminarians.  At  present  there  are  7  elementary 
schools  with  40  teachers  and  1180  pupils.  Since  1911, 
the  Benedictine  Sisters  from  the  Abbey  of  St.  Ottilien 
in  Bavaria  have  maintained  two  schools  in  the 
diocese,  one  at  Endje  near  Schoumle  and  the  other 
at  Bardau  near  Belvelatine.  A  French  Congregation 
of  Dominican  Sisters  has  recently  opened  a  school 
at  Sistova.  A  day  nursery  cares  for  110  children. 


NICOTERA 


543 


NOCERA 


That  part  of  the  diocese  situated  along  the  River 
Danube  was  the  scene  of  war  activities,  especially 
from  August  to  November,  1916. 

Nicotera  and  Tropea,  Diocese  of  (Nicoterensis 
et  Tropiensis'  cf .  C.  E.,  XI — 72a),  in  the  province 
of  Catanzaro,  Southern  Italy,  suffragan  of  Reggio  di 
Calabria.  Bishop  Giuseppe  Leo,  transferred  to  the 
Diocese  of  Trani  and  Barletto  in  February,  1920, 
was  replaced  by  Rt.  Rev.  Felice  Cribellati,  who  was 
appointed  in  May,  1921,  consecrated  at  Rome  29 
June,  and  enthroned  11  September  following. 
Nicotera  has  12  parishes,  20  churches  or  chapels, 
45  secular  pfiekts,  and  a  Catholic  population  of  15,841. 
Tropea  has  60  parishes,  110  churches  or  chapels, 
160  secular  and  5  regular  priests,  36  seminarians,  and 
a  Catholic  population  of  62,115. 

Nictheroy,  Diocese  of.  See  Petropolis. 

Nigeria,  a  British  Protectorate;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 73d  (the  colony  of  Lagos  is  technically  outside 
the  Protectorate),  situated  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 
Politically  Nigeria  is  one,  the  political  divisions  known 
as  northern  and  southern  Nigeria  exist  no  longer,  their 
amalgamation  having  taken  place  in  May,  1912. 
The  area  of  Nigeria  is  approximately  336,000  square 
miles.  Lagos,  with  a  population  somewhere  about 
80,000  is  the  capital.  Kano  has  lost  much  of  its  for¬ 
mer  splendor.  At  present  it  suffers  considerably  from 
a  great  slump  in  trade.  Its  famous  walls  are  now 
broken  in  many  parts.  It  -would  be  most  correct  to 
assign  to  them  a  height  of  15  or  17  feet.  Its  popula¬ 
tion  varies  with  the  seasons.  During  the  ground-nut 
season  thousands  of  strangers  crowd  into  the  native,  as 
distinct  from  the  European,  quarters.  Normally  the 
population  may  reach  40,000.  The  Emirs  of  Sokoto, 
Katsena  and  Kano  enjoy  a  certain  amount  of  inde¬ 
pendence  as  native  potentates  but  their  jurisdiction 
is  in  all  important  matters  subordinated  to  the  British 
Administration. 

It  is  no  longer  true  to  state  that  “powerful  English 
Protestant  missions  have  unsuccessfully  endeavored 
to  gain  a  foothold.”  The  Protestant  sects  as  a  whole 
counted  in  1919  some  78,937  (baptized)  Christians. 
In  reply  to  a  query  for  their  statistics  just  a  year  ago 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  gave  213  places  of 
worship  (including  what  they  call  chapel-schools), 
and  124  schools  strictly  so  called.  Catholic  Nigeria 
now  counts  three  vicariates:  Benin,  Western  Nigeria 
and  Lower  Nigeria,  with  residences  at  Lagos,  Asaba 
and  Onitsha  respectively.  The  chief  posts  of  Western 
Nigeria  are  Lokoja,  Asaba,  Igbuzo,  Ogwashi,  Issele, 
Olona,  Ubiaja,  Ukoni,  Warri,  Agenebode  and  Aragba. 
The  fourth  ecclesiastical  division  of  Nigeria  is  the 
Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Eastern  Nigeria.  The  Society 
of  African  Missions  has  charge  of  this  prefecture 
together  with  the  Vicariates  of  the  Bight  of  Benin 
and  Western  Nigeria.  This  last-named  vicariate  was 
erected  in  1918.  The  population  consisting  mostly  of 
Nigratan  tribes  is  between  8,000,000  and  10,000,000, 
of  whom  8366  are  Catholics,  the  others  being  Moham¬ 
medans  and  Arabs.  There  are  11  quasi-parishes,  115 
churches,  105  stations,  21  secular  priests,  1  convent 
of  Sisters,  1  seminary  with  6  seminarians,  57  ele¬ 
mentary  schools,  200  teachers,  3247  pupils,  3  homes 
for  the  poor  and  destitute,  3  orphanages,  12  institu¬ 
tions  for  charitable  works.  Two  leper  hospitals 
admit  the  ministry  of  priests.  The  Angelic  Society 
and  that  of  the  Holy  Family  are  established  among  the 
laity.  The  present  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas 
Broderick,  who  succeeded  Rt.  Rev.  Carlo  Lappa  (d. 
1917),  as  prefect  apostolic  of  Western  Nigeria.  He 
was  born  in  Kerry,  Ireland,  1882,  ordained  in  1906, 
and  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Pednelissus  24 
August,  1918.  Bishop  Lappa  was  a  native  of  Milan 
and  a  distinguished  natural  scientist  and  astronomer. 

35 


He  compiled  a  valuable  dictionary  in  the  Ibo  language. 
His  auxiliary,  Rev.  Martin  Friedrich,  a  native  of 
Alsace  (1872)  who  had  been  a  missionary  in  Nigeria 
from  1897  died  in  1917. 

Nigeria,  Eastern,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of, 
has  been  since  1911,  under  the  care  of  Mgr.  Oswald 
Waller,  of  the  African  Missions  of  Lyons.  No  sta¬ 
tistics  are  furnished. 

Nigeria,  Lower  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI— 73d),  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of,  with  residence  at  Onitsha,  is  still 
under  the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Ignatius 
Shanahan,  C.  S.  Sp.,  wrho  became  prefect  apostolic 
in  1905,  vicar  and  titular  bishop  of  Abila  in  1920, 
when  the  territory  was  erected  into  a  vicariate.  The 
population  (10,000,000),  is  extremely  dense,  but  the 
catechists  have  been  so  remarkably  organized  that 
they  are  able  to  reach  thousands  of  catechumens. 
The  British  Government  has  given  every  encourage¬ 
ment  to  the  development  of  these  missions,  even  to 
contributing  to  the  support  of  the  schools.  In  1920 
there  were  19  missionary  priests  (Fathers  of  the 
Holy  Ghost)  employed  here,  and  10  brothers,  with 
9  stations,  280  posts,  355  schools  with  22,800  pupils, 
6  chapels  and  7  orphanages.  The  schools  are  of 
three  kinds,  government  schools,  assisted  schools 
and  free  or  unassisted  schools;  the  first  two  are 
aided  by  the  government,  while  the  third  class  are 
supported  by  the  voluntary  contributions  of  the 
natives.  Until  a  few  years  ago  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  of  Cluny  labored  in  this  territory  but  at 
present  there  are -no  nuns.  An  Irish  lady  is  in  charge 
of  the  convent  at  Calabar,  and  is  shortly  to  be  joined 
by  others.  There,  as  lay  missionaries,  they  will 
continue  the  work  of  the  Sisters. 

Nimes,  Diocese  of  (Nemausensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 
83a),  with  the  sees  of  Alais  (Alisiensis)  and  Uzes 
(Uticensis)  suffragan  of  Avignon,  comprises  the  civil 
department  of  Gard,  France.  Statistics  for  1920 
credit  it  with  a  total  population  of  413,458,  of  whom 
302,650  are  Catholics,  108,348  Protestants,  450 
Jews;  293  parishes,  a  total  of  499  secular  priests,  1 
upper  seminary  and  4  ecclesiastical  schools.  The 
present  (1922)  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Marcellin-Charles 
Marty,  b.  in  the  Diocese  of  Rodez,  22  August,  1862, 
studied  at  the  Catholic  Institute  of  Toulouse,  or¬ 
dained  in  March,  1890,  Vicar  of  Marsillac,  later  at 
the  Cathedral  of  Rodez  in  July,  1901,  rector  of  De- 
cazeville  in  1906,  archpriest  of  the  cathedral  in  1914, 
and  chancellor  in  1916,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Isionda,  14  April,  1919,  and  coadjutor  at  Nimes, 
consecrated  2  July  following  to  succeed  Mgr.  Felix 
Auguste  Beguinot,  b.  11  July,  1836;  d.  3  February, 
1921.  In  1921  Abbot  Bruyere  published  “Guide  de 
la  Cathedrale  de  Nimes,”  a  book  in  which  he  relates 
the  history  of  this  monument,  dating  back  to  the 
eleventh  century. 

Nitra  (Nyitra,  Neutra),  Diocese  of  (Nitrien- 
sis;  cf.  C.  E.,  X — 774d),  in  Slovakia,  suffragan  of 
Esztergom.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Charles 
Kmetko,  b.  at  Drskovcie,  12  December,  1875,  ap¬ 
pointed  at  the  Consistory  of  16  December,  1920,  con¬ 
secrated  at  Nitra  13  February,  1921,  succeeding 
Bishop  Batthyani,  transferred  to  the  titular  see  of 
Cyrra.  There  are  in  the  diocese:  148  parishes,  96 
curacies,  232  secular  and  25  regular  clergy,  372,930 
Catholics,  28,727  non-Catholics,  and  16,102  Jews. 

Nocera  and  Gualdo  Tadino,  Diocese  of  (Nucer- 
inensis  et  Tadisensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 86d),  in  the 
province  of  Perugia,  Umbria,  Central  Italy,  is  im¬ 
mediately  subject  to  the  Holy 'See.  The  present 
bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Niccolo  Cola,  b.  at  Camerino  25 
October,  1869,  consecrated  Bishop  of  Marses  30 
June,  1910,  transferred  to  Nocera  26  August  following, 
proclaimed  27  November,  1911,  succeeding  Mgr. 


NOCERA 


544 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


Rocco  Anselniini,  b.  19  September,  1837;  d.  in 
August,  1910.  There  are  (1920):  59,731  Catholics, 
82  parishes,  110  secular  priests,  20  seminarians,  100 
churches  or  chapels.  By  a  decree  of  the  Consistory 
of  2  January,  1915,  the  Collegiate  Church  of  San 
Benedetto  at  Gualdo  Tadino  was  erected  into  a  cathe¬ 
dral  honoris  tantum  causa  and  the  title  of  Tadino  was 
united  to  that  of  Nocera. 

Nocera  dei  Pagani,  Diocese  of  (Nucerinensis 
Paganorum;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 87a),  in  the  province  of 
Salerno,  Southern  Italy.  It  is  a  suffragan  of  Salerno. 
The  Catholic  population  is  70,850.  Rt.  Rev. 
Giuseppe  Romeo,  b.  in  the  Diocese  of  Reggio  di 
Calabria,  7  April,  1820,  ordained  in  May,  1894,  was 
appointed  bishop  12  July,  1913,  enthroned  15 
February,  1914,  published  25  May  following,  to 
succeed  Bishop  Luigi  del  Forno,  b.  24  August,  1842; 
d.  7  January,  1913.  Diocesan  statistics  (1920)  credit 
it  with  18  parishes,  180  secular  and  50  regular  priests, 
12  seminarians,  28  churches  or  chapels.  At  Nocera 
reposes  the  body  of  St.  Alphonsus  of  Ligouri. 

Nola,  Diocese  of  (Nolana,  cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 89c), 
suffragan  of  Naples,  is  under  the  administration  of 
Mgr.  Agnello  Renzullo,  who  has  filled  the  see  since 
1890.  He  was  born  in  Naples  2  April,  1836,  or¬ 
dained  in  1860  and  appointed  bishop  of  Iserhia  and 
Venafro  27  February,  1880,  which  see  he  -filled  until 
his  transfer  to  Nola.  During  the  World  War  the 
priests  and  laity  of  the  diocese  .assisted  with  the 
bureaux  of  information  and  gave  shelter  to  refu¬ 
gees.  By  present  (1921)  statistics  the  diocese 
comprises  89  parishes,  632  churches,  1  mission,  9 
monasteries  for  men,  2  for  women,  219  secular 
priests  and  50  regulars,  20  Brothers,  250  Sisters, 

1  seminary  with  80  seminarians,  350  university  stu¬ 
dents,  4  colleges  for  men  with  50  professors  and 
400  students,  1  college  for  women  with  6  pro¬ 
fessors  and  70  students,  2  normal  schools  with  25 
teachers  and  150  students,  1  professional  school 
with  8  teachers  and  60  students,  70  elementary 
schools  with  350  teachers  and  5000  students.  The 
various  charitable  institutions,  2  homes,  50  asylums 
and  3  hospitals;  these  institutions  as  well  as  the 
Catholic  schools  receive  financial  aid  from  the 
Government.  A  Federation  of  clergy  and  5  socie¬ 
ties  among  the  laity  are  established  in  the  diocese, 
and  5  periodicals  are  published. 

Nonantola,  Prelature  Nullius  of  (Nonantu- 
lensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  X — 95a),  in  the  province  of  Modena, 
Northern  Italy,  perpetually  united  to  the  Archdiocese 
of  Modena  (q.  v.)  since  23  January,  1821.  The 
prelature  numbers  (1920)  30  parishes  and  35,049  in¬ 
habitants  served  by  69  priests.  In  1917  was  com¬ 
pleted  the  work  of  restoration  on  the  abbey  church 
which  dates  back  to  the  eleventh  century. 

Norbertine  Order.  See  Premonstratensian 
Canons. 

Norcia,  Diocese  of  (Norsinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI— 101c),  in  the  province  of  Perugia,  Central  Italy’ 
directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  The  present  bishop 
is  Rt.  Rev.  Vincenzo  Migliorelli,  b.  3  September 
1873,  appointed  11  July,  1916,  consecrated  at  Rome 
28  October  following,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Ercolano 
Marini,  promoted  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Amalfi,  2 
June,  1915.  According  to  1920  statistics  there  are 
100  parishes,  125  secular  and  10  regular  clergy,  50 
seminarians,  8  Brothers,  140  Sisters,  258  churches  or 
chapels. 

North  Carolina  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI-108a)— The  total 
area  of  the  State  of  North  Carolina  is  52,426  square 
miles,  of  which  3686  are  water.  It  is  divided  into  100 


counties  and  had  in  1920  ten  Congressional  districts 
with  a  population  of  2,559,123,  a  gain  of  16  per  cent 
since  1910.  Of  this  19.2  per  cent  was  urban;  80.8 
per  cent  was  rural.  The  average  number  of  inhabi¬ 
tants  to  the  square  mile  is  52.5.  The  census  of  1920 
reveals  the  composition  of  the  population  as  follows: 
■whites  1,783,779;  negroes  763,407;  Indians  11,824. 
The  native  whites  who  total  1,776,680  have  1,765,203 
of  native  parentage;  5737  of  foreign  parentage;  5740 
of  mixed  parentage.  The  foreign-born  numbered 
only  7099.  The  proportion  of  negroes  to  whites  varies 
greatly  in  the  different  counties.  In  1  virren  County, 
with  a  total  population  of  21,593,  the'^yere  13,821 
negroes.  In  ten  counties,  the  proportion  of.  negroes 
varies  from  50  to  62.5  per  cent.  Indian  reservations 
in  1919  covered  an  area  of  98  square  miles  and  had  a 
population  of  2235.  The  largest  cities  are  Charlotte 
(46,338),  Winston-Salem  (48,395),  Wilmington, 
(33,372),  Asheville  (28,504; ,  Raleigh  (24,418). 

Economic  Conditions. — Agriculture  continues  to 
develop  as  an  industry  in  the  State,  for  in  1920  the 
number  of  farms  was  269,763,  an  increase  of  6.3  per 
cent;  the  land  area  was  31,193,600;  the  value  of  farm 
property,  $1,250,166,995;  of  live  stock  $119,152,672. 
Of  the  crops,  which  totalled  $503,229,313,  the  chief 
were  corn  (40,998,317  bushels,  worth  $79,946,722); 
wheat  (4,744,528  bushels,  $11,861,354);  peanuts 
(5,854,689  bushels,  $13,465,793);  sweet  potatoes  and 
yams  (7,959,786  bushels,  $11,939,707);  cotton 
(858,406  bales,  $149,362,644);  tobacco  (280,163,432 
pounds,  $151,288,264);  sugar-cane  (386,285  tons, 
$28,585,090).  In  the  eastern  part  of  the  State  ths 
fisheries  are  very  valuable,  especially  the  shad  and 
oyster.  Mining  is  not  very  extensive,  but  there  is  a 
great  variety  of  minerals,  the  chief  being  talc,  mica, 
iron,  soapstone,  barytes,  coal,  gold  and  silver.  A 
great  deal  of  lumber  is  shipped  from  the  State.  About 
21,000,000  acres  are  in  forest,  the  total  value  being 
$167,450,000.  The  Census  of  Manufactures  of  1919 
reveals  5999  establishments,  with  an  average  of 
157,000  wage-earners,  producing  goods  worth  $943,- 
808,000;  the  capital  invested  $669,144,000;  the  cost 
of  materials,  $526,906,000.  The  chief  seaport  is 
Wilmington,  from  which,  in  1919,  were  exported 
goods  valued  at  $33,941,084,  chiefly  cotton  for  foreign 
ports.  In  1919  there  were  5207  miles  of  railway 
(1009  miles  of  sidings,  and  301  miles  of  electric  rail¬ 
way)  with  11  companies.  The  State  has  471  banks 
with  a  capital  of  $13,468,000  and  84  national  banks 
with  a  capital  of  $9,965,000.  In  1919  the  State  debt 
amounted  to  $10,090,104;  the  assessed  value  of  per¬ 
sonal  and  real  property  to  $1,029,993,778.  According 
to  the  Council  of  Foreign  Bondholders  the  State  has  a 
defaulted  debt  of  about  twelve  million  dollars,  but 
the  State  refuses  to  recognize  it,  considering  it  the 
fraudulent  issue  of  reconstruction  days. 

Charitable  and  Educational  Status. — The 
charities  of  the  State  are  under  the  State  Board 
of  Charities  and  Public  Welfare.  Each  county,  which 
is  the  unit,  has  a  superintendent  of  public  welfare 
and  a  juvenile  court,  compulsory  in  every  county. 
Among  the  recent  additions  to  the  State  charitable 
institutions  are  the  North  Carolina  Orthopaedic  Hos¬ 
pital  in  Gastonia,  chartered  in  1914,  erected  in  1920, 
and  a  Confederate  Women’s  Home,  established  in 
Fayetteville  in  1913.  The  Department  of  Education 
is  one  of  the  executive  departments  of  the  State  gov¬ 
ernment.  The  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction 
is  elected  by  the  people  for  four  years.  The  official 
reports  of  the  public  schools  for  the  years  1917-18 
show  a  total  school  population  of  whites  446,270; 
colored  187,980;  school-houses  8535;  white  teachers 
11,730;  colored  teachers  3511;  total  average  fund 
$5,677,769.  The  following  are  under  State  control, 
but  receive  aid  from  tuition  fees  and  donations:  the 
State  University,  situated  at  Chapel  Hill,  endowment 


NORTH  DAKOTA 


545 


NORTH  DAKOTA 


$270,348;  income  $382,047;  annual  Slate  appropria¬ 
tion  $235,000;  faculty  142;  students  1406;  North 
Carolina  College  for  Women  (formerly  the  State 
Normal  and  Industrial  College)  at  Greensboro,  build¬ 
ings,  17;  annual  State  appropriation,  $165,000; 
faculty,  92,  students,  784;  North  Carolina  State  Col¬ 
lege  of  Agriculture  and  Engineering  (formerly  the 
North  Carolina  College  of  Agricultural  and  Mechanic 
Arts),  State  appropriation,  $150,000,  Federal  appro¬ 
priation,  $33,500;  faculty  80,  students,  1056.  The 
Caswell  Training  School  for  Mental  Defectives  was 
founded  in  1911  and  opened  in  1914,  and  the  Stone¬ 
wall  Jackson  Manual  Training  and  Industrial  School, 
in  1907.  The  State  laws  governing  private  or  paro¬ 
chial  schools  include  the  following:  The  general 
assembly  may  exempt  from  taxation  property  held 
for  educational,  scientific,  literary,  charitable,  or 
religious  purposes  (111-5).  Bible  reading  is  neither 
permitted  nor  excluded  in  the  public  schools. 

Recent  Legislation  and  History. — In  1915  was 
passed  the  measure  known  as  the  Anti-Jug  Act, 
forbidding  shipment  to  and  receipt  by  any  person  of 
more  than  one  quart  of  spirituous  liquor  and  five  gal¬ 
lons  of  malt  beverage  every  fifteen  days.  In  1917  the 
contract  system  of  leasing  prisoners  was  forbidden  and 
provision  made  for  a  State-use  system  on  which  the 
prisoners  were  put  to  work  to  make  articles  for  the 
State.  In  the  same  year  the  budget  system  was 
adopted  and  the  Federal  Child  Labor  Law,  prohibit¬ 
ing  shipment  in  interstate  commerce  of  products  of 
child  labor  was  declared  unconstitutional  by  a  justice 
of  the  Supreme  Court;  the  prison  law  was  revised  and 
modernized.  The  Federal  Prohibition  Amendment 
was  ratified  on  14  January,  1919.  Miscegenetic  mar¬ 
riages  are  forbidden.  The  laws  of  1917  require  the 
return  of  the  marriage  license  or  certificate  to  the 
register  of  deeds  within  60  days  after  the  solemniza¬ 
tion.  In  1921  a  law  was  passed  requiring  the  appli¬ 
cant  for  a  marriage  license  to  file  a  physician’s  certifi¬ 
cate,  stating  that  he  is  free  from  harmful  disease,  is 
neither  an  idiot,  imbecile,  or  of  unsound  mind.  Di¬ 
vorce  is  granted  if  the  parties  have  lived  separately  for 
five  years  (not  ten,  as  formerly). 

During  the  European  War  the  State  furnished 
73,003  soldiers  or  1.94  per  cent  of  the  United  States 
Army.  The  North  Carolina  members  of  the  national 
guard  joined  the  30th  Division  at  Camp  Sevier,  South 
Carolina  and  those  of  the  national  army,  the  81st 
Division  at  Jackson,  South  Carolina.  The  summary 
of  casualties  among  the  North  Carolina  members  of 
the  American  Expeditionary  Force  gives  the  following 
figures:  deceased,  63  officers,  1547  men;  prisoners, 

7  officers,  53  men;  wounded,  173  officers,  3955  men. 

Religion — Religious  statistics  from  census  of  reli¬ 
gious  bodies,  1916: 


Denomination 

No. 

of 

Orgs. 

Number 

of 

Members 

No. 

Church 

Edifices 

Value  of 
Chuich 
Property 

All  denominations . 

9,735 

1,080,723 

9,135 

$25,523,323 

Baptists  (colored)  . 

1,520 

223,792 

1,491 

2,440,868 

Baptists  (white) . . . 

2,728 

316,221 

2,514 

5,720,470 

Christian . 

184 

18,299 

178 

321,826 

Congregationalists . 

61 

3,125 

58 

133,229 

Disciples . 

173 

20,095 

162 

339,229 

Friends . 

71 

8,631 

65 

160,389 

Lutherans . 

195 

22,895 

181 

812,865 

Methodists(negro) . 

1,255 

112,042 

1,227 

2,820,904 

Methodists  (white) . 
Presbyterians  and 

2,104 

231,814 

2,015 

6,116,074 

Reformed . 

Protestant 

757 

80,504 

690 

4,293,665 

Episcopalians.  .  . 

282 

18,545 

261 

1,467,400 

Roman  Catholic. . . 

89 

4,989 

51 

397,310 

Adventists . 

53 

2,817 

35 

39,835 

North  Carolina,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Caro¬ 
lina  Septentrionalis,  cf.  C.  E.,  XI— 108a),  U.  S.A. 


The  Abbot-Ordinary  of  the  abbey  nullius  of  Bel¬ 
mont,  which  embraces  the  same  territory  as  the 
vicariate,  is  also  vicar  Apostolic  of  North  Carolina. 
The  present  civar  apostolic  (1922)  Rt.  Rev.  Leo 
Haid,  titular  bishop  of  Messena,  was  made  an 
assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  15  July,  1914.  The 
Benedictine  and  Josephite  Fathers  are  established 
in  this  territory,  as  well  as  the  Sisters  of  Mercy 
and  Sisters  of  Christian  Education.  According  to 
1921  statistics  it  comprises  a  Catholic  population 
of  8254,  24  secular  and  21  regular  clergy,  23 
parishes,  40  missions  with  churches,  60  mission  sta¬ 
tions,  5  chapels,  28  Brothers,  107  religious  women, 
1  seminary  with  20  students,  1  college  for  boys  with 
100  students,  2  preparatory  schools  for  boys  with 
69  pupils,  2  colleges  for  girls  with  250  students,  16 
parochial  schools  with  573  white  and  396  colored 
children,  2  orphanages  with  125  orphans,  1513 
young  people  under  Catholic  care  and  3  hospitals. 

North  Dakota  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI-llld)— The  area 
of  the  State  of  North  Dakota  is  70,837  square  miles, 
of  which  712  are  water.  The  population  in  1920  was 
646,872,  an  increase  of  12.1  per  cent,  since  1910.  Of 
this,  13  6  per  cent,  is  rural;  86.4,  urban.  The  density 
is  9.2  persons  per  square  mile.  The  largest  cities  are 
Fargo  21,961;  Grand  Forks  14,010;  Minot  10,476. 

Economic  Status.— North  Dakota  ranks  high  as 
an  agricultural  State.  In  1920  there  were  77,690 
farms,  with  an  area  of  36,214,751  acres,  worth  $1,- 
759,742,995.  The  principal  crops  were  cereals,  valued 
at  $301,782,935;  other  grass  and  seeds,  $215,764,634; 
hay  and  forage,  $15,583,209;  vegetables,  $56,583,209; 
fruit,  $13,725,227.  About  649,940  acres  were  devoted 
to  flaxseed  and  2,972,082  bushels  were  harvested. 
There  were  about  2,956,000  live  stock,  worth  $153,- 
361,490.  Irrigation  is  on  the  increase;  340  farms  were 
irrigated  in  1920  and  the  area  to  be  irrigated  under 
the  Federal  Reclamation  Act  extends  to  57,000  acres. 
The  forests  cover  about  679,800  acres.  There  are 
132,902  fruit  trees  and  524  acres  of  berries.  The  rise 
of  the  dairy  industry  is  remarkable,  for  the  value  of 
milk,  cream,  and  butter-fat  sold  and  of  butter  and 
cheese  made  in  1919  was  $19,576,343,  an  increase  of 
301  per  cent  since  1909. 

A  small  amount  of  manufacturing  is  carried  on  in 
the  state.  The  Federal  report  of  manufactures  (1919) 
gives  894  plants,  with  6148  persons  engaged,  earning 
$6,835,367,  and  producing  goods  valued  at  $57,373,- 
622.  The  capital  invested  is  $24,549,838.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  industries  ranked  by  the  value  of  the  products 
are:  flour  mill  and  gristmill  products,  butter-making, 
cars  and  general  shop  construction  and  repairs  by 
steam  railway  companies,  printing  and  publishing 
newspapers,  baking  and  auto-repairing.  Coal  is 
mined  extensively  in  the  western  part  of  the  State;  in 
1918  there  were  166  mines  in  operation  and  719,733 
tons  were  mined.  North  Dakota  has  5316  miles  of 
railroad.  On  1  July,  1919,  the  bonded  debt  of  the 
State  was  $1,230,963;  the  assessed  value  of  real  and 
personal  property  $496,978,049. 

Education.— The  school  fund  of  North  Dakota  is 
still  large,  ($19,000,000  in  1918);  the  apportionment 
in  1918  was  $958,322.  In  1919  the  number  of  con¬ 
solidated  schools  was  477;  the  number  of  high  school 
pupils  4420.  In  all,  there  were  in  1918  about  5300 
schools  with  168,034  pupils  and  7160  teachers.  The 
average  salary  for  teachers  is  $59  a  month.  In  1919 
the  Board  of  Administration  assumed  the  duties  of 
the  Board  of  Control  of  Education,  and  of  Regents. 
The  legislative  appropriation  for  the  State  university 
in  1918  was  $225,400;  the  number  of  professors,  in¬ 
structors,  and  assistants  (1918-19)  was  86,  and  the 
total  attendance  1294.  There  are  normal  schools  at 
Minot,  Mayville,  Dickinson  and  Valley  City,  and  a 
new  school  of  science  at  Wahpeton. 


NORTHAMPTON 


546 


NORWAY 


The  laws  governing  parochial  and  private  schools 
are  as  follows:  the  legislature  shall  by  a  general  law 
exempt  from  taxation  all  property  exclusively  used  by 
schools.  To  comply  with  the  compulsory  education 
law,  private  schools  must  teach  branches  usually 
taught  in  public  schools.  Private  schools,  to  be  law¬ 
fully  attended  by  children  of  compulsory  age,  must  be 
approved  by  county  superintendents.  Incorporated 
schools  must  annually  make  full  report  of  all  their 
property  and  of  all  their  affairs.  Bible  reading  in  the 
public  schools  is  specifically  permitted  by  law. 

Religion. — According  to  the  United  States  Re¬ 
ligious  Census  of  1916,  the  Episcopalian  Church  has 
2445  members,  60  organizations,  156  Sunday  School 
teachers,  1499  scholars,  45  church  edifices  and  5 
halls,  19  rectories,  and  22  clergy.  The  value  of  the 
churches,  chapels,  grounds,  and  all  other  property 
including  the  rectories,  which  cost  $65,750,  is  $180,- 
475.  There  are  52  parishes  and  missions  and  80 
preaching  stations.  Total  offering,  $41,241.10  for 
year  ending  1,  June,  1918.  The  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  had  in  the  State  221  church  buildings,  valued 
at  $963,900  and  139  parsonages,  valued  at  $265,615 
with  a  membership  of  about  14,000.  The  Presby¬ 
terian  Church  had  6  presbyteries,  67  ministers, 
9295  members,  and  12,572  Sunday  School  members. 
There  were  in  the  State  173  church  organizations, 
177  Sunday  Schools,  138  churches,  and  81  manses. 
The  value  of  the  property  was  reported  as  $725,550; 
of  the  manses,  $163,400.  The  Lutherans,  who  are 
numerous  in  the  Northwest,  had  1050  organizations 
and  758  churches.  The  Baptists  had  a  membership 
of  6268,  a  Sunday  School  enrolment  of  6864,  72 
churches  valued  at  $229,290,  and  43  parsonages  worth 
$79,900.  According  to  this  census  the  number  of 
Catholics  was  95,859,  the  value  of  their  property  was 
$2,538,205.  According  to  the  Catholic  Directory 
the  number  of  Catholics  in  1920  was  105,000.  For 
further  educational  and  religious  statistics  see 
Fargo,  Diocese  of;  Bismarck,  Diocese  of. 

Legislation. — According  to  recent  legislation,  the 
issuer  of  a  marriage  license  must  inquire  of  the 
applicant  on  oath  relative  to  the  legality  of  his  forth¬ 
coming  marriage  and  may  examine  witnesses  on  oath 
if  he  deems  necessary.  A  copy  of  the  divorce  decree, 
if  there  is  any,  must  be  filed  with  him.  He  must  re¬ 
quire  each  to  file  an  affidavit,  setting  forth  whether 
each  has  been  divorced  or  not.  He  must  also  have  a 
physician’s  certificate,  proving  that  he  is  neither  in¬ 
fected  nor  feebleminded,  imbecile,  epileptic,  or  ad¬ 
dicted  to  drink.  A  license  must  not  be  granted  to 
one  under  the  influence  of  liquor,  nor  for  a  misce- 
genetic  marriage,  nor  for  one  that  would  contravene 
the  decision  of  a  divorce  decree.  All  servile  labor  is 
prohibited  on  Sundays,  except  works  of  necessity  and 
charity,  providing,  however,  that  transportation  and 
the  operation  of  bakeries  and  newspaper  plants  shall 
be  considered  works  of  necessity.  All  public  selling  is 
prohibited  before  ten  o’clock  a.m.  except  that  of  fish 
and  meat,  and  food  to  be  eaten  on  the  premises, 
drugs,  confectionery  and  papers.  Free  baseball  games 
are  allowed  more  than  500  feet  away  from  a  church 
edifice. 

The  Socialistic  legislation  recently  passed  in  the 
State  has  attracted  much  attention.  Back  of  this  was 
the  Non-Partisan  League,  organized  in  1915,  origi¬ 
nally  a  movement  of  wheat-growers  to  improve  the 
marketing  of  their  product  and  to  secure  better  bank¬ 
ing  facilities.  The  movement  grew  so  rapidly  that  in 
1916  the  League,  whose  membership  was  limited  to 
farmers,  elected  its  candidate  for  governor  and  in 
1918  came  into  control  of  the  Legislature.  Its  legis¬ 
lative  measures  contained  provisions  for  establishing 
a  state-owned  bank,  terminal  grain  elevators,  flour 
mills,  packing  plants,  public  warehouses;  for  pur¬ 
chasing  homes  or  farms  under  a  building  and  loan  as¬ 


sociation  scheme,  and  for  the  State  to  engage  in  any 
business  directly  or  indirectly  involving  farm  prod¬ 
ucts.  Seventeen  million  dollars’  worth  of  bonds  were 
authorized  to  finance  the  enterprises,  which  were  to 
be  under  the  control  of  the  Industrial  Commission, 
composed  of  the  governor,  attorney  ncneral  and  com¬ 
missioner  of  agriculture  and  labor.  A  Btate  compulsory 
hail  insurance  bill  was  also  passed,  requiring  all  farm¬ 
ers  to  insure  their  crops  from  hail  damage.  Opposi¬ 
tion  to  the  Non-Partisan  League  developed  in  the 
form  of  the  Independent  Voters  Association,  and  the 
movement  is  dwindling. 

During  the  European  War  North  Dakota  contrib¬ 
uted  25,803  men  or  .69  per  cent  of  the  United  States 
Army.  The  North  Dakota  members  of  the  national 
guard  belonged  to  the  34th  Division  at  Camp  Cody, 
New  Mexico;  those  of  the  national  army  to  the  88th 
Division  at  Fort  Dodge,  Iowa.  The  summary  of 
casualties  of  the  North  Dakota  members  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Expeditionary  Force  is  as  follows:  deceased,  13 
officers,  687  men;  prisoners,  35  men;  wounded,  43 
officers,  1782  men. 

Northampton,  Diocese  of  (Nortantoniensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XI— 107c),  in  England,  suffragan  of 
Westminster.  A  consistorial  decree  of  25  July,  1916, 
modified  its  boundaries.  The  present  administrator 
of  the  diocese  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Dudley  Charles  Cary- 
Elwes.  He  was  born  in  1868,  ordained  in  1896, 
elected  21  November,  1921,  succeeding  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Frederick  William  Keating,  who  was  promoted. 
According  to  the  statistics  of  1922  the  diocese  con¬ 
tains:  116  churches  and  chapels,  24  convents,  80 
secular  priests,  4  of  whom  are  retired,  22  regular 
priests  (5  Benedictines,  2  Carmelites,  4  Franciscans, 

6  Jesuits  and  5  Canons  Regular),  27  public  elementary 
schools,  22  of  which  receive  Government  grants, 
with  3567  pupils,  1  school  for  boys  (not  elementary), 
21  for  girls,  with  1575  pupils,  3  institutions  for  poor 
children,  orphanages,  poor  law  and  reform  schools. 
According  to  the  census  of  1911,  the  Catholics 
numbered  16,892. 

Northern  Missions.  See  Germany,  Northern 
Missions  of. 

Northern  Territory,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
the;  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 115b),  in  Australia,  formerly 
known  as  the  Diocese  of  Port  Victoria  and  Palmer¬ 
ston;  is  bounded  on  the  North  by  the  Indian  Ocean, 
on  the  South  by  25°  Latitude,  on  the  Southeast  by 
Queensland,  on  the  West  by  Western  Australia;  the 
Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Issoudun  are  in 
charge  of  it,  with  Very  Rev.  Francis  Xavier  Gsell, 
M.S.H.,  administrator  Apostolic  since  1910.  There 
are  in  the  prefecture  3  priests,  2  Brothers,  and  6  Sis¬ 
ters  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at  Port  Darwin, 
2  priests,  1  Brother  and  3  Sisters  in  charge  of  1  school 
with  50  pupils  on  the  Island  of  Bathurst. 

Norway,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.,  C.  E., 
XVI— 84d)  .—Under  the  guidance  of  Mgr.  Fallize 
the  mission  of  Norway  increased  rapidly.  In  1912, 
he  was  made  assistant  to  the  Pontifical  Throne,  and 
in  1921,  owing  to  ill-health,  he  was  obliged  to  resign 
his  post  as  vicar.  His  great  influence  in  Norway  has 
been  instrumental  in  winning  almost  complete  liberty 
for  the  Catholics  there,  and  his  loss  will  be  kneely 
felt.  By  a  decree  of  1  June,  1913,  Spitsberg  was 
included  in  the  Norwegian  Mission. 

Since  1919,  the  Dominicans  and  the  Father  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  have  worked  together  with  the  secular 
priests;  regulars  and  seculars  combined  number  24. 
The  total  number  of  nuns  engaged  in  the  manage¬ 
ment  of  schools,  hospitals  and  caring  for  the  sick  in 
their  homes,  is  about  200.  On  account  of  a  deplorable 
emigration  to  foreign  countries,  especially  to  America, 


NOTARIES 


NOTRE  DAME 


547 


the  mission  can  only  count  some  few  thousands.  In 
Christiania  there  are  2  churches  and  2  chapels,  in 
Trondhjem  2  churches,  in  the  following  places  only 
one:  Tromsd,  Harstad,  Hammerfest,  Bergen,  Stav¬ 
anger,  Christianssand,  Arendal,  Porsgrunn,  Dram- 
men,  Fredriksstad  and  Fredickshald.  Each  station 
with  the  exception  of  Harstad  has  its  own  hospital 
and  Catholic  school,  its  religious  sodalities  for  married 
men  and  women,  and  for  young  men  and  young  girls. 
A  weekly  Catholic  paper  and  a  monthly  one  for  the 
young  make  the  missionaries  work  in  spreading  the 
Faith  much  easier.  During  the  last  twenty  years  the 
Catholic  Church  has  made  great  progress  on  account 
of  the  sympathy  Catholics  meet  with,  both  from  the 
authorities  and  the  people,  so  that  the  soil  for  its 
future  growth  is  well  prepared.  In  1921,  Mgr. 
Dieppen,  Bishop  of  Bois-le-Duc,  was  appointed 
Apostolic  \  isitor  to  the  Scandinavian  countries  bv 
Benedict  XV.  J 

Notaries,  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 122c). — Diocesan  chan¬ 
cellors  are  notaries  in  the  ecclesiastical  judicial  sys¬ 
tem.  by  virtue  of  their  offices.  Bishops  may  appoint 
additional  notaries,  who  may  be  laymen  of  clerics; 
only  a  clerical  notary  may' be  employed  in  a  cleri¬ 
cal  criminal  suit.  These  additional  notaries  may  be 
removed  at  will  by  the  bishop;  they  cannot,  how¬ 
ever,  be  suspended  or  removed  at  will  by  a  vicar 
capitular  without  the  consent  of  the  chapter. 
Superiors  of  exempt  religious  may  appoint  one  of 
their ^ subjects  as  a  notary  but  only  for  matters 
affecting  their  order.  It  may  be  noted  that  before 
taking  up  suit  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts  the  judge 
must  appoint  a  notary,  as  the  proceedings  would  be 
invalid  unless  the  papers  and  records  were  drawn 
up  or  authenticated  by  a  notary;  even  the  judg¬ 
ment  must  be  signed  by  him.  In  view  of  the  con¬ 
fidential  nature  of  their  work  notaries  are  bound 
u  oa^  discharge  their  office  faithfully,  and 
they  are  bound  to  observe  the  strictest  secrecy  not 
merely  in  all  criminal  suits  but  in  contentious  liti¬ 
gation  where  the  interest  of  a  litigant  might  be 
impaired  by  a  lack  of  secrecy. 

Noto,  Diocese  of  (Netensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI— 126b),  in  the  province  of  Syracuse,  Sicily,  is 
suffragan  of  Syracuse,  had  (1920)  a  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  209,500,  with  20  parishes,  277  secular  and  74 
regular  clergy,  50  seminarians,  32  Brothers,  200 
Sisters,  102  churches  or  chapels.  The  bishop,  Rt.  Rev. 
Giuseppe  Vizzini,  b.  at  Villalba,  in  the  Diocese  of 
Caltanisetta,  10  November,  1874,  professor  of  theo¬ 
logy  at  the  Roman  Seminary,  officer  of  the  Congre¬ 
gation  of  the  Consistory  in  1911 ,  appointed  19  August, 
1913,  consecrated  at  Rome,  14  September  following 
to  succeed  Mgr.  Giovanni  Blandini  (b.  7  March,  1832* 
elected  5  July,  1875). 

Notre  Dame,  Congregations  of.  I.  Congrega¬ 
tion  of  Notre  Dame  de  Montreal,  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI— 
12/ a).  The  Sisters  are  in  charge  of  colleges,  nor¬ 
mal  schools,  boarding  schools,  academies,  parochial 
or  separate  schools,  commercial  schools  and  domes¬ 
tic  science  schools.  Since  the  opening  of  Notre 
Dame  Ladies’  College,  in  1908,  65  students  have  re¬ 
ceived  the  degree  B.A.  Seven  convents  and  13 
branch  establishments  have  been  founded  since 
1908.  At  present  (1921)  there  is  a  total  of  151 
foundations,  1921  professed  Sisters,  and  198  novices. 
Ihe  present  general  superior  is  Mother  St.  Eu- 
phroysyne,  elected  in  1917  to  succeed  Mother  St 
Marie-Josephine,  who  in  1913  succeeded  Mother 
bt.  Anaclet,  elected  superior  in  1903,  died  Novem¬ 
ber,  1912. 

— ^ *  Institute  of  Notre-Dame  de  Namur  (cf. 
C.E.  XI-128b).  During  the  war,  Namur,  the 


mother-house  was  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  in¬ 
stitute.  The  Belgian  province  suffered  much.  Large 
and  prosperous  establishments  with  classes  for 
boarders,  day-boarders,  and  poor  children  were  de- 
stro3red  when  Vise  and  Dinant  were  burned  in 
August,  1914.  The  Sisters  were  expelled  from  seven 
other  com  ents.  The  poor  children’s  classes  were 
maintained  everywhere,  but  few  houses  were  able 
to  accept  boarders,  because  of  the  difficulty  of 
obtaining  provision,  and  because  of  the  number  of 
soldiers  inhabiting  the  various  convents.  A  bomb 
falling  upon  a  corner  of  a  building  at  the  Namur 
convent  killed  a  novice  and  a  postulant.  Sisters 
who  had  been  employed  as  teachers  in  the  board¬ 
ing  school,  having  no  pupils,  used  their  time  in 
increasing  the  literature  of  the  institute.  A  well 
documented  “Life  of  the  Venerable  Mere  St. 
Joseph”  has  been  published,  as  well  as  a  study  of 
the  “Blessed  Mere  Julie  as  a  Teacher,”  both  in 
French,  but  now  being  translated  into  English. 
The  “Life  of  Sister  Mary  of  St.  Philip”  and  the 
Popular  Lives  of  the  Saints,”  published  by  the 
English  Sisters,  have  attracted  attention;  among 
the  latter  that  of  Blessed  Oliver  Plunkett  has  been 
very  favorably  received.  The  English  province  has 
its  own  novitiate  at  Ashdown  Park,  Sussex,  in  con¬ 
formity  with  the  requirements  of  the  new  Code  of 
Canon  Law.  The  provincial  superior  is  Sister 
Marie  des  Saints  Anges.  Rev.  Mother  Marie 
Aloyse,  the  eighth  superior  general  of  the  institute, 
died  23  hebruary,  1912,  and  Rev.  Mother  Marie 
Julienne  was  elected  to  replace  her  28  March,  1912. 
On  27  November,  1921,  the  constitutions  of  the 
congregation  were  definitively  approved. 

In  the  Eastern  Province  of  the  United  States, 
the  provincial  superior  is  Sister  Frances  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  who  succeeded  Sister  Agnes  Mary 
(d.  18  May,  1920),  successor  of  Sister  Mary  Borgia 
(d.  17  April,  1910).  The  community  of  Berkeley 
Street,  Boston,  Mass.,  has  been  transferred  to  the 
Fenway,  where  a  college  with  State  charter,  has 
been  opened  for  young  girls.  The  104  students  are 
day-scholars,  not  boarders,  as  at  Trinity.  In  the 
California  Province  the  provincial  superior  is  Sis¬ 
ter  Berchmans  Joseph,  who  succeeded  prescribed 
the  new  Code.  The  preceding  provincial,  Sister 
Mary  Bernardme,  died  in  January,  1913. 

At  present  there  are  41  houses  in  Belgium,  20  in 
England,  and  Scotland,  47  in  America,  and  7  in 
Africa,  making  a  total  of  115  houses.  There  are 
3579  professed  Sisters,  of  whom  1105  are  in  Bel¬ 
gium,  805  in  England,  and  Scotland,  1618  in  Amer¬ 
ica,  and  51  in  Africa.  The  rule  of  the  institute 
has  been  sent  to  Rome  for  any  modifications  which 
may  be  necessary  to  conform  with  the  new  Code 
of  Canon  Law. 

III.  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  (cf.  C.  E., 
XI-130c) —During  the  past  ten  years  there  has 
been  a  steady  growth  in  the  number  of  schools 
under  the  care  of  the  Sisters.  The  work  of  the 
Baltimore  province  has  been  extended  to  Porto 
Rico;  the  first  school  under  the  Sisters  was  opened 
in  Puerto  de  Tierra,  near  San  Juan,  in  1915,  and 
the  second  was  opened  in  Caguas  in  1916.  More 
than  thirty  Sisters  are  now  in  charge  of  about  1300 
children  at  the  two  schools.  In  1912  a  new  prov¬ 
ince  was  formed  from  the  western  part  of  the 
Milwaukee  province.  At  that  time  it  comprised 
Minnesota  and  northern  Iowa  but  its  growth  has 
been  quite  rapid  and  at  present  it  has  houses  in 
North  and  South  Dakota  and  Washington.  The 
mother-house  is  on  Good  Counsel  Hill,  Mankato, 
Minn.;  in  connection  with  the  mother-house  there 
is  a  flourishing  academy  for  boarders  and  day- 
pupils.  Mother  Marianne,  the  commissary  general 


NOTRE  DAME 


NOTTINGHAM 


548 


of  the  order,  died  in  1917  and  was  succeeded  by 
Mother  Stanislaus  Kostka,  the  present  commissary 
general.  The  following  are  the  principal  changes 
brought  about  by  the  revised  code  of  canon  law: 
The  seven  year  period  of  the  temporary  vows  has 
been  shortened  to  three  years,  and  the  indefinite 
period  for  the  office  of  the  local  Superiors  has  been 
changed  to  conform  with  the  new  code’s  require-  * 
ment  of  three  or  at  most  six  years.  Owing  to 
existing  conditions  no  report  can  be  given  of  the 
houses  in  Europe.  The  number  of  foundations  in 
the  United  States  and  Canada  is  362,  thirteen  being 
in  Canada.  The  number  of  members  is  4450.  Be¬ 
sides  parochial  schools,  many  of  which  have  high 
schools  and  commercial  classes,  the  Sisters  have 
two  colleges,  seven  academies,  twelve  orphanages, 
one  day-nursery,  one  deaf-mute  institute,  one  In¬ 
dian  school.  The  work  of  the  Sisters  is  confined 
exclusively  to  school  children,  including  the  care 
of  orphans  under  school  age. 

IV.  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  (Of  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
cf.  C.E.,  XI-131d)  —The  second  mother  general, 
Mother  Maiy  Chrysostom,  who  in  1872  had  suc¬ 
ceeded  Mother  Mary  Anna,  died  in  April,  1895. 
She  had  safely  guided  the  institute  through  the 
stormy  days  of  the  Kulturkampf.  Sister  Mary 
Cecilie  was  almost  unanimously  elected  the  third 
mother  general.  In  1877  she  had  gone  to  America 
as  the  youngest  of  a  band  of  22  Sisters,  served  as 
mistress  of  boarders  in  Cleveland  and  Covington, 
and.  after  her  return  to  Europe  in  1889  acted  as 
first  assistant  to  the  mother  general.  During  her 
able  administration  the  rule  was  definitely  ap¬ 
proved  by  Leo  XIII  in  1900.  In  1921  revisions 
were  made  in  the  constitution,  conformable  to  the 
new  Code  of  Canon  Law.  The  community  prayer 
book  also  underwent  revision.  About  thirty  new 
foundations  owe  their  existence  to  her,  and  since 
1920  the  order  conducts  a  “Scuola  Internazionale,” 
a  home  for  young  girls  in  Turin,  Italy,  and  a 
foundation  in  Rome  is  being  contemplated.  Owing 
to  the  World  War  the  projected  erection  of  a  mis¬ 
sion  in  Madras,  India,  has  been  deferred  indefi¬ 
nitely.  In  February,  1915,  occurred  the  formal 
opening  of  Notre  Dame  Academy,  provincial 
mother-house  and  novitiate  at  Ansel  Road  and 
Rockefeller  Park,  Cleveland,  Ohio.  In  March, 
1918,  Sister  Mary  Evarista  succeeded  Sister  Mary 
Louise  as  provincial  of  the  American  Province.  In 
July,  1921,  Mother  General  Mary  Cecilie  made  her 
fourth  visit  to  the  American  Province.  In  1910 
occurred  the  death  of  Sister  M.  Modesta,  sister  of 
the  deceased  Bishop  Toebbe  of  Covington.  She 
had  been  Superior  of  the  American  Province  and 
later,  until  her  death,  served  as  first  assistant  to 
the  mother  general  in  the  mother-house  in  Ger¬ 
many.  During  the  following  years  the  order  lost 
Sisters  M.  Bernarda,  M.  Hildegardis,  M.  Renilde, 
M.  Josepha,  and  M.  Alfons,  all  pioneer  members. 

The  government  of  the  congregation  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  superior  general,  elected  for  life  by  an 
electoral  body.  The  superior  general  resides  in  the 
mother-house,  and  has  a  general  council,  which 
consists  of  at  least  eight  members.  Besides  the 
mother  general,  it  comprises  her  three  assistants, 
the  novice  mistress,  and  the  other  members  elected 
by  the  council.  The  provincial  superiors  are  elected 
by  the  superior  general  after  approval  and  vote  of 
the  general  council.  They,  too,  have  a  special 
council,  approved  by  the  superior  general.  The 
superiors  of  the  affiliated  houses  are  appointed  by 
the  superior  general  at  the  suggestion  of  the  pro¬ 
vincials  and  with  the  consent  of  the  general  coun¬ 
cil.  There  is  no  distinction  between  choir  and  lay 
Sisters.  The  work  of  the  order  is  allotted  by 


superiors  who,  know  the  capacity  and  capabilities 
of  each.  Candidates  must  pass  a  six  months  time 
of  probation.  This  period  is  followed  by  two  years 
novitiate,  after  the  expiration  of  which  time,  the 
temporary  vows  for  three  years  are  pronounced. 
At  the  end  of  the  third  year,  perpetual  profession 
is  made.  The  education  given  by  the  Sisters  of 
Notre  Dame  comprises  the  development  of  the 
pupils’  physical,  mental,  and  moral  powers,  and  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  their  Holy  Faith.  In 
America  and  abroad  the  congregation  makes  it  a 
point  to  obtain  State  approval.  The  plan  of 
studies  strictly  conforms  to  modern  requirements. 

The  foundations  at  present  number  140.  In  Ger¬ 
many  there  are  66  affiliations ;  in  Holland,  10 ; 
Italy,  1 ;  and  in  the  United  States,  63.  The  present 
number  of  members  of  the  order  is  1569  professed 
Sisters,  and  247  novices  and  postulants.  Of  these 
Europe  has  964  professed,  and  187  novices  and  pos¬ 
tulants;  America,  605  professed  and  60  novices  and 
postulants.  In  Germany  the  Sisters  are  in  charge 
of  14  lyceums,  10  high  schools,  2  normal  schools, 
and  1  college;  10  boarding  schools;  7  orphanages; 

9  homes  for  young  women;  40  kindergartens,  and 
7  domestic  science  schools.  In  the  United  States, 
the  Sisters  are  in  charge  of  54  parochial  schools,  3 
academies,  4  orphanages,  10  high  schools,  1  home 
for  young  women.  The  total  number  of  children 
under  their  charge  in  America  in  1'920  was  22,634. 

Notre  Dame  du  Lac,  University  of  (cf.  C.  E.» 
XI — 132a)  had  a  registration  for  1921  of  1490  students 
distributed  as  follows:  College  of  Arts  and  Letters 
352;  College  of  Science  115;  College  of  Engineering 
344;  College  of  Commerce  468;  College  of  Law  153; 
special  students  19;  sub-freshman  year  39.  The 
university  now  possesses  a  library  consisting  of 
112,247  bound  volumes  and  39,150  pamphlets  and 
periodicals,  and  a  museum  containing  art,  geological, 
zoological,  botanical  and  numismatic  collections;  the 
botanical  collection  includes  the  herbaria  of  the  late 
Edward  Lee  Greene.  The  Rev.  James  A.  Burns, 
C.S.C.,  Ph.D.,  is  now  president  of  the  university;  in 
addition  to  the  “Ave  Maria”  other  publications  of  the 
University  are:  “The  Scholastic”  (weekly),  “The  Mid¬ 
land  Naturalist”  (monthly);  and  two  student  publi¬ 
cations,  “The  Juggler”  (monthly);  and  “The  Dome” 
(annual). 

Nottingham,  Diocese  of  (Nottinghamensis;  cf. 
C.E.,  XI — 133a),  one  of  the  twelve  original  English 
dioceses,  is  under  the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev. 
Thomas  Dunn,  who  was  born  in  London,  28  July, 
1870,  and  ordained  in  1893,  after  which  he  acted 
as  chaplain  of  the  Visitation  at  Harrow,  and  was 
later  made  chancellor  of  Westminster  in  1902.  In 
1906  he  was  made  rector  of  Staines  and  under  three 
successive  Popes  he  was  appointed  a  Private  Cham¬ 
berlain,  in  1895,  1903  and  1914.  He  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Nottingham  3  January,  1916,  and  con¬ 
secrated  25  February,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop 
Brindle  who  had  filled  this  see  from  1901  until  his 
transfer  to  the  see  of  Tecape  in  1915.  In  1918  the 
Xavierian  Brothers  established  their  noviciate  and 
house  of  preliminary  studies  at  Deeping,  St.  James, 
Lincolnshire,  thus  establishing  themselves  for  the 
first  time  in  the  diocese  of  Nottingham.  The  Fran¬ 
ciscans  (Capuchin,  O.S.F.C.)  also  became  estab¬ 
lished  in  the  diocese  for  the  first  time  the  follow¬ 
ing  year,  when  they  transferred  their  Seraphic 
College  from  Cowley,  Oxford,  to  Panton  Hall, 
Wragby  Lincolnshire,  where  it  is  now  known  as 
St.  Lawrence’s  Franciscan  College. 

The  religious  orders  established  here  include 
men,  Benedictines,  Cistercians,  Dominicans,  Capu¬ 
chins,  Institute  of  Charity,  Jesuits,  Premonstaten- 


NOVARA 


549 


NOVICE 


sians  and  Xaverian  Brothers;  women,  Dominicans, 
Faithful  Companions  of  Jesus,  Franciscan  Sisters 
Minoresses,  hranciscan  Tertiaries,  Little  Company 
of  Mary,  Poor  Clares  Colletines,  Poor  Sisters  of 
Nazareth,  Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Paul.  Sisters  of 
Mercy,  Sisters  of  the  Presentation,  Sisters  of 
Providence  of  the  Institute  of  Charity,  Sisters  of 
Providence  of  Ruille  sur  Loir,  Sisters  of  St.  Dor¬ 
othy.  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Peace  and  Sisters  of 
the  Nativity  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  By  the 
1921  census  the  total  Catholic  population  numbers 
44,827;  the  diocese  comprises  91  secular  and  62 
regular  clergy,  24  convents,  118  churches  and 
chapels,  49  public  elementary  schools  receiving  gov¬ 
ernment  grants  with  a  total  of  8562  pupils,  3  sec¬ 
ondary  schools  for  boys  and  10  for  girls  with  a  total 
of  1118  pupils,  1  hospital,  3  residential  institutions 
for  poor  children  and  1  home. 

Novara,  Diocese  op  (Novariensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI  134b);  the  capital  of  the  Province  of  Novara' 
Piedmont,  Italy,  is  suffragan  of  Vercelli.  The  present 
incumbent  is  Rt.  Rev.  Guiseppe  Gamba,  born  at  San 
Damian,  1857,  appointed  Bishop  of  Biella  1900  and 
transferred  to  the  see  of  Novara  13  August,  1906.  He 
was  made  an  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  10 
July,  1917.  During  the  World  War  the  religious  insti¬ 
tutions  were  transformed  into  military  hospitals  and 
places  of  refuge  for  fugitives.  In  1921  the  Catholics 
in  this  diocese  numbered  500,000;  there  are  377 
parishes,  4  monasteries  for  women,  14  convents  for 
men  and  10  for  women,  3  seminaries,  200  seminarians, 

9  secondary  schools  for  boys  and  9  for  girls.  Among 
the  charitable  institutions  are  4  hospitals  and  an 
asylum  attached  to  almost  every  parish.  All  the 
asylums  and  hospitals  permit  the  priests  to  minister 
in  them;  all  the  Catholic  schools  and  institutions  are 
maintained  privately.  A  number  of  mutual  benefit 
societies  are  organized,  2  among  the  clergy  and  6 
among  the  laity. 

Novice  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 144b). — Any  Catholic 
endowed  with  the  requisite  moral  and  physical  quali¬ 
fications  and  inspired  by  right  motives  may,  if  free 
from  canonical  impediments,  become  a  religious. 
Before  his  profession  by  making  his  vows  in  an  insti¬ 
tute  or  other,  he  must  have  passed  a  certain  time  in 
probation  as  novice,  which,  moreover,  is  usually 
preceded  by  a  postulancy.  The  canonical  obstacles 
to  one’s  becoming  a  novice  may  in  some  cases  render 
a  novitiate  null  and  void  while  in  other  cases  they 
might  affect  not  its  validity  but  its  lawfulness. 

AdxMission. — An  aspirant  is  admitted  to  the  novi¬ 
tiate  ordinarily  when  he  receives  the  habit,  though 
in  certain  orders  a  different  regulation  may  obtain. 
To  be  validly  admitted  he  must  have  completed  his 
fifteenth  year  (a  higher  minimum  age  is  required  b}' 
the  constitutions  of  some  institutes).  The  novitiate 
must  last  a  year  without  interruption  and  be  passed 
m  the  house  of  novices;  if  a  longer  time  is  prescribed 
m  any  institute,  this  extension  is  not  required  for 
the  validity  of  profession  unless  that  is  expresslv 
laid  down  in  the  constitutions.  If  a  novice  having 
been  dismissed  leaves  the  house  or  if  he  goes  out  of  his 
own  accord  with  the  intention  of  not  returning,  or  if 
for  any  cause  he  has  been  outside  of  the  house  of 
novices  for  more  than  thirty  days,  not  necessarily 
successive,  he  must  begin  his  whole  novitiate  over 
again;  if  he  has  been  absent  for  more  than  fifteen 
but  less  than  thirty  days,  with  permission  or  has  been 
kept  away  forcibly  while  remaining  under  the  super¬ 
ior’s  obedience,  the  time  of  absence  must  be  made  up 
before  he  can  be  professed;  if,  finally,  the  absence 
was  for  less  than  fifteen  days,  the  superior  is  free  to 
disregard  it.  If  the  members  of  any  institute  are 
divided  into  two  classes,  for  instance  lay-brothers  and 


priests,  lay  and  choir  sisters,  a  novitiate  made  for  one 
class  would  not  count  for  the  other. 

The  following  classes  of  persons  cannot  be  admitted 
validly  to  the  novitiate:  (1)  those  who  having  been 
Catholics  later  joined  a  non-Catholic  sect;  (2)  those 
under  the  minimum  age  for  admission; 
(3)  those  who  enter  under  the  influence  of  force 
grave  fear,  or  fraud,  or  those  whom  a  superior  has 
admitted  owing  to  the  same  influences  (this  regulation 
so  far  as  admission  to  the  novitiate  is  concerned  is 
an  innovation);  (4)  a  married  person  while  the  bond 
of  marriage  lasts  this  modifies  a  former  practice,  for 
hitherto  if  a  marriage  was  unconsummated,  one  of 
the  parties  might  enter  an  order  with  solemn  vows,  and 
the  marriage  would  remain  undissolved  until  he  or 
she  had  been  solemnly  professed;  so  a  superioress 
cannot  now  validly  admit  a  wife  whose  husband 
consents  to  her  joining  an  order;  (5)  those  who  are  or 
have  been  professed  in  religion;  (6)  those  who  are 
threatened  with  punishment  for  the  commission  of 
some  crime,  on  account  of  which  they  have  been  or 
are  liable  to  be  accused;  (7)  a  residential  or  titular 
bishop,  from  the  time  of  his  nomination  by  the  Holy 
pee,  (8)  a  cleric  while  bound  by  a  pontifical  oath  to 
*a  *or  so  ,s  *n  a  certain  diocese  or  in  the  missions. 

The  following  persons  are  not  to  be  admitted  to  the 
novitiate  though  their  admission  would  be  valid  even 
if  forbidden:  (I)  Clerics  in  sacred  orders  who  would 
enter  without  the  knowledge  of  the  ordinary  or  against 
his  orders  when  he  refuses  his  permission  on  the 
grounds  that  their  departure  would  result  in  serious 
spiritual  loss  to  his  flock  which  could  not  be  avoided 
otherwise;  (2)  those  who  are  unable  to  pay  their 
debts,  formerly  this  was  not  usually  considered  an 
impediment  in  the  case  of  those  who  seemed  to  be 
permanently  insolvent;  (3)  those  who  have  to  render 
an  accounting  of  their  office  or  who  are  mixed  up  in 
secular  business  in  such  a  way  that  lawsuits  or  other 
^\0Ii?-fn^ences  ^e  or(Ier  are  likely  to  result; 
(4)  children  who  have  to  relieve  the  grave  necessities 
of  their  fathers,  or  mothers,  or  grandparents,  and 
parents  so  long  as  their  services  are  needed  for  the 
support  or  education  of  their  children;  (5)  those  who 
are  intended  to  receive  Holy  Orders  in  religion  and 
who  are  irregular  or  debarred  from  the  reception  of 
orders  by  any  canonical  impediment;  (6)  Orientals, 
that  is  members  of  the  Eastern  Churches,  unless  they 
have  obtained  permission  of  the  Sacred  Congregation 
for  the  Eastern  Church. 

Testimonial  Letters.— The  Code  of  Canon  Law 
effected  considerable  changes  in  the  matter  of  testi¬ 
monials  required  from  aspirants  to  the  novitiate. 
Before  being  admitted  applicants  must  produce  cer¬ 
tificates  of  baptism  and  confirmation.  Male  aspirants 
must  in  addition  show  testimonial  letters  from  their 
ordinary  of  their  place  of  origin  and  of  any  place  in 
which  they  have  spent  more  than  one  morally  continu¬ 
ous  year  after  completing  their  fourteenth  year,  any 
privilege  contrary  to  this  being  now  revoked.  Those 
who  have  been  seminarians  or  postulants  or  novices 
in  another  religious  institute,  require  in  addition 
testimonial  letters  from  the  rector  of  the  seminary 
after  consulting  the  local  ordinary,  or  from  one  of 
higher  religious  superiors.  Clerics,  however,  need 
besides  the  ordination  papers  only  testimonial  letters 
from  the  ordinaries  in  whose  dioceses  they  have  spent 
more  than  one  morally  continuous  year,  unless  they 
had  been  postulants  or  novices  in  another  order,  in 
which  case  they  must  secure  a  letter  from  a  higher 
superior  of  that  body.  .When  a  professed  religious 
passes,  with  permission  of  the  Holy  See,  from  one 
order  to  another,  it  is  sufficient  for  him  or  her  to 
present  a  letter  from  a  higher  superior  of  the  institute 
he  is  leaving.  Superiors  in  all  orders  or  institutes 
may  require  further  proofs  of  the  fitness  of  aspirants, 
and  women,  in  particular,  must  not  be  admitted  as 


NOVICE 


550 


NOVICE 


novices  unless  their  ability  and  moral  character  have 
been  carefully  investigated.  Those  from  whom 
testimonial  letters  are  thus  required  by  law  must 
send  them  gratuitously  under  seal  to  the  superior, 
not  to  the  aspirant,  within  three  months  after  they 
have  been  requested;  and  letters  regarding  former 
seminarians,  postulants  or  novices  must  be  c<pn- 
firmed  by  oath  by  the  rector  or  superior  sending 
them.  If  one  who  has  been  asked  for  letters  believes 
he  has  a  grave  reason  for  not  answering,  he  must  make 
the  reason  known  to  the  Holy  See  within  the  appointed 
time;  so,  too,  if  the  superior  receives  no  reply  concern¬ 
ing  the  aspirant,  he  must  notify  the  Holy  See;  if  the 
party  replies  that  the  aspirant  is  not  sufficiently 
well  known  to  him,  the  religious  superior  must  in¬ 
quire  of  another  reliable  person.  These  letters, 
which  are  strictly  confidential  both  as  regards  the 
informant  and  the  information  given,  should  refer 
to  the  aspirant’s  birth,  morals,  disposition,  life,  rep¬ 
utation,  condition  and  knowledge;  they  should  state 
if  he  has  incurred  any  censure,  irregularity,  or  other 
canonical  impediment,  and  whether  or  not  his  family 
requires  his  assistance;  finally,  in  case  of  seminarians 
or  former  postulants  or  novices,  whether  they  left 
of  their  own  accord  or  why  they  were  sent  away. 

House  of  Novices. — The  permission  of  the  Holy 
See  is  required  for  the  erection  of  a  house  of  novices  of 
a  pontifically  approved  institute;  in  the  case  of  other 
institutes  the  constitutions  may  be  followed.  If 
the  institute  is  divided  into  provinces  there  may  be 
only  one  house  of  novices  in  any  province  unless  for 
a  grave  cause  and  in  virtue  of  an  apostolic  indult. 
The  novitiate  should  be  separated  from  the  part  of 
the  house  inhabited  by  the  professed  so  that  there 
should  be  no  communication  between  them  and  the 
novices.  Furthermore  lay-brother  novices  must 
have  a  place  apart  for  themselves.  Novices  must 
wear  the  habit  prescribed  by  the  constitutions  of  the 
institute,  unless  special  local  conditions  render 
another  practice  advisable. 

Training. — As  the  object  of  the  novitiate  is  to 
test  the  vocation  of  aspirants  and  train  them  in  the 
school  of  sanctity,  their  formation  is  entrusted  to  a 
master  of  novices  (or  mistress  of  novices,  in  case  of 
nuns),  a  religious  noted  for  his  prudence,  charity, 
piety  and  fidelity  to  religious  observance,  one  who 
is  at  least  thirty-five  years  of  age  and  who  has  been 
professed  at  least  ten  years,  counting  from  his  first 
profession;  if  the  order  is  clercal  he  must  be  a  priest. 
For  any  just  reason,  for  instance,  the  large  number  of 
novices,  an  assistant  to  the  master  may  be  appointed, 
who  must  be  at  least  thirty  years  old  and  have  been 
professed  five  years.  Both  the  master  and  his  as¬ 
sistant  must  be  freed  from  all  other  duties  so  that 
they  can  give  their  entire  time  to  the  care  and  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  novices.  They  are  to  be  selected  in 
accordance  with  the  constitutions:  if  they  are  to  hold 
office  for  a  definite  time  they  may  not  be  removed 
before  its  expiration  except  on  serious  just  grounds; 
they  may  be  reappointed  on  the  lapse  of  their  term, 
if  the  constitutions  do  not  forbid  it.  Novices  are 
bound  to  obey  the  master  of  novices  and  the  religious 
superiors.  While  the  master  and  the  novices  are  sub¬ 
ject  to  the  general  discipline  of  the  house,  no  one  may 
interfere  with  the  master  in  training  and  governing 
the  novices,  under  any  pretext,  except  the  superior 
authorized  by  the  constitutions.  The  master  of 
novices  must  make,  in  accordance  with  the  con- 
situtions,  a  report  about  each  of  the  novices  for  the 
chapter  or  higher  superior  within  the  year  of  the 
novitiate.  The  year’s  novitiate  is  devoted  to  the 
formation  of  the  novice  by  study  of  the  rule  and  con¬ 
stitutions,  by  pious  meditations  and  assiduous  prayer, 
by  instructions  on  the  vows  and  Christian  virtues, 
by  exercises  adapted  for  the  eradication  of  the  roots 
of  evil',  the  controlling  of  the  motions  of  the  soul, 


and  the  acquisition  of  virtue.  Lay  novices  are  to  be 
carefully  instructed  also  in  Christian  doctrine,  for 
which  purpose  a  special  conference  is  to  be  given  to 
them  at  least  once  a  week.  During  the  year  of  the 
novitiate  novices  must  not  be  employed  preaching 
or  hearing  confessions  or  in  the  external  charges  of  the 
institute  (that  is  works  or  exercises  not  immediately 
intended  for  spiritual  formation  and  sanctification), 
neither  must  they  devote  themselves  to  the  study  of 
the  sciences,  arts,  or  literature;  in  1910,  the  Congre¬ 
gation  of  Religious  prescribed  a  limited  course  of 
studies  for  novices;  this  is  not  obligatory  under  the 
Code  of  Canon  Law,  but  commentators  on  the  Code 
do  not  say  it  is  now  forbidden.  Lay  novices  may  per¬ 
form  the  duties  of  the  lay-brothers  within  the  house, 
but  they  must  hold  only  subordinate  posts  and  must 
not  be  charged  with  work  that  would  interfere  with 
their  duties  as  novices.  Novices  enjoy  all  the 
privileges  and  spiritual  favors  granted  to  their 
institute,  and  if  they  should  die  as  novices  they  are 
entitled  to  all  the  suffrages  prescribed  for  professed 
members. 

Any  renunciation  of  or  encumbrancing  of  his  prop¬ 
erty  by  a  novice  is  null  and  void,  but  before  his  simple 
profession  he  must  make  arrangements  for  its  ad¬ 
ministration  and  for  the  disposition  of  its  use  and 
profits  during  the  time  he  is  simply  professed.  The 
novice  is  free  to  designate  the  beneficiary  unless  the 
constitutions  provide  otherwise.  The  object  of  this 
prohibition  against  alienation  or  encumbrancing  is  to 
safeguard  the  liberty  of  the  novice  or  religious  in 
case  it  should  be  necessary  or  advisable  for  him  for 
any  reason  to  return  to  secular  life.  If  it  should 
happen  that  after  making  his  simple  vows  a  religious 
comes  into  property  the  right  to  the  use  and  profits 
of  which  he  did  not  dispose  of  as  a  novice,  he  must 
dispose  of  them  notwithstanding  his  vows  just  as 
would  a  novice.  Such  disposals  made  after  pro¬ 
fession  may  be  changed,  not  indeed  at  the  mere  will 
of  the  religious,  unless  the  constitutions  allow  him, 
but  with  the  permission  of  his  general,  or  in  the  case 
of  nuns  ( moniales ),  as  yet  only  simply  professed,  with 
leave  of  the  local  ordinary  and  of  the  regular  superior 
if  the  institute  is  subject  to  regulars,  provided,  how¬ 
ever,  that  the  religious  does  not  change  the  docu¬ 
ment  in  such  a  way  that  a  notable  part  of  the  prop¬ 
erty  is  given  to  the  institute.  Vermeersch  considers  20 
to  25  per  cent  a  notable  part.  If  the  religious  leaves 
the  institute,  this  fact  annuls  any  disposal  of  property 
made  as  above. 

Before  making  his  temporary  profession  in  a  re¬ 
ligious  congregation — but  not  in  an  order — a  novice 
must  dispose  of  his  present  and  possible  future 
property  by  will,  devising  or  bequeathing  it  in  what¬ 
ever  way  he  pleases.  As  the  will  does  not  take  effect 
before  the  testator  dies,  it  is  not  open  to  the  same 
objection  as  alienation  or  encumbrancing.  After 
simple  profession  this  will  cannot  be  changed  except 
by  leave  of  the  Holy  See  or  in  case  of  urgency  of  a 
higher  or  even  of  a  local  superior.  If  for  any  reason 
the  will  was  not  made  before  simple  profession,  the 
religious,  if  professed  before  the  promulgation  of  the 
Code,  can  do  what  his  rule  permitted;  others,  it 
would  seem,  would  have  to  obtain  permission  from 
the  Holy  See,  which  in  case  of  urgency  might  be  pre¬ 
sumed. 

A  novice  or  postulant  must  not  be  charged  anything 
for  food  or  clothing  unless  this  is  provided  by  the 
constitutions  or  by  express  contract;  if  he  leave 
he  may  freely  take  away  anything  he  brought  in 
with  him  if  it  has  not  been  used  up. 

A  novice  is  free  to  leave  the  novitiate  at  any  time; 
on  the  other  hand,  he  may  be  sent  away  for  a  just 
cause  by  the  constitutional  authorities,  without  the 
superior  being  obliged  to  give  him  any  reason  for  his 
dismissal.  If  he  completes  his  term  of  probation 


NUEVA  CACERES 


551 


NUEVA  SEGOVIA 


however,  he  must  he  admitted  to  profession  or  sent 
away;  if  the  superiors  should  be  in  doubt  as  to  his 
fitness,  the  novitiate  may  be  prolonged,  but  not 
beyond  six  months  (the  Normae  of  1901  had  said 
three  months).  In  order  the  more  to  safeguard  the 
liberty  of  those  who  are  aspiring  to  religious  life, 
the  superioress  of  nuns  whether  exempt  or  not  must 
inform  the  local  ordinary  at  least  two  months  before 
anyone  is  admitted  either  to  the  novitiate  or  to  pro¬ 
fession  whether  temporal  or  perpetual.  The  local 
ordinary  or  a  priest  deputed  by  him  is  to  examine 
the  aspirant  at  least  thirty  days  before  her  reception 
or  profession,  to  see  if  she  is  acting  of  her  own  free 
will,  from  pious  motives,  and  if  she  understands 
what  she  is  about  to  do;  if  the  report  is  favorable 
the  aspirant  may  be  received  or  professed  as  the 
case  may  be.  Before  making  the  vows  of  profession, 
however,  every  novice  must  make  a  spiritual  retreat 
for  at  least  eight  whole  days,  two  days  less  than  the 
Normae  prescribed. 

The  canonical  regulations  regarding  nuns  confes¬ 
sors  apply  to  the  case  of  female  novices.  In  institutes  of 
men  there  are  to  be  one  or  more  ordinary  confessors, 
according  to  the  number  of  novices;  the  master  of 
novices  or  his  assistant  may  not  hear  sacramental 
confessions  of  any  of  their  novices,  unless  when  in  a 
particular  case  the  novice  of  his  own  accord  for  an 
urgent  reason  asks  them  to  do  so.  The  ordinary 
confessors  should  live  in  the  house  of  novices,  if  the 
institute  is  clerical;  if,  however,  it  is  lay  they  should 
come  frequently  to  the  novitiate  for  confessions;  in 
addition  extraordinary  confessors  should  be  appointed , 
to  whom  the  novices  can  go  in  special  cases,  and 
masters  of  novices  are  warned  not  to  show  any  dis¬ 
pleasure  if  a  novice  exercises  this  privilege.  Finally, 
at  least  four  times  each  year  the  superior  must  appoint 
an  extraordinary  confessor  to  whom  all  the  novices 
must  go  at  least  to  receive  a  blessing. 

Kinane,  Nuns  and  Sisters  in  Irish  Eccl.  Record,  XII  (1918), 
301-06;  466  sqq.;  Codex  juris  canonici,  538-76;  Vermeersch- 
Cretjsen,  Epit.  juris  canonici,  515-81. 

Neuva  Caceres,  Diocese  of  (de  Caceres,  cf. 
C.  E.,  XI — 148c),  is  one  of  the  eight  suffragan  sees 
of  the  Archdiocese  of  Manila,  Philippine  Islands.  It 
comprises  the  provinces  of  Camarines,  Camarines 
Norte,  Albay  and  Sorsogon  in  the  southern  part  of 
Luzon,  the  province  of  Masbate  and  the  sub-province 
of  Catanduanes  thus  including  a  territory  of  7386  sq. 
miles  and  a  population  of  837,193  (census  of  1918). 

As  early  as  1595  cue  Church  had  made  so  much 
progress  in  these  parts  that  Clement  VIII  created 
the  diocese  of  Nueva  Caceres  taking  its  name  from 
the  town  of  Nueva  Caceres  founded  in  Camarines 
Sur  in  1579  bv  Pedro  de  Chaves  in  honor  of  Francisco 
de  Sande,  second  Governor-General  of  the  Philippine 
Islands  and  a  native  of  Caceres.  The  first  bishop 
appointed  was  Fray  Pedro  Bautista  Blazquez,  a 
Franciscan,  who  was  then  evangelizing  in  Japan, 
having  been  sent  by  the  Spanish  King  on  an  embassy 
to  the  Mikado,  Taicosama.  He  never  took  possession 
of  his  see,  nor  was  he  consecrated,  for  with  twenty-five 
others  he  was  martyred  at  Nagasaki,  5  February, 
1597.  He  and  his  companions  were  canonized  by 
Pope  Pius  IX,  8  June,  1862,  and  San  Pedro  Bautista 
was  made  the  patron  of  the  diocese  of  Nueva  Caceres, 
The  first  bishop  to  rule  the  see  was  Francisco  de 
Ortega. 

The  present  incumbent  is  Rt.  Rev.  John  Bernard 
MacGinley,  born  at  Croag,  diocese  of  Raphoe,  Ire¬ 
land,  in  1871,  and  after  being  ordained  and  receiving 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology,  he  was  cardinated 
m  the  diocese  of  Philadelphia.  He  was  elected  to  the 
see  of  Nueva  C&ceres  on  2  April,  1910,  consecrated 
the  2  May  following  and  publicly  acknowledged  27 
November,  1911. 

In  1915  a  destructive  typhoon  which  occurred  on 


23  October  wrecked  the  bishop’s  house,  the  seminary 
and  a  score  of  churches,  and  some  200  people  were 
killed  or  drowned.  During  the  World  War  the  people 
of  the  diocese,  encouraged  by  the  word  and  example 
of  the  clergy,  subscribed  largely  to  the  various  liberty 
loans.  In  the  present  year  (1921)  the  Benedictine 
Missionary  Sisters  of  Tutzing,  Bavaria,  opened  the 
college  of  St.  Agnes  in  the  town  of  Albay,  on  22 
February. 

The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  approxi¬ 
mately  830,805,  of  whom  about  500  are  Chinese,  300 
Spaniards,  5  Americans  and  830,000  Filipinos.  There 
are  100  parishes,  100  churches,  2  convents foi  women, 
136  secular  priests  and  18  regular,  1  Brother,  23 
Sisters,  1  seminary  with  35  seminarians  (including 
preparatorians) .  The  educational  institutions  in¬ 
clude  1  college  for  men  with  10  teachers  and  280 
students,  2  colleges  for  women  with  23  teachers  and 
265  students  and  98  elementary  schools  with  294 
teachers  and  11,250  pupils.  The  Apostolic  Union 
is  organized  among  the  clergy  and  a  Catholic  Fed  r- 
ation  among  the  laity. 

Nueva  Pamplona,  Diocese  of  (Neo-Pampilo- 
nensis;  cf.  C.  E. — 149b),  in  Colombia,  South  Amer¬ 
ica,  is  a  suffragan  of  Bogota.  It  is  at  present  (1922) 
under  the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Raphael  Af ana- 
dor  y  Cadena,  b.  at  Barichara,  in  the  Diocese  of  So¬ 
corro,  4  April,  1871,  ordained  3  July,  1898,  vicar 
general  of  Socorro ,  appointed  5  June ,  1916 ,  consecrated 
3  September,  proclaimed  7  December  following  to  suc¬ 
ceed  Mgr.  Evariste  Blanco,  b.  25  October,  1855;  d. 
15  September,  1915.  There  are  in  the  diocese  (1920) 
51  parishes,  8  secular  and  7  regular  priests,  76  churches 
or  chapels,  and  a  Catholic  population  of  250,480  souls. 

Nueva  Segovia,  Diocese  of  (Nov^e  Segobee, 
cf.  C.  E.,  XI-149c),  is  one  of  the  eight  suffragans  of 
the  Archdiocese  of  Manila  in  the  Philippine  Islands. 
It  is  under  the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Pierre- 
Joseph  Hurth,  C.S.C.,  born  at  Nittel  in  the  diocese 
of  Treves  on  30  March,  1857,  and  appointed  Bishop 
of  Dacca  on  26  June,  1894,  transferred  to  the  see  of 
Milopotamus  in  1909  and  again  transferred  to  Nueva 
Segovia  in  1913.  He  came  to  this  see  as  successor  to 
Rt.  Rev.  James  J.  Carroll,  who  had  resigned  12 
October,  1912,  on  account  of  a  serious  accident  which 
had  befallen  him  on  a  pastoral  visit  in  Abra. 

In  1913  a  violent  typhoon  which  visited  the  north¬ 
ern  part  of  Luzon  destroyed  or  seriously  damaged  a 
great  number  of  the  churches  in  the  territory  north  of 
Vigan.  On  27  November,  1914,  the  whole  diocese 
joyously  celebrated  the  first  anniversary  of  the  res¬ 
toration  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  in  recognition  of  the 
great  service  which  these  Fathers  have  rendered  the 
church  in  Nueva  Segovia.  In  addition  to  their  other 
labors  they  direct  the  episcopal  college  and  seminary 
of  the  diocese.  The  same  day  saw  the  close  of  the 
second  synod  at  which  nearly  all  the  priests  of  the 
diocese  had  assisted. 

In  1919  the  diocese  mourned  the  death  of  Mr. 
Enrique  Quema,  a  leader  among  the  men  of  the 
province,  who  had  always  used  his  wealth  and  influ¬ 
ence  in  the  cause  of  the  Church.  In  1921  the  death 
of  Mgr.  Antonio  Padila,  prothonotary  ad  instar ,  and 
Vicar  General  of  the  diocese,  caused  a  serious  loss:  on 
two  different  occasions  lie  had  acted  as  administrator 
of  the  diocese.  The  clergy  lost  another  staunch 
supporter  through  the  death  of  Miss  Filomena 
Donato,  a  woman  of  ability  and  wealth,  who  took  an 
active  part  in  all  charitable  works  and  a  special  inter¬ 
est  in  supporting  numerous  catechism  classes  and 
maintaining  a  number  of  schools  in  the  missions  of 
Abra  and  in  poor  parishes. 

The  total  population  of  the  diocese  of  Nueva 
Segovia  is  1,367,700  (by  the  census  of  1919),  of  which 


NUNS 


552 


NUSCO 


994,000  are  Catholics.  In  the  province  of  Abra, 
with  a  Christian  population  of  61,000,  nearly  half 
belong  to  the  Agilpayan  schism,  and  there  are  also 
10,000  Tinguians,  but  among  these  there  seems  to  be 
a  great  movement  toward  the  Catholic  Church.  A 
number  of  different  tribes  live  in  the  mountain  prov¬ 
inces,  numbering  in  all  about  215,000  and  these  are 
even  today  dangerous  savages,  but  the  Belgian 
Fathers  and  Fathers  of  the  Divine  Word  are  daily 
extending  their  influence  farther  into  these  countries. 
Since  1909,  the  Fathers  of  the  Divine  Word  have 
increased  the  number  of  Catholics  from  less  than 
10,000  to  over  35,000  by  reconciling  schismatics  and 
partly  through  conversions. 

By  present  (1921)  statistics  the  diocese  counts  87 
parishes,  besides  the  two  great  mission  districts  of 
Abra  and  the  mountain  provinces,  99  secular  and  13 
regular  priests.  A  parish  often  numbers  as  many  as 
20,000  or  30,000  souls  and  generally  consists  of  the 
chief  town  of  a  Municipality  and  the  surrounding 
villages,  the  distance  from  the  central  church  to  these 
villages  often  being  as  much  as  20  kilometers. 

The  number  of  children  attending  Catholic  schools 
is  woefully  small,  in  part  due  to  the  moral  pressure 
put  upon  parents  to  contribute  to  the  erection  and 
support  of  public  schools  and  to  send  their  children 
to  them.  These  people,  mostly  very  poor,  having 
contributed,  wish  to  reap  some  benefit  from  the 
schools  and  besides  this,  experience  has  shown  that  a 
pupil  from  a  public  school  holds  a  better  chance  for 
public  employment  than  one  from  a  Catholic  school. 
Another  reason  lies  in  the  fact  that  high  schools  exist 
only  in  the  provincial  capitals  and  to  these  come  all 
the  young  people  in  search  of  higher  education,  and 
the  Government  and  the  Protestant  denominations 
are  able  to  provide  them  with  excellent  living  quarters 
at  a  very  nominal  rate,  while  the  Catholic  schools  are 
not  so  able  to  do  this.  To  offset  these  difficulties 
classes  in  catechism  are  held  each  Sunday  in  every 
parish  church  and  village  of  importance,  and  in  many 
places  the  priests  gather  the  children  in  the  church 
after  school.  In  some  few  public  schools,  the  priests 
are  allowed  to  teach  religion  twice  a  week  and  religious 
societies  have  been  established,  especially  among  the 
students  of  the  high  schools. 

However,  the  number  of  Catholic  schools  is  steadily 
increasing;  good  colleges  closed  during  the  Revolution 
and  now  re-opened,  are  conducted  at  Vigan  and 
Dagupan  and  academies  for  girls  at  Vigan  and  Lm- 
gayen.  In  1912  there  was  only  one  other  academy 
and  one  parish  school  in  the  whole  diocese,  while  at 
the  present  time  the  Belgian  Sisters  have  a  well- 
attended  academy  at  Bagnio  and  two  central  high 
schools  in  the  Mountain  Provinces;  the  Sisters  Ser¬ 
vants,  of  the  Holy  Ghost  have  a  parochial  school- 
academy  at  Tayum;  the  academy  at  Tagudin  which 
in  1912  had  305  pupils  now  has  670  with  7  branch 
schools  having  874  pupils.  Besides  these  there  are 
23  schools  under  the  direction  of  the  Belgian  Fathers 
with  2553  pupils,  33  schools  under  the  Fathers  of  the 
Divine  Word,  with  2260  pupils.  The  total  number 
of  children  under  Catholic  instruction  is  11,203, 
taught  by  26  Fathers  and  scholastics,  15  Brothers,  50 
Sisters  and  a  corps  of  Filipino  teachers.  There  are 
also  two  trade  schools  and  besides  these  all  kinds  of 
lace-making  and  fine  needlework  are  taught  by  the 
Belgian  Sisters  and  Sisters  of  St.  Paul,  their  pupils 
having  carried  off  the  highest  awards  at  the  San 
Francisco  Exhibition  in  1914. 

Nuns  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI— 164a).— In  canon  law 
the  term  nuns  ( moniales )  signifies  religious  with  solemn 
vows  or,  unless  the  contrary  is  evident  from  the 
nature  of  things  or  from  the  context,  religious  belong¬ 
ing  to  institutes  in  which  the  vows  according  to  the 
constitutions  should  be  solemn  but  in  fact  are  so  no 


longer  in  certain  places  by  virtue  of  an  Apostolic 
indult;  the  term  sisters  ( sorores ),  is  applied  to  reli¬ 
gious  with  simple  vows.  The  election  of  the  mother 
superior  of  a  monastery  of  nuns  properly  so-called 
{moniales)  if  the  monastery  is  subject  to  the  jurisdic¬ 
tion  of  the  bishop,  is  to  be  presided  over  by  the  local 
ordinary  or  his  delegate,  without,  however,  any 
violation  of  the  law  of  enclosure.  The  votes  are  to 
be  counted  by  two  assistant  priests,  who  must  not  be 
ordinary  confessors  of  the  monastery.  _  If  the  nuns 
are  subject  to  a  regular  superior  he  is  to  preside; 
however,  even  in  this  case  the  ordinary  should  be 
notified  beforehand  of  the  day  and  hour  of  the  election 
so  that  he  can  if  he  pleases  be  present  with  the  regular 
superior  or  send  a  representative,  in  which  case  he  or 
his  representative  presides. 

In  case  of  the  election  of  a  mother  general  of  a 
congregation  the  local  ordinary  of  the  place  where  the 
election  is  being  held  is  to  preside  personally  or  by 
deputy.  Under  the  Code  a  mother  general  or  the 
superioress  of  a  monastery  of  nuns  must  be  at  least 
forty  years  old  and  ten  years  professed  and  be  of 
legitimate  birth;  in  the  case  of  other  higher  superior¬ 
esses — mother-general,  mother-provincial  and  their 
vicars — the  minimum  age  is  thirty,  but  ten  years 
profession  is  also  requisite;  if  the  constitutions  of  an 
order  or  congregation  provide  for  more  stringent 
qualifications  they  are  unaffected  by  the  Code. 
Nothing  having  been  said  in  the  Code  about  minor 
superioresses  their  qualifications  are  settled  by  the 
constitutions.  An  important  change  has  been  made 
regarding  the  tenure  of  office;  minor  superioresses 
may  now  hold  office  only  for  three  years;  they  may 
be  re-appointed  or  re-elected  for  a  second  period  but 
not  for  a  third  successive  term  in  the  same  house. 
The  higher  superioresses  are  to  hold  office  tempo¬ 
rarily  unless  the  constitutions  provide  otherwise,  but 
the  general  law  does  not  fix  a  definite  limit  to  their 
term  of  office.  A  superioress  is  bound  to  promote 
among  her  subjects  the  knowledge  and  the  execution 
of  the  decrees  of  the  Holy  See  affecting  religious. 
Local  superioresses  must  cause  to  be  read  publicly, 
at  least  once  a  year,  at  a  stated  time,  the  constitutions 
of  the  institute,  together  with  the  decrees  which  the 
Holy  See  has  ordered  to  be  read  in  public;  they  must 
also  see  that  a  suitable  instruction  in  Christian  doc¬ 
trine  for  lay  sisters  and  domestics,  as  well  as  a  pious 
exhortation  for  the  whole  community,  are  given  at 
least  twice  a  month. 

The  mother  general  of  any  pontifically  approved 
institute  or  order  must  send  the  Holy  See  every  five 
years  or  oftener,  if  the  constitutions  so  provide,  a 
report  on  the  condition  of  her  institute  or  order  signed 
by  herself,  her  council  and  by  the  ordinary  of  the  place 
where  she  and  her  council  reside.  She  and  each 
provincial  and  local  superioress  (at  least  of  every 
house  with  six  or  more  members,  technically  domus 
formata),  must  have  her  council,  consisting  of  two 
religious,  whose  advice  or  consent  must  be  obtained 
when  it  is  required  by  the  constitutions  or  the  sacred 
canons.  See  also  Novice;  Oeconomus;  Postulant; 
Profession;  Religious:  Confessors  of  Nuns. 

Kinane,  Nuns  and  Sisters  in  Irish  Ecel.  Record,  Ail  (.lyioj, 
291  sqq.;  Codex  juris  canonici,  can.  492-517. 

Nuremberg,  one  of  the  principal  cities  of  the 
Archdiocese  of  Bamberg,  Bavaria.  It  is  divided  into 
5  parishes,  14  churches,  including  6  mission  churches, 
2  monasteries  for  men,  2  convents  for  women  with 
53  nursing  sisters  and  69  English  Ladies,  44  secular 
clergy,  13  regular  clergy  and  8  lay  brothers.  1  wo 
homes’  and  4  nurseries  have  been  established  in  the 
city  and  1  Catholic  periodical  is  published  there. 

Nusco,  Diocese  of  (Nuscanensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI 
171b),  in  the  province  of  Avellino,  Southern  Italy, 
is  suffragan  of  Salerno.  Rt.  Rev.  Pasquale  Mores,  b. 


NY  AS  ALAND 


553 


NYGATA 


at  Lucera  11  January,  18/3,  chancellor,  appointed 
at  the  Consistory  of  15  December,  1919,  succeeded 
Mgr.  Luigi  Paul  ini  transferred  to  the  Diocese  of 
Concordia,  10  March,  1919.  According  to  1920 
statistics  there  are:  19  parishes,  107  secular  and  1 
regular  priests,  15  seminarians,  2  Brothers,  34 
Sisters,  118  churches  or  chapels,  and  a  Catholic 
population  of  40,304. 

Nyasaland,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See  Shire. 

Nyassa,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Nyassas;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XI— -l/2b),  in  Central  Africa,  is  entrusted  to 
the  V  hite  Fathers.  In  1914  a  portion  of  the  vicariate 
was  formed  into  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Bang- 
uelo,  thus  confining  the  territory  to  the  Lake  of 
Nyassa,  with  the  dividing  line  between  the  Zambezi 
and  the  Congo  Rivers  as  its  boundarv.  The  vicar 
Apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Mathurin  Guilleme,  W  F 
titular  Bishop  of  Matera,  b.  at  Ste.  Matie  de  Redon 
in  the  Diocese  of  Rennes,  France,  3  July,  1859  ap¬ 
pointed  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Nyassa,  24  February 


1911,  consecrated  18  June  following,  lie  resides  at 
Bembeke.  The  vicariate  has  (1922  statistics)  0 
stations  with  28  White  Fathers,  9  White  Sisters,  218 
catechists,  10,000  catechumens,  11,557  Catholics;  in 
828  schools  there  were  6665  boys  and  5409  girls, 
17,886  patients  cared  for  in  18  hospitals,  9  churches, 
25  chapels  and  4  orphanages. 

Nygata,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (de  Nygata), 
Japan,  erected  13  August,  1912,  and  confided  to  the 
Fathers  of  the  Divine  W  ord,  comprises  all  the  western 
coast  of  the  island  of  Nippon.  The  first  prefect 
apostolic,  appointed  in  November,  1912,  is  Mgr. 
Joseph  Reiners,  S.  V.  D.,  b.  at  Neuwerk,  Holland, 
1874,  ordained  1898,  sent  to  the  Japanese  mission  in 
1909.  There  are  480  Catholics  out  of  a  population  of 
6,000,000.  There  are  13  churches  and  chapels,  10 
stations,  19  regular  priests,  1  seminary  with  8  semi¬ 
narians,  1  college  for  girls  with  9  teachers  and  157 
pupils,  1  hospital,  1  orphanage,  1  house  of  charitable 
work  and  2  homes.  There  is  a  school  for  catechists 
with  2  students. 


o 

Oaxaca  (or  Antequera,  cf.  C.  E.,  ^“^Od) , 
Archdiocese  of,  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Republic 
of  Mexico,  has  as  suffragan  dioceses  Chiapas  and 
Tehuantepec.  A  new  province  was  formed  by  Leo 
XIII  in  1906  and  the  Archdiocese  of  Yucatan  was 
established  at  Merida  with  the  bishoprics  of  Campeche 
and  Tabasco  as  suffragans,  thus  taking  away  three  of 

the  suffragan  dioceses  of  Oaxaca. 

The  present  Archbishop,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Eulogio  G. 
Gillow,  was  born  at  Puebla  in  1841,  made  his  studies 
in  England,  Belgium  and  Rome,  was  ordained  m 
Mexico  and  then  returned  to  Rome.  He  was  ap¬ 
pointed  to  the  see  of  Oaxaca  in  1887 ,  being  consecrated 
on  23  May,  and  1891  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
archbishop.  On  account  of  the  Revolution  the 
Church  in  this  territory  has  suffered  some  changes, 
but  things  are  gradually  becoming  readjusted.  . 

In  the  city  of  Oaxaca  there  is  a  seminary  divided 
into  three  sections:  ordained  students,  seminarians 
and  preparatory  students;  one  college  for  young  men; 

3  select  academies  for  young  women;  6  free  schools  tor 
boys  and  4  for  girls.  Among  the  charitable  institu¬ 
tions  under  Catholic  control  are  a  day  nursery ,  a 
charity  hospital  and  a  home  for  the  poor. 

Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI 
184c),  founded  25  January,  1816,  approved  as  a 
congregation  under  simple  vows  17  February,  1826, 
and  received  the  brief  of  approbation  by  Pope  Leo 
XII,  21  March,  1826.  All  Oblate  houses  were 
directly  dependent  on  the  central  administration 
until  1850.  The  congregation  has  at  present  seven¬ 
teen  juniorates  situated  at  Sainte-Foy-lez-Lyon  and 
Strasbourg  (France),  Santa-Marie-a-Vico  (Italy), 
Saint-Helier  (Jersey),  Saint-Charles  par  Fauquement 
(Holland),  Burlo-bei-Borken  (Germany),  Krotoszyn 
(Poland),  Urnieta  (Spain),  Raheny  (Ireland)  Waere- 
ghem  (Belgium),  in  Europe;  Buffalo  (New  Aork),  and 
San  Antonio  (Texas),  in  the  United  States;  Ottawa 
(Ontario),  Saint  Boniface  (Manitoba),  Strathcona 
(Alberta),  in  Canada,  Colombo  and  Jaffna,  in  the 
Island  of  Ceylon.  The  novitiates  are  twelve  in 
number  and  are  situated  at:  San  Giorgio  Canvese  and 
Roviano  (Italy),  Urnieta  (Spain),  Thy-le-Chateau 
and  Nieuwenhove  (Belgium),  Maria-Engelport  (Ger¬ 
many),  Markowice  (Poland),  Ardagh  (Ireland), 
Tewksbury  (Mass.);  Mission  (Texas),  Ville-la-Salle 
(Canada);  and  Colombo  (Ceylon).  The  nine  estab¬ 
lishments  at  present  occupied  as  scholasticates  are 
situated  at:  Rome,  Liege,  Hiinfeld,  Stillorgan,  Wash¬ 
ington,  Castro ville,  Ottawa,  Edmonton,  and  Co¬ 
lombo.  Besides  the  University  of  Ottawa,  among 
higher  institutions  of  learning  directed  by  the  Oblates 
of  Mary  Immaculate  are  St.  Joseph’s  College  at 
Colombo  (1100  pupils)  and  St.  Patrick’s  College  at 
Jaffna  (700  pupils),  both  in  Ceylon.  As  the  Oblate 
scholastics  at  Ottawa  graduate  in  philosophy  and 
theology  at  the  University  of  Ottawa,  so  their  Irish 
confreres  at  Stillorgan  graduate  in  philosophy  at  the 
National  University  in  Dublin.  The  two  seminaries 
of  Colombo  and  Jaffna,  in  Ceylon,  were  amalgamated 
together  (1908)  in  Colombo  for  the  same  purpose  of 
working  at  the  formation  of  a  native  clergy  who 
already  number  about  50.  The  classical  college  of 
Saint  Louis,  New  Westminster,  has  been  given  up, 


while  that  of  Saint  Charles,  Pietermaritzburg,  was 
lately  entrusted  to  the  Marist  Brothers.  The  Oblates 
are  no  longer  (1919)  in  charge  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
Basilica  in  Brussels.  They  direct  Neunkirch,  in 
Alsace,  and  Maria  Engelport,  in  Germany,  and  a 
few  other  famous  pilgrimage  shrines  in  honor  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin.  The  new  Alsace  Lorraine  province 
of  the  Oblates  has  charge  of  the  ancient  sanctuary  of 
Saint  Ulrich,  while  the  German  province  looks  after 
the  shrines  of  Saint  Nicholas  at  Kapellen-Neuss  and 
of  Saint  Rupert  at  Bingen.  . 

The  following  provinces  and  vice-provmces  have 
lately  been  created:  Alsace-Lorraine  (1920),  Alberta- 
Saskatchewan  (1921),  Italy  (1921)  and  Lowell 
(1921).  The  two  latter  are  only  vice-provmces 
which  will  presumably  soon  be  the  case  for  Poland 
also.  Two  special  missions  for  the  Esquimaux  were 
recently  established  in  Northwestern  Canada,  at 
Chesterfield  Inlet,  in  the  Keewatin  Vicariate,  and  at 
Bear  Lake ,  in  the  Mackenzie  Vicariate .  The  .former , 
in  charge  of  Fr.  Arsene  Turquetil,  was  established  in 
1912,  while  the  latter,  founded  in  1911,  already  county 
three  martyrs — Frs.  John-Baptist  Rouviere  and 
William  Le  Roux,  massacred  in  1913,  and  Fr.  Joseph 
Frapsance  drowned  by  accident  in  1920.  In  Canada 
the  archepiscopal  See  of  Saint  Boniface  from  1853 
until  1915,  and  the  episcopal  Sees  of  Samt  Albert, 
now  (1912)  Archdiocese  of  Edmonton,  and  of  Prmce 
Albert,  now  (1921)  Prince  Albert  and  Saskatoon, 
since  their  foundation  (respectively  1871  and  190/) 
until  1920  have  been  occupied  by  Oblates;  and  so  a,re 
still  the  Vicariates  of  Athabaska  and  Mackenzie. 
The  new  Vicariate  of  Keewatin  was  entrusted  to  the 
Oblates  in  1910,  and  the  Vicariate  of  Yukon  and 
Prince  Rupert  is  also  (1917)  administered  by  an 
Oblate  bishop,  with  the  help  of  Oblate  missionaries. 
The  following  Oblates  have  recently  been  appointed 
bishops:  Charles  Cox,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Transvaal 
(1914)  and  Administrator-Apostolic  of  Kimberley  in 
South  Africa  (1914);  Emile  Bunoz,  Vicar  Apostolic 
of  Yukon  and  Prince  Rupert  (1917);  Jules  Brault, 
Bishop  of  Jaffna  (1920).  Recently  deceased  Oblate 
bishops:  Matthew  Gaughren  (1843-1914),  Vicar 

Apostolic  of  the  Orange  River  Colony  (Kimberley), 
Adelard-Langevin  (1855-1915),  Archbishop  of  Saint 
Boniface  (Manitoba),  Henry  Joulam  (J852-1919), 
Bishop  of  Jaffna  (Ceylon);  Emile  Legal  (1849-1920), 
first  Archbishop  of  Edmonton  (Alberta);  Albert 
Pascal  (1848-1920),  first  Bishop  of  Prince  Albert 
(Saskatchewan).  Fr.  Albert  Lacombe,  the  Black- 
robe  voyageur,”  died  in  1916.  The  cause  of  r  r. 
Dominic  Albini,  Hie  Apostle  of  Corsica,  who  died  at 
Vico  in  1839,  has  lately  been  introduced  in  Rome. 
The  present  General  Superior  of  the  order  is  Mgr. 
Augustine  Dontenwill  (b.  185/),  elected  1908,  also 
Archbishop  of  Ptolemais. 

The  periodicals  on  the  work  of  the  congregation 
have  lately  greatly  increased  in  number.  The  follow¬ 
ing  is  a  complete  list:  “Missions  des  O.  M.  L>  P9*> 
fished  at  Rome  for  the  order  only;  ‘  La  Voce  di  Maria  ^ 
(Naples);  “Revue  Apostolique  de  Marie  Immaculee 
(Paris);  “Immaculata”  (Strasbourg)  “Monats- 
blatter  der  Oblaten  der  Unbefleckten  Jungfrau  Maria 
(Hunfeld);  “Messager  de  Marie  Immaculee,”  and 
“Maria  Bode”  (Brussels);  “Missionary  Record  of  the 


554 


OBLATES 


OGDENSBURG 


555 


Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate”  (Dublin);  “La  Ban- 
nidrc  de  Mane  fmmaculce”  (Ottawa);  “L’Ami  du 
Foyer  (Saint-Bomface);  “Mary  Immaculate”  (San 
Antonio).  Among  the  principal  reviews  or  maga¬ 
zines  of  general  importance  published  by  the  Oblates 
are:  ‘  Regnabit,  Revue  universelle  du  Sacre  Coeur” 
(Paris);  “La  Bonne  Nouvelle”  (Paris);  “Les  Annales 
du  Cap  (Cap-deda-Madeleine);  “The  Monthly  Bul¬ 
letin  (Vancouver);  “Blue  and  White”  (Colombo); 
and  a  large  number  of  parochial  bulletins,  such  as 
those  of  Lowell,  Buffalo,  and  McCook  (United 
States),  of  Montreal,  Quebec,  and  Hull  (Canada). 

1  he  present  number  of  Oblate  foundations  is  as 
follows:  Europe:  general  administration ,  5  (including 
2  houses  m  Poland);  Italian  vice-province,  4;  French 
southern  province,  13;  French  northern  province,  16; 
Alsace-Lorraine,  3;  German  province,  17;  Belgian 
province,  5;  Anglo-Irish  province,  15.  America: 
Canadian  province,  15;  United  States  northern  prov¬ 
ince,  9;  “Lowell”  vice-province,  6;  United  States 
southern  province,  18;  province  of  Manitoba,  25; 
province  of  Alberta-Saskatchewan,  11;  vicariate  of 
British  Columbia,  10;  vicariate  of  Athabaska,  17* 
vicariate  of  Mackenzie,  14;  vicariate  of  Yukon  6’ 
vicariate  eff  Keewatin,  11.  Asia:  Archdiocese  of 
Colombo,  55,  Diocese  of  Jaffna,  26  houses  or  missions. 
Africa:  vicariate  of  Natal,  21;  vicariate  of  South 
Afnca,  14  (7  in  Kimberley  and  7  in  Transvaal);  vicar¬ 
iate  of  Basutoland,  14  residences  (divided  into  3  dis¬ 
tricts).  A  comparison  of  the  number  of  members  of 
the  congregation  in  1907,  1910,  and  1921  is  given  in 
the  following  table: 


Members 

1907 

1911 

1921 

Bishops  and  priests 

Scholastics . 

Lay  Brothers . 

Total  number  of  Oblates.  . 
Novices . 

1182 

250 

485 

1917 

134 

500 

1258 

298 

507 

2063 

111 

5S3 

1372 

300 

341 

2073 

134 

873 

Juniors . 

r  Oblates  of  Saint  Francis  de  Sales  (cf.  C  E 
X1— i87b)  a  congregation  of  priests  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  which  was  originally  desired  by  St.  Francis 
de  Sales,  and  carried  out  by  Ravmond  Bonal  du 
Kouerque  with  the  assistance  of  St.  Jane  Frances 
de  Chantal.  This  congregation  died  out  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  was  revived  two 
hundred  years  later  by  Ven.  Mother  Marie  de  Sales 
Cnappuis  and  Canon  Louis  Alexander  Alphonse 
Brisson,  formerly  professor  in  the  seminarv  and  chap¬ 
lain  ot  the  visitation  convent  at  Troyes.  In  1869  Fr. 
Brisson  began  St.  Bernard’s  College  near  Troyes, 
with  Fr.  Gilbert  (d.  1909)  and  Fr.  Kollin.  On  14 
October,  1873,  Bishop  Ravi  net  of  Troves  received 
them  and  three  companions  into  the  novitiate.  The 
laudatory  Brief  of  the  new  institute  was  granted  bv 
Pius  IX,  21  December,  1875.  The  first  decennial 
approbation  was  dated  7  December,  1887,  and  the 
definitive  approbation  of  the  Institute  and  its  con¬ 
stitution  was  given  8  December,  1897.  Fr.  Brisson 
5 rsI  superior  general.  He  was  succeeded 
iqoi  8  by^r-  Jean  Deshairs,  who  died  16  June, 
iazl,  upon  lus  return  from  a  canonical  visitation  of 
Greece  Uruguay,  and  Brazil.  A  general  chapter 
was  held  at  Albano,  23  October,  1921,  when  Fr. 
•Joseph  Lebeau  was  elected  superior  general.  He 
was  born  at  Saron  (Marne)  22  September,  1860,  was 
the  hrst  provincial  superior,  the  founder  of  the 
Austro-German  province,  and  chaplain  of  the  Visita¬ 
tion  convent  of  Soleure.  He  chose  Fr.  Rollin  as  his 
assistant  general. 

The  congregation  has  three  provinces:  Latin, 
German,  and  English.  The  novitiate  for  the  Latin 
province  is  in  Giove  (Umbria) .  The  German  province 


has  its  novitiate  at  Schmieding  (Upper  Austria).  A 
preparatory  school  of  about  forty  students  has  been 
recently  established  at  Dachsberg  (Upper  Austria), 
and  a  preparatory  school  of  more  than  sixtv  students 
has  been  established  at  Overbach.  The  Oblates  are 
guardians  of  the  tombs  of  Archduke  Francis  Ferd¬ 
inand  and  his  family.  Before  the  revolution  of  1897 
the  Oblates  were  stationed  in  Ecuador. 

Oceania,  Central,  \  icariate  Apostolic  of 
(Oceaniae  Centraliae).— The  total  population  of 
th!S  vicanate  apostolic  (1922)  is  30,000  of  whom  8800 
are  Catholics.  In  1920  the  establishment  of  quasi- 
parishes  desired  by  Canon  Law  was  accomplished  in 
YV  all  is.  The  first  vicar  apostolic  Mgr.  Bataillou  was 
succeeded  in  1877  bj-  Mgr.  Elloy;  in  1879  Mgr.  Lamaze 
became  vicar,  and  at  his  death  (1906)  Mgr.  Olier  his 
coadjutor,  succeeded  him.  In  1912  the  present  in¬ 
cumbent,  Mgr.  Blanc,  was  appointed,  Mgr.  Olier 
having  died  in  1911.  Born  in  Toulon  in  1872,  Mgr. 
Blanc  was  ordained  in  1895  by  special  dispensation 
on  account  of  his  age.  He  left  for  the  missions  in 
Oceania  six  years  later,  and  was  consecrated  titular 
bishop  of  Dibou  29  June,  1912.  He  is  the  author  of 
ps  lies  Wa  lis”  (Paris,  1913)  and  “L’Heritage 
d  un  Fveque  d’  Oceanie” ‘(Toulon,  1921). 

According  to  statistics  for  1921  the  vicariate  has 
3  parishes,  3  missions,  10  stations,  38  churches  2 
secular  and  16  regular  priests,  53  Sisters,  1  seminarv 
with  18  seminairians,  3  colleges  for  boys  with  10 
teachers  and  140  pupils,  11  secondary  schools  for 
girls  with  30  teachers  and  185  pupils,  64  elementary 
schools  with  64  teachers  and  2540  pupils.  Priests 
are  permitted  to  visit  the  public  hospitals  and 
the  prisons.  The  Association  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Faith  is  established  in  the  vicariate,  and  there 
are  many  publications  in  the  native  languages  made 
by  the  mission. 

CEconomus  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI-214b).— If  a  cathe¬ 
dral  chapter  fails  to  appoint  an  ceconomus  or  bursar 
within  eight  days  after  being  notified  of  an  episcopal 
vacancy,  the  right  devolves  on  the  archbishop,  or, 
if  it  be  an  archiepiscopal  vacancy,  on  the  senior  suf¬ 
fragan  bishop.  The  chapter  elects  the  ceconomus 
by  a  majority  vote  and  may  select  the  vicar  capitular 
to  hold  both  offices;  once  elected  his  removal  is  re¬ 
served  to  the  Holy  See,  but  he  can  resign  validly  when 
he  pleases,  independently  of  the  wish  of  the  chapter. 
Religious  institutes  are  directed  to  appoint  ceconomi 
to  look  after  the  property  and  revenues  of  local 
houses,  of  provinces,  and  of  the  order  in  general 
respectively;  a  superior  may  not  be  named  a  local 
ceconomus,  except  in  case  of  necessity.  If  the  con¬ 
stitutions  are  silent  about  the  procedure,  the  ceconomi 
are  to  be  appointed  by  one  of  the  higher  superiors 
with  the  consent  of  his  council.  In  a  like  manner, 
it  is  prescribed  that  each  seminary  should  have  its 
ceconomus,  who  must  not  be  rector  at  the  same  time, 
to  take  charge  of  household  matters. 

Ogdensburg,  Diocese  of  (Ogdensburgensis* 
cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 222c),  comprises  12,036  square 
miles  in  the  State  of  New  York.  The  second  bishop 
of  this  see,  Rt.  Rev.  Henry  Gabriels,  consecrated  5 
May,  1892,  died  23  April,  1921,  and  his  auxiliary, 
Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Henry  Conroy,  was  appointed  to 
succeed  him.  Born  in  this  diocese  in  1858,  Bishop 
Conroy  was  ordained  in  1881  and  later  became 
rector  of  the  cathedral  and  vicar  general  of  the 
diocese,  which  position  he  filled  until  his  appointment 
as  titular  Bishop  of  Arindela,  and  auxiliary,  11 
March,  1912.  The  religious  orders  now  established 
in  this  diocese  include:  men,  Franciscans  (Friars 
Minor),  Augustinians,  Oblate  Fathers,  Missionaries 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  and  Brothers  of  the  Christian 


0GL1ASTRA 


556 


OHIO 


schools;  women:  Gray  Nuns,  Sisters  of  Mercy, 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Franciscan  Sisters,  Ursulines, 
Sisters  of  Charity  and  Daughters  of  the  Holy  Ghost. 
The  diocese  comprises  a  Catholic  population  of  100,- 
600;  140  secular  and  20  regular  clergy,  101  churches 
with  resident  priests,  61  missions  with  churches, 

79  mission  stations,  24  chapels,  13  Brothers,  8 
seminarians,  13  academies  for  boys,  12  academies  for 
young  ladies,  20  parochial  schools  with  4873  pupils, 

2  orphan  asylums  caring  for  314  orphans;  a  total  of 
5382  young  people  are  under  Catholic  care;  8  hospitals 
are  caring  for  5461  patients  and  1  home  for  the  aged 
is  established. 

Ogliastra,  Diocese  of  (Oleanstrensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XI — 223dV,  in  Sardinia,  suffragan  of  Cagliari. 
In  1910  Mgr.  Emanuele  Virgilio,  the  present  bishop, 
was  appointed  to  the  see  of  Ogliastra,  to  succeed  Mgr. 
Paderi  deceased.  He  was  born  at  Venosa  in  1868 
and  was  pro-vicar  general  and  archpriest  of  the 
cathedral  when  he  was  elevated  to  the  episcopate. 
According  to  the  statistics  for  1920  the  diocese  con¬ 
tains  29  parishes,  46  secular  priests,  20  seminarians, 
53  churches  and  chapels,  and  a  Catholic  population 
of  54,500. 

♦ 

Ohio  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI-225d)— The  area  of  the  State 
is  41,040  square  miles.  The  population  in  1920  was 
5,759,394,  an  increase  of  20.8%  since  1910.  Of  this, 
63%  was  urban;  36 .2  was  rural.  The  average  number 
of  inhabitants  to  the  sq.  mile  was  141.4  as  against  117 
in  1910.  Ohio  has  80  cities,  the  largest  being  Cleve¬ 
land,  with  a  population  of  796,841.  Seven  cities 
have  more  than  100,000  inhabitants;  of  these,  Akron 
showed  in  1920  the  greatest  rate  of  increase,  having 
trebled  its  population  (201%).  The  principal  cities 
with  their  populations  are  as  follows:  Akron  *-08,4^5; 
Cincinnati  401,247;  Columbus  237,031;  Toledo  243,- 
164;  Dayton  152,559;  Youngstown  132,358. 

Economic  Status. — Although  the  number  of 
farms  in  1919  was  256,695,  a  decrease  of  5.6%  since 
1909,  the  value  of  farming  property  was  $3,095,666,- 
336,  an  increase  of  62.7%;  the  total  area  of  farms  was 
23  515,888  acres.  The  value  of  live  stock  was  $287,- 
655,118;  of  all  crops,  $607,037,562  (an  increase  of 
174.6%  since  1909).  The  chief  crops  are:  corn,  of 
which  149,844,626  bushels  were  grown  in  1919,  at  a 
value  of  $217,274,709;  wheat,  58,124,351  bushels, 
$127,873,474;  tobacco,  64,420,472  pounds,  $13,528,- 
302;  beet  sugar,  365,415  tons,  $3,836,861.  Dairying 
is  on  the  increase,  the  value  of  dairy  products  in  1919 

being  $81,148,586.  . 

Ohio  ranks  fourth  of  all  the  States  m  the  Union  for 
mineral  products,  coal  and  clay  manufactures  rank¬ 
ing  foremost.  The  latest  (1919)  census  of  mining 
enterprises  (mines,  quarries  and  wells)  reveals  2283 
productive  enterprises  compared  to  1876  m  1909; 
1064  mines  and  quarries  and  35,440  petroleum  and 
natural  gas  wells.  The  value  of  products  was  $134,- 
518  505.  The  census  of  manufactures  mentions 
16  125  establishments,  978,068  people  engaged  in 
manufacture,  earning  $1,218,366,093,  and  turning  out 
products  worth  $5,100,298,728.  The  capital  invested 
was  $3,810,859,879.  There  are  9160  miles  of  railway 
in  the  State  and  3227  miles  of  electric  railway  The 
lake  and  river  traffic  is  very  large.  Ohio  has  775  State 
banks  and  370  national  banks,  with  deposits  over 
$3  000,000.  The  State  debt  on  1921  was  $510,266, 
465,  including  the  Canal  loan,  not  bearing  interest. 

Religion. — According  to  the  latest  United  States 
Census  of  Religious  Denominations,  there  were 
2  291,793  members  of  all  denominations,  843,856 
Catholics,  399,045  Methodist  Episcopalians;  138,800 
Presbyterians;  109,732  Disciples;  77,775  Baptists 
(Northern  Convention);  20,151  Jews;  164,224 
Lutherans.  For  Catholic  statistics  see  Cincinnati, 


Archdiocese  of;  Cleveland,  Diocese  of;  Colum¬ 
bus,  Diocese  of.  . 

Education  and  Charity.— Education  is  compul¬ 
sory  for  all  children  between  the  ages  of  six  and 
fifteen.  There  are  in  the  State  11,475  school-houses, 

10  707  elementary  schools,  with  28,224  teachers 
(3  171  men  and  25,053  women),  and  880,290  enrolled 
pupils  (450,371  boys  and  429,919  girls).  The  588 
public  high  schools  have  6914  teachers,  132,711  pupils; 
the  normal  schools,  1127  students  and  77  teachers. 
The  educational  expenditure  in  1919  was  $60,040,295. 
There  are  provisions  for  the  establishment  of  public 
schools  for  the  deaf,  blind,  and  crippled.  Lincoln’s 
Birthday  is  now  considered  a  school  holiday.  The 
Board  of  Education  of  a  village  school  district  con¬ 
taining  a  village  of  3000  or  more  may  elect  to  be  ex¬ 
empt  from  the  supervision  of  the  county  board  of 
education.  Bible  reading  in  the  public  schools  is  al¬ 
lowed  by  court  decision.  In  1912  two  normal  schools 
were  established,  one  at  Bowling  and  another  at  Rent. 
The  laws  are  governing  private  and  parochial  schools 
as  follows:  “All  private  and  parochial  schools  which 
instruct  pupils  who  have  not  completed  a  course  of 
study  equivalent  to  that  prescribed  for  the  first 
grades  of  the  elementary  schools  of  Ohio  shall  be 
taught  in  the  English  language.  German  shall  nqt 
be  taught  below  the  eighth  grade.  All  teachers  in 
public  and  private  schools  must  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance.  No  religious  sect  or  sects  shall  have  any 
exclusive  right  to  or  control  of  any  part  of  the  school 
funds  of  the  state  (VI-2).  Private  schools  must 
teach  same  branches  taught  in  the  public  schools. 
The  flag  must  be  displayed  on  or  near  each  public 
and  private  school  building.”  To  eliminate  idleness 
among  boys  and  girls  between  the  ages  of  16  and  18 
years  the  new  school  law  of  Ohio  (1921)  provides  that 
a  child  more  than  16  years  old  may  leave  school  to 
go  to  work  if  he  has  completed  the  work  of  the  seventh 
grade,  has  passed  a  physical  examination  and  can 
present  a  written  promise  of  employment.  If  he 
meets  these  requirements  he  receives  an  age  and 
schooling”  certificate,  but  this  is  not  a  permanent 
release  from  school;  it  is  only  a  release  for  the  time 
the  child  is  employed  by  the  one  employer.  If  he 
changes  employers  he  must  secure  a  new  certificate. 
If  the  child  is  to  be  employed  by  his  parents,  the  same 
procedure  applies,  and  if  he  loses  his  position,  he  must 
return  to  school.  The  board  of  charities  consists  of 
seven  members,  appointed  by  the  governor,  who  is 
ex-officio  a  member  and  president  of  the  board,  has 
supervision  of  all  the  charities  of  the  state. 

Recent  History  and  Legislation.  Of  great 
importance  in  the  State’s  history  was  the  constitu¬ 
tional  convention  held  in  Columbus  in  1912.  Of  the 
42  amendments  submitted  to  the  voters,  34  were 
adopted  and  eight  defeated.  Those  which  were 
adopted  provide  for  the  initiative  and  referendum,  an 
eight-hour  day  on  all  public  work,  a  limitation  of  the 
veto  power  of  the  governor ,  state-wide  primaries  and 
civil  service,  an  easier  removal  of  State  officials, 
conservation  of  natural  resources,  including  legis¬ 
lative  control  over  the  methods  of  mining,  change  m 
the  judicial  system,  and  the  elimination  of  unneces¬ 
sary  legal  delays;  regulation  of  corporations,  munici¬ 
pal  home  rule,  and  the  privilege  of  cities  to  choose  their 
own  form  of  government.  In  1914  a  new  S1hc  of  15UU 
acres  was  chosen  for  the  penitentiary.  The  coal 
strike  of  1914  and  the  consequent  shut-down  of  the 
mines  in  the  State  brought  great  hardship  to  the  mi¬ 
ners  and  caused  great  loss  to  the  industry.  By  a  decision 
of  the  Supreme  Court  in  1915  Cleveland  came  into 
possession  of  a  tract  of  lake-front  land  worth  several 
millions  which  the  railways  had  cocupied  for  halt  a 
century.  Floods  caused  great  damage  in  the  State  in 
1915.  The  Federal  Suffrage  Amendment  was  ratified 


OKLAHOMA 


557 


OKLAHOMA 


on  16,  June  1919j  the  Prohibition  Amendment  on 
7,  Jan.  1919.  During  the  European  War  Ohio  con¬ 
tributed  200,293  men  to  the  United  States  Army 
(5.33  per  cent).  The  Ohio  members  of  the  National 
Guard  joined  the  37th  Division  at  Camp  Sheridan, 
Ohio,  and  also  at  Montgomery,  Alabama;  those  of 
the  National  Army,  the  83d  Division  at  Camp 
Sherman,  Ohio.  The  drafted  men  wore  sent  to  Camp 
Chillicothe,  Ohio.  The  summary  of  Ohio  men  in  the 
American  Expeditionary  Force  is  as  follows:  deceased, 
123  officers,  3959  men;  prisoners,  13  officers,  146  men- 
wounded,  379  officers,  11,387  men. 

Oklahoma  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI-230d)— The  area  of  the 
State  of  Oklahoma  is  70,057  square  miles.  The 
population  in  1920  was  2,028,283,  an  increase  of 
22.4  per  cent  since  1910.  The  percentage  of  rural 
inhabitants  was  73.4;  urban,  26.6.  The  average 
number  of  persons  per  square  mile  is  29.2.  The 
largest  cities  are  Oklahoma  City,  91,295;  Tulsa, 
72,075.  Oklahoma  now  ranks  as  the  twenty-first 
State  in  population;  in  1900  it  was  thirtieth. 

Econqmic  Status. — As  an  agricultural  state 
Oklahoma  has  unlimited  possibilities.  In  1920 
there  were  191,988  farms;  the  area  of  farm-land  was 
31,951,934  acres  and  its  value  was  $1,660,423,544. 
Among  the  crops  (valued  at  $549,249,277  in  1919) 
the  chief  were  wheat  (65,761,843  bushels),  corn 
(53,851,093  bushels),  cotton  (1,006,242  bales). 
Oklahoma  ranks  sixth  in  cotton  production,  twelfth 
in  corn  production,  seventh  in  wheat  production  and 
first  in  the  petroleum  output.  The  output  of  coal 
in  1918  was  4,813,447  tons;  the  number  of  men 
employed  in  this  industry  being  8551.  In  the  same 
year  the  petroleum  output  was  103,347,070  barrels- 
the  natural  gas  output  124,317,179  feet.  The  three 
large  cement  mills  in  the  state  have  a  yearly  capacity 
of  1,400,000  barrels.  During  1918-19  91.6  miles  of 
railroad  were  built  in  the  State,  making  the  total 
mileage  6532.  The  summary  of  manufactures  in 
1919  shows  a  consistent  increase,  as  compared  with 
that  of  1914,  except  in  the  number  of  establishments, 
proprietors  and  firm  members  which  show  small 
decreases.  In  the  2446  establishments,  38,238  persons 
were  engaged  in  manufacture,  earning  for  their 
seivice  a  total  of  $47,552,000.  The  capital  invested 
was  $280,847,000  (an  increase  of  328  per  cent  since 
1914)  and  the  value  of  the  products  $402,462,000. 
The  State  debt  in  1920  was  $2,972,900;  the  assessed 
value  of  real  and  personal  property,  $1,664,448,745. 

Education.  There  are  state  normal  schools  at 
Durant,  Weatherford,  Edmond,  Ada,  Alva  and 
Tahlequah,  a  reformatory  for  delinquent  and  in¬ 
corrigible  negro  girls  at  Taft  (created  in  1917), 
another  reformatory  at  Granite,  an  industrial  school 
for  girls  at  Jecumseh,  a  deaf,  blind  and  orphans’ 
institute  at  J  aft,  a  school  for  the  blind  at  Muskogee, 
Oklahoma  College  for  Women  at  Chickasha,  a  State 
prison  at  McAlister,  a  home  for  white  children  at 
Helena,  a  school  for  the  feeble-minded  at  Enid,  State 
hospitals  at  Norman,  Vinita,  and  Supply,  a  training 
school  for  white  boys  at  Paul’s  Valley,  the  Con¬ 
federate  Home  at  Ardmore,  the  Union  Soldiers’ 
Home  and  University  Hospital  at  Oklahoma  City, 
two  schools  of  mines  at  Miami  and  Wilburton  a 
petroleum  experiment  station  of  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Alines  at  Bartlesville,  and  a  tubercular 
sanitarium  at  Boley. 

TLheie  are  fifteen  agricultural  schools,  each  receiving 
rederal  aid.  In  1919  the  University  of  Oklahoma  had 
loO  professors  and  3683  students.  The  latest  educa¬ 
tional  statistics  for  Oklahoma  (1920)  give  510,139 
white  pupds,  41,276  negro  pupils,  14,181  teachers, 
in  1916  there  were  605  public  high  schools  with  34,932 
enrolled  pupils  and  1954  teachers.  In  1918  the  normal 
schools  had  125  teachers  and  4660  students.  The 


total  expenditure  in  1918  was  $13,803,861.  Bible 
reading  in  the  public  schools  is  specifically  permitted 
by  law.  The  State  laws  governing  private  and 
parochial  schools  are  as  follows:  It  shall  be  unlawful 
to  teach  in  any  other  language  than  English  in  any 
public,  parochial,  denominational  or  other  institution 
of  learning  within  the  State  of  Oklahoma,  unless 
pupils  receiving  such  instruction  shall  have  completed 
the  eighth  grade  of  a  common  school  curriculum. 
All  teachers  in  public  and  private  schools  must  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance.  All  property  used  exclusively 
for  schools  and  colleges  and  for  religious  and  charitable 
purposes  shall  be  exempt  from  taxation.  (X-6).  No 
money  (public)  shall  be  used  for  the  support  of  any 
religious  teacher  or  any  other  sectarian  institution  as 
such  (11—5) .  The  State  board  of  education  shall  have 
authority  to  visit  and  inspect  all  institutions  of  higher 
learning,  both  public  and  private.  Education  is  com¬ 
pulsory  for  all  between  the  ages  of  eight  and  eighteen 
for  two-thirds  of  the  school  term,  but  this  does  not 
apply  to  persons  between  the  ages  of  sixteen  and 
eighteen  who  are  lawfully  employed  and  have  finished 
the  eighth  grade  or  full  course  of  instruction.  Part- 
time  schools  were  provided  for  in  1919;  and  county 
schools  in  all  counties  having  a  population  of  less  than 
2000  school  pupils.  In  this  same  year  the  negro  boys 
were  transferred  from  the  penitentiary  to  the  school 
at  Taft. 

Religion. — According  to  the  United  States  Census 
of  Religious  Denominations  (1916),  all  denominations 
in  Oklahoma  numbered  424,492,  divided  chiefly 
as  follows:  Catholics  47,427  or  11.2%;  Baptists, 
Southern  Convention  87,028  or  20.5%;  Methodist 
Episcopalians  60,263  or  14.2%;  Baptists,  Northern 
Convention  42,408  or  10%;  Disciples  of  Christ  41,811 
or  9.8%;  Methodist  Episcopalians,  40,148  or  9.5%; 
Church  of  Christ  21,700  or  5.1%.  For  further 
religious  and  educational  statistics  see  Oklahoma, 
Diocese  of. 

Recent  History  and  Legislation. — The  clause 
in  the  State  constitution  limiting  manhood  suffrage 
by  means  of  an  educational  test  and  a  grandfather 
clause  was  referred  to  the  Supreme  Court  for  decision. 
The  latter  was  declared  unconstitutional  in  1915,  but 
the  educational  test  remained,  applied,  however,  to 
all  alike.  By  the  Enabling  Act  Guthrie  was  made  the 
capital  until  1913,  but  in  the  election  of  11  June,  1910, 
the  people  decided  upon  the  removal  of  the  capital  to 
Oklahoma  City.  The  election  was  declared  invalid 
by  the  State  Supreme  Court  on  the  ground  that  the 
title  of  the  ballot  did  not  conform  to  law.  Thereupon 
the  governor  called  a  special  session  of  the  Legislature 
to  remove  the  capital  to  Oklahoma  City.  In  1913  the 
Supreme  Court  prohibited  the  introduction  of  liquor 
into  counties  occupied  by  Indians.  In  1915  a  Widows’ 
and  Orphans’  Pension  Law  was  adopted  and  the  pen¬ 
sioning  of  Confederate  soldiers  provided  for.  The 
Federal  Prohibition  Act  was  ratified  on  7  January, 
1919;  the  Suffrage  Act,  28  February,  1920.  In  1920 
a  woman  was  elected  to  the  National  House  of  Repre¬ 
sentatives.  During  the  European  War  Oklahoma  con¬ 
tributed  to  the  United  States  Army  80,169  men  (2.13 
per  cent  of  the  army).  The  Oklahoma  members  of 
the  national  guard  joined  the  36th  Division  at  Camp 
Bowie,  Texas;  those  of  the  national  army,  the  90th 
Division  at  Fort  Travis,  Texas.  A  national  guard 
camp  was  established  at  Fort  Sill,  Doniphan,  Okla¬ 
homa.  The  summary  of  casualties  among  the  Okla¬ 
homa  members  of  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces 
is  as  follows:  deceased  20  officers,  1457  men;  pris¬ 
oners  80  men;  wounded  59  officers,  4742  men. 

Oklahoma,  Diocese  of  (Oklahomensis) — Ac¬ 
cording  to  statistics  for  1921  there  are  in  the  diocese 
of  Oklahoma  75  parishes,  166  churches,  91  missions, 
122  stations,  3  monasteries  for  nuns,  1  abbey  for  men, 

1  convent  for  men,  50  convents  for  women  with  338 


OLD  CATHOLICS 


558 


OLINDA 


religious,  12  seminarians.  Educational  institutions 
include  3  colleges  for  boys  with  33  teachers  and  an 
attendance  of  387;  1  college  for  women  with  12  teach¬ 
ers  and  an  attendance  of  68;  3  academies  with  34 
teachers  and  an  attendance  of  315,  5  training  schools 
with  28  teachers  and  611  students;  51  elementary 
schools  with  227  teachers  and  5651  pupils.  There  are 
1  orphanage,  St.  Joseph’s  Oklahoma  City,  in  charge  of 
6  Sisters  of  Mercy,  with  73  inmates,  and  3  hospitals; 
St.  Francis,  Oklahoma  City,  in  care  of  22  Sisters  of 
St.  Francis;  St.  Mary’s  Infirmary,  McAlester,  con¬ 
ducted  by  9  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Incarnate  Word; 
and  Ponca  City  Hospital,  Ponca  City,  in  charge  of 
6  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph.  Organizations  amongst  the 
clergy  include  the  Eucharistic  League,  Infirm  Priests’ 
Fund,  the  Association  for  Three  Masses.  For  the 
laity  there  are  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  Catholic 
Foresters,  the  Bohemian  Catholic  Society.  Three 
Catholic  monthlies  are  published,  the  “Orphans’  Rec¬ 
ord,”  the  “Indian  Sentinel,”  and  the  “Little  Flower 
Magazine.” 

Since  1911  the  Cathedral  parish,  Oklahoma  City,  has 
been  divided  twice,  the  first  time  (1911)  to  form  the 
Sacred  Heart  parish,  and  again  in  1917,  when  the 
parish  of  Our  Lad}^  of  Perpetual  Help  was  formed. 
The  Mission  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel  for  Mexi¬ 
cans  was  founded  in  metropolis  in  1921.  In  1916  the 
Sacred  Heart  parish  in  Tulsa  was  erected,  and  in  1921 
a  parish  under  the  same  patronage  was  founded  in 
Muskogee.  The  Discalced  Carmelite  Fathers  from 
the  province  of  Valencia,  Spain,  came  to  the  diocese 
in  1915,  and  have  charge  of  the  parish  of  Our  Lady 
of  the  Holy  Rosary,  Hartsborne. 

During  the  World  War  four  French  Benedictine 
Fathers  of  the  Sacred  Heart  Abbey  entered  the  French 
Army.  Three  others  and  three  diocesan  priests  served 
as  chaplains  in  the  American  Army.  Throughout  the 
diocese  effective  work  was  done  in  the  council  of 
defence,  in  the  various  bond  and  Red  Cross  drives, 
etc. 

Old  Catholics  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 235b),  in  the 
United  States.  After  the  development  of  the  Old 
Catholic  movement  in  Europe  there  grew  up  here,  in 
some  sections,  particularly  the  Middle  West,  a  cer¬ 
tain  tendency  to  sympathize  with  these  schismatics. 
The  leader  in  this  movement  was  J.  R.  Vilatte  (or 
Villatte),  a  Parisian,  a  Catholic  by  birth  who  had 
come  to  Canada  to  study  for  the  priesthood.  While 
yet  in  the  early  stages  of  preparation  he  apostatized, 
chiefly  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  apostate  Chini- 
quy,  entered  a  Presbyterian  seminary,  and  became 
pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  congregation  in  Wisconsin. 
Later  coming  under  the  influence  of  the  apostate 
Hyacinthe  Loyson,  he  went  to  Europe  and  was  or¬ 
dained  by  the  Old  Catholic  bishop,  Herzog,  in  1885. 
Returning  to  Wisconsin  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
Old  Catholic  movement  among  certain  communities 
of  Belgians.  Among  other  innovations  Mass  was 
said  in  French,  but  the  Old  Catholic  doctrine  was 
retained.  His  first  congregation  later  joined  in  a 
body  the  Episcopal  church.  Vilatte  unsuccessfully 
attempted  a  rapprochement  with  the  Episcopalian 
bishop  of  Fond  du  Lac  and  through  the  latter’s  influ¬ 
ence,  he  seeking  episcopal  consecration  at  the  hands 
of  Herzog,  was  denied  his  request.  He  then  turned 
to  the  Orient,  and  was  consecrated  bishop,  according 
to  the  Latin  Rite,  by  the  schismatical  archbishop  of 
Ceylon,  Goa,  and  India,  F.  X.  Julius  Alvarez, 
assisted  by  two  Jacobite  Malabar  bishops  (1891). 
He  now  attempted  a  more  pretentious  organization 
in  Wisconsin  without  any  great  success.  He  made  a 
solemn  recantation  of  his  errors  (2  February,  1899) 
and  was  outwardly  reconciled  to  the  Church,  only  to 
relapse  within  a  short  time,  a  decree  of  excommuni¬ 
cation  (13  June,  1900)  being  issued  against  him  and 


against  a  priest,  Paul  Miraglia,  whom  he  had  attempt¬ 
ed  to  consecrate  bishop.  These  two  now  made 
common  cause,  and  excepting  a  brief  interval  about 
1906,  when  Vilatte  unsuccessfully  attempted  to 
organize  the  Associations  of  Worship  in  France  after 
the  separation  of  Church  and  State,  their  work  has 
been  chiefly  in  the  Middle  West. 

Although  not  ecclesiastically  united  to  the  Old 
Catholic  sect  of  Europe  the  movement,  being  doc- 
trinally  the  same  ,  is  generally  given  this  designation. 
They  were  first  listed  in  the  United  States  reports  in 
1916.  They  then  reported  three  quasi  independent 
branches:  ‘the  Old  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the 
American  Catholic  Church,  and  the  Catholic  Church 
of  North  America,  Vilatte  being  directly  in  charge  of 
the  two  first,  while  the  third  traced  its  source  to  the 
Jansenists  of  Utrecht.  To  these  three  two  others 
may  be  added,  the  Polish  National  Catholic  Church 
of  America,  a  body  made  up  chiefly  of  schismatic 
congregations,  generally  led  away  from  the  Church 
by  recreant  priests,  and  the  Lithuanian  National 
Catholic  Church  which  by  immigration  is  an  off-shoot 
of  the  parent  body  in  Europe.  Furthermore  the 
original  Old  Catholic  body  in  Europe  seems  also  to 
claim  organization  here;  in  1919  their  American  arch¬ 
bishop,  de  Berghes  de  Raches,  entered  the  Church 
(he  had  never  been  a  Catholic).  He  entered  the 
Augustinian  novitiate,  but  died  17  November,  1920. 

The  three  “Old  Catholic”  bodies  in  the  United 
States  reported  in  1916,  21  organizations  and  14,200 
members.  In  1920  the  “Old  Roman  Catholic 
Church”  had  disappeared,  having  merged  with  the 
“American  Catholic  Church”  under  that  title,  and 
under  the  leadership  of  Vilatte.  The  two  bodies 
reported  in  1920,  9  churches,  19  ministers,  and 
34,000  members.  The  Polish  National  Catholic 
Church  claimed  in  the  same  year  34  churches,  45 
ministers,  and  28,000  members;  the  Lithuanian 
National  Catholic  Church  reported  7  churches,  3 
ministers,  and  7343  members. 

Recent  Schismatical  Movements  among  Catholics  of  the  United 
States  in  American  Ecclesiastical  Review,  XXI  (1899),  i,  ibid., 
XXIII  (1900),  287;  Religious  Bodies,  1916  (Washington,  1919); 
Year  Book  of  the  Churches,  (New  York,  annual). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

O’Leary,  Peter,  leading  modern  Gaelic  writer, 
b.  at  Cluaindroichead,  County  Cork,  Ireland,  in 
1839;  d.  21  March,  1920.  He  entered  the  diocesan 
college  of  Fermoy  and  from  there  went  on  to  May- 
nooth.  He  became  Canon  in  1906,  after  being  engaged 
on  parish  work  for  many  years.  He  celebrated  his 
golden  jubilee  in  1917  and  the  National  University 
conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  two  years  later. 
In  the  revival  of  the  study  of  Gaelic  which  was  wel¬ 
comed  with  so  much  enthusiasm  by  the  Irish  people, 
Canon  O’Leary  stands  out  a  conspicuous  figure. 
When  after  a  bitter  fight  on  the  part  of  the  English 
Government  to  prevent  the  study  of  Irish  in  the 
schools,  the  difficulty  presented  itself  of  finding  books 
for  the  young  generation  to  familiarize  themselves 
with  the  language,  Canon  O’Leary  supplied  the  want. 
His  first  book  "S6adna”  brought  the  language  at  a 
bound  into  modern  literature  with  a  lightness  of  touch 
that  has  never  been  surpassed  and  that  elevated  it  at 
once  into  a  classic.  Such  is  the  opinion  of  Douglas 
Hyde.  He  followed  this  up  by  many  more  which 
enabled  thousands  of  pupils  to  prepare  for  public 
examinations.  He  translated  the  New  Testament,  the 
Imitation  of  Christ,  and  Aesop’s  Fables  into  Irish,  and 
in  his  “Guaire,”,  “Craos-deamhan,”  “Lughaidh 
MacCon,”  and  “Eisirt”  re- told  and  modernized  some 
of  the  great  stories  of  ancient  Ireland. 

Olinda  and  Recife,  Archdiocese  of  (Olin- 
densis  et  Recifensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 242c),  in  the 
State  cf  Pernambuco,  Brazil.  The  see  is  at  present 


OLIVER 


559 


OPORTO 


(1922)  vacant,  the  former  archbishop,  Mgi .  Leme  da 
Silveira  Cintra  having  been  appointed  titular  arch¬ 
bishop  of  Pharsalia  and  coadjutor  to  the  archbishop 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  15  March,  1921.  He  had  been 
Dromoted  to  the  see  of  Olinda  in  1916  to  succeed 
Mgr.  da  Silva  Britto,  deceased.  On  5  December, 
1910,  the  diocese  of  Olinda  was  erected  into  an  arch¬ 
diocese.  By  a  Bull  of  26  July,  1918,  it  was  decreed' 
that  the  church  of  St.  Peter  in  Recife  should  be  a  co- 
cathedral  with  Olinda,  that  the  archbishop  and  the 
canons  could  reside  there,  and  that  the  title  of  the 
diocese  should  henceforth  be  Olinda  and  Recife. 
In  1920  the  church  of  Recife  was  erected  into  a  minor 
basilica  According  to  1920  statistics  there  are  in 
the  archdiocese  81  parishes,  365  churches  and  chapels, 
88  secular  and  22  regular  priests,  and  a  total  popula¬ 
tion  of  1,030,244,  of  whom  1,028,541  are  Catholics, 
and  1683  are  Protestants. 

.  °}^  £1USrket’  Blessed  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 169c), 
beatified  23  May,  1920,  by  Benedict  XV.  On  30 
June,  1920,  a  decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of 
Rites  authorized  the  translation  of  the  relic  of  the 
head  of  Blessed  Oliver  Plunket  from  the  Dominican 
Convent  to  the  Oliver  Plunket  Memorial  Church, 
St.  Peters,  Drogheda.  His  feast  is  kept  11  July. 

Olivetans  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI-244d) .— The  sixth 
centenary  of  the  foundation  of  the  order  was  cele¬ 
brated  in  1919.  At  the  general  chapter  held  at 
Monte  Ohveto  in  June,  1920,  a  new  procurator  gen¬ 
eral,  Dom  Lugano,  was  elected,  and  the  election 
confirmed  according  to  the  rules  formulated  by 
Clement  XII  in  1733.  The  abbot  general  is  Dom 
Mauro  Parodi.  The  monastery  of  Lendinara,  in 
the  Diocese  of  Adria,  was  erected  into  an  abbey 
by  brief  of  15  Dec.,  1920,  and  Dom  Celestino  Man 
Colombo,  prior  of  the  monastery  and  rector  of  the 
famous  sanctuary  of  Notre  Dame  del  Pilastrello. 
which  adjoins  it,  was  named  abbot  by  the  Pope 
himself  and  received  the  abbatial  blessing  from 
Bishop  Rizzi,  21  Dec.,  1920.  This  sanctuary,  con¬ 
fided  to  the  Olivetans,  was  erected  into  a  minor 
basilica  by  Pius  X,  15  Feb.,  1911.  In  1912  the 
Onvetans  had  4  abbeys  (3  in  Italy  and  1  in  Carniola), 

2  priories  (in  Italy),  and  3  residences  (2  in  Italy 
and  1  in  Istria).  There  were  124  members,  of  whom 
72  were  priests,  24  clerics  and  novices,  and  28 
Brothers.  The  French  houses  are  now  dispersed. 

Olmutz,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Olomouc. 


was  erected  into  the  Diocese  of  Kearney.  It  now  com¬ 
prises  an  area  of  14,051  sq.  miles,  where  formerly  its 
territory  extended  over  52,996  sq.  miles.  Rt.  Rev. 
Richard  Scanned,  D.D.,  who  had  filled  this  see  from 
1891,  died  8  January,  1916,  and  was  succeeded  by 
the  present  incumbent,  Most  Rev.  Jeremiah  J.  Harty, 
former  Archbishop  of  Manila,  P.  I.,  who  was  trans¬ 
ferred  to  Omaha  with  the  title  of  Archbishop-Bishop. 
Archbishop  Harty  was  born  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1 
November,  1853,  and  was  ordained  28  April,  1878. 
He  labored  in  his  home  city  as  an  assistant  and  then 
a  pastor  until  1903,  when  he  was  appointed  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Manila,  which  see  be  filled  until  his  transfer 
to  Omaha.  He  took  possession  of  the  see  on  28  De¬ 
cember,  1916,  and  his  administration  has  been  marked 
by  the  establishment  of  new  parishes  and  parochial 
schools  and  the  introduction  of  new  religious  orders 
into  the  diocese.  An  event  of  special  importance  was 
the  establishment  of  the  Chinese  Mission  Society  in 
Omaha  on  14  December,  1918.  The  mother  house  of 
the  Society  is  at  Dalgan  Park,  Galway,  Ireland,  and 
their  present  headquarters  in  Omaha,  St.  Columban’s 
Mission  House,  is  devoted  to  the  education  of  young 
men  for  the  priesthood  in  China.  “The  Far  East,”  a 
magazine  devoted  to  the  conversion  of  China,  is  pub¬ 
lished  here.  Another  Catholic  paper,  “The  True 
Voice,”  edited  by  Rev.  P.  C.  Gannon  and  having  a 
very  extensive  circulation,  is  also  published  in  the 
diocese.  The  religious  orders  now  (1922)  established 
here  include  men:  Augustinian  Recollects,  Basilians, 
Franciscans,  Jesuits,  and  Redemptorists;  women: 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  Poor  Clares,  Religious  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  of  St.  Dominic,  of  St. 
Francis,  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Franciscan  Sisters  of 
Christian  Charity  and  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacra¬ 
ment.  The  latest  statistics  credit  the  diocese  with 
163  diocesan  and  56  regular  clergy,  142  parishes,  164 
churches  and  2  more  under  construction,  59  chapels, 
4  stations,  78  men  of  religious  orders,  844  women 
of  religious  orders,  1  university  with  1945  students,  32 
ecclesiastical  students,  7  colleges  and  academies  for 
girls,  with  84  teachers  and  701  students,  8  high  schools 
with  30  teachers  and  336  students,  90  parochial  schools 
with  11,216  pupils,  1  orphan  asylum  with  166  orphans, 
4  homes  for  young  ladies  with  181  residents,  1  House 
of  the  Good  Shepherd,  1  industrial  home  for  boys, 
1  home  for  the  aged,  3  hospitals  with  590  beds,  188 
hospital  nurses,  and  a  total  of  15,005  young  people 
under  Catholic  care.  In  1921  the  total  Catholic 
population  was  83,357. 


Olomouc,  Archdiocese  of  (Olomucensis;  cf. 
V.  E.,  XI— -247a),  in  Czechoslovakia.  In  1921  Mgr. 
Antonin  Slojan  was  appointed  archbishop  of  Olomouc 
w)  succeed  Cardinal  de  Skrbensky-Hriste,  resigned 
Born  in  Moravia,  22  May,  1851,  he  was  ordained  in 
18/6  and  for  twenty  years  was  curate  and  pastor  in 
various  churches.  In  1896  he  won  his  doctorate  in 
theology  and  the  following  year  was  Czech  deputy  to 
*re  Council  of  the  Empire.  In  1902  he  was  deputy  to 
f G  Moravia,  and  was  made  canon  and  provost 

ot  collegiate  chapter  of  Kromerizi  in  1908.  He  was  a 
delegate  to  the  National  Assembly  in  1919,  and  the 
following  year  was  elected  to  the  Senate  of  Czecho¬ 
slovakia.  At  the  same  time  the  pope  made  him  a 
chamberlain.  Wa,s  consecrated  archbishop 
of  Olomouc  by  Mgr.  Micara,  3  April,  1921.  Mgr. 
W  isnar,  titular  bishop  of  Calliopolis,  is  auxiliary  of 
Olomouc.  In  1916  there  were  in  the  archdiocese  51 
deaneries,  664  parishes,  1536  secular  and  145  regular 
•priests,  2121  nuns,  and  1,860,150  Catholics. 

Omaha  Diocese  of  (Omahensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI- 
49c)  in  the  State  of  Nebraska,  U.  S.  A.,  was  divided 
into  two  parts  by  a  Decree  of  the  Sacred  Consistoriai 
Congregation  of  8  March,  1912,  and  the  western  part 


Ontario,  Northern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 
Detached  from  the  Diocese  of  Haileybury  in  province 
of  Ontario,  Canada,  and  erected  into  a  prefecture  18 
April,  1918,  and  into  a  vicariate  27  November,  1920. 
The  majority  of  the  Catholic  population  of  12,000  are 
French-Canadian  with  the  rest  Indian  or  Irish .  There 
are  8  secular  priests,  9  parishes,  50  missions,  10  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  with  16  teachers  and  450  pupils,  a 
boarding  school  for  Indians  at  Albany  with  30  pupils 
taught  by  5  Gray  Nuns  of  Ottawa,  a  boarding  school 
for  boys  and  girls  at  Hearst  with  50  boarders  and  80 
day  pupils  taught  by  8  sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Perpetual 
Help.  The  present  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph 
Halle,  elected  prefect  apostolic  in  1919,  titular  Bishop 
of  Theveste  and  vicar  apostolic  in  1920,  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Petraea,  17  April,  1921,  with  his  residence 
at  Hearst. 

Oporto,  Diocese  of  (Portugallensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 260f)  in  Portugal,  Suffragan  of  Braga.  Mgr. 
Antonio  Barbosa-Leao  is  the  present  (1922)  Bishop 
of  Oporto,  having  succeeded  to  the  see  in  1919  on 
the  death  of  Mgr.  de  Souza  Barroso  (1918).  He  was 
born  in  the  diocese  17  October,  1860,  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Angola  and  Congo  in  1906,  transferred  to 


OPPIDO 


560 


ORDERS 


Faro  the  following  year,  where  he  remained  until 
1919.  The  latest  available  statistics  (1920)  give  for 
the  diocese  462  parishes,  480  churches,  1220  priests 
and  650,000  Catholics. 

Oppido  Mamertina,  Diocese  of  (Oppidensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XI— 262a).— in  the  province  of  Reggio 
Calabria,  Italy,  suffragan  of  Reggim  Mgr.  Antonio 
Golati,  archpriest  of  Vallenlunga  in  the  diocese  of 
Mileto,  was  appointed  bishop  of  Oppido  Mamertina 
15  December,  1919,  to  succeed  Mgr.  Scopellitti,  who 
resigned  after  ruling  the  see  for  twenty-one  years  and 
was  transferred  to  the  titular  see  of  Rhesaena.  In 
1920  the  diocese  contained  19  parishes,  4  vicarages,  30 
churches  or  chapels,  41  secular  priests,  25  seminarians 
and  a  Catholic  population  of  30,000. 

Option,  Right  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI-264b). — The 
right  of  option  which  was  formerly  enjoyed  by  many 
chapters  and  until  recently  by  a  few  is  now  abolished, 
even  where  it  existed  in  virtue  of  a  special  Apostolic 
indult,  and  all  customs  to  the  contrary  are  reprobated. 
This  applies  not  merely  to  dignities  ( dignitates )  but  to 
all  canonries  also.  Of  course  where  the  right  of 
option  was  based  on  the  original  provisions  of  a 
foundation  it  has  not  been  affected  by  the  Code  legis¬ 
lation,  though  it  may  not  be  enjoyed  by  a  capitular 
emeritus.  Cardinal-deacons  and  cardinal-priests  but 
but  not  cardinal-bishops  still  possess  the  right  of 
option  peculiar  to  the  Sacred  College:  thus,  on  7 
March,  1921,  Cardinal  La  Fontaine,  Patriarch  of 
Venice,  who  had  the  title  of  Saints  Nereus  and 
Achilles,  resigned  it  and  took  the  title  of  the  Twelve 
Holy  Apostles,  which  had  been  rendered  vacant  by 
the  death  of  Cardinal  Netto  on  7  December,  1920. 

Cordex  juris  canonici,  can.,  236,  396,  422. 

Oradea-Mare,  Diocese  of.  See  Nagy-Varad. 

Oran,  Diocese  of  (Oranensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 
266c),  in  Algeria,  suffragan  of  Algiers.  Rt.  Rev. 
Christophe-Louis  Legasse,  appointed  bishop  of  this 
see  6  December,  1915;  was  transferred  to  Perigeux  13 
August,  1920.  His  successor  was  named  in  the  person 
of  Rt.  Rev.  Leon  Durand,  born  in  Oran  in  1878, 
studied  at  Marseilles,  the  French  Seminary  in  Rome, 
and  the  Academy  of  Noble  Ecclesiastics,  was  ordained 
in  1902,  served  as  a  professor  of  theology  and  canon 
law  in  the  upper  seminary  of  Marseilles,  entered  the 
army  as  a  military  chaplain  in  1914  and  received  an 
honorary  citation,  and  was  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Hetalonia  10  January,  1919,  transferred  to  Tri- 
comia  10  March  following  and  named  auxiliary  at 
Marseilles,  where  he  served  until  his  transfer  to  Oran 

11  October,  1920.  As  a  result  of  the  efforts  of  Bishop 
Legasse  the  old  episcopal  palace  has  been  returned 
to  the  bishop  under  an  eighteen  year  lease,  beginning 
1  July,  1920,  at  the  same  price  paid  by  the  State,  its 
tenant  for  the  last  ten  years,  to  the  city  of  Oran. 
The  garden  remains  open  to  the  public  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  day  and  the  city  pays  for  its  upkeep 
in  recognition  of  the  advantage  thus  accorded  to  the 
people.  The  old  cathedral  of  St.  Louis,  in  this  dio¬ 
cese,  was  replaced  by  that  of  the  Sacred  Heart  22 
August,  1913,  this  church  having  been  blessed  the 
preceding  February.  The  chapter  still  has  St.  Louis 
for  its  patron  however.  Latest  statistics  credit  the 
diocese  wTith  273,536  Europeans,  and  686,444  Mus¬ 
sulmans,  87  first  and  second  class  parishes  and  135 
priests. 

Orange  River,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Fluminis 
Orangensis). — According  to  statistics  for  1921  there 
were  in  the  vicariate  of  Orange  River,  South  Africa, 

12  quasi-parishes,  12  churches  or  chapels,  30  stations, 
12  regular  priests,  3  Brothers,  16  Sisters,  6  catechists, 
4  convents  of  nuns,  12  elementary  schools  with 


18  teachers  and  700  pupils,  4  orphanages,  3  homes 
for  aged  men  and  a  Catholic  population  of  about 
5500,  English,  Dutch  and  Africans.  The  residence 
of  the  vicar  apostolic  is  at  Pella.  In  1909  the 
prefecture  apostolic  of  Grand  Namaqualand  (q.  v.) 
was  detached  from  the  vicariate. 

-  Oratory  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI-271c).- — The  Code 

defines  an  oratory  as  a  place  set  aside  for  Divine 
worship,  though  not  chiefly  and  expressly  intended 
for  the  use  of  the  public  generally.  It  is  called  a 
public  oratory,  if  while  it  is  principally  intended  for 
a  collegiate  body  or  even  private  individuals,  the 
general  public  have  a  canonically  approved  right  of 
going  there  at  least  during  Divine  services;  a  semi¬ 
public  oratory  on  the  other  hand  is  erected  for  a 
community  or  a  certain  body  of  the  faithful,  without 
the  general  public  having  the  right  to  visit  it;  they 
are  erected  by  permission  of  the  ordinary.  Finally  an 
oratory  is  termed  private  or  domestic  when  it  has 
been  erected  in  a  private  establishment  for  the  exclu¬ 
sive  use  of  a  private  person  or  family.  The  private 
chapels  of  cardinals  and  bishops  now  enjoy  the  same 
privileges  as  semi-public  oratories.  Colleges,  board¬ 
ing-schools,  military  barracks,  fortresses,  prisons, 
hospitals,  and  the  like  may  not  have  minor  chapels 
in  addition  to  the  principal  oratory  unless  the  ordinary 
thinks  they  are  necessary  or  very  useful.  _  Mortuary 
chapels  erected  in  cemeteries  by  private  individuals 
or  families  for  their  place  of  burial  are  considered 
private  oratories;  while  the  ordinary  may  habitually 
allow  the  celebration  of  several  Masses  in  such  a 
chapel,  in  other  domestic  oratories  they  can  allow 
only  one  Mass  to  be  said  as  an  incidental  occurrence, 
in  an  extraordinary  case  when  there  is  a  just  and 
reasonable  cause.  When  an  Apostolic  indult  has 
been  obtained  for  a  domestic  oratory,  one  Mass  may 
be  celebrated  there  daily  except  on  the  more  solemn 
feasts,  but  no  other  church  services  may  be  held;  if, 
however,  there  is  a  just  and  reasonable  cause,  different 
from  those  on  account  of  which  the  indult  was 
granted,  the  ordinary  may  allow  Mass  to  be  celebrated 
there  on  these  feast-days  as  an  incidental  occurrence. 
Domestic  oratories  cannot  be  blessed  or  consecrated 
like  churches;  they  and  semi-public  oratories,  whether 
they  have  received  only  the  common  blessing  for 
houses  or  no  blessing  at  all ,  must  be  reserved  exclu¬ 
sively  for  Divine  service  and  must  never  be  used  for 

domestic  purposes. 

Codex  juris  canonici,  can.,  1188-96. 

Orders,  Holy  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI-279a) — Minister. — • 
The  ordinary  minister  of  the  sacrament  of  orders  is  a 
consecrated  bishop,  but  under  certain  circumstances 
the  Holy  See  authorizes  by  common  law  or  by  a  special 
indult  a  cleric  who  has  not  received  episcopal  conse¬ 
cration  to  act  as  an  extraordinary  minister.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  legitimate  ordinary  ministers  has  been  curtailed 
by  the  Code;  formerly  they  included  the  bishops  of 
origin,  or  benefice,  or  service,  or  incardination;  today 
the  office  is  limited  to  one’s  own  ( propius )  bishop  or  a 
bishop  who  has  received  legitimate  dimissorial  let¬ 
ters  from  him.  The  expression  “own  bishop”  as  far 
as  the  ordination  of  seculars  is  concerned  means 
solely  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  in  which  the  candidate 
has  a  domicile  together  with  origin,  or  a  simple  domi¬ 
cile  without  origin;  in  the  latter  case  the  candidate 
must  swear  that  he  intends  to  remain  permanently  in 
the  diocese,  unless  there  is  question  of  ordaining  a 
cleric  who  has  already  been  incardinated  in  the  diocese 
by  first  tonsure,  or  a  student  who  is  intended  for  ser¬ 
vice  in  another  diocese  after  legitimate  excardination  ' 
and  incardination,  or  a  professed  religious.  The  place 
of  origin  is  that  in  which  a  father  has  a  domicile,  or  in 
defect  of  a  domicile,  a  quasi-domicile,  when  his  child 
is  born,  or  the  place  of  the  mother’s  domicile  or  quasi- 


ORDERS 


561 


ORDERS 


domicile  if  the  child  is  illegitimate  or  posthumous  or 
the  place  where  a  foundling  has  been  discovered,  or 
the  place  of  birth  in  the  case  of  the  child  of  vagi.  No 
one  may  promote  to  higher  orders  a  candidate  who  has 
been  ordained^  by  the  Pope,  without  the  permission 
of  the  Holy  See;  so  also  no  one  may  consecrate  a 
bishop  without  the  consent  of  the  sovereign  pontiff, 
and  even  then  he  is  to  have  two  assistant  bishops  for 
the  ceremony  unless  a  dispensation  has  been  granted 
from  Rome;  finally  a  Latin  bishop  may  not  ordain  a 
person  belonging  to  an  Oriental  Rite  without  an  apos¬ 
tolic  indult. 

The  number  of  extraordinary  ministers,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  been  increased.  A  regular  abbot  cle 
regimine,  even  without  territory  nullius,  provided  he 
is  a  priest  and  has  lawfully  received  the  abbatial  bless¬ 
ing,  may  confer  tonsure  and  minor  orders  on  all  his 
professed  subjects.  Unless  under  those  conditions,  if 
the  abbot  is  not  a  bishop,  any  orders  conferred  by  him 
would  be  null  and  void,  as  any  privilege  to  the  con¬ 
trary  has  now  been  withdrawn.  Vicars  and  prefects 
apostolic,  and  abbots  and  prelates  nullius,  if  conse¬ 
crated,  are  ordinary  ministers  like  other  bishops; 
if  they  have  not  been  consecrated  they  can,  when 
within  their  own  territory  and  during  their  tenure  of 
office,  confer  tonsure  and  minor  orders  on  their  own 
subjects  and  on  all  who  have  dimissorial  letters  from 
their  own  superiors;  except  under  these  circumstances 
any  orders  conferred  by  them  would  be  invalid.  Fin¬ 
ally,  cardinals  who  are  not  bishops  may  confer  tonsure 
and  minor  orders  on  any  candidates  who  present  them¬ 
selves  with  dimissorial  letters  from  their  own  supe¬ 
riors. 

Subjects. — The  requirements  of  the  Code  regarding 
aspirants  for  Holy  Orders  mentioned  here  refer  not  to 
the  validity  but  to  the  liceity  of  ordinations.  It  is 
advisable  that  aspirants  to  orders  should  live  in  a 
seminary  from  a  very  early  age;  all  must  do  so  at  least 
during  their  entire  theological  studies,  unless  the  or¬ 
dinary  conscientiously  believes  that  there  is  grave 
cause  for  dispensing  from  the  obligation  in  a  special 
case;  if  thus  dispensed  the  aspirant  should  be  entrusted 
to  the  special  care  of  a  pious  capable  priest,  but  even 
then  his  studies  must  be  made  in  the  seminary,  not 
privately.  First  tonsure  and  orders  are  to  be  con¬ 
ferred  only  on  those  who  intend  to  become  priests  and 
who  give  good  hope  of  filling  that  office  worthily. 
The  candidate  for  orders  must  have  been  confirmed. 
No  one,  whether  secular  or  religious,  may  receive  first 
tonsure  before  beginning  his  theology;  the  subdiacon- 
ate  may  not  be  conferred  before  the  end  of  the  third 
year’s  theology,  nor  the  diaconate  before  commencing 
the  fourth  year;  the  priesthood  can  be  received  only 
after  the  middle  of  that  year.  The  intervals  between 
the  reception  of  the  different  orders  must  be  observed; 
those  between  first  tonsure  and  portership  and  be¬ 
tween  each  of  the  minor  orders  is  left  to  the  discretion 
of  the  bishop;  but  one  must  be  an  acolyte  one  year 
before  receiving  the  subdiaconate,  and  subdeacons 
and  deacons  must  have  exercised  their  respective  or¬ 
ders  for  three  months  before  being  promoted,  unless, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  bishop,  the  wants  or  interests  of 
the  church  demand  shorter  intervals;  however,  all 
customs  to  the  contrary  being  reprobated,  it  is  never 
lawful  without  special  papal  permission  to  confer 
minor  orders  with  the  subdiaconate  or  two  sacred 
orders  on  the  same  day;  nor  is  it  allowable  to  confer 
first  tonsure  with  a  minor  order,  or  all  minor  orders 
at  the  same  time. 

Seculars  must  have  a  canonical  title  for  ordination, 
either  a  benefice,  patrimony,  or  pension;  and  a  bishop 
who,  without  an  Apostolic  indult,  ordains  his  subject 
without  a  title,  must  provide  for  his  support  if  neces¬ 
sary,  even  if  the  subject  covenanted  not  to  ask  for 
alimentation.  When  these  titles  are  not  available 
they  may  be  replaced  by  a  title  of  diocesan  service 


and  in  territories  subject  to  Propaganda  by  a  title  of 
mission  but  in  these  cases  the  candidate  must  swrear 
to  devote  himself  perpetually  to  the  service  of  the 
diocese  or  mission,  under  the  authority  of  the  local 
ordinary  for  the  time  being.  In  the  United  States  the 
oath  has  been  modified  to  allow  the  cleric  to  pass  to 
another  diocese  in  the  same  province.  In  these  two 
cases  the  ordinary  is  bound  to  appoint  the  candidate 
to  some  benefice  or  office,  or  give  him  an  allowance 
sufficient  for  his  support.  For  regulars  with  solemn 
profession  the  title  is  poverty;  for  religious  with  per¬ 
petual  simple  vows  it  is  the  mensa  communis;  for  other 
religious  it  is  as  in  the  case  of  seculars.  Secular  can¬ 
didates  for  ordination  and  religious  who  are  bound  by 
the  same  regulations  before  being  ordained  must  pro¬ 
duce:  (a)  testimony  of  their  last  ordination  or,  if  there 
is  question  of  first  tonsure,  of  their  baptism  and  con¬ 
firmation;  Cb)  testimony  that  they  have  completed 
the  required  course  of  study;  (c)  testimony  of  the 
rector  of  the  seminary  or  of  the  priest  to  whom  the 
aspirant  was  entrusted  while  outside  the  seminary, 
concerning  his  moral  character;  (d)  testimonial  letters 
from  the  ordinary  of  the  place  where  the  candidate 
has  lived  for  a  time  during  which  he  might  have  in¬ 
curred  a  canonical  impediment;  (e)  similar  letters  from 
a  higher  religious  superior  if  the  candidate  is  a  re¬ 
ligious.  The  time  just  referred  to  in  (d)  is  usually 
three  months  in  the  case  of  soldiers,  and  six  months 
for  others  after  attaining  puberty,  but  the  ordaining 
bishop  may  insist  on  having  letters  when  the  time  was 
shorter  and  even  for  the  period  before  puberty  was 
reached.  If  the  local  ordinary  has  not  sufficient 
knowledge,  either  personal  or  through  others,  to  tes¬ 
tify  that  no  canonical  impediment  was  incurred  while 
the  candidate  was  in  his  territory,  or  if  the  candidate 
has  lived  in  so  many  dioceses  that  it  would  be  im¬ 
possible  or  very  difficult  to  obtain  all  the  requisite 
letters,  the  ordinary  must  obtain  a  supplementary 
oath  from  the  candidate .  If  af ter  obtainin  g  the  letters 
but  before  ordination  the  candidate  again  remains  the 
requisite  time  in  a  diocese  he  must  procure  fresh  testi¬ 
mony  from  the  local  ordinary.  A  religious  superior 
must  testify  in  his  letters  not  only  that  his  subject  is 
professed  and  a  member  of  his  house,  but  that  he  has 
finished  the  studies  and  has  the  other  qualifications 
required  by  the  canons .  Candidates,  both  secular  and 
religious,  are  to  be  carefully  examined  concerning  the 
order  they  are  about  to  receive,  and  those  intended 
for  major  orders  are  to  be  examined  in  theology;  the 
details  of  the  examination  are  left  to  the  bishop;  but 
even  after  the  candidate  has  received  the  dimissorial 
letters  certifying  that  his  examination  was  satisfac¬ 
tory,  the  ordaining  bishop  has  the  right  to  hold  an¬ 
other  examination  and  reject  the  candidate  if  he  finds 
him  unsuited. 

The  names  of  the  candidates,  excepting  religious 
with  simple  or  solemn  perpetual  vows,  must  be  an¬ 
nounced  publicly  in  the  candidates’  parochial  church, 
but  the  ordinary  may  dispense  from  this  for  just  cause 
and  have  the  proclamation  made  in  another  church  or 
instead  of  the  proclamation  have  the  names  posted 
publicly  on  the  church  doors  for  a  few  days,  one  of 
which  must  be  a  day  of  precept.  The  proclamation 
should  be  made  on  a  day  of  precept  during  mass  or  on’ 
another  day  and  at  another  time  when  a  great  number 
of  the  faithful  are  attending  church.  If  within  six 
months  the  candidate  has  not  been  ordained  the  proc¬ 
lamation  must  be  renewed.  The  faithful  must  inform 
the  parish  priest  or  the  ordinary  if  they  know  of  any 
impediment  to  the  ordination .  Those  who  are  about 
to  receive  first  tonsure  or  minor  orders  must  make  a 
retreat  of  three  days,  those  who  are  to  be  raised  to  a 
major  order,  six  days;  if  anyone  is  to  receive  several 
major  orders  within  six  months,  the  ordinary  may  re¬ 
duce  the  retreat  for  the  diaconate  to  three  days.  If 
the  ordination  does  not  take  place  within  six  months 


OREGON 


562 


OREGON 


the  retreat  must  be  repeated;  if  the  delay  is  less,  the 
matter  is  left  to  the  ordinary’s  discretion.  Religious 
must  make  the  retreat  in  their  own  house  or  another 
at  the  superior’s  discretion;  seculars  are  to  make  it  in 
the  seminary  or  in  another  pious  or  religious  house 
designated  by  the  bishop,  who  must  be  notified  that 
it  was  made,  by  the  superior  of  the  house,  or  if  the 
candidate  is  a  religious  by  one  of  this  higher  superiors. 

Ceremonies . — The  directions  of  the  ritual  are  to  be 
followed  as  heretofore  in  ordinations;  little  changes 
have  been  made  in  the  Code.  All  those  who  are  being 
promoted  to  a  major  order  must  receive  Holy  Com¬ 
munion  at  the  ordination  Mass.  If  a  candidate  who 
has  already  received  any  orders  in  an  Oriental  Rite  is, 
in  virtue  of  an  Apostolic  indult,  about  to  receive 
higher  orders  in  the  Latin  Rite  he  must  first  receive 
in  the  latter  Rite  the  orders  which  he  did  not  receive 
in  the  Oriental.  Major  orders  may  now  be  conferred 
also  on  any  Sunday,  or  a  feast  of  obligation,  when 
there  is  a  grave  cause  for  doing  so  and  minor  orders 
can  be  given  not  merely  on  Sundays  but  also  on  feasts 
of  double  rite,  in  the  morning  only,  without  a  special 
indult.  All  customs  contrary  to  the  provisions  just 
mentioned  regarding  the  time  of  ordination  are  repro¬ 
bated.  Though  ordinarily  ordinations  take  place  in 
the  church,  to  sure  and  minor  orders  may  be  con¬ 
ferred  in  private  oratories  and  major  orders  for  just 
cause  in  an  episcopal  seminary,  or  religious  oratory. 
Finally,  a  record  of  the  ordination  must  be  preserved 
in  the  local  curial  archives,  and  the  local  ordinal,  or 
higher  superior  of  the  candidate  who  is  a  religious  and 
has  been  ordained  with  dimissorial  letters,  must  send 
notice  of  the  ordination  of  all  subdeacors  to  the  rec¬ 
tors  of  their  baptismal  churches  so  that  the  fact  can 
be  recorded  in  the  baptismal  register. 

Oregon  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI-288c) — The  area  of  the 
State  of  Oregon  is  96,669  square  miles  including 
1092  of  water  surface.  The  population  in  1920  was 
783,389,  an  increase  of  16  per  cent  since  1910;  the 
increase  between  1900  and  1910  was  62  per  cent.  The 
average  number  of  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile  was 
8.2.  About  half  the  population  (49.9  per  cent)  was 
rural.  The  largest  cities  are  Portland  (258,288), 
Salem  (17,679),  Eugene  (10,593),  Astoria  (14,207). 
Thi  whites  numbered  769,146  (666,995  native,  102,- 
151  foreigi  bor  ),  the  negroes,  2144,  Indians,  4590, 
Chi  lese,  39090,  Japa  mse,  4151 .  Of  the  native  whites, 
497,726  were  of  native  parentage,  95,827  of  foreign 
parentage,  73,442  of  mixed  parentage.  The  school 
attendance  of  all  between  the  ages  of  5  and  20  years 
of  age  was  152,275  or  70.1  per  cent.  Among  those  of 
ten  years  and  over  there  were  9317  illiterates,  or  1.5 
per  cent.  Most  of  the  foreign-born  whites  came  orig- 
i  ally  from  Canada  (13,774),  Germany  (13,740), 
Sweden  (10,532),  Norway  (6955),  and  Russia  (6979). 

Economic  Conditions. — Oregon  is  prosperous  as 
an  agricultural  State.  The  number  of  farms  in  1920 
(50,206)  shows  an  increase  of  10.3  per  cent  since  1910. 
The  area  of  farm  land  is  13,542,318  acres,  the  value 
of  farm  property,  $818,559,751;  value  of  all  farm 
crops,  $131,884,639;  of  live  stock,  $101,779,342. 
The  principal  crops  were  wheat,  valued  at  $41,201,- 
480;  oats,  $7,939,537;  barley,  $2,215,065;  hay, 
$41,835,706;  fruits  and  nuts,  $20,373,412;  dairy 
products,  $17,651,409.  Especially  rich  is  the  county 
of  Umatilla,  whose  wheat  crop  averages  about  5,000,- 
000  bushels  annually,  while  the  alfalfa  lands,  com¬ 
prising  about  30,000  acres,  yield  three  crops  a  year, 
totalling  4  tons  to  the  acre.  Live  stock  is  also  an 
extensive  industry;  there  are  in  this  county  about 
66,000  sheep,  with  fleeces  averaging  about  9  pounds 
each,  and  33,000  cattle.  The  wool  clip  was  13,118,479 
pounds,  valued  at  $1,544,443.  In  1920,  9154  farms 
with  an  acreage  of  986,162  were  irrigated.  Plans  are 
are  being  made  for  the  irrigation  of  about  two  million 


acres.  At  an  annual  expense  of  $100,000  the  State- 
operated  hatcheries  liberate  85,000,000  young  salmon 
every  year.  The  entire  industry  brings  in  about 
$10,000,000  annually. 

The  mining  resources  are  few,  coal  to  the  amount  of 
28,327  tons  being  mined  in  1918.  Manufacturing  is 
slightly  on  the  increase,  the  number  of  establishments 
in  1919  (2707)  being  16.7  per  cent  greater  than  in 
1914.  There  were  68,004  persons  ergaged  in  manu¬ 
facture  and  earning  for  their  services  a  total  of 
$94,986,000.  The  capital  invested  was  $499,982,000 
and  the  value  of  the  products  $366,783,000.  For 
communications,  the  State  has  3214  miles  of  railways. 
The  Dalles  and  Celilo  Canal  completed  in  1915  opens 
the  Columbia  and  Snake  Rivers  to  navigation  for  a 
length  of  570  miles  from  the  ocean.  The  Columbia 
River  Highway,  om  of  the  finest  in  the  world,  was 
opened  in  1916.  The  State  debt  in  1920  was  $19,- 
859,025;  the  assessed  value  of  taxable  property,  as 
equalized,  was  $990,435,472.  The  lumber  industry  is 
a  large  source  of  revenue  for  Oregon,  the  output  of 
sawed  lumber  for  1918  being  2,700,000,000  feet, 
valued  at  $68,000,000.  In  1913  a  compulsory  forest 
patrol  law  was  e:  acted  requiring  the  owners  of  forests 
to  provide  adequate  protection,  or  to  pay  for  the 
protection  furnished  by  the  State.  The  air  patrol 
maintained  by  the  War  Department  proved  a  valuable 
adjunct  to  the  system. 

Religion. — According  to  the  latest  United  States 
Census  of  Religious  Denominations,  the  membership 
of  all  sects  was  179,468.  The  largest  were:  Catholics 
49,728  or  27%;  Methodist  Episcopalians  27,866  or 
15.5%;  Presbyterians  16,672  or  9.3%;  Baptists, 
Northern  Convention  15,635  or  8.7%;  Disciples  of 
Christ  15,399,  or  8.6%;  Congregationalist  6373  or 
3.6%;  Protestant  Episcopalians  5726  or  3.2%; 
Jews  1315  or  .7%.  For  further  educational  and  re¬ 
ligious  statistics,  see  Oregon  City,  Archdiocese  of; 
Baker  City,  Diocese  of. 

Education. — Education  is  compulsory  for  children 
between  the  ages  of  9  and  15.  All  county  school 
districts  having  a  school  population  of  2500  or  mom' 
must  maintain  schools  at  least  eight  months  in  the 
year.  In  1920  there  were  2673  public  schools  with 
7695  teachers  and  148,412  enrolled  pupils,  220  high 
schools  with  1163  teachers  and  24,641  pupils,  a  public 
normal  school  with  30  teachers,  and  230  pupils.  The 
total  expenditure  on  education  in  1919  was  $11,217,- 
385.  An  irreducible  fund  of  $7,109,689  has  been 
secured  by  the  sale  of  part  of  the  school  lands.  The 
Agricultural  College  has  an  instructing  staff  of  265 
and  a  total  attendance  of  3623  students;  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Oregon,  123  instructors  and  1868  students. 
Washington’s  Birthday  (22  February)  is  a  half-holiday 
in  the  schools.  Bible  reading  is  neither  permitted 
nor  excluded.  The  State  laws  governing  private  and 
parochial  schools  are  as  follows:  It  shall  be  unlawful 
for  any  board  of  school  directors,  regents,  or  trustees, 
or  for  any  teacher  or  other  person  teaching  in  the 
public  or  private  schools,  to  cause  to  be  taught  or  to 
teach  any  subject  or  subjects  other  than  foreign 
languages  in  the  public  or  private  schools  in  any 
language  but  English.  All  teachers  in  public  and 
private  schools  must  take  the  oath  of  allegiance.  No 
money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  for  the 
benefit  of  ary  religious  or  theological  institution 
(1-6).  Property  for  educational,  literary,  scientific, 
religious  or  charitable  purposes  may  be  exempted  from 
taxation  (IX-1).  Any  teacher  in  a  four-year  high 
school  must  be  a  graduate  of  a  standard  college  or 
hold  a  like  certificate  or  State  diploma.  The  State 
superintendent  shall  visit  all  chartered  schools  and 
shall  secure  statistical  information  relative  to  the 
number  of  students,  teachers,  value  of  property, 
libraries,  salaries,  courses  of  study. 

Recent  Legislation  and  History. — In  1911  a 


OREGON 


563 


ORIA 


new  law  permitted  a  three-quarters  jury  verdict  in 
civil  cases;  white  slave  traffic  was  made  a  felony;  a 
Parole  Board,  Fish  and  Game  Commission,  and  State 
Banking  Department  were  created.  In  the  general 
election  of  November,  1912,  suffrage  was  extended  to 
women  and  every  citizen  of  twenty-one  years  of  age 
and  over,  who  shall  have  resided  in  the  State  during  the 
six  months  preceding  the  election.  In  the  same  year, 
the  Supreme  Court  refuse  to  declare  the  initiative, 
referendum  and  recall  Act  of  1910  unconstitutional, 
simply  denied  jurisdiction,  saying  that  the  question 
was  political,  not  judicial.  The  law  of  1913,  pro¬ 
viding  permanent  registration  of  voters  was  declared 
unconstitutional.  A  Workmen’s  Compensation  Act 
was  passed  in  1913.  According  to  the  laws  of  1915, 
applicants  for  a  marriage  license  must  file  a  physician’s 
certificate,  made  u?:der  oath  ten  days  before  the 
ceremony ,  stating  that  the  male  party  is  fit  to  marry. 
Any  physician  making  a  false  statement  on  the 
certificate  required  shall  lose  his  license.  Marriage 
of  a  white  person  with  a  negro,  Chinese,  Kai  aka,  or 
Indian  is  forbidden.  It  is  a  criminal  offense  to  take  a 
girl  under  sixteen  years  of  age  against  the  will  of  her 
parents  or  guardian,  for  the  purpose  of  marriage. 
In  1916  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  liquor  was  pro¬ 
hibited,  and  the  importation  of  intoxicants  into 
the  state  forbidden .  An  amendment  went  into  effect, 
removing  from  the  constitution  a  clause  denying  the 
suffrage  to  negroes,  mulattoes,  and  Chinese.  The 
Sunday  closing  laws  of  the  State,  which  had  been  on 
the  statute  books  for  many  j^ears  without  an  effort 
being  made  to  enforce  them,  were  repealed  in  1916. 
The  Act  of  Repeal  was  proposed  by  initiative  petition 
in  July  and  approved  by  a  majority  of  votes  in  the 
November  election.  In  1917  a  Poor  Man’s  Court 
was  created;  provisions  were  made  for  the  commit¬ 
ment  and  care  of  the  feeble-minded,  insane  and 
criminally  inclined  persons  were  provided  for;  pa¬ 
rental  schools  for  discipline  and  instruction  of  habitual 
truants,  absentees,  and  school  offenders,  and  county 
tuberculosis  sanitariums  and  hospitals  were  estab¬ 
lished.  In  order  to  stimulate  the  return  of  dis¬ 
charged  soldiers  and  sailors  to  colleges  and  uni¬ 
versities,  the  Legislature  permitted  the  payment  of 
$25.00  a  month  during  eight  months  a  year  for  four 
years  to  any  veteran  of  the  European  War.  More 
recent  laws  allow  the  widow  to  take  an  undivided 
third  of  land  in  lieu  of  a  dower.  Immoral  pictures, 
printed  or  written  matter,  articles  or  instruments  are 
forbidden.  The  Federal  Suffrage  Act  was  ratified  on 
12  January ;  1919;  the  Prohibition  Act  three  days 
later.  During  the  European  War  Oregon  sent  into 
the  United  States  Army  30,116  men  (.8  per  cent). 

1  he  Oregon  members  of  the  national  army  joined  the 
91st  Division  at  Camp  Lewis,  Washington.  The 
summary  of  casualties  of  the  Oregon  members  of  the 
American  Expeditionary  Force  is  as  follows:  de¬ 
ceased,  29  officers,  483  men;  prisoners,  29  officers, 
430  men;  wounded,  63  officers,  991  men. 

Oregon  City,  Archdiocese  of  (Oregonopoli- 
tanensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 293a),  comprises  21,389 
square  miles  in  the  State  of  Oregon.  This  see  is 
■filled  by  Most  Rev.  Alexander  Christie,  promoted 
from  the  see  of  Vancouver  12  February,  1899.  Born 
in  Vermont  in  1848,  Archbishop  Christie  made  his 
studies  in  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  and  was  ordained  22 
December,  1877,  and  appointed  Bishop  of  Van¬ 
couver,  22  March,  1898.  The  religious  communities 
now  in  the  archdiocese  include:  men,  Benedictines, 
Capuchins,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Fathers  and 
Brothers^  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross, 
Jesuit  Fathers,  Paulists,  Redemptorists,  Servites, 
Society  of  the  Divine  Saviour  and  Brothers  of  the 
Christian  Schools;  women;  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Names 
of  Jesus  and  Mary,  Sisters  of  Charity  of  Providence, 


of  Mercy,  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Sisters  Adorers  of 
the  Precious  Blood,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Child  Jesus, 
Sisters  of  Mary  of  the  Presentation,  Benedictine 
Sisters,  and  Sisters  of  St.  Francis.  The  archdiocese 
comprises  1  mitred  abbot,  77  diocesan  priests,  76 
regular  priests,  66  churches  with  resident  priests, 
50  missions  with  churches,  about  100  mission  stations, 
18  chapels,  1  seminary  of  religious  order  with  47 
students,  3  colleges  and  academies  for  boys  with 
563  students,  13  academies  for  girls,  46  parochial 
schools,  7300  pupils  in  Catholic  schools,  3  orphan 
asylums  caring  for  405  orphans,  8  hospitals,  1  House 
of  the  Good  Shepherd,  1  home  for  the  aged,  and  1 
Catholic  young  women’s  home.  The  Catholic 
population  of  the  archdiocese  is  60,000. . 

Orense,  Diocese  of  (Auriensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI- 
295b),  in  Spain,  is  a  suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of 
Compostela.  The  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  D. 
Florencio  Cervino  Gonzales,  was  appointed  to  the  see 
7  March,  1921,  as  successor  to  Rt.  Rev.  Eustachio 
Ilundain  y  Esteban,  who  filled  the  see  from  14  No¬ 
vember,  1904,  until  his  promotion  to  the  Archdiocese 
of  Seville,  16  December,  1920.  By  1920  statistics  the 
Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  numbers  363,000, 
practically  all  the  inhabitants  of  this  territory.  In 
1921  there  were  682  parishes,  682  churches,  12  monas¬ 
teries  for  men  with  86  religious,  12  monasteries  for 
women  with  180  sisters,  882  secular  priests  and  147 
regulars,  20  Brothers  and  1  seminary.  The  Catholic 
institutions  include  1  normal  school,  6  homes,  4  asy¬ 
lums,  3  hospitals,  8  refuges,  2  lay  charitable  centres 
and  1  day  nursery.  There  are  many  societies  organ¬ 
ized  among  both  clergy  and  laitv,  and  two  Catholic 
periodicals  are  published. 

Organ,  Nellie,  better  known  as  Little  Nellie 
of  Holy  God,  b.  in  Waterford,  Ireland,  24  August, 
1903;  d.  there  2  February,  1908.  This  saintly  child 
was  the  daughter  of  humble  Catholic  parents  whose 
only  inheritance  was  a  sterling  Irish  faith.  The 
youngest  of  four  children,  Nellie  was  not  four  years 
old  when  her  mother  died  and  she,  with  her  sister, 
was  placed  in  the  Industrial  School  of  the  Sisters  of 
the  Good  Shepherd,  at  Sunday’s  Well  in  1907.  It 
was  soon  discovered  that  she  was  suffering  from 
phthisis  and  curvature  of  the  spine.  As  her  frail 
little  body  wasted  away  her  heart  and  soul  opened 
to  the  love  of  God  and  the  illumination  of  His  grace 
in  an  extraordinary  degree.  She  had  a  wonderful 
intuition  concerning  the  Real  Presence,  and  her 
progress  in  religious  knowledge  and  growth  in  holiness 
were  most  "remarkable.  She  lived  continuously  in 
the  presence  of  “Holy  God,”  and  her  hunger  to  receive 
Him  in  Holy  Communion  was  so  great  that  the 
Bishop  of  Cork  permitted  her  to  make  her  First 
Communion,  a  permission  more  unusual  then,  before 
the  promulgation  of  the  decree  of  Pope  Pius  X  in 
favor  of  early  communion,  than  now.  During  the 
remaining  months  of  her  life  her  patience  in  suffering 
for  the  love  of  “Holy  God”  many  extraordinary 
spiritual  facts  attested  by  the  Sisters  who  witnessed 
them,  the  hours  she  spent  in  “talking  to  Holy  God,” 
and  the  secrets  He  revealed  to  her  convinced  those 
who  came  in  contact  with  her  of  her  unusual  sanctity. 
She  was  buried  in  the  public  cemetery  of  St.  Joseph 
where  her  grave  became  a  shrine,  at  which,  it  was 
rumored,  many  found  peace  and  consolation.  A 
year  and  a  half  after  her  death  her  body  was  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  Convent  Cemetery  at  Sunday’s  Well. 
At  the  disinterment  her  remains  were  found  to  be 
intact,  the  fingers  quite  flexible,  and  her  clothing 
exactly  as  it  was  on  the  day  of  her  death. 

Edith  Donovan. 

Oria  (or  Uritana),  Diocese  of  (Uritanensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 302a),  in  the  province  of  Lecce, 


ORIHUELA 


564 


OSAKA 


Southern  Italy,  Suffragan  of  Taranto.  According  to 
the  statistics  for  1920  the  diocese  contains  15  parishes, 
122  churches  or  chapels,  132  secular  priests,  20  sem¬ 
inarians,  51  regular  priests,  30  Brothers,  and  42 
Sisters  and  120,000  Catholics.  Mgr.  Antonio  di 
Tommasio  has  ruled  the  see  since  1903. 

Orihuela,  Diocese  of  (Oriolensis  orAlomensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 315c),  comprises  most  of  the  civil 
province  of  Alicante,  in  Spain,  suffragan  of  Valencia. 
Rt.  Rev.  Raymond  Plaza  y  Blanco,  born  in  the  dio¬ 
cese  of  Cuenca  in  1847  and  appointed  to  this  see  18 
July,  1913,  died  8  November,  1921,  and  no  bishop 
has  yet  been  appointed  to  succeed  him.  This 
diocese  also  has  jurisdiction  over  two  small  portions 
of  the  territory  to  the  North,  rightly  belonging  to 
neighboring  dioceses.  Latest  statistics  (1920)  credit 
it  with  367,603  Catholics,  70  parishes,  314  priests, 
94  churches,  145  chapels  and  about  5  convents  with 
133  religious  and  445  Sisters. 

O’Riordan,  Michael,  Rector  of  the  Irish 
College,  Rome;  b.  in  Co.  Limerick,  Ireland,  in 
1857;  d.  at  Rome  on  27  August,  1919.  He  was 
educated  in  the  Irish  College,  the  Propaganda  and 
the  Gregorianum,  Rome.  After  his  ordination  to  the 
priesthood  in  1883  he  spent  four  years  in  the  ministry 
at  Westminster,  England,  and  from  there  went  to  a 
professor’s  chair  at  St.  Munchin’s  College,  Limerick, 
and  later  was  attached  to  the  parish  of  St.  Michael 
in  the  same  city.  In  1905  he  was  called  to  Rome 
as  Rector  of  the  Irish  College  and  successor  to  Mgr. 
Murphy.  He  was  made  a  Prothonotary  Apostolic, 
consultor  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  and  postulator 
of  the  cause  of  the  Irish  martyrs.  Meantime  he  had 
received  an  honorary  degree  as  doctor  of  philosophy 
from  Louvain.  He  published  several  scholarly 
works,  one  of  which  was  an  answer  to  Draper’s 
“Conflict  of  Science  and  Religion.”  “Catholicity 
and  Progress  in  Ireland”  and  the  “Life  of  St.  Colum- 
banus”  were  also  from  his  pen,  as  were  many  con¬ 
tributions  to  English,  American,  Irish  and  Italian 
Reviews.  He  was  one  of  the  best  esteemed  men 
in  Rome  for  his  personal  qualities  as  well  as  for  his 
historical,  archaeological  and  theological  learning. 

Oristano,  Archdiocese  of  (Arborensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  XI-316c),  in  Sardinia.  Archbishop  Tolu,  who 
had  filled  this  see  from  1899,  died  30  January,  1914, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Most  Rev.  Ernest  Piovella,  b. 
at  Milan,  1867,  promoted  to  the  see  of  Oristano  15 
April,  1914,  transferred  to  the  see  of  Cagliari,  8 
March,  1920.  The  see  is  now  filled  by  Most  Rev. 
Giorgio  Delrio,  b.  in  Silanus,  Italy,  1865,  made  a 
chancellor  penitentiary,  and  pro- vicar  general, 
appointed  Bishop  of  Gerace  6  December,  1906,  and 
promoted  16  December,  1920.  In  1912  Oristano  cele¬ 
brated  the  tercentenary  of  its  seminary,  founded  in 
1612.  In  September,  1921,  the  first  congress  of  the 
Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  was  held  here,  and  the 
same  year,  in  October,  the  seventh  centenary  of  the 
Dominican  Order  was  celebrated.  During  the  World 
War  two  of  the  clergy  of  this  diocese,  Rev.  Angelo 
Murgia,  and  Rev.  Giovanni  Coghe  served  as  military 
chaplains,  the  latter  being  killed  in  action.  All  the 
clergy,  from  the  archbishop  down  were  distinguished 
by  their  zeal  for  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  soldiers. 
The  diocese  lost  a  zealous  worker  by  the  death  of  Mgr. 
Francesco  Cherchi,  in  December,  1913. 

By  1921  statistics  this  diocese  counts  74  parishes, 
200  churches,  2  monasteries  for  women,  2  convents  for 
men,  150  secular  and  14  regular  clergy,  5  Brothers,  70 
sisters,  1  seminary,  50  seminarians,  1  physical  training 
school  with  8  teachers  and  100  students  and  8  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  with  12  teachers  and  300  pupils.  The 
charitable  institutions  include  1  home,  5  asylums,  and 


1  hospital:  the  asylums  receive  financial  aid  from  the 
government.  In  1920  the  population  of  this  diocese, 
which  is  entirely  Catholic,  was  counted  at  96,900. 

Orleans,  Diocese  of  (Aurelianensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 318c),  in  the  department  of  Loire,  France, 
suffragan  of  Paris.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Stanislas- Arthur-Xavier  Touchet,  born  in  Sobers 
in  1848,  served  as  vicar  general  to  his  uncle,  the 
Archbishop  of  Besangon,  and  as  archdeacon  of 
Belfort  for  six  years,  and  was  appointed  Bishop  18 
May,  1894.  On  23  December,  1915,  he  was  honored 
with  the  priviledge  of  wearing  the  pallium,  which  he 
received  the  following  day  from  Cardinal  Amette- 
in  Paris.  On  16  July,  1919,  Bishop  Touchet  cele, 
brated  the  silver  jubilee  of  his  episcopacy.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  1920  statistics  the  diocese  counts  a  Catholic 
population  of  364,061  of  whom  72,096  are  in  Orleans 
proper,  41  parishes,  293  succursal  parishes  and  23 
vicariates  formerly  supported  by  the  State.  During 
the  World  War  215  of  the  clergy  of  this  diocese  were 
mobilized,  and  of  this  number,  20  seminarians  and 
10  priests  gave  up  their  lives,  5  were  decorated  with 
the  legion  d’honneur ,  5  with  the  medaille  militaire 
and  70  with  the  croix  de  guerre.  On  13  September, 
1921  a  diocesan  synod  was  held  for  the  purpose  of 
revising  the  statutes  of  the  diocese.  The  preceding 
year,  by  a  bull  dated  27  October,  the  Pope  conferred 
the  dignity  of  dean  of  the  chapter  on  Canon  Cornet. 
The  festivities  in  honor  of  St.  Joan  of  Arc,  8  May, 
1921,  were  presided  over  by  Cardinal  di  Belmonte. 

Orvieto,  Diocese  of  (Urbevetanensis;  cf.  C.  $., 
XI — 331c),  in  the  province  of  Perugia,  central  Italy, 
directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  This  see  is  filled  by 
Rt.  Rev.  Salvatore  Fratocchi,  born  in  Rome  in  1855, 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Memphis  and  auxiliary 
to  the  Bishop  of  Orvieto  22  June,  1903,  succeeding  to 
the  see  24  January,  1905.  According  to  1920  statis¬ 
tics  this  diocese  has  a  Catholic  population  of  41,500; 
57  parishes,  89  secular  and  20  regular  clergy,  60 
seminarians,  6  Brothers,  98  Sisters,  and  124  churche* 
and  chapels. 

Osaka.  Diocese  of  (Osakensis). — Adherence 
to  old  superstitions,  agnosticism  amongst  the  intel¬ 
lectual  classes,  laxity  of  morals,  the  desire  of  material 
progress  and  finally  national  pride  inflamed  by  the 
various  achievements  of  Japan  since  the  Restoration 
(1868)  are  formidable  obstacles  to  the  spread  of  the 
Faith  in  this  diocese.  The  present  bishop  is  Mgr. 
J.  B.  Kastanier,  appointed  6  July,  1918,  to  succeed 
Mgr.  Chatron,  deceased.  Born  at  Lacapelle,  diocese 
of  St.  Flour,  7  January,  1877,  he  was  ordained  23 
September,  1899,  and  went  to  Osaka  the  following 
month,  where  he  labored  for  nineteen  years  before  his 
consecration  as  bishop.  He  was  mobilized  in  France 
at  that  time,  but  on  his  appointment  was  allowed  to 
return  to  his  diocese. 

A  decree  of  13  August,  1912,  took  away  from  the 
diocese  certain  territory  which  now  forms  part  of  the 
Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Nygata.  According  to  the 
latest  statistics  (1922)  the  diocese  counts:  19  mission¬ 
ary  and  3  native  priests,  9  Marianite  Brothers,  26 
Sisters,  32  catechists,  21  missions,  38  stations,  7 
churches,  20  oratories,  1  commercial  school  for  boys 
with  859  pupils,  2  secondary  schools  for  girls  with  656 
alumnae,  2  sewing  schools  with  72  pupils,  2  kinder¬ 
gartens  with  262  children,  1  school  for  European  or 
Eurasian  girls  with  90  students,  3  orphanages  with 
80  inmates,  and  4532  Catholics.  The  mission  pub¬ 
lishes  a  monthly  review,  Hokyo  Hatei  no  Tomo  (The 
Friend  of  Catholic  Families). 

During  the  World  War  five  missionaries  were 
mobilized,  all  of  whom  returned  to  their  work  when 
peace  was  proclaimed.  Two  of  them  won  the  “Croix 


OSIMO 


565 


OTRANTO 


do  Guerre,”  and  one  1h<‘  "Medaillc  d’Honneur  des 
Epidemics.” 

Osimo  (and  Cingoli),  Diocese  of  (Ruximanensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 338d),  in  the  province  of  Ascoli, 
central  Italy,  directly  dependent  on  the  Holy  See. 
Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni-Battista  Scotti,  appointed  to  this 
see  18  May,  1894,  died  5  December,  1916,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Pacifico  Fiorani,  born  in 
Collestellano,  in  the  diocese  of  Fabriano,  in  1855, 
served  as  a  professor,  then  rector  of  the  seminary, 
made  a  theological  canon  of  the  cathedral,  named  an 
honorary  chamberlain  extra  urbem ,  20  May,  1893, 
and  again  in  1903,  appointed  rector  of  the  seminary 
of  Magliano-Sabino,  and  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Carystus  15  April,  1907,  and  suffragan  bishop  of 
Sabina,  made  auxiliary  to  the  Bishop  of  Ascoli- 
Piceno  in  1908,  and  transferred  to  the  see  of  Civi¬ 
tavecchia  10  March,  1910,  which  he  filled  until  again 
transferred  to  Osimo,  12  May,  1917.  Latest  statis¬ 
tics  available  (1920)  credit  the  diocese  with  52,300 
Catholics  of  whom  10,165  are  in  Cingoli;  34  parishes, 
150  secular  and  29  regular  clergy,  20  seminarians, 
12  Brothers,  87  Sisters  and  89  churches  and  chapels. 

Osma,  Diocese  of  (Oxomensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 
339c),  in  Northern  Spain,  suffragan  of  Burgos.  The 
see  is  at  El  Burgo  de  Osma /but  Soria,  the  capital  of 
the  province  of  that  name,  was  the  see  at  one  time. 
This  diocese  has  had  a  glorious  history  but  now  is  one 
of  the  most  humble  in  Spain.  The  inhabitants  are 
nearly  all  farmers  and  poor  and  as  the  district  is  iso¬ 
lated  from  the  great  centers  of  Spain,  religion  has  not 
progressed  of  late  years.  The  present  bishop  is  Mgr. 
Mateo  Mugica  y  Urrestarazu,  bora  in  diocese  of 
Vitoria  21  September,  1870,  ordained  in  1893,  elected 
22  February,  1918,  to  succeed  Mgr.  Lago  y  Gonzales, 
transferred  to  Tuy.  The  diocese  has  (1920)  187,500 
inhabitants,  all  Catholics,  398  parishes,  803  churches, 

1  monastery  for  women,  6  convents  for  men  and  4  for 
women,  370  secular  and  60  regular  priests,  100  Sis¬ 
ters,  1  seminary,  109  seminarians,  1  institute  (general 
and  technical)  with  94  students,  1  college  for  boys 
with  200  students,  2  colleges  for  girls  with  200  stu¬ 
dents,  1  normal  school  for  boys  (88  students)  and  1 
for  girls  (60  students),  1  industrial  school  with  14 

upils,  410  elementary  schools  with  3862  pupils,  2 
ospitals  in  charge  of  Sisters  of  Charity,  3  asylums, 

2  refuges,  2  day  nurseries,  1  weekly  paper  and  various 
parish  publications.  The  usual  associations  are 
organized  for  clergy  and  laity.  Lately  agricultural 
colonies  have  been  organized  in  the  diocese. 

Osnabriick,  Diocese  of  (Osnabrugensis,  cf. 
C.  E.,  XI — 341a),  in  Germany.  The  present  incum¬ 
bent  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  William  Berning,  b.  at  Lingen, 
26  March,  1877,  ordained  10  March,  1900,  elected  14 
July,  1914,  published  8  Sept.,  consecrated  29  Septem¬ 
ber  following.  On  15  September,  1914,  he  was 
appointed  Apostolic  Vicar  of  the  Northern  Missions 
of  Germany  and  Prefect  Apostolic  of  Schleswig- 
Holstein.  The  Caritas-verband  (association  of  char¬ 
ities)  was  founded  23  May,  1916,  and  a  diocesan 
synod  was  held  from  6-8  October,  1920.  In  1921 
the  diocese  contained  110  parishes,  12  deaneries,  31 
independent  chapels  or  stations,  265  secular  priests, 
30  regulars,  987  sisters.  The  diocesan  seminary  is 
at  Osnabriick  with  8  seminarians  who  are  being  pre¬ 
pared  for  ordination.  The  remaining  theological 
students,  70  in  number,  are  studying  at  the  University 
of  Munster  in  Westphalia.  The  following  orders  of 
men  have  foundations:  Capuchins,  Clemenswerth 
near  Sogel  (4  priests);  Missionaries  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Johannesburg  in  Borgermoor  (5);  Marists, 
Meppen  (11);  Franciscans,  Ohrbeck-Holzhausen  near 
Osnabriick  (3);  Fathers  of  Sacred  Heart  at  Handrup 


near  Lengerich .  The  following  orders  of  women  have 
mother-houses  in  the  diocese:  Benedictines  of  the 
Perpetual  Adoration,  Osnabriick;  Franciscans,  Thu- 
ine;  Ursulines,  Haseltinne,  Haste  and  Osnabriick; 
Missionary  Sisters  of  Mary,  Meppen.  Among  the 
higher  educational  institutions  are  the  following: 
Gymnasium  Carolinum  at  Osnabriick,  founded  by 
Charlemagne;  a  gymnasium  at  Meppen,  realgym- 
nasium  (6  to  9  years’  course,  Latin,  sciences  and 
modern  languages),  at  Papenburg;  lyceum  and  school 
for  women  conducted  by  the  Ursulines  at  Haste; 
lyceum  of  the  Sisters  of  our  Lady  at  Meppen;  lyceum 
of  the  Ursulines  at  Haseltinne  and  Papenburg.  The 
following  associations  exist  among  the  priests:  Asso¬ 
ciation  for  Catholic  catechists,  Pactum  Marianum; 
Unio  cleri  pro  missionibus;  Unio  apostolica,  Priests’ 
Temperance  Society.  Much  good  is  done  by  the 
many  religious,  charitable  and  social  organizations 
which  have  been  formed  among  the  laity.  Forty- 
eight  of  them  exist  in  various  places  throughout  the 
diocese.  Only  one  Catholic  paper  is  published  in  the 
diocese. 

The  following  institutions  exist  in  the  diocese:  1 
home  for  destitute  children,  6  orphanages,  1  home  for 
convalescent  children,  3  homes  for  children,  3  da.y 
nurseries,  27  hospitals,  1  reformatory,  27  hospitals. 
There  are  Sisters  stationed  at  various  places  who  go 
about  visiting  the  sick. 

Ossory,  Diocese  of  (Ossoriensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI— 342d),  in  the  province  of  Leinster,  Ireland, 
suffragan  of  Dublin,  with  the  episcopal  residence  at 
Kilkenny.  For  almost  thirty-eight  years  this  see 
has  been  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Abraham  Brownrigg,  born 
in  Kildavin  in  1836,  appointed  bishop  28  October, 
1884,  and  named  an  assistant  at  the  pontifical 
throne  15  January,  1892.  The  religious  orders  estab¬ 
lished  in  this  diocese  include  men:  Dominicans, 
Augustinians,  Capuchins,  Carmelites,  Brothers  of 
the  Christian  Schools,  Irish  Christian  Brothers  and 
Brothers  of  Charity;  women:  Presentation  Nuns, 
Sisters  of  Charity,  Sisters  of  Loreto,  of  Mercy,  of  the 
Holy  Faith,  of  St.  John  of  God  and  Sisters  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Mary.  According  to  the  latest 
census,  collected  in  1911,  the  Catholic  population  of 
the  diocese  is  79,572.  Latest  statistics  (1922)  credit  it 
with  41  parishes,  127  priests,  9  higher  schools,  96 
churches,  1  college,  4  houses  of  regulars,  17  convents, 
and  6  establishments  of  the  Christian  Brothers. 

Ostia,  Diocese  of  (Ostiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 346b),  a  suburbicarian  see,  united  to  Velletri 
in  1150,  and  separated  from  it  5  May,  1914.  This  see 
is  always  filled  by  the  dean  of  the  Sacred  College,  at 
present  His  Eminence  Vincenzo  Cardinal  Vannutelli, 
who  is  also  Bishop  of  Palestrina.  The  statistics  of 
1920  credit  the  diocese  with  3000  Catholics,  3  par¬ 
ishes,  10  secular  and  10  regular  clergy  and  20  churches 
or  chapels.  On  21  June,  1919,  the  cardinal  laid  the 
first  stone  for  the  new  church  of  Regina  Pacis.  (See 
also  Palestrina,.) 

Ostuni,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Brindisi. 

Otranto,  Archdiocese  of  (Hydruntinensis, 
cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 351d),  in  the  province  of  Lecce, 
Southern  Italy.  Most  Rev.  Giuseppe  Ridolphi, 
transferred  to  this  see  10  August,  1912,  was  again 
transferred  to  the  titular  see  of  Irenopolis,  12  August, 
1915.  After  a  vacancy  of  two  years  his  successor  was 
appointed,  Most  Rev.  Carmelo  Patane,  born  in 
Giarre  in  1869,  named  a  prelate  of  the  Holy  See  8 
March,  1917,  and  appointed  archbishop  11  January, 
1918.  The  boundaries  of  this  ancient  diocese  were 
somewhat  changed  by  a  decree  of  the  consistory  of  25 
November,  1915.  According  to  1920  statistics  the 
diocese  counts  a  Catholic  population  of  100,200,  and 


OTTAWA 


566 


OZIERI 


lias  56  parishes,  260  secular  priests,  100  seminarians 
and  325  churches  or  chapels. 

Ottawa,  Archdiocese  of  (Ottawiensis;  cf.  C.E., 
XI-352a),  in  Canada,  comprises  three  counties 
of  the  Province  of  Quebec  and  four  of  the  Province 
of  Ontario.  In  1913  the  northern  portion  was  erected 
into  a  new  diocese  with  the  see  in  Mont  Laurier, 
Quebec,  and  in  1915  the  portion  included  in  the  vicar¬ 
iate  apostolic  of  Temiskaming  was  erected  into  the 
Diocese  of  Haileybury.  The  latest  figures  obtainable 
(1921)  show  a  total  Catholic  population  of  143,000, 
comprising  108,000  French,  32,000  English  and  3000 
Italians  and  Ruthenians.  Archbishop  Charles  Hugh 
Gauthier,  born  at  Alexandria,  Ontario,  1843,  ordained 
1867,  was  appointed  archbishop  of  Kingston  29  July, 
1898,  and  transferred  to  the  see  of  Ottawa  6  Septem¬ 
ber,  1910.  He  died  19  January,  1922,  and  the  see  is 
now  vacant. 

This  archdiocese  lost  three  prominent  and  influen¬ 
tial  members  through  the  deaths  of  Rev.  A.  L. 
Manedn,  founder  of  the  Institute  of  Jesus  and  Mary, 
d.  26  February,  1920  ;Sir  Wilfred  Laurier  (q.  v.) ,  Pre¬ 
mier  of  Canada  (1896-1911),  d.  17  January,  1919; 
and  Lady  Laurier,  d.  12  November,  1921. 

Bishop  Gauthier  was  responsible  for  the  introduc¬ 
tion  of  the  Sisters  of  Joan  of  Arc  and  the  founding  of 
their  institute  for  young  working  girls,  in  1919.  Other 
religious  orders  established  in  the  capital  are:  men, 
Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  Dominicans,  Cap¬ 
uchins,  Fathers  of  the  Company  of  Mary,  Redemp- 
torists,  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  Servite  Fath¬ 
ers;  women,  Grey  Nuns,  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood, 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family,  Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
of  Jesus,  Sisters  of  Providence,  Dominican  Sisters  of 
the  Congregation  of  Notre  Dame,  Sisters  of  the  Good 
Shepherd,  Sisters  of  Mercy  and  Sisters  of  the  Visita¬ 
tion. 

The  diocese  includes:  98  parishes,  106  churches,  8 
missions,  4  monasteries  for  men  and  4  for  women,  160 
secular  and  165  regular  priests,  101  Brothers,  1315 
sisters,  1  seminary,  35  seminarians,  1  university  (see 
Ottawa  University),  with  62  professors  and  800 
students,  2  colleges  for  boys,  2  high  schools,  15  acade¬ 
mies,  and  1  normal  school  with  15  teachers.  The  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  have  a  total  attendance  of  about 
30,000.  Among  the  charitable  institutions  are  6 
asylums,  4  hospitals,  2  homes  and  1  nursery.  The 
taxes  paid  by  the  Catholics  are  sufficient  to  support 
the  Catholic  elementary  schools.  St.  Joseph’s  Eccle, 
siastical  Fund  is  established  for  sick  or  infirm  clergy- 
and  the  Catholic  Association  for  Young  Canadians, 
various  societies  of  Catholic  workmen,  and  the  St. 
Joseph  Society  of  Canada  are  organized  among  the 
laity.  A  daily  Catholic  paper,  “Le  Droit,”  is  pub¬ 
lished. 

Ottawa,  University  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  352d), 
conducted  by  the  Oblate  Fathers  of  Mary  Immac- 
olate,  in  Ottawa,  Canada.  Raised  to  the  rank  of  a 
Catholic  University  in  1889,  this  institution  offers 
parallel  courses  in  English  and  French,  comprising  a 


commercial  course,  collegiate  course,  arts,  including 
a  philosophical  course,  and  a  theological  course.  The 
Government  Museum,  Dominion  Observatory  and 
Parliament  Library  offer  the  faculty  and  students 
unusual  opportunities  for  reference  work,  and  occa¬ 
sional  attendance  at  the  debates  of  the  Dominion 
Parliament  enables  them  to  become  familiar  with 
political  contests.  The  principal  organizations 
formed  among  the  students  consist  of  English  and 
French  debating  societies,  an  orchestra,  band,  and 
athletic  association.  Numerous  scholarships  have 
been  founded.  For  the  year  1921-22,  843  students 
were  registered  in  the  university  under  a  staff  of  62 
professors.  His  Grace,  the  Archbishop  of  Ottawa  is 
Apostolic  Chancellor  of  the  University,  and  the  pres¬ 
ent  rector  is  Rev.  F.  X.  Marcotte,  O.  M.  I.,  D.D. 

Oviedo,  Diocese  of  (Ovetensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI- 
363c),  in  Spain,  is  suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of 
Compostela.  Bishop  Baztan  y  Urniza,  who  had  filled 
this  see  since  1904,  was  transferred  to  the  titular  see 
of  Nilopolis  18  October,  1920.  The  present  incumbent 
Rt.  Rev.  Juan  Bautista  Perez,  born  in  Buriana, 
Spain,  1874,  ordained  in  1896,  served  as  professor  in 
the  seminaries  of  Tarragona  and  Murcia,  founder  and 
director  of  the  Catholic  journal  “La  Verdad,”  made 
vicar  general  in  1909,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Dorylaeum  and  auxiliary  at  Toledo,  22  February, 
1915,  and  transferred  in  1921.  In  1918  the  twelfth 
centenary  of  the  battle  of  Covadonga  was  celebrated 
and  the  shrine  of  Our  Lady  was  canonically  crowned  in 
the  presence  of  the  royal  family,  Cardinal  Guisasola 
y  Menendez,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  other  high 
dignitaries  of  the  church.  In  1920  the  Catholic  popu¬ 
lation  of  this  diocese  numbered  776,347,  and  by  1921 
statistics  there  are’  969  parishes,  3421  churches,  28 
convents  of  men  and  92  of  women,  1323  secular  and 
214  regular  clergy  and  lay  brothers,  1081  Sisters,  2 
seminaries  and  233  seminarians.  The  various  insti¬ 
tutions  include  1  normal  school,  5  hospitals  and  6 
asylums.  There  is  a  mutual  benefit  society  organized 
among  the  clergy,  a  number  of  societies  among  the 
laity,  and  Catholic  periodicals  are  published. 

Ozieri,  Diocese  of  (Octeriensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  II 
— 581a),  in  Sardinia,  Italy,  suffragan  of  Sassari. 
This  diocese  was  formerly  known  as  Bisarchio,  but 
had  its  episcopal  seat  at  Ozieri;  by  a  decree  of  12 
February,  1915,  the  name  was  changed  to  Ozieri. 
Rt.  Rev.  Filippo  Bacciu,  appointed  to  this  See  in 
1896,  d.  4  March,  1914,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Carmelo  Cesarano,  appointed  8  April,  1915. 
Upon  his  promotion,  30  September,  1948,  the  present 
incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Francesco  Frtmco,  was  ap¬ 
pointed  to  succeed  him  10  March,  1919.  The  diocese 
comprises  a  Catholic  population  of  50,000,  26  par¬ 
ishes,  110  churches,  65  secular  clergy,  1  seminary 
and  60  seminarians,  1  home  for  the  aged,  10  asylums, 
1  hospital  and  1  refuge.  Societies  are  organized 
among  the  clergy  and  laity,  and  various  Catholic 
papers  are  circulated  in  the  diocese. 


p 


Paderborn,  Diocese  of  (Paterbornensir;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XI — 383b),  in  Germany,  suffragan  of  Cologne. 
On  12  Nov.,  1920,  Rt.Rev.  Karl  Joseph  Schulte  who 
administered  the  diocese  from  1910,  was  named 
vicar  apostolic  of  Anhalt  and  at  the  Consistory  of 
8  March,  1920,  was  made  archbishop  of  Cologne. 
His  successor  at  Paderborn  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Henry 
Haehling  de  Lanzenauer,  b.  at  Coblenz,  19  Feb., 
1861,  ordained  18  Aug.,  1883,  elected  5  Aug.,  1912 
and  made  auxiliary  bishop  of  Paderborn,  consecrated 
24  October  following.  In  1921  the  vicariate  apostolic 
of  Anhalt  was  suppressed  and  incorporated  in  the 
Diocese  of  Paderborn.  Soon  after  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  an  association  called  Die  Kirchliche  Krieg- 
shilje  was  founded  in  the  diocese,  the  object  of  which 
was  to  aid  relatives  and  friends  in  their  search  foi 
missing  and  imprisoned  soldiers,  to  give  spiritual  and 
temporal  aid  to  all  prisoners  in  Germany,  inespective 
of  race,  color  or  creed,  and  to  care  for  the  German 
soldiers  in  the  enemy  camps.  The  Leoninum,  the 
theological  college  at  Paderborn,  was  made  the 
central  place  of  activity  and  Bishop  Schulte,  together 
with  Rev.  Dr.  Starke,  five  priests  and  a  great  number 
of  lay  volunteers  directed  the  undertaking.  Through 
the  efforts  of  the  Holy  See  central  places  of  com¬ 
munication  were  established  in  the  enemy  countries. 
German  priests  were  sent  to  the  enemy  camps,  cloth¬ 
ing  and  food  were  given  to  the  soldiers,  with  the  aid  of 
the  Borromaeusverein,  literature  was  distributed  in 
the  camps.  A  special  effort  was  made  to  supply 
Russia,  as  the  prisoners  in  that  country  had  been 
cut  off  from  spiritual  aid  and  but  seldom  had  the 
consolation  of  the  ministrations  of  a  priest.  At 
the  camps  at  Senne  and  Doberitz,  near  Spandau, 
a  temporary  church  for  prisoners  of  all  nationalities 
was  erected  from  the  diocesan  funds  and  prayer- 
books  were  supplied  for  the  French,  English  and 
Belgian  soldiers.  The  work  of  this  association  was 
the  means  of  bringing  effectual  aid  to  the  afflicted 
and  in  every  way  furthering  the  spirit  of  Christian 
charity  among  the  warring  nations. 

In  1921  the  diocese  contained  5,453,731  inhabitants, 
with  1,637,618  Catholics.  It  is  divided  into  53 
deaneries  and  has  620  parishes,  210  succursal  parishes, 
11  missions,  830  churches,  25  monasteries  for  men, 
323  convents  for  women,  including  6  mother-houses, 
1439  secular  priests,  125  regulars,  all  engaged  in 
parish  work,  4  houses  for  Brothers,  1  seminary,  50 
seminarians.  Educational  institutions  include:  1 
university,  12  professors,  300  students,  1  philosoph¬ 
ical-theological  academy  at  Paderborn,  about  50 
hohere  schulen  (scientific  and  classical  high  schools), 

7  normal  schools,  4  missionary  schools.  The  parish 
schools  are  aided  by  the  Government.  The  following 
institutions  exist  in  the  diocese:  91  homes,  53  asjdums, 
103  hospitals,  4  houses  of  correction,  1  settlement 
house,  197  nui series,  all  of  which  admit  the  ministry 
of  priests.  Numerous  religious  organizations  and 
societies  exist  among  the  clergy  and  laity.  About 
fifty  Catholic  papers  are  printed  in  the  diocese. 
Rev.  Dr.  Franz  Ilitze,  distinguished  professor  of 
social  science,  deputy  of  the  Reichstag,  and  cham¬ 
pion  of  the  Catholic  social  movement,  died  in  1921. 

Padua,  Diocese  of  (Patavinta;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 385c),  in  the  province  of  Venice,  Italy,  suffragan 


of  Venice.  The  present  bishop  is  Mgr.  Luigi  Pelizzo 
born  in  Faedis,  Diocese  of  Udine,  26  February,  I860’ 
elected  Bishop  of  Padua,  13  July,  1906,  consecrated 
at  Cividale  19  August,  to  succeed  Cardinal  Callegari 
deceased.  According  to  1919  statistics,  the  diocese 
comprises  580,000  Catholics,  321  parishes,  817  secular 
priests,  304  seminarians,  457  churches  or  chapels. 

Palawan,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of;  (cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 41 7d),  suffragan  of  Manila,  Philippine  Islands! 
The  present  prefect  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Victorien 
Roman  Zarate,  b.  1875,  ordained  1897,  appointed 
prefect  1911.  The  population  of  the  prefecture  is 
about  60,000,  of  whom  27,357  are  Catholics.  There 
are  9  priests  and  6  churches.  The  leper  settlement 
on  the  Island  of  Culion  is  under  the  care  of  the 
Jesuits,  aided  by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph. 

Palencia,  Diocese  of  (Palentina;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI— 417d),  suffragan  of  Burgos,  Spain.  The  area  of 
the  diocese  is  2942  square  miles,  and  the  Catholic 
population  about  190,000.  There  are  350  parishes 
divided  into  19  archipresbyterates,  36  filial  churches, 
130  hermitages,  575  priests,  378  parish  churches,  300 
chapels  and  oratories,  9  religious  houses  for  men,  15 
for  cloistered  Sisters  and  21  for  Sisters  devoting  them¬ 
selves  to  educational  and  charitable  works,  192  mem¬ 
bers  of  religious  orders  of  men,  and  519  Sisters.  The 
present  Bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Raimon  Barbera  y  Boada, 
b.  1847,  elected  titular  Bishop  of  Anthedon  1907’ 
transferred  to  Palencia  1914. 

Palermo,  Archdiocese  of  (Panormitana,  cf. 
C.  E.,  XI — 419b),  in  Sicily.  The  present  incumbent 
is  His  Eminence  Alessandro  Cardinal  Lualdi,  b.  in 
Milan,  1858,  ordained  1880,  rector  of  the  Lombard 
Seminary,  Rome,  appointed  Archbishop  of  Palermo 
14  November,  1904,  and  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
Cardinal-priest  15  April,  1907.  His  auxiliary  is  Rt. 
Rev.  Giuseppe  Lagumina,  titular  Bishop  of  Samos. 

In  1910  a  diocesan  synod  was  held  and  in  1920  the 
Plenary  Council  of  Sicily  met,  the  first  since  the  pro¬ 
mulgation  of  the  new  canon  law.  In  1921  the  terri¬ 
torial  congress  of  the  third  order  of  St.  Francis  was 
held,  and  in  1924  the  third  centenary  of  the  finding 
of  the  relics  of  St.  Rosalia  will  be  celebrated. 

During  the  World  War  many  of  the  clergy  went  to 
the  Front,  190  in  all,  and  great  privations  were  borne 
by  those  at  home,  while  they  worked  in  the  hospitals 
and  various  shelters  for  the  soldiers,  particularly  the 
Casa  del  Soldafo,  which  was  the  first  of  its  kind  in 
Italy,  having  been  founded  by  Rev.  Vitale  Brun 
in  1913. 

The  diocese  comprises  (1921)  50  parishes,  524 
churches  and  mission  chapels,  1  monastery  for  men 
and  5  for  women,  520  secular  priests  and  50  regulars, 
25  Brothers,  500  Sisters,  3  seminaries,  125  seminar¬ 
ians,  a  theological  college  at  the  university  with  10 
professors  and  15  students,  8  secondary  schools  for 
boys  with  20  teachers  and  350  pupils,  22  secondary 
schools  for  girls  with  12,000  pupils,  1  professional 
school  with  10  teachers  and  100  pupils.  Among  the 
charitable  institutions  are  1  mission  centre,  1  home 
for  the  poor,  25  asylums  and  1  hospital.  In' 1920 
there  were  543,990  Catholics  in  this  territory,  a  large 
proportion  of  whom  are  Greco- Albanians. 


567 


PALESTRINA 


568 


PANAMA 


Palestrina,  Diocese  of  (Praenestinensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XI — 421b),  a  suburbicarian  diocese  in  Italy, 
united  with  Ostia  in  virtue  of  its  tenure  by  Cardinal 
Vincenzo  Vannutelli,  dean  of  the  Sacred  College  (see 
Ostia).  The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is 
45,700.  There  are  24  parishes,  62  secular  priests,  47 
regular  priests,  42  seminarians,  114  religious  and  96 
churches  and  chapels. 

Pamiers,  Diocese  of  (Apamiensis;  cf.  C.E.,  XI — 
435c),  with  the  united  titles  of  Couserans  and 
Mirepoix,  comprises  the  department  of  Ariege  and 
is  suffragan  of  Tours.  The  present  (1922)  bishop  of 
the  diocese  is  Mgr.  Pierre  Marceillac  appointed  in 
1916  to  succeed  Mgr.  Izart,  promoted  to  Bourges. 
Born  at  Grenade-sur-Garonne,  diocese  of  Toulouse, 
10  July,  1863,  Bishop  Marceillac  was  ordained  in 
1888.  He  was  professor  of  moral  theology  in  the 
higher  seminary  in  Toulouse  in  1905,  and  seven 
years  later  became  the  pastor  of  St.  Jerome’s  in 
that  city,  whence  he  was  raised  to  the  episcopate. 
Statistics  of  the  diocese  for  1921  give:  332  par¬ 
ishes,  367  churches,  40  missions,  10  stations,  306 
secular  priests,  1  convent  of  Carmelites,  8  religious 
orders  of  women,  2  seminaries  with  100  students  in 
both;  6  academies  for  girls  with  60  teachers  and 
1000  pupils;  1  boarding  school  for  boys  with  90 
pupils;  8  free  schools  for  boys  with  1200  pupils, 
and  30  for  girls  with  2000  pupils;  20  homes  and 
22  hospitals. 

Amongst  the  clergy  there  are  the  Apostolic  Union, 
Association  of  Priests  Adorers,  Association  for  a 
Happy  Death,  and  the  Society  of  Sacerdotal  Voca¬ 
tions.  For  the  laity  there  are  the  Union  of  Catho¬ 
lics  and  of  Heads  of  Families,  the  Propagation  of 
the  Faith,  Apostleship  of  Prayer,  Sodality  of  the 
Children  of  Mary,  and  others.  Catholic  publica¬ 
tions  include  “Semaine  Catholique,”  “La  Croix  de 
L‘ Ariege,”  “La  Jeune  Ariege,”  “Bulletin  des  Voca¬ 
tions  Sacerdotals,”  “Banniere  de  Marie,”  and  “Bul¬ 
letin  historique  du  Diocese  de  Pamiers.”  A  decree 
of  March,  1910,  united  to  the  diocese  the  titles  of 
Couserans  and  Mirepoix. 

Pamplona,  Diocese  of  (Pampilonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 437c),  suffragan  of  Saragossa,  Spain.  The  pres¬ 
ent  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Jose  Lopez  Mendoza  y  Garcia, 
b.  1848,  elected  to  the  see  of  Jaca  1891,  transferred 
to  Pamplona  1899,  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne 
1916.  The  area  of  the  diocese  is  3495  square  miles  and 
the  Catholic  population  275,000.  There  are  839 
parishes,  1049  priests,  521  churches  and  chapels,  110 
convents  with  275  members  of  religious  orders  of  men 
and  450  Sisters. 

Panama,  Diocese  of  (Panamanensis,  cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 438c),  was  erected  by  Leo  X,  on  9  September, 
1513,  according  to  the  papal  Bull  held  in  the 
diocesan  archives.  For  many  years  an  inconsider¬ 
able  appropriation  was  paid  by  the  Government  to 
the  Conciliar  Seminary  and  Missions,  to  partly 
fulfill  the  obligation  to  pay  to  the  diocese  a  fixed 
sum  in  compensation  for  church  property  previ¬ 
ously  confiscated  by  the  Colombian  Government; 
however,  in  1915,  the  National  Assembly  voted  that 
even  this  appropriation  should  be  discontinued. 

The  former  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Francis  X.  Junguito, 
S.J.,  who  had  administered  the  diocese  for  ten 
years,  remedying  as  far  as  possible  the  damage 
caused  by  the  Colombian  revolution,  died  on  21 
October,  1911,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present 
incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  William  Rojas  Arrieta,  C.  M., 
who  was  born  in  Cartago,  Costa  Rica,  25  June, 
1855.  He  was  preconized  on  21  March,  1912,  and 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Panama  on  18  August  of 
the  same  year. 


In  addition  to  the  death  of  Bishop  Junguito  the 
diocese  has  suffered  the  loss  of  several  other  promi¬ 
nent  and  zealous  workers  in  recent  years:  the  Rev. 
Joseph  A.  Sanguillen,  vicar  general  under  Bishop 
Junguito,  who  died  at  the  age  of  eighty-two ; 
Manuel  Jean,  a  distinguished  Catholic  layman, 
who  founded  an  orphan  asylum  for  girls,  which  he 
entrusted  to  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  of 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul;  Pablo  Arosemena,  a  promi- 
ment  citizen,  lawyer  and  politician,  who  was  one 
time  President  of  the  Republic  of  Panama. 

Since  1911  the  Cathedral  of  Panama  and  all  the 
churches  which  had  been  damaged  during  the 
Revolution  have  been  restored,  the  first  ecclesias¬ 
tical  Synod  of  Panama  was  held  in  1916  and  theo¬ 
logical  and  moral  conferences  for  the  clergy  have 
been  established.  The  seminary  and  all  the  relig¬ 
ious  associations  have  been  reorganized,  several 
new  parishes  added  and  many  societies,  the 
Knights  of  Columbus,  Knights  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Knights  of  St.  John,  LaSalle  Association 
for  young  men  and  Union  of  Catholic  Workers, 
have  been  organized.  Recent  years  have  been 
marked  by  a  revival  of  faith  and  religious  spirit 
throughout  the  community.  The  religious  inter¬ 
ests  of  the  Catholics  in  the  Canal  Zone  are  cared 
for  by  the  priests  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Mis¬ 
sion  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  belonging  to  the  east¬ 
ern  province  of  the  United  States,  whose  central 
house  is  at  Philadelphia.  They  take  care  of  Bal¬ 
boa,  Cristobal  and  the  intermediate  points  along 
the  Canal;  the  men  of  the  army  and  navy  are 
attended  by  special  chaplains  appointed  by  the 
United  States  Government. 

In  addition  to  the  religious  communities  already 
established  in  the  diocese  (the  Jesuits  with  5 
priests  and  3  lay  brothers;  one  Lazarist  priest;  and 
the  Discalced  Augustinians  with  2  priests  and  1 
lay  brother),  many  other  communities  have  been 
introduced  within  recent  years.  The  Franciscan 
Sisters  have  opened  a  college  for  girls  in  Panama 
and  have  more  than  200  pupils,  the  Bethlemites 
have  charge  of  a  government  asylum  for  male 
children  with  about  60  boys,  and  the  Daughters  of 
Mary  Help  (Maria  Auxiliadora)  of  Don  Bosco 
have  founded  an  orphanage  for  girls,  assisted  by 
.the  Salesian  Cooperators. 

According  to  the  latest  census  the  total  popula¬ 
tion  of  Panama  is  62,000,  of  whom  20,000  are  Cath¬ 
olics  of  either  white,  or  negro  races,  with  some 
few  thousands,  mulattoes.  Great  numbers  of  these 
negroes,  however,  are  not  Panamanian,  but  immi¬ 
grants  from  the  West  Indies,  brought  in  for  the 
Canal  work.  The  diocese  comprises  46  parishes, 
82  churches,  3  missions  with  2  mission  stations,  48 
secular  priests  and  14  regular,  18  Christian  Broth¬ 
ers,  1  seminary  with  3  seminarians.  The  educa¬ 
tional  institutions  include  1  college  for  men  with 
18  teachers  and  300  students,  3  colleges  for  women 
with  26  teachers  and  500  students,  1  normal  school 
with  10  teachers  and  400  students,  1  industrial 
school  with  3  teachers  and  150  pupils,  and  numer¬ 
ous  elementary  schools  throughout  the  Republic, 
the  capita]  alone  having  10  with  3000  pupils.  There 
are  a  number  of  charitable  institutions:  1  home 
under  the  Sisters  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul ;  1  asylum 
in  charge  of  these  same  Sisters;  3  American  Gov¬ 
ernment  hospitals,  1  at  Panama  and  2  at  Colon; 
1  charitable  center  under  the  Brothers  and  1  day 
nursery  in  charge  of  the  Bethlemites.  The  public 
schools  permit  the  priests  of  the  diocese  to  minis¬ 
ter  in  them  and  the  Catholic  asylums  receive 
financial  aid  from  the  Government.  Two  Catholic 
papers,  1  weekly  and  1  monthly  publication,  are 
published  in  the  diocese. 


PANAMA 


569 


PARIS 


Panama  Congress  on  Christian  Work  in  Latin 

See  Protestantism. 

Paraguay,  Diocese  of  (Paraguayensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 470b),  suffragan  of  Buenos  Aires,  comprises  the 
territory  of  the  Republic  of  Paraguay,  South  America, 
an  area  of  97,722  square  IVJiles.  The  present  bishop 
is  Rt.  Rev.  Symphorian  Norgarin,  b.  at  Thacanguazu, 
Paraguay,  21  August,  1863,  ordained  1886,  elected 
bishop  1894,  succeeding  Bishop  Aponte,  deceased. 
The  population  of  the  diocese  is  635,000.  There  are 
110  parishes,  125  churches,  2  missions,  68  secular 
priests,  33  regular  priests,  1  seminary  with  40  semi¬ 
narians,  2  colleges  for  girls,  1  asylum,  1  hospital,  1 
day  nursery,  1  association  of  the  clergy,  1  Catholic 
publication. 

Parahyba,  ^  Diocese  of  (Paiiahybensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XI — 472a),  metropolitan  see  in  Brazil.  The 
present  bishop  is  Pet.  Rev.  Adautto  Aurelio  de 
Mirando  Henriques,  consecrated  1894.  On  6  Febru¬ 
ary,  1914,  the  western  part  of  Parahyba  was  erected 
into  the  Diocese  of  Cajazeiras  (q.  v.).  The  present 
area  of  the  diocese  is  28,517  square  miles.  There  are 
735,572  Catholics,  1000  Protestants,  48  parishes,  52 
secular  priests,  10  regular  priests,  and  1  college. 

Parana,  Diocese  of  (Paranensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 475d),  suffragan  of  Buenos  Aires,  in  Argentina. 
It  consists  of  the  civil  province  of  Entre  Rios,  with  a 
population  of  518,000,  33  parishes,  115  churches, 
3  monasteries  for  men  and  1  for  women,  35  convents 
for  women,  75  secular  priests,  140  regular  priests, 
15  Brothers,  1  seminary  with  72  seminarians.  There 
are  20  schools  for  boys  with  1600  pupils,  30  schools 
for  girls  with  3500  pupils,  1  normal  school  with  10 
teachers  and  45  students.  The  Government  con¬ 
tributes  to  the  support  of  the  schools.  Charitable 
institutions  include  *2  homes,  7  asylums,  12  hos¬ 
pitals.  Three  societies  are  organized  among  the 
clergy.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Juan  Abel 
Bazan  y  Butos,  b.  at  Tama  de  la  Rioja  in  1867,  made 
his  studies  at  the  Latin- American  College,  ordained 
1891,  elected  to  the  see  of  Parana  7  Feb.,  1910, 
consecrated  8  May  following. 

Pardo  Bazan,  Emilia,  novelist,  b.  of  a  noble 
family  at  Coruna,  Spain,  on  16  September,  1852; 
d.  at  Madrid  on  15  May,  1921.  A  precocious  child, 
she  was  carefully  educated  and  could  read  with  facility 
at  six.  At  fourteen  her  favorite  works  were  the  Bible, 
the  Iliad,  and  Don  Quixote.  In  1868  she  married  Don 
Jose  Quiroga,  and  shortly  after  travelled  extensively 
in  France  and  Italy,  becoming  familiar  with  the  great 
poets:  Shakespeare,  Byron,  Alfieri,  Manzoni,  Goethe, 
Schiller,  Heine.  In  1876  she  won  a  prize  at  Orense 
with  her  “Examen  critico  de  las  obras  de  padre 
Feijoo”  which  was  followed  by  a  brief  study  on  the 
Christian  epic  poets.  She  then  read  the  novelists: 
Scott,  Dickens,  Lytton,  Hugo  and  George  Sand.  This 
course  was  followed  by  her  “Pascual  Lopez,”  the  auto¬ 
biography  of  a  medical  student,  which  was  well 
received.  After  reading  Zola’s  “Assommoir,”  she 
became  a  realist  and  an  apologist  for  the  French 
naturalistic  school,  first  evidenced  by  “Un  Viaje  de 
Novios”  (1881)  though  her  delightful  “San  Francisco 
de  Assis”  in  the  following  year  was  a  reaction.  .Fitz- 
maurice-Kelly  calls  Pardo  Baz&n  the  greatest  Spanish 
novelist  of  the  nineteenth  century;  but  Cejador  in 
his  “Historia  de  la  lengua  y  literatura  Castellana” 
judges  her  otherwise,  pointing  out  how  she  cut  herself 
off  from  the  Spanish  tradition  and  spirit,  breathes  a 
foreign  atmosphere,  exhibits  an  unnational  frivolity,  is 
a  slave  to  Gallicisms;  in  a  word,  no  one  with  judgment 
could  for  a  moment  think  of  placing  her  on  the  same 
plane  as  Pereda,  Menendez  v  Pelayo  or  Valera.  Cer¬ 
tain  it  is  her  reputation  rests  entirely  on  her  fiction 


which  is  unhealthy  and  often  downright  indecent 
Her  greatest  works  are:  “La  Cuestion  Palpitante’ 
(1883);  “Los  pazos  de  Ulloa”  (1886);  “La  madre 
naturaleza”  (1887);  “La  priedra  angular”  (1891); 
“Dulce  dueno”  (1911);  “Por  la  Europa  catholica”  is 
a  charming  book  of  travel.  In  her  review  “Nuevo 
teatro  critico  she  established  a  vehicle  for  a  series  of 
remarkable  literary  studies  (January,  1891).  Pardo 
Bazan  wrote  a  few  dramas  of  which  “Verdad”  and 
“Cuesta  abajo”  were  the  most  successful.  She  was 
an  ardent  supporter  of  the  feminist  movement.  Not¬ 
withstanding  the  character  of  some  of  her  fiction  she 
was  always  a  professed  Catholic.  In  October  1916 
her  statue  was  erected  in  Coruna  by  her  fellow-citi¬ 
zens. 

Parenzo-Pola,  Diocese  of  (Parentina-Polensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XI-480b);  dependent  of  Gorizia.  The 
cities  of  Parenzo  and  Pola,  situated  on  the  Adriatic, 
are  in  the  province  of  Istria,  which  was  ceded  by 
Austria  to  Italy  following  the  war.  The  members  of 
the  cathedral  chapter  at  Parenzo  have  the  right  on 
feast  days  to  wear  the  violet  soutane  with  cincture  of 
the  same  color,  the  surplice,  violet  mozetta  and  Latin 
cross  in  gold  while  the  chapter  at  Pola  has  the  same 
right  except  that  the  mozetta  is  replaced  by  the  man- 
telletta  and  the  pectoral  cross  is  in  Greek  form. 

The  former  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  John  Baptist  Flapp, 
died  26  December,  1912,  after  an  administration  of 
twenty-eight  years  and  was  buried  from  the  cathedral 
church;  he  bequeathed  the  greater  part  of  his  posses¬ 
sions  to  religious  works.  His  successor,  the  present 
bishop,  is  Rt.  Rev.  Tryphon  Pederzolli,  b.  28  January, 
1864,  at  Cattaro,  elected  19  June,  1913,  installed  in 
cathedral  of  Parenzo  9  November,  1913,  and  at  Pola, 
8  December,  1913.  At  the  entrance  of  Italy  into  the 
War  the  southern  part  of  the  diocese  was  evacuated; 
some  of  the  refugees  were  sheltered  in  barracks,  the 
scattered  people  suffering  great  misery,  resulting  in 
steadily  increasing  mortality.  Priests  served  in  the 
army  as  chaplains,  but  none  were  in  battle;  the  special 
devotions  carried  on  in  the  churches  were  commended 
by  the  Holy  Father;  and  generous  collections,  which 
the  bishop  himself  went  about  to  sssist  in  raising,  were 
given  towards  the  relief  of  widespread  suffering.  The 
Catholic  population  is  122,000.  The  secular  priests 
number  130,  regular  priests  12,  and  lay  brothers  5. 
There  are  51  parishes;  270  churches;  11  stations;  2 
convents  for  men,  and  14  for  women;  1  preparatory 
seminary  with  3  students;  1  college  for  boys  with  4 
teachers  and  16  students;  1  asylum;  5  hospitals.  The 
clergy  have  a  mutual  association,  an  organization  for 
missionary  work,  and  one  for  priestly  adoration. 
Among  the  laity  there  are  15  religious  organizations. 

Paris,  Archdiocese  of  (Parisiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 480d) ,  comprises  the  Department  of  the  Seine, 
France.  Since  its  foundation  the  See  has  been  ad¬ 
ministered  by  110  bishops  and  21  archbishops,  of 
whom  7  are  saints,  and  including  also  the  Master  of 
Sentences  Peter  Lombard  (d.  1160)  and  in  the 
nineteenth  century  Cardinals  de  Belloy,  de  Tallev- 
rand-Perigord,  Morlot,  Guibert  and  Richard.  The 
present  administrator  is  Cardinal  Louis-Ernest 
Dubois,  b.  1  Sept.,  1856, ordained  1879, elected  Bishop 
of  Verdun  18  April,  1901,  consecrated  2  July  follow¬ 
ing,  promoted  Archbishop  of  Bourges  30  Nov., 
1909,  enthroned  3  Feb.  1910,  published  4  December 
following,  transferred  to  Rouen  1916,  transferred  to 
Paris  13  Sept.,  1920,  took  possession  30  November, 
enthroned  8  December  following,  succeeding  Cardinal 
Amette  (q.  v.),  deceased.  He  was  created  cardinal 
4  Dec.,  1916,  with  the  title  of  Sancta  Maria  in 
Aquiro.  On  12  Dec.,  1916,  he  received  the  pallium 
from  the  hands  of  Pope  Benedict  XV.  Assisting  him 
in  the  administration  of  the  archdiocese  are  three 


PARISH 


570 


PARMA 


auxiliary  bishops:  Rt.  Rev.  Benjamin-Octave 
Roland  Gosselin,  b.  17  Dec.,  1870,  named  titular 
Bishop  of  Mosynopolis  and  auxiliary  of  Cardinal 
Amette  12  May,  1919,  preconized  3  July,  consecrated 
12  August  following,  vicar  capitular  i  Sept.,  1920, 
auxiliary  of  Cardinal  Dubois  30  Nov.,  1920;  Rt. 
Rev.  Henri-Marie-Alfred  Baudrillart,  b.  6  Jan., 
1859,  rector  of  the  Catholic  Institue,  named  titular 
Bishop  of  Himeria  29  July,  1921,  and  consecrated 
29  October  following:  Rt.  Rev.  Emmanuel  Chaptal, 
b.  1861,  ordained  1897,  pastor  of  Notre  Dame  du 
Travail  de  Plaisance,  1910,  appointed  auxiliary 
bishop  1922,  with  jurisdiction  over  the  Russians  and 
other  Slavs  resident  in  Paris.  The  continual  develop¬ 
ment  in  Catholic  work,  as  well  as  the  increase  in  the 
number  of  parishes  during  the  past  fifteen  years  has 
made  necessary  this  collaboration  in  the  ecclesiastical 
administration  of  Paris,  and  the  recent  appointment 
of  Abbe  Chaptal  provided  for  the  care  of  the  large 
influx  of  foreign  population,  especially  Russians,  since 
the  Balkan  Wars  and  the  Russian  Revolution. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  diocesan  congress  of 
1920,  the  archdiocese  comprises  79  parishes  within 
the  city,  12  chapels  of  ease  and  30  public  chapels,  and 
in  the  suburbs  94  parishes  with  27  chapels  of  ease. 
The  churches  are  insufficient  in  number  to  accommo¬ 
date  the  faithful,  and  to  remedy  this  insufficiency  the 
chapels  of  ease  have  been  created.  Since  1906  43  new 
places  of  worship  have  been  established  within  the 
diocese;  16  churches  and  29  chapels.  Five  churches 
are  now  under  construction.  Statistics  for  1918  give 
a  population  for  the  archdiocese  of  4,154,042.  In 
1914  the  new  Proper  for  Paris  was  approved.  Now 
resident  within  the  archdiocese  are  the  Brothers  of 
the  Christian  Schools,  Lazarists,  African  Missionaries 
of  Lyons,  Foreign  Missionaries  of  Paris,  White 
Fathers,  Holy  Ghost  Fathers,  Hospitallers  of  St.  John 
of  God,  Sulpicians,  and  numerous  religious  congrega¬ 
tions  of  women. 

Parish  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI-499c) — It  is  provided  in 
canon  216  of  the  Code  that  the  territory  of  every 
diocese  should  be  divided  into  parishes,  that  is  terri¬ 
torial  units,  each  with  its  own  special  church,  special 
congregation  and  special  permanent  pastor  having 
cure  of  souls;  vicariates  and  prefectures  apostolic  were 
to  be  divided  similarly,  at  least  in  part,  where  and 
when  that  could  be  done  conveniently,  and  wfith  ad¬ 
vantage  to  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  people,  in  which 
case  if  a  special  pastor  was  appointed  the  territory 
becomes  a  quasi-parish,  and  the  pastor  at  once  ac¬ 
quires  special  rights  and  is  subject  to  special  obliga¬ 
tions.  The  importance  of  this  may  be  seen  in  the  fact 
that  in  the  English-speaking  world  generally  there 
were  no  parishes  and  no  parish  priests  strictly  so- 
called,  but  only  permanent  or  removable  rectors. 
The  question  having  been  raised  whether  or  not  these 
rectorial  territories,  in  countries  like  England  and  the 
United  States,  which  had  been  released  by  the  con¬ 
stitution  “Sapienti  Consilio”  (1908)  from  the  tutelage 
of  the  Congregation  of  Propaganda,  had  on  the 
promulgation  of  the  Code  become  ipso  facto  parishes, 
the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Consistory  replied  in 
the  negative  (1  August,  1919).  To  constitute  a  parish 
a  decree  of  the  ordinary  determining  its  boundaries, 
the  seat  of  the  parish,  the  endowment  for  divine  wor¬ 
ship  and  the  support  of  the  clergy,  was  declared  neces¬ 
sary;  furthermore,  it  was  not  necessary  to  make  the 
rector  irremovable,  indeed  for  a  just  cause  he  might 
be  expressly  proclaimed  removable  in  the  decree  of 
erection.  Finally,  if  owing  to  the  small  number  of  the 
faithful  or  the  scanty  resources  available  it  was  un¬ 
desirable  to  create  a  parish,  the  existing  churches  could 
be  made  subsidiaries,  or  chapels,  or  an  adjoining  par¬ 
ish,  remaining  in  dependence  on  it  until  such  time  as 
they  could  be  erected  into  parish  churches. 


A  little  later  a  question  arose  as  to  the  status- of  the 
existing  divisions  of  dioceses  in  countries  like  Aus¬ 
tralia,  which  were  still  under  the  Congregation  of 
Propaganda.  On  9  December,  1920,  the  Holy  See 
replied:  (1)  that  it  was  not  necessary  to  divide  the 
diocese  of  missionary  countries  into  parishes  at  all; 
the  matter  will  evidently  be  left  to  the  discretion  of 
ordinary,  just  as  vicars  and  prefects  Apostolic  need 
not  divide  their  territory  except  where  it  can  be  done 
conveniently;  (2)  that  where  the  diocese  had  been  al¬ 
ready  divided  as  prescribed  in  canon  216  the  terri¬ 
tories  came  under  the  name  of  parishes,  but  that  the 
special  regulations  for  quasi-parishes  also  applied  to 
them.  The  chief  significance  of  this  is  that  while 
these  territories  are  parishes  and  their  rectors  parish 
priests,  yet  the  latter  are  not  obliged  to  offer  mass 
for  their  flocks,  except  on  eleven  important  feasts, 
whereas  ordinary  parish  priests  must  do  so  every 
Sunday  and  holiday  (including  suppressed  feasts). 

Without  a  special  Apostolic  indult  special  parishes 
cannot  be  created  in  the  same  town  or  territory  for 
people  of  different  nationality  or  different  speech,  nor 
can  family  or  personal  parishes  be  created;  if,  how¬ 
ever,  any  such  are  now  extant  the  bishop  must  make 
no  change  without  consulting  the  Holy  See.  There  is 
nothing  in  this  legislation  to  prevent  the  opening  of 
subsidiary  churches  on  national  or  linguistic  lines. 
Once  a  parish  has  become  entitled  officially  to  an  irre¬ 
movable  rector,  a  removable  rector  cannnot  be  ap¬ 
pointed  without  leave  of  the  Holy  See.  If  the  rector 
had  hitherto  been  removable,  he  may  be  declared 
irremovable  by  the  bishop — but  not  by  a  vicar  cap¬ 
itular— with  the  advice  of  the  cathedral  chapter. 
Ordinarily  newly-erected  parishes  should  have  irre¬ 
movable  rectors,  but  circumstances  may  arise  justi¬ 
fying  the  appointment  of  a  removable  rector,  though 
in  this  case  the  bishop  must  first  consult  the  chapter. 

Every  parish  is  subject  to  a  tax  for  the  diocesan 
seminary;  it  should  have  its  confraternities  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament  and  of  Christian  doctrine,  and  nor¬ 
mally  a  special  cemetery,  though  as  frequently  hap¬ 
pens  the  ordinary  may  find  it  more  convenient  to  have 
a  common  cemetery,  especially  in  cities  and  towns. 
When  a  just  canonical  cause  arises  a  bishop  may  di¬ 
vide,  unite  or  suppress  parishes,  even  without  the 
consent  of  the  rector  or  people,  and  erect  the  separated 
portion  into  a  perpetual  vicariate  or  a  new  parish;  if 
there  is  no  proper  canonical  cause,  e.g.,  the  difficulty 
of  many  parishioners  in  reaching  the  church,  too 
great  an  increase  or  decrease  in  the  number  of  parish¬ 
ioners,  the  action  of  the  bishop  would  be  invalid;  as  a 
safeguard  he  must  always  consult,  though  he  need 
not  follow  the  advice  of,  the  cathedral  chapter,  and 
those  interested,  such  as  the  rectors;  while  there  is 
ahvays  the  right  of  appeal  against  the  bishop's  deci¬ 
sion  to  the  Holy  See,  though  until  the  Holy  See  acts 
it  remains  in  force.  When  a  parish  has  been  divided 
the  bishop  must  assign  a  proper  source  of  revenue  to 
the  newly  erected  vicariate  or  parish,  which  may  be 
taken  from  the  mother  church,  provided  the  latter  is 
not  impoverished  thereby;  the  new  church  if  thus  en¬ 
dowed  is  bound  to  pay  honor  to  the  mother  church  in 
a  way  prescribed  by  the  ordinary,  but  the  filial  church 
is  entitled  to  its  own  baptismal  font.  If  the  divided 
parish  belonged  to  religious  or  was  subject  to  a  right 
of  patronage  the  new  or  filial  parish  is  independent  of 
the  religious  or  the  patron. 

Parma,  Diocese  of  (Parmensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 
505a),  in  the  Province  of  Parma,  Italy,  dependent 
directly  on  the  Holy  See.  The  prsent  bishop  is  Rt. 
Rev.  Guido  Maria  Conforti,  b.  1865,  elected  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Ravenna  1902,  resigned  and  transferred 
to  the  titular  archbishopric  of  Stauropolis  1904, 
named  coadjutor  Bishop  of  Parma  1907,  succeeded  to 
the  See  in  the  same  year  upon  the  death  of  Bishop 


PAROUSIA 


571 


PASTOR 


Magani,  and  retained  the  personal  title  of  archbishop. 
In  August,  1918,  he  was  named  president  of  the  Union 
of  Italian  Missionaries,  created  for  the  development 
of  foreign  missions.  The  Catholic  population  of  the 
diocese  is  232,913.  There  are  306  parishes,  407 
secular  priests,  66  regular  priests,  100  seminarians, 
2  Brothers,  99  Sisters,  406  churches  and  chapels. 

Parousia.— On  18  June,  1915,  the  Pontifical  Biblical 
Commission  handed  down  the  following  decision  in 
reply  to  the  accompanying  queries  regarding  the 
Parousia: 

.  I*  Whether  to  solve  the  difficulties  which  occur 
.in  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  and  of  other  Apostles, 
where  the  Parousia,  as  it  is  called,  or  the  second 
coming  of  Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  is  spoken  of,  it  is 
permitted  to  the  Catholic  exegete  to  assert  that  the 
Apostles,  although  under  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  they  teach  no  error,  nevertheless  express  their 
own  human  views,  into  which  error  or  deception 
can  enter? 

Reply.  In  the  negative. 

II*  ^  hether,  keeping  before  one’s  eyes  the  genuine 
idea  of  the  Apostolic  Office  and  St.  Paul’s  undoubted 
fidelity  to  the  teaching  of  the  Master;  likewise,  the 
Catholic  dogma  regarding  the  inspiration  and  in¬ 
errancy  of  the  Scriptures,  whereby  all  that  the  sacred 
writer  (hagiographus)  asserts,  enunciates,  suggests 
must  be  held  to  be  asserted,  enunciated,  suggested 
by  the  Holy  Ghost;  also,  being  weighed  the  texts 
of  the  Apostle’s  Epistles,  considered  in  themselves, 
which  are  before  all  in  harmony  with  the  speech  of 
the  Lord  Himself,  it  is  meet  to  affirm  that  the  Apostle 
Paul  in  his  writings  certainly  said  nothing  which  is 
not  in  perfect  harmony  with  that  ignorance  of  the 
time  of  the  “Parousia’  which  Christ  Himself  pro¬ 
claimed  to  be  men’s  portion? 

Reply.  In  the  affirmative. 

III.  Whether,  attention  being  paid  to  the  Greek 
phrase  Tret's  oi  cures  oi  7repiAei7r6yuei'oi  also 
the  explanation  of  the  Fathers  being  weighed,  es¬ 
pecially  that  of  St.  John  Chrysostom,  who ’was 
highly  versed  both  in  his  country’s  language  and  in 
the  Pauline  Epistles,  it  is  lawful  to  reject  as  far 
fetched  and  destitute  of  solid  foundation,  the  in¬ 
terpretation  traditional  in  the  Catholic  schools 
(also  retained  by  the  reformers  of  the  sixteenth 
century  themselves),  which  explain  the  words  of 
St.  Paul  in  chapter  IV  of  the  1  Epistle  to  the  Thesa- 
lonians,  vv.  15-17  without  in  anywise  implying  the 
affirmation  of  a  “Parousia”  so  imminent  that  the 
Apostle  added  himself  and  his  readers  to  those  of 
the  faithful  who  should  survive  to  meet  Christ? 
Reply.  In  the  negative. 

Passau,  Diocese  of  (Passaviensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI-519b),  in  Bavaria,  suffragan  of  Munich-Freising. 
The  present  administrator  is  Rt.  Rev.  Sigismund 
Felix  de  Ow-Felldorf,  b.  at  Berchtesgaden ,  18  October, 
1855,  ordained  25  July,  1884,  elected  auxiliary  Bishop 
of  Iiatisbon  8  January,  1902,  consecrated  24  Febru¬ 
ary  following,  transferred  18  October,  1906,  enthroned 
6  March,  1907.  The  diocese  is  divided  into  a  city 
degnery  and  22  rural  deaneries.  In  1921  it  contained 
259  parishes,  72  benefices  and  exposiluren,  550 
churches,  632  priests  of  whom  259  are  pastors,  and  45 
in  diocesan  educational  institutions  (these  include 
those  stationed  at  the  cathedral),  86  regulars,  92  lay 
brothers,  1  diocesan  seminary  with  55  seminarians  and 
a  preparatory  seminary  at  Passau.  The  schools  and 
institutions  are  all  supported  by  the  government. 
The  State  institutions  include:  a  technical  schooi 
( hochschule )  for  men,  16  high  schools  ( hohere  schvlen) 
with  11  teachers,  380  elementary  schools,  2  mission- 
schools.  Since  1911  the  following  orders  of  men  have 
established  themselves  in  the  diocese:  Salesians, 


3  houses,  at  Passau,  Freyung  and  Burghausen; 
^  alvatorians,  1  house  at  Griesbach  and  the  Benedic¬ 
tines  at  Niederalteich.  The  principal  association 
among  the  clergy  is  the  Association  of  Priests  of  the 
-Diocese.  Among  the  laity  the  following  associations 
are  formed:  Catholic  Women’s  League,  Catholic 
Merchants  Association  and  Catholic  Women  Clerks’ 
Association.  The  principal  Catholic  paper  published 
in  the  diocese  is  the  “Donauzeitung.” 

Pasto,  Diocese  of  (Pastensis,  Pastopolitan- 
ensis;  cf.  C  E.,  XI — 537d),  suffragan  of  Bogota, 
Colombia.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio 
Maria  Pueyo  de  Val,  C.  M.  F.,  b.  1864,  elected  1917. 

/i  Ln-  ei® ,  P°Pu^afion  is  315,640,  and  there  are 
41,000  infidels,  68  parishes,  90  secular  priests,  23 
regular  priests,  133  churches  and  chapels. 

Pastor  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI-537d) — All  dioceses  are 
now  to  be  divided  into  parishes  and  where  this  has 
been  done  the  pastors,  technically  rectors,  have  be¬ 
come  parish  priests.  The  rectors  of  parishes  are  per- 
*?II  them  may  be  removed  under  certain 
conditions  laid  down  in  the  sacred  canons;  the  same 
degree  of  stability  not  being  granted  to  all,  some  of 
the  rectors  are  called  removable  and  the  other  irre¬ 
movable,  which  expressions  are  often  used  in  speaking 
of  the  parish  itself.  While  the  parish  may  be  declared 
irremovable  by  the  bishop,  once  it  has  been  done  it 
cannot  be  rendered  removable  except  by  permission 
of  the  Holy  See.  Those  who  rule  quasi-parishes  and 
parochial  vicars  enjoying  full  parochial  powers  are 
included  under  the  title  parish  priest  in  canon  law 
and  have  the  rights  and  duties  of  parish  priests  (except 
that  the  obligation  of  saying  Mass  for  the  parishioners 
is  limited  to  eleven  feasts,  an  exemption  granted  also 
to  rectors  of  parishes  subject  to  Propaganda.  Occa¬ 
sionally  a  moral  person,  such  as  a  cathedral  chapter 
or  a  religious  house  becomes  a  parochus  with  leave  of 
the  Holy  See,  in  which  case  the  actual  cure  of  souls  is 
entrusted  to  a  vicar .  The  parochial  pastor  must  now 
be  a  priest,  this  abolishes  a  former  practice  by  which 
a  cleric  could  receive  a  benefice  with  cure  of  souls 
annexed,  on  condition  of  his  receiving’  the  priesthood 
within  a  year.  A  religious  who  is  a  parish  priest  is 
always  removable  at  the  will  of  the  local  ordinary  or 
of  his  superior  according  to  the  constitutions  of  his 
order;  each  of  these  must  give  notice,  but  need  not 
state  his  reasons,  to  the  other;  an  appeal  against  the 
removal  may  be  made  to  the  Holy  See  with  devolutive 
effect. 

Parish  priests  are  nominated  and  instituted  by  the 
meal  ordinary,  except  for  parishes  reserved  to  the 
Holy  See,  all  customs  contrary  to  this  have  been 
reprobated  while  respecting  all  lawful  privileges  of 
election  or  presentation.  If  the  episcopal  see  is  vacant 
or  impeded  and  a  rector  dies  the  vicar  capitular  or 
other  ruler  of  the  diocese. should  appoint  a  parochial 
vicar  but  not  a  parish  priest  unless  the  see  has  been 
vacant  a  year.  Quasi-parish  priests  are  appointed  by 
the  local  ordinary,  with  the  advice  of  his  council, 
from  his  own  secular  clergy.  A  vacant  parish  is  to  be 
filled  within  six  months  by  the  local  ordinary,  unless 
he  decides  that  owing  to  special  circumstances  the 
time  should  be  extended.  lie  should  appoint  the 
priest  who  is  best  qualified  for  the  position;  to  decide 
this  point  he  is  to  consult  the  diocesan  records,  take 
note  of  the  examinations  of  the  priests  in  the  years 
immediately  following  their  course  of  studies,  and 
with  his  synodal  examiners  is  to  hold  another  exam¬ 
ination,  from  which,  however,  with  the  consent  of  the 
synodal  examiners,  he  can  exempt  priests  of  known 
theological  ability .  If  a  parish  priest  is  transferred  at 
the  suggestion  of  the  bishop,  a  new  examination  is 
not  required,  if  the  change  is  made  at  his  own  request , 
it  is  optional  for  the  bishop  to  order  it;  if  the  change  is 


PATAGONIA 


572 


PATAGONIA 


a  forced  removal  no  examination  is  held.  Where  the 
system  of  concursus  is  in  vogue  it  is  to  be  continued 
till  the  Holy  See  provides  otherwise.  A  parish  priest 
should  have  only  one  parish,  except  where  parishes 
have  been  united  ceque  principaliter ;  no  parish  may 
have  more  than  one  parish  priest  having  cure  of  souls, 
all  customs  to  the  contrary  being  reprobated  and  all 
privileges  to  the  contrary  withdrawn.  A  parish  priest 
obtains  his  cure  of  souls  from  the  moment  he  takes 
canonical  possession  of  his  parish,  before  or  at  which 
time  he  must  make  the  profession  of  faith  prescribed 
by  the  sacred  canons. 

‘  The  following  duties  are  reserved  to  parish  priests, 
unless  the  law  in  certain  instances  has  provided  other¬ 
wise:  to  administer  solemn  baptism;  to  carry  Holy 
Communion  publicly  to  the  sick  in  his  parish;  to  bring 
the  Viaticum  publicly  or  privately  to  the  sick  and  to 
administer  extreme  unction  (except  to  bishops,  to 
those  resident  in  houses  of  clerical  religious  or  of  nuns 
with  solemn  vows,  or  of  lay  religious  if  exempted  by 
the  bishop);  to  announce  ordinations  or  proclaim 
banns  of  marriage;  to  assist  at  marriages,  and  give 
the  nuptial  blessing;  to  hold  funeral  services;  to  bless 
houses  according  to  the  ritual  on  Easter  Saturday  or 
other  days  if  customary;  to  bless  the  baptismal  font 
on  Easter  Saturday,  to  lead  public  processions  outside 
of  the  Church,  and  to  give  blessings  with  pomp  and 
solemnity  outside  of  the  Church,  except  where  a  chapter 
performs  these  functions  in  connection  with  its  church. 
A  parish  priest  is  entitled  to  the  statutory  or  sanc¬ 
tioned  customary  fees  for  voluntary  acts  of  jurisdic¬ 
tion  or  on  the  occasion  of  administering  certain  sacra¬ 
ments;  if  he  exacts  more  he  is  bound  to  restitution; 
if  any  one  performs  such  duties  for  him  the  parish 
priest  is  entitled  to  the  fees,  even  to  any  surplus  over 
the  ordinary  amount,  unless  it  is  certain  that  the 
donor  intended  the  surplus  for  the  actual  minister; 
however,  if  a  party  is  too  poor  to  pay  the  parish  priest 
is  obliged  to  give  his  services.  He  has  care  ex  officio 
of  all  those  in  his  parish  who  are  not  exempt  (a  semi¬ 
nary  is  exempt),  but  the  bishop  for  just  and  grave 
cause  may  withdraw  from  the  jurisdiction  religious 
houses  and  pious  places  not  exempt  by  law .  In  virtue 
of  this  the  bishop  may  give  parochial  rights  to  the 
chaplains  of  such  places.  _ 

A  parish  priest  is  bound  to  reside  in  the  parochial 
house  near  his  own  church;  however,  the  local  ordi¬ 
nary  may,  when  there  is  a  just  cause,  allow  him  to 
reside  elsewhere,  provided  the  house  is  not  so  far 
from  the  church  as  to  interfere  with  the  proper 
discharge  of  his  parochial  duties.  He  is  entitled  to 
two  months’  leave  .of  absence  each  year  as  a  maxi¬ 
mum,  whether  continuous  or  interrupted,  but  the 
time  of  his  annual  retreat  is  not  included  in  this; 
the  ordinary  may,  however,  for  grave  reasons  prolong 
or  curtail  the  period  of  vacation.  When  the  parish 
priest  is  absent  more  than  a  week  he  must  have  the 
ordinary’s  written  permission,  and  must  provide  a 
substitute  approved  by  him  (approval  and  leave  of 
his  superior  would  also  be  needed  if  the  parish  priest 
were  a  religious).  If  for  grave  cause  the  parish 
priest  has  been  called  away  suddenly  and  cannot 
return  within  a  week  he  must  notify  the  ordinary  as 
soon  as  possible,  explaining  the  cause  and  suggesting 
a  substitute  and  must  hold  himself  ready  to  obey 
orders  • 

Removal  of  Pastors. — If  the  bishop  thinks  that 
there  is  a  canonical  reason  for  changing  an  irremov¬ 
able  parish  priest,  he  must  first  consult  any  two  of 
the  synodal  examiners.  He  then  invites  the  pastor 
either  verbally  or  by  writing  to  resign  (the  demand 
is  unnecessary  if  the  priest  s  mind  is  affected) .  The 
invitation,  however,  is  invalid  unless  it  mentions  the 
cause  and  the  arguments  inducing  the  ordinary  to 
make  the  request.  The  latter  may  allow  the  priest 
whatever  extension  of  the  time  fixed  for  replying 


he  judges  suitable,  provided  no  spiritual  detriment  to 
the  faithful  results.  If  the  ordinary  finds  unsatis¬ 
factory  the  reasons  given  by  the  priest  for  declining  to 
resign  he  must  tell  him  so.  The  priest  has  then  ten 
days  within  which  to  request  a  stay  in  order  to  bring 
forward  new  reasons  and  the  testimony  of  two  or 
three  witnesses  which  he  had  been  unable  to  obtain 
on  the  previous  occasion.  The  ordinary,  taking 
advice  with  two  parish  priests  as  consultors,  must 
examine  these  fresh  reasons,  if  they  have  been  pre¬ 
sented  within  ten  days  from  the  time  of  the  request 
for  a  stay.  The  final  decision  rests  exclusively  with 
the  ordinary,  not  as  formerly  with  the  ordinary  and 
the  consultors.  The  ordinary  should  endeavor  to 
provide  the  priest  as  soon  as  possible  with  other 
parish,  office,  or  benefice,  if  he  is  fitted  for  such,  or 
with  a  pension  if  circumstance  allow.  The  priest 
should  leave  the  parochial  house  as  soon  as  he  can, 
but  if  he  is  infirm  and  cannot  conveniently  move,  he 
is  to  be  allowed  to  remain  there  during  his  illness. 
A  removable  parish  priest  may  be  removed  for  the 
same  reasons  as  one  who  is  irremovable;  the  pro¬ 
cedure  is  similar,  except  that  he  is  not  allowed  a 
second  hearing.  At  times  it  may  seem  advisable  to 
an  ordinary  to  transfer  to  another  parish  a  parish 
priest  who  is  perfectly  satisfactory  and  exemplary. 
Special  faculties  would  be  necessary  to  remove  an 
irremovable  parish  priest  against  his  will,  but  this  is 
not  so  if  the  pastor  is  removable  and  the  new  parish 
is  not  notably  inferior.  The  removable  priest  may, 
however,  set  forth  his  objections  in  writing  for  the 
ordinary;  if  the  latter  is  unmoved  by  the  objections 
he  must,  to  proceed  validly,  call  in  two  parochial 
consultors  and  discuss  with  them  the  priest’s  objec¬ 
tions,  the  conditions  of  the  two  parishes,  and  the 
reasons  why  he  deems  the  change  useful  or  necessary. 
If,  after  hearing  the  consultors,  the  ordinary  still 
favors  the  change  he  is  to  advise  the  priest  to  yield; 
should  the  latter  still  refuse,  the  ordinary  may  notify 
him  in  writing  that  after  the  lapse  of  a  certain  time 
his  present  parish  is  to  be  vacated,  and  may  declare 
it  vacant  when  that  period  has  elapsed. 

Among  the  duties  which  a  parish  priest  must  be 
most  careful  to  fulfil  are  saying  Mass  and  administer¬ 
ing  the  sacraments,  visiting  and  comforting  the  sick 
and  dying,  preparing  children  and  others  for  first 
confession,  Holy  Communion  and  confirmation, 
preaching  on  Sundays  and  feasts  of  precept,  explaining 
the  catechism  to  adults  in  Sunday  sermons,  and  keep¬ 
ing  the  church  clean  and  free  from  unbecoming  pro¬ 
ceedings,  such  as  sales  for  pious  purposes.  If  he  is 
gravely  careless  in  these  matters  the  bishop  should 
call  his  attention  to  his  fault;  if  he  does  not  amend 
the  bishop  is  to  admonish  him  and  punish  him,  if 
after  consulting  two  examiners  and  giving  the  priest 
an  opportunity  of  defending  himself  he  judges  that 
the  parochial  duties  have  been  seriously  neglected 
without  a  just  cause;  if  the  admonition  and  punish¬ 
ment  produce  no  amendment  the  bishop  can  at  once 
deprive  a  removable  parish  priest  of  his  office;  an 
irremovable  parish  priest  is  to  be  punished  by  de¬ 
priving  him  in  part  or  in  whole  of  the  fruits  of  his 
benefice,  which  are  to  be  given  to  the  poor.  Should 
the  irremovable  priest  continue  recalcitrant  the 
ordinary,  after  establishing  the  fact  as  above,  is  to 
deprive  him  of  his  parish  likewise. 

Patagonia,  Northern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Patagonle  septentrionalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 540c), 
in  South  America.  The  vicariate  is  confided  to  the 
Salesians  but  at  present  the  see  is  vacant.  The 
population  is  123,100,  of  whom  115,000  are  Catholics. 
There  are:  50  priests,  30  churches,  9  chapels,  2 
seminaries,  26  schools,  10  colleges,  97  Salesians,  and 
112  Daughters  of  Marie- Auxiliatrice. 


PATAGONIA 


573 


PAVIA 


Patagonia,  Southern,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
(Patagonl®  meridional^;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI— 540d),  in 
South  America.  This  former  prefecture  apostolic 
was  erected  in  1883,  comprising  all  the  territory  of 
Magal lanes.  On  4  October,  1916,  that  part  of  the 
prefecture  belonging  to  Chile  was  erected  into  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Magellan,  and  that  part  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  Argentine  was  attached  to  the  Diocese  of 
Buenos  Aires  and  divided  into  4  deaneries,  confided 
to  the  Salesians. 

Patna,  Diocese  of  (Patnensis),  in  India 
suffragan  of  Calcutta.  The  new  see  of  Patna  was 
created  by  a  Decree  of  10  September,  1919.  The  terri¬ 
tory  of  the  diocese  includes  the  whole  of  the  former 
Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Bettiah  and  Nepal  (q.  v.)  and 
the  eastern  part  of  the  diocese  of  Allahabad  (q.  v.) 
lying  to  the  south  of  the  River  Ganges.  It  is  entrusted 
to  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus  of  the  Missouri 
Province  and  includes  all  the  districts  of  north  and 
south  Bihar  (except  the  two  districts  of  Purneah  and 
of  the  Santal  Pargannahr) ,  the  whole  of  Nepal  and  a 
strip  of  about  80  square  miles  in  the  Darjeeling  Dis¬ 
trict.  It  has  an  area  of  126,000  square  miles  and  a 
total  population  of  25,000,000.  The  total  Catholic 
population  is  5033.  The  first  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Louis  Van  Hoeck,  S.J.,  consecrated  6  March,  1921 
at  Ranchi,  by  the  Most  Rev.  B.  Meuleman,  S.J.’ 
Archbishop  of  Calcutta.  Born  in  Antwerp,  17  April, 
1870,  Bishop  Van  Hoeck  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate 
in  1890,  made  his  scholasticate  in  Calcutta,  and  was 
ordained  in  1903.  He  had  been  rector  of  Manresa 
in  Itanchi  for  eight  years  preceding  his  appointment 
as  bishop.  Mgr.  Van  Hoeck  was  decorated  with  the 
gold  medal  Kaisar-i-Hind.  There  are  in  the  mission 
15  churches,  7  chapels,  10  head  stations,  and  12  sub¬ 
stations  four  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  1 
Capuchin  Father  lent  by  the  Diocese  of  Lahore,  and 
7  secular  priests.  Religious  communities  include  the 
Irish  Christian  Brothers  (10);  Sisters  of  the  Institute 
of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary  (18);  the  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Cross  (Switzerland  10);  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  (5);  and  the  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis  (Indian  Sisters  11).  These  Brothers  and 
Sisters  conduct  2  high  schools  with  372  pupils  (214 
boys  and  113  girls);  1  middle  English  school  with  55 
boys;  1  convent  day  school  with  76  girls,  2  industrial 
schools  for  Indian  girls,  2  refuges  for  women,  and 
many  orphanages.  Six  public  institutions  admit  the 
ministration  of  priests  and  the  schools  are  aided  by 
the  Government.  The  diocese  has  a  printing  press  at 
Bettiah  called  “The  Catholic  Mission  Press.” 

Patron  and  Patronage  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI-560b). — 
No  right  of  patronage  can  be  validly  created  hence¬ 
forth;  local  ordinaries,  however,  may  concede  to  those 
who  establish  benefices  or  erect  churches  wholly  or  in 
part  a  right  to  certain  prayers,  temporarily  or  per¬ 
petually,  according  to  the  liberality  of  the  donor,  or 
they  may  allow  the  foundation  of  a  benefice  with  the 
condition  annexed  that  it  is  to  be  granted  the  first 
time  to  the  clerical  founder  or  to  another  cleric  named 
by  the  founder.  Ordinaries  should  endeavor  to  have 
the  interested  parties  accept  prayers,  even  perpetual, 
for  themselves  and  their  families  in  return  for  yielding 
up  their  rights  of  patronage  or  at  least  of  presentation. 
Where  popular  elections  and  presentations  are  cus¬ 
tomary  they  may  be  tolerated  only  if  the  people  select 
one  of  three  clerics  proposed  by  the  local  ordinary. 
The  only  honorary  rights  of  a  patron  mentioned  in 
the  Code  are,  if  authorized  by  lawful  local  custom: 
to  have  a  genealogical  record  of  their  family  erected 
in  the  church,  precedence  over  other  lay  persons  in 
processions  and  similar  functions,  and  a  more  promi¬ 
nent  seat  in  church,  but  this  must  not  be  placed  within 
the  sanctuaty  or  under  a  canopy.  Minors  exercise 


their  right  through  their  parents  or  guardians,  but  it  is 
suspended  if  the  parents  or  guardians  are  non-Catho- 
li.es.  here  there  is  no  just  impediment  the  presenta¬ 
tion  must  be  made  within  four  months  (or  less  if  cus¬ 
tom  or  the  laws  of  the  foundation  require  it),  after 
the  person  having  the  right  of  instituting  notifies  the 
patron  of  the  vacancy  and  of  the  eligible  priests  if  a 
concursus  is  necessary;  if  the  presentation  is  not  made 
within  the  proper  time,  the  church  or  benefice  may  be 
freely  collated  on  that  occasion;  if,  however,  a  dispute 
arises  which  cannot  be  settled  within  the  time  fixed 
the  ordinary  should  name  a  temporary  ceconomus  for 
the  church  or  benefice.  If  the  right  of  patronage  is 
exercised  by  a  college  the  candidate  to  be  presented 
must  have  obtained  the  absolute  majority  of  votes; 
if  no  one  is  selected  in  the  first  two  ballots,  the  person 
getting  the  greatest  number  of  votes  is  to  be  chosen; 
if  more  than  one  received  the  highest  figure  all  those 
who  have  received  it  are  to  be  presented .  Where  there 
are  individual  patrons  the  candidate  getting  the  rela¬ 
tive  majority  of  votes  is  chosen;  in  this  case,  too,  more 
than  one  person  may  thus  be  presented.  A  patron  has 
a  vote  for  every  title  to  his  right,  and  he  may  present 
more  than  one  candidate.  The  ordinary  has  the  right 
to  decide  if  the  candidate  is  suitable  and  he  should 
investigate  carefully  before  deciding  but  he  is  not 
obliged  and  need  not  give  his  reasons.  If  the  candi- 
didate  is  unsuitable  the  patron  can  propose  a  second, 
and,  if  he  also  is  unfitted,  the  benefice  may  be  freely 
collated  for  that  occasion  unless  the  patron  or  candi¬ 
date  appeals  to  the  Holy  See  within  ten  days  after 
being  notified  of  the  rejection;  during  the  time  of 
appeal  an  oeconomus  should  be  appointed  by  the  ordi¬ 
nary  if  necessary.  W  hen  one  has  been  lawfully  pre¬ 
sented,  found  suited,  and  his  presentation  has  been 
accepted,  he  has  a  right  to  canonical  institution,  the 
right  of  granting  which  is  enjoyed  by  the  local  ordi¬ 
nary  ,  but  not  by  the  vicar  general  without  a  special 
mandate.  Canonical  institution  must  be  given  within 
two  months  after  presentation,  unless  there  is  a  just 
excuse. 

Patron  Saints  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI— 562a) .—The 
practice  of  choosing  a  special  saint  as  patron  of  a 
nation  , province  , diocese  or  other  locality,  religious 
institute,  confraternity  or  other  group  constitutiong 
a  moral  person  is  again  highly  approved  in  the  Code. 
When  a  selection  has  been  made,  however,  the  saint 
does  not  become  the  patron  officially  until  the  Holy 
See  gives  its  approval.  The  choice  of  a  diocesan 
patron  by  a  bishop  requires  the  approval  of  the 
diocesan  synod  to  become  effective.  A  special  apos¬ 
tolic  indult  is  necessary  where  there  is  a  desire  to 
select  as  patron  one  who  has  only  been  beatified,  for 
as  a  rule  the  Church  allows  as  patrons  only  those 
whose  heroic  sanctity  has  been  definitively  placed 
beyond  all  question  by  canonization.  By  common 
ecclesiastical  law  the  feast  days  of  patron  saints  are 
not  holy  days  of  obligation;  and  a  local  ordinary 
may  transfer  the  external  celebration  of  the  patronal 
feast  to  the  following  Sunday. 

Patti,  Diocese  of  (Pactensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 
567a),  in  Sicily,  suffragan  of  Messina.  The  present 
bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Ferdinando  Fiandaca,  b.  1857, 
elected  Bishop  of  Nicosia  1903,  transferred  to  Patti 
1912,  succeeding  Bishop  Traina,  deceased.  The 
Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  200,000.  There 
are:  49  parishes,  324  secular  priests,  43  regular  priests, 
70  seminarians,  50  Sisters,  520  churches  and  chapels. 

Paulists.  See  Missionary  Society  of  Saint  Paul 
the  Apostle;  Saint  Paul  of  Hungary,  Hermits  of. 

Pavia,  Diocese  of  (Papiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 592b),  suffragan  of  Milan,  Italy.  The  present 
bishop  is  Rt,  Rev.  Francesco  Ciceri,  b.  1848,  ordained 


PAZ 


574 


PEARSE 


1870,  elected  bishop  1901,  succeeding  Bishop  Riboldi, 
promoted,  appointed  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne 
1920.  The  bishop  has  the  right  of  pallium.  The  Cath¬ 
olic  population  of  the  diocese  is  110,300.  There  are: 
82  parishes,  198  secular  priests,  10  regular  priests, 
65  seminarians,  20  Brothers,  59  Sisters,  112  churches 
and  chapels. 

Paz  y  Figueroa,  Maria  Antonia  de  San  Jose  de, 
preacher  and  missionary,  b.  at  Santiago  del  Estero 
in  the  Diocese  of  Salta,  Argentina,  in  1730;  d.  at 
Buenos  Aires  on  6  March,  1799.  At  the  age  of 
fifteen  she  dedicated  herself  to  the  service  of  God 
and  formed  among  her  companions  a  society,  without 
any  special  rule,  for  the  practice  of  Christian  virtue 
and  the  observance  of  the  Evangelical  counsels. 
She  acted  under  the  spiritual  guidance  of  the  Jesuits 
and  when  they  were  exiled  she  determined  to  carry 
on  their  work  and  propagate  their  spirit  as  best  she 
could.  With  the  approval  of  the  religious  authorities 
and  the  cooperation  of  the  Society  of  the  Sisters  of 
Pious  Sermons,  she  began  to  preach  penance  and  urge 
the  laity  to  make  the  Spiritual  Exercises,  and  between 
1775  and  1779  evangelized  large  districts,  especially 
round  Tucuman,  San  Miguel,  Rivin,  and  Cdrdoba. 
She  then  visited  Buenos  Aires  where  she  stirred  up  the 
religious  zeal  of  the  clergy  and  laity,  and  in  August, 
1780,  with  the  archbishop’s  approval,  she  established 
a  house  of  retreats,  in  which  over  70,000  persons  made 
the  Spiritual  Exercises  within  the  next  eight  years. 
She  then  preached  in  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  Monte¬ 
video,  where  she  remained  three  years.  She  was  then 
recalled  by  the  citizens  of  Buenos  Aires,  and  on  her 
return  founded  a  Magdalen  Asylum.  She  died  in 
the  odor  of  sanctity  in  her  sixty-ninth  year,  and  on 
8  August,  1917,  the  cause  of  her  canonization  was 
introduced  at  Rome. 

Acta  Sanctae  Sedis  (1917),  435-38. 

Pearse,  Padraic  H.,  Irish  educator,  poet  and 
patriot,  b.  in  Dublin  in  1879,  d.  3.  May,  1916,  the 
son  of  an  English  sculptor,  James  Pearse,  and  an 
Irish  mother.  He  was  educated  in  a  private  school  in 
Dublin,  then  was  an  intermediate  student  of  the 
Christian  Brothers’  school,  at  twelve  he  commenced 
the  study  of  the  Irish  language,  and  later  studied 
Canon  O’Leary’s  “Seadna”  under  supervision  of  the 
author.  When  seventeen  he  founded  the  New  Ireland 
Literary  Society  and  his  presidential  addresses  were 
published  in  book  form  in  1898  as  “Three  Essays  on 
Gaelic  Topics.”  Before  he  was  twenty-four  Pearse 
graduated  from  the  Royal  University  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Irish  lecturer  in  Catholic  University  College, 
where  he  gained  his  B.A.  and  B.L.  Padraic  Pearse 
became  editor  of  the  Gaelic  League  Official  organ  “An 
Claidheamh  Soluis”  (The  Sword  of  Light),  and  he 
announced  his  intention  of  making  it  the  organ  of 
militant  Gaeldom.  He  was  the  first  of  the  young 
men  to  be  spoken  of  in  the  Gaelic  League  and  he  had 
mastered  the  language  and  learned  about  Gaelic  life 
by  living  for  long  spaces  of  time  in  a  cottage  he  owned 
in  West  Connacht.  And  so  he  became  a  leader  in  the 
movement  to  prepare  the  Irish  for  freedom,  to  turn 
their  hopes  toward  an  Ireland  that  would  be  a  re¬ 
surgent  Gaelic  nationality.  He  wrote  continually  in 
Irish  and  English  and  was  an  intelligent  advocate  of 
bi-lingual  schools,  founding  one  such  for  boys  (St. 
Enda’s)  in  1908  and  later,  as  the  idea  developed  and 
its  success  was  assured,  St.  Ita’s  school  for  girls  was 
also  founded.  In  these  schools  he  put  into  practice 
his  ideas  of  national  Irish  education  based  on  religion 
and  patriotism  and  from  henceforth  his  writings  were 
connected  with  this  school.  Thomas  McDonagh 
became  a  member  of  the  staff  of  St.  Enda’s  and  later 
Joseph  Mary  Plunkett  became  a  pupil  of  his.  Pearse 
wrote  a  Passion  Play  in  Irish  in  1911  and  produced  it 


at  Easter  in  the  Abbey  Theatre.  A  year  later  he  pub¬ 
lished  his  single  book  of  verse,  “Suantraidhe  agus 
Goltraidhe”  (Songs  of  Slumber  and  Sorrow),  written 
in  the  language  of  his  Connacht  parish.  He  began  an 
anthology  of  poetry  in  the  Irish  language,  making  his 
own  translations  and  putting  much  of  his  personality 
into  them.  In  the  spring  of  1913  he  made  a  visit  to 
America  to  raise  funds  for  his  schools  by  lecturing  on 
Irish  literature  and  his  own  ideas  of  education. 

In  the  winter  of  1913  the  Irish  Volunteers  were 
formed.  Pearse,  Plunkett  and  MacDonagh  became 
members  of  a  secret  political  society  that  had  revolu¬ 
tion  as  its  object  and  they  strove  to  bring  about  for¬ 
eign  intervention.  In  1914  the  European  War  broke 
out  and  the  threat  of  conscription,  actual  over-taxa¬ 
tion,  danger  of  famine  and  exasperation  caused  by 
unfair  and  clumsy  administration  fanned  the  flames 
of  their  purpose  and  the  Volunteer  movement  spread. 
Pearse  and  his  companions  saw  in  the  War  their  great 
chance.  On  St.  Patrick’s  Day,  1916,  a  vast  body  of 
Volunteers  paraded  in  College  Green,  Dublin,  and 
saluted  Eoin  MacNeil,  their  recognized  leader.  The 
personality  of  Pearse  and  James  Connolly,  a  Socialist, 
was  responsible  for  the  Easter  uprising.  Roger  Case¬ 
ment,  landing  in  Kerry,  failed  to  be  met  by  those  who 
were  to  take  him  to  his  destination  and  had  been 
captured  by  police  and  taken  to  London,  and  at  the 
same  time  a  liner,  the  “Aud,”  which  accompanied 
Casement’s  submarine  disguised  as  a  Norwegian 
timber  ship,  but  carrying  20,000  rifles,  millions  of 
rounds  of  ammunition  with  machine  guns  and  explo¬ 
sives  had  been  stopped  by  a  British  patrol  near 
Tralee  where  the  arms  were  to  be  landed  and  the  ship, 
flying  the  German  flag,  was  scuttled  by  her  own 
crew.  A  rising  had  been  planned  for  Easter  Sunday, 
but  on  learning  of  this  loss  a  countermanding  order 
was  sent  broadcast  on  Holy  Saturday.  On  Easter 
Sunday  the  Volunteer  council  met  to  consider  whether 
or  not  a  blow  should  be  struck  for  they  knew  that  the 
British  Government  had  learned  from  the  sinking  of 
the  “Aud”  how  near  insurrection  had  come  to  pass 
and  that  the  decision  was  made  to  seize  the  Volunteer 
Executive  and  break  up  the  organization.  MacNeill 
opposed  unaided  insurrection.  Sean  MacDiarmada, 
Tom  Clarke  and  Thomas  MacDonagh  were  com¬ 
mitted  to  the  insurgent  policy,  Pearse  is  believed  to 
have  favored  the  moderate  counsel,  but  Connolly 
declared  that  at  any  cost  the  Citizen  Army  should 
strike  before  it  disbanded  and  so  Pearse,  having 
preached  at  all  times  the  duty  of  Irishmen  to  vindicate 
their  national  faith,  gave  the  vote  for  the  insurrection 
which  turned  the  course  of  Irish  history  (see  Ireland). 

On  Easter  Monday  (24  April,  1916),  soon  after 
noon  the  Irish  Republic  was  proclaimed  in  Dublin 
(the  stirring  proclamation  was  signed  by  Clarke, 
MacDiarmada,  Connolly,  Eamonn  Ceannt,  Pearse, 
MacDonagh  and  Plunkett)  and  the  insurgent  tri-color 
waved  from  the  flagstaff  above  the  General  Post 
Office  in  the  heart  of  the  Irish  capital.  There  was  little 
fighting  on  the  first  day.  British  reinforcements  were 
hurried  into  the  country  while  all  over  Ireland  a  few 
hundred  youths,  ill-armed,  stood  their  ground  against 
the  might  of  Britain.  A  circle  of  fire  and  steel  was 
contracting  around  the  daring  insurgents  and  even  the 
best  organized  counties  had  not  enough  munitions  for 
an  hour’s  firing. 

Pearse  was  Commander  in  Chief  and  President  of 
the  Provisional  Government.  The  County  Dublin 
Volunteers  pierced  into  County  Meath,  taking  the 
R.  I.  C.  barracks  and  fighting  a  pitched  battle  with 
the  constabulary  at  Ashburne.  In  County  Galway  a 
large  body  of  insurgents,  led  by  Liam  Mellows, 
advanced  on  Galway  City.  In  County  Wexford 
Enniscorthy  was  seized  on  Thursday  and  the  Repub¬ 
lican  flag  hoisted  on  the  Athenaeum,  and  on  Friday 
encircling  forces  pressed  close  to  the  central  scene  of 


PECS 


PEGUY 


575 


operations  in  Dublin.  A  terrific  bombardment  had 
sot  the  center  of  Dublin  City  wholly  ablaze.  The 
loss  oi  life  was  appalling,  while  banks,  churches  and 
business  places  were  tottering  and  Pearse  wrote  his 
last  manifesto  in  which  he  said:  “I  am  satisfied  that 
we  have  saved  Ireland’s  honor  .  .  .  we  have  acted 
for  the  best  interests  of  Ireland.  .  .  I  am  not  afraid  to 
face  the  judgment  of  God  or  the  judgment  of  pos- 
*  Connelly,  wounded  with  a  bullet  through  the 
thigh  stdl  directed  the  defence.  Commandant  Daly 
had  destroyed  the  Linen  Hall  Barracks,  but  was  sur¬ 
rounded  at  hour  Courts.  Countess  Markievicz,  after 
bemg  driven  from  the  trenches  in  Stephen's  Green, 
was  defending  the  College  of  Surgeons.  Commandant 
MacDonagh  was  surrounded  in  Jacob’s  factory,  Com¬ 
mandant  De  Valera  was  holding  Boland’s  Mills,  while 
Commandant  Ceannt  held  part  of  the  South  Dublin 
Union.  On  Saturday  the. General  Post  Office  was  set 
aflame  and  the  Republican  Government  had  to  evacu¬ 
ate  the  headquarters  there,  which  Pearse  was  the  last 
to  leave  I  rom  new  headquarters  he  sent  a  message 
asking  for  terms.  These  were  refused  and  at  two 
o  dock  Pearse  surrendered  unconditionally  to  Sir 
John  Maxwell.  He  then  sent  out  notices  to  com¬ 
mandants  of  the  surviving  Volunteer  bodies,  ordering 
arms  to  be  laid  down,  “in  order  to  prevent  a  further 
slaughter  of  unarmed  people  and  in  the  hope  of  saving 
lives  of  our  followers,  now  surrounded  and  hopelessly 
outnumbered.  ”  J 

And  so  the  rising  ended,  the  outstanding  forces 
laying  down  their  arms  on  Sunday.  There  followed  a 
round-up  of  Irish  Irelanders.  to  have  been  heard 
to  speak  Irish  was  cause  enough  for  the  breadwinner 
to  be  torn  from  his  family.  Hundreds  of  Irishmen 
were  crowded  into  congested  prisons  and  sent  to 
internment  camps  and  fifteen  of  the  leaders,  including 
Padraic  Pearse  and  his  brother  William,  Connolly 
Eamonn  Ceannt,  Sean  McDermott,  Michael  O’Han- 
rahan,  Con  Colbert,  Thomas  Kent,  Joseph  Mary 
Plunkett,  Edward  Daly,  Michael  Mallon,  Thomas 
MacDonagh,  Tom  Clarke  and  John  MacBride  were 
'tt-  f.  rai°  Pearse  was  executed  on  3  May,  1916 
and  William  twenty-four  hours  later.  The  Easter 
Rising  had  been  quickly  quelled  but  the  blood-sacri- 
face  that  had  been  made  called  into  being  a  mighty 
desire  for  freedom  that  proved  Pearse  and  the  others 
had  not  died  in  vain,  their  Provisional  Republic  pro¬ 
claimed  on  Easter  Monday  lived  and  these  deaths 
united  Irishmen  to  fight  for  an  unfettered  Ireland. 

Pearse  the  patriot  overshadowed  Pearse  the  poet 
and  his  tireless  activities  in  behalf  of  the  Irish  language 
education  and  freedom  limited  his  artistic  production  ’ 
but  the  very  essence  of  the  man  was  poetry — the  rare 
poetry  of  perfect  simplicity  and  intense  sincerity 
lighted  by  a  deep  faith  from  which  no  interest  in  his 
lite  was  separate.  The  single  volume  in  which  his 
works  have  been  placed  contains  a  slender  lot  of  poetry 
(about  one-tenth  of  the  whole),  but  in  these  twenty- 
odd  poems  we  have  a  most  accurate  picture  of  the 
poet,  gentle  but  not  soft,  calm  and  eager,  and  at  times 
oi  exaltation  a  flaming  passionate  mystic.  We  find 
also  in  the  book  some  very  fine  prose,  especially  his 
stories  of  children  which  are  perfect  in  natural  dia¬ 
logue,  and  a  few  plays,  one  of  which,  “The  Singer,”  is 
autobiographical.  Pearse  was  so  sincere  that’ his 
writmgs  could  but  reveal  himself  and  they  even  fore¬ 
tell  with  startling  accuracy  his  future,  for  he  had 
dreamed  a  dream  in  his  heart”  and  set  his  face  to 
the  road  before  him  and  the  death  he  knew  he  should 
meet. 

MacManus,  The  Story  of  the  Irish  Race  (New  York,  1921)- 
VOL.™’  Introduction  to  Poems  of  the  Irish  Revolutionary  Brother¬ 
hood  (Boston,  1916);  O’Braonian  in  Studies  (September,  1916). 

Samuel  Fowle  Telfair,  Jr. 


>.in  the  ecclesiastical  province  of  Esztergom  (Gran). 
I  his  diocese  since  7  September,  1754,  has  enjoyed 
the  perpetual  right  of  the  pallium.  The  present  bishop 
is  Count  Jules  Zichy,  b.  at  Nagv-Land,  diocese  of 
Szekes-Fehervar,  7  November,  1871,  brother  of  the 
head  of  the  Catholic  party,  titular  abbot  of  St. 
Martin  de  Buch,  papal  chamberlain  to  Popes  Leo 
XIII  and  Pius  X,  elected  11  December,  1905,  con¬ 
secrated  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  by  Pius  X,  21  Decem¬ 
ber  following  and  enthroned  14  January,  1906. 

During  the  Servian  occupation  (1918-1921)  the 
clergy  fearlessly  strove  to  bring  about  the  expulsion 
of  the  invaders,  and  some  priests  were  incarcerated  and 
others  were  martyred.  Among  those  put  to  death  are: 
Stephen  Vomdcsy,  honorary  canon  and  professor  of 
theology;  Victor  Perr,  editor  of  the  weekly  “Pecsi 
Est;”  Aloysius  Tselstoger,  pastor  at  Olaz;  Ludovicus 
Lesfuyaz,  O.  S.  Fr.;  Canon  Dionysius  Mosowyi; 
Abel  Bufessy,  O.  Cist.,  director  of  the  archgymnasium 
in  Pecs.  At  the  time  of  the  Communist  uprising 
some  of  the  clergy  took  an  active  part  as  leaders  against 
the  revolution. 

The  following  clergy  of  note  are  recently  deceased: 
Canon  Julius  Wajdis  (d.  21  March,  1920),  a  man  of 
great  sanctity,  called  “the  father  of  the  poor”; 
Adalbert  Horvath,  translator  of  Hungarian  poems  into 
Croatian  and  of  Slavonic  poetry  into  Hungarian. 
A  notable  evjent  for  the  diocese  was  the  founding  of  a 
weekly,  “Dunantul,”  which  intrepidly  upheld  Catholic 
doctrine  during  the  Communistic  uprising  and  sup¬ 
ported  the  Hungarian  cause  during  the  time  of  the 
Servian  occupation. 

There  are  532,800  Catholics  in  the  diocese,  as  com¬ 
pared  with  18,200  Schismatics,  46,200  Lutherans 
85,500  Calvinists,  and  18,700  Jews.  There  are 
347  secular  and  84  regular  priests,  assisted  by  25 
lay  brothers;  181  parishs  with  268  churches;  1  mission; 

1 1  monasteries  for  men  and  25  for  women;  1  seminary; 

1  university  in  charge  of  the  Government  with  88 
professors  and  1145  students;  5  colleges  for  boys  with 
14  teachers  and  300  students;  6  colleges  for  girls  with 
30  teachers  and  350  students;  2  academies  with  18 
teachers  and  165  pupils;  7  training  schools  with  139 
teachers  and  2850  pupils;  3  orphanages;  1  hospital; 

1  house  of  refuge;  73  day  nurseries.  The  Govern¬ 
ment  contributes  to  the  support  of  the  Catholic  in¬ 
stitutions  and  admits  the  ministry  of  priests  in  all 
public  schools. 

There  are  a  mission  society  and  a  Eucharistic  league 
organized  among  the  clergy  while  among  the  laity 
many  associations  such  as  the  League  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  the  Society  for  Perpetual  Adoration,  etc., 
exist.  Two  Catholic  dailies,  1  weekly  and  6  other 
periodicals  are  published. 


fP<\C4  (orFunfkirchen),  Diocese  of  (cf.  C. 
•  ,  *1  322b,  Quinque  Ecclesiensis) ,  in  Hungary, 
3  7 


Peguy,  Charles  Pierre,  author,  b.  at  Orleans  on 
7  January,  1873;  d.  at  the  Battle  of  the  Marne,  1914. 
After  his  baccalaureate  he  taught  in  the  normal  school 
of  his  native  city  but  abandoned  pedagogy  to  study 
the  question  of  Socialism.  In  1907  he  ran  a  work 
through  the  press  under  the  pseudonym,  of  Pierre 
Deloire.  He  also  composed  a  drama  on  Joan  of  Arc. 
Meantime  he  had  organized  a  Socialist  library  and 
was  among  those  who  clamored  for  a  revision  of  the 
Dreyfus  trial.  But  Joan  of  Arc  pursued  him;  he 
gave  up  his  library  and  began  to  turn  his  thoughts 
higher.  It  was  not  hard  for  him  to  do  so,  for  his 
Socialism  was  alwrays  of  a  mystical  character  and  he 
had  no  regard  for  the  material  side  of  it  or  for  com¬ 
promises  with  politicians.  In  1905  the  attitude  of 
Germany  towards  France  aroused  his  patriotism  and 
he  wrote  “Our  Country,”  in  which  there  are  medita¬ 
tions  on  Joan  of  Arc  and  St.  Genevieve,  the  liberators 
of  Orleans.  In  1910  appeared  another  book  of  medi¬ 
tations  on  the  tragedy  of  Calvary,  in  1912  a  book 
about  the  Holy  Innocents,  one  of  them  taking  the 


PEKIN 


576 


PENNSYLVANIA 


Academy  prize.  When  the  war  broke  out  he  rushed- 
to  the  front  and  when  he  died  was  cited  on  the  order 
of  the  day. 

Pekin.  See  Chi-li,  Northern. 

Pelotas,  Diocese  of  (Pelotasensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 610a),  in  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Porto  Alegre.  The 
present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Joachim  Ferreira  de  Mello, 
b.  187.5,  elected  1921,  succeeding  Bishop  de  Campos 
Barreto,  transferred.  The  area  of  the  diocese  is  16,026 
square  miles  and  the  population  is  307,000,  of  whom 
280,000  are  Catholics  and  27,000  Protestants.  There 
are:  24  parishes,  32  secular  priests,  50  regular  priests 
and  10  Brothers  belonging  to  5  religious  congregations 
of  men,  5  religious  congregations  of  women,  2  col¬ 
leges,  several  secondary  and  parochial  schools  and 
nearly  120  Sisters  who  have  charge  of  all  the  hospitals 
in  the  diocese. 

Pembroke,  Diocese  of  (Pembrokensis,  cf. 
C.  E.,  XI — 611a),  in  Canada,  is  suffragan  to  the 
Archdiocese  of  Ottawa.  On  3  May,  1912,  Rt.  Rev. 
Patrick  T.  Ryan,  who  had  been  vicar  general  of  the 
diocese  for  two  years,  was  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Clazomense,  consecrated  25  July,  of  the  same  year 
and  made  auxiliary  to  Bishop  Lorrain,  first  bishop  of 
Pembroke.  Bishop  Lorrain  died  18  December,  1915, 
and  his  auxiliary  was  named  successor,  7  August, 
1916,  taking  possession  of  the  see  21  December  fol¬ 
lowing. 

During  the  World  War  numbers  of  the  young  men 
of  this  diocese  enlisted  for  service,  140  going  from  the 
cathedral  parish  alone,  10  of  whom  were  killed.  Six 
of  the  clergy  went  to  the  front  as  chaplains  and  one 
of  them,  Rev.  F.  L.  French,  P.  P.,  was  in  charge  of 
the  Canadian  chaplain-service  in  France  with  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  He  received  the  deco¬ 
ration  of  the  Distinguished  Service  Order  and  two  of 
the  other  chaplains  received  French  military  medals. 

On  18  June,  1918,  the  Grey  Nuns  of  the  Cross 
celebrated  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  their  establish¬ 
ment  in  the  Diocese  of  Pembroke,  and  on  24  July, 
1921,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Peterborough  were 
introduced  into  the  diocese,  with  a  mother-house  at 
Pembroke. 

Penedo,  Diocese  of  (Penedensis),  suffragan 
of  Maceio,  Brazil.  The  diocese  was  erected  3  April, 
1916,  by  division  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Alagoas  (Ma¬ 
ceio),  the  western  part  forming  the  new  diocese.  The 
western  boundaries  are  those  of  the  former  Archdio¬ 
cese  of  Alagoas  and  the  eastern  boundaries  are  the 
eastern  borders  of  the  parishes  of  Coruripe,  Junqueiro, 
Zimolira,  and  Palmeira,  belonging  to  the  new  diocese, 
which  comprise  a  total  of  16  parishes  formerly  belong¬ 
ing  to  Alagoas.  A  decree  of  25  August,  1917,  modified 
the  diocesan  boundaries.  The  episcopal  residence  is 
at  Penedo,  where  the  church  of  the  Rosary  was  erected 
into  a  cathedral.  The  first  and  present  bishop  is  Rt. 
Rev.  Jonas  de  Aranjo  Batinga,  b.  1865,  vicar  general 
of  Maceio,  elected  28  January,  1918,  published  10 
March,  1919. 

Penne  and  Atri,  Diocese  of  (Pennensis  et 
Atriensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 638c),  in  the  Province  of 
Teramo,  Italy,  dependent  directly  on  the  Holy  See. 
The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Carlo  Pensa,  O.S.C., 
b.  1869,  elected  27  August,  1912,  succeeding  Bishop 
Piras,  deceased.  Penne  has  163,800  Catholics,  91 
parishes,  163  secular  priests,  21  regular  priests,  275 
churches  and  chapels,  10  Brothers,  and  6  Sisters. 
Atri  has  20,600  Catholics,  8  parishes,  30  secular 
priests,  44  churches  and  chapels. 

Pennsylvania  (cf.  C.E.,XI — 638d). — The  area  of 
the  State  of  Pennsylvania  is  45,126  square  miles, 


of  which  294  are  covered  with  water.  In  1920  the 
population  was  8,720,017,  a  gain  of  13.89  per  cenf 
since  1910.  Of  this  64.3  was  urban;  35.7  was  rural. 
The  average  number  of  inhabitants  is  194.5  per  square 
mile,  as  against  171  in  1910.  There  are  67  counties, 
2544  primary  divisions,  1567  townships,  39  cities,  933 
incorporated  boroughs  and  one  incorporated  town. 
The  largest  cities  are:  Philadelphia,  with  a  popula¬ 
tion  of  1,823,779;  Pittsburgh  588,193;  Scranton 
137,783;  Reading  107,784;  Erie  93,372;  Harrisburg 
75,917;  Wilkes-Barre  73,828;  Allentown  73,502; 
Johnstown  67,327.  Philadelphia  still  ranks  as  the 
third  city  in  the  United  States  but  Pittsburg  has  fallen 
to  the  ninth  place.  Pennsylvania  sends  36  represen¬ 
tatives  to  the  United  States  Congress  and  has  38 
votes  in  the  electoral  college.  It  is  second  of  all  the 
States  in  the  Union  in  population. 

Material  Resources. — In  1918  about  630,000 
million  feet  of  lumber  was  cut  in  Pennsylvania, 
about  one-half  as  much  as  the  State  of  Minnesota,  at 
an  average  cost  of  $30.21  per  million  feet.  This  is  a 
great  decrease  from  1900,  when  the  cut  was  2,313,267 
million  feet.  It  is  estimated  that  the  State  has  about 
115,000,000,000  tons  of  coal.  The  total  output  of 
bituminous  coal  in  1918  was  178,550,741  tons;  of 
anthracite  coal,  98,826,084  tons.  Thus  the  State 
contributed  more  than  33  per  cent  of  the  coal  mined 
in  the  United  States,  and  about  half  of  the  coke,  the 
output  being  26,723,645  tons.  In  the  same  year  the 
petroleum  output  was  103,347,070  barrels,  worth 
$231,136,205.  The  production  of  pig  iron  in  1918 
was  15,423,262  long  tons,  valued  at  $460,677,474, 
just  39  per  cent  of  the  entire  production  of  the  United 
States. 

In  1919  Pennsylvania  had  a  capital  of  $6,277,268,- 
000  invested  in  manufactures,  employing  1,136,252 
wage  earners  receiving  $1,406,561,000  per  annum, 
and  producing  $7,316,063,000  in  value  of  finished 
goods,  including,  l3esides  iron  and  steel,  textiles  of 
various  kinds,  etc.  The  manufacturing  establish¬ 
ments  numbered  27,975.  Owing  to  the  abundance  of 
tanning  substances  Pennsylvania  is  the  largest  leather- 
producing  State  in  the  Union,  60  per  cent  of  the  glace 
kid  of  the  United  States  being  made  in  Philadelphia. 
In  1916  the  leather  industry  employed  13,592  workers, 
earning  a  total  wage  of  $9,336,100,  the  total  product 
being  valued  at  $155,973,800.  In  the  same  year  the 
cotton  mills  employed  a  total  of  5826  workers,  earning 
a  total  of  $3,193,200. 

Agriculture. — In  1919  there  were  202,256  farms 
with  an  area  of  18,586,832  acres,  of  which  12,673,519 
were  improved.  The  value  of  the  farm  property  was 
$1,253,274,862.  The  chief  crops  are:  wheat  26,774,- 
760  bushels;  oats  44,858,325  bushels;  tobacco  60,541,- 
000  pounds;  maize  66,457,800  bushels. 

Communications. — On  1,  January  1919,  Penn¬ 
sylvania  had  12,872  miles  of  railway,  and  4870 
miles  of  electric  railway,  an  average  of  26.05  miles  of 
track  for  every  square  mile.  The  total  assessment  of 
steam  railroads  operating  any  portions  of  their  lines 
within  the  State  is  $6,832,325,258.  For  the  year  end¬ 
ing  December,  1916,  the  total  earnings  of  railroads 
subject  to  taxation  was  $1,444,317,202.  There  were 
391,412,797  passengers  and  966,155,890  total  tons  of 
freight.  The  street  railways  showed  a  capitalization 
of  $432,310,318.  Philadelphia  is  an  important  port, 
the  imports  for  the  year  ending  30  June,  1920,  being: 
imports,  $219,167,601;  exports,  $449,691,705.  In 
1919  just  1447  vessels  from  foreign  ports  arrived  in 
Philadelphia;  2057  from  coastwise  ports.  On  1  De¬ 
cember,  1917,  the  outstanding  bonds  of  the  State 
amounted  to  $22,651,110,  which  were  partially  cov¬ 
ered  by  a  sinking  fund  of  $2,151,110.  On  1  Novem¬ 
ber,  1920,  the  assessed  value  of  real  property  was  $6,- 
836,165,155;  taxable  value  of  personal  property, 
$1,907,34,355. 


PENSION 


PEORIA 


57  i 


Education.  School  attendance  is  compulsory 
for  all  between  the  ages  of  8  and  11  for  the  full 
term;  in  less  populated  districts  (less  than  5000)  it 
may  be  reduced  to  /0  per  cent  of  the  term  for  children 
under  12  years  of  age.  The  State  Board  of  Education 
created  by  the  Act.  of  18  May,  1911,  consists  of  six 
members,  appointed  by  the  Governor  for  six  years. 
I  he  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  appointed 
bv  the  Governor  for  four  years,  is  president  and 
chief  executive  officer  of  the  State  Board  of  Educa¬ 
tion.  The  Bureau  of  Vocational  Education,  created 
in  1915  to  supersede  the  Vocational  Educational 
Division,  authorized  in  1913,  consists  of  two  divisions 
Agricultural  and  Industrial.  The  Bureau  of  Pro¬ 
fessional  Education  created  in  1911  is  under  the  State 
Department  of  Public  Instruction.  In  1911  was  also 
created  the  Bureau  of  Medical  Instruction  and 
Licensure  of  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction. 
A  State  Council  of  Education  was  established  in 
1921  The  laws  governing  private  and  parochial 
schools  are  as  follows:  The  register  of  all  public, 
private,  parochial,  Sunday  and  other  schools  shall 
exhibit  the  names  and  residence  of  all  children 
and  persons  excluded  therefrom  or  readmitted  there¬ 
to  .  .  .;  and  such  register  shall  be  open  at  all 
times  to  the  inspection  of  city,  borough,  township 
authorities  and  the  State  Department  of  Health  and 
their  respective  officers  and  agents.  Every  child 
between  the  ages  of  8  and  16  is  required  to  attend  a 
day  school  in  which  the  common  English  branches 
are  taught  in  the  English  language.  All  teachers  in 
public  and  private  schools,  shall  take  the  oath  of  al¬ 
legiance.  No  appropriation  shall  be  made  to  any 
charitable  or  educational  institution  not  under  the 
absolute  control  of  the  Commonwealth.  Private 
schools  must  report  regarding  attendance.  Attendance 
registers  shall  always  be  open  to  public  authorities. 
Ao  teacher,  while  teaching  in  a  public  school,  shall 
wear  a  religious  garb.  In  the  year  ending  July,  1919, 
there  were  in  the  State  15,185  school-houses,  42,354 
schools,  937  high  schools,  58,073  boys  and  72,197 
girls  in  the  high  schools,  also  43,972 ^teachers  (6233 
male  and  37,139  female).  The  number  of  pupils 
was  1,583,187;  the  total  educational  expenditure 
$75,343,160.  The  average  monthly  salary  of  the 
male  teacher  is  $91.82;  of  the  female  teachers  $62.45. 
School  districts  are  required  to  provide  special  edu¬ 
cation  in  special  classes  in  the  public  schools  for  chil¬ 
dren  who  are  mentally  or  physically  handicapped. 

1  he  schools  are  being  consolidated  as  far  as  possible 
m  remote  districts  to  increase  their  educational 
efficiency.  Bible  reading  is  obligatory  in  the  public 
schools.  Among  the  recent  additions  to  the  State 
institutions  are:  the  New  Western  Penitentiary  of 
Pennsylvania,  founded  in  Centre  County,  in  1915, 
where  all  the  electrocutions  now  take  place;  to  this 
place,  which  is  known  as  the  Pennsylvania  State 
Prison,  the  inmates  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  State 
Penitentiaries  were  transferred;  the  State  Industrial 
Home  for  the  care  of  criminal  women  between  sixteen 
and  thirty  years  of  age  was  established  at  Muncy  in 
19}3;  the  Western  Hospital  for  the  Insane  at  Blairs- 
ville  in  1915;  the  State  Village  for  Feeble-Minded 
Men  near  Glen  Iron,  Union  County;  State  Hospital 
at  Coal  dale  (originally  a  private  hospital);  and  a 
State  School  for  the  Deaf  in  Scranton  (originally  a 
private  institution). 

Religion. — Of  the  entire  population  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  in  1916  (8,522,017)  4,114,527,  or  45  per  cent, 
were  church  members:  2,283,995  Protestants  and 
1,830,532  Catholics.  The  latest  census  of  Catholics 
(1920)  for  the  entire  State  was  1,755,194.  The  Protes¬ 
tant  denominations  for  1916  were  divided  as  follows: 
Methodists  427,509;  Lutherans  371,674;  United  Pres¬ 
byterians  73,405;  Reformed  209,256;  Baptists  193,262; 
Presbyterians  332,088;  Episcopalians  118,687;  United 


Brethren  73,989;  all  others  483,125.  The  value 
of  church  property  is  $208,132,581,  being  2  per  cent 

l473Vfi9n%nr  aAfPInPert^m  the  ?ta.te>  which  is 
811,473,620,306.  Of  the  entire  population  in  1916, 

5o  per  cent  professed  no  religion,  as  against  67.2  per 
cent  in  1900.  For  Catholic  statistics  see  Philadel¬ 
phia,  Archdiocese  of,  and  its  suffragans. 

Recent  Legislation  and  History. — In  1913  a 
Public  Utilities  Act  did  awray  with  the  railway  com¬ 
mission.  State-wide  primaries  were  introduced  in  the 
same  year,  electrocution  was  substituted  for  hanging" 
and  a  mothers’  pension  bill  was  enacted.  Night  work 
for  children  was  prohibited  in  1915.  This  had  an 
important  bearing  on  the  industrial  situation  of 
Pennsylvania,  as  more  children  were  employed  in 
Pennsylvania  than  in  any  other  state  of  the  Union. 
A  Workmen’s  Compensation  Act  was  provided  for  and 
a  Prison  Labor  Commission  created.  In  1917  a 
direct  inheritance  law  was  passed.  In  the  last  ten 
years  much  has  been  done  to  reform  the  laws  of 
Pennsylvania.  The  election  law  has  been  changed 
but  the  ballot  laws  are  yet  far  from  perfect.  The 
F ederal  Suffrage  amendment  was  ratified  on  24  June 
1919;  the  Prohibition  Act  on  25  February,  1919. 

During  the  European  War  Penns3rlvania  furnished 
to  the  United  States  Army  297,891  men  (7.93  per 
cent).  The  Pennsylvania  members  of  the  national 
guard  were  incorporated  into  the  28th  Division  at 
Camp  Hancock,  Georgia;  those  of  the  national  army 
into  the  79th  Division  at  Camp  MeaSe,  Maryland  or 
with  the  80th  Division  at  Camp  Lee,  Virginia.  The 
summary  of  casualties  of  the  Pennsylvania  members 
of  the  American  Expeditionary  Force  is  as  follows: 
deceased,  29i  officers,  7607  men;  prisoners,  37 
officers,  854  men;  wounded,  810  officers,  25,442  men. 
An  artillery  camp  was  established  at  Tobyhanna, 
Pennsylvania;  a  tank  cantonment  at  Gettysburg, 
and  an  ambulance  camp  at  Allentown. 

Pension,  Ecclesiastical  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 645c). — 
A  local  ordinary  when  conferring  a  benefice  may  for 
a  just  cause,  which  is  to  be  announced  in  the  act  of 
collation,  subject  a  benefice  to  a  temporary  pension 
lasting  during  the  lifetime  of  the  beneficiary,  who 
must,  however,  be  left  a  suitable  income.  Parochial 
benefices  may  not  be  subjected  to  pensions,  except  in 
favor  of  the  parish  priest  or  vicar  of  the  same  parish  on 
retiring  from  office:  this  pension  must  not  exceed  one- 
third  of  the  parish  revenues  after  deducting  expenses 
and  uncertain  income.  If  a  parish  priest  retires 
voluntarily  at  the  request  of  the  ordinary  he  should 
receive  a  larger  pension  than  if  he  had  to  be  removed. 

If  an  ecclesiastic  is  raised  to  the  cardinalate  he  loses 
his  pension  ipso  facto  unless  the  Holy  See  provides 
otherwise  in  a  special  case. 

Pentecostal  Holiness  Church.  See  New  Thought. 

Peoria,  Diocese  of  (Peorensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI 

661d),  in  the  State  of  Illinois,  comprises  an  area 
of  18,554  square  miles,  and  has  a  Catholic  population 
of  116,553,  mostly  American  born.  The  present 
bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Edmund  M.  Dunne,  D.D.,  who 
has  filled  the  see  since  1909,  is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary 
bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Peter  J.  O’Reilv,  D.D.,  titular 
Bishop  of  Lebedos.  On  25  August,  1916,  Rt.  Rev. 
John  Lancaster  Spalding  (q.  v.),  first  Bishop  of 
Peoria,  died  in  that  city.  Bishop  Spalding  had  been 
forced  by  illness  to  resign  his  see  in  1908,  but  he 
continued  his  residence  in  Peoria  as  Archbishop  of 
Scythopolis,  to  which  title  he  was  raised  in  1909. 

The  present  (1921)  statistics  of  this  diocese  show 
159  parishes,  238  churches,  80  missions,  20  mission 
stations,  5  monasteries  for  men  and  1  for  women,  1 
abbey  for  men,  1  convent  for  women  and  26  for  men, 
178  secular  priests  and  47  regular,  10  lay  brothers, 
1357  nuns  and  20  seminarians.  The  various  edu- 


PERIGUEUX 


PERSIA 


578 


cational  institutions  include  2  colleges  for  men  with 
35  professors  and  400  students,  8  high  schools,  8 
academies  with  an  attendance  of  1216.  .There  are 
3  Catholic  homes  and  13  hospitals  maintained  in  the 
diocese  and  4  of  the  public  institutions  admit  the 
priests  to  minister  in  them.  The  Eucharistic  League 
is  organized  among  the  clergy  and  the  Knights  ot 
Columbus,  Holy  Name  and  Altar  Societies  among  the 
laity.  “The  Bee  Hive/’  a  Catholic  periodical,  is 
published  in  Pekin,  Illinois. 

Perigueux  Diocese  of  (Petrocoricensis,  cf. 
C.  E.,  XI— 668a),  comprises  the  department  of 
Dordogne,  France,  and  is  suffragan  to  the  Arc 
diocese  of  Bordeaux.  On  1  January,  1915,  Bishop 
Henri-Louis-Prosper  Bougouin  d^ed ,  after  filling  this 
see  from  1906,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Mane- 
Louis-Maurice  Riviere.  Bishop  Riviere  was  pro¬ 
moted  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Aix  9  July,  1920,  and  the 
present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Chnstophe-Louis 
Legasse,  came  to  the  see,  lo  August,  1920.  Boin  at 
Bassussary,  diocese  of  Bayonne,  m  1859,  Bishop 
Legasse  was  made  a  prelate  of  the  Holy  bee  in  1899, 
Prefect  Apostolic  of  St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon  the  same 
vear,  and  Bishop  of  Oran  6  December  191o.  During 
the  World  War  this  diocese  contributed  large  numbers 
of  priests  and  laymen  to  the  service;  15  priests  and 
14  seminarians  were  killed,  20  priests  and  6  semina¬ 
rians  were  wounded  and  numerous  citations  and 
medals  of  honor  were  conferred  upon  those  who 

served,  diocese  has  a  Catholic  population  (1920)  of 
437,432  and  by  1921  statistics  it  comprises  738  par¬ 
ishes  637  churches,  2  monasteries  for  men  and  2b  tor 
women,  555  secular  priests,  6  regulars,  2  seminaries 
100  seminarians,  2  secondary  schools  for  boys  with 
40  teachers  and  500  pupils,  60  elementary  schoo  s 
with  174  teachers,  1  mission  centre,  1  home,  4  asyl¬ 
ums,  20  hospitals,  1  refuge  and  1  nursery.  Ihe 
Defense  sacerdotale  and  a  fund  for  the  assistance  o 
priests  are  organized  among  the  laity  .  The  Semaine 
religieuse”  and  “La  Croix  du  Pengord,”  are  published. 

Perjury  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI-696d).-If  anyone 

testifying  in  an  ecclesiastical  court  commits  perjury 
he  is  to  be  punished  by  a  personal  interdict  if  he  be¬ 
longs  to  the  laity,  or  by  suspension  if  he  is  a  cleric. 

Perpetual  Adoration,  Sisters  of  the  (cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 698b) . — This  congregation  has  its  mother-house 
at  Quimper,  Finistere,  France,  and  has  another 
foundation  at  Brest,  from  130  to  140  poor  orphans 
being  cared  for  in  each.  The  number  of  children 
educated  by  the  Sisters  from  the  foundation  of  the 
institute  to  the  present  is  about  2600.  _  The  difficul¬ 
ties  of  the  last  twenty  years  have  made  impossible  the 
extension  of  the  work  of  the  congregation,  the 
establishment  of  a  new  foundation  requires  a  rather 
important  centre  in  view  of  the  twofold  end  of  the 
institute:  the  perpetual  adoration  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  and  the  education  of  children.  On  27 
March  1874,  the  congregation  received  a  decree  ot 
approbation  from  Rome.  In  1895,  an  important 
annex  was  constructed  to  accommodate  iady  board¬ 
ers.  Mother  St.  Barthelemy,  elected  superior  in 
1901  actively  and  firmly  resisted  during  her  admin¬ 
istration  the  measures  of  the  Government  which 
wished  to  recognize  the  Sisters  as  a  teaching  congre¬ 
gation  and  in  1908  secularized  the  school  attached  to 
the  orphanage.  She  was  succeeded  in  1916  by  Mother 
Marie  of  the  Precious  Blood,  the  tenth  and  present 
superior  general.  On  20  September,  1921,  the  Sisters 
celebrated  the  centenary  of  the  foundation  of  the 
orphanage.  According  to  the  prescriptions  ot  the 
new  Code  of  Canon  Law,  perpetual  vows  are  taken 
at  the  end  of  three  or  six  years,  instead  of  ten  as  for¬ 


merly.  There  are  at  present  (1921)  64  professed 
choir  religious,  40  professed  lay  sisters,  and  11  novices. 
The  number  of  deceased  religious  is  118.  Among  the 
notables  recently  deceased  are:  Mother  St.  Ange 
(Adele  Cohanec),  d.  1900  during  her  term  as  superior 
general;  Sister  Theresa  of  Jesus  (Emilie  Corbel), 
assistant  and  mistress  of  novices,  d.  1911;  Sister 
Marie  Bernard  (Jenny  Pellan),  economist  and  assist¬ 
ant,  d.  1916;  Sister  St.  Arsene  (Marie  Desiree  Salaun), 
superior  at  Brest,  d.  1919;  Sister  Marie  St.  Louis 
(Sophie  Guitard),  former  assistant,  local  superior, 
and  mistress  of  novices,  d.  1921;  Mother  St.  Jean 
Baptiste  (Amelie  Lefort),  former  superior  general, 
diamond  jubilarian  in  1920,  d.  1921. 

Perpetual  Help,  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  (cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 699a). — The  rules  and  constitutions  of  the  con¬ 
gregation  were  approved  by  diocesan  authority,  2 
July,  1915.  On  15  June  of  that  year  the  founder, 
Abbe  Brousseau,  was  made  honorary  canon  of  the 
metropolitan  church  of  Quebec  by  Cardinal  Tas- 
chereau.  He  died  18  April,  1920.  The  foundress, 
Mother  St.  Bernard,  died  30  April,  1918.  The 
present  superior  general  is  Sister  St.  Helen,  elected 
21  July,  1919,  to  succeed  Sister  St.  Isidore.  A  house¬ 
keeping  school  was  built  in  1913,  and  a  new  house 
was  founded  at  Hearst,  Ontario,  in  August,  1920.  In 
1921,  the  personnel  of  the  institute  was  190  professed 
religious,  22  novices,  and  7  postulants. 

Perpignan,  Diocese  of  (Perpinianum;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XI— 700b),  suffragan  of  Albi,  France.  #  The 
present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Jules-Marie-Louis  de 
Carsalade  du  Pont,  b.  1847,  ordained  1871,  conse¬ 
crated  bishop  1900,  succeeding  Bishop  Gaussail, 
deceased.  He  celebrated  his  sacerdotal  golden  jubilee 
in  1921,  in  the  Basilica  of  St.  Jean,  in  the  presence  of 
4000  faithful  and  200  priests.  The  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  the  diocese  is  212,986,  of  whom  39,510  are  in 
Perpignan.  There  are  26  curacies,  197  succursals  and 
43  vicariates. 

Persia  (cf .  C .  E . ,  XI — 712b) ,  has  an  area  of  about 
628,000  square  miles  and  a  population  of  about 
8  to  10  millions.  Of  the  three  million  nomads, 
there  are  about  260,000  Arabs,  720,000  Turks,  675,- 
000  Kurds  and  Leks,  20,700  Baluchis  and  Gypsies, 
234,000  Lurs.  The  Europeans  number  about  1200. 
The  principal  cities  are  Teheran,  with  over  220,000 
inhabitants,  Tabriz,  with  200,000;  Ispahan  and 
Kermansha  with  80,000  each. 

Recent  History. — Under  the  Anglo-Russian 
Treaty  of  1907  the  whole  of  northern  Persia  was 
declared  to  be  within  the  Russian  sphere  of  influence; 
the  British  controlled  the  southeastern  corner,  while 
the  rest  of  the  Central  and  Southern  parts  were 
declared  to  be  neutral.  After  the  fall  of  Mohammed 
Ali  in  1909,  a  regency  was  appointed  and  the  Mejliss 
assembled.  The  state  of  affairs  was  so  bad  that  m 
1911  Mr.  W.  Morgan  Shuster,  an  American  financial 
adviser  selected  by  President  Taft,  was  invited  to 
take  charge  of  the  finances  of  Persia.  He  refused  to 
recognize  the  Anglo-Russian  agreement,  and  thereby 
antagonized  Russia  who  planned  series  of  inter¬ 
ventions  in  the  administration,  and  forced  the  dis¬ 
missal  of  Shuster  after  eight  months,  by  an  ultimatum, 
which  was  approved  by  Great  Britain.  After  his 
departure  Persia  relapsed  into  anarchy. 

Though  Persia  remained  neutral  during  the  Great 
European  War,  her  territory  was  invaded  near  Mount 
Ararat  by  the  Russians  and  Turks  in  1914.  In¬ 
decisive  fighting  occured  intermittently  for  many 
months  between  the  Russians  under  Baratoff  based 
upon  Tabriz  and  the  Turks  based  upon  Bagdad. 
At  the  end  of  1916  the  Turks  held  Hamadar  which 
however,  they  lost  to  Russia  in  1917.  At  the  'with¬ 
drawal  of  the  Russian  forces  the  Turks  entered  Persia, 


PERTH 


579 


PESARO 


occupied  Baku,  but  at  the  end  of  the  war  the  British 
occupied  the  southeast  and  west  portions  of  Persia. 
By  the  terms  of  the  armistice  imposed  on  Turkey  by 
the  western  powers,  Persia  was  to  be  evacuated  by 
the  Turkish  troops.  On  19  September,  1919,  the 
secret  treaty  between  Great  Britain  and  Persia,  con¬ 
cluded  on  9  August,  was  made  public.  By  its  terms 
Great  Britain  made  a  20  year  loan  of  £2,000,000  at 

7  per  cent  which  was  to  have  precedence  over  all 
other  debts  of  Persia  except  a  former  British  loan  of 
£1,250,000  made  in  1911.  As  a  guarantee  Persia 
pledged  her  custom  receipts.  Great  Britain  also 
agreed  to  supply  at  Persian  expense,  expert  advisers, 
military  officers,  munitions,  and  all  necessary  mili¬ 
tary  equipment,  and  to  make  no  charge  to  Persia 
for  troops  sent  to  the  aid  of  Persia  during  the  war. 
Perski,  on  the  other  hand,  agreed  not  to  demand  in¬ 
demnity  for  damage  caused  by  them.  This  treaty 
was  objected  to  by  the  United  States,  as  it  violated 
the  principles  of  the  League  of  Nations.  The  agree¬ 
ment  was  denounced  on  27  February,  1921,  by  the 
Prime  Minister,  Seyed-Ziaed-Din. 

Perth,  Archdiocese  of  (Perthensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 731c),  in  Western  Australia,  erected  into  a 
metropolitan  see  28  August,  1913.  The  first  and 
present  archbishop  is  Most  Rev.  Patrick  Joseph 
Clune,  C.  SS.  R.,  b.  at  Killaloe,  Ireland,  6  Jan., 
1864,  consecrated  in  Perth  17  March,  1911,  succeed¬ 
ing  Bishop  Gibney,  resigned,  became  archbishop  28 
August,  1913.  The  Catholic  population  is  39,500, 
composed  to  a  large  degree  of  Irish,  English,  and 
Maltese  immigrants.  The  religious  orders  established 
in  the  diocese  are:  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  2 
houses,  11  members;  Redemptorists,  1  monastery, 

8  members;  Irish  Christian  Brothers,  4  houses,  22 
members;  Sisters  of  Mercy;  15  houses,  193  nuns; 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  the  Apparition,  7  houses, 
77  nuns;  Sisters  of  St.  John  of  God,  4  houses,  68 
nuns;  Presentation  Sisters,  3  houses,  25  nuns;  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  4  houses,  24  nuns; 
Loreto  Nuns,  2  houses,  34  nuns.  There  are  2  monas¬ 
teries  of  men,  3  convents  of  men,  38  convents  for 
women,  52  secular  priests,  9  regular  priests,  4  lay 
brothers,  471  Sisters.  Educational  institutions  in¬ 
clude:  3  colleges  for  men,  with  30  teachers,  and  850 
students;  2  colleges  for  women,  with  an  attendance  of 
164;  6  high  schools;  53  primary  schools,  with  an  at¬ 
tendance  of  7958;  4  industrial  schools  with  24 
teachers,  and  621  pupils;  a  total  of  53  primary  schools, 
25  superior  schools,  9764  children  in  Catholic  schools, 
325  professed  religious,  64  novices,  and  80  lay 
teachers.  Charitable  institutions  total  9,  containing 
497  inmates  under  the  care  of  94  professed  religious 
and  7  lay  teachers;  they  include  2  homes,  1  Mag¬ 
dalene  Asylum,  and  2  hospitals.  None  of  these  in¬ 
stitutions  receive  support  from  the  government. 
The  diocese  comprises  32  parishes  and  103  churches. 
An  official  diocesan  weekly  called  the  “Western 
Australia  Record”  is  published.  The  Pioneer  Total 
Abstinence  Society  is  organized  among  the  clergy, 
and  lay  associations  include  the  C.  Y.  M.  S.,  K.  S. 
C.,  Hibernians,  and  Foresters.  During  the  World 
War  Rev.  John  Fahey,  D.  S.  O.,  saw  four  years  ser¬ 
vice  in  Gallipoli,  Egypt  and  France,  where  Rev. 
Peter  Hayes  served  for  three  years  and  Rev.  Dean 
Brennan  served  for  five  years.  Rev.  Patrick  McBride 
was  on  home  service. 

Peru;  (cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 732d),  republic,  in  South 
America,  has  an  area  of  722,461  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  about  5,000,000.  The  largest  cities 
are  Lima,  with  a  population  estimated  in'  1919  at 
140,884;  Callao,  34,346  (1915);  Arcquipa,  40,000; 
Cuzco,  15,000. 

Religion. — The  constitution  guarantees  religious 


liberty,  although  the  Catholic  religion  is  the  religion 
of  the  state.  In  1919  £22,158  were  voted  for  public 
worship,  and  £660  for  missions.  For  religious 
statistics  see  Lima,  Archdiocese  of,  and  its  suf¬ 
fragans:  Cajamarca,  Chacapoyas,  Cuzco,  Ayacucho, 
Hu&nuco,  Huaraz,  Puno,  Trujillo. 

Education. — Although  education  is  by  law  com¬ 
pulsory,  the  law  is  not  enforced.  In  1919  there  were 
3036  primary  schools  with  4351  teachers  and  181,211 
pupils.  In  1918  there  were  27  government  schools 
with  6231  pupils  and  364  teachers.  The  pupils  pay 
a  moderate  fee  in  high  schools  maintained  by  the 
government.  There  are  universities  at  Lima  (Uni- 
versidad  de  San  Marcos,  founded  in  1551)  at  Are- 
quipa,  Cuzco,  and  Trujillo. 

Economics. — The  cotton  area  in  1918  was  140,000 
acres  and  the  crop  45,200,000  pounds.  Rice  is 
grown  on  70,000  acres,  and  the  exports  of  this 
product  in  1918  was  valued  at  $813,301.  The  total 
mineral  output  of  the  country  was  in  1919  valued  at 
$40,100,000.  Hides  to  the  value  of  $3,038,803  were 
exported  in  1919.  The  foreign  trade  of  Peru  in 
1919  was  worth  $190,041,853;  exports,  $130,731,191; 
imports,  $59,310,662.  The  railway  mileage  in  1918 
was  1893  miles.  Of  these,  1300  miles  were  operated 
by  the  Peruvian  Corporation;  the  rest  being  owned 
by  the  government. 

Finance. — The  revenue  of  the  republic  in  1919 
was  £6,154,171;  the  expenditure  £5,799,981.  The 
total  debt  of  Peru  on  30  June,  1920,  amounted  to 
£6,088,740,  of  which  the  internal  debt  amounted  to 
£3,969,216. 

Defence. — Military  service  in  Peru  is  compulsory 
and  universal.  The  peace  establishment  of  the 
army  is  11,000;  the  176  state-aided  Rifle  Clubs 
muster  about  16,000  marksmen;  the  Civil  Guard  in 
1918  included  2771  officers  and  men.  The  Peruvian 
navy  consists  of  six  ships. 

Recent  History. — The  long-standing  dispute  over 
Arica  and  Tacna  has  disturbed  the  peace  of  the 
republic  in  recent  years.  On  25  November,  1918, 
Chile  and  Peru  severed  relations  and  for  a  time 
there  was  grave  danger  of  war,  but  the  United  States 
counselled  a  peaceful  adjustment  and  war  was 
averted.  The  matter  was  submitted  to  the  League 
of  Nations,  but  the  League  felt  that  it  was  not 
within  their  jurisdiction.  In  May,  1922,  the  dele¬ 
gates  of  the  three  countries  most  concerned  in  the 
dispute — Chile,  Bolivia,  and  Peru — assembled  in 
Washington,  U.  S.  A.,  to  settle  the  quarrel.  In 
December,  1919,  Peru  adopted  a  new  constitution, 
superseding  that  of  1860.  The  principal  innova¬ 
tions  in  the  document  are:  Religious  toleration,  com¬ 
pulsory  education,  graduated  income  tax,  guarantees 
of  personal  security,  compulsory  arbitration  of  labor 
disputes,  municipal  autonomy,  and  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  three  regional  legislatures  to  deal  with  local 
matters. 

Perugia,  Archdiocese  of  (Perusinensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  XI — 736a),  in  Central  Italy,  dependent  directly 
on  the  Holy  See.  The  present  archbishop  is  Most, 
Rev.  Giovanni  Beda  Cardinale,  O.  S.  B.,  b.  1869 
Abbot  of  Praglia,  consecrated  Bishop  of  Civitavecchia 
and  Corneto  1907,  promoted  titular  Archbishop  of 
Laodicea  and  apostolic  delegate  of  Perugia  3  Feb., 
1910,  transferred  to  Perugia  8  Nov.,  1910,  published 
30  Nov.,  1911,  succeeding  Archbishop  Mattei 
Gentili,  resigned.  The  Catholic  population  of  the 
archdiocese  is  100,900.  There  are:  199  parishes, 
218  secular  priests,  40  regular  priests,  90  seminarians, 
150  Sisters,  371  churches  and  chapels. 

Pesaro,  Diocese  of  (Pesaurensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XI — 738d),  suffragan  of  Urbino,  Central  Italy. 
The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Bonaventura  Porta, 


PESCIA 


580 


PHILADELPHIA 


b.  1866, elected  1917, succeeding  Bishop  lei,  deceased. 
The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  49,Ut>u. 
There  are:  41  parishes,  100  secular  priests,  31  regular 
priests,  18  seminarians,  11  Brothers,  43  bisters,  luu 
churches  and  chapels. 

Pescia,  Diocese  of  (Pisciensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI— 
740a),  suffragan  of  Pisa,  Central  Italy,  dhe  present 
bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Angelo  Simonetti,  b.  1861,  elected 
1907,  consecrated  1908,  succeeding  Bishop  Seranm, 
resigned.  The  Catholic  population  is  70,504.  there 
are:  38  parishes,  125  secular  priests,  34  regular  priests, 
19  seminarians,  9  Brothers,  135  Sisters,  66  chuiches 
and  chapels. 


Pescina,  Diocese  of.  See  Marsi. 

Pesqueira,  Diocese  of  (Pesqueiriensis  ;  cf.  C.E., 
XVI— 35d),  in  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Olinda,  erected 
5  December,  1910,  under  the  name  of  Floresta, 
transferred  in  1918,  comprises  27  parishes  lying 
beyond  the  Archdiocese  of  Olinda,  the  Diocese  of 
Garanhuns  and  the  Diocese  of  Nazareth.  Mgr. 
Jose  Antonio  de  Oliveira  Lopes,  b.  at  Recife,  21 
November,  1868,  ordained  16  April,  1892;  made 
honorary  chamberlain,  1899,  prelate  of  the  Holy 
See  1903,  and  Prothonotary  Apostolic  in  1919  and 
appointed  to  the  see  on  26  June,  1915,  is  the  second 
bishop.  There  are  in  the  diocese  (1921)  40  churches, 

1  convent  of  men,  2  of  women,  45  secular,  pi  iests, 

5  regular  priests,  22  Brothers,  15  Sisters,  25  semi¬ 
narians  in  the  seminary  of  Olinda,  2  colleges  for  boys 
with  10  teachers  and  100  students,  secondary  school 
for  girls  with  9  teachers  and  69  students,  4  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  with  4  teachers  and  200  pupils.  One 
school  receives  aid  from  the  Government.  There 
is  one  Catholic  newspaper. 

Peterborough,  Diocese  of  (Peterborotjghen- 
sis,  cf.  C.  E.,  XI— 756b),  in  the  Province  of  Ontario, 
Canada,  suffragan  of  Kingston.  Rt.  Rev.  Richard 
A.  O’Connor,  Bishop  of  Peterborough,  died  23  Janu¬ 
ary,  1913,  having  been  bishop  of  that  diocese  for 
almost  twenty-four  years.  He  was  succeeded  by  the 
Rt.  Rev.  Michael  Joseph  O’Brien  as  fourth  Bishop  of 
Peterborough.  He  was  born  in  the  city  of  Peter¬ 
borough  29  July,  1874,  and  after  his  classical  course  in 
St.  Michael’s  College,  Toronto,  and  his  philosophical 
and  theological  courses  in  the  upper  seminary , 
Montreal,  was  ordained  priest  6  July,  1897 .  He  spent 
the  next  two  years  in  Rome,  receiving  his  doctorate 
in  theology  in  June,  1899.  On  his  return  he  exercised 
the  sacred  ministry  in  the  city  of  Peterborough  until 
he  was  appointed  bishop  on  20  June,  1913.  The  dio¬ 
cese  outside  the  city  of  Peterborough  is  well  equipped 
with  Catholic  schools  and  institutions  and  contains 
22  parishes,  50  churches,  33  secular  and  1  regular 
priest,  2  hospitals,  and  a  Catholic  population  of 
27,000.  The  city  of  Peterborough  has  a  population 
of  about  25,000,  more  than  a  fourth  of  which  is  Cath¬ 
olic.  It  has  three  churches,  four  schools  and  a  Cath¬ 
olic  high  school,  a  large  hospital,  a  house  of  Providence 
and  an  orphanage,  all  of  which  are  in  charge  of  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph. 

Petrograd,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Mohileff. 

Petropolis,  Diocese  of  (Petropolitanensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XI — 782c),  suffragan  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Brazil,  The  see  was  erected  at  Nictheroy,  1893, 
transferred  to  Petropolis  1895,  with  change  of  name, 
and  retransferred  to  Nictheroy,  1908.  The  present 
bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Agostino  Francesco  Bennassi, 
b.  1868,  elected  1908,  succeeding  Bishop  Braga, 
transferred.  There  are:  123  parishes,  89  secular 
priests,  35  regular  priests,  100  filial  churches  and 
chapels,  3  colleges,  and  1  technical  school. 


Philadelphia,  Archdiocese  of  (Philadel- 
phiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XI — 793b),  in  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania,  comprises  a  total  population  of 
3,176,549  according  to  the  United  States  census  of 
1920,  of  which  number  1,823,779  belong  to  the  city 
of  Philadelphia.  On  May  27,  1911,  the  official  news 
was  received  from  Rome  that  the  auxiliary  bishop, 
Most  Rev.  Edmond  F.  Prendergast,  D.D.,  had  been 
elevated  to  the  rank  of  Archbishop  of  Philadelphia, 
receiving  the  sacred  pallium  on  31  January,  1912. 
Rt.  Rev.  John  J.  McCort,  D.D.,  V.G.  (now  Bishop 
of  Altoona),  was  consecrated  on  17  September,  1912, 
as  Titular  Bishop  of  Azotus  and  auxiliary  bishop 

of  the  diocese.  . 

During  the  seven  years  in  which  Archbishop  Pren¬ 
dergast  presided  over  the  destinies  of  the  Phila¬ 
delphia  archdiocese,  the  foundation  of  many  impor¬ 
tant  institutions  of  education  and  charity  were 
securely  laid.  Among  these  should  be  included  the 
great  Misericordia  Hospital,  the  Archbishop  Ryan 
Memorial  Institute  for  Deaf  and  Dumb,  the  new 
St.  Vincent’s  Home,  St.  Edmond’s  Home  for  the 
Crippled  Children,  and  the  Catholic  Boys  High 
School  of  West  Philadelphia.  In  1915  the  work  of 
renovating  the  interior  of  the  Cathedral  was  com¬ 
pleted;  and  here,  on  17  November  of  the  same  year, 
took  place  the  dedication  of  the  original  structure, 
now  one  of  the  most  imposing  in  the  United  States, 
together  with  the  celebration  of  the  golden  jubilee  of 
the  metropolitan. 

On  August  *28,  1917,  the  diocese  lost  one  oi  its 
most  distinguished  members  through  the  death  of  the 
Most  Rev.  Thomas  F.  Kennedy,  D.D.,  Rector  of 
the  North  American  College  in  Rome. 

The  charity  and  generosity  of  the  Philadelphia 
Catholics  was  manifested  towards  the  afflicted  peoples 
in  diverse  ways  during  the  years  of  the  European 
conflict.  Before  America  entered  the  war,  besides 
special  aid  given  to  the  International  Red  Cross 
Society  and  similar  societies,  a  diocesan  appeal  was 
twice  issued  in  behalf  of  the  Belgians,  and  nearly 
$25,000.00  were  realized.  After  the  pledge  of  loyalty 
given  to  the  President  of  the  United  States  by  the 
bishops  assembled  in  Washington  in  1917,  a  special 
letter,  breathing  a  spirit  of  sincerest  patriotism  and 
loyal  support  of  the  Government  was  sent  by  Arch¬ 
bishop  Prendergast  to  the  clergy  and  laity  of  the 
diocese.  Generous  response  was  given  to  this  appeal 
of  the  metropolitan.  There  was  scarcely  a  parish  or 
institution  in  the  diocese  that  did  not  form  committees 
to  promote  and  invest  large  sums  in  the  various 
Liberty  Loans.  In  the  fourth  Loan  for  example, 
exclusive  of  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  approximately 
twelve  million  dollars  was  subscribed. 

Among  the  numerous  institutions  established  by 
the  Catholics  of  Philadelphia  to  give  creature  comfort 
to  the  soldiers  and  sailors,  perhaps  the  most  remark¬ 
able  was  the  Benedict  Service  Club,  managed  by  the 
Diocesan  Alliance  of  Catholic  Women.  Here,  during 
eleven  months  were  entertained  223,225  soldier  and 
sailor  guests,  of  which  number  55,613  were  lodged 
over  night  and  131,318  were  provided  with  meals. 
Fifty-nine  Philadelphia  priests  volunteered  their  ser¬ 
vices  as  chaplains  in  the  army  and  navy,  of  whom 
thirty-eight  were  selected  for  service. 

On  26  February,  1918,  Archbishop  Prendergast 
died,  lamented  by  priests  and  people  as  a  shepherd, 
clear  of  vision,  firm  of  purpose,  gentle  of  manner,  and 
full  of  a  deep  faith  that  was  child-like  in  its  simplicity. 
Two  months  later,  the  announcement  was  made  of 
the  selection  of  the  Bishop  of  Buffalo,  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Dennis  J.  Dougherty,  D.D.,  as  Archbishop  of 
Philadelphia.  On  10  July,  1918,  the  new  metropolitan 
was  solemnly  enthroned  as  the  fourth  archbishop  and 
sixth  bishop  of  the  See.  A  native  son  of  the  diocese, 
having  been  born  near  Ashland,  Schuylkill  County, 


PHILBIN 


581 


PHILIPPINE 


1G  August,  1865,  Archbishop  Dougherty,  after  two 
years  at  St.  Mary’s  College,  Montreal,  spent  three 
years  as  a  student  in  the  diocesan  Seminary  at  Over- 
brook,  where  he  was  selected  to  complete  his  training 
at  the  American  College  in  Rome.  On  31  May,  1890, 
he  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  by  His  Eminence 
Cardinal  Satolli.  Later,  he  was  transferred  to  the 
diocese  of  Jaro,  P.  I.  After  thirteen  years  of  self- 
sacrifice  and  Apostolic  labor  in  the  Philippines,  during 
which  time  he  reconstructed  two  dioceses,  the  young 
American  Bishop  was  recalled  to  his  native  land  and 
made  head  of  the  diocese  of  Buffalo,  in  1916. 

The  new  archbishop  had  hardly  taken  up  his  pas¬ 
toral  labors  when,  in  the  autumn  of  1918,  the  dreadful 
scourge  of  influenza,  then  sweeping  the  country,  fell 
upon  the  city  with  appalling  severity.  Archbishop 
Dougherty  sent  a  letter  to  the  pastors  of  the  diocese 
permitting  them  to  utilize  the  parish  halls  and 
parochial  schools  as  hospitals,  and  allowing  the 
uncloistered  Sisters  to  act  as  nurses  in  the  hospitals 
and  private  homes.  Two  thousand  Sisters  responded 
to  the  call;  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  seminarians 
likewise  left  their  studies  and  worked  until  late  at 
night  in  the  cemeteries  burying  the  dead.  A  special 
tribute  of  thanks  was  formally  extended  to  the  Arch¬ 
bishop  by  the  Mayor  and  the  City  Council  of  Phila¬ 
delphia  for  this  noble  assistance  in  the  hour  of  need. 

On  11  February,  1921,  press  dispatches  from  Rome 
brought  the  news  that  the  Metropolitan  of  Philadel¬ 
phia  was  to  be  elevated  to  the  Sacred  College  of  Car¬ 
dinals  at  the  Secret  Consistory  of  7  March.  The 
ceremonies  of  investiture  with  the  Sacred  Purple  took 
place  in  Rome  during  the  week  of  7  to  10  March, 
when  the  new  American  Prince  of  the  Church  also 
took  possession  of  his  titular  church  of  SS.  Nereus 
and  Achilleus.  A  reception  unparalleled  in  the  his¬ 
tory  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia  greeted  him  on  his 
return  home,  and  at  a  public  reception  in  the  Academy 
of  Music,  the  Governor  of  the  State,  and  Mayor  of 
the  City,  joined  in  the  universal  testimony  of  esteem 
and  affection  for  Philadelphia’s  first  Cardinal. 

On  19  September,  1921,  Rt.  Rev.  Michael  J.  Crane, 
D.D.,  V.G.,  rector  of  the  Church  of  St.  Francis  de 
Sales,  was  consecrated  by  Cardinal  Dougherty  as 
Titular  Bishop  of  Curium  and  Auxiliary  Bishop  of 
Philadelphia.  The  ceremony  took  place  in  the 
Cathedral  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  and  was  attended 
by  a  vast  concourse  of  the  laity  and  members  of  the 
clergy,  among  whom  were  three  archbishops  and 
thirteen  bishops. 

Philadelphia  is  also  the  residence  of  the  Ruthenian 
Greek  Catholic  Bishop  for  the  United  States.  The 
Rt.  Rev.  Soter  Stephen  Ortynski,  the  first  Ruthenian 
Bishop,  consecrated  in  1907,  died  24  March,  1916, 
since  which  time  the  see  has  been  vacant.  Within 
the  limits  of  the  diocese  of  Philadelphia,  the  Ruthen- 
ians  Greeks  possess  twenty-nine  churches,  chapels 
and  stations,  two  orphanages,  and  four  schools. 
“The  Missionary”  a  religious  magazine,  is  issued 
every  month  in  the  Ruthenian  (Ukrainian)  language. 

Statistics. — There  is  probably  no  diocese  in  the 
world  better  provided  with  institutions  of  religion, 
education  and  charity  than  Philadelphia.  There  arc 
188  parochial  schools,  teaching  95,008  children. 
There  are  four  high  schools  with  83  teachers  and  an 
attendance  of  2399.  Fifteen  academies  are  devoted 
to  the  instruction  of  2877  pupils;  and  three  industrial 
schools  have  a  staff  of  64  instructors,  with  439 
students. 

The  diocesan  seminary  in  the  yearly  collection  of 
1921,  received  the  sutn  of  $195,584.86,  perhaps  the 
largest  amount  ever  contributed  in  one  year  for  a 
similar  purpose  by  any  diocese  in  the  Catholic  world. 
The  number  of  seminarians  studying  for  the  diocese 
is  299,  and  there  is  never  a  lack  of  vocations. 

There  arc  in  the  diocese  thirteen  religious  commu¬ 


nities  of  men:  Augustinian  Fathers,  Christian  Bro¬ 
thers,  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Jesuit 
Fathers,  Redemptorist  Fathers,  Society  of  Mary, 
Dominicans,  Salesians,  Marists,  Missionary  Fathers 
of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Holy  Trinity  Fathers,'  Basilians 
and  Vincentians. 

The  number  of  women  religious  is  3650,  distributed 
among  twenty-nine  communities.  There  are  in  the 
diocese:  the  Sisters  of  the  Assumption,  Bernardine 
Sisters,  O.  S.  F.  (Polish),  Discalced  Carmelites, 
Felician  Sisters,  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Little 
Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis,  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament , 
Sisters  of  Charity,  Sisters  of  Christian  Charity,  Sis¬ 
ters  of  the  Holy  Child  Jesus,  Salesian  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Eucharist,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family,  Sisters 
of  St.  Dominic,  Sisters  of  the  Most  Blessed  Trinity, 
Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  Mission  Workers  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  Missionary  Sisters  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Sisters 
of  Notre  Dame,  Sisters  Servants  of  the  Immaculate 
Heart,  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis,  Poor 
Clares,  Sisters  Servants  of  the  Holy  Ghost  of  Per¬ 
petual  Adoration,  Sisters  of  Bon  Secours,  Sisters  of 
St.  Casimir,  and  Sisters  of  St.  Dorothy. 

The  Catholic  population  of  Philadelphia  diocese 
was  estimated  in  1921  at  713,412,  whose  spiritual 
needs  are  supplied  by  807  priests,  regular  and  secular, 
ministering  in  479  churches,  chapels  and  stations. 

Philbin,  Eugene  Ambrose,  jurist,  b.  at  New  York 
on  24  July,  1857;  d.  there  on  14  March,  1920;  son  of 
Stephen  and  Eliza  (McGoldrick)  Philbin.  He  was 
educated  at  the  College  of  St.  Francis  Xavier,  New 
York;  Seton  Hall,  New  Jersey;  and  graduated  from 
Columbia  University  Law  School  in  1885,  being 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  the  following  year.  In  1913 
he  was  appointed  a  justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  in 
New  York,  an  office  he  held  till  his  death.  Judge 
Philbin  was  deeply  interested  in  the  public  welfare 
arid  was  appointed  commissioner  of  the  New  York 
State  Board  of  Charities  (1900),  a  regent  of  the 
University  of  the  State  of  New  York  (1904),  and  trus¬ 
tee  of  the  Catholic  University  of  Amerkca,  a  trustee 
of  St.  Patrick’s  Cathedral.  He  was  one  of  the  pro¬ 
moters  and  a  director  of  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia, 
to  which  he  contributed  the  article  on  Libel.  In 
recognition  of  his  service  to  the  Church  he  was  created 
a  Knight  Commander  of  the  Order  of  St.  Gregory 
the  Great  in  1908. 

Philippine  Islands;  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 10a),  a  group 
of  7083  islands,  with  a  total  area  of  114,400  square 
miles  and  a  total  population,  according  to  the  Philip¬ 
pine  Census  of  1918,  of  10,350,730,  composed  chiefly 
of  the  Malay  race,  91.5  per  cent  of  whom  are  Chris¬ 
tians,  and  only  886,999  or  8.5  per  cent  are  Moros 
and  pagans.  The  capital,  Manila,  has  a  population 
of  283,613,  of  whom  257,356  are  Filipinos,  17,856 
are  Chinese,  1611  Japanese,  3124  Americans,  1955 
Spaniards,  635  English,  236  Germans,  160  French, 
95  Swiss.  The  largest  islands  with  their  respective 
areas  are:  Mindanao,  36,906  square  miles;  Samar 
5124  square  miles;  Negros  4093  square  miles,  Palawan 
4500  square  miles,  Panay  4448  square  miles,  Mindoro 
3794  square  miles;  Leyte  2799  square  miles,  Cebu 
1695  square  miles;  Bohol  1534  square  miles,  and 
Masbate  1255  square  miles. 

Education. — In  1920  there  were  925,678  pupils 
with  316  American  teachers  and  20,691  Filipino 
teachers.  The  public  owned  4063  and  rented  1163 
school  buildings.  The  total  expenditures  for  1920 
for  administration  and  instruction  were  about 
$6,869,654.  The  Filipino  University  had,  in  1920, 
an  enrollment  of  4130,  and  a  teaching  force  of  379 
professors  and  assistants.  The  cost  of  operation  was 


PIACENZA 


582 


PIUS  SCHOOLS 


$755,926.57.  The  amount  spent  for  each  pupil  per 
vear  is  $9.50.  The  Vice-Governor,  who  is  appointed 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States,  is  also  Secretary 
of  Public  Instruction.  He  and  two  other  members 
form  the  provincial  board,  which  constitutes  the 
legislative  branch  of  the  provincial  Government.  - 
All  three  officials  are  elected  by  the  people. 

History  (1907—22) . — In  the  period  between 
1907  and  1913  one-half  of  the  legislative  power  was 
turned  over  to  a  body  of  Filipinos,  known  as  the 
Philippine  Assembly.  The  policy  of  utilizing  the 
Filipinos  in  the  Government  made  it  possible  to  have 
a  proportion  of  72  per  cent  Filipinos  as  against  28 
per  cent  in  1913.  In  1916  the  Jones  Act  was  passed 
permitting  the  people  to  elect  a  House  and  Senate. 
In  1921,  the  percentage  of  Americans  in  the  Filipino 
Service  was  only  4  per  cent.  The  haste  with  which 
the  Filipinos  were  put  in  office,  regardless  of  their 
efficiency,  had  had  a  deteriorating  effect  on  the 
service.  In  1920  President  Wilson  called  for  the  grant¬ 
ing  of  independence  to  the  Filipinos.  In  March, 
1921,  President  Harding  sent  General  Leonard  Wood 
to  the  Philippines  to  make  a  study  of  the  situation  and 
to  report  on  the  existing  conditions.  Their  final, 
judgment  was  that  “it  would  be  a  betrayal  of  the 
Philippine  people,  a  misfortune  to  the  American 
people,  a  distinct  step  backward  in  the  path  of  pro¬ 
gress,  and  a  discreditable  neglect  of  duty  were  we  to 
withdraw  from  the  islands.” 

Economics. — ’The  total  area  planted  to  the  crops 
in  1919-20  was  7,513,305  acres,  the  largest  crop  being 
rice  (3,453,347  acres).  The  value  of  the  imports  in 
1919  was  $107,774,000;  of  exports  $113,118,000. 
The  railway  mileage  in  1920  was  778,  owned  by  the 
government. 

Government. — 'The  Governor-General,  as  the 
chief  executive,  represents  the  sovereign  power  of  the 
United  States,  and  is  appointed  by  the  President  of 
the  United  States  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate.  Under  him  are  secretaries  of  six  executive 
departments.  With  the  exception  of  the  Vice- 
Governor,  all  the  secretaries  are  Filipinos.  The 
Philippine  Legislature  is  composed  of  24  senators  and 
91  representatives.  A  Council  of  State,  created  by 
executive  order  subsequent  to  the  enactment  of  the 
present  Organic  Act,  commonly  known  as  the  Jones 
Law,  forms  the  connecting  link  between  the  executive 
and  legislative  branches  of  the  Government  and  rep¬ 
resents  the  people’s  counsel  in  the  administration. 
It  is  composed  of  the  Governor-General,  the  presidents 
of  both  houses,  and  the  secretaries.  The  provincial 
and  municipal  Governments  are  supervised  by  the 
Department  of  the  Interior  through  the  executive 
b  ureau  and  the  bureau  of  non-Christian  types.  The 
chief  executive  of  each  of  the  24  provinces  is  a  pro¬ 
vincial  governor. 

Piacenza,  Diocese  of  (Placentinensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XII— 69d) ,  in  Emilia,  Central  Italy,  dependent 
directly  on  the  Holy  See.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt. 
Rev.  Ersilio  Menzani,  b.  1872,  elected  1920,  conse¬ 
crated  1921,  succeeding  Bishop  Pellizzari:  deceased. 
The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  326,000. 
There  are:  351  parishes,  529  secular  priests,  75  regular 
priests,  160  seminarians,  1200  churches  and  chapels. 

Piauhy,  Diocese  of  (Piahunensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII 
— 72b),  in  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Belem  do  Par&.  The 
present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Octavio  Pereira  de  Al¬ 
buquerque.  b.  1866,  elected  1914.  The  population 
of  the  diocese  is  374,000.  There  are:  32  parishes, 
57  secular  priests,  30  regular  priests,  and  several 
Sisters. 

Piazza  Armerina,  Diocese  of  (Platiensis*; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 72c),  in  the  province  of  Caltanisetta, 


Italy,  suffragan  of  Syracuse.  Bishop  Sturzo  is  still  the 
incumbent  of  the  see,  which  has  a  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  240,000.  There  are  31  parishes,  152  churches, 
205  secular  priests,  35  regular  priests,  50  seminarians, 

1  college  for  men  with  8  professors  and  70  students, 

7  secondary  schools  with  60  teachers  and  an  atten¬ 
dance  of  500  boys  and  900  girls,  1  normal  school  with 
20  teachers  and  500  pupils,  1  training  school  with 

8  teachers  and  80  pupils,  160  elementary  schools 
with  160  teachers  and  10,000  pupils.  Charitable 
institutions  include  5  almshouses,  7  day  nurseries, 

7  hospitals  and  6  orphanages  for  girls.  Fourteen 
societies  are  organized  among  the  laity.  During 
the  war  the  clergy  took  the  lead  in  all  relief  work. 

Pignatelli,  Giuseppe  Maria,  Venerable  (cf. 
C.  E.,  XI— 82d).— The  cause  of  his  beatification, 
introduced  under  Gregory  XVI,  was  resumed  25 
February,  1917. 

Pinar  del  Rio,  Diocese  of  (Pinetensis  ad 
Flumen;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 101b),  suffragan  of  San¬ 
tiago  de  Cuba,  Cuba.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Manuel  Ruiz  y  Rodriguez,  b.  1874,  ordained  1897, 
elected  18  April,  1907,  consecrated  11  June  following. 
The  population  of  the  diocese  is  173,064.  There  are 
19  secular  priests,  8  Sisters,  4  convents,  and  25 
churches. 

Pinerlo,  Diocese  of  (Plneroliensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XII— 102a),  in  the  province  of  Turin,  Piedmont, 
Northern  Italy,  is  a  suffragan  of  Turin.  The  present 
incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Battista  Rossi,  b.  at 
Cavallermaggiore ,  1838,  came  to  this  see  18  May, 
1894.  During  the  World  War  the  bishop  provided 
bread  for  all  poor  families  of  soldiers  and  twenty-two 
of  the  priests  served  in  the  army,  all  winning  praise 
and  various  decorations  for  their  services.  During 
recent  years  the  diocese  lost  a  prominent  member 
from  the  ranks  of  it?  clergy,  by  the  death  of  Rt.  Rev. 
Canon  Pietro  Caffaro,  a  well  known  writer.  By  1921 
statistics  the  diocese  comprises  61  parishes,  92 
churches,  68  mission  stations,  2  monasteries  for 
women,  1  convent  for  women,  169  secular  priests,  1 
higher  and  1  lower  seminary,  68  seminarians,  4 
secondary  schools  for  boys  and  1  for  girls. 

There  are  a  number  of  schools,  a  gymnasium, 
lyceum,  technical  institute  and  normal  schools  under 
the  government.  The  charitable  institutions  in¬ 
clude  1  missionary  center,  4  homes  in  the  city  and  3 
more  throughout  the  diocese,  17  asylums,  2  hospitals 
and  2  clinics.  One  society  is  formed  among  the 
clergy  and  the  “ Popular  Union  ( Unione  Popohire) 
and  other  societies  among  the  laity .  There  are  about 
60,000  Catholics  and  20,000  Waldensians  in  the 
diocese. 

Pious  Schools,  Clerks  Regular  of  the  (cf.  C.E., 
XIII— 588a) —The  congregation  is  divided  into  12 
provinces:  Rome;  Liguria;  Naples;  Tuscany, 

Bohemia,  Moravia  and  Silesia;  Poland;  Hungary, 
Austria;  Catalonia;  Aragon;  the  Castries;  and 
Valencia.  There  are  also  3  vice-provinces:  Cuba; 
Argentina-Chile ;  and  Roumania.  The  congiega- 
tion  has  a  total  of  136  houses,  distributed  as  fol¬ 
lows:  Spain,  55;  Italy,  28;  Czechoslovakia,  19, 
including  Moravia  and  Bohemia;  Roumania,  3; 
Austria,  4;  Hungary,  12;  Poland,  2;  Germany 
(Silesia),  1;  Argentina,  2;  Chile,  4;  Cuba  5;  Mex¬ 
ico,  1.  The  present  preposit.or  general  is  Very  Rev. 
Thomas  Vinas,  elected  1912.  Among  noted  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  order  are:  Paulino  Chelucci,  latin  ora¬ 
tor;  Remigio  Maschat,  celebrated  canonist;  Gelasio 
Dobner,  distinguished  historiographer;  Eduardo 
Corsini,  polygrapher;  Giovanni  Beccaria,  physicist, 
friend  of  Franklin;  Ubaldo  Giraldi, writer  on  canon 


PIOUS  UNIONS 


583 


PITTSBURG 


law;  Mauro  Ricci,  writer;  Eduardo  Zlanas,  con¬ 
troversialist.  The  cause  of  peatilication  of  Pietro 
Casani  was  introduced  in  March,  1922. 

Pious  Unions.  See  Associations,  Pious. 

Pisa,  Archdiocese  of  (Pisanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
-XII  110b),  in  rI  uscany,  Central  Italy.  The  present 
administrator  is  Cardinal  Archbishop  Pietro  Maffi,  b. 
12  October,  1858,  ordained  1881,  consecrated  titular 
Bishop  of  Caisarea  Mauretaniae  and  auxiliary  to  Car¬ 
dinal  Archbishop  Riboldi  of  Ravenna,  9  June,  1902, 
promoted  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Pisa,  22  June,  1903, 
created  cardinal  priest  15  April,  1907.  The  Catholic 
population  of  the  archdiocese  is  190,000.  There  are: 
138  parishes,  330  secular  priests,  110  regular  priests, 
750  churches  and  chapels,  79  Brothers,  200  Sisters. 

Pistoia  and  Prato,  Diocese  of  (Pistoriensis 
Et  Pratensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XXII— 117b)  in  the  prov¬ 
ince  of  Florence,  Italy,  suffragan  of  Florence.  The 
bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Gabriele  Vettore,  b.  at  Fibbiano, 
1869,  elected  to  the  see  of  Tivoli,  15  April,  1910, 
consecrated  9  May,  transferred  at  the  consistory  of 
16  Dec.,  1915,  succeeding  Bishop  Sarti  (b.  1849, 
elected  1909,  d.  1915). 

Within  the  city  of  Pistoia  there  are  12  parishes, 
35  churches,  2  convents  for  men,  3  monasteries  for 
women,  6  convents  for  women,  a  seminary  with  70 
students,  a  civil  hospital  in  charge  of  Sisters,  an 
almshouse,  likewise  under  the  direction  of  Sisters, 
2  orphanages  (1  for  boys  and  1  for  girls),  2  refuges 
for  fallen  women,  a  hospice  for  women  with  elemen¬ 
tary,  secondary  and  normal  schools,  one  for  men  under 
the  direction  of  priests,  a  public  governmental  ly- 
ceum-gymnasium,  a  public  industrial  school,  one  of 
arts  and  crafts,  a  technical  school,  and  an  orphan¬ 
age.  Outside  the  city  there  are  155  parishes,  2  con¬ 
vents  for  men,  15  convents  of  women  with  schools, 
asylums,  etc.,  and  1  orphanage  under  the  care  of 
Sisters.  There  are  250  secular  priests,  30  regulars, 
and  130  Sisters.  A  mutual  benevolent  association 
is  organized  among  the  clergy  and  a  diocesan  weekly 
ar  d  numerous  parish  bulletins  are  published.  In 
Prato  there  are  48  parishes,  70  churches,  4  convents 
of  men  and  3  of  women,  82  secular  and  35  regular 
priests,  1  seminary  with  20  seminarians,  1  college 
for  men  with  25  professors  and  80  students,  3  for 
women  with  20  teachers  and  200  students,  1  normal 
school  with  10  teachers.  Charitable  institutions 
i  elude  2  homes,  1  asylum,  1  hospital,  1  day  nursery. 
The  population  of  the  united  dioceses  was  200,100 
in  1920. 

Pitigliano,  Diocese  of.  See  Savona  and 
Pitigliano. 

Pittsburg,  Diocese  of  (PittsbuRgensis;  cf. 
t-'  •  A  — 121a),  suffragan  of  Philadelphia  in  the 

Lmted  States,  comprises  7056  square  miles  in  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania.  The  development  of  the 
diocese  in  recent  years  is  largely  due  to  the  wisdom 
and  leadership  of  Rt.  Rev.  J.  F.  Regis  Canevin  who 
nlied  this  see  from  1904-1920.  Pennsylvania,  rank¬ 
ing  first  among  the  States  of  the  Union  in  the  value 
of  its  mineral  products  and  the  development  of  the 
lron>  steel,  coal  and  coke  industries,  and  being  one 
of  the  largest  sources  of  labor  supply  in  the  country, 
has  drawn  great  masses  of  foreign-speaking  Catholics, 
attracted  by  the  industrial  activity.  Missions  have 
grown,  developing  into  large  and  well  established 
parishes,  and  the  Pittsburgh  Apostolate,  which  from 
its  inception  (1905)  under  the  admirable  direction  of 
Very  Rev.  Edward  P.  Griffin,  LL.  D.,  has  reclaimed 
so  many  souls  in  the  thinly  settled  regions  of  the 
diocese,  joined  in  this  pioneer  work.  Its  zealous 
priests  went  out  among  the  immigrants  of  the  wide 


scattered  settlements  and  mining  towns,  preaching 
and  administering  the  sacraments.  During  Bishop 
administration  33  English,  19  German, 
19  Polish,  13  Italian,  16  Slavish,  1  Lithuanian,  3 
Croatian,  2  Slovak,  3  Hungarian,  1  Kreiner,  1  Syrian 
and  30  mixed  churches  were  built.  The  building  of 
schools  was  urged  and  encouraged,  and  a  parish 
school  system  evolved,  with  a  diocesan  board  in  con¬ 
trol  which  legislates  for  the  schools  of  the  diocese, 
inspects  them,  and  passes  upon  the  ability  of  the 
teachers.  Parish  high  schools  were  rarely  heard  of 
in  the  diocese  before  Bishop  Canevin’s  time;  now  there 
are  forty-six,  and  their  number  is  increasing  steadily. 
Higher  education  was  encouraged  and  in  1914  St. 
Vincent  Seminary,  which  is  under  the  care  of  the 
Benedictines  of  St.  Vincent  Archabbey,  was  env 
powered  by  the  Holy  See  to  grant  the  ecclesiastical 
degrees  of  doctorate,  licentiate,  and  baccalaureate, 
in  both  philosophy  and  theology;  Duquesne  College 
was  successful  in  securing  the  charter  which  elevated, 
it  to  the  rank  of  University.  (See  Duquesne  Uni¬ 
versity.) 

The  Diocesan  Confraternity  of  Christian  Doctrine, 
organized  1908,  has  grown  to  be  a  lay  apostolate; 
a  band  of  young  men  and  women  journey  every  Sun¬ 
day  to  mining  towns  and  rural  districts  and  give 
their  time  where  Catholic  children  are  in  need  of 
catechetical  instruction;  the  confraternity  is  now  pre¬ 
paring  17,179  children  for  the  worthy  reception  of 
the  sacraments.  Fourteen  branches  throughout  the 
whole  diocese  have  700  catechists  who  conduct  193 
classes,  visit  the  scattered  families,  bring  to  baptism 
the  unbaptised,  reclaim  for  their  own  schools  children 
who  attend  non-Catholic  Sunday-schools,  instruct  the 
Catholic  inmates  of  two  tuberculosis  sanitoriums, 
the  Institute  for  the  Blind,  and  the  Home  for  Crippled 
Children,  and  organize  Catholic  centers  which  develop 
in  time  into  regular  missions  and  parishes;  fifteen  such 
parishes  have  been  formed  since  the  founding  of  the 
confraternity. 

The  Conference  of  Catholic  Charities,  whose 
activities  were  broadened  during  the  Catholic  Chari¬ 
ties  Campaign  of  October,  1919,  has  as  its  purpose 
the  co-ordinating  of  the  work  of  all  Catholic  chari¬ 
table  activities  of  the  diocese,  whether  individual, 
organizational  or  institutional,  to  avoid  duplicating, 
to  increase  the  efficiency  of  these  agencies,  and  to 
plan  and  promote  new  diocesan  charities.  This  pio- 
gram  has  been  executed  with  marked  success;  three 
temporary  homes  have  been  established  which  give 
day  and  night  shelter  to  childien  in  emergency  cases; 
three  day  nurseries  have  been  provided;  the  thoroughly 
organized  Catholic  Children’s  Bureau  is  a  clearing 
house  for  all  matters  relating  to  the  care  of  neglected, 
dependent  and  delinquent  children;  over  1728  cases 
were  attended  during  the  period  of  twelve  months. 
The  department  of  family  welfare  handles  all  family 
problems  of  insufficient  support  and  supplies  families 
with  food,  clothing,  fuel,  rent,  medical  aid.  More 
than  7900  cases  were  attended.  An  immigrant  and 
employment  bureau  has  been  opened;  a  home  for 
homeless  children  has  been  established;  a  school  of 
sociology,  under  the  auspices  of  Duquesne  University; 
the  Catholic  Child  and  Youth  Saving  Union  has  been 
organized,  with  units  established  in  each  parish  to 
co-operate  with  pastors  and  parish  organizations  to 
keep  as  many  children  as  possible  out  of  the  courts 
and  institutions  by  handling  their  difficulties  pri¬ 
vately,  and  by  securing  Catholic  representatives  to 
look  after  their  interests  when  brought  to  the  courts. 
The  Travelers  Aid  Society  co-operates  with  the 
National  Travelers  Aid  Society;  in  addition  to  these 
charitable  organizations  many  new  institutions  were 
founded  during  Bishop  Canevin’s  incumbency:  4 
asylums,  a  second  home  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  1  in-, 
dustrial  training  school,  1  institute  industrial  training 


PIUS 


584 


PIUS 


school,  1  institute  for  deaf  mutes,  1  home  for  infants 

and  6  hospitals.  ,  .  . 

When  years  of  intense  activity  had  impaired 
Archbishop  Canevin’s  health  in  the  Spring  of  1920, 
he  offered  his  resignation  to  the  Holy  Father,  who 
finally  yielded  to  his  wishes  and  on  26  November 

1920,  appointed  him  administrator  of  the  diocese  until 
his  successor  should  be  appointed  and  take  possession. 

In  recognition  of  the  success  of  his  administration  the 
Holy  Father  on  9  January  1921,  appointed  him  arch¬ 
bishop  of  the  titular  See  of  Pelusium. 

Upon  the  resignation  of  the  bishop  the  priests  of  the 
diocese  forwarded  a  petition  to  the  Holy  See  begging 
that  a  diocesan  priest  be  appointed  to  the  vacant  see 
and  in  response  Rev.  Hugh  C.  Boyle,  P.  R.  of  St. 
Mary  Magdelene’s  Church,  Homestead,  Pa.,  was  ap¬ 
pointed  and  consecrated  by  Bishop  Canevin  28  June 

1921.  He  was  born  in  Cambria  County,  Pa.,  8  Octo¬ 
ber  1873,  educated  at  St.  Vincent’s  College  and  the 
seminary  at  Beatty,  Pa.,  and  ordained  priest  2  July 
1898,  superintendent  of  the  parochial  schools  of  the 
diocese  (19  March,  1909),  and  appointed  irremovable 
pastor  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene  s  Church,  Homestead, 
Pa.  26  November,  1916. 

The  religious  communities  of  the  diocese  number 
as  follows:  Redemptorists,  9  members;  Benedictines, 
67;  Passionist  Fathers,  16;  Brothers  of  Mary  (Dayton, 
Ohio),  10;  Capuchin  Fathers,  33;  Holy  Ghost  Fathers, 
30;  Carmelite  Fathers,  8;  Italian  Franciscan  Fathers, 

6.  Total:  179  members.  The  religious  communities 
of  women  number:  Sisters  of  Mercy,  394  members; 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  (mother-house,  Baltimore) 
50;  Franciscan  Sisters,  250;  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
266;  Benedictine  Nuns,  92;  Ursuline  Nuns,  24;  Sisters 
of  Charity,  331;  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  35;  Sisters 
of  the  Good  Shepherd,  50;  Sisters  of  Divine  Provi¬ 
dence,  264;  Sisters  of  Nazareth  (mother- house,  Chi¬ 
cago),  82;  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  ,35;  Sisters  of 
the  Incarnate  Word,  10;  Felician  Sisters  (mother- 
house,  Detroit),  70;  Sisters  of  St.  Agnes  (mother- 
house,  Fond-du-Lac,  Wisconsin);  Passionist  Nuns, 
25;  Immaculate  Heart  Nuns  (mother-house,  Scran¬ 
ton),  46;  Bernardine  Sisters,  20;  Sisters  of  Sts.  Cyril 
and  Methodius,  7;  Sisters  of  the  Divine  Redeemer,  4; 
Holy  Ghost  Nuns,  22;  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Trinity, 
4;  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood,  4;  Vincentian  Sisters, 
67;  Dominican  Sisters,  39;  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  14;  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  of 
Kunegunda,  5;  Total:  2216. 

By  1921  statistics  there  are:  bishop,  1;  archbishop, 
1;  archabbot,  1;  diocesan  priests,  454;  regular,  169; 
churches  with  resident  priests,  329;  missions,  55; 
chapels,  80;  stations,  7;  parochial  schools,  208,  with 
1371  teachers  and  71,769  pupils;  seminaries  of  re¬ 
ligious  orders  3;  diocesan  seminarians,  99;  diocesan 
ecclesiastical  students,  96;  university,  1;  with  81  pro¬ 
fessors  and  1362  students;  colleges  for  women,  1;  with 
18  teachers  and  100  students;  parochial  high  schools, 
35;  private  high  schools,  11;  total:  46  with  an  attend¬ 
ance  of  2102;  religious  normal  training  schools,  9  with 
335  students;  industrial  school,  1  with  46  pupils;  day 
nurseries,  3;  orphan  asylums,  5;  foundling  asylums,  2; 
protectory  for  boys,  1;  school  for  deaf  mutes,  1; 
homes  for  aged  poor,  3;  homes  of  Good  Shepherd,  2; 
homes  for  working  girls,  2;  temporary  homes  for 
children,  3;  temporary  home  for  women,  1;  hospitals 
8;  Catholic  population  about  665,000. 

Pius  X  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII— 137  for  the  earlier  part  of 
his  pontificate). — On  1  November,  1911,  Pius  X 
issued  a  decree  which  made  the  new  Breviary  obliga¬ 
tory  after  23  October,  1917.  All  the  bishops  and 
religious  orders  were  ordered  to  modify  their  proper 
Offices  so  as  to  bring  them  as  much  as  possible  in 
touch  with  the  Breviary  of  the  Universal  Church. 
In  the  same  year  he  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  study 


of  Holy  Scripture,  in  keeping  with  the  purpose  of 
Leo  XIII,  bv  reorganizing  the  Biblical  Commission. 
He  ordered  severe  and  solemn  examinations  for 
clerics  who  were  seeking  for  degrees,  and  set  apart  a 
special  establishment  for  the  members  of  the  Com¬ 
mission.  On  24  May,  1911,  he  directed  the  Por¬ 
tuguese  clergy  not  to  accept  pensions  from  the  Govern¬ 
ment,  and  when  the  revolution  with  its  attendant 
persecution  broke  out  he  replied  to  the  challenge  by 
making  the  Patriarch  of  Lisbon  a  cardinal.  His 
Encyclical  “Lamentabili”  of  1912  denounced  the 
oppression  of  the  Indians  of  Peru  by  the  rubber 
merchants  of  that  country  and  after  a  special  agent 
had  been  sent  to  investigate,  he  establshed  a  mission 
for  the  Indians  which  he  put  in  the  hands  of  the 
Friars  Minor.  His  abolition  of  the  numberless  in¬ 
efficient  seminaries  in  Italy  by  establishing  regional 
centres  had  been  carried  out  with  extreme  vigor  from 
the  beginning  of  his  pontificate  even  to  the  extent  of 
deposing  unwilling  bishops.  By  the  year  1913  the 
great  work  was  in  large  part  achieved.  His  political 
action  in  Italy  was  such  that  in  the  early  part  of  his 
reign  he  had^  induced  228  deputies  to  refrain  from 
legislation  hostile  to  the  Church  and  especially 
to  vote  down  the  divorce  bill.  In  1914  he  forbade  the 
transference  of  cardinals  from  one  see  to  another, 
reformed  the  financial  methods  of  the  various  Con¬ 
gregations,  sent  back  to  their  dioceses  a  large  num¬ 
ber  of  clerics  who  were  spending  an  idle  existence  in 
Rome,  and  redistricted  all  the  parishes  of  the  city. 
Pius  X  was  stricken  with  serious  illness  the  early 
part  of  1913,  but  he  rallied.  In  the  following  year 
he  began  to  show  signs  of  fatigue.  He  had  an  attack 
of  bronchitis  on  19  August,  1914,  which  was  alarming; 
and  on  the  following  day  he  breathed  his  last. 

Pius  XI,  Pope  (Achille  Ratti),  b.  May  30,  1857, 
at  Desio,  a  town  of  about  8000  inhabitants  northwest 
of  Milan .  He  was  the  son  of  a  silk  weaver  and  the  third 
of  a  family  of  six.  He  was  taught  as  a  child  by  a  devoted 
old  priest  named  Volonteri,  who  taught  class  in  his 
own  house  for  forty- three  years.  To  Achille  he  gave 
intensive  training  and  sent  him  well  equipped  to  the 
Milan  Seminary,  where  he  spent  three  years,  going 
thence  to  the  Gregorian  University  in  Rome.  In 
1882  he  was  teaching  theology  and  sacred  eloquence 
at  Milan,  and  in  1888  was  chosen  as  one  of  the 
College  of  Doctors  of  the  Ambrosian  Library.  There 
he  spent  twenty  years  of  his  life.  In  1907  he  was 
made  Chief  Librarian,  and  in  1910  was  called  to 
Rome  as  assistant  of  Father  Ehrle,  S.  J.,  in  the 
Library  of  the  Vatican,  and  was  appointed  Librarian 
when  Father  Ehrle  resigned  that  office,  in  1914, 
without,  however,  breaking  his  connection  with  the 
Library  at  Milan.  His  position  in  both  places  was 
very  difficult,  for  racial  hatred  was  acute  at  that  time 
between  Germans  and  Italians  and  the  anti- clerical 
fury  was  intense,  but  his  admirable  tact  smoothed 
away  every  obstacle.  In  1918  he  was  sent  as  Apos¬ 
tolic  Visitor  to  Poland,  although  he  had  no  previous 
experience  in  diplomacy,  except  what  he  had  gathered 
during  school  visits  to  Vienna  in  1891  and  to  Paris 
in  1893  with  Mgr.  Radini  Tedeschi.  His  Polish 
assignment  coincided  with  the  composition  of  the 
Brest-Litovsk  Treaty  by  the  Germans,  who  were  in 
occupation  of  Poland  at  that  time,  and  had  placed 
Warsaw  under  the  control  of  a  council  of  regents  whom 
the  Poles  regarded  as  instruments  of  German  domina¬ 
tion.  He  was  in  Poland  practically  throughout  the 
period  of  its  political  resurrection,  and  his  duties 
brought  him  into  relation  with  the  former  Russian 
provinces  along  the  eastern  Polish  frontier.  He  had 
to  establish  new  dioceses  where  German  bishops  in 
Poland  had  resigned,  and  others  in  those  parts  which 
had  formerly  belonged  to  Russia.  Immediately 
after  the  Armistice  of  1918  he  had  to  deal  with  the 


PLASENCIA 


585 


PLOCK 


question  of  the  status  of  church  properties  in  both 
sections.  To  solve  it  he  created  a  commission  of 
bishops  which  was  recognized  by  the  Polish  Govern¬ 
ment,  and  at  the  same  time  he  succeeded  in  obtaining 
from  the  Polish  Constitutent  Assembly  a  resolution 
that  no  law  would  be  enacted  about  the  properties 
without  consulting  the  Holy  See.  On  6  June,  1919, 
since  Poland  had  become  an  independent  nation,  Mgr. 
Ratti  was  made  Papal  Nuncio. 

His  work  in  these  trying  circumstances  brought 
into  evidence  his  firmness,  courage  and  evenness  of 
temper.  His  courage  was  especially  shown  at  the 
time  of  the  Bolshevist  invasion  in  July,  1920.  Most 
of  the  officials  fled;  he  remained  at  his  post.  Later 
he  was  appointed  High  Ecclesiastical  Commissioner 
for  the  plebiscite  in  Upper  Silesia;  an  appointment 
which  met  with  the  approval  of  the  Polish,  German 
and  Interallied  Commissioners.  While  serving  on 
the  Commission  he  was  active  in  securing  the  libera¬ 
tion  of  the  prisoners  detained  in  their  homes  by  the 
Bolsheviki,  and  also  in  releasing  such  distinguished 
personages  as  the'  Archbishop  of  Mohileff  and  the 
Bishop  of  Minsk.  He  was  distributing  food  mean¬ 
time  among  the  Russian  and  Polish  children,  being 
provided  with  money  for  this  purpose  by  the  Pope. 

His  success  at  this  post  was  rewarded  by  his 
promotion  to  the  Archbishopric  of  Lepanto  and  he  was 
consecrated  on  28  October,  1919,  in  the  Cathedral 
of  Warsaw,  in  the  presence  of  the  officials  of  the 
Polish  Government,  the  members  of  the  Constitutent 
Assembly  and  the  episcopacy  of  Poland.  On  13 
June,  1921,  he  wras  made  Archbishop  of  Milan  and 
created  cardinal.  Even  the  anticlericals  and  Social¬ 
ists  of  Milan  were  jubilant  over  his  appointment, 
notwithstanding  that  it  was  he  who  had  changed 
Musioli  Facismo  from  an  extreme  Socialist  into  a 
patriot  and  supporter  of  the  House  of  Savoy.  He  was 
elected  Pope  on  6  February,  1922,  and  his  accession 
hailed  with  an  almost  universal  acclaim. 

Plasencia,  Diocese  of  (Placentina;  cf.  C.  E., 
XII — 157d),  in  the  Province  of  Caceres,  Spain,  suffra¬ 
gan  of  Toledo.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Angelo 
•Regueras  y  Lopez,  b.  1870,  elected  26  March,  1915, 
consecrated  14  September  following.  The  area  of  the 
diocese  is  4110  square  miles  and  the  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  is  300,000.  There  are  174  parishes  divided  into 
15  archipresbyterates,  322  priests,  175  churches,  147 
chapels,  37  convents  with  49  members  of  religious 
orders  of  men  and  355  Sisters. 

Plater,  Charles  Dominic,  author,  b.  at  Mootlake, 
England,  in  1875;  d.  at  Malta  on  21  January,  1921. 
After  finishing  his  studies  at  Stonyhurst,  he  became  a 
Jesuit  7  Sept.,  1894,  and  during  his  scholasticate 
went  to  Oxford  where  he  received  a  degree  of  M.A. 
in  1907,  giving  much  of  his  time  at  this  period  of  his 
life  to  the  study  of  industrial  economics.  After  his 
ordination  he  was  made  professor  of  Psychology  at 
St.  Mary’s  Hall,  and  in  1916,  he  was  sent  as  rector 
to  the  Jesuit  House  at  Oxford,  Campion  Hall.  There 
he  set  to  work  again  at  his  economics,  but  his  health 
gave  way  and  he  was  sent  to  Ireland  and  then  to 
Malta  to  recuperate.  In  the  latter  place  he  began 
to  give  lectures  on  his  favorite  topic,  but  overtaxed 
his  strength  and  died  there. 

Plenary  Councils. — Under  the  Code  a  plenary 
council  is  convoked  and  presided  over  by  the  papal 
legate  under  the  Pope’s  orders.  It  is  to  be  attended 
by  the  archbishops,  residential  bishops,  who,  how¬ 
ever,  may  send  their  coadjutors  or  auxiliaries  to  repre¬ 
sent  them,  by  Apostolic  administrators  of  dioceses, 
abbots  or  prelates  nullius,  vicars  Apostolic,  prefects 
Apostolic  and  vicars  capitular,  all  of  whom  have  a 
deliberative  vote;  titular  bishops  residing  within  ihe 


territory  may  be  called  by  the  papal  legate,  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  his  instructions,  and  are  to  have  a  deliber¬ 
ative  vote,  unless  the  contrary  was  expressly  provided 
when  they  were  summoned  to  attend.  Those  having 
a  deliberative  vote  must,  if  they  are  prevented  from 
attending,  send  a  deputy  who,  as  such,  has  only  a 
consultive  vote. 

Codex  juris  canonici,  can.  282. 

Plockor  Plotsk,  Diocese  of,  Plocensis  (cf.  C.E., 
XII — 166d),  in  Poland,  dependent  of  Warsaw.  Rt. 
Rev.  Anthony  Nowowiejski,  b.  at  Lubien,  diocese 
of  Sandomierz,  11  February.  1858,  ordained  10  July, 
1881,  was  elected  bishop  of  Plock  12  June,  1908, 
and  consecrated  at  Petrograd  6  December  following 
by  Bishop  W  nukoski,  his  predecessor,  who  was  pro¬ 
moted.  Rt.  Rev.  Adolph  Peter  Szelazek,  b.  at 
Stoczek,  diocese  of  Podlachie,  1  July,  1865,  ordained 
in  1888,  was  elected  titular  bishop  of  Barca  and 
auxiliary  to  Plock  29  July,  1918. 

From  1915  to  1918  the  diocese  was  occupied  by 
the  German  army,  and  in  1920  it  was  laid  waste  by 
the  invading  Bolsheviki;  four  priests  were  butch¬ 
ered  and  many  suffered  great  indignities  and  even 
torture.  Twelve  priests  served  as  chaplains  in  the 
Polish  army  during  this  fighting.  The  laymen  of 
the  diocese  serving  in  the  army  fought  with  great 
valor,  especially  in  opposing  the  Bolsheviki.  Chari¬ 
table  organizations  were  formed  for  the  care  of  the 
sick  and  wounded,  the  destitute  and  the  orphaned. 
The  two-hundredth  anniversary  of  the  founding  of 
the  diocesan  seminary  was  celebrated  in  1910  and 
with  apostolic  concurrence  the  graduate  alumni 
were  awarded  the  academic  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Theology  with  certain  reservations.  Among  the 
recently  deceased  of  note  are :  Rev.  Alexander 
Zaremba,  cathedral  canon,  domestic  prelate,  pro¬ 
fessor  of  Holy  Scripture  in  the  diocesan  seminary, 
editor  of  the  periodical  “Encyklopedia  Koscrelna,” 
died  in  1907,  aged  50  years;  Rev.  Casimir  Welon- 
ski,  cathedral  prelate,  rector  of  the  diocesan  semi¬ 
nary,  afterwards  became  Fr.  Justinus,  prior-general 
of  the  order  of  Piarists  in  Czestochowa,  died  in 
1915,  aged  82  years;  Rev.  Brenislaus  Marjanski, 
canon  professor  at  the  seminary,  contributor  to 
and  editor  of  the  weekly  ‘‘Mazar,”  died  in  1912, 
aged  49  years;  Rev.  Anthony  Brylusynski,  domes¬ 
tic  prelate,  professor  at  the  seminary,  pastor,  popu¬ 
lar  author,  died  in  1912,  aged  70  years;  Rev.  Adam 
Maciejowski,  professor  at  the  seminary,  gifted 
orator  and  author,  died  in  1919,  aged  45.  * 

The  diocese  is  divided  into  12  deaneries  and  has 
a^Catholic  population  of  824,331  Poles  attended  by 
375  secular  and  3  regular  priests  and  1  lay  brother. 
There  are  252  parishes  and  churches  with  54  de¬ 
pendent  churches;  1  monastery  for  men  and  1  for 
women;  1  convent  for  men  and  8  for  women;  1 
seminary,  and  1  lyceum  erected  in  1915  for  stu¬ 
dents  of  philosophy  and  theology  with  a  combined 
total  of  18  professors  and  118  students;  27  normal 
schools  with  280  teachers  and  10,000  students;  5 
elementary  schools  with  35  teachers  and  600  pupils; 

5  industrial  schools  with  25  teachers  and  700  stu¬ 
dents;  5  homes;  6  asylums;  8  orphanages;  6  hospi¬ 
tals;  3  refuges;  10  settlement  houses;  25  day  nurs¬ 
eries.  The  Government  contributes  as  best  it  can 
to  the  support  of  the  normal  schools  conducted  in 
the  Polish  language,  which  have  been  recently 
opened  in  various  cities  and  towns  of  the  diocese. 
The  clergy  have  an  association  for  spiritual  welfare 
called  “Unio  Apostolica,”  and  one  for  intellectual 
advancement,  “Unitas  Plocka.”  In  almost  every 
parish  there  are  one  or  more  religious  associations 
lor  the  laity.  One  Catholic  daily  called  “Kurjer 
Plocki,”  1  weekly,  and  3  periodicals  are  published. 


PLUNKET 


586 


PODLASIE 


Plunket,  Oliver,  Blessed.  See  Oliver  Plunket, 
Blessed. 

Plunkett,  Joseph  Mary,  Irish  poet  and  patriot, 
b.  in  Dublin,  1887;  d.  there  1916,  the  son  of  Count 
and  Countess  Plunkett,  belonging  to  a  Catholic 
branch  of  the  family  whose  name  was  in  Irish  history 
for  six  hundred  years.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Catholic  University  School,  Belvidere  College,  and 
spent  two  years  studying  philosophy  at  Stony  hurst. 
He  kept  up  Scholastic  Philosophy  and  was  much 
influenced  by  the  study  of  mystical  contemplation. 
On  account  of  ill  health  he  was  forced  to  lead  a  life 
of  inactivity  and  spent  his  winters  abroad.  He 
studied  Irish  under  Thomas  MacDonagh  and  with 
him  took  over  the  “Irish  Review.”  He  was  the 
friend  of  MacDonagh,  Pearse  and  Casement  and  a 
partner  in  the  foundation  of  an  Irish  theatre  in  1914. 
In  spite  of  his  ill  health,  he  had  remarkable  power  of 
will  and  was  a  Spartan  type,  contemptuous  of  senti¬ 
mentality.  His  first  published  work  was  “The  Circle 
and  the  Sword,”  a  book  of  verse.  Plunkett  was  a 
militant  mystic.  His  poems  were  few,  yet  they  are  of 
purest  beauty  and  lovely  simplicity  and  like  the  name 
of  his  first  book  his  symbols  were  the  eternal  circle 
and  the  destroying  sword.  The  intensity  of  his  love 
of  God  and  man  and  Ireland  shone  from  the  man 
himself,  and  the  works  he  has  left  us,  although  few, 
are  immortal.  At  the  age  of  twenty-nine  he  died,  as 
he  had  said  to  the  priest  who  gave  him  the  last  rites 
of  the  Church, “for  the  glory  of  God  and  the  honor  of 
Ireland.”  For  the  history  of  the  Easter  Rebellion  in 

which  Plunkett  died,  see  Pearse. 

McBrxen  in  Studies  (December,  1916);  Colum,  Introduction 
to  Poems  of  the  Irish  Revolutionary  Brotherhood  (Boston,  1916). 

Samuel  Fowle  Telfair,  Jr. 

Plymouth,  Diocese  of  (Plymuthensis,  Ply- 
muth^e;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 171b),  in  England,  forms 
part  of  the  Province  of  Birmingham.  At  the  present 
time  (1921)  the  diocese  is  under  the  administration  of 
the  Rt.  Rev.  John  Keily,  D.D.,  who  was  appointed 
to  this  See  upon  the  resignation  of  Bishop  Graham, 
due  to  the  infirmity  of  age  in  1910.  Bishop  Keily 
was  born  in  Limerick,  Ireland,  on  23  June,  1854,  and 
was  ordained  priest  in  Plymouth  in  1877,  after  which 
he  was  made  chancellor  of  the  cathedral.  He  received 
his  appointment  as  bishop  on  21  April,  1911,  and  was 
consecrated  on  13  June,  by  Cardinal  Bourne,  assisted 
by  Bishop  Barton  of  Clifton,  and  Bishop  Keating  of 
Northampton,  now  Archbishop  of  Liverpool. 

The  National  Catholic  Congress  of  1913  was  held 
in  Plymouth  and  with  the  exception  of  two  members, 
was  atteneded  by  all  the  hierachy,  the  town  represent¬ 
atives  and  the  headquarters  staff  of  the  army  and 
navy.  During  the  World  War  heavy  responsibilities 
were  thrown  upon  the  clergy  of  this  diocese  by  the 
number  and  size  of  the  hospitals  and  the  influx  of  the 
wounded  of  all  nationalities.  Since  the  ending  of 
the  war,  in  spite  of  financial  difficulties  and  heavy 
taxation,  much  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  recon¬ 
struction  in  the  diocese.  The  advance  of  religion  has 
been  noticeable  among  the  Catholics  and  the  public 
street  preaching  by  the  Catholic  Evidence  Guild 
(q.  v.)  has  had  a  marked  effect  in  conversions.  A 
monthly  periodical  “The  Diocesan  Record,”  is  now 
published. 

By  the  census  of  1921  the  diocese  has  a  Catholic 
population  of  16,898  and  includes:  96  churches, 
chapels  and  mission  stations;  76  secular  priests  and 
48  regular  (Benedictines,  Canons  Regular  of  Lateran , 
Cistercians  and  Marists);  42  convents;  23  public 
elementary  schools  receiving  Government  grants  and 
11  which  do  not  receive  grants;  2  other  schools  for 
boys  and  17  for  girls;  the  total  number  of  children  in 
these  schools  is  3586.  Among  the  charitable  institu¬ 
tions  are:  1  hospital,  5  residential  institutions  for  poor 


children,  orphanages,  poor  law,  industrial  or  reforma¬ 
tory  schools,  and  1  refuge.  In  1919,  there  were  238> 
conversions  of  Protestants. 

Plymouth  Brethren  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 172a). — 

This  denomination  is  split  in  the  United  States  into 
six  sects  which  for  convenience  will  be  designated 
by  numbers,  since  it  is  impossible  to  find  a  distinctive 
name  for  each. 

I .  This  sect  claims  to  follow  more  closely  the 
teachings  of  the  founders  and  hence  is  sometimes 
referred  to  as  the  “Exclusives.”  Membership  (1916), 
3896. 

II.  This  sect  comprises  those  who  are  known  as 
the  “Open  Brethren.”  It  split  from  the  parent  body 
in  1848.  Membership  (1916)  5928. 

III.  This  branch  “represents  the  extreme  high- 
church  principle  of  Brethrenism  ....  that 
absolute  power  of  a  judicial  kind  has  been  delegated 
by  Christ  to  the  Christian  assembly”  (Religious 
Bodies,  1916,  pt.  II,  p.  173).  Membership  (1916), 

476.  , 

IV.  This  branch  broke  away  from  the  others  in 
1890,  owing  to  a  controversy  in  regard  to  the  subject 
of  eternal  life.  They  are  more  numerous  in  the 
British  Empire  than  in  the  United  States.  Member¬ 
ship  (United  States,  1916),  1389. 

V.  This  branch  split  from  No.  Ill  on  a  question  of 
discipline.  It  first  appears  in  the  United  States 
religious  bodies  reports  in  1916.  Membership,  1820. 

VI.  In  1906  a  disagreement  on  questions  of  church 
order  in  branch  No.  IV.  in  England,  caused  a  split 
in  the  United  States  also.  Membership  (United 
States,  1916),  208. 

In  1921,  all  branches  reported  470  churches  and 
13,717  members  in  the  United  States. 

Religious  Bodies,  1906  (Washington,  D.  C.,  1909);  Religious 
Bodies,  1916  (Washington,  D.  C.,  1919);  Year  Book  of  the 
Churches,  1920  (New  York,  1920). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Podlasie,  Diocese  of  (Janow,  Podlachiensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  IX — 403,  s.  v.  Lublin),  in  the  palatinate 
or  wojewodztwo  of  Lublin,  in  Poland,  suffragan  of 
Warsaw,  restored  by  Benedict  XV  in  1918.  The 
diocese  of  Podlasie  was  erected  on  2  July,  1818,  by 
the  separation  of  118  parishes  from  the  dioceses  of 
Poznan,  Plock,  Krakow,  Luck,  and  Chelm,  the  city 
of  Janow  on  the  river  Krzywula  in  the  wojewodztwo 
of  Brzesc  being  the  episcopal  see.  In  1428  Witold 
the  Great  Duke  of  Litwa  (Lithuania)  erected  a  villa 
at  Porchow  which  he  donated  later  with  its  parish 
church  to  the  cathedral  of  Luck.  Bishop  Joszowicz 
in  1465  developed  the  villa  into  a  town  changing  its 
name  to  Janow.  In  1657  Janow  was  destroyed  by 
the  Swedes.  Subsequently  Paul  Algimutowicz,  Duke 
of  Orsza  and  Bishop  of  Luck,  rebuilt  the  ruined  church 
which  in  1741  was  made  a  collegiate  church  and  in 
1818  became  a  cathedral.  Pius  IX  enriched  it  with 
the  relics  of  St.  Victor  martyr,  which  were  solemnly 
deposited  there  on  11  June,  1859.  The  first  bishop 
of  this  diocese,  Felix  Lucas  de  Lewino  Lewinski, 
ruled  from  1819  till  his  death  on  5  April,  1825.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Joannes  Marcellus  de  Gutkowo 
Gutkowski,  who  ruled  from  1826  till  his  deportation 
by  the  Russians  in  1846  to  the  province  of  Witebsk, 
the  diocese  being  administed  during  his  absence  by 
Bartholomaeus  Radziszewski,  a  canon  of  Jandw,  as 
vicar-general.  Bishop  Gutkowski  died  in  exile  in 
Lwow  in  1855.  The  third  bishop,  Benjaminus 
Petrus  Paulus  Szymanski,  previously  Commissary  of 
the  Warsaw  province  of  the  Capuchins  was  precon  - 
ized  in  1856,  and  took  possession  of  the  cathedral 
in  1857,  ruling  the  church  of  Podlasie  until  22  May , 
1867,  when  the  diocese  was  suppressed  by  the 
Russians  to  facilitate  the  spread  of  their  Schismatic 
church,  and  united  to  Lublin,  the  bishop  being 


POGGIO 


587 


POLAND 


deported  to  Loniza,  where  he  died  on  15  January 
following.  From  that  date  until  1918  the  diocese 
has  been  ruled  by  the  Bishop  of  Lublin  as  adminis¬ 
trator  Apostolic.  When  the  Russian  schismatics 
were  thus  for  over  forty  years  endeavoring  to  crush 
out  Catholicism,  they  confiscated  many  Catholic 
churches,  suppressed  parishes,  and  forbade  the 
building  of  new  or  the  repairing  of  old  churches.  For 
instance,  in  the  civil  district  of  Biala,  between  1874 
and  1900,  out  of  eleven  parishes,  churches,  ten  were 
suppressed  and  one  was  allowed  to  be  built  in  Juczna, 
where  the  Schismatics  had  confiscated  the  mag¬ 
nificent  church  of  Our  Lady  of  Ivoden.  In  1905, 
when  the  persecution  was  relaxed,  almost  200,000 
of  the  Greek  Schismatics  returned  to  the  true  fold, 
some  new  churches  being  built  and  a  few  of  the 
suppressed  parishes  revived. 

When  Russia  fell  in  the  European  War,  the 
Schismatics  took  to  flight,  and  on  the  restoration 
of  Poland,  hope  sprang  up  again  in  the  hearts  of  the 
faithful.  The  diocese  was  restored  and  Mgr.  Henry 
Przezdziecki,  formerly  vicar  general  of  Warsaw,  was 
elected  bishop  of  Podlasie  24  September,  1918,  suc¬ 
ceeding  Bishop  Szymanski,  who  had  died  in  1868. 
He  was  born  on  17  February,  1873;  ordained  on 
22  December,  1895,  preconized  on  24  September, 
1918,  and  consecrated  at  Warsaw  on  17  November, 

1918.  At  present  he  resides  at  Siedlce,  where  the 
diocesan  curia  is  located.  The  ecclesiastical  court, 
however,  is  being  held  at  Lukow,  until  proper 
quarters  have  been  prepared  at  Siedlce.  The  dio¬ 
cesan  seminary  of  Benedict  XV  in  Jandw  was  re¬ 
stored  on  8  October,  1919,  and  has  7  professors 
and  50  seminarians,  of  whom  19  are  studying  theology 
and  31  philosophy;  in  addition  2  seminarians  are 
studying  at  the  Warsaw  University  and  3  at  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Lublin.  The  cathedral  chapter  comprises 
4  prelates  or  dignities  and  8  canons.  At  present  the 
first  dignity  or  dean  is  Mgr.  Ceslaus  Sokotowski, 
coadjutor  to  Mgr.  Przezdziecki,  and  titular  Bishop 
of  Pentacomia.  He  was  born  at  Warsaw  on  9  July, 
1877,  and  nominated  to  his  titular  see  on  4  October, 

1919.  He  is  also  rector  of  the  seminary  and  vicar 
general  of  the  diocese.  The  progress  of  the  Church 
during  the  last  three  years  may  be  seen  in  the  increase 
of  the  number  of  parish  churches  to  174,  with  291 
churches  and  chapels.  There  is  a  shortage  of  priests, 
however,  for  though  there  are  225  they  are  insufficient 
to  cope  with  all  the  work  of  the  diocese  with  its  644,318 
Catholics.  They  are  assisted  by  3  Pauline  Fathers, 

1  priest  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  3  Salesians 
(2  priests)  and  3  Resurrectionists.  There  are  19 
Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  with  1  house, 
8  Franciscan  Sisters  of  the  Family  of  Mary,  2  houses; 
3  Felician  Sisters  (Franciscan  Tertiaries  of  St.  Felix), 

1  house;  6  Little  Servants  of  the  Most  Sacred 
Heart  of  Jesus,  1  orphanage  and  1  hospital,  19 
Vincentian  Sisters  of  Charity,  4  hospitals,  1  orphan¬ 
age;  in  all  there  are  in  the  diocese  3  homes  for  the 
aged  and  destitute;  5  orphanages;  5  day  nurseries; 
and  7  infirmaries.  The  diocese  has  clerical  co-operative 
associations  called  "Unitis  Viribus”  in  Siedlce;  and 
a  diocesan  bulletin  or  review,  “Wiadomosc  Diecezalne 
Podlaskie.” 

Poggio  Mirteto,  Diocese  of  (Maxdelensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XII — 178c),  in  Central  Italy,  dependent 
directly  on  the  Holy  See.  The  present  bishop  is 
Rt.  Rev.  Luigi  Ferre tti,  b.  1862,  elected  1917, 
consecrated  1918,  succeeding  Bishop  Nirra,  deceased. 
The  Catholic  population  is  35,0(X).  There  are: 
36  parishes,  45  secular  priests,  8  regular  priests,  12 
seminarians,  5  Brothers,  40  Sisters,  113  churches  and 
chapels. 


Pohle,  Joseph,  theologian,  b.  at  Niederspay,  near 
Coblentz ,  Germany,  on  19  March,  1852;  d.  at  Breslau, 
on  21  February,  1911.  He  studied  at  Trier,  graduat¬ 
ing  in  1871  and  the  following  year  proceeded  to  the 
Gregorian  University  at  Rome,  where  he  won  doc¬ 
torates  in  philosophy  and  theology,  and  studied 
astronomy  under  Father  Secchi,  whose  life  he  wrote 
in  later  days.  He  was  ordained  in  1887,  and  sub¬ 
sequently  taught  theology  at  Baar  in  Switzerland,  and 
Leeds,  England;  and  philosophy  at  Fulda,  1886-89, 
in  which  year  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  apologetics 
in  the  Catholic  University  of  America,  which  he 
filled  with  distinction  for  five  years,  when  he  re¬ 
signed  and  returnintr  to  Germany  occupied  the  chair 
of  dogmatic  theology  in  Munster,  Westphalia. 
Three  years  later  he  was  called  to  the  same  post  in 
the  University  of  Breslau,  where  in  1915-1916  he 
served  as  rector  magnificus.  In  1913  he  had  been 
made  a  domestic  prelate  of  the  Pope.  Pohle’s 
writings  are  highly  esteemed  for  their  depth  of  thought 
and  accuracy  of  doctrines.  His  chef  d’ oeuvre  is  a 
“Lehrbuch  der  Dogmatik,”  the  fruit  of  his  lectures  on 
dogmatic  theology,  which  was  translated  into  Eng¬ 
lish  (12  Vols.)  by  Dr.  Arthur  Preuss  of  St.  Louis, 
editor  of  the  “Catholic  Fortnightly  Review”  (St. 
Louis).  Among  his  other  w'orks  are  a  biograph}'’ 
of  Angelo  Secchi  (2nd  ed.,  1904);  two  theological 
monographs:  “De  providontia  divino”  and  “De 
conceptu  creationis  divinae”;  a  popular  introduction 
to  astronomy,  “Die  Stemenweltenundihre  Bewohner” 
(6th  ed.,  1910).  In  addition  he  was  for  several  years 
editor  of  the  “Philosophisches  Jahrbuch”  of  the 
Gorres  Society,  and  contributed  numerous  articles 
to  the  “Kirchenlexikon,”  the  “Kirchliches  Handlexi- 
kon,”  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  the  “Historich 
politischer  Blatter,”  and  other  reviews. 

^  Poitiers,  Diocese  of  (Pictavensis;  cf.  C.  E. 
XII — 178d),  in  the  department  of  Vienne,  France, 
suffragan  of  Bordeaux.  In  1918  Mgr.  Humbrecht, 
Bishop  of  Poitiers,  was  promoted  to  the  Archdiocese 
of  Besangon,  and  was  succeeded  in  Poitieis  by  Mgr. 
de  Durfort,  actual  bishop.  Born  at  Montfermeil, 
diocese  of  Versailles,  12  July,  1863,  he  was  ordained 
in  1887,  made  prelate  of  the  Holy  See  in  1899,  and 
Piothonotary  Apostolic  five  years  later.  In  Febru¬ 
ary,  1911,  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Langres  and 
consecrated  the  following  May,  remaining  there  until 
he  was  transferred  to  his  present  see.  Mgr.  Hum¬ 
brecht  became  Bishop  of  Poitiers  in  1911,  succeeding 
Mgr.  Pelge  who  died  31  May  of  that  year.  On 
1  March,  1912,  the  Cathedral  of  Poitiers  was  made 
a  basilica.  An  important  event  in  the  diocese  was 
the  centenary  celebration  of  the  birth  of  Cardinal 
Pie,  1915.  During  the  World  War  280  priests  and 
130  seminarians  from  the  diocese  of  Poitiers  were 
mobilized,  13  of  the  former  and  34  of  the  latter 
died,  two  received  the  M edaille  Militaire,  73  the  Croix 
de  Guerre ,  and  2  were  proposed  for  the  Legion  of 
Honor. 

The  diocese  comprises  the  departments  of  Vienne, 
in  which  there  were  332,376  Catholics  in  1920  (Poi¬ 
tiers,  41,292),  and  Deux-S&vres,  in  which  there  were 
337,627.  In  the  same  year  the  diocese  counted  69 
parishes,  574  succursals  and  97  vicarages  formerly 
supported  bythe  State. 

Poland  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 181c),  Republic  of,  an 
independent  state  since  9  November,  1918.  In 
1914  at  the  beginning  of  the  World  War,  the  Poles 
were  promised  independece  by  the  Russian  Grand 
Duke  Nicholas,  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Russian 
armies.  Similar  promises  were  made  several  times 
during  the  course  of  the  war  by  the  Central  Powers, 
the  rulers  of  which  even  went  so  far,  in  1916,  as  to 
sign  a  decree  to  that  effect,  and  to  notify  the  Holy 


POLAND 


POLAND 


588 


See  that  their  intention  was  to  form  the  Polish  pro¬ 
vinces  occupied  by  them  into  an  independent  State. 
The  Poles  placed  no  confidence  in  their  promises, 
and  Polish  soldiers  found  themselves  fighting  in 
enemy  camps  with  one  aim,  the  reconstruction  of  the 
dismembered  kingdom.  General  Pilsudski,  with  his 
“Polish  legions,”  crossed  the  border  of  Russian 
Poland  5  August,  1914,  in  an  effort  to  loosen  Russia’s 
grip  on  that  territory.  The  following  year  the 
central  Powers  -succeeded  in  driving  out  the  Russians 
and  on  5  August,  1915,  the  German  army  entered  the 
City  of  Warsaw  under  the  command  of  Prince 
Leopold  of  Bavaria.  The  German  occupation  lasted 
for  three  years,  during  which  time  they  carried  away 
from  Warsaw  and  the  provinces  many  valuable 
objects  from  public  and  private  buildings,  requisition¬ 
ing  not  only  the  copper  roofs  and  church  bells,  but 
even  the  door  handles,  emptying  the  city  of  all  the 
supplies  left  by  the  Russians,  and  devastating  the 
forests  of  the  country.  The  Germans  at  first  es¬ 
tablished  the  Citizens’  Central  Committee  for  the 
government  of  Poland,  then  the  so-called  Temporary 
Council  of  State  (1917),  and  finally  the  Regency 
Council  composed  of  Prince  Lubomirski,  M. 
Ostrowski  and  Archbishop  Ivapowski  of  Warsaw. 

It  was  aided  bv  a  Council  of  State  and  a  Council  of 
Ministers,  but  “had  very  little  legislative  or  adminis¬ 
trative  power.  The  Polish  Legions  which  refused  the 
oath  of  fidelity  to  the  Kaiser  as  commander-in-chief 
of  the  armies  of  the  Central  Powers,  were  disbanded 
and  interned  and  General  Pilsudski  was  arrested  22 
July,  1917,  and  transferred  to  Madgeburg.  The 
Polish  Secret  Military  Organization  covering  all 
Poland  with  its  network  was  formed  at  this  time. 

The  Treaty  of  Brest-Litovsk  (15  December, 
1917-3  March,  1918),  between  Germany  and  the 
Bolshevists,  by  the  terms  of  which  Poland  found 
herself  despoiled  of  her  former  territories  for  the 
recovery  of  which  she  had  been  fighting  side  by  side 
with  the  Central  Powers,  brought  about  a  clash. 
Influenced  also  by  the  Russian  revolution  (March, 
1917),  the  entrance  of  the  United  States  into  the 
World  War  (April,  1917),  and  the  proposal  of  a  free, 
united  and  independent  Poland  with  access  to  the 
sea  made  by  President  Wilson,  and  his  famous  fourteen 
points,  Poland  joined  the  Allies.  The  most  power¬ 
ful  factor  in  this  decision  was  Ignace  Paderewski, 
who  demanded  the  repudiation  of  Germany  and 
Austria  and  whose  reputation  and  personality  won 
for  the  cause  of  Poland  the  sympathy  of  America 
and  the  allied  countries.  Under  his  influence  a 
Polish  army  was  formed  in  France  and  the  United 
States  and  the  National  Polish  Committee  in  Paris 
was  recognzied,  18  October,  1917,  as  the  only  legiti¬ 
mate  government  of  Poland.  In  General  Foch’s 
great  offensive  many  Polish  soldiers  fought  with 
heroism.  The  Armistice  signed  by  Germany,  11 
November,  1918,  opened  a  new  era  for  Poland,  an 
independent  republic  was  proclaimed  and  a  govern¬ 
ment  formed  under  the  control  of  the  Moderate 
Socialists.  General  Pilsudski,  freed  by  German 
revolutionists,  returned  to  Warsaw  and  was  given 
supreme  military  authority.  The  German  General 
Beseler  fled,  and  the  German  troops  in  Poland  were 
disarmed  and  expelled  by  the  Polish  Secret  Military 
Organization.  The  Polish  Republic  was  proclaimed 
and  a  temporary  government  elected  14  November, 
with  Pilsudski  as  first  President,  until  a  Diet  should 
establish  a  regular  Government.  Paderewski  was 
sent  to  Warsaw  where  he  was  enthusiastically  greeted 
by  the  people  and  15  January,  1919,  he  formed  a 
new  Cabinet  in  which  he  was  Prime  Minister.  The 
following  message  was  sent  to  Paderewski  from  Paris 
at  the  direction  of  President  Wilson:  “The  President 
of  the  United  States  directs  me  to  extend  to  you  as 
Prime  Minister  and  Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs  of 


the  Provisional  Polish  Government,  his  sincere  wishes 
for  your  success  in  the  high  office  which  you  have 
assumed,  and  his  earnest  hope  that  the  government 
of  which  you  are  a  part  will  bring  prosperity  to  the 
Republic  of  Poland.  It  is  my  privilege  to  extend 
to  you  at  this  time  my  personal  greetings  and  of¬ 
ficially  assure  you  that  it  will  be  a  source  of  gratifica¬ 
tion  to  enter  into  official  relations  with  you  at  the 
earliest  opportunity,  and  to  render  to  your  countiy 
such  aid  as  is  possible  at  this  time,  as  it  enters  upon 
a  new  cycle  of  independent  life,  which  will  be  in  due 
accord  with  that  spirit  of  friendliness  which  has  in 
the  past  animated  the  American  people  in  their 
relations  with  your  countrymen.” 

Paderewski’s  cabinet  resigned  13  December,  1919, 
and  he  was  sent  to  France  as  diplomatic  representa¬ 
tive  from  Poland  to  the  League  of  Nations.  In  Janu¬ 
ary,  1921,  he  resigned  and  returned  to  the  United 
States,  having  earned  the  undying  gratitude  of  his 
countrymen  and  given  signal  proof  of  his  love  tor 
Poland.  During  his  term  of  office  the  Polish  Consti¬ 
tutional  Diet  was  formed,  which  unanimously  con¬ 
firmed  General  Pilsudski  as  president  (20  February, 
1919)  and  reaffirmed  Poland’s  alliance  with  the  Allied 
Powers.  Bv  the  treaty  of  Versailles,  signed  by  Dmow- 
ski  and  Paderewski,  the  Polish  National  Committee 
in  Paris  was  dissolved  and  the  independence  of  Poland 
formally  recognized  by  the  Allies.  On  31  July  the 
treaty  was  ratified  by  the  Polish  Diet.  A  new  consti¬ 
tution  was  drawn  up  by  the  Diet  and  solemnly  adopted 
17  March,  1921,  when  a  solemn  Te  Deum  was  chanted 
in  the  cathedral  of  Warsaw.  All  the  legislative  power 
in  the  republic  is  vested  in  the  National  Assembly, 
which  is  composed  of  the  Diet  ( Sejin )  and  the  Senate. 
The  executive  power  is  exercised  by  a  President  and 
a  Cabinet  of  Ministers,  the  former  elected  every  seven 
years.  The  Diet  dissolves  by  its  own  vote.  Religious 
freedom  is  granted  to  all  loyal  citizens,  and  the  Catho¬ 
lic  Church  as  the  church  of  the  majority,  takes  first 
place  in  the  State  among  the  other  creeds  equal  before 
the  law.  The  relations  between  Church  and  State 
are  to  be  regulated  by  a  special  concordat  to  be  ratified 
by  the  Diet.  The  more  important  political  parties 
in  the  Constitutional  Diet  are:  the  Polish  People  s 
Party  (84  members),  the  National  People  s  Union  of 
Diet  (79  members),  the  National  Peoples  Union 
(42  members)  the  Polish  Socialist  Party  (33  members) 
the  Christian  National  Worker’s  Club  (28  members)  , 
the  National  People’s  Christian  Party  (22  members) 
the  National  Worker’s  Circle  (25  members).  - 
total  number  of  members  in  the  Diet  is  412;  at  present 
(1922)  the  liberal  and  moderate  Socialist  element  is 
stronger  than  the  Catholic  element.  .  , 

Poland  was  invaded  in  1920  by  the  Russian  Bolshe¬ 
vists,  who,  after  initial  victories  that  seemed  to 
threaten  the  fall  of  Warsaw,  were  finally  defeated, 
with  a  loss  of  30,000  prisoners  and  90,000  casualties; 
the  Poles  were  the  first  of  their  enemies  to  be  victor¬ 
ious  over  Soviet  Russia.  A  preliminary  peace  treaty 
was  signed  at  Riga,  12  October,  1920,  and  ratified 

18  March,  1921.  .  (  ,, 

Religion. — As  a  national  consequence  of  the 
religious  freedom  granted  by  Poland  in  1919  many 
religious  communities  expelled  from  Russian  Poland 
have  returned  and  several  new  congregations  have 
made  foundations  there.  There  are  now  m  the  coun¬ 
try,  Communities  of  Men:  (1)  Capuchin  Fathers, 
Warsaw,  Nowe  Miasto,  18;  (2)  Redemptonst  Fa 
ers,  Warsaw,  8;  (3)  Marian  Fathers,  Bielany,  v\  ar- 
saw  18;  (4)  Jesuit  Fathers,  Warsaw,  7;  (5)  Vincen¬ 
tian  Fathers,  Warsaw,  15;  (6)  Franciscan  Fathers 

(Conventuals),  5;  (7)  Salesian  Fathers,  Warsaw, 

Prat™  13*  (8)  Resurrectionist  Fathers,  Warsaw, 

etc.  9-  (9)  Brother  Albert’s  Brothers,  Warsaw, 

Praga,  6.  Communities  of  Women:  (1)  Sisters  of 
Perpetual  Adoration,  Sakramentki;  (2)  Sisters  of  St. 


POLICASTRO 


589 


POLICASTRO 


Mary  of  Visitation,  Wizytki;  (3)  Sisters  of  Holy 
Family  of  Nazareth,  Nazaretanki;  (4)  Sisters  of  St. 
Felix  a  Cantalicio,  Felicyanki;  (5)  Sisters  of  Resur¬ 
rection,  Tmartwychwstanvki;  (6)  Sisters  of  Immacu¬ 
late  Conception,  Niepokalanvis;  (7)  Sisters  of  St. 
Mary’s  Servants  (Scovulae),  Sluzscniczvis;  (8)  Sis¬ 
ters  of  St.  Mary’s  Family,  Rodzina  Maryi;  (9)  Sis¬ 
ters  of  St.  Mary  a  Misericordia,  Serafitki;  (10) 
Sisters  of  Brother  Albert,  Albertynki.  In  general: 
regular  priests,  56;  nuns,  30;  religious  sisters,  28,  and 
many  Sisters  of  Charity  especially  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul.  Hospitals,  asylums  and  other  humanitarian 
institutions  number  38;  15  of  which  are  under  the 
care  of  Sisters  of  Charity.  There  are  also  several  hid¬ 
den  Congregations  of  Men  and  Women,  with  their 
rules  approved  by  Rome;  they  were  especially  needed 
when  Poland  was  under  Russian  government  and 
similar  religious  institutions  were  by  law  either  pro¬ 
hibited,  persecuted  or  totally  suppressed.  They 
dress  like  the  seculars,  and  are  working  in  the  city, 
in  provinces  and  villages,  exercising  their  beneficial 
influence  and  apostleship.  Several  hidden  mission¬ 
aries,  especially  Jesuit  Fathers,  worked  among  the 
Uniates. 

The  general  meetings  of  the  Polish  episcopate  are 
productive  of  much  good  for  the  Church.  Through 
them  unity  of  action,  the  organization  of  the  new  and 
restored  dioceses  and  a  general  strengthening  of  the 
Catholic  movement  are  effected.  They  are  always 
held  under  the  guidance  of  the  Papal  Nuncio.  The 
first  was  held  in  Warsaw,  11  March,  1917,  because  of 
the  hundred  years’  jubilee  of  the  Archdiocese,  Poland 
being  yet  under  German  occupation.  The  second  in 
Warsaw,  10  December,  1918,  and  the  third,  20  Janu¬ 
ary,  1919,  before  the  elections  to  the  Constitutional 
Diet,  when  a  general  episcopal  letter  to  the  nation 
and  Polish  people  was  issued.  The  fourth  in  Warsaw, 
because  of  different  social,  ecclesiastical  and  educa¬ 
tional  questions,  13  March,  1919.  The  fifth  in  Gniez- 
no,  27  August,  1919,  at  the  tomb  of  St.  Wojciech, 
Archbishop  and  Martyr,  in  thanksgiving  to  God  for 
the  restitution  of  a  united  and  independent  Poland, 
and  asking  the  benediction  of  the  Almighty  that  it 
may  prosper  as  it  did  at  the  time  of  St.  Wojciech. 
The  sixth  was  held  at  Warsaw  at  the  consecration  of 
Mgr.  Ratti.  The  seventh  on  10  January,  1920,  on 
the  occasion  of  the  return  of  the  newly-created  Car¬ 
dinals  to  Poland  and  the  bringing  of  the  symbolical 
St.  Josaphat’s  Candle.  The  eighth  was  held  at 
Oxenstochowa,  at  the  shrine  of  Our  Lady  and  Queen 
of  Poland,  in  the  very  heart  of  Catholic  Poland.  The 
national  vows  were  renewed,  their  fulfillment  prom¬ 
ised  and  Holy  Virgin  again  proclaimed  as  Queen  of 
Poland,  and  asked  to  save  Poland  from  the  Bolsheviki, 
as  she  has  saved  the  nation  in  similar  danger  in  1655. 
The  meeting  in  Cracow,  28  May-3  June,  1921,  at 
the  tomb  of  St.  Stanislaw,  Bishop  and  Martyr,  ended 
with  the  solemn  and  public  consecration  of  the  whole 
Polish  nation  to  the  Most  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  read 
in  public  procession  by  Mgr.  Dalbor,  Primate  of 
Poland. 

After  the  resurrection  of  Poland  two  new  dioceses 
were  erected  as  suffragans  to  the  Metropolitan  See  of 
Warsaw,  one  in  Podlachia  with  its  episcopal  residence 
at  Siedlce,  which  was  formerly  suppressed  by  the  Rus¬ 
sian  Government,  the  second  formed  from  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Warsaw  and  comprising  the  industrial  dis¬ 
tricts  of  Poland.  Its  episcopal  residence  is  in  Lodz. 
The  proposed  erection  of  a  theological  faculty  at  the 
University  of  Warsaw  will  have  an  immense  influence 
on  the  education  of  the  clergy  of  the  archdiocese. 

In  fulfillment  of  a  promise  made  3  May,  1791,  just 
before  the  partition  of  Poland  and  in  thanksgiving  for 
the  restoration  of  liberty  and  unity,  the  Diet  voted  to 
erect  a  church  in  Warsaw  in  honor  of  Divine  Provi¬ 
dence.  In  December,  1921,  the  first  Polish  Mission¬ 


ary  Congress  of  Clergy  was  held  in  Warsaw,  and  a 
Missionary  Union  of  Clergy  formed  to  increase  the 
missionary  spirit  in  Poland.  In  April,  1918,  Mgr. 
Ratti,  since  elevated  to  the  papacy,  was  sent  by  Pope 
Benedict  XV  as  Apostolic  Visitor  to  Poland,  which 
was  then  nominally  free  but  under  German  occupa¬ 
tion.  After  the  republic  was  proclaimed,  an  Apostolic 
Nunciature  of  the  second  class  was  erected  in  Poland, 
with  Mgr.  Ratti  as  Nuncio.  He  was  appointed  titular 
archbishop  of  Lepanto  3  July,  1919,  and  was  conse¬ 
crated  in  the  cathedral  of  Warsaw  the  following 
October  in  the  presence  of  the  Primate  and  many  of 
the  bishops  of  Poland,  President  Pilsudski,  Premier 
Paderewski  and  other  civil  representatives.  In  1.021 
Mgr.  Ratti  was  made  Archbishop  of  Milan  and  was 
succeeded  as  Nuncio  by  Mgr.  Laurenti  Lauri,  titular 
archbishop  of  Ephesus,  who  was  formerly  nuncio  to 
Peru.  M.  Wladislas  Skrzynski  is  the  Minister  Pleni¬ 
potentiary  and  Envoy  Extraordinary  of  Poland  to  the 
Holy  See,  having  presented  his  letters  of  credit  15 
October,  1921.  The  newly-created  Polish  cardinals 
Card.  Dalbor,  Primate  of  Poland  and  Card.  Kakow- 
ski,  Archbishop  of  Warsaw,  created  15  December, 
1919,  brought  with  them  from  Rome  the  symbolical 
candle  of  St.  Josaphat.  On  the  day  of  the  canoniza¬ 
tion  of  St.  Josaphat,  27  June,  1867,  Pius  IX  returned 
to  the  alumni  of  the  Polish  College  in  Rome,  the  bees¬ 
wax  candle  given  him  in  accordance  with  a  long-estab¬ 
lished  custom,  telling  them  to  preserve  it  in  the  col¬ 
lege  until  they  could  light  it  in  a  free  and  independent 
Poland.  At  the  public  allocution  to  the  new  Car¬ 
dinals,  Benedict  XV  expressed  his  conviction  that  the 
time  had  now  come  for  the  fulfillment  of  the  will  of 
his  predecessor,  and  the  candle  was  solemnly  given 
to  the  Cardinals  by  the  rector  of  the  Polish  College. 
With  great  ceremony  it  was  placed  in  the  cathedral  of 
Warsaw  and  during  the  Pontifical  Mass,  President 
Pilsudski  was  invested  to  light  it.  The  sermon  on  this 
occasion  was  preached  by  Mgr.  Pelczar,  who  had  wit¬ 
nessed  the  ceremony  on  the  canonization  of  St. 
Josaphat. 

Religious  freedom  also  brought  to  Poland  many 
non-Catholic  creeds  and  sects.  There  are  now  in 
Warsaw  Methodists,  Quakers,  Baptists,  Bible 
Students  and  various  societies  from  North  America, 
notably  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  which 
at  first  under  humanitarian  pretenses  and  then  openly 
spread  their  heretical  doctrines.  They  meet  with 
temporary  success  owing  to  the  high  purchasing 
power  of  foreign  money,  and  are  helped  by  the  native 
Protestants  and  Jews.  There  are  some  native  inde¬ 
pendent  churches,  such  as  the  Marianites,  but  they 
have  few  adherents. 

Amongst  the  Polish  religious  and  clergy  recently 
deceased  was  Brother  Albert  (Adam  Chnnwelowski), 
former  artist,  who  devoted  his  life  to  work  amongst 
the  most  wretched  and  destitute.  He  founded  a 
congregation  known  as  Brother  Albert’s  Brothers  and 
Sisters,  and  died  a  holy  death  in  Cracow,  25  December, 
1915.  Rev.  I.  Radziszewski,  d.  22  February,  1922, 
was  founder  and  rector  of  the  Catholic  University  at 
Lublin,  which  is  under  the  care  of  the  Polish  episcopate 
and  of  great  benefit  to  Catholic  youth.  During  the 
Bolshevist  invasion  Father  Skorupka,  twenty  - 
seven  years  old,  chaplain  of  the  Eighth  Division  of 
Infantry,  was  killed  as  he  rallied  his  regiment  under 
terrific  machine  gun-fire,  to  attack  the  enemy,  in  the 
decisive  battle  of  the  invasion.  His  heroism 'was 
officially  recognized  by  the  General  Staff. 

Policastro,  Diocese  of  (Policastrensis;  cf., 
C.  E.,  XII — 212b),  in  the  Province  of  Catanzaro, 
Southern  Italy,  suffragan  of  Salerno.  The  present 
bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Vescia,  b.  1848,  elected 
1899.  The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is 


POLSI 


590 


POOR  CHILD 


64,000.  There  are:  38  parishes,  195  secular  priests, 

9  regular  priests,  234  churches  and  chapels. 

Polsi,  Santa  Maria  di,  an  abbey  in  the  Diocese  of 
Gerace,  Italy,  erected  into  an  abbey  nullius  8  April, 
1920. 

Pondicherry,  .  Archdiocese  of  (Pondicheriana 
or  Pudicheriana;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 228d),  in  India, 
has  a  total  Catholic  population  of  143,450,  of  whom, 
1000  are  Europeans,  1200  Anglo-French  Indians  and 
142,000  Indians;  25,760  of  these  Catholics  are  m  the 
French  territory  of  the  diocese.  The  present  arch¬ 
bishop,  Most  Rev.  Elias  Jean  Joseph  Morel,  has  filled 
the  See  since  1909.  He  was  born  at  Belief ontaine, 
diocese  of  St.  Claude  in  1862,  and  entered  the  Sem¬ 
inary  of  the  Foreign  Missions  in  1884.  After  his 
ordination  he  was  sent  to  Pondicherry,  where  he 
became  rector  of  the  college  of  Cuddalore  and  in  1904, 
vicar  general.  He  was  appointed  bishop  11  May, 
1909,  and  consecrated  21  September  of  the  same  year. 
Within  recent  years  the  diocese  has  lost  three  most 
zealous  workers  bv  the  deaths  of  Rev.  Father  Darras 
(1916),  the  apostle  of  the  North  Arcot  district,  where 
he  had  baptized  about  2500  heathens,  Rev.  Father 
Mette  (4917),  author  of  several  catechisms  and 
founder  of  a  training  school  for  catechists,  and  Rev. 
Father  Drouhin  (1918),  a  great  promoter  of  primary 
education  and  religious  doctrine  in  the  diocese  and 
the  editor  of  two  monthly  periodicals.  The  cyclone 
which  occurred  in  1916  in  this  section,  destroyed 
many  buildings  throughout  the  diocese.  During  the 
World  War  twelve  of  the  missionaries  went  into  the 
service  and  some  of  these  were  made  prisoners,  but 
none  were  seriously  wounded  and  all  eventually  re¬ 
turned  to  their  missionary  labors . 

The  present  (1921)  statistics  show  58  parishes  and 
missions,  66  churches  and  229  chapels,  3  convents  for 
men  and  37  for  women,  93  secular  priests,  65  Euro¬ 
pean  and  28  Indian,  21  Brothers  of  St.  Gabriel,  69 
European  and  268  Indian  Sisters  and  1  seminary 
with  22  seminarians,  10  of  whom  belong  to  the  dio¬ 
cese.  The  educational  institutions  include  in  addi¬ 
tion  to  this  seminary,  a  lower  seminary-college  at 
Pondicherry  with  998  pupils;  a  branch  school  at 
Tirupapuliyur  with  1380  pupils;  Montfort  European 
boys’  high  school  at  Yercand  with  50  pupils;  Sacred 
Heart  girls’  high  school  with  48  pupils;  a  training 
school  for  teachers  at  Findicanam  under  the  Brothers 
of  St.  Gabriel;  St.  Joseph’s  orphanage  and  industrial 
school  with  60  pupils;  a  Government  training  indus¬ 
trial  school  and  a  training  school  for  catechist  at 
Villupuram.  In  addition  to  these  there  are  through¬ 
out  the  diocese  113  elementary  schools  for  boys, 
boarding  and  day  schools  for  girls  under  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph  of  Cluny,  various  industrial  schools,  and 
schools  under  the  Indian  Congregation  of  the  Im¬ 
maculate  Heart  of  Mary,  which  was  established  m 
1844  under  the  rule  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis. 
The  Indian  Congregation  of  St.  Louis  of  Gonzaga 
which  was  founded  about  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century  for  bringing  up  non-caste  children,  has  46 
Sisters  in  charge  of  2  orphanages  and  6  schools. 

The  charitable  institutions  include  21  orphanages 
for  boys  and  girls  with  550  orphans,  besides  18  who 
have  been  placed  in  the  care  of  Christian  families, 
1  refuge  for  Eurasian  women,  and  2  homes  for  the 
aged,  1  at  Pondicherry  and  1  at  Karikal. 

Pontremoli,  Diocese  of  (Apuanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII— 234b),  suffragan  of  Pisa,  Italy.  The  present 
bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Angelo  Antonio  Fiorini,  O.  M. 
Cap.,  b.  1861,  elected  1899.  The  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  the  diocese  is  63,157.  There  are:  126  parishes, 
204  secular  priests,  9  regular  priests,  75  seminarians, 
6  Brothers,  30  Sisters,  361  churches  and  chapels. 


Poona,  Diocese  of  (Punensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII 
235d),  in  India,  is  a  suffragan  of  Bombay.  The 
second  bishop  of  the  diocese,  Rt .  Rev .  Henry  Doering, 

S.  J.,  who  had  filled  the  see  from  1907,  resigned  in 
1921,  and  the  affairs  of  the  diocese  are  now  admin¬ 
istered  by  an  apostolic  administrator,  at  present  the 
Rev.  A/Bruder,  S.  J.  The  Catholic  population  is 
numbered  at  20,801  and  there  are  22  churches  and 
20  chapels  served  by  13  Fathers  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus  and  22  secular  priests,  assisted  by  the  Nuns  of 
Jesus  and  Mary  and  the  Daughters  of  the  Cross. 
The  Ahmednegar  mission  now  has  9068  Christians. 
Among  the  educational  institutions  are:  St.  Vincent’s 
High  School,  Poona,  with  330  pupils;  St.  Joseph’s 
convent  school,  Poona,  with  350  pupils  under  eleven 
nuns  of  Jesus  and  Mary  who  also  conduct  the  Euro¬ 
pean  Orphanage  ard  St.  Ann’s  School  with  16  board¬ 
ers  and  36  day  scholars;  convent  school  at  Igatpuri 
with  76  pupils  and  a  poor  school  with  47  children; 
also  a  convent  school  at  Panchgani  with  142  pupils, 
both  under  the  Daughters  of  the  Cross;  English  teach¬ 
ing  schools  at  Bhusaval,  Igatpuri,  Lanowli,  Sholapur, 
Ahmednegar,  Dharwar  and  Hubli,  with  a  total  of 
735  pupils.  In  the  Ahmednegar  Mission  districts 
there  are  86  village  schools  attended  by  1456  children 
and  in  the  Gadag  Mission  districts  5  elementary 
schools  with  about  300  children. 

Poor,  Little  Sisters  of  the  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII  • 
248b)  .—The  mother-house  of  this  congregation  is  at 
La  Tour  St.  Joseph,  St.  Pern,  Ille-et-Vilaine,  France; 
there  are  also  novitiates  in  Italy,  Spain,  Belgium,  the 
United  States,  Australia  and  China.  The  total  num¬ 
ber  of  foundations  (1920)  is  312,  distributed  as 
follows:  France  and  Alsatia,  111;  of  which  8  are  in 
Paris;  Belgium,  14;  England  and  Jersey,  27;  Spam 
and  Portugal,  54;  Italy,  Sicily,  and  Switzerland,  22, 
Turkey  and  Hungary,  2;  Asia,  8;  Africa,  5;  South 
America,  9;  Oceania,  8;  United  States,  52.  The  order 
numbers  6227  members  and  cares  for  45,297  old 
people. 

Poor  Brothers  of  St.  Francis  Seraphicus  (cf.  C. 
E.XII-248d)  .—The  present  general  superior  is  Brother 
Athanasius  Wietmann,  who  was  elected  in  1901,  and 
during  whose  term  of  office  the  rules  of  the  congre¬ 
gation  have  been  approved  by  the  Holy  See  (1910). 
In  1904  the  congregation  was  affiliated  to  the  order 
of  St.  Francis.  In  1910  St.  Josephaus,  the  juvenile 
home  at  Aachen,  was  moved  into  a  new  house.  In 
1919  a  home  for  mechanic  apprentices,  who  work  in 
the  city,  was  established  at  Cologne.  In  1921  branch 
houses  were  opened  at  Essen,  where  the  Brothers 
conduct  a  hostel  for  boys,  and  at  Aix-la-Chapelle , 
where  they  care  for  abandoned  young  people.  An 
educational  institution,  called  the  Piusheitn ,  was 
opened  by  the  Brothers  at  Glonn,  Bavaria,  in  1921. 
In  the  same  year  the  Brothers  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
founded  a  protectory  for  boys  at  Armstrong  Springs, 
Little  Rock,  Arkansas.  The  American  houses  were 
erected  into  a  province  in  1913.  In  consequence  of 
the  war  the  educational  institution  at  Marienbronn, 
Province  of  Posen  (now  Poland) ,  founded  in  1909,  and 
the  asylum  for  homeless  children,  founded  at  Her- 
besthal,  Province  of  Eupen  (now  Belgium),  in  1910, 
were  given  up  in  1919.  At  the  present  time  (1921) 
there  are  16  institutions  under  the  care  of  the  Brothers: 
12  educational  houses,  1  workingman’s  colony,  1 
apprentice  home,  2  asylums  for  the  homeless  and 
abandoned.  In  Europe  there  are  202  members  of  the 
congregation  and  59  in  America.  Sixteen  promising 
members  lost  their  lives  during  the  war. 

Poor  Child  Jesus,  Sisters  of  the  (cf.  C.  E., 
XII— 251).— The  first  superior  general  of  the  congre¬ 
gation  was  Mother  Clara  Fey,  born  11  April,  1815, 


POOR  CLARES 


591 


POPULAR  ACTION 


at  Aix-la-Chapelle.  She  started  her  work  2  February, 
1844,  in  her  native  town  and  remained  at  the  head 
of  the  congregation  till  her  death,  8  May,  1894.  She 
was  followed  in  office  by  Mother  Innocentia  (Eliza¬ 
beth  Brown),  b.  13  August,  1840,  at  Landstuhl, 
Rheinpfalz,  entered  the  congregation  on  12  June, 
1855,  was  elected  superior  general  on  2  July,  1894, 
died  25  February,  1900.  The  third  superior  general 
is  Mother  Franziska  Chantal  (Antonie  Happ),  b.  12 
June,  1854,  at  Solingen.  She  entered  the  congrega¬ 
tion  20  December,  1880,  was  elected  superior  general 
8  May,  1900,  and  re-elected  2  July,  1906,  and  2  July, 
1912;  the  election  due  2  July,  1918,  was,  with  special 
permission  of  the  Holy  See,  postponed  to  the  same 
date,  1920.  A  decree  of  the  Holy  See  which,  according 
to  the  new  Code  of  Canon  Law,  would  have  rendered 
a  further  re-election  impossible  or  invalid,  had  not 
yet  reached  Bishop  Schrijnen  of  Roermond  who, 
according  to  the  rule,  presided  at  the  act.  The 
unanimous  re-election  of  Mother  Franziska  Chantal 
was  thereupon  declared  valid  by  the  Roman  authori¬ 
ties. 

A  new  foundation  was  made  at  North  Finchley  near 
London  in  1908.  It  now  has  flourishing  day  and 
boarding  schools.  Further  foundations  took  place 
in  1912  at  Cologne  where  the  Catholic  orphanage  of 
the  city  was  confided  to  the  sisters’  care;  in  1914,  at 
Flagharen,  Holland,  where  a  Catholic  girls’  school 
was  opened.  In  1917  a  house  was  founded  at  Schlei- 
den  (Eifel),  with  a  small  high  school,  which  is  also 
to  serve  as  a  convalescent  home  for  the  members  of 
the  congregation.  Two  foundations  were  added  to 
the  three  already  existing  at  Cologne:  in  1917  a 
house  for  lady  students  and  girls  in  business  was 
opened  and  in  1918  the  Sisters  took  charge  of  the 
orphanage  at  Cologne-Ehrenfeld,  which  had  been 
established  in  a  separate  house  from  their  own  during 
the  Kulturkampf. 

At  the  present  time  the  number  of  houses  is  44. 
Owing  to  the  extraordinary  mortality  during  the  war 
and  the  following  years  (the  average  number  of  deaths 
before  the  war  was  24,  from  1915  to  1920  inclusive  it 
increased  to  55),  the  total  number  of  Sisters  was  1730 
on  1  August,  1921.  A  considerable  number  of  candi¬ 
dates  had  to  be  refused  admission  on  account  of  over- 
delicate  or  ill  health.  Besides  the  provincial  novi¬ 
tiates  at  Maastricht  and  Vienna  there  were  two  more 
erected  at  Southam  near  Rugby  (1916)  for  English, 
and  at  Borsbeeck  near  Antwerp  (1920),  for  Belgian 
and  French  candidates.  Training  colleges  for  teachers 
are  at  Maastricht,  Dusseldorf,  and  Vienna,  colleges 
preparing  for  University  examinations  at  Neu- 
Dusseldorf  and  North  Finchley.  There  are  high 
schools  at  Cologne,  Ehrenfeld,  Cologne-Kalk,  Dussel¬ 
dorf,  Neuss,  Godesberg,  Bitburg,  and  Schleiden  in 
Germany;  at  Maastricht,  Roermond-Land,  and  Swal- 
men  in  Holland;  at  Vienna,  Retz,  Stadlan  in  Austrai; 
at  Brussels,  Antwerp,  Borsbeeck,  and  Gemmenich 
in  Belgium.  There  are  under  the  Sisters’  care  more 
than  20,000  babies,  children,  young  girls  of  all  classes 
and  students  preparing  for  the  University. 

The  following  were  the  co-foundresses  of  Mother 
Clara:  Mother  Theresia  Startz,  vicaress  (d.  2  Septem¬ 
ber,  1895);  Mother  Dominica  (d.  20  December,  1893); 
Mother  Magdalena,  superioress  of  Southam  (d.  2 
June,  1902);  Sister  Aloysius  (d.  9  April,  1889); 
Sister  Franziska,  directress  of  the  church  embroidery 
work  (d.  19  February,  1901).  A  book  by  Mother 
Clara  Fey,  “Advents-und  Weihnachts-betrachtun- 
gen,”  was  published  at  Freiburg  in  1921. 

Poor  Clares  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 251c). — The 
German  community  of  Poor  Clares  in  the  United 
States  has  convents  in  Cleveland,  Chicago,  Rockford, 
Ill.,  and  Oakland,  Cal.  The  Italian  community  in 
the  United  States  has  foundations  at  Omaha,  Neb., 

38 


New  Orleans,  La.;  Evansville,  Ind.;  Boston,  Mass.; 
Bordentown,  N.  J.;  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  New  York, 
N.  Y.;  Philips,  Wis.;  and  Victoria,  B.  C.  According 
to  the  census  of  the  Poor  Clares,  taken  in  1921,  the 
following  is  the  present  status  of  the  order:  Italy, 
houses  132,  members  2022;  Corsica,  h.  1,  m.  27;  Pal¬ 
estine,  h.  3,  m.  54;  Prussia,  h.  19,  m.  237;  Bavaria, 
h.  3,  m.  104;  Holland,  h.  4,  m.  75;  Belgium,  h.  39, 
m.  1040;  Ireland,  h.  9,  m.  168;  England,  h.  14,  m. 
327;  France,  h.  28,  m.  747;  Spain,  h.  238,  m.  4489; 
Peru,  h.  11,  m.  198;  Columbia,  h.  10,  m.  150;  Ecua¬ 
dor,  h.  5,  m.  124;  Bolivia,  h.  3,  m.  65;  Argentina, 
h.  1,  m.  20;  Brazil,  h.  5,  m.  106;  Mexico,  h.  1,  m.  46; 
Canada,  h.  1,  m.  34;  United  States,  h.  12,  m.  231; 
total,  h.  581,  m.  10945. 

Poor  Handmaids  of  Jesus  Christ  (cf.  C.  E., 
XII — 254c) . — Since  1911 ,  many  notable  improvements 
have  been  made  in  various  institutions  conducted  by 
the  order.  Foremost  among  these  is  that  of  the  large 
addition  built  to  the  St.  Joseph  Hospital  in  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind.  This  hospital,  the  cornerstone  of  which 
was  laid  in  1912,  is  modern  in  every  detail  and  is  one 
of  the  ten  standardized  institutions  of  its  kind  in 
the  State  of  Indiana.  In  1913,  at  Bishop  Alerding’s 
expressed  desire,  the  Mercy  Hospital  at  Gary,  Ind. 
was  taken  over  by  the  order,  and  later  another  hospital 
was  built  in  New  Ulm,  Minn.  The  beautiful  property 
adjoining  Lake  Gilbraith  in  Indiana  was  purchased 
18  March,  1917,  to  serve  as  the  location  of  the  new 
mother-house,  the  erection  of  which  is  expected  to  be 
completed  in  May,  1922.  The  second  Mother  Gen¬ 
eral,  Mother  M.  Amalia,  died  24  February,  1916, 
and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  Mother  General, 
Mother  M.  Firmata.  The  Order  has  3600  members, 
of  whom  620  are  in  charge  of  44  institutions  in  the 
United  States.  The  institutions  under  the  care  of 
the  Sisters  are  hospitals,  homes  for  the  aged,  orphan¬ 
ages,  high  schools,  parochial  schools,  and  kinder¬ 
gartens.  In  Gary,  Ind. ,  at  the  request  of  Fr.  DeVille, 
the  Sisters  give  instructions  in  religion  to  children  of 
all  nationalities,  who  are  Catholic,  but  who  attend 
the  public  schools.  Over  1300  pupils,  divided  into 
classes  according  to  a  systematic  plan,  attend  these 
instructions.  The  community  is  represented  in  the 
dioceses  of  Fort  Wayne,  Alton,  Belleville,  Superior, 
and  in  the  Archdioceses  of  Chicago  and  St.  Paul. 

Popayan,  Archdiocese  of  (Popayanensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XII — 258c),  in  Colombia.  According  to 
statistics  for  1921,  there  are  in  the  archdiocese  39 
parishes,  114  churches,  2  missions  in  charge  of  the 
Redemptorists  and  Lazarists  respectively,  57  secular 
and  24  regular  priests,  2  convents  of  men,  Redemptor¬ 
ists  and  Carmelites;  4  convents  of  women,  Franciscans 
of  Bethlehem;  13  houses  of  the  Brothers  of  Charity; 
4  houses  of  Marist  Brothers  with  80  Brothers,  1  sem¬ 
inary,  which  gives  higher  and  preparatory  courses  and 
has  118  seminarians;  1  university,  5  colleges  for  boys 
and  five  for  girls,  1  high  school,  1  normal  school  for 
boys  with  30  students,  1  for  girls  with  36  students; 
327  elementary  schools  with  274  teachers  and  22,500 
pupils  and  15  industiial  schools;  6  hospitals  and 
3  asylums.  All  Catholic  schools  are  under  supervision 
of  the  ecclesiastical  authoiities;  a  few  are  aided  by 
the  civil  Government.  Recent  events  of  importance 
in  the  diocese  were  the  celebration  of  the  golden 
jubilee  of  the  restoration  of  the  seminary  by  the 
Lazarists  and  the  separation  of  part  of  the  territory 
of  the  diocese,  which  was  erected  into  the  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of  Tierradentra,  13  May,  1921. 

Popular  Action  (Action  Populaire). — Among 
the  many  organizations  dedicated  to  the  purpose  of 
Catholic  seocial  action,  one  of  the  most  interesting 
and  most  significant  is  V Action  Populaire,  founded 
in  France  in  1903,  by  Abbe  Leroy,  a  French  priest 


POPULAR  ACTION 


592 


POPULAR  ACTION 


who  had  previously  been  engaged  in  work  among 
the  poor.  His  aim  was  to  create  a  central  informa¬ 
tion  bureau,  library  and  publishing  agency  for  French 
Catholics  who  interested  themselves  in  social  ques¬ 
tions.  The  enterprise  was  launched  modestly,  very 
modestly  indeed,  because  adequate  financial  support 
had  not  yet  been  secured.  A  kitchen  and  a  shed, 
remodelled  as  offices,  served  to  house  the  handful 
of  secretaries  and  editors  whom  Abbe  Leroy  had 
brought  together  at  Reims.  Soon,  however,  the 
organization  expanded.  An  entire  building,  the  In- 
stitut  Maintenon,  5  Rue  des  Trois-Raisinets,  Reims, 
in  the  shadow  of  the  noble  Reims  cathedral,  was 
taken  over  as  headquarters.  By  1912,  the  central 
office  had  a  staff  of  sixteen  editors — ten  priests  and 
six  laymen — and  twenty-seven  secretaries,  besides  a 
staff  of  travelling  representatives  and  several  hundred 
collaborators  in  France  and  abroad.  In  ten  years, 
1903-1912,  the  Action  Populaire  distributed  about 
1,000,000  pamphlets,  150,000  leaflets,  and  60,000 
volumes  of  Catholic  literature  on  social  problems. 
It  regularly  published  several  series  of  year-books, 
manuals  and  periodicals.  Moreover,  it  rendered 
valuable  service  as  an  information  bureau.  In  its 
library  was  a  remarkable  collection  of  social  and 
economic  treatises  and  official  documents,  besides 
files  of  some  four  hundred  periodicals.  Every  year 
the  central  office  at  Reims  received  thousands  of 
inquiries,  and  returned  thousands  of  replies  dealing 
with  such  diverse  but  useful  matters  as  how  to  found 
a  mutual  aid  society,  how  to  start  a  Catholic  trade 
union,  how  to  organize  a  co-operative  store,  where 
to  find  authoritative  information  on  the  question  of 
social  insurance,  what  kind  of  a  job  a  young  peasant 
girl  should  try  to  obtain  when  she  went  to  Paris, 
what  books  a  Catholic  should  consult  on  the  prin¬ 
ciples  of  sociology,  what  Catholic  lecturer  could  be 
called  upon  for  a  speech  on  the  labor  problem,  etc. 
Often  the  office  would  send  out  an  expert  to  help 
organize  a  social  service  institution.  As  time  elapsed 
the  A.  P.  broadened  its  activities  still  further  by 
organizing  study  courses  and  conferences,  by  send¬ 
ing  out  representatives  as  itinerant  lecturers,  and 
by  holding  social  conventions,  sometimes  primarily 
for  the  clergy,  sometimes  for  workingmen,  some¬ 
times  for  lay  social  workers.  The  German  invasion 
of  France  during  the  Great  War  of  1914-1918  made 
it  necessary  for  the  Action  Populaire  to  suspend  its 
activities  and  to  seek  new  quarters  in  Paris.  At 
the  close  of  the  war,  however,  the  organization  re¬ 
sumed  its  activity  and  established  its  offices  at  188 
Rue  de  Breinut,  Noisy-le-Sec,  near  Paris. 

The  Action  Populaire  is  part  and  parcel  of  what 
may  be  called  the  Catholic  Social  Movement.  Be¬ 
ginning  toward  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century 
with  the  isolated,  almost  sporadic,  efforts  of  men 
like  Ozanam,  Villeneuve-Bargemont,  and  Von  Ket- 
teler,  growing  powerfully  under  the  patronage  of 
Leo  XIII,  spreading  rapidly  throughout  Europe  and 
into  the  other  continents,  the  Catholic  Social  Move¬ 
ment  has  not  only  awakened  in  millions  of  Catholics 
an  active  interest  in  social  welfare,  but  has  become 
so  potent  a  factor  in  contemporary  social  questions 
as  to  attract  the  interest  of  non-Catholics,  even  of 
persons  bitterly  hostile  to  the  Church.  It  is  in  the 
light  of  this  general  Catholic  awakening  to  the  vital 
importance  of  social  justice  that  the  true  significance 
of  the  Action  Populaire  most  clearly  appears.  When 
Abbe  Leroy  put  his  hand  to  the  plough  in  1903,  he 
found  the  ground  already  broken  by  Count  Albert 
de  Mun,  Henri  Lorin,  Marquis  de  la  Toiu1  du  Pin, 
and  many  another  courageous  pioneers.  Already 
there  had  sprung  up  Catholic  Workingmen’s  Clubs, 
Catholic  labor  unions,  employers’  unions,  Catholic 
social  study  groups,  a  Young  Men’s  Catholic  Asso¬ 
ciation,  and  other  organizations  devoted  to  social 


reform  and  welfare  work.  On  these  the  Action 
Populaire  could  draw  for  support  and  sympathy;  for 
these  it  could  act  as  a  central  bureau  and  publishing 
house;  to  these  it  could  give  new  inspiration  and 
solidarity.  The  attitude  of  the  Action  Populaire 
toward  social  and  economic  questions  was  explained 
by  Abbe  Desbuquois,  the  director  of  the  institution, 
in  a  series  of  articles  written  in  1912.  The  funda¬ 
mental  principles  of  Catholic  social  action,  he  de¬ 
clared,  were  to  be  found  in  Leo  XIII’s  historic  Ency¬ 
clical  “On  the  Condition  of  the  Working  Classes” 

( Rerum  Novarum )  and  other  papal  letters.  It  was 
the  duty  of  Christians,  he  believed,  not  merely  to 
give  bread  to  the  hungry,  homes  to  the  homeless, 
care  to  the  sick,  and  alms  to  the  penniless,  but  also 
to  work  for  the  reform  of  industry  and  society  on  a 
basis  acceptable  to  Christian  morality,  and  to  strive 
for  the  prevention,  as  well  as  the  palliation,  of  social 
injustice.  The  aim  should  be  to  create  employment 
bureaus  which  would  minimize  the  evils  of  involun¬ 
tary  idleness,  to  build  airy  and  sanitary  dwellings 
in  which  the  dread  plague  of  tuberculosis  would  not 
find  easy  lodging,  to  organize  industry  so  that  in¬ 
justice  and  avarice  would  not  prevail,  to  Christianize 
manners  and  morals,  to  combat  irreligion,  intemper¬ 
ance,  and  vice.  This  program  would  require  both 
spiritual  influence  and  temporal  reforms,  such  as  the 
organization  of  industrial  unions  or  guilds,  the  enact¬ 
ment  of  labor  laws,  and  the  establishment  of  welfare 
institutions.  In  all  such  matters,  Catholics  must 
remain  loyal  to  the  Christian  conception  of  liberty, 
of  human  rights  and  duties,  of  justice  and  charity, 
if  the  perilous  errors  of  economic  laisser-faire,  Marx¬ 
ism,  and  Syndicalism  are  to  be  avoided. 

The  value  and  scope  of  the  services  rendered  by  the 
Action  Populaire  as  a  center  for  the  stimulation  of 
Catholic  social  work  and  for  the  dissemination  of 
Catholic  principles  as  well  as  of  economic  and  socio¬ 
logical  information  may  best  be  indicated  by  a  de¬ 
scription  of  its  publications.  At  the  outset,  the 
Action  Populaire  began  to  publish  three  thirty-page 
pamphlets  or  brochures  every  month,  at  the  popular 
price  of  five  cents.  Each  pamphlet  was  a  handy 
treatise  on  some  such  question  as  old-age  pensions, 
labor  unions,  strikes,  co-operation,  housing  problems, 
employment  service,  vocational  training,  child-labor, 
accident  compensation,  Socialism,  factory  inspection 
and  income  taxes.  Though  they  were  published  at  a 
nominal  price  and  written  in  popular  style,  these 
little  yellow-covered  pamphlets  were  not,  as  one 
might  be  inclined  to  suppose,  the  haphazard  results 
of  hasty  journalism;  they  were  prepared  by  eminent 
economists  and  sociologists,  French  and  foreign, 
Catholic  and  non-Catholic.  They  attained  a  sur¬ 
prisingly  large  circulation  and  their  influence  was 
very  wide.  Other  series  were  inaugurated  from  time 
to  time  as  the  need  appeared.  For  example,  the 
growth  of  Catholic  social  study  clubs  led  the  Action 
Populaire  to  issue  a  series  of  Plans  et  Documents,  com¬ 
prising  documentary  and  doctrinal  material  for  the 
use  of  such  clubs.  Again,  when  complaints  were 
heard  that  the  great  papal  encyclicals  and  the  texts 
of  important  social  laws  were  not  easily  available 
except  for  special  students,  the  Action  Populaire 
issued  five-cent  reprints  of  such  documents,  in  a 
series  called  Actes  Sociaux.  In  addition,  there  were 
Feuilles  Sociales,  or  brief  summaries  in  question-and- 
answer  form,  and  Tracts  Populaires ,  mere  leaflets 
for  popular  propaganda. 

In  1908  the  Action  Populaire  took  a  further  step 
forward;  it  began  to  publish  regular  periodicals  de- 
devoted  to  social  questions.  The  first  was  “La  Revue 
de  1’ Action  Populaire,”.  a  diminutive  green-covered 
magazine,  published  on  the  tenth  of  each  month 
and  the  twentieth  of  alternate  months.  Though  un¬ 
pretentious  in  form,  this  little  review  was  exceedingly 


POPULAR  ACTION 


593 


POPULATION 


valuable  for  its  studies  of  social  legislation  and  its 
detailed  articles  on  practical  social  work.  A  younger 
magazine,  “La  Vie  Syndicate, ’’  was  created  for  the 
purpose  of  encouraging  Catholic  trade-unionism. 
But  the  most  important  of  the  periodicals  was  “Le 
Mouvement  Social,”  a  continuation  of  “L’ Associa¬ 
tion  Catholique,”  which  had  been  founded  by  Count 
Albert  de  Mun’s  Association  of  Catholic  Working- 
men’s  Clubs  in  1876,  and  had  won  an  international 
reputation  as  one  of  the  most  informing  and  best- 
documented  reviews  dealing  with  the  labor  question. 
This  review  wras  taken  over  by  the  Action  Populaire 
in  1909  and  edited  by  Abbe  G.  Desbuquois  and  M. 
Joseph  Zamanski.  With  scholarly  leading  articles 
on  economic  and  legislative  problems,  with  biblio¬ 
graphical  notes  on  French  and  foreign  books,  with 
brief  summaries  of  important  articles  published  by 
French  and  foreign  periodicals,  and  with  news  items 
covering  all  sorts  of  social  and  economic  events, 
“Le  Mouvement  Social”  was  invaluable  to  any  serious 
student  of  social  welfare.  Even  anticlerical  Social¬ 
ists  quoted  it. 

Only  a  few  words  may  be  said  about  the  annuals 
and  other  books  published  by  the  Action  Populaire. 
One  of  the  most  interesting,  as  well  as  the  earliest, 
of  these  was  the  “Guide  Social,”  published  yearly, 
beginning  in  1904,  a  volume  of  several  hundred 
pages  giving  the  latest  information,  statistics,  and 
bibliography  on  the  various  aspects  of  the  social 
problem — housing,  hygiene,  trade-unionism,  co-ope¬ 
ration,  labor  legislation,  etc.  This  year-book  proved 
so  useful  that  beginning  in  1911  a  much  more  pre¬ 
tentious  thousand-page  annual,  “L’Annee  Sociale 
Internationale,”  was  issued.  This  was  a  truly  monu¬ 
mental  reference  work,  a  veritable  annual  encyclo¬ 
pedia  for  social  workers  and  sociologists.  But  enough 
has  been  said,  for  this  brief  article,  of  the  Action 
Populaire’s  publications,  although  many  other  useful 
manuals  and  books  have  not  been  mentioned. 

The  Action  Populaire  has  been  fortunate  in  obtain¬ 
ing  not  merely  the  passive  approval,  but  the  enthus¬ 
iastic  support,  of  the  higher  clergy  in  France  and  of 
the  Holy  See.  Up  to  1916,  the  institution  had  re¬ 
ceived  commendations  from  the  pope,  the  papal 
secretary  of  state,  six  cardinals,  and  seventy-six 
French  bishops  and  archbishops.  In  1912,  His 
Holiness  Pius  X  said,  “non  solum  laudo  sed  approbo.” 
In  1909,  Cardinal  Merry  del  Val,  then  papal  secre¬ 
tary  of  state,  wrote:  “What  especially  pleases  the 
Sovereign  Pontiff  is  to  observe  by  what  principles 
the  Action  Populaire  is  inspired.  Its  frankly  Catholic 
spirit,  superior  to  all  party  struggles,  its  entire  fidelity 
to  the  teachings  of  the  Church,  .  .  .  finally,  its 

generous  aim  of  working  for  the  true  welfare  of  the 
laboring  class,  which  is  so  worthy  of  interest,  are 
pledges  that  it  will  produce  precious  and  enduring 
fruits.  .  .  .”  Cardinal  Lugon,  Archbishop  of 

Reims,  wrote  in  1911:  “The  orthodoxy  of  your  prin¬ 
ciples,  your  Catholic  spirit,  your  scrupulous  attention 
to  conformity  with  the  directions  of  the  Holy  See, 
as  well  as  the  talent  and  science  of  your  collaborators, 
make  the  Action  Populaire,  in  my  opinion,  a  trust¬ 
worthy  school  of  social  studies,  and  make  its  publi¬ 
cations  the  classics,  so  to  speak,  of  Catholic  work.” 

Desbuquois,  L’ Action  Populaire,  son  esprit,  son  travail,  No.  I 
of  the  yellow  brochures  published  by  the  Action  Populaire; 
Goyau,  L' Action  Populaire  de  Rheims,  son  histoire,  son  role  in  Le 
Correspondent  (June  25,  1912,  pp.  1058-1077);  Hernaman, 
Catholic  Social  Action  in  France,  a  brochure  published  by  the 
Catholic  Truth  Society  of  London;  Duthoit,  Vers  l' organisation 
professionelle ;  Tubmann,  Le  developpement  du  Catholicisme  social 
depuis  I’encyclique  “ Rerum  Novarum”;  Hachin  et  Agasbe,  Re- 
traites  ouvrieres  et  paysannes;  L' Annee  social  Internationale;  Moon, 
The  Labor  Problem  and  the  Social  Catholic  Movement  in  France 
(New  York,  1921),  pp.  321-339.  A  more  extended  bibliography 
is  given  in  the  last-mentioned  book. 

Parker  Thomas  Moon. 


Population  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 276c). — Fresh  interest 
has  been  developed  the  past  ten  years  in  the  Malthus 
Theories  on  over-population  and  the  consequent 
necessity  of  controlling  or  limiting  the  number  of 
births,  not  by  continence  or  the  practice  of  self- 
restraint,  as  he  came  to  counsel  in  his  later  works, 
but  by  various  preventives,  physical  or  chemical, 
for  the  use  rather  of  the  woman  than  of  the  man. 
Neo-malthusianism  is  the  name  given  to  a  movement 
to  propagate  by  books,  periodicals  and  newspaper 
advertisements,  a  knowledge  of  these  preventives  or 
contra-conceptives,  as  they  are  styled.  Discussions 
on  over-population  as  the  cause  of  poverty,  of  vice  and 
of  war  led  many  at  first  to  take  this  movement 
seriously,  but  its  unnatural  and  immoral  principles, 
the  apparent  quest  of  lucre  on  the  part  of  its  pro¬ 
moters,  disillusioned  the  public,  and  it  is  now  re¬ 
garded  for  what  it  is,  a  gospel  of  unrestrained  lust 
sure  to  result  in  grave  physical  and  moral  disorders, 
such  as  sterility  when  pregnancy  is  really  desired, 
fibroid  tumors  and  other  bodily  derangements  for  the 
woman,  and  various  forms  of  neurasthenia  for  both 
man  and  woman,  causing  unhappiness,  melancholy, 
distrust,  as  when  children  appear  despite  the  use  of 
preventives,  remorse,  loss  of  mutual  respect,  in¬ 
fidelity,  separation,  divorce.  To  the  woman  the 
practice  is  particularly  hurtful  and  degrading,  as 
it  falls  to  her  lot,  according  to  the  advocates  of  the 
practice,  to  use  the  artificial  preventives,  thus 
taking  the  more  direct  harm  from  them,  and  to 
accept  the  conditions  of  prostitute  for  those  of  mar¬ 
ried  life  proper. 

The  theories  of  the  Neo-malthusians  are  based  on 
several  errors,  for  it  is  not  true,  as  they  claim,  that 
there  is  such  a  thing  as  over-population,  nor  is  it 
true  that  population  increases  by  multiplication  while 
food  and  other  supplies  increase  only  by  addition, 
nor  finally  is  it  true  that  over-population  is  a  cause  of 
crime,  war  or  high  death  rate.  Over-population 
means  too  many  human  beings  to  feed,  clothe  and 
shelter.  When  thirty  years  ago  scientists  estimated 
that  the  population  of  the  earth  was  1500  millions, 
they  also  estimated  that  it  could  support  only  four 
times  that  number  and  that  it  would  be  over  populatd 
in  200  years.  As  supplies  of  food  and  other  neces¬ 
sities  increase  with  the  hands  to  produce  them,  it  is 
estimated  that  the  earth  could  be  made  to  supply  not 
merely  6000  millions  but  four  times  that  number, 
although  in  point  of  fact  population  has  been  in¬ 
creasing  for  centuries,  they  manage  to  find  sufficient 
living  supplies  except  where  floods,  wars,  or  mis- 
government  result  in  famine  conditions.  The 
exigencies  of  the  late  war  have  taught  the  nations 
how  to  overcome,  if  not  to  prevent,  the  ordinary 
causes  of  famine.  Improved  methods  of  producing, 
conserving  and  transporting  food,  clothing  and  hous¬ 
ing  materials  make  it  possible  to  provide  for  any 
normal  growth  in  population.  With  supplies  in¬ 
creasing  in  proportion  to  population,  there  is  no  such 
thing  as  over-population.  Besides,  with  all  the  skill 
in  organizing  relief  in  time  of  famine,  volcano,  earth¬ 
quake  and  with  all  the  advance  of  medical  science, 
catastrophies  will  occur  to  kill  off  population,  and 
diseases,  new  entirely  in  form,  will  occur  to  decimate 
population,  so  that  nature  thus  sets  a  limit  to  excess. 
What  nature  may  not  do,  human  beings  themselves 
will  do,  as  did  Greece  two  hundred  years  before  Christ  , 
anticipating  as  they  did  the  counsels  of  Malthus, 
living  in  luxury,  controlling,  that  is  to  say,  avoiding, 
pregnancy,  and  decaying  as  a  consequence,  as  did 
their  conquerors,  the  Romans,  who  in  turn  imitated 
their  vices,  and  since  then  notably  the  Mohammedan 
and  other  peoples  who,  to  indulge  in  lust  have 
ignored  the  command  to  increase  and  multiply. 

Increase  in  population  may  be  made  a  cause  of 
greater  production  and  wealth,  under  proper  polit- 


PORT  AUGUSTA 


594 


PORT  OF  SPAIN 


ical  and  economic  conditions,  rather  than  of  poverty. 
Crime  is  never  so  common  nor  so  heinous  among  the 
poor  as  among  the  rich.  The  very  evils  which  birth 
control  encourages  lead  necessarily  to  moral  disorder 
and  decadence,  which  bring  on  the  scarcity,  the  vice, 
and  the  misery  which  birth  control  is  designed  to 
prevent. 

The  small  family  is  not  the  most  happy  one  for  the 
parents  or  for  the  one  or  two  children  to  whom  it  is 
limited,  even  should  such  children  live.  Third, 
fourth  and  fifth  children  are  often  more  favored  in 
their  heredity  than  their  predecessors  and  they  sup¬ 
plement  one  another’s  defects.  Selfishness  is  often 
characteristic  of  the  only  or  of  the  few  children  than 
of  the  houseful.  As  a  rule  the  healthier  and  more 
attractive  married  woman  is  the  mother  of  several 
children.  The  evil  moral  and  economic  conse¬ 
quences  of  this  movement  are  so  plain  that  govern¬ 
ments  are  taking  cognizance  of  it.  It  is  unlawful 
in  France  to  publish  books  or  periodicals  recommend¬ 
ing  it.  In  the  United  States  such  publications  are 
denied  the  privilege  of  the  mails. 

Sutherland,  Birth  Control  (New  York,  1922);  Gerrard, 
The  Church  and  Eugenics;  Idem,  Marriage  and  Parenthood; 
Caston,  La  crisis  del  Matrimonio  (Madrid,  1914);  Dumont, 
Depopulation  et  civilisation  (Paris,  1890);  Bertillon,  La  de¬ 
population  de  la  France  (Paris,  1911);  Pierrit,  L' (Euvr e  maconi- 
que  de  la  depopulation  in  France  in  La  reforme  sociale,  6th  s., 
VI,  172;  Onclair,  Malthus  et  sa  theorie  in  La  revue  catholique  des 
institutions  du  droit,  2nd  s.  IV,  400;  M.  F.  and  J.  F.,  Prosti¬ 
tution;  Vaughan,  The  Menace  of  Empty  Cradles;  Foerster, 
Marriage  and  the  Sex  Problem;  Coppers,  Moral  Principles  and 
Medical  Practice. 

Port  Augusta,  Diocese  of  (Portaugustana; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 283d)  is  suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese 
of  Adelaide,  South  Australia.  By  the  census  of  1911, 
it  had  a  Catholic  population  of  12,653,  mostly  of 
Irish  origin,  with  a  few  Poles.  The  present  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  John  Henry  Norton,  has  filled  the  see  since 
1906.  He  has  been  very  active  in  recent  years  in 
building  new  churches,  presbyteries,  schools  and 
convents  in  the  diocese  as  well  as  in  reducing  the 
debt.  In  October,  1919,  the  diocese  received  a  visit 
from  the  apostolic  delegate,  Rev.  D.  B.  Cattaneo. 
The  diocese  includes  12  parishes,  36  churches,  two 
religious  orders  of  women,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph 
numbering  49,  and  the  Sisters  of  the  Good  Samaritan, 
numbering  9;  12  convents,  21  secular  priests,  1  high 
school  with  2  teachers  and  attendance  of  41,  and  13 
elementary  schools  with  47  teachers  and  1226  pupils. 
The  Priests’  Eucharistic  League  is  organized  as  well 
as  the  Australian  Catholic  Federation,  Children  of 
Mary,  Sacred  Heart  Society,  and  Hibernian  Aus¬ 
tralian  Catholic  Benefit  Society  among  the  laity. 
The  “Southern  Cross,”  a  periodical  published  in 
Adelaide,  is  circulated  in  this  diocese. 

Port  Louis,  Diocese  of  (Portus  Ludovici;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XII — 289a),  comprises  the  Island  of  Mauritius, 
dependent  directly  on  the  Holy  See .  The  diocese  was 
confided  to  the  Holy  Ghost  Fathers  in  1916.  The 
present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  John  Murphy,  C.  S.  SP., 
b.  in  County  Kerry  1854,  provincial  of  Ireland, 
elected  bishop  1916,  consecrated  at  Dublin,  enthroned 
28  Jan. ,  1917,  succeeding  Bishop  Bilsborrow  promoted 
to  the  Archdiocese  of  Cardiff .  The  area  of  the  diocese 
is  739  square  miles  and  the  population  is  276,233,  of 
whom  the  Catholics  number  120,000.  There  are: 
27  parish  churches,  40  chapels,  53  priests,  of  whom 
26  are  Holy  Ghost  Fathers,  7  Jesuits,  and  2  Benedic¬ 
tines.  One  of  the  first  missionaries  to  evangelize 
Mauritius  was  Fr.  James  Laval  in  1842.  At  his 
death  40,000  blacks  followed  his  venerated  remains 
to  the  tomb,  which  has  become  a  place  of  pilgrimage 
not  only  for  Catholics  but  for  Mussulmen  and  pagans. 

Port  de  Paix,  Diocese  of  (Portus  Pacis), 
in  Haiti,  dependent  on  Port  au  Prince. — This 


diocese  was  erected  3  October,  1861,  but  has  never 
had  a  bishop  and  Mgr.  Kersuzan,  Bishop  of  Cap 
Haitien,  is  the  Administrator  Apostolic  of  the  diocese, 
which  he  has  entrusted  to  the  care  of  12  Fathers  of  the 
Company  of  Mary  (Blessed  Louis  de  Montfort). 
There  are  100,000  Catholics;  5  lay  brothers  assisting 
the  12  priests  above  mentioned;  5  parishes;  7  churches; 

12  missions;  5  convents  for  men,  and  4  for  women. 

Port-au-Prince,  Archdiocese  of  (Portus 
Principis,  cf.,  C.  E.,  XII — 284c),  comprises  the 
western  part  of  the  Republic  of  Haiti  and  has  a  Cath¬ 
olic  population  of  736,920.  The  present  (1921) 
incumbent,  the  Most  Rev.  Julian  Conan,  has  filled 
this  see  since  1903,  and  is  also  Apostolic  Adminis¬ 
trator  of  the  diocese  of  Gonaives.  He  was  born  at 
Guern  in  the  diocese  of  Vannes  on  16  June,  1860, 
preconized  22  October,  1903,  and  consecrated  bishop 
at  Port-au-Prince  on  13  December  of  the  same  year. 
Since  1911  the  archdiocese  has  been  making  rapid 
progress.  A  new  cathedral  constructed  by  the 
Haitian  government  was  dedicated  the  22  December, 
1914;  on  4  August,  1914,  the  Government  signed  an 
agreement  with  the  archbishop  authorizing  the 
clergy  to  found  a  number  of  rural  primary  schools  to 
be  supported  by  the  State  and  subject  to  government 
inspection.  The  archbishop  established  an  Apostolic 
School  in  1920  for  the  preparation  of  young  Haitians 
who  wish  to  study  for  the  priesthood  and  in  1921 
there  were  9  students  enrolled.  During  the  World 
War  31  of  the  secular  clergy  were  mobilized  and  of 
these  2  were  killed,  15  received  the  croix  de  guerre 
and  in  all  24  citations  were  won  among  them.  Of 
the  regmar  clergy  9  Fathers  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  and  3  Brothers  entered  the  army 
and  of  these  5  won  the  croix  de  guerre ,  and  of  the 
24  Christian  Brothers  who  also  served,  1  was  dec¬ 
orated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor  and  8  with  the 
croix  de  guerre .  The  total  number  of  secular  and  regu¬ 
lar  clergy  of  the  diocese  has  diminished  since  1911, 
owing  to  the  general  mobilization  during  the  War, 
which  not  only  took  many  priests  away,  but  greatly 
lessened  the  number  of  students  for  the  priesthood . 

At  the  present  time  there  are  28  parishes,  53 
secular  priests,  3  congregations  of  religious  men  and 
3  of  women .  The  Fathers  o*  the  Holy  Ghost  conduct 
a  secondary  school  and  the  Seminary  College  of  St. 
Martial,  with  475  pupils,  at  Port-au-Prince.  There 
are  18  Fathers  and  5  Brothers  among  the  professors, 
and  2  other  Fathers  of  the  Congregation  administer 
the  parish  of  Petion-Ville.  Under  the  Christian 
Brothers  there  is  a  secondary  school,  the  Institute  of 
St.  Louis  of  Gonzaga,  with  675  pupils  at  Port-au- 
Prince,  as  well  as  4  government  primary  schools 
throughout  the  diocese.  There  are  also  3  Fathers  of 
the  Society  of  Mary,  2  of  whom  administer  the  parish 
of  Carrefour,  while  the  third  acts  as  chaplain  to  the 
Brothers.  Among  the  religious  orders  of  women 
there  are:  95  sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny,  who  con¬ 
duct  a  secondary  school  at  Port-au-Prince  and  1 
orphanage,  1  hospital  and  7  government  schools  in 
different  parts  of  the  diocese;  the  Daughters  of 
Wisdom  (105  in  all)  who  conduct  a  secondary  school 
at  Port-au-Prince  and  3  hospitals  and  4  Govern¬ 
ment  schools  in  other  parts  of  the  diocese;  the 
Daughters  of  Mary  (10  in  all),  who  conduct  a  pro¬ 
fessional  school,  normal  school  and  industrial  school 
at  Port-au-Prince. 

Port  of  Spain,  Archdiocese  of  (Portus 
Hispaniac;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 291a),  in  the  Antilles. 
According  to  statistics  for  1921,  the  archdiocese  has 
46  parishes,  59  churches,  10  missions,  56  stations, 

13  secular  and  78  regular  priests,  10  lay  brothers,  159 
nuns  in  7  convents,  and  1  monastery  for  men.  There 
are  2  colleges  for  boys  with  25  teachers  and  an  atten- 


PORT  VICTORIA 


595 


PORTO  NACIONAL 


dance  of  400;  4  secondary  schools  for  girls  with  40 
teachers  and  664  pupils,  2  training  schools  with  8 
teachers  and  20  students;  176  elementary  schools 
with  704  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  27,136  and  2 
industrial  schools  with  15  teachers  and  300  pupils. 
Charitable  institutions  include  2  homes  for  the  aged, 

1  home  for  poor  girls  and  1  orphanage.  The  hospitals, 
asylums,  refuges  and  day  nurseries  are  all  under  the 
control  of  the  colonial  Government  or  town  boards; 
of  these  12  hospitals,  4  asylums,  1  tuberculosis  hos¬ 
pital,  and  1  leper  asylum  admit  the  ministration  of 
priests. 

Most  of  the  elementary  schools  are  aided  by  the 
Government  and  in  some  places  building  grants-in- 
aid  are  given.  There  are  various  guilds,  benefit 
societies  and  confraternities  organized  amongst  the 
laity,  and  a  weekly,  “The  Catholic  News,”  is  pub¬ 
lished.  The  Catholic  population,  white,  black  and 
colored,  numbers  195,000,  of  whom  about  5000  are 
East  Indians. 

In  1912  the  Knights  of  St.  John  from  the  United 
States  were  introduced  into  the  diocese;  in  1919  the 
active  Tertiary  Dominican  Sisters  came,  and  three 
years  later  the  De  La  Salle  Brothers  made  a  founda¬ 
tion  there.  On  18  March,  1915,  the  church  in  San 
Jose,  the  ancient  capital  of  Trinidad,  was  consecrated. 
In  1921  hostels  for  pool  girls  were  built. 

The  archdiocese  lost  two  of  its  most  zealous  workers 
in  1920,  in  the  persons  of  Father  Louis  Tapon,  F.M.I., 
missionary  from  France,  who  had  labored  in  Santa 
Lucia  for  forty-two  years  as  parish  priest,  church 
builder  and  vicar  general,  and  Canon  J.  M.  Aquart, 
who  had  worked  in  the  Grenadines  without  a  break 
for  twenty-  five  years  and  had  built  there  four  chapels, 
a  school  and  presbytery.  During  the  World  War 
Father  Henri  Nouais,  C.S.N.,  was  killed  while  trying 
to  find  shelter  for  civilians.  He  had  acted  as  Infermier 
and  later  as  interpreter  to  the  Portuguese  Expedi¬ 
tionary  Force.  Six  other  priests  from  Port  of  Spain 
served  as  chaplains. 

Port  Victoria,  Diocese  of  (Portus  Victoria 
Seychellarium;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 312c),  comprises 
the  Seychelles  Islands  in  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  total 
population  of  the  diocese  (census  of  1921)  is  24,523,  of 
whom  21,588  are  Catholics.  There  are:  23,649  Brit¬ 
ish,  585  Africans,  134  French,  and  103  Chinese  in 
the  diocese.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Louis 
Gumy,  O.  M.  Cap.,  b.  1866,  elected  1921,  succeeding 
Bishop  Lachavanne,  O.  M.  Cap.,  b.  1849,  d.  1920. 
Bishop  Clark,  O.  M.  Cap.,  had  died  29  Sept.,  1915. 
Lady  Brooks,  recently  deceased,  was  a  benefactress 
of  the  mission,  converted  from  the  Greek  Church. 
During  the  World  War  2  Marist  Brothers  and  15  of 
the  former  pupils  of  the  college  were  killed  in  Europe, 
250  Catholics  died  in  Africa,  chiefly  natives  used  as 
porters,  and  18  of  the  clergy  and  laity  were  decorated. 
There  are  in  the  diocese:  14  parishes,  19  churches  or 
chapels,  18  regular  priests,  15  Marist  Brothers,  56 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny,  1  college  for  men  with 
10  teachers  and  180  pupils,  1  college  for  women  with 
12  teachers  and  175  pupils,  20  elementary  schools  with 
46  teachers  and  1500  pupils.  There  are  18  grant-in- 
aid  schools.  The  secondary  department  of  the  gov¬ 
ernment  school  was  suppressed.  Three  asylums,  2 
hospitals,  and  1  maternity  house  admit  the  ministry 
of  priests.  Each  parish  has  5  guilds.  A  Catholic 
periodical  is  published,  called  the  “Reveil  Seychel- 
lais.” 

Port  Victoria,  Prefecture  Apo?tolic  of.  See 
Northern  Territory. 

Portland,  Diocese  of  (Portlandensis,  cf., 
C.  E.,  XII — 287b),  comprises  the  entire  State  of 
Maine,  a  district  of  some  29,895  sq.  miles  and  has 


a  Catholic  population  of  approximately  154,189. 
The  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Louis  Sebastian 
Walsh,  D.D.,  has  filled  the  see  since  1906  and  under 
his  able  administration  the  diocese  has  made  rapid 
progress.  The  principal  events  of  interest  in  recent 
years  have  been  the  celebration  of  the  tercentenary 
of  the  establishment  of  the  Catholic  Church  in 
Maine  in  August,  1913;  the  tenth  anniversary  of 
the  consecration  of  Bishop  Walsh  on  18  October, 
1916;  the  celebration  of  the  golden  jubilee  of  the 
cathedral  in  September,  1919.  During  the  World 
War  this  diocese  gave  3  chaplains  to  the  Army,  1 
to  the  Navy  and  1  for  special  duty  in  France.  About 
800  Catholic  men  of  the  diocese  entered  the  various 
branches  of  the  service,  thus  forming  one-third  of 
the  total  number  of  men  enlisted  from  the  State, 
whereas  the  entire  Catholic  population  is  only  one- 
sixth  of  the  total  population  of  the  State .  The  present 
statistics  of  this  diocese  show  88  parishes  with  resi¬ 
dent  priests,  71  missions  with  churches,  34  chapels, 
159  churches,  80  mission  stations,  1  convent  for 
men  and  37  for  women,  137  secular  and  33  regular 
priests,  4  lay  brothers,  28  seminarians,  643  nuns. 
The  various  educational  institutions  under  Catholic 
direction  include:  1  college  for  men  with  13  teachers 
and  190  students,  1  college  for  women,  12  academies 
and  50  elementary  schools  with  412  teachers  and 
18,000  pupils.  Several  of  these  schools  as  well  as 
some  of  the  charitable  institutions  receive  aid  from 
the  State  in  their  support.  The  charitable  institu¬ 
tions  include  1  home  for  old  ladies,  7  orphan  asylums 
and  6  hospitals;  all*  the  public  institutions  permit  the 
priests  of  the  diocese  to  administer  to  the  Catholic 
inmates. 

Porto,  Diocese  of.  See  Oporto. 

Porto  Alegre,  Archdiocese  of  (Portalegren- 
sis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 289b),  comprises  the  State  of 
Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Brazil.  The  present  arch¬ 
bishop  is  Most  Rev.  John  Becker,  b.  1870,  ordained 
1896,  elected  Bishop  of  Florianopolis  3  May,  1908, 
consecrated  13  September  following,  promoted  to 
the  Archdiocese  of  Porto  Alegre  1  August,  1912, 
published  2  December,  enthroned  8  Decembet 
following,  succeeding  Archbishop  Ponce  de  Leao, 
transferred.  The  population  of  the  archdiocese  is 
675,000,  of  whom  580,000  are  Catholics.  There 
are:  85  parish,  95  secular  priests,  150  regular  priests, 
100  Brothers,  about  400  Sisters,  2  colleges,  2  normal 
schools,  1  agricultural  school,  and  more  than  300 
secondary  and  parochial  schools. 

Porto  Nacional,  Diocese  of  (Portus  Nation¬ 
als  in  Brasilia),  in  the  State  of  Goyaz,  Brazil, 
suffragan  of  Marianna.  It  was  erected  20  December, 
1915,  by  separation  from  the  Diocese  of  Goyaz,  and 
Rt.  Rev.  Vicente  Maria  Moreira,  O.  P.,  was  elected 
bishop  28  January,  1918.  He  resigned  and  was 
succeeded  30  July,  1920,  by  Rt.  Rev.  Raymond- 
Dominique  Carrerot,  O.  P.,  b.  at  Pamiers,  France, 
1868,  ordained  1885,  elected  titular  bishop  of  Urano- 
polis,  and  prelate  nullius  of  Araguaya,  where  he 
governed  until  his  transfer  to  Porto  Nacional.  The 
diocese  has  14  parishes,  31  churches,  1  convent  for 
men  (Dominicans),  1  for  women  (Dominican  Third 
Order),  2  secular  priests,  4  regular,  1  lay  brother, 
serving  a  population  of  about  150,000.  There  are  1 
college  for  boys  with  3  teachers  and  25  students, 
1  college  for  girls  with  5  teachers  and  150  students, 
1  normal  school  with  2  teachers  and  12  pupils,  2  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  with  3  teachers  and  an  attendance 
of  115.  The  Government  contributes  to  the  support 
of  the  elementary  schools.  The  confraternity  of  the 
Holy  Rosary,  the  Third  Order  Secular  of  St.  Dominic 
and  various  Catholic  circles  are  organized  among  the 


PORTO  RICO 


596 


PORTUGAL 


laity.  A  Catholic  periodical  is  published.  Note¬ 
worthy  deaths  since  the  erection  of  the  see  include 
those  of  Father  Rosarius  Melizer,  who  founded  St. 
Thomas  College  for  young  men,  and  Father  Barth- 
olomeus  Merinho,  who  built  the  cathedral,  the  Dom¬ 
inican  priory  and  the  Sisters’  convent. 

Porto  Rico,  Diocese  of  (Portoricensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XII — 292a);  comprising  the  islands  of  Porto 
Rico,  Vico  and  Culebra,  directly  dependent  on  the 
Holy  See— In  1921  Mgr.  Georges  Caruana  was 
appointed  bishop  of  Porto  Rico  to  succeed  Mgr. 
Jones,  O.  S.  A.,  who  after  an  episcopate  of  fourteen 
years  died  in  Philadelphia,  17  February,  1921. 
Mgr.  Caruana  was  born  in  Malta,  23  April,  1882,  and 
was  incardinated  in  the  Diocese  of  Brooklyn.  Later 
he  went  to  Philadelphia  as  secretary  to  Cardinal 
Dougherty,  and  was  consecrated  in  Rome  at  the 
Colegio  Capranica  College  by  Cardinal  Vico,  28 
October,  1921,  being  installed  10  February,  1922. 
He  served  as  chaplain  in  the  World  War.  In  1913 
the  diocese  celebrated  the  fourth  centenary  of  its 
foundation.  Within  the  last  few  years  two  prominent 
priests  died  there,  Rev.  Pedro  M.  Berrios,  P.  A., 
V.G.,  who  had  labored  in  Porto  Rico  for  fifty  years 
and  was  renowned  for  his  charity;  and  Rev.  Jose 
Nazaire,  a  noted  scholar  and  preacher.  During  the 
recent  war  the  clergy  and  laity  of  the  diocese  co¬ 
operated  in  every  patriotic  movement.  A  brigade 
17,000  strong  was  formed  and  was  ready  for  em¬ 
barkation  when  the  armistice  was  signed.  Further¬ 
more,  the  regiment  of  Porto  Rican  infantry,  a  regular 
organization,  served  in  the  Canal  Zone. 

There  are  about  1,000,000  Catholics  in  the  islands 
which  comprise  the  diocese,  American,  Spanish  and 
Porto  Rican.  According  to  1921  statistics  there  are 
78  parishes,  83  churches,  20  missions,  78  secular 
and  30  regular  priests,  7  Brothers,  14  convents  of 
men  and  5  of  women,  1  seminary  with  24  seminarians, 
1  preparatory  college  for  boys  with  6  teachers  and 
an  attendance  of  90,  5  for  women  with  285  students, 
10  elementary  schools  with  4000  pupils.  Charitable 
institutions  include  3  houses,  5  asylums,  and  5 
hospitals.  The  Mission  Helpers  conduct  a  school 
for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  work  amongst  the  poor. 
All  public  institutions  are  visited  and  ministered  to 
by  priests.  The  Knights  of  Columbus,  Catholic 
Daughters  of  America,  and  many  parochical  societies 
are  established  in  the  diocese.  Twro  Catholic  peri¬ 
odicals  “La  Verdad”  and  “El  Amigo  de  Todos,”  are 
published. 

Porto  and  Santa  Rufina,  Diocese  of  (Portuensis 
et  Sanctae  Rufinae;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 290a),  subur- 
bicarian  see  in  Italy.  The  present  archbishop  is 
Cardinal  Antonio  Vico,  b.  1847,  elected  titular  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Philippi  and  delegate  apostolic  to  Colombia 
1897,  apostolic  nuncio  to  Belgium,  1904,  and  to  Spain 
1907,  created  cardinal  priest  1911,  chose  the  see  of 
Porto  and  Santa  Rufina  1915,  prefect  of  Rites  1918. 
The  diocese  has  19  parishes,  26  priests,  30  churches 
and  chapels,  and  4652  Catholics. 

Portoviejo,  Diocese  of  (Portus  Veteris;  cf.  C. 
E.,  XII — 294d),  in  Ecuador,  suffragan  of  Quito. 
The  area  of  the  diocese  is  13,200  square  miles,  and  the 
Catholic  population  is  78,000.  There  are:  2  secular 
priests,  1  regular  priest,  and  1  religious  community 
of  women  in  the  diocese.  At  present  the  see  is  vacant. 
The  administrator  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Andres 
Machado,  S.  J.,  Bishop  of  Guayaquil. 

Portsmouth,  Diocese  of  (Portusmuthensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 296d),  suffragan  of  Westminster, 
England.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  William 
Timothy  Cotter,  b.  1866,  ordained  1892,  conse¬ 


crated  auxiliary  to  Bishop  Cahill  19  March,  1905, 
succeeded  to  the  see  24  November,  1910.  The 
population  of  the  diocese  (census  1911)  is  1,318,606 
of  whom  about  48,200  are  Catholics.  There  are: 
93  secular  priests;  194  regular  priests;  47  convents; 
106  churches  and  public  chapels;  51  private  chapels; 
34  public  elementary  schools  receiving  government 
grant  and  9  not  receiving  government  grant,  with  an 
attendance  of  1828  boys,  1948  girls,  and  1658  chil¬ 
dren;  11  secondary  schools  for  boys  with  1321  pupils; 
21  secondary  schools  for  girls  with  1667  pupils;  6 
charitable  institutions  caring  for  4Q8  children. 

Portugal  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 297b),  a  republic,  has 
an  area  of  35,490  square  miles  and  a  population  of 
5,957,985  (latest  census  1911).  The  chief  towns 
with  their  population  in  1911  are  Lisbon  435,359; 
Oporto  194,009;  Setubal  30,346;  Funchal  24,687. 
In  1917  there  were  190,485  births,  134,691  deaths, 
34,210  marriages,  15,825  emigrants.  Portuguese 
emigrants  went  chiefly  to  the  U.  S.  and  Brazil. 

Economics. — Of  the  total  area,  26.2  per  cent  is 
cultivated,  17.3  per  cent  is  forest,  and  43  per  cent 
is  waste  land.  In  1919  the  chief  crops  were:  wheat 
4,767,665  bushels,  rye  1,785,838;  oats  3,037,831; 
barley  1,009,780.  The  production  of  wool  amounted 
to  6,244,684  pounds.  The  olive  trees  cover  about 
825,000  acres,  producing  an  annual  average  of 
12,760,000  gallons  of  oil.  The  imports  of  the 
country  in  1919  were  valued  at  £52,110,675;  the 
exports,  £24,874,650.  Wine  formed  the  staple 
import,  the  quantity  amounting  in  1919  to  12,458,220 
gallons,  valued  at  £7,940,582.  The  revenue  in 
English  pounds  sterling  in  1920-21  was  £26,913,445; 
the  expenditure,  £52,802,831.  On  30  June,  1920 
the  external  debt  of  Portugal  was  £36,287,252.  The 
internal  debt  amounted  to  1,113,601,347  escudos 
(1  escudo  =  $1,080,  normal  exchange). 

Government. — The  constitution  of  20  August, 

1911,  provides  for  two  Chambers,  the  National  Coun¬ 
cil  (164  members  in  1921),  elected  by  direct  suffrage 
for  three  years,  and  the  Second  or  Upper  Chamber 
(71  members),  elected  by  all  the  Municipal  Councils. 
The  President  is  elected  by  both  Chambers  with  a 
mandate  for  four  years,  but  cannot  be  re-elected. 
He  appoints  the  Ministers,  who,  however,  are  re¬ 
sponsible  to  Parliament.  For  judicial  purposes  the 
republic  is  divided  into  193  comar cas,  each  having 
a  court  of  first  instance.  There  are  2  courts  of  appeal 
at  Lisbon  and  Oporto,  and  a  Supreme  Court  at 
Lisbon. 

Education. — In  1915  there  were  6706  public 
elementary  schools  with  342,763  pupils;  in  1919, 
32  secondary  schools  (with  11,791  pupils  in  1917). 
For  higher  education,  there  are  three  Universities  at 
Lisbon,  Coimbra,  and  Oporto,  a  technical  school  at 
Lisbon,  special  colleges  of  music,  art,  commercial 
schools,  a  military  academy  at  Lisbon,  and  a  naval 
school. 

Recent  History. — Since  the  proclamation  of  the 
republic  on  6  October,  1910,  there  have  been  no 
fewer  than  seven  revolutions,  or  attempted  revolutions 
in  Portugal.  Two  of  these  have  been  monarchical, 
for  the  restoration  of  the  deposed  King  Manuel  II, 
now  living  in  England;  the  rest  have  been  due  to  one 
faction  of  the  Republican  party  attempting  to  oust 
its  rivals,  so  that  it  might  enjoy  the  benefits  of  office. 
The  President  chosen  for  1911-15  was  Manoel  de 
Arriga,  who  survived  the  invasion  of  Royalists  in 

1912.  This  movement  failed  from  lack  of  support 
from  the  Monarchists.  In  a  compromise  between 
ex-King  Manuel  and  Dom  Pedro  at  Dover  on  22 
January,  1912,  the  latter  renounced  the  throne,  so 
that  the  following  Royalist  risings  were  in  support  of 
King  Manuel.  The  vigorous  anti-clerical  policy  of 
the  Government  at  this  time  aroused  attention 


POSTULANT 


597 


POTAMIAN 


throughout  the  world.  The  hierarchy  refused  to 
accept  the  separation  law,  and  to  prove  their  sin¬ 
cerity,  refused  even  the  small  stipend  allowed  to  the 
priests  from  a  Government  which  had  been  so  unjust 
to  the  Church.  Numerous  priests  were  imprisoned 
as  political  offenders.  In  1912  several  Bishops,  in¬ 
cluding  the  Patriarch  of  Lisbon,  two  archbishops 
and  six  bishops  were  arrested.  The  Archbishops  of 
Portalegre  and  Braga  were  expelled  for  two  years. 
Diplomatic  relations  with  the  Vatican  were  suspended 
and  the  next  year  the  Portuguese  legation  at  the 
Vatican  was  abolished.  In  1913  the  Bishop  of  Oporto 
was  arrested  for  administering  confirmation  in  a 
diocese  from  which  he  had. been  expelled.  So  un¬ 
relenting  was  the  Government's  attitude  that  the 
world  protested,  and  the  Portuguese  Assembly  on 
19  February,  1914,  passed  an  Amnesty  Bill,  providing 
that  the  insurgent  leaders  be  expelled  and  amnesty 
granted  to  others,  and  that  political  prisoners  be 
given  a  free  trial  to  determine  whether  they  were  to 
be  exiled  or  acquitted.  Among  those  exiled  were 
four  priests.  In  1915  there  was  an  attempt  to  set 
up  a  separate  republic  in  northern  Portugal,  and  at 
the  same  time  another  group  of  democrats  formed  an 
organization  for  the  Defense  of  the  Republic.  After 
a  coup  d’etat ,  President  Arriaga  resigned,  and  Theo- 
philo  Braga  was  elected  provisional  president.  He 
served  until  5  October,  1915,  when  he  was  succeeded 
by  Bernardino  Machado,  elected  on  6  August,  1915. 
In  March,  1916,  Portugal  declared  war  on  Germany, 
and  joined  the  Allies  in  defending  the  western  front. 
In  December,  1917,  occurred  another  revolution, 
headed  by  Major  Sidonio  Paes.  On  28  April  Paes  was 
elected  president,  but  was  murdered  by  the  party 
which  he  overthrew  the  previous  year.  A  provis¬ 
ional  government  was  established  with  Joao  do 
Canto  e  Castro  Silva  Anatunes  as  president,  and  on 
6  August,  1919,  Dr.  Antonio  Jose  de  Almeida  was 
elected  president. 

The  most  recent  revolution  in  October,  1921,  was 
tragic  in  the  extreme.  Pressure  had  been  brought 
on  President  Almeida  for  a  more  conservative  ad¬ 
ministration  with  proclivities  favoring  the  Royalist 
prisoners  and  unfavorable  toward  the  victims  of 
Major  Sidonio  Paes’s  revolution  of  December,  1917. 
These  victims  a  year  later  became  the  murderers  of 
Paes  and  the  results  of  his  revolution  drove  into  exile 
ex-President  Bernardino  Machado  and  ex-Premier 
Dr.  Alfonso  Costa.  Since  1920  the  victims  of  Paes’s 
revolution  have  been  determined  to  restore  the  one 
faction  government,  as  it  had  existed  prior  to  the 
revolution  of  December,  1917.  The  revolutionists 
hoped  to  achieve  their  ends  by  peaceful  means  but 
they  allowed  the  revengeful  Carbonario  to  arm  them¬ 
selves  at  the  Naval  Arsenal.  Admiral  Machado  dos 
Santos,  the  founder  of  the  republic,  was  murdered  by 
his  guards  while  being  taken  to  the  arsenal  under 
arrest,  the  Minister  of  Marine  under  President  Paes 
was  shot  dead,  and  Senhor  Gran  jo,  Captain  Ereitas 
da  Silva,  and  Captain  Carlos  da  Maia  were  killed. 

The  Army  of  Portugal  is  a  militia  raised  by  con¬ 
scription  and  consists  of  about  30,000  men  (peace 
footing).  The  navy  personnel  is  about  6000.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  war  65,062  officers  and  men  were  sent  to 
France.  The  casualties  were:  1862  killed,  5224 
wounded,  and  6678  taken  prisoners.  The  military 
estimates  for  1919-20  was  about  44,228,346  escudos. 

Religion. — There  are  about  5000  Protestants, 
mostly  foreigners,  and  500  Jews.  The  rest  of  the 
population  is  Catholic. 

Postulant. — By  an  Apostolic  Decree  of  January, 
1911,  generals  of  orders  in  which  lay  brothers  made 
solemn  vows  were  authorized  to  allow  in  individual 
cases  the  reception  of  lay  brother  candidates  on  the 
completion  of  their  seventeenth  year,  but  a  postu¬ 


lature  of  two  years  or  longer  was  necessary  for  valid 
profession.  Abstracting  from  the  constitutions  of 
each  order,  however,  the  Code  now  allows  lay  brother 
ostulants  to  be  received  at  the  age  of  fourteen  and  a 
alf .  A  postulature  of  at  least  six  months  is  necessary 
in  all  religious  institutes  having  perpetual  .vows  in 
the  case  of  nuns  or  sisters  and  lay  brothers;  if  the 
institutes  have  only  temporary  vows  the  necessity  and 
duration  of  the  postulature  depends  on  the  constitu¬ 
tions.  The  higher  superiors  may  extend  this  period 
of  probation  but  not  be3rond  six  months.  Before 
beginning  their  novitiate  postulants  must  make  a 
spiritual  retreat  of  at  least  eight  days  and,  if  their 
confessors  allow  them,  a  general  confession  of  their 
whole  lives. 

Codex  juris  canonici,  539-41. 

Postulation. — When  postulation  is  simultaneous 
with  an  election  the  canons  now  require  the  candidate 
to  receive  the  approval  of  at  least  two-third*  of  the 
voters;  in  the  pre-Code  days  he  was  required  to  have 
twice  the  number  necessary  for  one  who  was  canon¬ 
ically  eligible.  A  postulation  must  be  sent  to  the 
proper  superior  within  eight  days,  otherwise  it  be¬ 
comes  ipso  facto  null  and  void  and  the  electors,  unless 
their  delay  was  justifiable,  lose  their  right  to  elect 
or  postulate  for  that  occasion.  Ordinarily,  postula¬ 
tion  is  not  permissible  in  capitular  elections. 

Codex  juris  canonici ,  179-82;  507. 

Potamian,  Brother,  in  the  world  Michael 
Francis  O’Reilly,  scientist  and  bibliographer,  b. 
in  Co.  Cavan,  Ireland,  on  29  September,  1847; 
d.  in  New  York  on  20  January,  1917.  He  studied  in 
the  Christian  Brothers’  School,  New  York,  and  at 
the  age  of  twelve  entered  the  junior  novitiate  of  the 
institute  at  Montreal.  At  the  age  of  twenty-three 
he  was  sent  to  London,  where  he  taught  in  St.  Joseph’s 
College.  Taking  advantage  of  the  opportunities 
offered  in  London  to  specialize  in  scientific  studies  he 
graduated  as  Master  of  Arts  and  Doctor  of  Science  in 
London  University,  and  was  on  terms  of  intimacy 
with  Lord  Kelvin,  Mivart,  Huxley  and  Tyndall. 
He  represented  the  British  Government  in  the 
educational  section  at  four  international  exhibitions, 
Vienna  (1873),  Philadelphia  (1876),  Paris  (1889)  and 
Chicago  (1893);  at  Chicago  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Jury  of  Awards.  He  taught  at  the  De  La  Salle 
Training  School,  Waterford,  Ireland,  from  1893  to 
1896,  when  he  was  transferred  to  Manhattan  College, 
New  York,  where  he  died  twenty-one  years  later. 
Perhaps  the  greatest  testimony  to  his  scientific 
scholarship  was  his  selection  by  the  trustees  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers  to  compile 
a  catalogue  raisonne  of  the  Latimer  Clark  Library, 
the  most  complete  collection  of  books  relating  to 
electricity.  The  work  was  accomplished  success¬ 
fully  in  seven  years,  and  the  catalogue  ranks  with  the 
famous  catalogues  of  the  Surgeon  General’s  Library 
at  Washington.  Brother  Potamian  was  as  unas¬ 
suming  as  he  was  learned;  he  was  a  popular  lecturer 
and  his  course  in  science  was  one  of  the  chief  features 
at  the  Catholic  Summer  School,  Lake  Champlain. 
Among  his  writings  are:  “Gleanings  in  Electrical 
History;”  “Franklin  and  De  Romas,  or  the  Lightning 
Kite;”  “Gilbert  of  Colchester;”  “The  Rotation  of  the 
Earth;”  “Electric  Illumination”  (co-author);  “The 
Makers  of  Electricity;”  “The  Makers  of  Astronomy” 
— the  last  two  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  James  J. 
Walsh;  and  finally  his  great  “Catalogue  of  the  Wheeler 
Gift,  or  a  brief  illustrated  account  of  works  on 
electricity  and  magnetism  from  earliest  times  to  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.”  Brother  Potamian 
was  a  collaborator  in  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia, 
contributing  to  it  a  number  of  scientific  biographies. 

Walsh,  Brother  Potamian  in  The  Catholic  World,  c.  v.  (1917): 
33-42. 


POUSO  ALEGRE 


598 


PREACHERS 


Pouso  Alegre,  Diocese  of  (Pousalegrensis; 
cf.  Porto  Alegre,  C.  E.,  XII — 289d;  where  for  Porto 
read  Pouso),  in  the  State  of  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil, 
erected  in  1900.  At  present  it  is  being  ruled  by  its 
third  bishop;  the  first,  Rt.  Rev.  Joao  Baptista 
Correa  Nery,  was  transferred  to  Pampinas  in  1908; 
the  second  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio  Augusta  de  Assis  was 
transferred  to  Guaxupe  in  1916,  these  two  dioceses 
having  been  created  in  the  year  mentioned  by  separa¬ 
tion  from  Pouso  Alegre.  The  third  and  present  bish¬ 
op,  Rt.  Rev.  Octavio  Chagas  de  Miranda,  b.  at  Cam¬ 
pinas  on  10  August,  1881,  ordained  on  30  December, 
1908,  nominated  to  the  see  on  14  February,  1916,  was 
consecrated  on  4  June  following.  He  founded  and 
directed  the  Catholic  paper  of  Campinas,  “O  Men- 
sageiro”.  The  episcopal  city  is  Pouso  Alegre.  At  pres¬ 
ent  there  are  in  the  diocese  350,000  inhabitants;  34 
parishes;  164  churches  and  chapels;  33  secular  priests, 
7  regular  priests  and  8  lay  brothers;  2  convents,  55 
sisters;  1  ecclesiastical  seminary,  22  students;  1  dio¬ 
cesan  college,  150  students;  2  girls’  schools;  2  normal 
schools,  25  professors,  250  students;  1  trade  school  for 
orphans,  3  teachers,  20  pupils,  7  hospitals.  The 
Government  aids  one  of  the  diocesan  institutions, 
and  in  eight  the  administration  of  the  clergy  is  allowed. 
There  are  103  sodalities  and  Catholic  societies  among 
the  laity.  There  is  a  Catholic  press  issuing  the  fol¬ 
lowing  publications:  “Semana  religiosa”,  weekly, 
“O  Santuario,”  monthly;  and  two  reviews  “Archivio 
diocesano”  and  “O  Levita.” 

Pozzuoli,  Diocese  of  (Puteolana;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII 
— 331),  in  Italy,  suffragan  of  Naples,  is  governed  by 
Mgr.  Guiseppe  Petrone,  b.  in  Naples  on  27  August, 
1872;  appointed  to  this  see  23  Sept.,  1921.  The 
diocese  of  Pozzuoli  has  10  parishes;  98  churches  and 
chapels;  2  monastic  houses  for  men,  5  for  women 

2  convents  for  men,  5  for  women;  85  priests,  of  whom 
5  are  regulars;  25  sisters;  1  seminary  with  12  students; 
4  boys’  colleges,  with  15  teachers  and  500  pupils; 

3  girls’  colleges  with  10  teachers  and  400  pupils; 
20  elementary  schools  with  100  teachers;  1  refuge; 
2  asylums;  1  hospital;  1  day  nursery;  9  organizations 
and  associations  for  the  laity,  and  1  among  the  clergy; 
1  Catholic  weekly  and  1  monthly  magazine;  the  minis¬ 
trations  of  the  priests  are  allowed  in  two  public 
institutions  Among  those  who  died  recently  was; 
Salvatore  Lopex,  a  noted  musician,  director  of  the 
orchestra  of  the  Royal  Palace,  Naples.  The  remains 
of  Giambattista  Pergolesi,  whose  “Stabat  Mater” 
is  famous,  have  been  placed  in  a  magnificent  new 
chapel  of  the  cathedral  erected  by  the  Government. 

Prague,  Archdiocese  of  (Pragensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XII — 338b),  in  Bohemia.  On  26  June,  1918,  Pope 
Benedict  XV  declared  blessed  the  64  Servite  mar¬ 
tyrs  of  Prague.  These  holy  men  had  endeavored  to 
stay  the  progress  of  the  Hussite  heresy  in  Bohemia 
at  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century.  So  many 
were  the  conversions  that  they  excited  the  enmity 
of  the  revolutionists  at  whose  head  was  John  Ziska. 
When  assembled  in  general  chapter  in  1420  the  Ser- 
vites  were  locked  in  their  monastery  and  given  a 
choice  between  apostasy  and  death.  They  chose 
martyrdom,  and  64  were  thereupon  burned  alive  in 
the  monastery.  Part  of  their  remains,  interred  in 
the  presbytery  of  the  Church  of  the  Annunciation 
at  Prague,  were  exhumed  by  Cardinal  Schwarzen- 
burg  and  deposited  in  a  magnificent  reliquary.  The 
present  administrator  of  the  archdiocese  is  Francis 
Kordac,  b.  1852,  elected  1919.  The  Catholics  in 
the  archdiocese  number  2,438,109,  Protestants  77,895, 
Jews  48,330,  others  613,  those  without  creed  3786. 
There  are:  589  parishes,  .1343  secular  priests  of 
whom  91  belong  to  other  dioceses,  and  407  regular 
priests. 


Prague,  University  of;  (cf.C.E.,XII — 342b).— 
On  the  establishment  of  the  Czechoslovakian  Repub¬ 
lic  the  name  of  the  University  of  Prague  was  changed 
to  “Universitas  Carolina,”  its  original  title.  In  1920 
the  professors  of  the  natural  sciences  withdrew  from 
the  faculty  of  philosophy  and  established  a  new 
faculty  from  which  the  Rector  for  the  year  1921-22 
was  chosen .  The  proposal  to  separate  the  theological 
faculty  from  the  university  which  was  made  in  1919 
is  remaining  in  abeyance  until  the  question  of  the 
separation  of  the  Church  and  State  is  decided. 

The  Bohemian  theological  faculty  was  separated 
from  the  German  university  in  1892,  and  united  to 
the  Bohemian  university.  At  present  the  schedule 
of  the  theological  faculty  calls  for  lectures  in:  Old 
Testament  sciences,  9  hours  per  week,  philosophy  4, 
fundamental  theology  5,  New  Testament  9,  special 
dogmatics  9,  moral  theology  9,  church  history  and 
patrology  9,  canon  law  7,  sociology  2,  pastoral 
theology,  homiletics  and  liturgy  9,  methodology  and 
pedagogy  3,  Oriental  languages  (Arabic,  Syriac, 
Aramaic,  Assyrian,  Ethopic  and  Coptic)  5,  vetero- 
slavic  liturgy  and  palseoslavic  versions  of  the  Bible 
5,  Christian  art  and  archaeology  5,  ethics  3,  and 
history  of  religions  3.  Only  those  who  have  passed 
through  the  gymnasium  and  received  their  testi¬ 
monium  maturitntis,  as  it  is  called,  rank  as  ordinary 
students  and  they  alone  are  admitted  to  degrees. 
To  obtain  a  degree  the  candidate  must  pass  a  satis¬ 
factory  test  in  Arabic,  Aramaic  and  Syrian,  and 
higher  exegesis,  and  submit  a  dissertation  on  a  Biblical 
subject,  or  on  moral  or  pastoral  theology  or  on 
church  history  and  canon  law;  those  who  pass  these 
tests  must  stand  an  oral  examination  for  two  hours  in 
general  and  speculative  dogmatic  theology;  if  still 
successful  the  candidate  having  taken  the  oath  in 
presence  of  the  chancellor  of  the  faculty  is  admitted 
solemnly  to  the  doctorate  with  the  consent  of  the 
chancellor,  the  dean  of  the  faculty  and  the  pro¬ 
motor.  In  addition  since  1901  seminary  examinations 
are  held  in  the  Bible,  philosophy,  apologetics,  church 
history,  palaeoslavic  studies  and  recently  Christian 
art.  The  number  of  students  in  1910  was  116 
ordinary  and  8  special  students  in  the  theological 
faculty,  but  in  1920  as  a  sequel  to  the  war  there  were 
only  31  ordinary  and  10  special  students.  Moreover 
there  are  three  diocesan  institutes  where  theological 
students  can  attend  the  same  lectures. 

Recently  Benedict  XV  sent  an  evangelical  letter 
to  the  bishops  of  the  Czechoslovakian^  Republic 
emphasizing  the  necessity  of  a  two  years’  course  in 
philosophy  and  a  four  years’  course  in  theology. 

Tomek,  Geschichte  der  Prayer  Universitat  (1849);  Winter, 
Deje  vysokych  skol  Prazslcych  1409-1622  (1897). 

Preachers,  Order  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 354d). — 
There  are  three  divisions  of  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic: 
the  Order  of  Friars  Preachers  (First  Order);  the 
cloistered  Dominican  Nuns  (Second  Order);  and  the 
Brothers  and  Sisters  of  Penance  (Third  Order). 
Although  this  last  branch  of  the  institute  does  nob 
seem  to  have  had  any  juridical  confirmation,  or  to 
have  been  formally  affiliated  to  the  First  Order  until 
1285,  it  certainly  existed  in  the  days  of  St.  Dominic, 
and  fell  within  his  plan  of  the  religious  life.  Before 
the  Saint’s  death  pious  associations  of  religious- 
minded  persons  had  begun  to  gather  around  his 
priories,  to  place  themselves  under  the  guidance  of 
the  Fathers,  and  to  assimilate  the  spirit  of  the  in¬ 
stitute.  The  Third  Order  of  Penance  living  in  the 
world  was  most  probably  the  parent  stem  out  of 
which  grew  the  Conventual  Third  Order  of  Sisters. 
Some  have  traced  this  branch  of  the  Third  Order  back 
to  1255;  yet  its  beginnings  seem  shrouded  in  no 
little  obscurity  (C.  E.,  XII— 369d);  XIV — 638b; 
“Manual  of  the  Third  Order  of  St .  Dominic,”  London, 


PREACHERS 


599 


PREACHERS 


1871;  De  Ganay,  “Les  Bienheureuses  Dominicaines,” 
Paris,  1913;  chapter  on  “The  Third  Order”  by  Dix, 
in  “The  English  Dominican  Province,”  London, 
1921).  The  First  Order  substituted  the  monastic 
scapular  for  the  rochet  of  canons. 

A  general  chapter  of  the  order  promulgates  new 
laws,  but  to  become  a  part  of  the  constitutions  they 
must  be  accepted  by  three  consecutive  chapters. 
General  chapters  are  two  fold:  (a)  general  chapters  of 
provincials;  and  (b)  general  chapters  of  definitors. 
Their  periods  of  convocation  have  not  always  been 
the  same.  At  times,  owing  to  various  causes,  they 
have  been  held  rather  irregularly.  But  they  are  now 
convoked  alternately  every  three  years,  and  are 
largely  intended  as  a  counterbalance  of  power .  1  he 

general  chapter  of  provincials  is  composed  of  the 
master  general  and  the  actual  provincials  of  the 
order.  Each  province  also  elects  a  delegate  or 
companion  ( socius )  to  accompany  its  provincial  to 
the  chapter  and  to  act  in  his  stead  in  case  of  necessity. 
The  general  chapter  of  definitors  is  formed  by  the 
master  general  and  the  definitors  elected  in  their 
respective  provinces  to  constitute  this  legislative 
body.  Each  province  chooses  one  such  representa¬ 
tive.  Another  delegate  or  companion,  elected  at  the 
same  time,  accompanies  the  definitor  to  the  chapter, 
and  takes  his  place  should  this  become  necessary. 
When  a  master  general  is  to  be  elected,  both  the 
provincials  and  their  companions  and  the  definitors 
and  their  associates  attend  the  elective  chapter. 
All  these  (except  the  delegates  who  accompany 
the  provincials),  together  with  the  ex-masters  general 
and  the  procurator  general,  have  a  voice  in  the  selec¬ 
tion  of  the  order’s  new  head.  The  suffrage  is  given 
in  secret.  Similarly,  the  provincial  chapters  of  the 
order  (that  is,  those  convened  in  the  various  provinces) 
are  held  biennially.  They  are  also  twofold:  (a)  the 
elective  chapter;  and  (b)  the  intermediate  chapter 
(congregatio  intermedia) .  By  the  former  the  provincial 
is  elected,  together  with  the  definitor  and  the  two 
delegates  spoken  of  above.  It  is  made  up  of  the 
masters  in  theology,  ex-provincials  and  preachers 
general  belonging  to  the  province,  the  priors  and  one 
delegate  (chosen  by  ballot)  from  each  convent. 
Such  a  delegate  must  belong  to  the  community  which 
he  represents;  and  only  its  members  have  a  vote 
in  his  selection.  The  last  general  chapter  (Corias, 
Spain,  1920)  gave  representation  to  the  houses  that 
are  not  convents.  These  institutions  are  arranged  in 
groups,  and  each  group  sends  one  or  more  delegates 
according  to  the  number  of  Fathers  who  constitute 
it.  That  each  such  cluster  may  be  more  truly  re¬ 
presented,  only  its  members  may  vote  for  or  be  elected 
its  delegates.  "  The  intermediate  chapter  is  assembled 
two  years  after  the  election  of  the  provincial,  whose 
term" of  office  is  four  years.  It  is  composed  of  the 
provincial  and  those  just  mentioned,  except  the 
preachers  general  and  the  several  conventual  and 
group  delegates.  The  laws  regulating  the  con¬ 
vocation,  etc.,  of  chapters,  whether  general  or  pro¬ 
vincial,  are  given  in  the  constitutions  under  the  title 
“De  Capitulo  Generali”  and  “De  Capitulo  Pro- 
vinciali.” 

The  spirit  of  the  order  has  ever  been  quite  demo¬ 
cratic.  Nearly  all  its  officials  and  representatives 
are  chosen  by  secret  suffrage.  However,  the  spirit 
of  the  new  Code  of  Canon  Law,  though  its  legislation 
did  not  change  the  institute’s  law  in  this  matter,  led 
the  chapter  of  Corias  (1920)  to  limit  the  number  of 
ballots  to  seven  for  all  elections.  The  new  Code 
of  Canon  Law  also  took  the  Friars  Preachers  out  of 
those  religious  orders  known  as  mendicants  in  the 
strict  sense.  The  chapter  of  Corias,  however,  au¬ 
thorized  the  master  general  to  petition  the  Holy  See 
for  a  restoration  of  the  institute  to  its  time-honored 
place  among  the  mendicant  orders .  The  Dominicans , 


it  will  be  remembered,  have  a  ritual  of  their  ovvn. 
But,  owing  to  the  Motu  Proprio  of  Pius  X,  “Abhir.c 
duos  annos,”  23  October,  1913,  their  Divine  Office 
has  been  rendered  more  like  that  of  the  present 
Roman  Breviary.  By  the  Motu  Proprio  of  Benedict 
XV,  “Alloquentcs  proxime,”  25  March,  1917,  the 
Congregation  of  the  Index,  of  which  a  Dominican  was 
always  the  secretary,  has  been  suppressed. 

Among  the  works  on  preaching  written  by  Domini¬ 
cans,  in  the  first  two  centuries  of  their  existence,  two 
deserve  special  mention.  They  are  “De  eruditione 
praedicatorum”  (On  the  instruction  of  Preachers)  by 
Blessed  Humbert  of  Romans  (d.  1277),  published  the 
last  time  in  “De  vita  regulari  Beati  Humberti  de 
Romanis,”  Rome,  1888-89;  and  John  Bromyard’s 
(d.  1420),  well-known  and  often-published  “Summa 
praedicantium,”  which  treats  of  all  preaching  matter 
in  alphabetical  order  (Quetif-Echard,  “Scriptores 
Ordinis  Praedicatorum,”  I,  700).  St.  Vincent  Ferrer 
(d.  1419)  was  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  and 
effective  preachers  as  well  of  the  Church  as  of  the 
order.  Father  Thomas  Nicholas  Burke  (d.  1882), 
one  of  the  greatest  pulpit  orators  of  the  English- 
speaking  world,  did  some  of  his  best  work  in  the 
United  States.  Father  Vincent  J.  Lombardo  (d. 
1909),  Bonaventure  Krotz  (d.  1914),  and  Charles  H. 
McKenna  (d.  1917)  were  among  the  most  noted 
modern  preachers  respectively  in  Italy,  Germany, 
and  the  United  States. 

In  England  the  studium  generate  of  the  order  at 
Cambridge,  founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  was  an  active  rival  of  that  at  Oxford.  The 
Friars  Preachers  influenced  English  society ,  from  the 
highest  to  the  lowest  ranks,  to  a  remarkable  extent. 
Among  those  who  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
public  affairs  of  the  country  were  John  Darlington 
(d.  1284),  Archbishop  of  Dublin  and  a  trusted  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  government  under  Henry  III;  William 
Hotham  (d.  1296),  Archbishop  of  Dublin  and  favorite 
minister  of  Edward  I;  Thomas  Rushook  (d.  1393), 
Bishop  of  Chichester  and  confessor  and  protector  of 
Richard  II;  and  John  Gilbert  (d.  1397),  Bishop  of 
Hereford  and  twice  lord  treasurer  of  England  (Palmer, 
“Blackfriars  of  Cambridge,”  in  “The  Reliquary 
Magazine,”  January,  1885;  Maclnerny,  “History 
of  the  Irish  Dominicans,”  Vol.  I,  Dublin,  1916; 
chapter  on  “In  Public  Life,”  by  Gumbley,  in  “Ihe 
English  Dominican  Province,”  London,  1921).  In 
Ireland,  the  order’s  influence  was  rather  through 
the  people  than  through  those  in  public  authority; 
but  it  was  none  the  less  profound.  To  mention  no 
others,  David  MacKelly  (1253),  Archbishop  of 
Cashel  and  the  first  Irish  Friar  Preacher  to  wear  the 
mitre  in  his  native  land;  Ross  MacGeoghegan  (d. 
1641),  Bishop  of  Kildare;  Terence  Albert  O’Brien 
(d.  1651),  the  martyr  bishop  of  Emly;  Dominic 
Burke  (d.  1704),  Bishop  of  Elphin;  Thomas  De 
Burgo  or  Burke  (d.  1776),  noted  historian  and 
Bishop  of  Ossory:  John  Thomas  Troy  (d.  1823), 
Archbishop  of  Dublin  and  founder  of  Maynooth 
College,  were  among  the  leading  lights  of  the  Irish 
episcopacy.  Of  the  368  Irish  martyrs  now  proposed 
for  beatification  101  belonged  to  the  Order  of  St. 
Dominic  (De  Jonghe,  “Belgium  Dominicanum, 
Brussels,  1719;  De  Burgo,  “Hibernia  Dommicana,” 
Cologne,  1762;  “The  Hibernian  Magazine,”  April 
1864;  Brennan,  “Lives  of  the  Irish  Martyrs  and 
Confessors,”  New  York,  1879;  O  Heyne,  The 
Irish  Dominicans  of  the  Seventeenth  Century, 
translated  and  edited  by  Coleman,  Dundalk,  1902; 
Nolan,  “The  Irish  Dominicans  in  Rome,”  1813; 
Maclnerny,  op.  cit.:  “Acta  Capitulorum  Ordmis 
Praedicatorum,”  Vol.  VII,  edited  by  Reichert 
Rome,  1902;  “Analecta  Ordinis  Praedicatorum, 
February  and  December,  1915).  The  Iriars  Preachers, 
in  a  brotherly  spirit  and  a  desire  to  promote  faith  and 


PREACHING 


600 


PREACHING 


morals  among  the  people,  have  taken  a  notable  part 
in  the  formation  and  development  of  more  than  one 
religious  order. 

The  36  Annamese  and  the  8  Tonkin  martyrs 
beatified,  respectively  27  May,  1900,  and  20  May, 
1906,  belonged  to  the  Province  of  the  Philippines, 
as  did  the  proto-Chinese  martyr,  Francis  de  Capillas 
(d.  1648),  who  was  beatified,  2  May,  1909.^  The 
same  province  still  has  its  famous  Indo-Chinese 
missions  in  East,  North,  and  Central  Tonkin.  Bishop 
Edward  D.  Fenwick  (d.  1832),  Father  Matthew 
A.  O’Brien  (d.  1871),  and  Father  Nicholas  D.  Young 
(d.  1878)  stand  out  as  conspicuous  examples  of 
missionary  laborers  in  the  United  States. 

In  spite  of  revolutions  and  social  upheavals,  the 
Order  of  Preachers  has  continued  to  foster  a  cultiva¬ 
tion  of  the  fine  arts,  especially  that  of  architecture. 
Among  the  splendid  structures  it  has  erected  within 
the  last  seventy-five  years  are  the  Church  of  St. 
Saviour,  Dublin,  Ireland;  that  of  St.  Dominic, 
London,  England;  St.  Thomas’s  Priory,  Zwolle, 
Holland;  the  Collegio  Angelico,  Rome;  and  in  the 
United  States,  the  Dominican  House  of  Studies,  at 
the  Catholic  University,  Washington,  D.  C.,  and 
St.  Vincent  Ferrer’s  Church,  New  York.  St.  Dom¬ 
inic’s  Church,  San  Francisco,  destroyed  by  the 
earthquake  of  1906,  was  a  fine  specimen  of  the 
Romanesque  basilica.  Throughout  the  order  the 
lay  brothers  have  ever  been  among  its  most  skillful 
artists  and  architects. 

The  late  World  War,  which  appeared  to  bode  so 
badly  for  religion,  seems  rather  to  have  turned  the 
minds  of  men  to  God.  Since  its  close  vocations 
have  increased.  The  members  of  the  First  Order 
are  considerably  more  numerous  than  they  were  a 
decade  ago.  After  the  return  of  peace,  even  in  those 
countries  which  suffered  most  from  the  upheaval, 
the  Fathers,  undismayed  by  their  trials,  resumed  their 
various  social,  intellectual,  religious,  and  missionary 
endeavors.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  Biblical 
School  of  St.  Stephen,  Jerusalem,  has  been  accredited 
to  the  French  Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles- 
Lettres,  and  honored  with  the  title  of  “L’Ecole 
Frangaise  Archeologique  de  Jerusalem.”  In  prac¬ 
tically  all  the  provinces  the  publication  of  religious 
and  scientific  views  has  been  revived.  The  output 
of  books  and  other  literary  productions  shows  an 
intense  intellectual  activity.  For  many  years  the 
labors  of  the  Friars  Preachers  in  the  English-speaking 
countries,  especially  in  the  United  States,  in  giving 
parochial  missions  have  been  enormous.  Although 
teaching  in  the  universities  and  seminaries  has 
always  been  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  order’s  apostol- 
ate,  conducting  secular  colleges  was  looked  upon  as 
foreign  to  its  vocation.  In  more  recent  times,  how¬ 
ever,  the  Fathers  have  begun  to  engage  in  this  work 
as  conducive  to  the  end  of  the  institute,  which  is  the 
salvation  of  souls.  The  Province  of  the  Philippines, 
for  instance,  has  several  such  institutions,  and  that 
of  St.  Joseph,  in  the  United  States,  has  two;  while 
the  Province  of  the  Holy  Name  is  starting  one  in 
California. 

According  to  the  latest  statistics  (“Analecta 
Ordinis  Prsedicatorum,”  May-August,  1921),  there 
are  today  352  convents  and  secondary  institutions 
of  the  order  distributed  through  31  provinces  and  2 
congregations.  Forty  of  these  institutions  are  in 
the  United  States,  belonging  respectively  26  to  the 
province  of  St.  Joseph,  10  to  that  of  California,  2 
to  that  of  the  Philippines,  and  2  to  that  of  Canada. 
Fourteen  convents  of  the  order  are  under  the  im¬ 
mediate  jurisdiction  of  the  master  general.  The 
members  of  the  First  Order  now  number  some  5000, 
and  about  1000  students  are  preparing  to  enter  the 
novitiates.  Two  of  its  members  are  cardinals,  7 
archbishops,  19  bishops,  and  7  prefects  apostolic. 


It  has  34  foreign  missions,  on  which  450  Fathers  and 
Brothers  are  engaged.  The  Province  of  St.  Joseph, 
in  the  United  States,  has  now  accepted  a  foreign 
mission  in  the  civil  prefecture  of  Kien-ning-Fu, 
about  170  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Fu-chau,  China. 
There  are  about  5000  enclosed  Dominican  Nuns 
(Second  Order),  nearly  half  of  whom  are  in  ascetic 
Spain.  The  United  States  has  300.  The  Conventual 
Third  Order  Sisters  number  more  than  20,000. 
Almost  half  of  these  are  in  the  United  States.  The 
principal  mother-houses  of  the  American  Sisters 
specially  devoted  to  educational  work  are  located 
at  Springfield,  Ky.;  Columbus,  O.;  Caldwell,  N.  J.; 
Brookland  and  Newburgh,  N.  Y.;  Fall  River,  Mass.; 
Adrian  and  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.;  Racine  and 
Sinsinawa,  Wis.;  Springfield,  Ill.;  Nashville,  Tenn.; 
New  Orleans,  La.;  Galveston,  Tex.;  San  Rafael  and 
Mission  San  Jos6,  Cal.;  and  Tacoma,  Wash.  The 
Dominican  Sisters  of  the  Sick  Poor,  with  their  head¬ 
quarters  in  New  York  City,  are  performing  a  noble 
mission  of  charity.  The  Foreign  Mission  Sisters  of 
St.  Dominic,  Maryknoll,  N.  Y.,  devote  themselves 
to  the  Christian  instruction  of  Chinese  and  Japanese 
in  the  United  States  as  well  as  in  foreign  lands. 
Other  communities  again,  with  their  principal  houses 
at  Sparkill  and  Blauvelt,  N.  Y.,  are  engaged  in  the 
care  of  orphans  and  other  like  works  of  benevolence. 
The  members  of  the  Third  Order  living  in  the  world 
are  very  numerous;  but,  quite  naturally,  this  branch 
of  the  institute  flourishes  especially  in  those  places 
where  the  other  divisions  are  established. 

The  order  has  14  canonized  Saints.  St.  Dominic 
(d.  1221),  St.  Peter  of  Verona,  commonly  called  St. 
Peter  Martyr  (d.  1252),  St.  Hyacinth,  apostle  of 
Poland  (d.  1257),  St.  Thomas  of  Aquin  (d.  1274), 
St.  Raymond  of  Pennafort  (d.  1275),  St.  Vincent 
Ferrer  (d.  1419),  St.  Antoninus  of  Florence  (d.  1450), 
St.  Pius  V  (d.  1752),  St.  John  of  Cologne  (d.  1573), 
and  St.  Louis  Bertrand  (d.  1581)  are  of  the  First 
Order.  St.  Agnes  of  Montepulciano  (d.  1317)  was  a 
member  of  the  Second  Order.  St.  Catherine  di 
Ricci  (d.  1589)  belonged  to  the  Conventual  Third 
Order.  St.  Catherine  of  Sienna  (d.  1380)  and  St. 
Rose  of  Lima  (d.  1615)  are  the  glory  of  the  Third 
Order  living  in  the  world.  Besides  these,  some 
290  members  of  the  three  orders  of  St.  Dominic  have 
been  beatified  and  perhaps  as  many  as  600  others 
have  been  declared  venerable  by  the  Church,  or  are 
regarded  as  such  in  the  piety  of  the  faithful. 

Jarrett.  English  Dominicans  (London,  1921). 

V.  F.  O’Daniel. 

Preaching — The  object  of  preaching  is  to  en¬ 
able  the  faithful  to  know  God,  to  understand  His 
revelation,  and  to  realize  and  fulfil  their  duties 
towards  Him  and  their  fellow-men.  As  the  care  of 
the  faithful  in  spiritual  matters  was  entrusted  by 
Christ  to  St.  Peter  and  the  Apostles,  the  duty  of 
preaching  the  truths  of  religion  devolves  on  their 
successors  in  their  respective  spheres,  that  is  pri¬ 
marily  on  the  pope  for  the  whole  world  and  on  the 
bishops  for  their  dioceses.  Confronted  with  the 
prevalent  disregard  of  the  supernatural  and  the 
adoption  of  pagan  standards  of  living  throughout 
Christendom,  Pope  Benedict  XV,  realizing  that  this 
condition  was  in  part  due  to  the  failure  of  preach¬ 
ing  to  supply  the  proper  antidotes,  issued  an  En¬ 
cyclical  “Humani  generis”  (15  June,  1917),  dealing 
with  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel.  The  three  abuses 
which  he  signalized  as  in  need  of  urgent  reform 
were  (1)  the  unwarranted  assumption  of  the  office 
of  preaching  on  the  part  of  many;  (2)  the  unfitness 
of  many  of  those  who  had  been  allowed  to  preach; 
(3)  the  manner  and  procedure  of  not  a  few  preach¬ 
ers,  inspired  as  they  were  by  vain  glory,  by  a  de¬ 
sire  to  rival  the  leaders  of  the  stage  or  political 


PRECIOUS  BLOOD 


601 


PRECIOUS  BLOOD 


platform,  who  dealt  with  profane  topics  and  ab¬ 
stained  from  setting  forth  divinely  revealed  truths 
f.hat  might  weary  or  terrify  their  hearers.  About 
two  weeks  later  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the 
Consistory  issued  a  Decree  setting  forth  rules  to 
regulate  the  authorization  of  preachers  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  the  papal  encyclical  and  the  Code.  On 
11  November,  1918,  the  pope  again  showed  the 
great  importance  he  attached  to  preaching  the 
Gospel  in  his  allocutioh  to  the  Lenten  preachers  in 
Rome. 

In  virtue  of  his  office  a  bishop  must  personally 
preach  the  Gospel  to  his  flock;  as  it  is  impossible 
for  him  to  do  this  unaided  the  work  is  carried  on 
by  the  parish  priests  and  others  approved  by  him 
to  preach  the  Gospel,  while  he  should  have  a  com¬ 
mission  of  vigilance  to  see  that  the  work  is  exe¬ 
cuted  properly.  Ordinaries  and  religious  superiors 
are  strictly  bound  to  have  their  clerics  during  the 
time  of  their  studies  thoroughly  trained  in  preach¬ 
ing  and  made  acquainted  with  the  famous  models 
of  sermons  bequeathed  by  the  Fathers,  to  say 
nothing  of  those  contained  in  the  New  Testament. 
They  may  also  prescribe  for  their  clerics  a  yearly 
oral  and  written  examination  in  preaching  for  some 
years  after  ordination.  No  one  must  undertake  the 
ministry  of  the  word  unless  deputed  by  a  lawful 
superior;  apart  from  parish  priests,  no  one  may 
preach  to  the  faithful  in  public  churches  or  ora¬ 
tories,  even  those  of  regulars,  not  even  regular 
priests,  without  the  local  ordinary’s  express  permis¬ 
sion.  Permission  is  granted  only  to  priests  or 
deacons,  but  in  a  special  case  the  local  ordinary 
might  authorize  another  cleric  for  a  good  cause, 
but  he  cannot  allow  a  lay  person,  even  a  religious, 
to  preach.  If  a  sermon  is  to  be  given  exclusively 
to  exempt  religious  or  others  such  as  servants, 
pupils,  or  guests,  who  live  in  their  house  by  day 
and  night,  the  superior  of  a  clerical  institute  grants 
the  faculty  for  preaching  to  his  own  subjects  or 
to  a  secular  priest  or  a  member  of  another  religious 
order  who  has  been  adjudged  competent  by  his 
ordinary  or  superior.  If  a  sermon  is  to  be  given  to 
nuns  with  solemn  vows  subject  to  a  regular  order 
or  to  non-clerical  religious,  permission  of  both  the 
local  ordinary  and  the  religious  superior,  is  to  be 
obtained.  Local  ordinaries  must  not,  without  a 
grave  reason,  refuse  the  faculty  of  preaching  to  a 
religious  presented  by  his  own  superior,  or  recall  it 
later,  especially  from  the  entire  community  at  one 
and  the  same  time;  however,  religious  in  order  to 
preach  always  require  the  permission  of  their  own 
superior.  The  ordinary  or  superior  is  bound  in 
conscience  not  to  grant  the  faculty  or  permission 
to  anyone  whose  good  character  has  not  been  estab¬ 
lished  and  who  has  not  passed  a  suitable  examina¬ 
tion  in  theology,  and  the  preacher  may  be  sub¬ 
jected  to  another  examination  if  his  orthodoxy  is 
questionable;  if  the  faculty  is  revoked  an  appeal 
may  be  taken. 

No  priest  from  outside  a  diocese  is  to  be  invited 
to  preach  unless  the  permission  of  the  ordinary  of 
the  place  where  the  sermon  is  to  be  given  has  first 
been  obtained,  and  he  must  not  consent  before 
being  satisfied  as  to  the  preacher’s  virtue  and 
knowledge.  The  permission  is  to  be  sought  by  a 
parish  priest  for  a  sermon  to  be  preached  in  his 
parish  church  or  in  others  depending  on  it ;  by  the 
rector  for  a  church  exempt  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  parish  priest;  by  the  highest  dignitary  with  the 
chapter’s  consent,  for  a  capitular  church;  by  the 
moderator  or  chaplain  of  a  confraternity  for  the 
confraternity  church..  A  local  ordinary  may  preach 
in  any  church,  even  exempt,  in  his  territory,  and, 
pxcent  in  large  cities  he  may  forbid  anyone  to 


preach  in  the  local  churches  during  the  time  that 
he  himself  is  preaching  or  is  present  at  a  sermon 
given  to  the  people  for  some  special  cause  of  pub¬ 
lic  interest.  A  parish  priest  is  under  a  strict  obli¬ 
gation  to  explain  the  word  of  God  in  a  homily 
every  Sunday  and  holyday  of  precept  at  the  chief 
Mass  especially.  He  cannot  fulfill  this  duty  by 
securing  a  permanent  substitute,  unless  the  ordi¬ 
nary  consents  to  it  for  a  just  reason;  the  ordinary, 
however,  may  allow  the  sermon  to  be  omitted  on 
some  of  the  greater  feasts  and  even,  where  there  is 
good  cause,  on  some  Sundays.  The  Church,  while 
not  imposing  a  precept,  wishes  that  there  should 
be  a  short  discourse  on  the  Gospel  or  on  some 
point  of  Christian  doctrine  at  all  Masses  attended 
by  the  faithful  on  feasts  of  precept  whether  in 
churches  or  public  oratories;  if  the  ordinary  pre¬ 
scribes  this,  all  priests  even  exempt  religious,  must 
obey.  The  faithful,  furthermore,  are  to  be  ex¬ 
horted  earnestly  to  be  present  at  sermons  fre¬ 
quently. 

The  matter  of  sermons  must  be  essentially 
sacred,  dealing  chiefly  with  what  Christians  must 
do  and  believe  to  attain  salvation.  If  the  preacher 
would  treat  of  other  matters  not  strictly  sacred,  yet 
in  keeping  with  the  house  of  God,  or  if  he  would 
deliver  a  funeral  eulogy,  he  must  not  do  so  without 
permission  of  the  local  ordinary;  it  is  absolutely 
forbidden  for  any  preacher  to  treat  of  politics  in 
the  pulpit.  Citations  from  profane  authors  and 
especially  from  heretics  or  infidels  must  be  em¬ 
ployed  only  with  the  greatest  caution,  the  Sacred 
scriptures,  the  Fathers  and  Doctors  of  the  Church 
providing  adequate  proof  and  defense  of  the  prin¬ 
ciples  of  Christian  morality.  The  preacher  should 
accommodate  himsplf  to  the  ordinary  intelligence 
of  his  hearers  both  in  reasoning  and  in  the  choice 
of  language,  and  in  delivery  should  observe  the 
modesty  and  gravity  befitting  one  who  speaks  in 
Christ’s  name.  Preachers  neglecting  these  prescrip¬ 
tions  are  to  be  admonished  and  reprehended  by 
their  bishop;  if  they  neglect  to  amend  or  if  their 
offense  was  grave  their  faculty  of  preaching  is  to 
be  withdrawn  by  the  bishop  temporarily  or  perma¬ 
nently,  in  case  of  his  own  subjects;  if  the  preacher 
was  an  extern  or  religious  the  bishop  is  to  forbid 
him  to  preach  again  in  his  diocese  and  at  the  same 
time  to  notify  the  culprit’s  ordinary  or  even,  in 
extreme  cases,  the  Holy  See. 

Keating,  Preach  the  Gospel  in  Ir.  Eccl.  Rec.,  XIV  (1919) 
465-75;  MacCarthy,  New  Regulations  on  Preaching  in  Eccl 
Rev.,  LVII  (Philadelphia,  1915),  377-89. 

Precious  Blood,  Congregations  of  the. 
I.  Congregation  of  the  Most  Precious  Blood 
(cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 373c),  an  association  of  secular 
priests  who  live  in  community  but  take  no  vows, 
being  held  together  by  the  bond  of  charity  only, 
and  in  America  by  a  promise  not  to  leave  the  com¬ 
munity  without  permission  of  the  lawful  superior. 
The  present  general  superior  is  Very  Rev.  Hyacinthe 
Petroni,  elected  for  life,  11  Oct.,  1905,  to  succeed 
Aloysius  Biaschelli  M.  1905).  The  mother-house 
is  Santo  Maria  in  Trivio  in  Rome,  in  the  convent 
garden  of  which  a  Methodist  church  was  erected  at 
the  time  of  the  confiscation  by  the  Italian  Govern¬ 
ment.  This  has  been  replaced  G922)  by  a  printing 
office.  In  Europe,  as  a  rule,  members  are  not  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  congregation  until  they  are  at  least 
students  of  philosophy;  these  pursue  their  studies 
in  Rome.  At  present  there  are  two  minor  seminaries 
for  the  lower  studies  at  Albano  and  Patricia.  In 
America  the  congregation  conducts  a  college  (College- 
ville,  Ind.)  and  parishes  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Chicago 
and  Dioceses  of  Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  Toledo, 
Fort  Wayne,  St.  Joseph,  Kansas  City,  Lincoln, 


PREFECT 


602 


PREFECT 


Bismarck  and  Newark .  The  present  statistics  for  the 
congregation  are:  Italy,  3  provinces,  15  houses,  the 
pri  icipal  ones  being  at  Rome  (Santa  Maria  in 
Trivio),  Albano,  Naples,  Bari,  Ancona,  Rimini, 
Cesena;  Spain,  2  houses;  Bavaria,  1  house  (Baum- 
gaerth);  North  America,  1  province  with  a  semi¬ 
nary  at  Carthagena,  Ohio,  seat  of  the  provincial 
with  43  students,  a  college  at  College  ville,  Ind., 
with  300  students,  novitiate  at  Burketts  ville,  Ohio, 
with  90  students.  The  houses  at  Shellenberg  (Liech¬ 
tenstein),  Feldkirch,  Kufstein  (Austria),  belong  to 
the  American  province.  There  are  in  the  American 
province  140  priests,  50  lay  brothers,  and  over  50 
missions  and  stations.  Prominent  members  of  the 
society  include  Cardinal  Alexius  Ascalesi ,  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Benevento  and  Bishop  Aloysius  Fant.ozzi 
of  Veroli.  There  are  seven  deceased  bishops.  Pub¬ 
lications  of  the  congregation  are:  “Bolletino  dei 
Missionari  del  Prez.  Sangue,”  a  monthly  ('Rome); 
“De  Botschaftez”  and  “The  Messenger,”  monthlies, 
(College ville,  Ind.). 

Nell  Centenario  della  Congregazione  del  Prezmo  Sangue  (Grotta 
ferrata,  1918);  Zur  hunderfahrigen  Gedachtnisfeir;  Souvenir  of  the 
Centenary  Celebration  C.PP.S. 

II.  Daughters  of  the  Precious  Blood  (cf.  C. 
E.,  XII— 374b)  .—This  congregation,  founded  by 
Maria  Seraphina  Spickermans  in  1857 ,  was  approved 
by  decree  of  Leo  XIII,  24  Sept.,  1890,  the  constitu¬ 
tions  being  definitely  approved  3  June,  1901.  The 
main  object  of  the  congregation  is  the  education  of 
girls,  from  elementary  and  infant  schools  to  boarding 
and  training  schools,  and  the  care  of  the  sick.  The 
first  general  superior  was  Mother  Seraphina  Spicker¬ 
mans  (b.  1  Majq  1819;  d.  17  Aug.,  1876).  She  was 
succeeded  by  Mother  Josephine  Frank  (b.  29  May, 
1841;  d.  4  Aug.,  1886),  Mother  Ludgera  Schweers 
(b.  10  July,  1847;  d.  12  Aug.,  1920),  and  the  present 
superior,  Mother  Kostka  Ressing  (b.  17  March, 
1868).  At  present  (1921)  there  are  200  members 
of  the  congregation  and  6  foundations.  All  the 
convents  have  infant,  elementary  and  needlework 
schools.  In  addition  there  are:  1  training  school 
for  teachers,  2  boarding  schools,  3  higher  schools  for 
girls,  and  3  schools  for  housekeeping.  In  three 
places  the  congregation  has  district  care  of  the  sick. 
The  total  number  of  persons  cared  for  is  about  4000. 

III.  Sisters  Adorers  of  the  Precious  Blood 
(Saint-Hyacinthe;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII— 374c),  a  congre¬ 
gation  of  nuns  maintaining  daily  adoration  of  the 
Precious  Blood  really  present  in  the  Blessed  Sacra¬ 
ment.  They  care  for  a  few  ladies  in  retreat  and  as 
boarders  in  a  house  separate  from  the  monastery. 
The  Sisters  also  direct  under  the  chaplain  or  another 
appointed  priest,  the  Confraternity  and  Guard  of 
Honor  of  the  Precious  Blood.  At  the  request  of  the 
Bishop  of  St.  IJyacinthe  the  Holy  See  has  granted  the 
institute  (1919)  the  privilege  of  celebrating  as  of 
old  the  Lenten  feast  of  the  Most  Precious  Blood. 
The  congregation  is  not  under  a  generalship,  each 
house  being  independent,  even  from  the  first  house  of 
the  institute,  and  governed  by  a  local  superior 
elected  every  five  years  by  the  chapter  of  each  house. 
The  institute  subsists  on  doweries  provided  by  the 
choir  Sisters,  on  alms  charitably  offered  by  very  many 
persons  petitioning  prayers  and  in  thanksgiving  for 
favors  received;  and  on  the  work  of  some  of  the 
Sisters  who  make  everything  requisite  for  the  altar 
and  other  pious  articles.  Choir  and  lay  sisters,  after 
three  years  of  temporary  vows,  make  their  perpetual 
vows,  according  to  the  new  regulations  in  conformity 
with  the  Code  of  Canon  Law.  The  tourieres  (out 
sisters)  pronounce  their  vows  for  a  year  only,  being 
allowed  to  renew  them  on  the  date  of  the  first  emission. 
The  rules  and  constitutions  of  the  institute  have 
been  sent  to  Rome  for  any  necessary  revision.  There 
are  15  foundations  of  the  institute,  with  490  mem¬ 


bers.  Houses  have  recently  been  founded  at  London, 
Ont.  (1913),  and  Saint-Boniface,  Man.  (1918). 
Among  distinguished  religious  recently  deceased  are: 
Mother  E.  de  St.  Joseph,  co-foundress  of  the  institute 
and  foundress  of  the  monastery  at  Toronto  (1913); 
M.  Marie-des-Cinq  Plaies,  co-foundress  and  superior 
of  the  monastery  at  Nicolet  (1916);  M.  Marie  du 
Saint-Esprit,  foundress  and  first  superior  of  the 
monastery  at  Montreal  (1917);  M.  Catherine  de 
Ricci,  co-foundress  of  the  monastery  at  Brooklyn 
(1917);  M.  Marie  Sainte-Ursule,  foundress^  of  the 
monastery  of  Sherbrooke  (1920);  M.  Therese  de 
Jesus,  co-foundress  and  superior  of  the  monastery  at 
Havana  (1921).  On  14  Sept.,  1911,  the  Sisters 
celebrated  the  golden  jubilee  of  the  foundation  of  the 
institute. 

IV.  Sisters  Adorers  of  the  Precious  Blood 
(Alton,  Ill.;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 375a). — The  Nazareth 
Home,  Alton  community,  was  incorporated  (1918) 
under  the  laws  of  the  State  of  Illinois  with  the  right 
of  succession  under  the  legal  title  of  Nazareth  Home, 
Alton,  Ill.  The  institution  is  under  the  direction 
of  Mother  Pauline  Schneeberger,  vicaress  general. 
In  February,  1920,  at  the  time  of  the  influenza 
epidemic,  seven  sisters  died  within  a  week.  Mother 
Josepha,  first  assistant,  died  in  the  same  year  (16 
Oct.).  There  have  been  several  changes  made  in  the 
original  buildings  of  the  Nazareth  Home.  St. 
Xavier’s  House,  the  first  novitiate,  was  repaired  as  an 
orphanage  for  boys  and  girls.  In  September,  1920, 
a  high  school  was  opened  for  girls,  especially  those 
who  aspire  to  be  teachers  as  Sisters  Adorers  of  the 
Precious  Blood.  A  new  edifice,  St.  Paul’s  Hall, 
was  constructed.  At  present  the  institution  numbers 
55  Sisters,  7  novices,  1  candidate,  12  aspirants.  The 
Sisters  conduct  schools  in  the  Archdiocese  of  St. 
Louis  and  in  the  Diocese  of  Alton,  Ill.,  Harrisburg, 
Pa.,  Altoona,  Pa.,  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  Fort  Wayne, 
Ind.  There  are  about  1400  pupils. 

V.  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood  (O’Fallon, 
Mo.,  cf.  C.  E.,  XII— 375b).— In  1910  the  rule  of  the 
institute  was  revised.  The  community  received  the 
“Decretum  Laudis”  from  the  Holy  See  in  1918.  In 
July,  1920,  Mother  M.  Wilhelmina  was  elected  supe¬ 
rior  general.  The  institute  numbers  229  Sisters,  18 
novices,  12  candidates.  There  are  24  parochial 
schools  and  1  academy,  St.  Elizabeth  Institute. 

VI.  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood  (Ruma, 
Ill.,  cf.  C.  E.,  XII— 375b).— The  Ststers  conduct 
establishments  in  the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Louis  and 
in  the  dioceses  of  Alton,  Belleville,  Concordia,  El 
Paso,  Oklahoma,  St.  Joseph  and  Wichita.  The 
community  numbers  346  Sisters,  17  novices,  25 
candidates.  They  have  under  their  care  60  schools, 
2  academies,  3  hospitals,  and  1  orphange  with  261 
orphans.  There  are  6300  pupils. 

VII.  Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood  (Maria 
Stein,  Ohio;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 375b). — The  Sisters 
have  49  foundations  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Cincinnati, 
and  the  dioceses  of  Cleveland,  Fort  Wayne,  Kansas 
City,  Monterey  and  Los  Angeles,  St.  Joseph,  Toledo, 
and  Tucson.  They  have  40  schools,  1  sanitorium, 
1  orphanage,  3  boarding  schools,  1  home  for  the 
aged,  and  the  care  of  domestic  work  for  6  institutions. 
Under  their  care  are  7800  pupils,  210  boarders, 
150  orphans,  100  to  150  patients  in  the  sanitarium. 
The  community  numbers  580  professed  religious,  32 
novices,  2  postulants.  The  present  superior  general 
is  Mother  M.  Emma  Nunlist,  elected  1899,  succeeded 
1905  by  Mother  M.  Josephine  Boetsch  (d.  1917), 
re-elected  1911. 

Prefect  Apostolic  (C.  E.,  XII  —  386). —  Pre¬ 

fects  apostolic  and  vicars  apostolic  are  governed  by 
the  same  laws  except  that  the  prefects  have  not  to 
make  the  canonical  visit  ad  limina;  the  prefects  take 


•i 


PRELATE  NULLIUS 


603 


PREMONSTRATENSIAN 


oossession  of  their  territorj^  officially  by  exhibiting 
the  decree  or  letters  patent  of  the  Congregation  of 
Propaganda,  the  vicars  by  showing  their  apostolic 
letters,  to  the  pro-prefect  or  pro- vicar  of  their  respec¬ 
tive  districts.  Prefects  apostolic  while  within  their 
own  territories  enjoy  the  same  rights  and  faculties  as 
residential  bishops,  unless  the  Holy  See  has  limited 
them;  like  vicars  apostolic,  even  if  -they  have  not 
received  episcopal  consecration,  they  can,  within 
their  districts  and  during  their  term  of  office,  give  all 
the  blessings  reserved  to  bishops,  except  the  pontifi¬ 
cal  blessing,  grant  indulgences  of  fifty  days,  adminis¬ 
ter  confirmation,  first  tonsure,  and  minor  orders.  If 
they  have  received  episcopal  consecration  they  have 
a  right  to  the  honorary  privileges  of  titular  bishops: 
if  they  are  not  bishops,  they  have,  but  only  during 
their  term  of  office  and  while  within  their  own  terri¬ 
tories,  the  insignia  and  privileges  of  the  prothono- 
taries  apostolic  de  numero  participantium. 

Prefects  and  vicars  apostolic  must  require  all  mis¬ 
sionaries,  even  religious,  to  show  on  arriving  their  let¬ 
ters  of  authorization,  and  the  missionaries,  including 
regulars,  must  ask  leave  of  them  to  exercise  their 
ministry,  a  request  -which  is  not  to  be  denied  except 
to  individuals  and  then  only  for  grave  cause.  All 
missionaries,  including  regulars,  are  subject  to  their 
jurisdiction,  visitation,  and  correction  in  matters  per¬ 
taining  to  the  government  of  the  missions,  the  cure 
of  souls,  the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  the 
direction  of  schools,  alms  and  bequests  for  the  mis¬ 
sion.  Except  in  the  cases  allowed  by  law,  they  must 
never  meddle  with  the  discipline  of  religious  under 
the  direction  of  their  own  superior;  yet  if  a  dispute 
arises  regarding  the  orders  of  the  religious  superiors 
and  those  of  the  vicars  or  prefect  apostolic  in  regard 
to  the  matters  just  referred  to,  the  religious  must 
ordinarily  follow  the  directions  of  the  vicar  or  prefect 
apostolic;  they  have,  however,  the  right  of  appeal  to 
the  Congregation  of  Propaganda.  If  there  are  not 
enough  secular  priests,  vicars  and  prefects  apostolic 
can,  after  advising  with  the  superiors,  compel  reli¬ 
gious,  even  those  who  are  exempt,  if  they  are  at¬ 
tached  to  the  mission,  to  undertake  the  cure  of  souls, 
unless  the  religious  have  a  rule  to  the  contrary  ap¬ 
proved  by  the  Holy  See. 

Vicars  apostolic  are  obliged  to  make  the  visits  ad 
limina  like  residential  bishops,  but  where  it  would  be 
gravely  inconvenient  they  can  employ  a  procurator, 
even  one  residing  in  Rome.  They  and  the  prefects 
apostolic  are  to  send  a  written  account  of  the  state 
of  their  mission,  signed  personally  and  also  by  one  of 
their  council,  to  the  Holy  See  every  five  years,  and 
moreover,  at  the  close  of  each  year  they  are  to  for¬ 
ward  a  statement  of  the  conversions,  baptisms,  annual 
receptions  of  the  sacraments,  and  other  facts  worthy 
of  notice.  They  may  not  absent  themselves  for  a 
notable  time  from  their  territories,  except  for  a  grave 
and  urgent  cause,  without  consulting  the  Holy  See; 
and  they  should  visit  their  districts  as  often  as  neces¬ 
sary  personally  or  by  proxy,  if  they  are  lawfully  ex¬ 
cused,  to  see  if  the  missions  work  is  being  properly 
conducted.  They  should  select  a  council  of  at  least 
three  of  the  older  and  more  prudent  missionaries, 
whom  they  are  to  consult  in  more  serious  and  difficult 
matters.  If  possible  they  should  call  meetings  of  at 
least  the  chief  religious  and  secular  missionaries  once 
a  year  or  oftener  to  discuss  their  experiences  and  to 
perfect  the  means  of  carrying  on  the  mission  work. 
They  are  bound  to  enforce  the  laws  relating  to  epis¬ 
copal  archives,  due  allowance  however  being  made 
for  difference  of  place  and  persons.  The  regulations 
concerning  plenary  and  provincial  councils  and 
diocesan  synods  should  be  carried  out  in  territories 
subject  to  Propaganda,  as  far  as  conditions  permit; 
no  time  is  fixed,  however,  for  holding  them,  and  the 
decrees  of  the  councils  before  being  promulgated  must 


be  sent  to  the  Congregation  of  Propaganda.  They  are 
bound  gravely  in  conscience  to  use  every  endeavor  to 
build  up  a  native  clergy  and  priesthood  and,  more¬ 
over,  must  apply  Mass  for  the  people  entrusted  to 
them  on  the  feasts  of  the  Nativity,  Epiphany,  Easter, 
Ascension  Thursday,  Pentecost,  Corpus  Christi,  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  the  Assumption,  St.  Joseph, 
Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  and  All  Saints,  according  to  the 
regulations  laid  down  for  bishops.  They  may  not, 
without  the  knowledge  of  the  Holy  See,  allow  mission¬ 
aries  whom  it  has  sent  to  leave  their  territory  per¬ 
petually,  or  to  go  into  another,  neither  may  they 
expel  them.  In  a  case  of  public  scandal,  however, 
they  can,  after  consulting  their  councils,  and,  where 
there  is  question  of  a  religious,  warning  his  superior 
as  far  as  possible,  remove  a  missionary,  but  they  must 
notify  the  Holy  See  of  the  fact.  • 

At  the  end  of  the  year  1921,  there  were  of  Latin 
Rite  177  vicariates  apostolic  (Europe  8,  Asia  68, 
Africa  54,  America  27,  and  Oceanica  20),  62  pre¬ 
fectures  apostolic  (Europe  4,  Asia  10,  Africa  28, 
America  13,  and  Oceanica  7),  and  14  missions 
(Europe  1,  Asia  9,  Africa  1,  America  2,  and  Oceanica 
1);  in  addition  there  are  2  vicariates  apostolic  of 
Uniat  Greco-Bulgar  Rite  (Thrace  and  Macedonia) 
and  4  vicars  apostolic  of  Syro-Malabar  Rite  in  India. 

Prelate  Nullius,  that  is  a  prelate  of  no  diocese, 
one  who  rules  over  a  territory  independent  of  any 
diocese  and  having  its  own  clergy  and  laity.  In 
canon  law  prelates  nullius  are  governed  exactly  by 
the  same  regulations  as  abbots  nullius,  having  the 
same  rights  and  obligations  (see  Abbot)  .  In  1921  the 
prelatures  nullius  were:  Acre  and  Purus,  Bom  Jesus 
do  Piauhy,  Registro  do  Araguaya,  SSma  Conceicao 
do  Araguaya,  and  Santarem  in  Brazil;  Altamura  and 
Acquaviva  delle  Fonti,  and  Santa  Lucia  del  Mela 
in  Italy;  and  Mozambique.  On  13  May,  1921,  the 
prelature  of  Rio  Branco  was  aggregated  to  the  Bene¬ 
dictine  Abbey  of  Our  Lady  of  Monteserrato,  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  the  abbot  durn  g  his  term  of  office  adminis¬ 
tering  the  prelature  without  the  obligation,  however, 
of  personal  residence  there. 

Codex  juris  canonici,  can.  319-27. 

Premonstratensian  Canons  (Norbertine  Order; 
cf .  C.  E. ,  XIII — 387d) . — The  year  1920  witnessed  the 
eighth  centenary  celebrations  of  the  foundation  of 
the  Norbertine  Order  (1120-1920),  the  event  being 
marked  by  splendid  festivities  throughout  the  order, 
and  eulogistic  tributes  appeared  in  both  the  European 
and  American  press.  The  activities  of  the  Norbertine 
Fathers,  especially  in  the  Brabant  province,  are 
worthy  of  note.  During  the  last  twenty  years  their 
number  has  increased  from  408  to  640,  while  new 
houses  have  been  founded  in  England,  the  United 
States,  the  Belgian  Congo,  Brazil,  Denmark,  Canada, 
and  Switzerland.  Thus  would  appear  to  be  fulfilled 
St.  Norbert’s  prophecy,  the  circumstances  of  which 
are  not  without  interest.  At  the  consecration  of  St. 
Norbert’s  first  church  at  Premontre  (1122)  before  a 
large  assembly  of  worshippers,  the  altar  stone  fell  in 
pieces,  an  incident  of  apparently  ill-omen,  vThich 
caused  the  postponement  for  the  time  being  of  the 
ceremony  of  consecration.  According  to  St.  Norbert’s 
prophecy,  this  was  an  indication  that  one  day  his 
order  would  decline,  but  after  some  time  would  be 
restored  with  new  vigor.  At  the  general  chapter  of 
the  order  (1921)  in  the  Abbey  of  Schlagl,  where  the 
revision  of  the  constitutions  was  arranged,  the  follow¬ 
ing  events  of  far-reaching  importance  were  announced: 
the  French  Fathers  were  allowed  to  return  to  France, 
their  two  houses  in  Belgium  being  also  retained;  a 
beautiful  and  extensive  building  had  been  acquired 
in  Rome,  alongside  of  the  famous  Basilica  of  St. 
Pudenziana,  whose  administration  was  likewise  en¬ 
trusted  to  the  order;  the  Abbey  of  Tongerloo  had  taken 


PRENDERGAST 


004 


PRESBYTERIANISM 


charge  of  the  episcopal  college  of  St.  Charles,  Porren- 
truy  near  Basle  (Switzerland);  the  Abbey  of  Averbode 
was  to  start  a  new  house  of  the  order  at  Antwerp;  the 
Abbey  of  Tepl  had  bought  the  former  Norbertine 
Abbey  of  Speinshart,  in  Bavaria;  the  canons  of  Aver¬ 
bode  had  started  a  huge  Eucharistic  crusade  for  the 
Belgian  youth. 

St.  Norbertine’s  Third  Order,  founded  by  the  Saint 
himself  for  his  friend  Count  Theobald  of  Blois  and 
Champagne,  a  grandson  of  William  the  Conqueror, 
was  the  first  institution  of  this  kind,  being  established 
one  hundred  years  before  the  Franciscan  and  Domini¬ 
can  Third  Orders  (1122).  It  flourished  especially  in 
Flanders,  Brittany,  and  Bavaria.  Count  Baldwin  IX 
of  Flanders,  afterwards  Emperor  of  Constantinople, 
was  one  of  its  illustrious  members.  The  year  1922 
being  the  eighth  centenary  of  the  foundation,  a  na¬ 
tional  congress  of  the  members  of  the  Third  Order  of 
St.  Norbert  was  held  in  the  Abbey  of  Tongerloo,  pre¬ 
sided  over  by  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  L.  Heylen,  Bishop  of 
Namur.  Bishop  Heylen  is  a  son  of  Tongerloo, 
founder  of  the  Corpus  Christi  basilica  of  Manchester 
and  of  the  Belgian  Archconfraternity  of  the  Holy  Mass 
of  Reparation  (238,000  members),  and  as  president 
of  the  Permanent  Committee  of  the  International 
Eucharistic  Congresses  has  given  vigorous  impulse 
to  those  splendid  world-gatherings  in  honor  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  which  are  making  the  twentieth 
century  “the  century  of  the  Holy  Eucharist.”  The 
process  of  beatification  of  Hugh  of  Fosses  (1093-1164) , 
first  disciple  of  St.  Norbert  and  first  abbot  general  of 
the  Norbertine  Order,  will  be  introduced  in  Rome  in 
May,  1922,  by  Bishop  Heylen.  On  27  January,  1922, 
occurred  the  death  of  the  abbot  general,  Norbert 
Schachinger,  Abbott  of  Schlagl.  He  was  succeeded 
by  the  present  abbot  general,  Gummarus  Crets, 
Abbot  of  Averbode  (Belgium). 

Statistics. — The  following  statistics  show  the 
present  state  of  the  order  in  each  circary  or  province. 
Particulars  are  also  given  having  reference  to  some 
convents  of  nuns  who ,  though  no  longer  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  order,  are  or  have  been  related  to  it. 
The  figures  have  been  taken  from  printed  catalogues 
published  in  December,  1921,  or  from  letters  since 
received.  When  the  desired  information  has  not 
arrived  in  time,  a  catalogue  of  a  former  year  has  been 
consulted. 

Circary  of  Brabant  (Belgium  and  Holland). — Aver¬ 
bode  Abbey:  priests,  89;  clerics  and  novices,  26;  lay 
brothers,  37;  of  these,  28  priests  and  22  lay  brothers 
have  been  sent  to  Brazil;  and  4  priests  and  2  lay 
brothers  to  Veile  in  Denmark.  Grimbergen  Abbey: 
priests,  32;  clerics,  7;  lay  brothers,  6;  of  these,  4 
priests  are  in  Canada.  Park-Louvain  Abbey:  priests, 
38;  clerics,  5;  of  these,  8  priests  in  Brazil.  Postel 
Abbey:  priests,  27;  clerics,  4;  of  these,  1  priest  in 
Belgian  Congo  and  1  in  England.  Tongerloo  Abbey: 
priests,  80;  clerics,  31;  lay  brothers,  31;  of  these  12 
priests  are  in  England,  5  priests  are  in  Switzerland, 
and  12  priests  and  10  lay  brothers  are  in  Belgian  Congo 
in  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Welle  (q.  v.).  Berne- 
Heeswijk  Abbey:  priests,  48;  clerics,  11;  lay  broth¬ 
ers,  13;  a  flourishing  college  with  100  students  is 
attached  to  the  abbey.  St.  Norbert’s  Priory,  West 
De  Pere,  Wisconsin,  U.  S.  A.:  priests,  34;  clerics,  7; 
lay  brothers,  4;  and  a  college  conducted  by  the  fath¬ 
ers. 

Circary  of  France. — The  Abbey  of  Mondaye  and 
other  houses,  confiscated  in  1903,  founded  a  new  house 
at  Bois-Seigneur  Isaac,  near  Nivelles,  Belgium.  In 
1921  the  old  Abbey  of  Mondaye  was  reestablished 
(priests  22;  clerics,  2;  lay  brothers,  2).  The  Abbey 
of  Averbode  took  charge  of  the  Priory  of  Bois-Seigneur 
Isaac  (priests  8;  clerics,  7;  lay  brothers,  2). 

Circary  of  Provence. — The  Abbey  of  Frigolet  and 
other  houses  confiscated  in  1903,  bought  the  former 


Norbertine  Abbey  of  Leffe,  Dinant,  Belgium.  In 
1921  they  recovered  their  house  of  Frigolet  (priests, 
31;  lay  brothers,  2).  The  Abbey  of  Leffe  became  a 
simple  priory  (priests  3).  The  Priory  of  Storrington, 
England,  has  6  priests  and  1  lay  brother.  The  mission 
in  Madagascar  is  served  by  3  Norbertine  Fathers. 

Circary  of  Austria  . — In  Czechoslovakia:  Neureisch 
Abbey  (Novd  Rise),  15  priests;  Seelau  Abbey 
(Zeliv),  21  priests,  Strahov  Abbey  (Prague),  66 
priests  and  2  clerics;  Tepl  Abbey,  95  priests  and  3 
clerics;  the  college  of  Pilscn  is  conducted  by  the 
abbey  (professors,  9;  students,  185).  _  In  Austria: 
Gerus  Abbey,  25  priests  and  3  clerics;  Schlagl 
Abbey,  41  priests  and  5  clerics;  Wilten  Abbey 
(Innsbruck),  44  priests,  4  clerics,  and  4  lay  brothers. 

Circary  of  Hungary. — In  Czechoslovakia:  _  Jaszo 
Abbey  (priests,  85;  clerics,  13),  which  supplies  the 
professors  and  conducts  the  gymnasia  of  lvassa, 
Rozsnyo,  and  Nagy-Vdrad  (now  in  Rumania).  In 
Hungary:  Csorna  Abbey  (priests  45;  clerics,  5), 
which  supplies  the  professors  and  conducts  the  gym¬ 
nasia  of  Keszthely  (professors,  13;  students,  332)  and 
Szombathely  (professors,  14;  students,  450).  These 
two  abbeys  have  a  college  for  their  religious,  who 
study  at  the  University  of  Budapest;  some  clerics 
follow  the  course  of  lectures  at  the  University  of  Fri¬ 
bourg. 

Convents  of  Norbertine  Nuns  ( Second  Order). — 
Oosterhout Priory,  Holland,  52 nuns.  Neerpelt Priory , 
Belgium,  25  nuns.  Bonlieu  Abbey,  nuns  expelled 
from  France,  reassembled  at  Grimbergen,  Belgium, 
35  nuns.  Le  Mesnil-St-Denis  Priory,  Seine  et  Oise, 
France,  34  nuns.  Abbey  of  St.  Sophia,  Toro,  Spain, 
14  nuns.  Abbey  of  St.  Maria  near  Zamora,  Villoria 
de  Orbigo,  Spain,  42  nuns.  Zwierzyniec,  near  Cracow, 
Poland,  46  nuns.  Imbramowice  Abbey,  Poland,  12 
nuns;  Priory  of  Berg  Sion,  near  Utznach,  in  the  Dio¬ 
cese  of  St.  Gall,  Switzerland,  39  nuns. 

Convents  of  Norbertine  Nuns  ( Third  Order). — St. 
Joseph’s  at  Heiligenberg,  near  Olmutz,  10  nuns,  and 
Stresovice  Andelka,  near  Prague,  3  nuns. 

Congregation  of  Norbertine  Bisters,  mother-house  at 
Duffel,  Belgium,  with  branch  houses  in  Mechlin, 
Gheel,  Hoostraeten,  Neerwaver. 

Prendergast,  Edmond  F.,  Archbishop  of  Phila¬ 
delphia,  b.  at  Clonmel,  Ireland,  on  3  May,  1843; 
d.  at  Philadelphia  on  26  February,  1918.  He  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1859  and  made  his  ecclesi¬ 
astical  studies  at  Overbrook  Seminary,  being  ordained 
on  17  November,  1865.  He  held  several  important 
pastorates  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Philadelphia  and 
from  1895-1897  he  served  as  vicar-general.  He  was 
auxiliary  to  Archbishop  Ryan  on  27  November,  1895, 
and  he  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Scillio  by 
his  immediate  superior  on  24  February,  1897 .  _  He 
was  appointed  seventh  archbishop  of  Philadelphia  on 
27  May,  1911.  ,  ,  ,  TT  J 

Retjss,  Biog.  Cyc.  of  the  Catholic  Hierarchy  of  the  United 
States,  1784-1898  (Milwaukee,  1898);  The  Golden  Jubilee  of  the 
Priesthood  of  the  Most  Reverend  Edmond  F.  Prendergast,  D.D. 
and  the  Dedication  of  the  Cathedral  of  Saint  Peter  and  Paul, 
Philadelphia  (Philadelphia  in  1915);  Corrigan,  Chronology  of 
the  Catholic  Hierarchy  of  the  United  States  in  Cath.  Hist. 
Rev.,  Ill  23. 

Presbyterianism  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 392c). — In 
1906  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  America  effected  a  union  with  the  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Church.  However,  approximately  one- 
half  of  the  ministers,  organizations,  and  members  of 
the  latter  refused  to  recognize  the  union  and  continued 
the  organization.  Much  litigation  ensued,  most  of 
the  cases  being  decided  in  favor  of  the  “reunited 
church;”  in  Tennessee  'and  Missouri  the  decisions 
favored  the  Cumberland  body.  The  union  has 
adopted  a  “Book  of  Common  Worship”  for  voluntary 
use.  In  1907  the  Council  of  the  Reformed  Churches 


PRESCRIPTION 


PRINCE  ALBERT 


605 


in  the  United  States  holding  the  Presbyterian  System 
was  organized,  bringing  into  co-operative  relations 
seven  of  the  Presbyterian  family  in  this  country.  Of 
the  Reformed  bodies  the  Reformed  Church  in  Amer¬ 
ica,  and  the  Reformed  Church  in  the  United  States 
joined  this  council,  although  rejecting  a  proposed 
organic  union  with  the  Presbyterian  Church. 

Since  1907  there  have  been  proposed  various  plans 
of  union,  notably  that  of  the  Northern  and  the 
Southern  bodies.  The  latter  rejected  the  overtures. 
Plans  of  union  in  Scotland  and  in  Canada  also  failed, 
or  have  been  postponed.  In  1920  the  Welsh  Presby¬ 
terian  Church  united  with  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  United  States.  Finally  in  1921  (December), 
proposals  for  union  of  all  Presbyterian  and  Reformed 
Churches  in  the  United  States  were  indefinitely  post¬ 
poned  ,  owing  to  inability  to  agree  on  a  unification  pro¬ 
gram.  The  point  of  disagreement  was  as  to  whether 
there  should  be  a  complete  union,  with  one  general 
assembly  and  a  number  of  regional  synods,  or  a  fed¬ 
eral  union  in  which  the  various  denominations  would 
preserve  their  autonomy.  The  denominations  reject¬ 
ing  the  proposals  were  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States  (South),  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States  (North);  Reformed  Church  in  the 
United  States;  and  the  United  Presbyterian  Church. 

In  interdenominational  work  the  Presbyterians  are 
affiliated  with  the  Federal  Council  of  Churches  of 
Christ  in  America  and  have  been  prominent  in  the 
preparations  for  the  World  Conference  on  Faith  and 
Order. 

The  Presbyterians  have  been  especially  active 
anion g  foreigners  in  this  country.  In  1916  there  were 
eighty-one  different  communities  served  by  the  board 
in  charge  of  this  work;  eleven  languages  were  regu¬ 
larly  employed.  The  Presbyterian  Church  (North¬ 
ern)  has  inaugurated  a  “New  Era  Movement”  in  an 
attempt  to  bring  under  one  leadership  the  various 
agencies  and  a  plan  of  financial  centralization  has 
been  adopted. 

Since  1917  the  educational  work  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  this  country  is  under  a  general  board  of 
education.  It  controls  13  seminaries,  including  two 
for  Germans,  and  two  for  negroes.  Among  other 
ir  stitutions  affiliated  with  the  board  (generally  owned 
or  controlled  by  the  Presbyterians)  are  Elmira  Col¬ 
lege,  Lafayette  College,  Lincoln  University,  New 
York  University,  University  of  Wooster,  Washington 
and  Jefferson  College  and  Illinois  College.  Princeton 
University,  Hamilton  College,  and  Western  Reserve 
University,  though  not  directly  connected  with  the 
church,  have  been  closely  identified  with  its  history. 

In  the  foreign  field  in  1916  the  Presbyterians  carried 
on  26  missions,  7  in  China,  3  in  India,  2  each  in  Per¬ 
sia,  Siam  and  Brazil,  and  1  each  in  Africa,  Japan, 
Korea,  Mexico,  the  Philippine  Islands,  Chile,  Colom¬ 
bia,  Venezuela,  Guatemala  and  Syria.  They  reported 
1353  missionaries,  118  medical  missionaries  (24 
women),  and  308  single  women,  930  churches  and 
161,470  communicants.  In  1920  they  reported  1772 
missionaries  and  226,971  members.  The  church 
conducts  the  Syrian  Protestant  College  at  Beirut, 
Syria,  Forman  College  at  Allahabad,  India,  and  the 
Canton  Christian  College  in  China. 

The  names  of  the  various  Presbyterian  bodies  in 
the  United  States  are  (1922)  the  Associate  Reformed 
Synod,  Associate  Synod  of  North  America,  Colored 
Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church,  Cumberland  Pres¬ 
byterian  Church,  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America,  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  (South),  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  (Old 
School),  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  General 
Synod,  United  Presbyterian  Church,  and  Welsh 
Presbyterian  Church  (Calvinistic  Methodist). 

In  1920  there  were  between  five  and  six  million 
Presbyterian  communicants  in  the  world;  United 


States,  2,255,000  (10  bodies),  (2,384,000  in  1922); 
Scotland  1,245,000;  Canada  300,000;  Wales  200,000; 
Ireland  130,000;  England  89,000;  Australia  100,000; 
New  Zealand  50,000;  South  Africa  50,000.  The  total 
number  of  Presbyterian  constituents  (communicants 
and  their  families),  in  the  world,  is  between  fifteen 
and  twenty  millions,  although  some  state  a  much 
higher  figure. 

Selbie,  English  Sects  (London,  n.  d.,  ab.  1910);  Religious 
Bodies,  1916,  (Washington,  1919);  Year  Book  of  the  Churches 
(New  York,  annual);  Sweets.  Our  Presbyterian  Educational 
Institutions  (Louisville,  1914);  Stephens,  The  Presbyterian 
Churches,  Divisions  and  Unions  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  Canada  and 
America  (Philadelphia,  1910). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Prescription.  See  Property,  Ecclesiastical. 

Presentation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  Congre¬ 
gation  of  the  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII— 399d).— The  general 
mother-house  is  at  Bourg  Saint-Andeol  (Ardeche), 
France,  and  Mother  Marie-Sainte-Honorine  is  the 
sixth  superior  general  of  the  institution.  The 
provincial-house  in  America  is  at  Saint-Hyacinth 
(Quebec),  Canada.  Mother  Marie  des  Saints 
Anges  is  provincial  superior.  Connected  with  the 
American  provincial  house  are  the  novitiate,  with 
114  novices  and  postulants,  a  boarding  school  affil¬ 
iated  to  the  University  of  Montreal,  and  a  govern¬ 
ment  normal  school.  The  Sisters  are  also  in  charge 
of  two  academies  and  two  primary  schools  in  the 
city  of  Saint  Hyacinthe.  There  are  1023  Sisters  in 
America,  with  a  total  of  59  houses  and  20,751 
pupils.  In  the  United  States  12,856  pupils  are  un¬ 
der  the  Sisters’  instruction  in  25  schools  belonging  to 
this  congregation. 

Presentation  of  Our  Lady,  Sisters  of  the  (cf. 
C.  E.,  XII — 399a),  founded  at  St.  Nicolas  in  1830. 
The  Rev.  K.  Schockaert  is  chaplain  and  director 
of  the  institute  and  Mother  Mary  Alphonse  was 
re-elected  general  superior  in  1920.  Dependent  on 
the  mother-house  at  St.  Nicolas  are  the  filial 
houses  of  Boom  (near  Antwerp)  Ledeberg  {Ghent) 
Lockeren,  Bornhem,  and  Lootenhulle,  each  house 
has  an  institution  for  boarders  and  two  day 
schools,  one  for  the  lower  classes  of  society  which 
is  gratuitous  and  another  for  the  better  classes.  At 
St.  Nicolas,  besides  the  boarding  school  with  about 
170  pupils,  there  is  a  college  for  pupil-teachers 
with  an  attendance  of  270.  It  has  two  sections,  a 
primary  and  a  middle  section  for  higher  studies. 
The  latter  was  founded  in  1911,  and  in  1920  com¬ 
mercial  classes  were  started,  with  a  three  year 
course  in  business  training  for  girls,  at  the  end  of 
which  a  certificate  may  be  obtained.  At  present 
the  community  numbers  about  200  members. 

Presentation  Order  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 397b). — 
The  new  Code  of  Canon  Law  has  made  necessary 
some  changes  in  the  rule  of  the  order.  In  Ireland  the 
bishops  are  advocating  amalgamation,  the  extent  of 
which  is  not  yet  known.  In  the  last  ten  years  the  fol¬ 
lowing  new  houses  have  been  founded;  Ireland,  2; 
England,  2;  Australia,  1;  India,  1;  America,  6.  Of 
the  new  foundations  in  America  3  are  in  South 
Dakota,  1  in  Dubuque,  Iowa,  and  2  in  New  York 
City.  A  novitiate  was  opened  in  1921  at  Mt.  St. 
Joseph,  Newburgh,  N.  Y. 

Prince  Albert  and  Saskatoon,  Diocese  of 
(Principis  Alberti  et  Saskatoonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XII — 427b),  in  the  Province  of  Saskatchewan, 
Canada,  suffragan  of  Regina.  By  decree  of  30  April, 
1921,  the  name  of  the  diocese  formerly  Prince  Albert, 
was  changed  to  Prince  Albert  and  Saskatoon.  The 
Benedictine  Abbey  of  St.  Peter  at  Muenster,  Sas¬ 
katchewan,  was  erected  into  an  abbey  nullius  by 


PRIVATION 


606 


PRIVILEGES 


Apostolic  Constitution  of  6  May,  1921,  and  its  terri¬ 
tory  separated  from  the  Diocese  of  Prince  Albert  and 
Saskatoon.  The  diocese  is  confided  to  the  Oblates  of 
Mary  Immaculate  and  the  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Joseph  Prud’homme,  O.  M.  I.,  b.  1882,  elected  1921, 
succeeding  Bishop  Albert  Pascal,  deceased.  There  are 
in  the  diocese:  32,000  Catholics,  not  including  Ruthe- 
nians,  34  secular  priests;  37  regular  priests,  of  whom 
36  are  Oblates  and  1  Redemptorist;  54  churches  with 
resident  priests;  75  chapels;  8  religious  congregations 
of  women  with  203  Sisters;  3700  children  in  115 
Catholic  schools;  2  schools  for  Indians  with  130  chil¬ 
dren. 

Privation  is  a  vindication  imposed  by  the  law 
or  by  a  superior  by  which  one  is  deprived  of  an 
ecclesiastical  right,  dignity,  office,  benefice  or  the 
fruit  thereof.  In  public  cases  where  it  has  been 
incurred  as  a  penalty  latae  scntcntiae  of  the  com¬ 
mon  law  it  cannot  be  remitted  by  the  ordinary.  If 
it  has  been  imposed  by  an  ordinary  he  cannot 
validly  confer  the  vacated  office,  benefice  or  dignity 
on  onee  of  his  own  household  or  on  one  who  is 
related  to  him  by  blood  or  affinity  in  the  first  or 
second  degree. 

The  following  persons  by  the  very  fact  of  their 
offence  suffer  privation:  those  who  presume  to 
hold  two  incompatible  offices  or  benefices  lose 
both ;  a  newly  promoted  cardinal  who  refuses  to 
swear  to  visit  the  pope  within  a  year,  is  deprived 
of  the  cardinalitial  dignity  forever;  a  bishop-elect 
who  neglects  to  receive  consecration  within  six 
months  is  deprived  of  the  right  of  consecration; 
a  patron  who  converts  to  his  own  use  ecclesiastical 
property  belonging  to  the  church  of  which  he  is 
patron  loses  his  right  of  patronage ;  one  who  holds 
an  office,  benefice,  or  dignity  and  violates  the  obli¬ 
gation  of  residence  annexed,  eo  ipso  loses  a  part  of 
the  revenue  proportionate  to  the  time  of  his  ab¬ 
sence,  if  he  remains  obstinate  he  may  be  deprived 
of  the  office,  benefice,  or  dignity  itself. 

The  following  are  to  be  punished  by  privation: 
clerics  who  impede  directly  or  indirectly  the  exer¬ 
cise  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  and  have  recourse 
for  that  purpose  to  any  lay  power  or  who  publish 
laws,  mandates  or  -decrees  against  the  rights  and 
liberty  of  the  Church,  or  who  join  Masonic  or 
similar  associations  which  plot  against  the  Church 
or  legitimate  civil  authority;  they  are  to  lose  their 
office,  benefice,  dignity,  pension  or  function  (and 
if  they  are  religious  are  to  be  deprived  of  active 
and  passive  voice  in  their  institute) ;  so,  too,  are 
clerics  who  conspire  against  the  authority  of  the 
pope,  a  papal  legate,  or  their  own  ordinary,  or 
clerics  laying  violent  hands  on  a  cardinal  or  papal 
legate;  or  confessors  guilty  of  solicitation;  or 
clerics  who  usurp  or  retain  the  property  or  rights 
of  the  Roman  Church;  or  clerics  guilty  of  certain 
aggravated  sins  of  impurity. 

Clerics  usurping  or  converting  church  property 
are  to  lose  their  benefices;  clerics  who  deliberately 
inflict  grave  bodily  injury  on  themselves,  are  to 
lose  their  benefices  or  offices  having  cure  of  souls 
annexed. 

The  following  offenders  are  to  be  punished  by 
privation  but  only  if  recalcitrant:  apostates,  heret¬ 
ics,  or  schismatics,  are  to  lose  their  benefices,  dig¬ 
nities,  pensions,  office,  or  functions;  canon  theolo¬ 
gians,  or  penitentiaries,  their  benefice;  concuninary 
parish  priests  are  to  lose  their  parishes,  other 
clerics  their  benefices. 

The  following  persons  may  be  punished  by 
privation  at  the  discretion  of  the  ordinary:  those 
who  traffic  in  Mass  stipends  or  who  fail  to  notify 
the  ordinary  annually  of  the  number  of  Masses 


still  unsaid  for  which  stipends  have  been  received, 
if  this  notification  is  required  by  law ;  those  who 
insult  or  defame  another  verbally  or  in  writing; 
those  who  steal,  destroy,  conceal  or  substantially 
change  any  document  belonging  to  the  episcopal 
archives,  may  be  deprived  of  their  office  or  bene¬ 
fice;  those  who  are  found  guilty  of  homicide, 
abduction  of  the  young,  selling  anyone  as  a  slave 
or  for  any  other  evil  purpose,  usury,  rapine,  griev¬ 
ous  theft,  incendiarium,  grave  mutilation  or  assault 
or  battery  inflicted  on  another,  or  those  who  take 
possession  of  a  benefice,  office,  or  dignity  irregu¬ 
larly;  those  who  stubbornly  refuse  to  make  the 
profession  of  faith  when  required  by  law;  those 
who  fabricate  or  falsify  papal  letters,  decrees  or 
rescripts,  or  knowingly  use  the  same  (if  religious, 
they  are  to  lose  active  and  passive  voice) ;  clerics 
who  violate  the  sixth  commandment  especially  if 
they  have  cure  of  souls. 

Again  a  cleric  who  is  giving  grave  scandal  and 
remains  recalcitrant  may  be  deprived  temporarily 
of  the  right  to  wear  clerical  dress;  if  acleric  has 
been  deposed  and  shows  no  sign  of  amendment  he 
may  be  deprived  perpetually  of  this  right,  which 
would  entail  the  loss  of  clerical  privileges,  or  clerics 
who  publicly  sympathize  or  who  attempt  even  civil 
marriage,  or  who  elope,  lose  their  right  to  the 
clerical  dress,  ipso  facto. 

Religious  superiors  who  admit  unsuitable  candi¬ 
dates  irregularly  to  the  novitiate  or  to  profession 
may  be  deprived  of  their  office;  so,  too,  reverend 
mothers  who  spend  any  part  of  a  nun’s  dowry  or 
who  fail  to  notify  the  ordinary  in  due  time  about 
approaching  receptions  or  profession,  or  who 
violate  the  regulations  protecting  the  liberty  of 
criticism  enjoyed  by  nuns  during  visitation;  or  a 
superioress  who  puts  any  difficulty  in  the  way  of  a 
nun  who  desires  to  have  an  extraordinary  confes¬ 
sor,  or  who  prevents  or  asks  about  a  nun  going  to 
confession  to  any  approved  confessor  in  a  church 
or  even  a  semi-public  oratory,  or  who  would  in 
any  way  prohibit  a  nun  who  was  seriously  ill  from 
calling  in  any  priest  who  has  approbation  for  hear¬ 
ing  women’s  confessions.  After  a  warning  for  any 
of  these  offences  a  superior  is  to  be  deprived  of 
his  or  her  offices  if  a  second  offence  occurs.  It 
should  be  noted  that  a  sentence  of  privation  does 
not  take  effect  until  it  has  been  communicated  to 
the  guilty  party,  who  has  always,  however,  the 
right  of  a  devolutive  appeal  to  the  Holy  See. 

Privilege. — If  a  privilege  has  been  enjoyed 
for  100  years  or  from  time  immemorial  it  is  presumed 
to  have  been  properly  granted.  A  privilege  granted 
by  rescript  is  not  revoked  by  a  contrary  law  unless 
this  is  stated  expressly  in  the  law  or  unless  the  law 
was  enacted  by  the  superior  of  the  person  who  issued 
the  rescript.  It  was  formerly  customary  for  religious 
orders  properly  so  called  to  communicate  to  one 
another  whatever  privileges  were  granted  specially 
to  any  of  them  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII-756b).  This  practice 
has  now  been  abolished,  for  the  Code  declares  that  a 
religious  order  or  institute  henceforth  enjoys  only 
the  privileges  contained  in  the  Code  or  granted  to  it 
by  the  Apostolic  See,  all  communication  of  privileges 
being  hereafter  excluded;  privileges  of  a  regular  order, 
however,  belong  also  the  nuns  of  the  same  order  in 
so  far  as  they  are  capable  of  enjoying  them. 

Privileges,  Ecclesiastical. — The  faithful  owe  rev¬ 
erence  to  the  clergy,  according  to  their  different 
grades  and  offices,  and  would  be  guilty  of  the 
crime  of  sacrilege  if  they  inflicted  an  unjustifiable 
bodily  injury  on  a  cleric. 

Privilegium  canonist — Under  the  Code  of  Canon 
Law  the  punishment  inflicted  for  attacking  the  per- 


PRJASEV 


607 


PROFESSION 


son  of  a  cleric  is  proportioned  to  the  dignity  of  the 
party  injured.  Thus  anyone  who  lays  violent  hands 
on  the  pope  incurs  excommunication  very  specially 
reserved  to  the  Holy  See,  is  ipso  jacto  an  excom¬ 
municate  vitandus,  legally  infamous,  and  if  he  be 
a  cleric  is  to  be  degraded;  if  the  party  injured  is 
a  cardinal  or  a  legate  of  the  pope  the  culprit  in¬ 
curs  an  excommunication  specially  reserved  to  the 
pope,  he  oecomes  legally  infamous  and  is  to  be 
deprived  of  any  ecclesiastical  benefice,  dignity,  pen¬ 
sion  or  office  he  holds;  if  the  injured  party  is  a 
patriarch,  archbishop,  bishop,  whether  residential 
or  titular,  the  offender  incurs  excommunication  re¬ 
served  specially  to  the  Holy  See;  if  the  part}' 
wronged  is  any  other  cleric  or  religious  of  either 
sex,  the  excommunication  is  reserved  to  the  cul¬ 
prit’s  ordinary,  who  may  if  he  judges  fitting  impose 
additional  penalties. 

Privilegiuvi  fori. — This  means  that  in  civil  and 
criminal  cases  the  clergy  must  be  brought  to  trial 
before  an  ecclesiastical  not  a  oecular  judge;  how¬ 
ever,  in  certain  places  the  Holy  See  has  agreed 
with  the  civil  authorities  to  waive  this  privilege 
while  in  all  others  places  permission  when  neces¬ 
sary,  though  it  must  be  asked,  is  always  granted  to 
bring  clerics  before  a  lay  tribunal.  If  the  defend¬ 
ant  is  a  prelate  of  high  rank  permission  can  be 
obtained  only  from  the  Holy  See;  otherwise  it  can 
be  granted  by  the  ordinary.  Canonists  agree  that 
this  privilege  of  the  forum  is  not  in  force  in  Bel¬ 
gium,  France,  Holland  or  Germany,  Ireland  and 
English-speaking  countries  generally;  in  the  United 
States  laymen  may  sue  a  cleric  without  asking  the 
ordinarj^’s  permission,  but  a  priest  may  not  sue 
another  cleric  m  the  civil  courts  without  leave 
of  his  ecclesiastical  superiors.  Where  the  privilege 
is  in  force  the  legislation  of  the  Church  is  as  fol¬ 
lows:  Whosoever  without  leave  of  the  Holy  See 
dares  to  bring  before  a  lay  judge  a  cardinal,  legate 
of  the  Holy  See,  or  higher  official  of  the  Roman 
Curia  in  connection  with  matters  pertaining  to  this 
office,  or  finally  his  own  ordinary  incurs  excommu¬ 
nication  specially  reserved  to  the  pope;  if  the 
party  haled  before  the  judge  is  any  other  bishop, 
abbot  or  prelate  nullius  or  one  of  the  higher  supe¬ 
riors  of  a  pontifically  approved  religious  order,  the 
excommunication  is  reserved  simply  to  the  pope; 
in  any  other  case  the  culprit  if  a  cleric  is  ipso  facto 
suspended  from  office,  while  a  lay  person  is  to  be 
suitably  punished  by  his  bishop. 

Naturally  an  individual  loses  these  privileges 
when  he  is  no  longer  in  the  ranks  of  the  clergy; 
that  is  the  case  when  a  minor  cleric  after  notifying 
his  ordinary  discontinues  his  studies  for  the  priest¬ 
hood  and  returns  to  secular  life;  or  when  a  culprit 
for  his  evil  deeds  has  been  degraded  or  deprived 
forever  by  his  bishop  of  the  right  to  wear  ecclesias¬ 
tical  dress. 

Codex  juris  canonici ,  2341;  Ayrinhac,  Penal  Legislation  in  the 
New  Code  (New  York,  1920)  272-79;  Idem  in  Eccles.  Rev.  XLVII 
(Philadelphia,  1912),  302-15. 

Prjasev,  Diocese  of  Eperjesensis  Ruthenorum 
(cf.  C.  E.,  Eperies  V — 484d),  of  the  Greek  Ruthen- 
ian  Rite,  dependent  of  Estzergom,  formerly  in  king¬ 
dom  of  Hungary ,  but  now  in  Czechoslovakia.  Rt. 
Rev.  Stephen  Novak,  born  in  Oblya,  diocese  of  Mun- 
kacs,  4  December,  -1879,  was  consecrated  bishop  in 
1913  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  John  Valyi,  d.  22  Novem¬ 
ber,  1911.  On  account  of  political  reasons  Bishop 
Novak  has  been  out  of  the  diocese  for  three  years 
and  his  affairs  are  administered  by  the  vicar  gen¬ 
eral  Nicolaus  Russnak.  The  bishop’s  see  is  Prjasev, 
in  Latin  Fragopolis.  in  Slovakian  Presov,  in  Hun¬ 
garian  Eperjes.  Here  the  episcopal  residence, 
cathedral,  seminary  and  most  of  the  diocesan  insti¬ 


tutions  are  situated.  The  diocese  contains  185,000 
Ruthenian  Catholics,  230  priests  (11  celibates,  27 
widowers,  the  rest  married)  183  parishes  scattered 
through  6  counties,  183  parochial  churches,  135 
filial  churches,  61  chapels,  250  parochial  schools 
with  35,000  pupils,  a  college  for  boys,  2  convents 
of  Basilians,  and  a  theological  seminary  with  40 
students. 

Profession,  Religious  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII-451c). — 
The  canonical  requirements  for  a  valid  religious  pro¬ 
fession  are  as  follows:  (1)  the  candidate  must  be 
at  least  sixteen  years  old  for  temporary  or  twenty-one 
for  perpetual  profession;  (2)  he  must  have  made  a 
valid  novitiate;  (3)  he  must  be  admitted  to  profession 
by  a  superior  authorized  by  the  constitutions;  (4) 
the  profession  must  be  explicit,  made  freely  and  with 
requisite  knowledge,  and  finally  must  be  accepted  by 
a  lawful  superior  or  his  delegate  according  to  the 
constitutions.  Furthermore,  if  there  is  question  of 
perpetual  profession  in  any  religious  institute  the 
candidate  must  have  been  professed  of  simple  tempo¬ 
rary  vows  for  at  least  three  years.  The  first  profession 
must  be  made  in  the  house  of  novices  at  the  end  of 
the  term  of  probation.  These  vows  bind  either  for 
three  years  or  longer  in  the  case  of  those  who  after  the 
lapse  of  three  years  have  not  reached  the  age  required 
for  the  perpetual  profession,  or  from  year  to  year 
wheie  the  constitutions  prescribe  annual  professions. 
The  general  law  no  longer  extends  the  time  or  age  for 
profession  in  the  case  of  lay  brothers  beyond  those 
required  for  other  religious;  the  law  exempt's  from  tem¬ 
porary  profession  a  religious  who, havingbeen  professed 
solemnly  or  with  simple  perpetual  vows,  changes  with 
permission  of  the  Holy  See  to  another  order  or  congre¬ 
gation;  such  a  religious  on  completing  his  new  noviti¬ 
ate  must  be  admitted  to  perpetual  profession  at  once 
or  return  to  his  old  order;  however,  if  necessary  to 
test  his  vocation,  the  superior  may  prolong  his 
period  of  probation  but  not  for  more  than  one  year. 
It  may  be  noted  by  way  of  exception  that  the  first 
vows  of  the  Jesuits  and  the  Religious  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  are  still  perpetual  on  the  part  of  the  professed 
religious;  however,  the  profession  by  which  the  latter 
institute  becomes  bound  to  its  members  cannot  be 
postponed  beyond  six  years. 

When  the  temporary  vows  of  the  professed  have  to 
be  renewed,  for  a  just  cause  the  renovation  may  be 
made  earlier,  but  not  by  more  than  a  month.  In 
such  a  case  the  new  year  of  temporary  profession 
does  not  begin  from  the  day  of  renovation,  but  from 
the  day  in  which  it  would  have  begun  had  the  time 
of  renovation  not  been  anticipated.  If  the  lawful 
superior  questions  the  fitness  of  the  religious  for 
perpetual  profession,  he  may  allow  the  temporary 
vows  to  be  renewed  but  not  for  more  than  three 
years;  should  a  doubt  still  remain,  the  superior,  if  desir¬ 
ous  of  continuing  the  probation,  must  apply  to  the 
Holy  See,  which,  however,  is  not  wont  to  extend  it  be¬ 
yond  a  year.  In  case  a  novice  on  account  of  his  age  had 
to  make  a  temporary  profession  for  more  than  three 
years,  if  an  extra  period  of  probation  is  needed,  it 
must  not,  in  the  opinion  of  Vermeersch,  extend  be¬ 
yond  six  years  from  the  time  of  the  first  profession, 
though  Augustine  holds  that  extension  may  be  for 
three  years  beyond  the  time  for  which  the  first  vows 
were  made.  Before  the  period  of  their  temporary 
vows  has  expired  religious  may  be  dismissed  by  the 
general  of  a  pontifically  approved  order  or  institute 
with  the  consent  of  his  council,  or  in  the  case  of  nuns 
by  the  local  ordinary  and  the  regular  superior,  if 
there  is  any,  acting  on  the  written  request  of  the 
mother  superior,  and  her  council,  or,  in  the  case 
of  diocesan  Sisters,  by  the  ordinary  of  the  place 
where  the  convent  is  situated  with  the  knowledge  and 
consent  of  the  superioresses. 


PROFESSION 


608 


PROFESSION 


In  dismissing  temporarily  professed  relig  ous  the 
following  conditions  must  be  observed  by  superiors: 
(a)  the  motives  for  dismissal  must  be  grave;  thus  a 
lack  of  the  religious  spirit  causing  scandal  to  others  is 
sufficient,  when  repeated  admonition  combined 
with  a  salutary  penance  has  proved  ineffective;  though 
ill-health  is  not,  unless  it  is  clearly  proved  that  the  ill- 
health  was  fraudulently  concealed  or  dissimulated  be¬ 
fore  profession;  (b)  although  the  motives  must  be  really 
known  to  the  superior  who  dismisses,  it  is  not  neces¬ 
sary  for  them  to  have  been  proved  judicially,  but 
they  must  always  be  made  known  to  the  subject,  who 
must  be  granted  full  liberty  to  reply,  and  his  answer 
must  be  communicated  to  the  superior  who  is  to  dis¬ 
miss  or  retain  the  religious;  (c)  if  dismissed,  the 
religious  has  the  right  to  appeal  to  the  Holy  bee,  and 
pending  its  decision  the  dismissal  remains  in  abeyance. 
If  a  dismissed  religious  was  received  without  a  dowry 
or  cannot  support  herself  with  her  means,  her  institute 
must  in  charity,  but  not  in  justice,  not  merely  aid 
her  to  return  home  safely  and  becomingly,  but 
provide  her  in  accordance  with  natural  equity  for  a 
certain  time,  to  be  determined  by  mutual  consent,  or, 
in  case  of  disagreement,  by  the  local  ordinary,  with 
the  means  of  living  decently.  A  religious  so  dis¬ 
missed  is  ipso  facto  released  from  all  his  vows,  but  not 
from  the  obligations  arising  from  sacred  orders,  if  he 
has  received  them.  It  might  be  added  that  religious 
however  professed  are  ipso  facto  lawfully  dismissed  if 
they  have  (a)  apostatized  publicly  from  the  Faith, 
or  (b)  eloped  with  one  of  the  opposite  sex;  or  (c) 
contracted  or  attempted  to  contract  marriage,  even 
civil  marriage;  but  according  to  the  constitutions 
the  higher  superior  with  his  chapter  or  council  should 
make  a  declaration  of  the  fact  and  draw  up  the  proof 

for  their  archives.  .  . 

The  religious  superior,  before  admitting  anyone  to 
the  first  temporary  profession  must  have  the  consent 
of  his  council  or  chapter;  but  for  the  perpetual 
profession  he  need  only  consult  them.  At  professions 
the  formula  and  ceremony  prescribed  by  the  consti¬ 
tutions  should  be  employed;  all  rites  and  ceremonies 
referring  to  perpetuity  of  state,  which  had. been 
allowed  in  certain  institutes  by  the  decree  “Perpensis” 
of  18  July,  1902,  for  both  temporal  and  perpetual 
profession  are  now  to  be  reserved  for  solemn  pro¬ 
fession.  A  written  copy  of  the  formula  signed  by  the 
professed  and  at  least  by  him  who  received  the 
profession  is  to  be  kept  in  the  archives;  if  the  pro¬ 
fession  was  solemn  the  superior  who  received  it  must 
notify  the  pastor  of  the  place  where  the  newly- 
professed  religious  was  born,  for  purposes  of  record. 

Religious  professed  temporarily  in  preparation  for 
their  perpetual  vows  enjoy  all  the  indulgences, 
privileges  and  spiritual  favors  of  those  professed  of 
solemn  vows  or  of  simple  perpetual  vows;  should  they 
die  while  thus  bound  temporarily  they  have  a  right 
to  the  same  prayers  and  masses  as  the  perpetually 
professed.  So,  too,  are  they  under  the  same  obliga¬ 
tion  to  observe  the  rules  and  constitutions;  however, 
where  choir  is  obligatory  they  are  not  bound  by  the 
rule  of  reciting  the  Divine  Office  in  private,  unless  they 
are  in  in  holy  orders  or  the  constitutions  expressly 
provide  otherwise.  They  have  no  right  of  active  and 
passive  voice  unless  it  is  granted  to  them  expressly 
by  the  constitutions;  the  time  set  down  for  enjoying 
this  privilege  is  counted  from  that  of  their  first  pro¬ 
fession,  if  the  constitutions  are  silent.  By  profession 
they  lose  parochial  benefices  at  the  end  of  a  year,  and 
all  other  benefices  after  three  years. 

Property. — Professed  religious  with  simple  vows, 
whether  perpetual  or  temporal,  retain  the  owner¬ 
ship  of  their  property  and  can  acquire  more,  unless 
as  happens  in  certain  institutions  the  constitutions 
provide  differently.  As  has  been  mentioned  in  the 
article  Novice  before  simple  profession  the  religious, 


though  he  has  to  retain  the  ownership  of  his  property 
as  long  as  his  simple  vows  continue,  must  give  over 
the  administration  of  his  property  to  any  person  he 
selects,  and,  if  the  constitutions  do  not  provide  other¬ 
wise,  must  dispose  of  its  use  and  revenues  as  he 
pleases.  This  right  of  disposal  most  probably  permits 
the  novice  to  ordain  that  the  revenue  is  to  be  added 
regularly  to  the  capital  (Papi,  op.  cit.  infra,  p.  51). 

If  this  arrangement  regarding  the  administration  of 
the  property  and  the  disposal  of  its  use  and  revenue 
was  omitted  for  any  reason  before  simple  profession, 
it  is  to  be  made  by  the  religious,  notwithstanding  his 
vows,  with  the  same  freedom  as  is  enjoyed  by  novices. 
If  the  constitutions  do  not  allow  a  religious  to  change 
the  administration  of  his  property  or  the  disposal  of 
its  revenue  at  his  discretion,  he  must  have  the  leave 
of  his  superior  general,  or  in  case  of  a  nun  who  has 
simple  vows  made  in  an  institute  with  solemn  vows 
(monialis)  of  the  local  ordinary,  and  of  the  regular 
superior.  If  the  change,  however,  should  be  in  favor 
of  his  own  institute,  he  may  not  make  it  even  if  the 
superior  authorized  him,  at  least  if  it  would  involve 
a  considerable  part,  in  which  case  it  would  be  neces¬ 
sary  to  obtain  the  permission  of  the  Congregation  of 
Reiigious.  If  the  religious  professed  of  simple  vows, 
should  leave  the  institute  before  making  his  solemn 
vows  the  provisions  as  to  the  administration  and  the 
disposal  of  the  revenue  would  cease  to  hold.  Should 
one  professed  of  solemn  vows  leave,  this  would  not  be 
so,  because  the  latter  by  his  solemn  profession  gave 
up  not  merely  the  right  to  administer  his  property 
and  dispose  of  its  revenue,  but  divested  himself  en¬ 
tirely  of*  ownership.  What  a  simply  professed 
religious  receives  as  a  recompense  for  his  work  done 
or  what  is  given  to  him  for  the  sake  of  the  community 
belongs  not  to  him  but  to  the  institute;  but  he  can 
acquire  new  property  by  will  or  donation  as  a  personal 
gift,  unless  this  is  forbidden  by  the  constitutions. 
However,  the  Holy  See  has  made  a  special  provision 
by  which  a  dowry  brought  in  by  any  nun  or  sister 
must  be  returned  to  her,  if  she  goes  back  to  the  world. 

Apart  from  special  Apostolic  indults,  the  professed 
with  simple  vows  belonging  to  an  order  of  regulars, 
cannot  validly  renounce  their  property  before  the 
last  sixty  days  preceding  their  solemn  profession; 
within  those  sixty  days,  however,  they  must  renounce 
it  all  in  favor  of  anyone  they  wish,  the  renunciation 
to  become  effective  only  when  the  solemn  profession 
takes  place.  Immediately  after  their  profession  steps 
should  be  taken  to  have  the  renunciation  made 
binding  in  civil  law.  Due  regard  being  had  to  special 
Apostolic  indults,  all  property  devolving  in  any  way 
to  a  religious  after  solemn  profession  goes  to  the  order, 
province,  or  house,  according  as  the  constitutions 
provide,  if  the  order  is  capable  of  owning  property; 
should  the  order  be  incapable,  the  Holy  See  becomes 
the  owner.  Professed  with  simple  vows  in  religious 
congregations  may  not  divest  themselves  of  the  owner¬ 
ship  of  their  property  by  a  free  gift,  nor  may  they 
change  the  will  which,  in  accordance  with  canon 
law,  they  made  as  novices,  without  leave  of  the 
Holy  See,  or,  in  urgent  cases  of  a  higher  superior 
or  even  a  local  superior,  if  there  is  no  time  to  have 
recourse  to  the  Holy  See  or  higher  superior  respec¬ 
tively.  Formerly  the  giving  up  of  ownership  was 
forbidden  only  while  the  religious  had  temporary 
simple  vows,  now  it  is  forbidden  also  when  these 
vows  are  perpetual. 

A  parochial  benefice  becomes  vacant  after  the 
lapse  of  a  year  from  the  first  profession  of  the  holder, 
all  other  benefices  after  three  years.  On  being  per¬ 
petually  professed  a  religious  loses  by  law  the  right 
of  incardination  in  the  diocese  to  which  he  belonged 
before  entering  religion.  A  religious  profession  which 
was  invalid  on  account  of  an  external  impediment 
can  be  validated  only  by  the  Holy  See  or  by  lawful 


PROFESSION 


609 


PROHIBITION 


profession  made  after  the  nullity  became  known  and 
the  impediment  was  removed;  if,  however,  it  was 
invalid  from  a  mere  nternal  defect  of  consent,  it 
becomes  valid  when  that  consent  is  given,  provided 
the  institute  has  not  already  withdrawn  its  consent. 

Codex  juris  canonic i,  can.  572-86;  Papi,  Religious  Profession 
n  CW  \ork'  1918)  Oreusen,  Religieux  et  religieuses  (Brussels, 
1921)  V  ermeersch-Crettsen,  Epitome  Juris  canonici  (Mechlin, 
1921);  Fuhrich,  De  religiosis  (Innsbruck,  1919);  Ferreres, 
Institutiones  Canonicae  (Barcelona,  1920);  Prummer,  Manuale 
juris  ecclesiastici  (Freiburg,  1920). 

Profession  of  Faith. — All  customs  to  the  contrary 
being  reprobated,  a  profession  of  faith  according  to 
the  formula  approved  by  the  Holy  See  must  be  made 
personally  as  follows:  (a)  Those  who  assist  at  a 
general  or  special  council  or  diocesan  synod  with  a 
consultive  or  deliberate  vote  must  make  it  before  the 
president  or  his  delegate;  the  president  makes  it 
in  presence  of  the  council  or  synod;  (b)  cardinals- 
elect  in  presence  of  the  dean  of  the  sacred  college, 
the  first  cardinal  priest  and  deacon,  and  the  camer- 
lengo;  (c)  those  promoted  to  an  episcopal  see,  even 
non-residential,  or  to  abbeys  nullius,  vicariates 
Apostolic,  or  prefectures  Apostolic,  in  presence  of 
an  Apostolic  delegate;  (d)  a  vicar  capitular  in  presence 
of  the  cathedral  chapter;  (e)  those  promoted  to  a 
dignity  or  canonry,  in  presence  of  the  local  ordinary 
or  his  delegate  and  of  the  chapter;  (f)  newly  ap¬ 
pointed  diocesan  consultors,  the  local  ordinary  or  his 
delegate  and  before  the  other  consultors;  (g)  vicars 
general,  parish  priests,  and  all  those  who  have  been 
provided  with  a  benefice,  even  manual,  having  the 
cure  of  souls  annexed;  rectors  and  professors  of 
theology,  canon  law,  and  philosophy  in  seminaries,  at 
.the  commencement  of  each  scholastic  year  or  at  least 
on  taking  office;  all  candidates  for  the  subdiaconate; 
all  diocesan  censors  of  books;  all  priests  before  ob¬ 
taining  faculties  to  hear  confessions  or  to  preach, 
make  the  profession  of  faith  in  presence  of  the  local 
ordinary  or  his  delegate;  (h)  the  rector  of  a  uni¬ 
versity  or  faculty,  in  presence  of  the  ordinary  or  his 
delegate;  all  the  professors  in  a  canonically  erected 
university  or  faculty,  at  the  beginning  of  each 
scholastic  year  or  at  least  on  assuming  office,  and 
candidates  who,  having  passed  the  examinations,  are 
about  to  receive  their  degree  in  presence  of  the  rector 
of  .the  university  or  faculty  or  his  delegate;  (i) 
superiors  in  clerical  religious  orders  or  congregations, 
the  chapter  or  the  superior  who  designated  them  or 
his  delegate.  Those  who  after  having  relinquished  an 
office,  benefice,  or  dignity,  even  of  the  same  kind  as 
one  which  they  had  previously  held,  must  again 
make  profession  of  faith,  in  the  manner  just  pre¬ 
scribed.  Any  one  who  neglects  to  make  this  profes¬ 
sion  without  just  cause  is  to  be  admonished  after  a 
suitable  time;  should  he  then  prove  contumacious  he 
is  to  be  punished  with  privation  of  his  office,  benefice 
or  dignity,  and  of  the  revenue  accruing  therefrom. 

Progressive  Spiritual  Church.  See  New  Thought. 

Prohibition — I.  Definition. — Prohibition,  as 
commonly  spoken  of  and  practically  so  understood, 
can  best  be  defined  specifically  as  the  forbidding  by 
civil  law  of  the  manufacture,  sale  and  transporta¬ 
tion  of  intoxicating  liquor  for  beverage  purposes, 
exception  being  made  in  the  case  of  liquor  when 
used  for  scientific,  commercial,  medicinal  and  sac¬ 
ramental  purposes.  As  so  defined  it  must  be 
clearly  distinguished  from  both  temperance  and 
total  abstention.  The  former  is  a  virtue  by  which 
one  uses  liquor  or  any  other  material  thing  in 
reason,  so  that  a  man  can  drink  an  intoxicating 
beverage  and  at  the  same  time  be  perfectly  tem¬ 
perate  by  drinking  the  same  in  reasonable  modera¬ 
tion.  Total  abstinence  differs  likewise  from  Prohi¬ 
bition  in  the  sense  that  it  is  a  voluntary  act, 


inspired  by  a  variety  of  motives  such  as  penance 
or  desire  for  better  health  or  as  a  mere  exercise  of 
will-power  or  from  physical  dislike,  whereas  Prohi¬ 
bition  is  imposed  by  force  of  law  and  is  not  neces¬ 
sarily  a  virtue.  It  is  important  to  keep  these 
distinctions  clear.  All  decent  people  advocate 
temperance,  many  practise  total  abstinence,  but 
there  is  a  sharp  and  bitter  division  of  sentiment 
on  the  question  of  Prohibition. 

II.  General  Principles.— It  is  manifest  that 
Prohibition  can  have  no  justification  on  the  ground 
of  any  inherent  and  essential  evil  in  liquor.  All 
material  things,  whether  drink  or  food  or  clothing, 
etc.,  are  the  creations,  either  actually  or  potentially, 
of  God,  Who  meant  man  tc  use  and  enjoy  them 
rationally.  Matter  is  not  evil  in  se.  Long  ago  the 
Church  condemned  such  fantastic  philosophy  when 
battling  with  the  Manichean  sects.  Alcohol,  as 
such,  therefore  is  no  more  evil  than  wheat  or 
water  or  fruit.  Were  it  otherwise,  it  is  strange 
that  the  Creator  should  have  so  universally  pro¬ 
vided  nature  with  the  power  to  produce  alcohol. 

The  only  premise,  therefore,  at  all  justifying  a 
discussion  of  Prohibition  relates  to  the  abuse  of 
alcohol,  exactly  the  same  as  if  it  were  a  discussion 
on  the  abuses  of  marriage  or  political  government 
or  eating  or  dressing  or  playing.  Theoretically 
most  Prohibitionists  would  admit  this,  though 
practically  their  extreme  language  would  indicate 
that  they  do  ascribe  some  sort  of  essential  evil  to 
liquor  as  such.  At  all  events,  the  only  possible 
ground  for  discussion  of  the  drink  problem  is  the 
abuse  of  drink.  Any  other  discussion  is  futile  and 
necessarily  endless.  Moreover,  Prohibition  is  not 
necessarily  a  religious  or  even  moral  issue.  It  be¬ 
comes  so  only  when  the  abuses  of  alcohol  affect 
the  morality  of  its  victims,  as  can  be  said  with 
equal  truth  of  the  abuses  of  the  theatre  or  dancing 
or  dressing.  This  should  particularly  be  borne  in 
mind  in  view  of  the  tendency  here  in  the  United 
States  to  promote  Prohibition  through  religious 
agencies,  in  fact  by  an  appeal  to  religious  fanati¬ 
cism.  Equally  important  is  it  to  keep  in  mind 
that  Prohibition  cannot  be  based  upon  Scriptural 
grounds.  Whilst  the  Bible  of  course  utters  many 
admonitions  against  drunkenness,  it  is  manifestly 
indifferent  concerning  the  use  of  drink  which  it 
evidently  recognizes  as  an  universal  human  cus¬ 
tom.  Only  a  fanatical  textual  criticism  would 
attempt  to  distort  isolated  texts  or  particular  words 
into  a  universal  condemnation  of  drink.  In  this 
connection  it  is  significant  that  Christ’s  very  first 
miracle  was  the  changing  of  water  into  wine.  His 
selection  of  wine  for  the  Eucharistic  sacrifice  com¬ 
pletely  throws  out  of  court  any  appeal  of  Prohibi¬ 
tionists  to  the  Bible.  It  is  true  that  the  extremists 
among  them  endeavor  to  show  that  He  used  the 
unfermented  juice  of  the  grape,  but,  as  above 
observed,  this  is  a  fanatic  texual  criticism  gone 
mad,  and  is  moreover  in  direct  opposition  to  the 
universal  interpretation  of  the  Christian  world 
(both  Catholic  and  Protestant)  up  to  the  present. 
In  a  word,  then,  the  whole  discussion  of  the  ques¬ 
tion  of  Prohibition  resolves  itself  down  to  a  ques¬ 
tion  of  the  abuse  of  alcohol.  The  only  question 
to  be  seriously  discussed  is  whether  or  not  this 
abuse  has  become  such  a  grave  menace  to  the 
political,  economic  or  moral  life  of  society  that  to 
preserve  itself  from  destruction  society  must  either 
altogether  abolish  its  use  or  restrain  it  within 
reasonable  bounds. 

III.  History. — The  United  States  is  the  only 
civilized  nation  of  any  size  or  importance,  past  or 
present,  which  has  attempted  real  and  absolute 
Prohibition.  (For  apparent  or  unimportant  excep- 


PROHIBITION 


610 


PROHIBITION 


tions  see  below  under  Europe.  It,  therefore,  merits 
most  attention,  though  its  efforts  m  that  dl[ect}°" 
will  be  seen  in  clearer  relief,  if  we  describe  also  the 
less  drastic  efforts  of  other  countries,  to  solve  the 

drink  problem.  .  .  , 

(1)  The  United  States.— Prohibition  as  above 

defined,  i.  e.,  a  forbidding  of  liquor  by  force  of 
civil  law,  may  be  said  to  have  come  into  being 
about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  Before 
that  moral  suasion  had  been  the  only  agent  used  m 
combating  the  increasing  evils  of  drinking.  But 
the  year  1850  the  State  of  Maine  appealed  to  the 
new  method  of  force  by  formally  passing  a  state¬ 
wide  prohibition  law.  This  can  be  said  to  be  the 
beginning  of  the  idea  that  the  civil  law  was  the 
best  agent  to  stop  drunkenness:  it  was  the  bnth  of 
Prohibition  as  such.  The  idea  spread  with  surpris¬ 
ing  rapidity  and  by  1860  twelve  States  had  followed 
the  example  of  Maine,  among  them  some  like 
Rhode  Island  and  New  York,  which  are  now  bit¬ 
terly  opposed  to  Prohibition.  By  1890  others  had 
joined,  bringing  the  total  up  to  seventeen.  Ihlto 
first  stage  of  the  movement  proved,  however,  to  be 
only  a  sort  of  preliminary  skirmish. 

For  some  ten  years  or  so  a  hopeless  fight  was 
carried  on  by  the  National  Prohibition  Party  at 
the  customary  elections,  but  some  dozen  years  ago, 
a  new  and  powerful  factor  began  to  make  itself 
felt  in  the  advent  of  the  Anti-Saloon  League,  to 
the  unremitting  efforts  of  which  is  now  due  Consti¬ 
tutional  Prohibition  in  the  United  States  ihis 
body  was  from  the  start  skillfully  organized  bold 
to  the  point  of  unscrupulousness  in  its  political 
methods  and  apparently  enormously  financed.  With 
clear-headed  intelligence  it  concentrated  its  attack 
upon  what  even  those  opposed  to  Prohibition 
recognized  and  still  recognize  as  the  undefensibie 
element  of  the  liquor  question,  namely,  the  saloon. 

The  old  ale-house  or  road-house,  with  whatever 
abuses,  was  after  all  a  rather  decent  affair,  cele¬ 
brated  in  song  and  interwoven  with  much  romance 
and  venerable  tradition,  but  the  saloon  which  took 
its  place  in  American  life  was  seldom  respectable 
and  only  too  often  a  nest  for  the  lowest  elements 
in  our  social  and  political  life.  With  rare  intelli¬ 
gence,  then,  this  new  foe  of  drink  concentrated  its 
attacks  upon  it  exclusively,  thereby  bringing  to  its 
aid  all  those  decent  people  who,  even  though  di  ink¬ 
ers  themselves,  could  not  countenance  such  a  social 

CaWith  equal  intelligence,  though  unfortunately 
not  altogether  honest,  the  Anti-Saloon  League 
made  an  emotional  appeal  to  what  it  called  tne 
church/’  the  church  being,  however  at  most  a 
certain  radical  element  of  Evangelistic  Protestant¬ 
ism  chiefly  Methodists,  who  have  always  been 
opposed  to  many  forms  of  amusement  enjoyed  by 
other  Christians.  So  powerful  was  this  ally  that  it 
is  not  too  much  to  say  that  this  religious  body  was 
more  responsible  than  any  other  factor  in  bunging 
about  Prohibition.  Lastly,  the  Anti-Saloon  League 
with  consummate  skill  engineered  a  political  cam- 
at  small  local  political  units,  especially  m  country 
paign  which  has  no  equal  in  American  politics.  At 
first  neglectful  of  national  politics,  it  prepared  the 
way  to  enter  the  national  field  by  nibbling  away 
districts,  where  heavier  pressure  could  be  brought 
to  bear  upon  the  individual  politician  or  omce- 
seeker,  particularly  where  that  pressure  could  be 
applied  through  the  medium  of  religious  or  social 
ostracism.  Moreover,  the  small  country  unit  of¬ 
fered  a  more  fertile  field  for  an  appeal  to  senti¬ 
mentality  and  fanaticism  than  could  be  found  m 
the  more  liberal  city  life.  Such  a  campaign  was 
all  the  more  subtle  inasmuch  as  its  demands  for 


local  option  appealed  to  the  sense  of  liberty  and 
local  pride  of  a  small  political  unit,  which  could 
not  be  expected  to  be  farsighted  enough  to  foresee 
that  local  option  was  only  the  means  whereby  to 
attain  universal  Prohibition,  as  subsequent  events 
have  amply  proved,  for  surely,  no  Prohibitionist 
would  now  advocate  local  option,  but  rather  bit¬ 
terly  oppose  it. 

The  prohibition  movement,  so  skillfully  directed, 
found  an  indirect  ally  in  the  very  political  spirit 
of  the  early  years  of  the  present  century.  Radical¬ 
ism  was  rampant  in  politics.  New  political  pan¬ 
aceas  were  the  visionary  cure-alls.  A  sort  of 
fanaticism  was  in  the  very  air.  That  this  helped 
the  “dry”  forces  is  evident  from  the  fact  of  the 
prevalence  of  radicalism  in  the  Southern  and 
Western  States  which  have  been  the  mainstay  of 
Prohibition  in  its  later  stage.  At  all  events,  the 
Anti-Saloon  League  made  an  amazing  progress. 
From  the  local  county  or  township  it  spread  to  the 
State,  until  finally  it  had  enough  States  in  line  to 
force  through  the  Constitutional  Amendment.  The 
progress  was  so  swift  that  the  people  were  taken  by 
surprise.  The  fact  was  accomplished  when  many 
even  yet  deluded  themselves  into  thinking  that  it 

could  not  happen.  .  .  .  , 

The  peculiar  method  of  passing  Constitutional 
amendments  favored  the  “drys.”  By  this  method 
an  amendment  must  be  submitted  not  to  a  popu¬ 
lar  vote  but  to  the  Legislatures  of  the  various 
States.  This  gave  the  Anti-Saloon  League  the  ad¬ 
vantage  of  bringing  the  familiar  pressure  to  bear 
upon  individual  legislators,  with  the  result  that 
some  Legislatures  voted  in  direct  defiance  of  the 
well-known  wishes  of  the  people.  In  Maryland, 
for  instance,  the  Legislature  ratified  the  amend¬ 
ment  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  only  shortly 
before  the  State  had  gone  wet.  The  most  extreme 
Prohibitionist  will  admit  that  had  the  amendment 
been  submitted  to  a  popular  vote  throughout  the 
United  States  the  issue  would  have  been  at  least 
doubtful.  The  passing  of  it  by  the  Legislatures, 
therefore,  cannot  be  taken  as  an  adequate  ex¬ 
pression  of  the  will  of  the  people. 

As  to  the  effect  so  far  of  Prohibition,  it  is  hard 
to  judge.  In  so  far  as  it  has  eliminated  the  old 
saloon,  or  at  least  made  the  return  of  _  the  old 
saloon  impossible  so  far  as  public  recognition  goes, 
it  has  done  good.  But,  when  that  is  said,  any  other 
alleged  benefits  are  at  best  doubtful.  Undoubt¬ 
edly  crime  has  increased.  Of  course,  this  may  be 
equally  due  to  the  lowering  of  moral  standards 
brought  on  by  the  great  War.  But,  it  is  significant, 
to  say  the  least,  that  the  great  moral  regeneration 
predicted  by  the  Prohibitionists  has  not  material¬ 
ized.  Equally  difficult  is  it  to  estimate  whether  or 
not  drinking  has  decreased.  Certainly  in  the  large 
centres  it  has  not,  the  hospitals  in  these  cities 
showing  frequently  an  increase  of  alcoholic  patients. 
Moreover,  millions  are  making  home  wines  and 
beer  who  before  perhaps  never  or  seldom  drank, 
and  the  mere  fact  that  the  last  Congress  was  asked 
by  the  Prohibition  forces  for  some  ten  million 
dollars  wherewith  to  suppress  illicit  liquor  traffic  is 
sufficient  proof  that  the  amendment  is  violated  as 
much  as  it  is  observed.  n 

Perhaps  the  most  serious  result  of  it  all  lies  in 
the  feeling  of  resentment  created  by  it  and  the 
startling  impetus  it  has  given  to  the  invasion  of 
personal  liberties  by  the  State.  The  resentment 
shows  itself  in  a  contempt  not  only  for  the  Consti¬ 
tution  itself  but  for  all  law  as  law,  for  law  is  being 
more  and  more  regarded  as  a  tyrant,  whereas  the 
handing  over  to  the  Federal  Government  of  the 
police  powers  of  the  individual  States  would  seem 


PROHIBITION 


611 


PROHIBITION 


to  be  taking  down  the  last  barrier  against  Federal 
encroachments  upon  local  liberty,  and  making  of 
the  old-time  “sovereign  State”  a  mere  geographical 
unit  in  a  huge  political  homogeneity,  with  a  head 
at  Washington  possessing  limitless  powers.  If  this 
be  true,  and  it  seems  incontrovertibly  so,  then 
Prohibition  has  not  merely  abolished  liquor  but  it 
has  altered  that  concept  of  government  as  framed 
by  the  Fathers  of  the  Republic  and  substitutes 
something  which  would  nev,er  have  been  accepted 
by  the  signers  of  the  Constitution  had  they  fore¬ 
seen  its  possibility.  It  marks  a  change  in  the 
whole  concept  of  government  in  the  United  States. 

For  these  reasons  Prohibition  cannot  in  any 
sense  be  termed  a  jait  accompli  in  the  United 
States,  because  the  struggle  is  no  longer  between 
decency  and  the  saloon,  which  has  passed  away 
forever,  but  between  lovers  of  liberty  or  of  consti¬ 
tutional  guarantees  of  the  same  and  what  seem  to 
them  a  tyrannical  band  of  fanatics.  On  the  side 
of  lighter  wines  and  beer  are  found  as  many  up¬ 
right  and 'religious  people  as  can  be  mustered  by 
the  Prohibitionists.  There  is  a  respectable  element 
(how  numerous  it  is  hard  to  say)  which  feels  that 
the  question  has  not  been  settled  justly  and  wisely 
in  spite  of  the  Eighteenth  Amendment,  and  this 
element  is  apparently  determined  to  fight  until  a 
just  decision  be  reached,  not  only  as  regards  the 
mere  question  of  drink,  but  still  more  so  as  re- 
rards  the  more  important  questions  of  liberty  and 
States  rights  as  opposed  to  a  Federal  Socialistic 
government.  All  that  one  can  say  now  is  that  the 
drink  question  is  far  from  being  settled. 

(2)  Europe. — No  European  country  has  yet 
adopted  Prohibition 'as  such.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  great  War  Russia,  by  a  hasty  imperial  decree, 
abolished  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  vodka, 
which  act  was  hailed  by  Prohibitionists  as  a  great 
victory  for  their  cause.  But  it  should  be  noted 
that  the  local  communities  were  still  allowed  the 
privilege  of  local  option  in  regard  to  other  alco¬ 
holic  drinks  of  a  milder  form,  like  beer  and  wine. 
So  also  Finland  attempted  Prohibition  in  1909,  but 
was  prevented  from  putting  it  into  effect  by  the 
Russian  authorities,  and  even  that  attempt  permit¬ 
ted  light  beer.  Likewise  Iceland,  a  Danish  colony, 
with  less  than  80,000  inhabitants,  in  1915  adopted 
a  drastic  Prohibition  similar  to  that  in  the  United 
States,  but  it  allowed  spiritous  drinks  containing 
2%  weight  per  cent  of  alcohol,  and,  moreover, 
latest  news  asserts  that  a  reversal  of  this  law  has 
taken  place  in  the  1922  elections.  The  whole  situa¬ 
tion  is  too  insignificant  and  uncertain  to  warrant 
its  citation  as  an  exception  to  the  above  general 
assertions.  Outside  of  the  United  States,  there¬ 
fore,  only  Mohammedan  countries  enjoy  the  theo¬ 
retical  honor  of  being  Prohibitionary,  though  even 
there  practice,  as  usual,  does  not  follow  theory.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection  that  the 
Prohibition  question  has  come  to  some  prominence 
in  Turkey,  owing  to  the  more  liberal  Moham¬ 
medans  interpreting  the  Prophet’s  forbidding  of 
“wine”  as  referring  strictly  to  “wine” — hence  their 
indulgence  in  beer,  whiskey  and  brandy,  a  casuistry 
which  rules  out  even  Mohammedans  from  the  list 
of  absolute  Prohibitionists.  Moreover,  Moham¬ 
medanism  with  its  polygamy  can  hardly  be  held 
up  as  a  moral  criterion  for  Christian  civilized 
peoples. 

But,  Europe  has  its  drink  problem,  all  the  more 
acute  since  the  war.  A  detailed  review  of  it  in 
every  country  is  not  possible  here,  but  it  is  well  to 
rote  two  characteristics  of  the  European  way  of 
dealing  with  the  problem,  in  the  hope  that  a  study 
of  them  will  help  Americans  to  handle  it  more 


intelligently  than  they  have  hitherto  done.  The 
first  thing  which  an  American  must  note  with 
humiliation  is  that  in  Europe  the  intricate  prob¬ 
lems  associated  with  liquor  laws  are  not  left  to  the 
mercy  of  the  propagandist  or  interested  legislator. 
Europe  attempts  at  least  to  clear  the  way  through 
scientific  enquiries  by  men  of  eminence  and 
authority.  For  instance,  in  France  the  French 
Academy  of  Medicine  has  long  labored  with  it. 
France  was  likewise  one  of  the  prime  movers  in 
the  formation  of  the  International  Committee  for 
the  Scientific  Study  of  the  Alcohol  question.  Nor¬ 
way,  once  the  most  intemperate  of  nations,  has, 
through  its  Alcohol  Commission,  put  through  what 
is  perhaps  the  most  intelligent  alcohol  legislation 
in  the  world.  European  intelligence  has  been  far 
ahead  of  American,  which  so  far  has  never  ap¬ 
proached  the  subject  with  scientific  calm,  but  has 
handed  it  over  to  crude  fanatics  and  equally  crude 
and  often  politically  corrupt  legislators.  The  result 
is  that  Europeans  do  achieve  some  real  results  in 
the  way  of  temperance,  while  we  flounder  around 
in  a  hopeless  tangle  of  a  multitude  of  laws  which 
are  only  more  or  less  obeyed  and  with  an  ever 
increasing  bitterness  against  such  laws. 

The  second  point  noticeable  in  European  meth¬ 
ods  is  their  wisdom  in  confining  their  energies  to 
the  abolition  or  at  least  drastic  control  of  strong 
distilled  spirits  like  vodka,  whiskey  and  brandy,  but 
allowing  a  reasonable  liberty  in  favor  of  the  lighter 
fermented  beverages  like  beer  and  wine.  It  is  un¬ 
deniable  that  the  drink  problem  goes  hand  in  hand 
with  distilled  spirits;  that  sobriety  goes  hand  in 
hand  with  light  wines  and  beer.  Take,  for  in¬ 
stance,  France.  Fifty  or  sixty  years  ago  France 
was  one  of  the  soberest  countries  of  Europe,  though 
every  Frenchman  drank  wine  every  day.  Now,  it 
has  come  up  very  high  in  the  list  of  alcoholics,  the 
reason  being  simply  that  according  to  all  authori¬ 
ties,  various  forms  of  distilled  liquors  have  more 
and  more  supplanted  wine  as  a  national  beverage. 
The  same  is  true  for  Italy.  So  long  as  the  Italians 
stuck  to  their  wine,  they  had  absolutely  no  drink 
problem.  Neither  had  Spain  and  Portugal,  but 
these  historically  sober  countries  now  have  a  drink 
problem  due  to  the  increasing  use  of  whiskey,  a 
custom  introduced  chiefly  by  returning  emigrants 
from  America.  Europe,  therefore,  with  admirable 
prudence  and  with  good  results  is  concentrating  its 
energies  upon  strong  spirits  and  endeavoring  to 
bring  its  wine  and  beer  drinking  peoples  to  their 
old  sober  ways. 

From  all  this  the  United  States  can  learn  some 
wisdom  in  handling  its  drink  problem.  It  cannot 
hope  to  reach  any  permanent  results  until  it  first 
places  the  study  and  control  of  the  problem  in  the 
hands  of  men  who,  by  experience  and  scientific 
study,  are  qualified  to  handle  it.  It  will  forever 
remain  an  acute  problem,  prolific  of  evils,  so  long 
as  it  is  left  to  the  mercy  of  emotional  fanatics  or 
timid  and  perhaps  corrupt  legislators,  the  former 
of  whom  take  no  account  of  psychology  and  the 
latter  of  whom  take  account  only  of  votes.  Only 
in  this  way  can  the  problem  be  shorn  of  the  emo¬ 
tional  frenzy  and  political  corruption  and  bitter 
feeling  which  now  characterize  it  here  on  both 
sides.  It  will  remain  insoluble  so  long  as  Ameri¬ 
cans  persist  in  their  crude  methods  of  letting  it  be 
handled  by  amateurs.  Such  a  view  should,  it  would 
seem,  meet  with  universal  approval  of  sane  men. 

It  is  the  opinion,  likewise,  of  an  ever-increasing 
number  of  observers  that  America  should  follow 
the  example  of  Europe  in  permitting  the  reasonable 
use  of  wine  and  beer,  while  repressing  the  stronger 
spirits.  Every  person  of  decent  moral  standards, 


PROPERTY 


612 


PROPERTY 


drinkers  as  well  as  non-drinkers,  is  glad  to  see  the 
old  saloon  abolished,  for  it  was  an  evil.  Equally 
would  all  like  to  see  whiskey  restricted  to  a  very 
narrow  role,  but  if  the  experience  of  Europe 
and  that  of  the  United  States  during  the  past  tew 
years  counts  at  all,  it  is  the  merest  common  sense 
to  allow  wine  and  beer  under  reasonable  contro  . 
At  all  events  it  was  the  essence  of  political  tolly  to 
try  to  force  absolute  prohibition  all  at  once  upon 
many  millions  of  people  who  had  been  accustome 
to  drink  from  time  immemorial. 

IV.  Prohibition  and  the  Mass— The  position 
of  the  Church  regarding  the  matter  for  the  Uuchar- 
istic  Sacrifice  is  too  well  known  to  warrant  discu . - 
sion.  For  detailed  discussion  of  the  Church  s  teach¬ 
ing  and  practice  on  this  subject  see  UK.,  V -*>»*. 
She  considers  as  invalid  any  juice  of  the  grape 
which  has  been  de-alcoholized.  She  requires  wine 
in  the  plain  sense  of  the  word—wme  from  tiie 
grape.  A  more  practical  question,  however,  is  how 
far  the  Mass  may  be  affected  by  the  Eighteenth 
Amendment.  It  is,  of  course,  true  that  that  amend¬ 
ment  restricts  its  prohibition  to  ‘‘beverage  pro¬ 
poses,”  and  that  the  Volstead  Law  specifically 
interprets  that  expression  as  permitting  wine  ioi 
sacramental  purposes.  Congress  could  not  do 
otherwise  without  violating  the  Constitution,  which 
forbids  Congress  to  interfere  with  the  exercise  ot 
religion.  But  all  this  does  not  allay  the  misgivings 
of  more  far-sighted  Catholics,  because  Congress  can 
throw  so  many  drastic  and  irritating  regulations 
around  the  getting  of  wine  as  to  seriously  interfere 
with  its  legitimate  procuring  and  in  some  cases 
practically  make  the  same  impossible,  all  the  more 
so  when  the  administration  of  these  regulations 
would  be  in  the  hands  of  fanatical  bigots  some  of 
whom  have  not  hesitated  to  declare  themselves  in 
favor  of  absolutely  prohibiting  wine  for  Mass. 
That  this  is  no  idle  apprehension  is  manifest  from 
the  restrictions  thrown  around  the  issuing  of  per¬ 
mits  of  whiskey  for  medicinal  purposes,  whicfi 
have  deterred  all  but  a  few  physicians  from  pre¬ 
scribing  it  and  druggists  from  carrying  it  in  stock. 
Significant  is  it  also  that  on  its  face  the  Eighteenth 
Amendment  gives  no  such  powers,  these  powers 
seeming  to  have  been  read  into  it  by  over-zealous 
officials.  If,  then,  they  can  practically  put  liquor 
for  medicinal  purposes  out  of  business,  why  can 
they  not  do  the  same  for  Mass  wine?  Such  an 
eventuality  is  at  least  conceivable. 

Again,  whilst  Congress  cannot  make  any  laws 
establishing  a  religion  or  prohibiting  the  free  exer¬ 
cise  thereof,  any  individual  State  can  do  so.  The 
Constitution  is  no  guarantee  of  religious  liberty 
except  so  far  as  Congress  is  concerned.  It  is  not 
inconceivable,  therefore,  that  a  State,  roused  to 
frenzy  by  a  bigoted  wave  of  fanaticism,  might 
actually  attempt  such  a  monstrous  injustice,  all 
the  more  so  as  it  has  the  present  Eighteenth 
Amendment  for  a  -sort  of  precedent  and  encourage¬ 
ment  in  such  prohibitory  legislation.  The  situation, 
to  say  the  least,  excites  misgivings. 

The  unscientific  and  emotional  character  of  the 
Prohibition  movement,  at  least  in  the  United 
States,  is  reflected  in  the  inferior  quality,  despite 
the  enormous  quantity,  of  its  literature.  Few 
works  of  permanent  value  are  accessible  to  the 
general  reader.  Perhaps  the  sanest  and  best  in¬ 
formed  and  most  complete  .study  of  the  drink 
problem  is  Korn’s  “Alcohol  and  Society”  (New 
York,  1916).  More  advanced  readers  will  find 
works  in  English  and  other  languages  cited  by  him. 
For  a  full  discussion  of  the  bearing  of  religion — the 


Bible  in  particular— upon  the  question,  see  Wasson, 
“Religion  and  Drink”  (New  York,  1914). 

Lucian  Johnston. 

Property,  Ecclesiastical  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII-466b) 
— The  Code  emphasizes  once  more  that  the  Catholic 
Church  and  the  Apostolic  See  have  an  innate  right, 
independent  of  the  civil  power,  of  acquiring,  holding, 
and  administering  temporal  property  for  the  at¬ 
taining  of  their  proper  ends;  and  individual  churches 
and  moral  persons  erected  by  ecclesiastical  authority 
as  legal  entities  have  also  a  similar  right  m  accordance 
with  the  sacred  canons.  The  Church,  moreover,  may, 
independently  of  the  civil  powrer,  exact  from  the  faith¬ 
ful  whatever  is  necessary  for  Divine  service,  the 
decent  support  of  the  clergy  and  other  ministers,  and 
the  ends  for  which  the  Church  exists.  It  may  acquire 
temporal  goods  by  all  means  lawful  to  others,  the 
ownership  of  ecclesiastical  property  vests,  under  the 
supreme  authority  of  the  Holy  See,  m  the  moral 
person  who  acquired  it  legitimately;  if  that  person 
passes  away  the  dominion  accrues  to  its  immediate 
superior,  full  consideration,  however,  being  given  to 
the  wishes  of  the  founder  or  donor,  the  rules  govern¬ 
ing  the  moral  person,  and  outstanding  rights. 

Acquisition.— Anyone  who,  by  ecclesiastical  or 
natural  law,  is  competent  to  deal  with  his  property 
freely,  may  devote  it  to  pious  uses  even  by  a  donation 
causa  mortis  or  by  will.  In  bequeathing  property  to 
the  Church  the  requirements  of  the  civil  law  should 
be  fulfilled  if  possible;  if  through  any  defect  the 
testament  is  held  invalid  in  the  civil  court,  nev€>r- 
theless  the  heirs  must  be  warned  to  carryout  the 
wishes  of  the  testator.  The  ordinary  is  the  executoi 
of  bequests  or  donations  for  religious  purposes,  he 
must  see  that  the  donor’s  or  testator  s  wishes  are 
carried  out,  and  those  delegated  to  do  so  must 
account  to  him.  Any  clause  in  a  testament  contrary 
to  this  right  of  the  ordinary  is  to  be  considered  non¬ 
existent.  A  cleric  or  religious  who  receives  property 
in  trust  for  pious  purposes  must  inform  the  ordinary 
about  his  trusteeship,  the  property  and  its  obliga¬ 
tions;  if  the  donor  expressly  and  entirely  torbids 
this  the  trusteeship  must  be  refused.  If  the  trust  to  a 
religious  is  in  favor  of  a  church,  or  of  pious  works  or 
of  the  inhabitants  of  a  place  or  diocese,  the  ordinary 
to  be  informed  is  the  local  ordinary,  otherwise  it  is 
the  ordinary  of  the  religious.  If  there  is  a  just  reason 
for  making  a  change  in  carrying  out  a  testators 
will,  permission  is  to  be  obtained  from  the  -Holy 
See,  unless  the  testator  has  expressly  authorized 
the  local  ordinary  to  act.  If,  however,  through  no 
fault  of  the  administrators  it  is  impossible  to  carry 
out  the  provisions,  on  account,  for  instance,  ol  the 
small  size  of  the  estate  or  for  another  reason,  the 
ordinary,  after  consulting  the  interested  parties,  may , 
in  an  endeavor  to  carry  out  the  testator  s  wishes  as 
far  as  possible,  reduce  all  the  bequests  proportion¬ 
ately,  except  that  the  number  of  Masses  may  never 
be  reduced,  except  with  the  express  permission  ol  the 

Holy  See.  ,  TT  .  a 

Alienation. — The  consent  of  the  Holy  See  is 
required  for  a  valid  contract  to  alienate  any  treasure 
or  any  church  property  worth  oyer  30,000  francs 
($6000),  or  to  incur  debts  or  obligations  exceeding 
that  sum.  If  the  goods  are  valued  at  1000  francs 
($200)  or  less,  the  permission  of  the  bishop,  who  is 
to  consult  the  council  of  administration  (except  in 
case  of  things  of  trifling  value)  and  also  of  those  who 
are  interested,  suffices.  If  the  value  lies  between 
the  two  figures  mentioned,  the  consent  of  the  cathedral 
chapter  and  of  the  council  of  administration  is  also 
needed.  If  part  of  the  property  has  already  been 
alienated,  the  fact  must  be  stated  in  applying  tor 
permission  to  sell  more.  The  property  is  to  be  ap¬ 
praised  by  an  expert,  and  ought  not  to  be  sold  below 


PROTECTIVE 


613 


PROTESTANT 


the  price  he  fixes;  the  sale  should  ordinarily  be  by 
auction  or  at  least  it  should  be  made  known  publicly, 
and  the  property  should  go  to  the  highest  bidder, 
everything  considered  without  special  permission  of 
the  local  ordinary;  however,  immovable  church 
property  must  not  be  sold  or  leased  to  its  admin¬ 
istrators  or  those  related  to  them  in  the  first  or 
second  degree  of  consanguinity  or  affinity.  The 
church  has  the  right  of  personal  action  against  any 
person  (and  his  heirs)  alienating  church  property 
without  the  proper  formalities,  and  a  right  of  real 
action  against  any  holder,  if  the  alienation  was  void. 
If  the  alienation  was  invalid  the  action  may  be  pur¬ 
sued  by  the  person  alienating,  his  superior,  their 
successors  in  office  or  by  any  cleric  of  the  church 
that  has  suffered  the  injury.  To  mortgage  or  pledge 
ecclesiastical  property  or  to  contract  debts,  the 
permission  of  the  legitimate  superior  mentioned  above 
is  required;  he  is  to  consult  those  who  are  interested 
and  to  provide  for  the  liquidation  of  the  debt  as  soon 
as  possible. 

In  leasing  ecclesiastical  property  worth  over  30,000 
francs,  for  more  than  nine  years,  the  consent  of  the 
Holy  See  is  needed.  If  for  less  than  nine  years, 
or  for  more  than  that  time,  provided  the  value  is 
between  1000  and  30,000  francs,  the  consent  of  the 
ordinary,  cathedral  chapter,  council  of  administration 
and  of  those  interested,  is  needed;  but  for  property  of 
this  value,  if  the  time  does  not  exceed  nine  years, 
the  consent  of  those  interested  and  of  the  ordinary, 
after  consulting  the  council,  suffices,  which  is  also 
the  case  if  the  property  is  not  valued  over  1000  francs 
and  the  time  exceeds  nine  years.  If  the  goods  do  not 
exceed  1000  francs  in  value  and  the  time  is  less  than 
nine  years,  the  legitimate  administrators  can  act 
on  notifying  the  ordinary.  If  the  property  is  held  by 
emphyteusis  (perpetual  lease)  the  grantee  cannot 
redeem  the  rent  without  the  proper  superior’s  au¬ 
thority;  the  deed  of  grant  must  accept  the  ecclesi¬ 
astical  forum  as  alone  competent  to  adjudicate  in 
any  of  the  controversies  that  might  arise  between  the 
parties  in  connection  with  the  property. 

Alienation  of  church  property  without  due  permis¬ 
sion  is  null  and  void;  consequently  the  property  must 
be  given  back  and  the  culprit  must  repair  any  injury 
or  loss  his  act  has  occasioned.  The  alienor  and  those 
who  consented  to  the  alienation  are  liable  to  punish¬ 
ment  according  to  the  value  of  the  property  involved. 
If  the  object  is  worth  less  than  1000  francs  the  penalty 
is  left  to  the  ecclesiastical  superior’s  discretion;  if  it  is 
valued  between  1000  and  30,000  francs,  the  culprit, 
if  a  patron,  loses  the  right  of  patronage,  an  ad¬ 
ministrator  his  office,  a  religious  superior  or  oecomous 
his  office  and  his  eligibility  for  any  other  office — 
his  superiors  may  impose  further  suitable  penalties 
— an  ordinary  and  other  clerics  having  an  office, 
benefice,  dignity,  or  function  in  the  Church,  have  to 
pay  for  double  the  amount  of  injury,  to  the  church 
or  pious  work  injured;  other  clerics  are  to  be  sus¬ 
pended  for  a  time  fixed  by  the  Holy  See.  In  a  case 
in  which  the  permission  of  the  Holy  See  is  required 
by  canon  law  and  has  been  deliberately  omitted, 
those  who  have  alienated  the  property,  or  consent 
to  this,  and  those  who  have  bought  or  received  it 
incur  unreserved  excommunication.  It  may  be  re¬ 
marked  that  the  canons  in  which  these  penalties  are 
laid  down  speaks  expressly  only  of  alienation,  nothing 
being  said  therein  about  loans,  mortgages  or  leases. 

Apart  from  this  alienation,  those  wrho  usurp  or  hold 
personally  or  otherwise  the  temporary  property  or 
rights  of  the  Roman  Church 'incur  excommunication 
reserved  specially  to  the  Holy  See,  and  the  offenders, 
if  clerics,  are  to  be  deprived  of  whatever  dignities, 
benefices,  offices  or  pensions  they  may  hold  and 
declared  incapable  of  acquiring  them  in  future. 
Furthermore,  if  anyone  presumes,  personally  or  by 


another,  to  convert  to  his  own  use  any  ecclesiastical 
property  whatsoever  or  to  prevent  the  proper  parties 
from  enjoying  the  income  or  return  therefrom  he 
falls  under  excommunication  and  remains  there  till 
he  makes  restitution  or  removes  the  obstacle  he  placed 
and  asks  absolution  from  the  Holy  See;  if  he  was 
the  patron  of  the  church  or  property  he  loses  his  right 
of  patronage  eo  ipso,  if  he  was  a  cleric  (even  if  he 
only  consented  to  the  usurpation),  he  loses  his 
benefices,  is  rendered  incapable  of  receiving  others 
and  is  to  be  suspended  from  exercising  his  orders, 
even  after  absolution  and  reparation  made,  if  his 
ordinary  thinks  fit.  These  penalties,  however,  are 
not  incurred  by  ordinary  thieves  of  church  property, 
nor  by  city  officials  who  acquire  church  property  for 
the  city  but  not  for  themselves. 

Prescription. — The  Church  accepts,  as  regards 
ecclesiastical  property  in  general,  the  principles  of  the 
civil  law  in  the  various  countries  regarding  prescription 
in  the  matter  of  acquiring  or  losing  the  ownership. 
But  prescriptive  rights  do  not  arise  in  the  case  of:  (a) 
what  is  ordered  by  natural  or  positive  Divine  law,  or 
what  cannot  be  granted  except  by  Apostolic  privilege; 

(b)  spiritual  rights,  for  which  a  layman  is  incompetent, 
if  there  is  question  of  prescription  in  favor  of  a  layman; 

(c)  the  definitive  fixed  boundaries  of  ecclesiastical  prov¬ 
inces,  dioceses,  parishes,  vicariates  Apostolic,  prefec¬ 
tures  Apostolic,  abbeys  or  prelacies  nullius;  (d)  Mass 
stipends  or  obligations;  (e)  an  ecclesiastical  benefice 
without  title;  (f)  the  right  of  visitation  and  obedience, 
such  that  an  ecclesiastical  person  cannot  be  visited  by 
or  is  not  subject  to  any  prelate;  (g)  the  payment  of 
the  cathedraticum.  Sacred  things  in  possession  of  a 
private  individual  can  be  acquired  through  prescrip¬ 
tion  by  a  private  person,  but  they  must  not  be  used 
for  profane  purposes;  if,  however,  they  have  lost  their 
consecration  or  blessing  they  can  be  used  for  profane, 
but  nor  for  sordid  uses.  One  ecclesiastical  person  may 
acquire  a  sacred  thing  from  another  similar  body  by 
prescription,  but  a  private  person  can  thus  acquire 
sacred  things  only  from  a  private  person.  Immovable 
property,  and  movable  valuable  property,  rights  and 
actions,  whether  personal  or  real,  belonging  to  the 
Holy  See  may  be  prescribed  in  a  hundred  years;  those 
belonging  to  other  ecclesiastical  moral  persons  in 
thirty  years.  The  prescriptive  right  does  not  arise, 
however,  unless  there  was  good  faith  not  only  at  the 
beginning  but  throughout  the  required  period. 

Codex  juris  canonici,  can.  1495-1517;  1529-1543;  Ayrinhac, 
Penal  Legislation  (New  York,  1920),  293-303. 

Protective  Society,  Catholic.  See  Catholic 
Protective  Society. 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  America,  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 493c). — In  the  General 
Conventions  of  1910  and  1913  the  proposal  to 
change  the  name  of  this  church  was  defeated.  The 
question,  which  had  been  a  burning  one  since 
about  1890,  developed  two  extreme  parties,  one 
desiring  the  church  to  be  designated  as  the  Ameri¬ 
can  Catholic  Church  (or  some  equivalent  title), 
while  the  other  desired  more  clear  Protestant  des¬ 
ignation  and  affiliation.  The  change  was  not  pro¬ 
posed  directly;  it  was  to  be  accomplished  in  the 
revision  of  the  Prayer  Book.  Excluding  the  change 
of  name,  a  committee  on  Prayer  Book  revision 
was  appointed  in  1913,  among  its  chief  sponsors 
being  those  who  desired  to  eliminate  everything 
savoring  of  Ritualism.  This  committee,  after  bring¬ 
ing  in  recommendations  similar  to  those  proposed 
by  Anglicans  for  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
(q.  v.),  has  been  continued  over  the  conventions 
of  1916  and  1919  and  final  action  is  promised  in  the 
Convention  of  1922.  The  General  Convention  of 
1919  rejected  a  proposal  to  prohibit  the  remar¬ 
riage  of  divorced  persons. 


PROTESTANTISM 


014 


PROTESTANTISM 


The  Anglican  community  of  the  Atqnement,  a 
Protestant  Episcopal  religious  community  consist¬ 
ing  of  2  men  and  15  women  following  the  Francis¬ 
can  rule  were  received  into  the  Catholic  Church  30 
October,  1909,  and  in  1919  the  Protestant  Episco¬ 
pal  bishop  of  Delaware,  Frederick  J.  Kinsman, 
made  his  submission,  these  being  the  two  most 
notable  cases  in  a  series  of  conversions. 

The  Episcopalian  Church  has  been  prominent  in 
its  efforts  toward  church  union  in  recent  years. 
Several  cases  have  occurred  of  admission  of  non- 
Episcopalian  ministers  to  Episcopalian  pulpits,  and 
of  local  “concordats”  with  dissenters,  a  notable  in¬ 
stance  being  the  tentative  arrangement  (later 
abandoned),  with  the  Congregationalists  for  the 
admission  of  ministers  of  the  latter  to  Episcopal 
ordination  while  continuing  to  minister  in  the 
Congregational  Church  (see  Congregationalism). 
In  1922  a  quasi-organic  union  with  the  Hungarian 
Reformed  Church  was  effected,  the  ministers  of 
the  latter,  without  repudiating  their  existing  or¬ 
ders,  agreeing  to  accept  Episcopal  ordination.  Par¬ 
ticipation  by  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
the  Congress  on  Christian  Work  in  Latin  America 
in  1916  (see  Protestantism)  was  strongly  opposed 
by  those  who  did  not  desire  to  see  their  church 
committed  to  a  policy  of  pan-Protestantism,  and 
who  considered  such  a  congress  an  intrusion  on 
Latin  America.  The  Board  of  Missions,  however, 
voted  to  participate  and  five  members  resigned 
their  connection  with  the  board  as  a  consequence. 
The  leading  work  of  this  church  along  the  lines  of 
reunion  was  the  inauguration  at  the  General 
Convention  of  1910  of  arrangements  preliminary 
to  a  World  Conference  on  Faith  and  Order  (see 
Union  of  Christendom),  to  consider  the  ques¬ 
tion  of  church  union. 

The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States  consists  of  sixty-eight  dioceses  (1922). 
Home  mission  work  is  carried  on  for  the  white 
population,  for  Indians,  negroes  (there  is  now  a 
negro  suffragan  bishop),  Swedes,  Japanese,  and  the 
deaf  mutes  in.  the  south  and  west.  A  fund  of 
$’9,000,000  has  been  raised  as  a  sustentation  fund 
for  the  sick  and  retired  clergy. 

Foreign  missionary  work  is  carried  on  in  Africa, 
China,  Japan,  Haiti,  Brazil,  Cuba  and  Mexico. 
They  reported  in  1916,  463  stations,  346  American 
missionaries,  247  churches,  346  schools,  14  hospi¬ 
tals,  6  asylums,  17,551  members.  In  China  a  un¬ 
ion  was  effected  in  1912  with  the  Anglicans  of 
England  and  Canada. 

The  educational  system  of  the  Protestant  Epis¬ 
copal  church  includes  14  theological  institutions 
with  462  students  in  1916,  and  3  distinctively 
church  colleges,  while  the  non-sectarian  Columbia 
University,  Hobart  College,  Trinity  College 
(Hartford,  Conn.,  not  to  be  confused  with  the 
Catholic  institution  of  the  same  name  in  Washing¬ 
ton,  D.  C.),  and  Lehigh  University  have  a  loose 
connection  with  the  church.  There  are  also  about 
122  academic  institutions  with  12,000  students,  and 
261  parochial  schools  with  14,000  pupils.  In  1922 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  reported  in  the 
United  States,  8103  churches,  5677  ministers,  and 
1,104,099  communicants. 

The  Reformed  Episcopal  Church,  an  offshoot  Qf 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  was  founded  in 
1873  by  Bishop  George  Cummins  of  the  latter 
church,  in  protest  against  criticism  directed  against 
him  for  having  participated  in  a  communion  service 
in  a  Presbyterian  church.  He  was  joined  by  several 
clergymen  and  a  few  laymen,  all  of  whom  were 
opposed  to  the  “ritualistic”  tendencies  of  Episco- 
palianism  at  the  time.  In  doctrine  this  sect  accepts 


substantially  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Protest¬ 
ant  Episcopal  Church,  but  specifically  rejects  the 
doctrine  that  “regeneration  is  inseparably  connected 
with  Baptism”;  it  considers  episcopacy  merely  as  a 
desirable  form  of  government,  not  a  divine  ordi¬ 
nance;  it  rejects  the  distinction  between  clergy  and 
laity,  holding  that  ministers  are  merely  included 
in  the  same  way  as  all  believers  in  “a  royal  priest¬ 
hood.”  Since  1905  there  has  been  a  decrease  of  22 
churches,  and  23  ministers.  In  1921  there  were  65 
churches,  65  ministers,  and  11,806  members  (13,022 
in  1922). 

Kinsman,  Salve  Mater  (New  York,  1920);  MacGill,  Salve 
Mater  and  the  Episcopal  Church  in  Catholic  World,  CXI  (1920), 
762;  Keeler,  Protestant  Hungarians  and  Episcopalians  in 
America,  XXVI  (1922),  344;  Proposed  Amendments  to  Psalter 
to  be  submitted  to  Convention,  1922  (New  \ork,  1921);  Second 
Report  of  the  Joint  Commission  on  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
(New  York,  1919);  Third  Report  ditto  (New  York,  1922);  Living 
Church  Annual  (Chicago);  Religious  Bodies,  1916  (Washington, 
1919);  Year  Book  of  the  Churches  (New  York,  annual). 

Gerald  Shaughnessy. 

Protestantism  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 495c)  will  be 
treated  under  three  heads:  1)  theology,  or  attitude 
toward  creed,  faith  or  doctrine;  2)  work; 
3)  statistics. 

I.  Theology. — Protestantism  has  in  recent  years 
tended  to  become  more  and  more  “liberal”  in  its 
attitude  toward  theology,  creed,  or  “creedal  state¬ 
ments.”  Both  as  cause  and  as  effect  the  fever  for 
some  kind  of  reunion  (see  Union  of  Christen¬ 
dom),  especially  prevalent  since  1910,  brings  out 
clearly  that  many,  if  not  most,  of  the  sects  of 
Protestantism  have  already  given  up,  or  are  will¬ 
ing  to  give  up,  belief  in  revealed  truth  as  the  test 
of  a  Christian.  Most  sects,  it  is  true,  continue 
officially  to  hold  a  “creed”  but  their  indifferent  at¬ 
titude  toward  the  question  of  the  relation  of  the 
individual  to  the  creed  may  be  summed  up  in 
various  statements  made  at  the  preliminary  meet¬ 
ing  of  the  World  Conference  on  Faith  and  Order 
(Geneva,  August,  1920).  “There  was  no  idea, when 
the  Nicene  Creed  was  formulated,  of  requiring  the 
subscription  of  the  laity.  ...  I  desire  that  there 
may  be  as  little  inquisition  as  possible  into  the 
opinions  and  beliefs  of  private  individuals”  (Re¬ 
port,  p.  63).  That  the  Anglican  bishop  who  uttered 
these  words  could  reconcile  them  with  his  previous 
statement  that  “a  united  church  can  never  come 
into  being  or  exist  without  articles  of  faith,”  and 
his  subsequent  defense  of  the  Nicene  Creed  as 
“obligatory  upon  the  Church’s  teachers”  and  as  the 
only  “basis  on  which  any  religion  can  maintain 
itself  in  the  long  run  without  becoming  a,  mere 
theism,”  indicates  a  truly  puzzling  confusion  of 
ideas  as  to  what  faith  means.  Again  another 
Anglican  bishop  argues  along  the  same  lines: 
“What  is  the  word,  creed?  .  .  .  It  is  always  the 
expression  of  the  Christian  experience,  burning 
intimate  in  the  very  heart,  deep  down  in  the 
soul.  .  .  .  It  is  not  a  statement.  It  is  unfair  to 
say  that  a  creed  is  an  intellectual  statement.”  Yet 
he  too  stands  uncompromisingly  for  the  Nicene 
Creed.  In  answering  him  a  Presbyterian  rejects 
his  distinction,  and  adds,  “it  seems  incredible  to 
me  that  spiritual  communion  in  any  way  depends 
upon  holding  the  same  intellectual  statement  of 
truth.”  While  the  foregoing  opinions  are  not  en¬ 
tirely  official  utterances  on  the  part  of  any  church, 
it  remains  true,  however,  that  the  men  quoted  are 
representative  leaders  of  Protestant  thought,  vested 
with  authority  to  present  to  the  Conference  at 
least  to  a  certain  extent,  the  views  and  official 
attitude  of  their  churches.  It  is  only  fair  to  add 
that  it  is  precisely  the  question  of  creed  which  so 
far  has  proved  the  greatest  obstacle  to  the  success 


PROTESTANTISM 


615 


PROTESTANTISM 


of  such  movements  as  the  World  Conference;  a 
delegate  may  indeed  reject  a  creed  as  a  trammel¬ 
ling,  binding,  intellect-hampering  ball  and  chain, 
but  the  “creedal”  and  “non-creedal”  churches, 
(i.  e.  those  that  hold  a  creed  as  necessary  and  those 
that  reject  its  necessity  respectively),  are  for  all 
that  no  nearer  union  today,  and,  what  is  logically 
more  remarkable,  the  various  “non-creedal”  sects 
are  equally  unable  to  effect  union  among  them¬ 
selves,  and  in  each  case  the  true  final  reason  for 
failure  is  the  insistence  upon  “creed.” 

A  correct  interpretation  of  this  anomaly  is  the 
explanation  that  the  churches  have  practically  re¬ 
jected  the  necessity  of  a  creed  for  individual  mem¬ 
bers;  but  they  retain  the  creed  as  obligatory  on 
the  church  and  its  teachers.  In  practice  this  dis¬ 
tinction  is  not  of  very  great  value;  an  attitude  of 
indifferentism  pervades  the  sects  today,  and  the 
doctrine  of  exclusive  salvation  (“Outside  the  church 
there  is  no  salvation”),  though  formerly  held  by 
most  of  them  is  now  practically  rejected  by  the 
majority.  One  minister,  speaking  against  the 
“useless  multiplication  of  churches,”  sums  up  very 
well  his  ideas  on  tips  point:  “What  a  blessing  it 
would  be  if  communicants  of  churches  could  rid 
themselves  of  the  idea  that  the  only  true  church  is 
the  one  to  which  they  belong.  There  is  no  church 
that  has  fully  apprehended  Christian  truth  or  that 
mirrors  flawlessly  the  ideals  of  Jesus  Christ.  There 
are  no  ‘Christians  only’  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the 
term.  .  .  .  God  has  not  given  to  any  one  race,  any 
one  nation,  any  one  religion,  a  monopoly  of  Truth 
or  elected  any  particular  communion  to  be  the 
custodian  of  orthodoxy,  not  even  my  own.  .  .  .” 
Such  indifferentists  do  not  perceive  how  utterly 
unworthy  of  God  it  is  to  think  that  He  should 
purposely  have  failed  to  make  any  one  church  the 
custodian  of  His  revelation;  they  fail  utterly  to 
realize  how  hopeless  and  futile,  if  their  premises 
be  true,  it  wrould  be  to  cling  to  any  church,  which 
by  their  admission  has  at  most  only  a  part  of  the 
truth. 

II.  Work. — The  facts  set  forth  above  go  far  to 
explain  the  emphasis  on  the  material  rather  than 
the  spiritual  in  foreign  mission  work.  The  belief 
of  the  individual  matters  little  hence  rather  is  a 
community  approached  as  a  whole  with  the  inten¬ 
tion  of  transforming  them  without  regard  to  the 
individuals  into  a  “corporate  Christian  commun¬ 
ity.”  As  a  Baptist  speaking  of  his  own  sect,  words 
which  are  applicable  quite  generally  to  Protestants, 
says,  “We  share  a  transfer  of  emphasis  from  effort 
to  rescue  individual  souls  from  perdition  to  the 
endeavor  to  create  Christian  communities.  .  .  . 
[Hence]  we  have  no  longer  an  exclusive  or  pre¬ 
ponderant  interest  in  evangelistic  work  in  the 
strict  sense  of  the  term,  but  found  hospitals,  main¬ 
tain  schools,  conduct  industrial  work.”  Naturally, 
such  works  have  a  certain  value,  and  in  most  cases 
the  good  will  of  the  promoters  is  also  to  be  pre¬ 
sumed;  it  is,  how’ever,  a  strange  anomaly  to  find 
among  those  who  at  least  theoretically  still  cling 
to  the  doctrine  of  “justification  by  faith  alone” 
what  is  practically  tantamount  to  the  diametric¬ 
ally  opposite,  “justification  by  works  alone.” 

A  similar  tendency  to  stress  the  material  side  is 
noticeable  also  in  domestic  work,  especially  in  the 
United  States.  As  significant  examples  it  is  suf¬ 
ficient  to  mention  the  New  Era  Movement  among 
the  Presbyterians,  the  Centenary  “drive”  of  the 
Methodists  and  the  Tercentenary  Fund  of  the 
Congregationalists,  in  all  of  which  rather  excessive 
emphasis  was  laid  upon  the  financial  side  of  relig¬ 
ion  and  its  works.  Going  further  than  any  of  the 
instances  cited,  the  Interchurch  World  Movement 


illustrates  well  the  point  in  question  here,  while 
its  brief  span  of  life  serves  to  indicate  the  futility 
ol  such  movements  when  not  firmly  based  on 
spiritual  foundations.  This  movement  was  launched 
in  December,  1918,  as  a  union  of  Protestant  organi¬ 
zations  in  their  “program  of  Christian  service  and 
the  performance  of  their  common  task.”  Not 
without  some  opposition  it  succeeded  in  eliciting 
the  support  of  about  forty  denominational  and 
interdenominational  boards  and  societies.  At  first 
ostensibly  a  co-operative  movement  of  mission 
boards  and  societies,  it  soon  set  its  hand  to  other 
works  such  as  education,  ministerial  relief  and  pen¬ 
sions,  supervision  of  eleemosynary  institutions,  and 
investigation  of  industrial  conditions.  Numbering 
among  its  sponsors  many  prominent  financial  lead¬ 
ers,  it  set  out  to  acquire  a  fund  of  $336,000,009 
with  which  to  accomplish  its  purposes.  Within  a 
comparatively  short  period  $180,000,000  had  been 
raised  and  a  vast  organization  was  functioning  at 
a  monthly  expense  of  $1,000,000.  About  a  year 
after  its  inception,  expenses  were  reduced  to  $75,000 
monthly,  when  about  twenty-two  of  the  denomina¬ 
tions  co-operating  signified  their  intention  to  with- 
draw,  while  some,  notably  the  Baptists  and  Presby¬ 
terians,  had  definitely  severed  connections  with  the 
movement.  Finally,  early  in  1921,  the  organization 
was  forced  to  close  its  books  and  retire  from  busi¬ 
ness,  in  debt  to  New  York  banks  for  large  sums 
advanced, — loans  which  the  various  denominations 
which  guaranteed  them  are  gradually  paying  off. 

Many  reasons  have  been  suggested  as  explain¬ 
ing  the  failure  of  the  movement.  From  a  Catholic 
point  of  view,  it  would  seem  (and  this  is  the  view 
of  most  of  the  Protestant  criticisms,  of  which  there 
were  not  a  few),  that  the  movement  represented 
the  crassly  material  side  of  Protestantism  and  died 
from  sheer  spiritual  inanition.  The  very  just  criti¬ 
cisms  which  many  of  the  sects  directed  against  it, 
and  its  final  collapse  are  rather  to  the  credit  of  the 
“orthodox”  Protestants,  although  it  must  be  admit¬ 
ted  that  one  of  the  strongly  contributory  causes  of 
the  failure  was  the  refusal  of  the  “unchurched”  to 
support  it  with  any  great  financial  contributions, 
they  having  been  counted  on  to  finance  the  cen¬ 
tral  organization  while  the  denominational  contri¬ 
butions  were  to  have  been  expended  proportion¬ 
ately  among  the  denominations  themselves. - 

To  sum  up  the  general  situation,  while  the  '‘sav¬ 
ing  faith”  (confidence  in  one’s  justification)  of  the 
early  reformers  is  rather  generally  retained,  faith 
as  meaning  articles  of  belief  to  which  intellectual 
assent  is  to  be  given  receives  but  slight  attention 
in  Protestantism  today.  The  “orthodox”  still 
strive  to  maintain  the  traditional  doctrines,  but 
actually  Protestantism  is  tending  more  and  more 
to  resolve  itself  into,  or  at  least  to  concentrate  it¬ 
self  around,  the  one  doctrine  of  the  “Brotherhood 
of  Man,”  more  or  less  materially  interpreted,  for¬ 
getting  that  the  command  on  which  that  doctrine 
is  based  is  only  the  second  of  the  Law,  the  first 
duty  being  to  love  God,  and  forgetting  also  that 
the  first  and  higher  duty  of  love  of  neighbor  calls 
us  to  minister  to  the  soul  of  the  individual  before 
we  care  for  his  body  and  his  material  welfare.  The 
Brotherhood  of  Man,  in  other  words,  means  noth¬ 
ing,  or  very  little,  unless  interpreted  in  the  light 
of  the  eternal  truths  which  are  essentially  un¬ 
changeable,  and  which  must  forever  be  centered 
around  the  Creation  and  the  Incarnation  and  all 
that  those  truths  imply. 

Under  such  conditions  as  outlined  above  it  would 
be  natural  to  expect  to  find  a  disinclination  on  the 
part  of  Protestants  to  enter  the  ministry.  Such  a 
state  of  affairs  exists;  indeed  so  noticeable  is  it, 


PROTESTANTISM 


G16 


PROTESTANTISM 


that  many  churches  have  sounded  a  note  of  alarm. 
To  cite  conditions  in  the  United  States:  in  the 
National  Congregational  Council  of  1917  the  presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Chicago  Seminary  stated  that  the  de¬ 
crease  in  the  number  of  theological  students  had 
progressed  to  such  an  extent  that  the  church  was 
facing  the  most  serious  crisis  since  the  Civil  War. 
There  has  been  a  steady  decline  also  in  the  enroll¬ 
ment  of  Episcopalian,  Presbyterian  and  Baptist 
theological  students.  In  the  latter  sect  in  1920, 
189  ministers  died,  while  only  245  were  ordained, 
leaving  a  gain  of  only  56,  far  too  few  to  provide 
for  the  demands  of  a  growing  church.  The  gen¬ 
eral  result  is  that  in  1920,  aecording  to  a  report 
made  for  the  Federal  Council  of  Churches,  there 
were  40,000  Protestant  pulpits  without  pastors;  in 
the  South  alone  there  were  said  to  be  3000  Bap¬ 
tist,  1800  Methodist,  1000  Episcopalian,  and  1000 
Presbyterian  churches  without  leaders.  In  1921, 
according  to  a  writer  in  the  “Independent”  (20 
August,  1921)  5000  Protestant  pulpits  became 

vacant;  5000  more  are  expected  to  become  vacant 
in  1922;  yet  there  were  only  1600  seminary  gradu¬ 
ates  in  1921,  with  prospects  of  even  less  in  the  year 
following.  Moreover,  it  is  significant  that  the 
writer  just  referred  to  (a  Protestant)  names  as 
the  outstanding  causes  for  the  present  Protestant 
crisis,  and  for  what  he  terms  the  failing  influence 
of  Protestantism  in  the  last  generation  (1)  bad 
theology  (2)  bad  Christianity  (3)  bad  Protestant¬ 
ism. 

United  States  Government  statistics  for  minis¬ 
ters  for  the  period  1890  to  1916  are  as  follows: 
number  of  Protestant  ministers  in  the  United 
States  in  1890,  101,870;  in  1906,  149,653;  in  1916, 
171,509.  The  rate  of  gain  from  1890  to  1906  was 
somewhat  less  than  3%  per  year;  for  the  following 
ten  years  it  was  less  than  1.5%,  or  about  one-half 
the  former  rate. 

In  England  and  Wales  conditions  are  quite  simi¬ 
lar:  in  1909  there  were  10,125  dissenting  clergy¬ 
men,  and  55,476  “local  and  lay  preachers.”  In 
1915  there  were  10,863  of  the  former  and  54,449  of 
the  latter,  showing  a  net  loss  of  289  for  the  period. 
In  1901  there  were  25,235  Anglican  clergymen;  in 
1918  there  were  reported  only  1'9,800  (with  the 
possibility  that  there  may  have  been  a  few  more 
on  the  non-active  list).  It  is  true  that  the  war 
had  a  serious  effect  in  this  period,  but  nevertheless 
we  should  expect  an  increase  over  the  figures  of 
seventeen  years  before,  if  the  churches  were  in  a 
healthy  condition. 

Contrasting  with  its  rather  moribund  state  from 
the  point  of  view  of  theology,  Protestantism  has  of 
late  been  making  added  efforts  to  penetrate  the 
Catholic  countries  of  Europe  and  South  America 
through  the  medium  of  material  resources.  France, 
Belgium,  Italy,  Poland,  and  other  countries,  after 
the  war,  have  become  the  center  of  the  proselyting 
efforts  of  the  Protestants;  and  under  the  guise  of 
“humanitarian  aid”  they  have  sought  to  inject  the 
virus  of  religious  division  among  those  peoples. 
Funds  contributed  to  by  American  Catholics  as 
well  as  Protestants  have  been  used  to  further  this 
propaganda,  not  directly  always,  but  in  many  in¬ 
stances  none  the  less  effectively.  In  Italy  and  in 
Rome  itself  the  proselyting  activities  were  espe¬ 
cially  evident  until  the  Holy  Father  finally  called 
upon  the  Knights  of  Columbus  and  the  Paulists  of 
America  to  help  counteract  the  propaganda.  The 
Holy  Office  (5  November,  1920),  issued  a  letter  to 
the  Bishops  of  the  Church,  warning  them  of  the 
activities  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  (q.  v.)  and  similar  or¬ 
ganizations,  and  indicating  the  dangers  to  the  Cath¬ 
olic  faith  which  lurked  in  accepting  favors  from 


their  hands.  The  Holy  Office  did  not  condemn  the 
“applied  Christianity”  of  the  associations.  The  edu¬ 
cational  and  recreational  features  are  to  be  com¬ 
mended;  but  the  Protestant  rationalism  and  indif- 
ferentism  of  the  promoters  exact  a  terrible  toll  in 
return.  That  this  is  really  the  purpose  of  the  Y. 
M.  C.  A.  and  other  similar  societies,  particularly 
in  their  European  work  appears  from  their  own 
words,  according  to  the  letter  of  the  Holy  Office 
which  bases  the  following  statement  on  a  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  pamphlet  published  in  Rome  (“che  cosa  e  la 
Y.  M.  C.  A.:  cio  che  si  propone,  etc”):  “This 
society,  indeed,  makes  profession  of  a  sincere  love 
for  young  people,  as  if  it  had  no  dearer  aim  than 
to  give  them  facilities  for  corporal  and  mental  de¬ 
velopment;  but  at  the  same  time  it  destroys  their 
faith  and  declares  that  it  proposes  to  purify  it, 
and  to  impart  a  more  perfect  knowledge  of  life, 
‘above  and  apart  from  any  religious  system’.” 

In  the  Western  hemisphere  Protestant  propa¬ 
ganda  has  been  pushed  strongly  in  Latin  America, 
although  much  proselytism  has  also  been  attempted 
among  Catholic  immigrants  in  the  United  States. 
The  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal,  various  Pan- 
American  meetings,  the  Panama  Pacific  exposition, 
and  the  commercial  prospects  of  trade  with  South 
American  countries  had  for  years  turned  attention 
to  Latin  America.  The  sects  which  have  in  point 
of  fact  never  met  with  any  striking  success  in  that 
field,  now  turned  their  attention  thither.  In  the 
Edinburgh  World  Missionary  Conference  of  1910 
the  delegates  had  practically  been  told,  “Hands 
off,”  when  the  question  of  South  America  was 
raised,  the  Anglican  and  German  delegates  par¬ 
ticularly  decrying  any  attempt  to  proselyte  among 
the  Latin-American  Catholics.  The  consensus  of 
opinion  was  that  missionary  efforts  should  be  ex¬ 
pended  in  non-Christian  countries.  The  American 
delegates,  not  satisfied  with  such  an  attitude,  soon 
after  their  return  conceived  the  idea  of  a  union 
congress  to  consider  the  possibilities,  methods,  and 
means,  of  a  campaign  “to  win  Latin  America  to 
Christ”  (sic).  As  a  consequence  the  “Congress  on 
Christian  Work  in  Latin  America”  was  arranged 
for,  to.  consist  of  a  union  meeting  of  delegates  from 
various  churches.  The  proposal  was  generally 
hailed  with  approval  by  the  different  sects.  The 
Missionary  Society  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  voted  to  participate,  contrary  to  instruc¬ 
tions  from  the  General  Convention  of  the  church. 
Recognizing  the  true  nature  of  the  movement, 
three  bishops  and  several  of  the  clergy  (including 
Dr.  Manning,  who  was  later  made  a  bishop),  re¬ 
signed  in  protest  from  the  Board  in  1915,  one 
bishop  declaring  that  the  conference  was  a  direct 
attack  of  one  part  of  Christendom  on  another,  and 
that  in  such  an  affront  to  Roman  Catholics  he 
would  not  take  part.  Meanwhile,  after  long  dis¬ 
cussion  at  the  preliminary  meetings,  the  following 
invitation  was  sent  to  various  Catholic  leaders,  in 
the  full  knowledge,  of  course,  that  no  Catholic 
would  accept  such  a  call  from  such  a  source:  “All 
communions  or  organizations  which  accept  Jesus 
Christ  as  Divine  Saviour  and  Lord,  and  the  Holy 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  as  the 
Revealed  Word  of  God,  and  whose  purpose  is  to 
make  the  will  of  Christ  prevail  in  Latin  America, 
are  cordially  invited  to  participate  in  the  Panama 
Congress,  and  will  be  heartily  welcomed.” 

The  congress  met  in  Panama  10-20  February, 
1916,  and  later  issued  in  three  volumes  the  reports 
and  discussions  of  the  commissions  and  meetings. 
The  chief  aim  seemed  to  be  to  present  to  the  Latin 
Americans  a  united  front,  a  “catholic  Protestant 
church  as  it  were,  no  longer  divided.  Accordingly 


PROTESTANTISM 


G17 


PROVIDENCE 


a  quasi-conti  act  was  entered  into  distributing  ex¬ 
clusive  territory  to  the  various  sects.  The  reports 
and  discussions  with  very  few  exceptions  were  a 
rehashing  of  the  old,  often  vile,  and  many  times 
refuted  calumnies  hurled  at  the  Church  since 
Luther’s  revolt;  they  may  be  summed  up  in  the 
statement  of  one  of  the  delegates  (vol.  I,  p.  350), 
‘‘The  Roman  Church  deserves  warfare.”  The  con¬ 
gress  was  attended  by  delegates  from  the  following 
churches:  Adventist,  Baptist,  Christian,  Congrega¬ 
tional,  Disciples,  Friends,  Lutheran,  Methodist, 
Moravian,  Presbyterian,  Protestant  Episcopal,  Re¬ 
formed  Church  in  America,  and  United  Brethren; 
by  delegates  from  various  interdenominational 
societies  -and  by  some  delegates  from  Canada  and 
Great  Britain  (not  Anglicans).  Continuation  con¬ 
ferences  were  arranged  for  various  Latin  American 
cities;  but  since  then  no  striking  results  have  been 
reported. 

III.  Statistics. — In  compiling  statistics  on  the 
number  of  Protestants  in  various  countries  and  in 
the  world,  much  confusion  has  resulted  from  a  fail¬ 
ure  to  define  terms  and  to  follow  the  definitions 
consistently.  Protestants  themselves  usually  list 
only  “communicants”  when  enumerating  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  their  churches.  This  term  has,  naturally, 
different  meanings  in  different  sects,  but  in  general 
it  signifies  those  who  are  in  full  union  with  their 
church,  who  are  fully  affiliated  and  enrolled,  and 
who  are  entitled  to  full  participation  in  the  vari¬ 
ous  exercises  of  worship.  Keeping  this  definition 
in  mind,  statistics  show  that  there  are  considerably 
less  than  100,000,000  Protestant  communicants  in 
the  world  today  (1922);  the  true  figure  is  possibly 
very  close  to  90,000,000.  However,  these  Protestant 
communicants  represent  a  much  larger  Protestant 
“constituency,”  among  whom  should  be  included, 
besides  the  communicants,  all  those  of  Protestant 
connection:  children  (not  considered  as  members 
by  most  sects),  who  are  brought  up  under  Protes¬ 
tant  influence  and  who  in  many  cases  will  later  on 
“join  the  church”;  occasional  church-goers;  and 
finally  that  vast  army  of  quasi-unbelievers  who 
although  not  affiliated  with  any  church,  nor  likely 
to  be,  are  by  their  training,  education,  and  preju¬ 
dices  thoroughly  Protestant  or  at  least  anti- 
Roman.  It  is  easy  to  understand  that  in  this  last 
category  are  necessarily  included  many  indifferent- 
ists  and  rationalists,  who  can  only  in  a  very  broad 
sense  be  classed  as  Christians.  The  Protestant 
constituency  of  the  world  (communicants  and  con¬ 
nections)  numbers  about  175,000,000.  For  purposes 
of  comparison  it  may  be  stated  here  that  there 
are  in  the  world  about  350,000.000  Catholics,  united 
under  the  Pope  of  Rome.  Discounting  those  who 
have  ceased  to  be  practical  Catholics  the  member¬ 
ship  is  close  to  325,000,000.  These  estimates  are 
arrived  at  from  a  study  of  the  religious  statistics 
of  all  countries  of  the  world  as  presented  by  the 
Statesman’s  Year  Book  for  1921. 

The  actual  distribution  of  the  Protestants  of  the 
world  has  not  changed  much  in  recent  decades;  in 
all  Latin  America  there  are  about  100,000  com¬ 
municants  (about  300,000  constituents) ;  in  Catho¬ 
lic  Europe  (France,  Italy,  Luxemburg,  Ireland, 
Austria,  Poland,  Portugal,  Spain,  and  Czechoslo¬ 
vakia)  there  are  about  1,000,000  Protestant  com¬ 
municants  (about  4,000,000  constituents),  of  whom 
about  one-half  are  in  Poland,  the  number  in  most 
of  these  countries  being  entirely  negligible.  In 
France,  which  excepting  Czechoslovakia,  is  the 
only  other  Catholic  country  possessing  an  appreci¬ 
able  Protestant  population  (about  1,000,000  con¬ 
stituents),  the  effect  of  the  Separation  Law  of  1905 
and  of  the  war  has  been  almost  disastrous  to 


Protestantism,  which  is  now  admittedly  in  a 
struggling  condition.  In  Protestant  Germany, 
Protestantism,  already  before  the  war  attacked  by 
the  canker  of  rationalism,  has  also  received  a  de¬ 
cided  setback  through  the  separation  of  church  and 
state,  although  it  is  still  (1922)  impossible  to  gauge 
definitely  the  results  of  this  clause  of  the  constitu¬ 
tion.  In  Czechoslovakia  Protestantism  has  made 
some  gains  recently  through  a  schism  resultant 
upon  the  formation  of  the  new  Government.  How¬ 
ever,  the  gains  were  greatly  exaggerated  and 
Czechoslovakia  must  be  numbered  among  the  pre¬ 
dominantly  Catholic  countries,  containing  in  1921 
about  11,675,000  Catholics  and  900,000  Protestants 
(constituents). 

The  United  States  numbers  among  its  inhabi¬ 
tants  28,111,553  Protestant  communicants  (accord¬ 
ing  to  a  secretary  of  the  Federal  Council  of 
Churches,  1922),  divided  among  about  200  sects. 
The  Catholics  number  about  20,000,000.  As  indi¬ 
cated  above,  however,  it  would  be  a  mistake  to 
class  this  country  immediately  (as  some  do),  on 
the  strength  of  these  figures,  as  non-Christian,  for 
many  of  the  other  60,000,000  inhabitants  are  right¬ 
fully  included  in  the  Protestant  constituency,  this 
totaling  probably  about  40,000,000  (Year  Book  of 
the  Churches,  1920,  p.  196)  although  Dr.  Watson, 
the  Washington  secretary  of  the  Federal  Council, 
claims  nearly  75,000,000  in  1922.  This  latter  figure 
is  evidently  too  high.  The  number  of  sects  increased 
from  186  in  1906  to  200  in  1916  (about  193  in  1922), 
the  net  gain  of  fourteen  in  the  decade  being  due  to  a 
loss  of  seventeen  and  an  addition  of  thirty-one  de¬ 
nominations.  (For  further  information  on  points 
touched  on  in  this  article  see  especially  articles  on 
various  sects  and  various  countries.) 

Pisani,  Les  missioyis  protestantes  a  la  fin  du  XIX  siecle 
(Paris,  1903);  Krogh-Tonning  and  Baltus,  Le  protestantisme 
contemporain  (Paris,  1901);  Meagher,  History  of  the  Protestant 
Religions  (New  York,  1914);  Congress  On  Christian  Work  in 
Latin  America,  Reports,  etc.  (New  York,  1917);  Atteridge, 
The  Campaign  of  Slander  against  South  America,  I,  The  Land  of 
the  Christless  Cross,  in  The  Month,  CXXIII  (1914),  337;  Idem, 
II,  Facts  versus  Fiction,  ibid.,  599;  Burton,  Tendencies  in 
Northern  Baptist  Churches  in  American  Journal  of  Theology, 
XXIV  (1920),  321;  Rall,  Methodism  Today,  ibid.,  481;  Coe', 
The  Religious  Breakdoicn  of  the  Ministry  in  Journal  of  Religion, 
I  (1921)  18;  Gild  and  Pinchot,  Six  Thousand  Country  Churches 
(New  York,  1919);  Idem,  The  Country  Church,  the  Decline  of  its 
Influence  (New  York,  1913);  Goguel,  The  Religious  [ Protestant j 
Situation  in  France;  in  Journal  of  Religion,  I  (1921),  561;  Rade, 
The  Present  Situation  of  Christianity  [Protestantism]  in  Germany  ’, 
in  American  Journal  of  Theology,  XXIV  (1920),  339;  Mac¬ 
millan,  Protestantism  in  Germany  (Princeton,  1917);  Report 
of  Preliminary  Meeting  of  World  Conference  on  Faith  and  Order 
(Gardiner,  Maine,  1921);  Epistola  ad  locorum  ordinarios  qua 
eorum  vigilantia  excitatur  circa  nova  qusedam  acatholicorum 
molimina  contra  fidem  (the  Holy  Office  on  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  et 
al.),  in  Acta  ApostolicX  Sedis,  XII  (1920),  595;  Fisher,  The 
Holy  Office  and  the  Y.  M .  C.  A.  in  America,  XXIV  (1921),  450; 
Religious  Bodies,  1916  (Washington,  1919);  Year  Book  of  the 
Churches  (New  York,  annual). 

Gerald  Shaughnessy. 

Providence,  Diocese  of  (Providentiensis,  cf. 
C.  E.,  XII — 509c),  is  co-extensive  with  the  State  of 
Rhode  Island.  In  March,  1915,  at  the  request  of 
Bishop  Harkins,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Thomas  F. 
Doran,  vicar  general  of  the  diocese,  was  appointed 
auxiliary  bishop.  On  27  April,  1915,  he  was  conse- 
secrated  titular  Bishop  of  Halicarnassus.  He  died  3 
Jan.,  1916,  after  a  short  illness.  On  4  July,  1917, 
Rev.  Denis  M.  Lowney,  one  of  the  vicars  general  of 
the  diocese,  was  appointed  auxiliary  bishop,  and  con¬ 
secrated  23  October  following.  He  died  13  Aug., 
1918,  after  having  served  less  than  a  year,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  administrator,  the  Rt.  Rev. 
William  A.  Hickey,  who  was  appointed  coadjutor 
bishop  with  the  right  of  succession,  16  Jan.,  1919. 
Born  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  13  May,  1869,  ordained 
at  Boston,  22  Dec.,  1893,  he  succeeded  Bishop  Har¬ 
kins  on  the  death  of  the  latter,  25  May,  1921. 


PROVIDENCE 


618 


PRZEMYSL 


On  25  April,  1912,  the  Rev.  Austin  Dowling,  rector 
of  the  cathedral,  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Des 
Moines  at  Sts.  Peter  and  Paul’s  Cathedral,  Provi¬ 
dence.  On  29  Oct.,  1916,  Most  Rev.  John  Bonzano 
dedicated  St.  Ann’s  School  at  Providence.  Provi¬ 
dence  College  was  incorporated,  14  Feb.,  1917,  and 
Bishop  Hickey  delivered  the  opening  address,  18 
Sept.,  1919.  In  1920  a  drive  was  inaugurated  to 
pay  off  the  debt  on  the  college,  the  amount  realized 
being  $330,000.  In  January,  1920,  the  National 
Council  of  Catholic  Men  was  organized.  This  was 
the  first  diocesan  body  in  the  United  States  to  com¬ 
plete  its  organization.  During  the  war  7  priests  of 
the  diocese  enlisted  as  chaplains,  11,646  men  enlisted 
in  the  Army  and  Navy,  281  were  killed  or  died  of 
wounds  or  disease,  192  were  wounded.  The  Catho¬ 
lics  of  the  diocese  number  about  275,000,  of  whom 
151,000  are  Irish,  65,000  French,  37,000  Italians, 
10,500  Poles,  10,100  Portuguese,  1100  Syrians,  1000 
Lithuanians.  Parishes  and  schools  have  been 
founded  for  the  Catholic  foreigners  in  the  various 
cities  and  towns  of  the  diocese  and  many  of  them  are 
in  charge  of  priests  of  their  own  nationality.  The 
Armenians  are  periodically  served  by  an  Armenian 
priest  who  hears  their  confessions  and  exhorts  them 
to  attend  the  church  for  English-speaking  Catholics. 
There  has  been  an  extensive  post-war  development  in 
parochial  school  building.  One  school  has  already 
been  built,  two  are  in  actual  process  of  construction, 
while  plans  for  at  least  five  more  are  under  consid¬ 
eration. 

According  to  the  statistics  of  1922,  the  parish  con¬ 
tains:  96  parishes,  21  missions,  2  stations,  100 
churches,  2  monasteries  and  4  convents  for  men,  49 
convents  for  women,  218  secular  priests,  54  regulars, 
38  lay  brothers,  911  Sisters,  48  seminarians  who  are 
being  educated  in  seminaries  in  other  dioceses.  The 
educational  institutions  are:  1  college,  14  teachers,  256 
students;  8  high  schools,  40  teachers,  692  students 
(185  boys,  507  girls);  7  academies,  91  teachers,  1614 
students  (1189  boys,  425  girls);  46  elementary  schools, 
547  teachers,  21,622  pupils;  2  industrial  schools,  5 
teachers,  118  pupils.  The  schools  are  not  supported 
by  the  Government.  The  missionary  works  are  the 
Catholic  Missionary  Society  and  the  Providence 
Apostolate.  The  following  institutions  exist  in  the 
diocese:  6  homes,  2  asylums,  2  hospitals,  6  day  nur¬ 
series.  All  the  public  institutions  admit  the  ministry 
of  priests.  Some  of  the  institutions  receive  appropria¬ 
tions  from  the  state.  Organizations  among  the 
clergy  are  the  Pia  Unio  Precum  and  Clergy  Fund 
Society.  The  following  associations  exist  among  the 
laity:  National  Catholic  Council  of  Men,  National 
Catholic  Council  of  Women,  Queens’  Daughters, 
Daughters  of  Isabella.  A  Catholic  periodical  called 
the  “Providence  Visitor”  is  published  in  the  diocese. 

Providence,  Divine,  Congregations  of.  See 
Divine  Providence,  Sisters  of. 

Providence,  House  of.  See  Joseph  Benedict 

COTTOLENGO,  RLESSED. 

Providence,  Sisters  of  (St.  Mary-of-the-Woods; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XII— 507d).— The  Sisters  take  simple 
vows.  The  postulantship  of  six  months  is  followed  by 
a  novitiate  of  two  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time 
vows  are  taken.  A  year  of  second  novitiate  pre¬ 
cedes  the  final  and  perpetual  vows.  The  admin¬ 
istrative  faculty  of  the  congregation  is  an  elective 
body  comprising  a  superior  general  and  five  assist¬ 
ants,  a  secretary,  and  a  general  chapter.  In  a 
private  audience  given  in  1913  to  the  superior  gen¬ 
eral,  Mother  M.  Cleophas,  Pope  Pius  X  granted 
the  privilege  of  Perpetual  Exposition  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  for  which  a  special  chapel  con¬ 


necting  with  the  conventual  church  has  been  built 
at  the  mother-house.  The  cause  of  beatification 
of  Mother  Theodore  (d.  1856)  has  been  taken  up 
at  Rome  bjr  the  Sacred  Congregation.  The  Sisters 
conduct  parochial  schools  and  academies  in  the 
Archdioceses  of  Baltimore,  Boston,  and  Chicago, 
and  the  dioceses  of  Indianapolis,  Fort  Wayne,  and 
Peoria,  also  a  college  at  St.  Mary-of-the-Woods, 
four  miles  from  Terre  Haute,  Indiana.  In  1920 
they  opened  a  house  in  East  Ho-nan,  China,  being 
the  first  American  sisterhood  to  take  up  work  in 
the  foreign  missions.  Statistics  for  1921  are:  1442 
professed  Sisters,  106  novices,  30  postulants,  60 
parochial  schools,  15  academies,  1  college,  1  orphan¬ 
age,  2  day  nurseries;  30,000  children. 

Provincial  Councils.  —  Provincial  councils  are 
to  be  held  at  least  every  twentieth  year.  Bishops 
who  are  not  subject  to  a  metropolitan,  abbots  or 
prelates  nullius,  archbishops  without  suffragans, 
must  elect,  after  obtaining  Apostolic  approval,  to 
attach  themselves  to  a  neighboring  metropolitan 
whose  provincial  councils  they  will  assist  at  and  be 
bound  by.  The  metropolitan  should  summon  the 
bishops  of  his  province  at  least  every  five  years  to 
meet  and  consult  about  religious  conditions  and 
prepare  for  the  next  council.  Among  those .  who 
should  be  invited  to  and  should  attend  provincial 
councils  are  prefects  apostolic,  cathedral  chapters 
or  diocesan  consultors,  who  are  to  be  represented 
by  two  of  their  members  selected  by  their  college, 
also  superiors,  of  monastic  congregations  and 
higher  exempt  clerical  superiors  residing  in  the 
province ;  of  these  only  the  prefects  apostolic  have 
a  deliberative  vote.  No  penalties  are  mentioned 
in  the  Code  for  a  violation  of  the  obligation  to 
attend  the  councils.  On  the  conclusion  of  the 
council  the  president  is  to  forward  the  acts  and 
decrees  to  the  Holy  See  for  examination  by  the 
Holy  Congregation  of  the  Council;  they  are  not  to 
be  promulgated  until  approbation  has  been  given. 
After  promulgation,  local  ordinaries  cannot  dis¬ 
pense  from  the  decrees  unless  for  just  cause  in 
particular  instances.  In  places  subject  to  the  Con¬ 
gregation  of  Propaganda  the  regulations  concerning 
provincial  councils  should  be  observed,  as  far  as 
possible  allowing  for  altered  circumstances;  no 
time  for  holding  these  councils,  however,  is  laid 
down,  but  their  acts  and  decrees  are  to  be  submit¬ 
ted  to  Propaganda  and  not  to  the  Congregation  of 
the  Council. 

Provision,  Canonical  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII-516a). — No 
one  who  has  been  elected,  presented  or  nominated 
for  any  office,  benefice,  or  dignity  may  take  possession 
of  it  or  interfere  with  its  government  or  administra¬ 
tion,  before  presenting  his  apostolic  letters  to  the 
proper  authorities.  If  he  violates  this  canon,  he 
becomes  by  the  very  fact  incapable  of  acquiring  the 
office,  benefice,  or  dignity,  and  is  to  be  suitably 
punished  by  the  ordinary  and  compelled  by  spiritual 
penalties,  even  deposition  if  necessary,  to  give  it  up 
without  delay.  Chapters,  communities,  and  others 
who  officially  admit  such  a  party  before  he  has  pre¬ 
sented  his  letters  are  by  the  very  fact  suspended  from 
the  right  of  electing,  nominating  or  presenting  till  it 
pleases  the  Holy  See  to  revoke  the  suspension. 
Formerly,  in  virtue  of  the  Constitution  “Romanus 
Pontifex,”  the  dignitaries  and  canons  of  the  cathedral 
admitting  a  prelate  under  such  circumstances  incurred 
specially  reserved  excommunication. 

Przemysl,  Diocese  of,  of  the  Latin  Rite 
(Premisliensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 532c),  suffragan  of 
Lwow  (Lemberg),  in  Galicia,  formerly  an  Austrian 
province,  which  was  included  in  the  new  Republic  of 


PRZEMYSL 


619 


PSYCHOANALYSIS 


Poland  at  the  division  of  Austria-Hungary.  The  pres¬ 
ent  bishop  is  Mgr.  Joseph  Sebastian  Pelczar,  born  at 
Korczvna,  17  January,  1842,  elected  titular  bishop  of 
Miletopohs  20  February,  1899,  transferred  17  Decem¬ 
ber,  1900,  and  enthroned  13  January,  1901,  succeed¬ 
ing  Mgr.  Solecki,  deceased,  as  Bishop  of  Przemysl. 
His  auxiliary  is  Rt.  Itev.  Charles  Joseph  Fischer,  born 
in  Jaslo,  1847,  elected  titular  bishop  of  Mallus  15 
April,  1901.  During  the  war  the  Diocese  of  Przemysl 
was  invaded  by  the  Russians,  Germans,  Austro- 
Hungarians  and  Ukranian  rebels.  The  city  was  cap¬ 
tured  by  the  Russians  in  March,  1915,  and  many 
towns  and  villages  were  burned,  also  about  100 
churches  of  the  Latin  Rite.  About  100  diocesan 
priests  were  chaplains  in  the  Austrian  (later  Polish) 
army,  six  of  whom  were  captured  by  the  Russians. 
Many  priests,  Sisters  and  Polish  laywromen  worked  in 
hospitals,  way-stations  and  other  places  to  relieve 
the  misery  of  the  soldiers,  prisoners,  the  poor  and  the 
many  orphans.  In  1921  the  diocese  contained  345 
parishes,  1,200,000  Latin  Catholics,  760,000  Uniat 
Catholics  (Greek  Ruthenian),  200,000  non-Catholics 
(mostly  Jews),  345  parishes,  30  convents  and  monas¬ 
teries  for  men,  135  for  women,  699  secular  and  150 
regular  priests,  1  upper  seminary,  81  seminarians,  1 
lower  seminary,  many  orphanages  and  hospitals.  The 
schools  are  supported ‘and  directed  by  the  Govern¬ 
ment  and  religion  is  taught  in  all  schools  by  priests 
appointed  by  the  bishop  and  pensioned  by  the  govern¬ 
ment.  There  are  three  associations  among  the  clergy 
and  many  and  varied  ones  in  each  parish  for  the  lahy. 
An  official  paper  is  published  by  the  bishop. 

Przemysl,  Sambor  and  Sanok,  Diocese  of, 
of  the  Greek  Uniat  Rite,  using  the  Ruthenian  lan¬ 
guage,  in  Western  Galicia,  Poland,  suffragan  of  Lwow 
(Lemberg).  This  diocese  includes  the  territory  of  the 
Latin  diocese  of  the  same  name  and  also  that  of  the 
Latin  diocese  of  Tarnow.  The  present  bishop  is  Mgr. 
Josaphat  Joseph  Kocylowsky,  born  in  Pakosziwka  in 
1876,  ordained  in  1907,  elected  29  January,  1917,  to 
succeed  Mgr.  Czechowicz,  deceased.  In  1915  the 
diocese  contained  1,252,492  Greek  Catholics,  819 
secular  priests,  of  whom  685  are  married,  140  widow7- 
ers  and  28  celibates,  36  regular  priests,  697  parishes 
and  1374  churches  or  chapels. 

Psichari,  Ernest,  author  and  soldier,  b.  27 
September,  1883,  d.  22  August,  1914,  the  son  of 
Jean  Psichari,  a  professor  at  the  Ecole  des  Hautes 
Etudes,  by  his  wife  Noemi  Renan,  daughter  of  the 
famous  sceptic.  M.  Psichari,  being  a  member  of  the 
Orthodox  Greek  Church,  Ernest  was  baptised  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  Greek  Rite,  but  thenceforth  religion 
formed  no  part  in  his  life.  At  the  lycees  Henri  IV 
and  Condorcet,  he  displayed  brilliant  mental  gifts 
and  a  poetical  temperament,  writing  verses  in  the 
manner  of  Verlaine.  In  1902  Psichari  left  Paris  to 
spend  a  year  of  military  service  in  a  provincial  gar¬ 
rison.  At  the  end  of  the  year  he  returned  to  Paris 
to  take  up  his  studies,  but  in  1904  he  enlisted  in  the 
51st  Regiment  of  the  line  and  in  1906  was  sent  to 
Africa.  In  1907  he  returned  to  France,  was  promoted 
sub-lieutenant  in  1909  and  at  once  set  out  for  Maure¬ 
tania,  French  West  Africa.  His  first  book  “Terres 
de  Soleil  et  de  Sommeil”  was  followed  by  “L’ Appel  des 
Armes”  (written  in  Mauretania,  1910-1912),  which 
is  an  apology  for  the  military  life  and  in  which  there 
is  seen  the  author’s  groping  for  faith.  Close  after 
follows“Le  Voyage  du  Centurion”  which  is  auto¬ 
biographical,  although  told  in  the  third  person. 
This  book  tells  of  a  French  soldier  in  Africa  searching 
for  faith  and  finding  it.  Psichari  left  Africa  in  1912 
and  was  stationed  at  Cherbourg  where  although  he 
read  a  great  deal  concerning  the  Faith,  confession 
still  seemed  a  stumbling  block.  On  4  February, 


1913,  the  grandson  of  Renan  read  his  profession  of 
faith  after  which  he  went  to  confession  and  received 
absolution.  He  was  confirmed  8  February,  taking 
the  name  of  Paul  in  reparation  for  Renan’s  treatment 
of  the  Apostle.  After  a  ‘‘year  of  prayer”  he  decided 
to  become  a  Dominican.  He  was  still  at  Cherbourg 
when  war  was  declared  and  on  the  second  day  of 
mobilization  set  out  for  the  battle  front  During 
those  first  days  of  surprise  and  defeat  Lieutenant 
Psichari  was  an  inspiration  to  his  men  and  after 
twelve  hours  of  terrific  fighting  at  St.  Vincent- 
Rossignol  in  Belgium,  he  fell,  shot  in  the  temple,  and 
was  found  with  his  rosary  wound  about  his  -wrist 
and  on  his  lips  the  smile  of  a  great  peace. 

Samuel  Fowle  Telfair,  Jr. 

Psychoanalysis  (Gr.  'kvxy,  ava'Kvais),  means  a 
disclosing  of  the  mental  content,  the  latter  being 
taken  in  its  widest  extent  as  embracing  both  the 
conscious  as  well  as  the  unconscious  psychic 
processes.  It  began  as  a  therapeutic  treatment  of 
certain  neurotic  diseases,  but  quickly  developed 
into  a  general  science  of  the  unconscious  which 
aims  at  a  complete  reorientation  of  human  life  and 
a  far-reaching  revaluation  of  its  values.  In  its  nar¬ 
rower  aspects,  it  may  be  defined  as  a  therapeutic 
procedure  designed  for  the  cure  of  nervous  disor¬ 
ders  which  it  effects  by  means  of  a  mental  analysis 
revealing  and  removing  the  underlying  psychic 
causes  that  are  at  the  bottom  of  these  abnormal 
conditions  in  its  larger  acceptation,  it  may  be  de¬ 
scribed  as  the  investigation  of  the  content  and  the 
workings  of  the  unconscious  mind  and  of  the  rela¬ 
tion  between  the  unconscious  and  the  conscious  in 
all  manifestations  of  human  life.  Taken  in  this 
broad  sense,  psj^choanalysis  claims  intimate  con¬ 
tacts  with  all  the  phenomena  of  civilization  and 
pretends  to  furnish  a  new  basis  for  human  activi¬ 
ties  in  art,  education,  morality  and  religion.  “In 
the  few  years  of  its  existence,”  writes  Dr.  Andre 
Tridon,  “psychoanalysis  has  made  a  deep  impres¬ 
sion  on  all  the  mental  sciences  and  has  especially 
revolutionized  psychology,  ethics  and  psychiatry. 
Its  terminology,  at  first  forbidding,  has  enriched 
the  language  with  entirely  new  expressions,  without 
which  the  cultured  would  find  themselvess  helpless 
in  psychological  discussions.  It  has  supplied  not 
only  physicians,  but  artists,  thinkers,  sociologists, 
educators,  and  critics  with  a  new  point  of  view.  It 
offers  to  the  average  man  and  woman  a  new  ra¬ 
tional  code  of  behavior  based  on  science  instead  of 
faith.”  Dr.  Isador  H.  Coriat  speaks  in  the  same 
strain:  “Psychoanalysis  is  beginning  to  found  a 
new  ethics  as  well  as  a  new  psychology,  a  new 
neurology  and  a  new  school  of  literary  criticism.” 
This  sweeping  claim  is  based  on  the  alleged  dis¬ 
covery,  made  by  the  psychoanalysts,  that  the  dif¬ 
ferences  between  the  content  of  the  unconscious  of 
the  abnormal  and  of  the  normal  are  extremely 
slight  and  that  consequently  the  laws  governing 
pathological  conditions  of  the  mind  may  be  ex¬ 
tended  to  its  healthy  states.  The  highest  and  the 
lowest  are  thus  brought  together  and  explained  by 
the  same  causes.  Whatever  there  is  most  exalted 
in  man  can  be  adequately  understood  as  a  trans¬ 
figuration  of  the  vilest  animal  instincts.  Thus 
psychoanalysis  would  have  us  believe.  “For,”  de¬ 
clares  Miss  Beatrice  M.  Hinkle  in  her  introduction 
to  Dr.  C.  G.  Jung’s  notorious  “Psychology  of  the 
Unconscious,”  “this  theory  has  so  widened  in  its 
scope  that  its  application  has  now  extended  beyond 
a  particular  group  of  pathological  states.  It  has  in 
fact  led  to  a  new  evaluation  of  the  whole  conduct 
of  human  life;  a  new  comprehension  has  developed 
which  explains  those  things  that  formerly  were 


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620 


PSYCHOANALYSIS 


unexplained,  and  there  is  offered  an  understanding 
not  only  of  a  neurosis  and  the  phenomena  of  con- 
duct  but  the  product  of  the  mind  as  expressed  m 
myths  and  religions.”  The  new  world-view  that 
grows  out  of  psychoanalysis,  it  may  easily  be  sur¬ 
mised,  follows  the  evolutionary  and  materialistic 
trend  of  modern  psychology  and  is  very  much  at 
pains  to  establish  man’s  biological  relationship  to 
animal  life.  It  strips  man  of  everything  that  con¬ 
stitutes  his  unique  dignity.  .  , 

History. — Psychoanalysis  is  ot  recent  date. 
Though  its  antecedents  may  be  traced  back  to  the 
great  French  students  of  mental  disturbances, 
notably  Dr.  J.  M.  Charcot  oi  the  Salpetriere,  its 
origin  as  a  distinct  method  is  associated  with  the 
name  of  Dr.  Sigmund  Freud  of  Vienna,  who  formu¬ 
lated  his  theory  and  gave  it  to  the  public  for  the 
first'  time  in  1895.  He  departed  from  previously 
adopted  methods  of  treating  nervous  troubles  by 
rejecting  hypnotism  and  hypnotic  suggestion  as 
factors  in  the  cure  and  substituting  for  them  his 
own  newly  developed  method  of  mental  anlysis. 
To  this  he  was  led  by  the  discovery  of  an  older 
colleague,  Dr.  Breuer,  who  while  treating  a  case  of 
hysteria  made  the  observation  that  the  patient 
improved  in  the  degree  in  which  she  disclosed  her 
life  history.  Freud  saw  the  deeper  significance  of 
this  fact.  It  suggested  to  him  that  the  first  step 
towards  a  cure  of  the  neurosis  is  the  unburdening 
of  the  mind  which  is  oppressed  by  some  unpleasant 
emotional  experience  and  cannot  regain  its  equi¬ 
librium  until  it  has  been  relieved  of  the  trouble¬ 
some  idea.  But  in  some  instances  it  was  difficult 
to  gain  access  to  the  hidden  memories  and  an  elab¬ 
orate  technique  had  to  be  developed  to  reach  down 
into  the  depths  of  the  mind.  This  technique  Dr. 
Freud  called  psychoanalysis. 

Though  first  received  with  distrust,  it  gradually 
won  its  way  into  the  medical  world  and  at  present 
enjoys  considerable  popularity.  In  1908  it  was  in¬ 
troduced  to  the  scientists  of  America  and  since  has 
gained  in  vogue.  The  literature  of  psychoanalysis 
is  steadily  growing  and  has  already  reached  be¬ 
wildering  proportions.  Divergences  of  opinion 
and  method  have  sprung  up  among  the  followers 
of  Dr.  Freud,  and  different  schools  have  arisen, 
but  this  is  inevitable  in  a  new  science  that  is  not 
yet  entirely  sure  of  its  ground.  A  certain  body  of 
fundamental  tenets,  however,  is  universally  ac¬ 
cepted  by  the  advocates  of  psychoanalysis. 

The  Etiology  of  Neurosis. — The  characteristic 
assumption  of  psychoanalysis  is  that  psychoneu¬ 
rotic  symptoms  are  due  to  unfulfilled  desires  of  un¬ 
recognized  tendencies  that  have  been  repressed 
into  the  unconscious  and  now  are  entirely  forgotten 
in  their  original  form.  Though  repressed,  they  are 
not  obliterated  and  struggle  to  get  expression.  If 
this  psychic  tension  finds  no  outlet  through  legiti¬ 
mate  channels,  it  will  express  itself  in  unethical 
behavior  or  in  the  form  of  psychoneuroses.  The 
neurosis  betrays  the  existence  of  a  dynamic  idea  in 
the  unconscious  which,  though  it  cannot  emerge 
into  consciousness,  may  in  some  way  influence 
emotional  attitudes  and  produce  certain  motor  im¬ 
pulses.  As  Dr.  Freud  says:  “Neurotics  suffer  from 
reminiscences.”  The  paradoxical  phase  of  the 
matter  is  that  the  memories  that  cause  the  disturb- 
-  ance  are  forgotten.  Unpleasant  forgotten  memories 
of  a  strong  affective  nature  are  the  roots  of  the 
neurotic  symptoms.  These  memories  are  also 
referred  to  as  strangulated  emotions. 

If  these  concealed  memories  are  brought  back 
into  consciousness  they  lose  their  evil  power,  the 
pent-up  emotion  is  discharged  and  the  symptoms 
disappear.  The  way  to  recovery  then  would  seem 


easy.  But  a  great  difficulty  confronts  the  physi¬ 
cian,  because  since  these  memories  have  dropped 
out  of  the  field  of  consciousness  they  cannot  be 
recalled  at  will.  The  forgetting,  moreover,  m  these 
cases  is  not  a  mere  passive  process,  it  is  rather  an 
actual  repression,  which  enhances  the  difficulty  ot 
discovery.  Only  by  the  subtle  methods  of  psycho¬ 
analysis  can  the  hidden  springs  be  unearthed  For 
a  proper  understanding  of  the  technique  employed 
in  the  search  after  the  disturbing  emotions,  a  pre¬ 
vious  knowledge  of  Freud’s  theory  of  the  uncon¬ 
scious  is  indispensable.  This  theory  is  not  original 
with  Freud,  but  has  been  taken  from  modern 
psychology,  though  Freud  has  added  to  it  a  few 
touches  of  his  own,  notably  the  radical  contention 
that  the  unconscious  is  dominated  by  the  sexual 

instinct.  . 

Structure  of  the  Mind. — Th§  mind  is  the  bat¬ 
tleground  of  conflicting  forces  and  tendencies.  Its 
content  is  divided  into  the  conscious  and  the  un¬ 
conscious.  To  the  former  belong  those  experiences 
which  are  actually  in  the  focus  of  attention  or  that 
may  easily  be  recalled  (foreconscious).  The  latter 
comprises  such  experiences  that  have  been  utterly 
forgotten  and  that  cannot  be  brought  back  to  our 
knowledge  by  the  ordinary  processes  of  introspec¬ 
tion.  It  is,  moreover,  the  realm  of  primitive 
instincts,  selfish  and  antisocial  tendencies,  elemental 
urges,  brutal  impulses  and  repressed  dqsires.  The 
unconscious  knows  no  higher  moral  law,  it  seeks 
only  self-gratification  and  is  ruled  by  the  pleasure 
principle.  Civilization  and  social  life  put  a  curb 
on  those  primitive  egocentric  impulses  and  require 
of  the  individual  to  hold  them  in  check.  From 
early  childhood  days  this  repression  goes  on,  and 
thus  man  becomes  adjusted  to  his  social  environ¬ 
ment.  But  the  primitive  cravings  remain  ready  to 
break  through  the  barriers  that  have  been  erected 
against  them. 

Consciousness  seeks  adaptation  to  the  social  re¬ 
quirements  and  represses  whatever  would  lead  to 
conflicts  with  the  outer  world.  It  is  governed  by 
the  reality  principle.  In  the  average  human  being 
the  adjustment  to  the  demands  of  civilization, 
though  beset  with  difficulties,  is  accomplished 
without  any  fatal  consequences  to  physical  and 
mental  health.  Some  types,  however,  are  unequal 
to  the  formidable  task;  they  break  down  under  the 
strain  and  morbid  states  result  which  manifest 
themselves  by  emotional  instability,  unreasonable 
irritability,  violent  antipathies  and  other  abnor¬ 
malities. 

The  unconscious  is  dynamic  and  continually 
strives  for  expression.  It  seeks  to  break  into 
consciousness,  but  is  prevented  from  doing  so  by 
an  inhibitive  power  that  stands  guard  at  the  thresh¬ 
old  of  consciousness  and  repels  these  outlawed 
desires  unless  they  assume  a  guise  that  will  make 
them  acceptable  to  our  socialized  consciousness. 
This  inhibitive  power  is  called  the  censor  and 
represents  the  restraining  force  of  society.  By  dis¬ 
guising  itself  the  unconscious  frequently  determines 
our  actions  which  we  think  have  been  performed 
from  motives  that  are  altogether  different  from 
the  real  ones.  “Too  much  emphasis,”  says  Dr 
Wilfrid  Lay,  “cannot  be  placed  on  the  fact  that  the 
real  causes  of  what  we  do  in  our  acts  from  hour 
to  hour  are  hidden  from  us  and  that  the  majority 
of  assigned  reasons  are  mere  pretexts,  the  real  mo¬ 
tives  being  in  the  unconscious,  and  therefore  abso¬ 
lutely  inaccessible  to  us.” 

The  Complex. — Into  the  unconscious  we  repress 
such  wishes  that  shock  our  socialized  consciousness 
and  that  have  attached  to  them  an  unpleasant 
emotional  tone.  Not  always,  however  is  the  repres- 


PSYCHOANALYSIS 


621 


PSYCHOANALYSIS 


sion  successful.  The  unwelcome  wish  may  form  in 
the  unconscious  a  complex  that  will  eventually  dis¬ 
turb  the  emotional  and  mental  equilibrium.  The 
repression  it  must  be  understood,  is  not  a  deliberate 
act,  but  the  result  of  the  counteracting  activity  of 
another  interest.  ‘‘This  unwitting  repression/’  writes 
R.  H.  Hingley,  “is  the  activity  on  which  the  whole 
psychoanalytic  theory  is  built.”  The  complex  thus 
formed  exerts  a  bias  on  the  whole  trend  of  the  in¬ 
dividual  life  and  starts  a  series  of  impulsive  activi¬ 
ties  that  are  unrelated  to  the  rest  of  the  mental 
life  and  resemble  the  phenomena  of  dissociation. 
From  this  source  arise  distressing  phobias,  annoy¬ 
ing  amnesias,  dislikes,  tics,  compulsion  neuroses, 
anxiety  neuroses,  paralysis  and  hysteria.  The  com¬ 
plex  may  be  defined  as  a  group  of  unconscious 
ideas,  or  rather  a  group  of  ideas  in  the  unconscious, 
which,  having  been  subjected  to  repression,  con¬ 
tinue  to  have  an  independent  existence  and  growth. 
Since  the  complex  is  unknown  the  patient  cannot 
account  for  his  trouble  and  is  utterly  helpless.  Psy¬ 
choanalysis  comes  to  his  rescue,  for  its  purpose  is 
to  set  free  the  unconscious  with  a  view  to  the  dis¬ 
covery  and  comprehension  of  the  patient’s  buried 
complexes  and  to  reintegrate  and  reharmonize  his 
mental  life. 

A  complex  greatly  decreases  efficiency  and  tends 
to  make  life  miserable.  It  induces  obsessions  and 
inhibitions  of  various  kinds  and  consquently  be¬ 
comes  a  serious  handicap.  Being  progressive  it 
leads  from  one  inability  to  another.  This  expan¬ 
sion  of  the  area  of  the  complex  is  graphically  de¬ 
scribed  by  Dr.  W.  Lay%  who  says:  “A  complex 
being  repressed  into  the  unconscious  on  account  of 
the  painful  feelings  connected  with  it,  at  once 
begins  in  the  unconscious  to  associate  with  itself  a 
number  of  other  ideas,  all  of  which  take  on  the 
unpleasant  quality.  These  ideas,  therefore,  are  pre¬ 
vented  by  this  acquired  unpleasantness  from  com¬ 
ing  into  consciousness.  The  person  in  whose  mind 
these  complexes  are  forming  will  not,  without  effort, 
be  able  to  remember  these  ideas  when  he  wants 
them.  The  complexes  will  detach  from  the  fore¬ 
conscious,  where  are  stored  the  ideas  which  are  sub¬ 
ject  to  voluntary  recall,  one  person’s  name,  another 
person’s  address,  another’s  occupation,  and  drag 
them  down  towards  the  unconscious,  where  they 
will  nevermore  be  subject  to  his  will.  It  is  thus 
seen  that,  when  looked  at  from  the  under  side, — as 
it  were  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  unconscious, — 
there  must  be  complexes  forming  down  there  from 
the  time  of  our  earliest  infancy.  The  complexes 
continue  to  develop  and  attach  more  and  more 
ideas  to  themselves  until  finally  our  minds,  even 
those  of  us  who  are  completely  normal,  are  made 
up  of  an  overwhelming  majority  of  forgotten  or 
repressed  matter,  all  of  it  available  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  feeding  the  complexes,  and  none  of  it  of 
any  use  to  ourselves.  Only  the  fullest  human  lives 
can  prevent  this  formation  of  a  sodden  mass  of 
complexes  in  the  unconscious  of  every  one  of  us.” 

Since  according  to  Freud,  all  mental  conflicts  are 
of  a  sexual  nature  and  arise  out  of  suppressed 
sexual  experiences,  it  follows  that  in  his  view  every 
complex  must  cluster  around  a  sex  idea.  Where 
the  sex  life  takes  a  normal  course,  no  complex  can 
form  and  no  neurotic  disturbances  occur.  He  ex¬ 
plicitly  states:  “In  a  normal  sexual  life  no  neu¬ 
rosis  is  possible.”  This  dictum  has  been  amended 
by  Dr.  A.  A.  Brill,  one  of  his  disciples,  and  cast 
into  this  more  acceptable  form:  “We  can  lay  it 
down  as  a  fundamental  that  if  a  person’s  love-life 
is  adequately  adjusted,  his  adjustment  to  life  gen¬ 
erally  is  normal.” 

The  Psychoanalytic  Treatment. — In  order  to 


cure  neurosis  resulting  from  unfulfilled  wishes,  it  is 
necessary  to  get  at  the  hidden  desire  that  has  been 
thwarted  and  repressed  and  that  seeks  compensa¬ 
tion  in  the  neurotic  symptons  which  afford  a  morbid 
gratification.  This  presents  great  difficulties;  for 
what  has  been  purposely  forgotten  is  buried  much 
deeper  than  what  merely  slips  from  our  memory. 
The  difficulty  is  accentuated  when  the  fatal  emo¬ 
tional  shock  dates  back  to  early  childhood,  as  is 
frequently  the  case.  Actual  and  exceedingly  clever 
resistance  both  from  the  unconscious  as  from  the 
patient  is  encountered  in  the  process  of  discovery. 
For  strange  to  say,  the  patient  clings  to  his 
symptons  and  cherishes  them.  “The  time  required 
to  cure  a  patient,”  writes  Dr.  A.  A.  Brill,  “is  directly 
proportional  to  the  degree  in  which  he  is  morbidly 
benefited  by  his  neurosis.  The  patient  dreads  the 
disclosure  and  offers  opposition  rather  than  as¬ 
sistance.  Hence  Dr.  Freud  complains:  “When  we 
undertake  to  cure  a  patient,  to  free  him  from  the 
symptons  of  his  malady,  he  confronts  us  with  a 
vigorous,  tenacious  resistance  that  lasts  during  the 
whole  time  of  the  treatment.” 

'  Besides,  the  disguise  which  the  unconscious  urge 
has  assumed  must  be  penetrated.  These  assumed 
disguises,  to  which  our  suppressed  cravings  resort 
to  elude  the  censor,  are  called  symbols.  They  are 
meant  to  deceive  the  patient  as  well  as  everybody 
else  and  bear  no  recognizable  resemblance  to  the 
reality  which  they  cover.  “Thus,  for  example,” 
writes  Dr.  Lay,  “the  fear  of  crossing  open  places 
symbolizes  a  fear  of  quite  a  different  sort  which  is 
in  the  unconscious,  and  never  appears  above  the 
threshold  because  too  terrible  to  be  faced  con¬ 
sciously.”  In  fact,  hate  may  mask  love,  fear  may 
stand  for  desire.  This  symbolism  renders  the  dis¬ 
covery  of  the  real  cause  extremely  difficult.  Only 
after  long  and  painstaking  work  will  the  analyst  be 
able  to  reach  down  into  the  hidden  depths  of  the 
individual  and  drag  into  the  light  the  underlying 
motives  and  determinants  of  his  symptons  and 
attitudes. 

In  order  to  dig  up  the  buried  complex  the  pat¬ 
ient’s  life  history  is  carefully  studied,  his  little 
mannerisms  are  analyzed,  he  is  encouraged  to  cul¬ 
tivate  a  passive  attitude  and  to  speak  freely  what¬ 
ever  may  come  to  his  mind.  Forgotten  names  or 
seemingly  trivial  slips  of  speech  point  to  the  of¬ 
fending  complex  who  by  his  clever  tricks  thus  de¬ 
feats  his  own  purpose.  Of  great  assistance  is  the 
word-association  method  by  which  the  patient  is 
made  to  betray  the  concealed  wish  through  his 
reactions  to  a  list  of  selected  words. 

This  process  of  investigation  simultaneously  con¬ 
stitutes  the  cure;  for,  in  its  course  the  existing 
resistance  is  overcome,  the  disturbing  experience 
relived  in  all  its  emotional  intensity  or,  as  the 
psychoanalysts  inelegantly  say,  abreacted,  and  the 
psychic  tension  released.  This  process  by  which 
the  mind  is  purged  and  the  complex  dissolved  and 
reintegrated  with  the  normal  mental  life  is  desig¬ 
nated  as  the  cathartic  method.  During  the  treat¬ 
ment  a  stage  occurs  where  the  patient  transfers  to 
the  analyst  the  emotional  attitude  which  was  at 
the  root  of  his  trouble.  This  process  is  of  a  very 
delicate  nature  and  calls  for  tactful  and  cautious 
handling. 

The  cure  is  not  complete  and  permanent  until 
the  introverted  energy,  liberated  by  the  destruc¬ 
tion  of  the  complex,  is  sublimated,  that  is,  turned 
into  channels  of  social  activity  and  diverted  to  use¬ 
ful  purposes.  A  dangerous  urge  may  in  this  fashion 
not  only  be  rendered  harmless,  but  converted  into 
a  power  for  good.  “The  term  sublimation,”  Dr.  I. 
Coriat  explains,  “was  first  introduced  by  Freud 


PSYCHOANALYSIS 


622 


PSYCHOANALYSIS 


and  was  borrowed  from  the  terminology  of  chem¬ 
istry.  Literally,  it  means  the  act  of  refining  and 
purifying  or  freeing  from  baser  qualities.  The 
process  of  such  sublimation  in  psychoanalysis  is  an 
unconscious  one,  that  is,  it  takes  place  without  the 
subject’s  knowledge.  It  is  the  end  result  of  psycho¬ 
analysis,  since  no  patient  can  be  said  to  have  been 
cured,  until  he  has  successfully  sublimated.  Sub¬ 
limation  may  be  defined  as  the  unconscious  con¬ 
ducting  of  the  repressed  emotions  to  a  higher,  less 
objectionable  and  more  useful  goal.  It  is  the  capac¬ 
ity  for  replacement  or  exchange  of  the  original  (re¬ 
pressed)  aim  for  a  secondary  social,  religious, 
scientific  or  artistic  aim.  It  is  really  a  transfer¬ 
ence  of  basic  instincts  to  other  interests.”  Accord¬ 
ing  to  Freud,  who  is  quite  frank  and  outspoken  in 
this  matter,  sublimation  is  the  directing  of  sexual 
cravings  toward  other  aims  of  a  non-sexual  nature. 
In  his  view  also  the  sexual  impulse  is  the  driving 
force  behind  civilization.  “Nay,”  he  says,  “psycho¬ 
analysis  claims  that  these  same  sexual  impulses 
have  made  contributions  whose  value  cannot  be 
overestimated  to  the  highest  cultural,  artistic  and 
social  achievements  of  the  human  mind.”  Over  the 
extent  of  the  part  played  by  the  sex  factor  in 
human  life  a  split  has  occurred  in  the  ranks  of  the 
psychoanalysts,  some  of  whom  repudiate  the  ex¬ 
treme  views  propounded  by  Freud  on  this  subject. 
Nevertheless,  even  those  who  do  not  go  to  the 
length  of  Freud’s  position,  make  exaggerated  con¬ 
cessions  to  his  theory. 

This  overemphasis  of  sex  is  one  of  the  most  loath¬ 
some  aspects  of  the  psychoanalytic  theory.  Under 
its  irrevent  touch  everything  becomes  slipiy  and 
reminiscent  of  the  ooze  and  murk  in  which  the 
repulsive  monsters  of  the  deep  disport  themselves. 
Every  human  instinct  revolts  against  this  desecra¬ 
tion  of  things  that  are  held  sacred  by  our  race. 
Spontaneously  vehement  indignation  is  aroused  at 
the  blunt  statement  of  Dr.  A.  A.  Brill,  that  “Every 
activity  or  vocation  not  directed  to  sex  in  the 
broadest  sense,  no  matter  under  what  guise,  is  a 
form  of  sublimation.”  By  its  doctrine  of  sublima¬ 
tion,  psychoanalysis  has  gone  further  than  any 
other  theory  in  degrading  man.  It  falls  as  a  ruinous 
blight  upon  human  ideals.  It  takes  the  glamor  out 
of  life  and  leaves  it  like  a  faded  and  dead  flower. 
Where  we  were  wont  to  see  high  idealism,  lofty 
inspiration,  splendid  consecration,  pure  devotion  to 
duty  and  magnificent  heroism,  there,  according  to 
this  vile  interpretation  of  human  nature,  after  all 
is  nothing  but  a  disguised  manifestation  of  the 
sex  urge.  Only  a  foul  and  diseased  imagination 
would  be  willing  to  follow  the  tortuous  paths  and 
nasty  byways  into  which  a  detailed  exposition  of 
this  theory  would  of  necessity  lead  us.  We  sum 
up  the  case  in  the  words  of  Mr.  R.  H.  Hingley,  who 
writes:  “Actors,  ministers,  surgeons,  physicians, 
artists,  poets,  may  all  give  their  reasons  for  the 
vocations  they  have  accepted.  But  these  reasons 
will  be  very  different  from  those  crude  primitive 
tendencies  which  psychoanalysis  claims  to  be  the 
motive  power  of  their  various  activities.  These 
tendencies  are  indignantly  denied  and  wrathfully 
repudiated.  They  link  up  the  finest  and  noblest 
achievements  of  human  nature  to  its  basest  and 
most  degraded  forms.  “At  the  bottom  of  every 
human  activity,  however,  fair  and  exalted  it  may 
seem,  there  lies  something  sinister,  something  per¬ 
verse.  At  the  core  of  every  flower  of  life  we  find 
curled  up  the  hideous  cankerworm  of  sex.  That 
is  what  psychoanalysis  would  make  of  life.” 

Dreams. — The  dream  occupies  a  very  important 
position  in  psychoanalysis.  For  the  diagnosis  of 
the  morbid  condition  it  is  of  incalculable  value. 


More  than  any  of  the  previously  mentioned  indi¬ 
cations  it  helps  to  disclose  the  hidden  complex.  In 
the  dream  the  unconscious  is  particularly  active 
and  the  ordinary  inhibitions  of  the  conscious  are 
very  much  relaxed.  The  dream,  therefore,  is  the 
key  to  the  storehouse  of  the  unconscious  and  opens 
up  windows  into  the  deepest  and  most  remote 
recesses  of  the  mind.  It  took  Dr.  Freud  some  time 
to  recognize  and  fully  appreciate  the  role  of  the 
dream.  Of  the  gradual  development  of  this  under¬ 
standing  Dr.  A.  A.  Brill  tells  us:  “At  first  Freud 
paid  no  more  attention  to  the  dreams  which  his 
patients  narrated  than  any  other  intelligent  man  of 
the  time.  But  gradually  as  he  listened  to  them 
he  began  to  see  that  they  must  have  some  place 
in  the  vital  economy  of  the  mind,  for  every¬ 
thing  in  the  physical  or  mental  spheres  must 
have  a  function.  In  time  he  was  convinced 
that  the  dream  is  not  a  mere  jumble,  a  senseless 
mechanism,  but  that  it  represents  frequently  in 
symbolic  form  the  person’s  inmost  thoughts  and 
desires,  that  it  represents  a  hidden  wish.  He  thus 
developed  his  monumental  work,  the  greatest  in 
the  century,  in  my  opinion,  ‘The  Interpretation  of 
Dreams.’  He  found  that  the  dream  offered  the 
best  access,  that  it  was  the  via  regia  as  he  put  it, 
to  the  unconscious;  that  it  was  of  tremendous  help 
not  only  in  the  treatment,  but  also  in  the  diagnosis.” 

The  cornerstone  of  Freud’s  theory  of  dreams  is 
the  hypothesis  that  all  dreams  are  the  fulfilment 
of  a  wish,  especially  of  such  wishes  which  we  wotrld 
disown  and  indignantly  repudiate  in  our  waking 
hours.  The  dream  in  this  way  answers  a  two¬ 
fold  biological  function,  it  protects  sleep  against 
interruption  through  the  unsatisfied  desire  and  af¬ 
fords  a  fictitious  gratification  to  repressed  cravings. 
Freud  expresses  this  office  of  the  dream  in  technical 
language  as  follows:  “Dreams  are  the  removal  of 
sleep-disturbing  psychic  stimuli  by  way  of  hallu¬ 
cinated  satisfaction.” 

In  the  dream  vengeance,  hatred,  jealousy,  envy  ^ 
and  other  evil  passions,  which  consciousness  habit¬ 
ually  holds  in  check,  come  to  the  fore  and  find  a 
vicarious  satisfaction  by  enacting  scenes  in  which 
the  unconsciously  entertained  wishes  born  out  of 
these  passions  are  realized.  Yet  even  here  these 
vile  tendencies  dare  not  appear  in  their  native  form 
and  their  unmitigated  ugliness;  for,  though  during 
sleep  the  vigilance  of  the  censor  relaxes  it  does  not 
entirely  cease.  The  dream,  therefore,  makes  use  of 
symbols  in  order  to  evade  the  censor.  Withal  on 
account  of  the  partial  eclipse  of  the  censorship,  the 
symbolic  disguise  may  be  less  rigid  and  the  under¬ 
lying  wish  can  be  more  easily  recognized  than  in 
the  incidents  of  our  wakeful  life. 

To  unlock  the  real  meaning  of  the  dream  is  the 
aim  of  dream  interpretation  which  in  psychoanalysis 
has  been  brought  to  a  very  high  degree  of  perfec¬ 
tion.  Still  it  is  fraught  with  great  difficulties  by 
reason  of  the  disguise  and  the  symbolic  substitu¬ 
tions  to  which  the  dream  has  recourse.  Dreams 
have  two  contents,  the  manifest  and  the  latent. 
The  former  is  obvious  to  the  dreamer;  the  latter 
can  only  be  revealed  by  minute  analysis.  Only  the 
latent  content  is  of  value  in  the  investigation  of 
the  unconscious. 

The  dynamic  of  the  dream  has  received  much  at¬ 
tention  on  the  part  of  the  psychoanalyst.  The  fac¬ 
tors  energetic  in  the  dream  are  dramatization,  dis¬ 
tortion,  displacement  and  symbolic  representation, 
all  of  which  have  but  one  aim,  to  nullify  the  watch¬ 
fulness  of  the  censor.  These  very  devices  which 
outwit  the  censor  also  render  the  interpretation  a 
laborious  task.  The  numerous  gaps,  the  jarring 
incongruities  and  the  slender  threads  by  which 


PSYCHOANALYSIS 


623 


PSYCHOANALYSIS 


the  action  is  held  together  are  due  to  the 
absence  of  reason  in  our  dream  life.  The  un¬ 
conscious  is  devoid  of  logic.  It  is  blind  and  im¬ 
pulsive.  Dr.  Ernest  Jones  writes:  “Dream  mak¬ 
ing  proceeds  by  methods  quite  foreign  to  our  wak¬ 
ing  mental  life;  it  ignores  obvious  contradictions, 
makes  use  of  highly  strained  analogies,  and  brings 
together  widely  different  ideas  by  means  of  the 
most  superficial  associations.”  This  illogical  char¬ 
acter  of  the  dream  processes  accentuates  the  dif¬ 
ficulties  of  dream  interpretation. 

According  to  Freud,  dreams  never  deal  with  triv¬ 
ialities,  but  always  with  vital  concerns  of  the  in¬ 
dividual.  They  revert  with  special  predilection  to 
childhood,  in  which  the  instinctive  life  was  as  yet 
unrepressed,  and  rehearse  experiences  of  a  strong 
sensational  or  emotional  emphasis.  The  dream  also 
is  made  to  throw  light  upon  certain  race  processes; 
for  the  situation  of  humanity  with  regard  to  social 
repression  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  individual. 
Humanity  also  has  its  dreams  by  which  it  wishes 
to  escape  the  restraint  imposed  by  civilization. 
And  in  these  dreams  it  likewise  uses  a  symbolism 
intended  to  dissemble  the  real  meaning.  “Fairy 
tales,  legends  and  religions,”  says  Dr.  A.  Tridon, 
“are  the  dreams  of  the  human  race,  expressing  as 
they  do  the  fulfillment  of  mankind’s  desire  for 
happiness,  and  power  or  compensating  mankind  for 
the  many  restrictions  imposed  upon  it  by  man’s 
own  biological  status.”  These  phenomena,  then, 
according  to  Freud  are  properly  understood  if 
interpreted  along  the  line  of  dream  symbolism. 
Some  have  applied  this  method  to  the  beliefs  and 
traditions  of  mankind  and  have  made  havoc  of 
its  most  precious  spiritual  possessions.  Psycho¬ 
analysis  in  this  respect  has  proved  a  great  solvent 
and  destroyer. 

Criticism. — If  we  take  psychoanalysis  in  its 
restricted  sense  as  a  therapeutic  method  we 
have  no  fundamental  objections  against  it,  but 
only  warn  against  its  exaggerations  and  coun¬ 
sel  extreme  caution  in  its  application.  The 
mind  is  a  delicate  mechanism  and  unskilled 
tampering  with  its  working  is  liable  to  produce 
much  harm.  When  the  treatment  of  the  patient 
is  under  the  supervision  of  an  experienced  and 
reliable  physician  and  if  it  is  surrounded  by  the 
safeguards  made  necessary  by  the  intimate  nature 
of  the  disclosures,  there  is  nothing  to  be  said 
against  it  from  a  moral  point  of  view.  In  view  of 
ugly  possibilities,  however,  these  provisos  must  be 
insisted  upon  in  the  same  way  as  they  are  urged 
in  the  practice  of  hypnotism.  We  are  not  prepared 
to  admit  that  all  psychic  disturbances  have  their 
origin  in  unfulfilled  desires,  especially  if  these  de¬ 
sires  are  supposed  to  be  of  the  sexual  sort.  More¬ 
over,  psychoanalysis  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  the 
cure  of  the  neurosis,  for  after  the  disturbing  ele¬ 
ment  in  the  psychic  life  has  been  discovered,  a 
complete  re-education  of  the  patient  frequently 
becomes  necessary.  Psychoanalysis  promises  more 
than  it  can  perform.  The  fashionable  cult  of  psy¬ 
choanalysis  as  practised  in  some  circles  lacking  both 
knowledge  and  experience  cannot  be  condemned 
too  severely,  because  it  may  lead  to  most  disastrous 
results.  Pyschoanalvsis  is  a  dangerous  toy. 

From  the  admissions  of  psychoanalysts  strong 
arguments  may  be  drawn  in  favor  of  well  known 
Catholic  practises  such  as  confession  and  asceticism. 
A  sincere  confession  will  purge  the  mind  of  much 
perilous  stuff  which  otherwise  might  begin  to  rankle 
and  poison  the  soul.  The  resistance  which  the  peni¬ 
tent  experiences  in  disclosing  his  weakness  also  has 
a  great  curative  value.  Christian  asceticism  is  by 
far  more  effective  in  repressing  evil  tendencies  than 

40 


the  unconscious  repression  of  which  psychoanalysis 
makes  so  much.  The  conscious  repression  de¬ 
manded  by  the  moral  law  will  prevent  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  hidden  complexes  and  will  exercise  deliber¬ 
ate  control  over  evil  impulses  and  tendencies. 
Habits  of  virtue,  moreover,  will  not  only  repress 
the  wicked  inclinations  into  the  unconscious,  but 
will  drain  them  of  all  their  energy  and  gradually 
supplant  them  entirely.  The  important  point  over¬ 
looked  by  the  psychoanalysts  is  this  that  disorders 
of  the  mental  life  are  not  so  much  caused  by  ef¬ 
fectually  suppressed  desires  as  by  insufficiently  sup¬ 
pressed  desires  which  are  allowed  to  lurk  in  the 
mind.  The  Christian  law  forbidding  evil  thoughts 
prevents  such  insincerity  that  may  avenge  itself  in 
psychic  disturbances. 

Psychoanalysis  contains  elements  of  truth,  but 
they  are  distorted  beyond  recognition  on  account 
of  the  fantastic  and  pseudo-scientific  terminology 
affected  by  the  apostles  of  the  new  theory.  Many 
of  its  heralded  discoveries  are  common-sense  truths 
expressed  in  a  mysterious  jargon  calculated  to  im¬ 
pose  upon  the  uneducated.  That  men  act  from 
mixed  motives  and  that  at  times  they  disguise  the 
real  reasons  that  prompt  their  actions  has  long 
since  been  recognized  by  the  teachers  of  the  spirit¬ 
ual  life,  one  of  their  staples  being  to  warn  the 
striver  after  virtue  against  this  subtle  self-decep¬ 
tion.  Sublimation  is  equally  familiar  to  them,  since 
they  do  not  teach  the  annihilation  of  passions,  but 
a  redirection  of  them  into  spiritual  channels.  In 
this  and  in  many  other  items  Catholic  asceticism  has 
long  anticipated  what  is  useful  in  psychoanalysis, 
which  has  not  even  clarified  the  matters  in  ques¬ 
tion,  but  has  only  caused  confusion  and  bewilder¬ 
ment  by  its  pretentious  vocabulary. 

As  an  interpretation  of  life  and  a  basis  of  con¬ 
duct,  psychoanalysis  must  be  rejected  without 
reserve.  Its  personifiication  of  the  unconscious 
psychic  processes,  upon  which  it  rests  its  astonish¬ 
ing  claims,  is  unscientific  and  not  borne  out  by 
facts.  The  unconscious  is  neither  dynamic  nor  as 
omnipresent  as  the  psychoanalyst  would  make  it 
out.  Freud  has  entirely  inverted  psychology,  mak¬ 
ing  the  unconscious  the  dominant  factor  in  our 
psychic  life  and  exalting  the  instinctive  life  above 
the  rational.  In  reality  this  would  make  an  end 
of  psychology  as  an  independent  science  and  reduce 
it  to  a  branch  of  biology.  On  this  point  psycho¬ 
analysis  is  in  accord  with  the  general  drift  of 
modern  evolutionary  psychology. 

For  freedom  there  is  no  room  jn  the  psycho¬ 
analytical  system;  the  will  is  nothing  but  the  pup¬ 
pet  of  the  unconscious  forces.  Thus  writes  Dr. 
A.  A.  Brill,  the  authentic  exponent  of  the  Freudian 
psychology:  “For  it  is  known  that  all  our  actions 
are  physically  determined  by  unconscious  motives, 
that  there  is  no  psychic  activity  which  does  not 
follow  definite  paths  formed  in  the  individual  since 
his  childhood.”  Far  from  being  known,  this  is  con¬ 
trary  to  observation  and  utterly  at  variance  with 
well-established  facts.  For  Freud  man  is  only  a 
bundle  of  conflicting  impulses,  each  one  of  which 
is  striving  for  the  mastery  whilst  the  mind  is  the 
passive  onlooker.  The  animal  life  is  not  only  the 
substratum,  but  the  actual  source  of  the  rational 
and  the  spiritual.  It  is  impossible  to  erect  on  such 
a  basis  an  anthropology  that  will  do  justice  to  the 
dignity  of  man.  Without  exaggeration  it  may  be 
asserted  that  at  present  psychoanalysis  is  the  great¬ 
est  enemy  to  a  right  understanding  and  a  just  esti¬ 
mate  of  man’s  place  in  the  universe.  It  degrades 
him  as  few  systems  of  philosophy  have  ever  done. 
It  obliterates  the  boundary  lines  between  sanity 
and  insanity;  it  explains  the  normal  manifestations 


PUBLIC 


624 


PUNO 


of  the  mind  on  the  same  basis  as  the  phenomena 
of  the  diseased  mind.  Art,  religion,  heroism  have 
the  same  source  as  crime,  morbidity  and  perversion. 
The  unconscious  is  the  key  to  everything.  The 
highest  is  nothing  but  a  sublimation  of  the  lowest. 
Behind  everything  lies  the  dark  and  somber  back¬ 
ground  of  the  vital  urge.  The  influence  of  such 
teaching  can  but  be  pernicious  and  subversive  of 
morality. 

The  only  valuable  contribution  that  psycho¬ 
analysis  has  made  to  the  science  of  education  is 
that  it  has  called  renewed  attention  to  the  fartal 
consequences  of  illegitimate  and  unreasonable  re¬ 
pression.  The  general  application  of  psychoanalytic 
methods  to  the  training  of  children  would  be  noth¬ 
ing  short  of  criminal.  It  would  ruin  the  beautiful 
unconcern  of  the  child,  ruthlessly  brush  the  bloom 
of  innocence  from  its  soul  and,  instead  of  prevent¬ 
ing  nervous  troubles,  lay  the  foundation  of  mor¬ 
bidity  and  perversion.  Even  Mr.  R.  H.  Hingley, 
otherwise  favorably  disposed  towards  psychoan¬ 
alysis,  protests  against  such  an  abuse.  “We  do 
not  believe,”  he  writes,  “it  is  desirable,  necessary 
or  possible  to  apply  the  full  technique  of  this 
method  to  the  task  of  educating  the  ordinary  child.” 

Freud,  A  General  Introduction  to  Psychoanalysis  (New  York, 
1920);  Idem,  The  Interpretation  of  Dreams  (New  York,  1913); 
Idem,  The  Psychopathology  of  Everyday  Life  (New  York,  1914); 
Idem,  Totem  and  Taboo  (New  York,  1918);  Idem,  Wit  and  Its 
Relation  to  the  Unconscious  (New  York,  1916);  Brill,  Funda¬ 
mental  Conceptions  of  Psychoanalysis  (New  York,  1921);  Adler, 
The  Neurotic  Constitution  (New  York,  1917);  Jung,  Psychology 
of  the  Unconscious  (New  York,  1916);  Jones,  Papers  on  Psy¬ 
choanalysis  (Toronto,  1918);  Pfister,  'The  Psychoanalytic 
Method  (New  York,  1917);  Jelliffe,  The  Technique  of  Psy¬ 
choanalysis  (Boston);  Holt,  The  Freudian  Wish  and  its  Place 
in  Ethics  (New  York,  1915);  Tridon,  Psychoanalysis,  Its  His¬ 
tory,  Theory  and  Practice  (New  York,  1919);  Low,  Psychoanalysis, 
A  Brief  Account  of  the  Freudian  Theory  (New  York,  1920); 
Coriat ,  What  Is  Psychoanalysis  (New  York,  1919);  Idem, 
Abnormal  Psychology  (New  York,  1917);  Lay,  Man's  Uncon¬ 
scious  Conflict  (New  York,  1920);  Idem,  Man's  Unconscious 
Spirit  (New  York,  1919);  Frink,  Morbid  Fears  and  Compulsions, 
Their  Psychology  and  Psychoanalytic  Treatment  (New  York, 
1918);  Hingley,  Psycho-Analysis  (New  York,  1922);  Tansley. 
The  New  Psychology  and  Its  Relation  to  Life  (New  York,  1921); 
Howley,  Psychology  and  Mystical  Experience  (London,  1920); 
Raupert,  Human  Destiny  and  the  New  Psychology  (Phila¬ 
delphia,  1921);  Walsh,  Health  through  Will  Power  (Boston, 
1920);  Froebes,  Lehrbuch  der  experimentellen  Psychologie 
(Freiburg,  1917);  Lindworsky,  Psychoanalyse  in  Lexikon  der 
Paedagogik  (Freiburg,  1917);  Egger,  Die  Psychanalyse  als 
Seelenproblem  und  Lebensrichtung  (1919);  Aveling  and  Cullen, 
Psychoanalysis  in  The  Dublin  Review  (Sarnen,  1921,  No.  337); 
Barrett,  Psychoanalysis  and  Christian  Morality  in  The  Month 
(Feb.,  1921);  Rivers,  Psychotherapeutics  in  Encyclopedia  of 
Religion  and  Ethics. 

C.  Bruehl. 

Public  Honesty  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII-554a) .— The 
matrimonial  impediment  known  as  public  honesty 
or  public  propriety  now  arises  only  out  of  an  invalid 
marriage,  whether  or  not  consummated,  or  from 
public  or  notorious  concubinage;  it  annuls  marriage  in 
the  first  and  second  degrees  of  the  direct  line  between 


the  man  and  the  blood  relatives  of  the  woman  and 
vice  versa.  The  causes  of  the  impediment  are  now 
quite  different  from  those  that  gave  rise  to  it  before 
the  Code  came  into  effect.  In  those  days  it  arose 
from  a  valid  betrothal,  which  now  produces  no  effect 
on  a  marriage  contract,  or  from  an  unconsummated 
valid  marriage,  which  now  gives  rise  to  the  impedi¬ 
ment  of  affinity.  While  public  or  notorious  concubin¬ 
age  gives  rise  to  the  impediment  of  public  propriety, 
it  would  not  be  caused  by  secret  concubinage,  or 

occasional  sexual  relations. 

Ayrinhac,  Marriage  Legislation  (New  York,  1919);  Slater 
in  Eccl.  Rev.,  LXV  (Philadelphia,  1921),  492. 

Puebla  de  los  Angeles  (or  Tlaxcala;  cf.  C. 
E.,  XIV — 747d),  Archdiocese  of  (Angelopoli- 
tania),  Mexico.  In  1919,  Mgr.  Sanchez  Paredes, 
vicar  capitular  of  Puebla,  was  appointed  bishop,  and 
consecrated  in  his  cathedral  8  June,  succeeding  Mgr. 
Ibarra  y  Gonzalez  deceased.  In  19^1  the  diocese 
contained  180  parishes,  2038  churches  and  chapels, 
498  secular  and  57  regular  priests,  12  convents  of  men 
and  23  of  women,  3  monasteries  of  nuns,  234  Brothers, 
1  higher,  1  preparatory,  and  5  succursal  seminaries 
with  320  seminarians;  1  university  with  54  professors 
and  80  students,  7  preparatory  colleges  for  boys  with 
36  teachers  and  1325  pupils,  15  for  girls  with  172 
teachers  and  2012  students,  2  high  schools  with  20 
teachers  and  221  pupils,  80  boys  and  142  girls;  2 
academies  with  32  teachers  and  306  pupils;  1  normal 
school  with  12  teachers  and  45  students,  1  training 
school  with  19  teachers  and  36  students;  407  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  with  289  teachers  and  8078  pupils. 
Charitable  institutions  include  1  home  for  the  aged, 
1  asylum,  9  hospitals,  and  3  settlement  houses. 
Five  public  institutions  permit  the  ministration  of 
priests,  and  some  of  the  schools  and  institutions 
receive  Government  aid.  There  are  7  organiza¬ 
tions  formed  amongst  the  clergy  and  33  amongst 
the  laity.  The  Catholic  press  is  represented  by  8 
publications. 

Pulati,  Diocese  of  (Pulatensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XII — 561d),  in  Albania,  suffragan  of  Scutari.  The 
present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Bernard  Slaku,  O.F.M., 
b.  1875,  elected  titular  Bishop  of  Tiberiade  and  coad¬ 
jutor  Bishop  of  Pulati,  1910,  succeeding  to  the  see  13 
January,  1911,  upon  the  resignation  of  Bishop  Mar¬ 
coni  .  The  population  of  the  diocese  is  14 ,300 ,  of  whom 
14,260  are  Catholics.  There  are  9  secular  priests  and 
14  churches  and  chapels. 

Puno,  Diocese  of  (Puniensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XII — 569d),  comprises  the  Department  of  Puno, 
Peru,  suffragan  of  Lima.  The  area  of  the  diocese  is 
20,193  square  miles,  and  the  Catholic  population  is 
260,840.  There  are:  62  parishes,  85  priests,  3  stu¬ 
dents  at  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Lima,  320 
churches  and  chapels. 


Q 


Quebec,  Archdiocese  of  (Quebecensis),  in 
Canada,  comprises  the  counties  of  Beauce,  Bell'  - 
chasse,  Dorchester,  Kamouraska,  Levis,  L’lsbt, 
Lotbiniere,  Megantic,  Montinagny,  Montmorency, 
Portneuf,  Quebec  and  part  of  Temiscouata.  The 
present  incumbent,  His  Eminence  Louis  Cardinal 
Begin,  who  took  possession  of  the  see  in  1898, 
was  created  a  cardinal  25  May,  1914.  He  has 
as  his  auxiliary  Most  Rev.  Paul-Eugene  Roy,  b. 
1859,  who  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Eleu- 
theropolis  (1908),  later  appointed  titular  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Seleucia  (1914)  and  (1920)  made  coadju¬ 
tor  with  the  right  of  future  succession  to  the  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Quebec. 

Archbishop  Roy  is  the  chief  force  in  the  “Action 
Sociale  Catholique,”  of  which  the  “Action  Catho- 
lique,”  edited  in  Quebec  since  1907,  is  a  branch. 
In  connection  with  this  paper  there  is  a  depart¬ 
ment  which  publishes  tracts  and  pamphlets  on 
various  Catholic  subjects.  An  ecclesiastical  associa¬ 
tion  organized  in  the  diocese,  “La  caisse  de  Saint 
Joseph,”  grants  a  pension  to  its  members  who  are 
out  of  employment  through  sickness  or  age.  Other 
charitable  institutions  are:  10  hospitals,  2  of  which 
are  devoted  to  tubercular  patients;  8  orphanages; 
4  patronages  for  boys  and  3  for  girls;  1  house  for 
the  protection  of  girls;  1  refuge  for  repentant  girls, 
all  conducted  by  religious  communities;  40  pros¬ 
perous  conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  and  a 
tabernacle  society.  A  branch  of  the  Catholic 
Association  of  Travelling  Salesmen  is  organized  in 
the  diocese,  as  well  as  30  branches  of  the  Canadian 
Association  of  Young  Catholics,  a  club  of  Catholic 
sailors  and  the  Association  of  Canadian  Girls. 
Throughout  the  diocese  there  are  about  25,000 
members  of  the  national  syndicates  of  Catholic 
workmen. 

By  1921  statistics  there  are  404,500  Catholics; 
668  secular  and  102  regular  priests;  233  parishes; 
22  missions;  255  churches  or  chapels;  36  public 
oratories;  1  university  (Laval),  with  460  students, 
of  whom  185  are  theological  students;  4  colleges 
or  seminaries  with  2100  students;  1  Apostolic 
School  with  35  teachers  who  atjtend  the  Seminary 
of  Quebec  for  lectures;  Laval  normal  school  with 
100  young  women  and  75  young  men  training  for 
teaching,  and  200  other  students ;  1  normal  domes¬ 
tic  science  school  with  150  girls ;  1  agricultural 
school  with  100  students  and  1  agricultural  or¬ 
phanage. 

The  religious  Orders  established  in  the  diocese 
are:  male  (the  asterisk  shows  which  have  in  the 
diocese  a  novitiate  or  a  preparatory  postulate), 
Dominicans,  Franciscans*,  Capuchins*,  Jesuits, 
Redemptorists*,  Oblates  of  Mary  Immaculate, 
Missionaries  of  the  Sacred  Heart*,  White  Fathers*, 
Eudists,  Fathers  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament*, 
Brothers  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul*,  Fathers  of  the 
Assumption,  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Cross  (who 
have  a  house  in  Quebec,  in  which  there  are  about 
twenty  students  following  the  course  of  theology  at 
Laval,  while  the  Franciscans  and  the  Capuchins 
have  their  own  classes  of  theology) ;  Brothers  of  the 
Christian  Schools*,  of  Christian  Instruction,  of  St. 


Viator,  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Marist  Brothers*, 
female:  Ursulines*,  Augustinian  Sisters,  called 
Hospitalieres*,  Grey  Nuns*,  Sisters  of  Good  Shep¬ 
herd  (of  Quebec)*,'  of  Jesus-Mary*,  of  the  Congre¬ 
gation  of  Notre-Dame,  Servants  of  the  Holy  Heart 
of  Mary*,  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Perpetual  Help*, 
of  the  Roly  Rosary,  of  Providence,  Dominicans  of 
the  Infant  Jesus*,  Franciscans  Missionaries  of 
Mary*,  of  our  Lady  of  Good  Council,  of  the  Holy 
Family,  Cistercian  (Trappistine)  Sisters*,  of  Hope, 
of  St.  Joseph,  of  St.  Valier*,  of  Charity  of  St. 
Louis*,  White  Sisters*,  Redemptorist  Sisters*,  Sis¬ 
ters  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi*,  of  the  Precious 
Blood*,  of  the  Assumption,  Little  Franciscans  of 
Mary,  Missionaries  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
Oblate  Sisters,  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Infant  Jesus*, 
of  Ste.  Chretienne*,  Servants  of  the  Blessed  Sac¬ 
rament,  Visitandine  Sisters,  Sisters  of  Jeanne 
d’Arc*. 

Queretaro,  Diocese  of  (de  Queretaro;  cf .  C.  E.5 
XII — 601b),  in  'Mexico,  suffragan  of  Michoacan. 
The  present  administrator  of  the  diocese  is  the  Rt. 
Rev.  Francisco  Banegas,  b.  at  Celaya,  Mexico,  5 
March,  1867,  studied  at  Celaya,  Queretaro  and 
Morelia,  and  was  ordained  at  the  seminary.  He  was 
vicar  general  of  Vera  Cruz  in  1914  and  was  exiled  in 
August  of  that  year.  He  took  refuge  in  the  Antilles, 
whence  he  was  sent  to  Chicago.  He  returned  to  Vera 
Cruz,  December,  1918,  was  elected  28  February, 
1919,  published  3  July,  consecrated  27  July  following, 
succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Emmanuel  Rivera,  who  died 
8  May,  1914.  In  1920  the  diocese  contained: 
279,414  Catholics,  19  parishes,  14  vicarages,  210 
churches  and  chapels,  93  secular  priests,  20  regulars, 
and  150  seminarians. 

Quilon,  Diocese  of  (Quilonensis,  cf.  C.  E., 
XII — 610d),  in  India,  suffragan  of  Verapoly,  is  still 
under  the  administration  of  Bishop  Benziger.  There 
are  152,424  Catholics,  out  of  a  total  population  of 
1,900,000.  Eighty-one  priests,  of  whom  24  are  Dis¬ 
eased  Carmelites,  serve  181  churches  and  46  chapels. 
Besides  the  preparatory  seminary  with  39  students 
there  is  now  at  Quilon  a  higher  seminary  with  26 
seminarians,  besides  2  at  the  seminary  of  Kandy  in 
Ceylon.  There  are  24  Discalced  Carmelites,  61  Sis¬ 
ters  of  the  Third  Order  Apostolic  of  Our  Lady  of 
Mount  Carmel,  32  European  and  27  native  lay  Sis¬ 
ters  of  the  Missionary  Canonesses  of  St.  Augustine, 
18  Sisters  and  7  novices  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Holy  Cross  from  Menzingen,  21  Sisters  and  5  novices 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mary.  The  boys’  schools  have  1756  pupils  and  the 
girls’  4066;  the  total  number  of  schools  in  the  diocese, 
including  mixed  schools,  is  184;  the  total  number  of 
pupils  18,702. 

The  charitable  institutions  include  2  orphanages  for 
boys  with  85  inmates,  3  for  girls  with  183  inmates, 
the  Infant  Jesus  Orphanage  at  Mulagamude  with  295 
inmates,  one  at  Nagercoil  with  30  inmates,  besides  a 
dispensary  and  3  hospitals. 

Quimper  and  Leon,  Diocese  of  (Corisopi- 
tensisetLeoniensis, cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 611c), includes 
the  Department  of  Finistere,  France.  It  has  314 


625 


QUIMPER 


026 


QUITO 


parishes,  314  churches,  about  1000  chapels,  1  monas¬ 
tery  for  men,  37  convents  or  residences  for  men,  and 
154  for  women.  There  are  1100  secular  priests,  14 
Jesuits  and  3  lay  brothers,  5  Benedictines,  142  Broth¬ 
ers  and  1625  Sisters.  There  are  2  upper  seminaries 
(one  being  for  the  Missions  of  Haiti) ,  and  1  lower 
seminary  with  150  seminarians  in  the  upper  seminary 
and  300  in  the  lower;  Five  colleges  with  75  professors 
and  1500  students.  There  are  2  normal  schools,  1 
for  boys  with  4  teachers  and  60  pupils,  and  1  for  girls, 
with  5  teachers  and  38  pupils .  Two  hundred  and  sixty 
teachers  instruct  16,000  boys  in  67  elementary  schools 
and  783  teachers  instruct  30,000  girls  in  180  schools. 
Charitable  institutions  include  16  asylums,  28  hos¬ 
pitals,  3  refuges,  8  orphanages  and  15  industrial 
schools.  Four  organizations  exist  among  the  clergy 
and  among  the  laity  there  are  general  associations  such 
as  the  Jeunesse  Catholique,  the  General  Federation 
of  Patronages,  the  League  of  the  Fathers  of  Families, 
the  Catholic  Union,  the  Ligue  Patriotique  des  Fran¬ 
cises,  and  the  diocesan  association  for  the  Relief  of 
War  Orphans,  besides  one  or  two  associations  of 
various  kinds  in  each  parish.  The  population  of  the 
diocese  is  809,771  Catholics.  The  see  is  still  governed 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Adolphe- Yves-Marie  Duparc,  b.  at 
Lorientin  1857,  ordained  in  1880,  elected  11  February, 
1908,  in  succession  to  Bishop  Dubillard,  promoted  to 
the  see  of  Chambery.  The  important  events  in  the 
diocese  since  1911  include  the  coronation  of  the  statue 
of  Ste.  Anne  at  the  famous  shrine  of  Ste.  Anne-la-Palue 
in  1913,  and  the  fourth  Breton  Marian  Congress  held 
at  Folgoat  in  the  same  year,  under  the  presidency  of 
the  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop.  Cardinal  Dubillard,  archbishop 
of  Chambery,  former  bishop  of  Quimper,  president  of 


the  League  Pro  Pontifice  et  Ecclesia  died  at  Chambery 
1  December,  1914,  and  in  that  year  also  occurred  the 
death  of  Comte  Albert  de  Mun  "(q.  v.),  member  of  the  v 
French  Academy,  deputy  for  Finistere,  and  founder 
of  the-  CEuvre  des  Circles  Catholiques  d’Ouvriers. 
During  the  war  766  ecclesiastics  (priests  and  semina¬ 
rians)  were  mobilized,  of  whom  100  were  killed  or 
missing,  233  were  cited  in  orders  of  the  day  with  379 
citations,  15  were  decorated  with  the  cross  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  23  with  the  Medaille  Militaire,  10 
with  the  Medaille  des  E pidemies ,  and  a  large  number 
received  the  Croix  de  Ouerre.  Of  the  17  army  and  navy 
chaplains  14  were  cited  in  orders  of  the  day  with  36 
citations,  and  7  received  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor. 

Quito,  Archdiocese  of  (Quitensis,  cf.  C.  E., 
XII — 615c),  Ecuador,  has  a  Catholic  population  of 
420,560,  81  parishes  and  195  priests.  The  present 
bishop  is  Most  Rev.  Manuel  Maria  Polit,  born  at 
Quito  in  1862;  he  attained  distinction  as  a  lawyer  and 
publicist,  became  secretary  to  the  Senate  and  deputy, 
entered  the  ecclesiastical  state  in  1890,  made  his 
studies  at  the  Latin- American  College,  Rome,  and  at 
St.  Sulpice,  Paris,  was  ordained  in  1894,  elected  bishop 
of  Cuenca  11  January,  1907,  consecrated  1  November 
following,  promoted  17  June,  1918,  in  succession  to 
Mgr.  Frederico  Gonzales  y  Suarez,  d.  6  December, 
1917.  At  the  request  of  the  Mercedarians  the 
ancient  and  magnificent  church  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy 
was  erected  into  a  minor  basilica  by  a  decree  of  2 
December,  1920.  Under  this  title  the  Blessed  Virgin 
is  invoked  for  protection  from  earthquakes,  which 
aere  so  frequnt  and  so  violent  in  Ecuador. 


R 


Ragusa,  Diocese  of  (Ragusinensis,  cf.  C.  E., 

•  XII — 633d),  in  Jugoslavia,  suffragan  of  Lara,  is  still 
under  the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Gregory 
Marcellic,  b.  at  Preko,  1847,  elected  titular  bishop  of 
Tanis  1893  and  transferred  18  May,  1894,  succeeding 
Mgr.  Vodopic,  deceased.  In  1916  there  were  in  the 
diocese  72,285  Catholics,  500  Greek  Schismatics,  5 
deanships,  47  parishes,  11  filial  parishes,  112  secular 
and  52  regular  priests. 

Rajpootana,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of.  See 
Ajmer,  Diocese  of. 

# 

Rampolla  del  Tindaro,  Mariano,  Cardinal,  b. 
at  Polizzi,  on  17  August,  1843;  d.  at  Rome  on  17 
December,  1913.  The  family  of  the  Rampollas  del 
Tindaro  belong  to  the  Sicilian  nobility.  The  future 
Cardinal  studied  at  the  Capranica,  which  explains  his 
great  affection  for  that  institution  a  id  its  pupils.  In 
1875  he  was  appointed  to  be  auditor  of  the  nunciature 
at  Madrid  and  returned  to  Rome  two  years  later  to  be 
Secretary  of  the  Propaganda  for  Oriental  Affairs;  he 
was  Prothonotary  Apostolic  in  1878  and  Secretary  of 
the  Latin  Propaganda  in  1880.  In  1880  Leo  XIII 
made  him  Archbishop  of  Heraclea  and  in  1882  sent 
him  as  nuncio  to  Madrid.  During  his  stay  there  he 
won  the  affection  of  every  one,  and  when  the  king 
asked  the  cardinal’s  hat  for  him,  not  only  did  the  Pope 
grant  the  honor  but  in  1887  when  his  term  expired  he 
recalled  him  to  Rome  and  appointed  him  Secretary  of 
State  in  place  of  the  deceased  Cardinal  Jacobini.  As 
to  whether  he  shaped  the  policy  of  Leo  XIII  or 
merely  followed  the  Pope’s  guidance  is  still  an  open 
question,  but  his  fidelity  to  the  Pontiff  was  such  that 
during  his  long  fifteen  years  of  office  he  never  reserved 
for  himself  a  single  day  of  vacation.  He  was  lich  in 
his  own  right,  but  his  liberality  was  princely,  both  in 
repairing  churches  and  in  assisting  the  needy  and 
poor. 

In  the  Conclave  that  elected  Pius  X,  Rampolla 
would  certainly  have  received  the  tiara  had  it  not 
been  for  the  veto  power  of  Austria.  As  Archpriest 
of  St.  Peter,  it  was  he  who  had  to  extend  the  official 
welcome  to  Cardinal  Sarto,  a  duty  which  he  per¬ 
formed  with  exquisite  graciousness  and  tact.  After 
the  election  of  Pius,  Cardinal  Rampolla  resumed  the 
work  of  the  various  Congregations  to  which  he  be¬ 
longed;  that  of  the  Holy  Office  had  become  extremely 
heavy  after  the  resignation  of  Cardinal  Serafino 
Vanutelli  as  Secretary;  but  this  did  not  prevent  him 
from  elaborating  his  splendid  study  of  the  Life  of  St. 
Melania  the  Younger  which  was  welcomed  by  the 
enthusiastic  approval  of  the  learned  men  of  all  Europe. 
To  allow  him  to  continue  his  researches,  Pius  X  in 
1912  made  him  Librarian  of  the  Holy  Roman  Church, 
besides  bestowing  other  honors  upon  him.  His  posi¬ 
tion  was  of  course  an  extremely  delicate  one  in  his  rela¬ 
tions  with  Pius  X,  but  never  a  word  of  regret  for 
having  failed  to  receive  the  tiara  ever  escaped  his  lips, 
and  never  a  word  of  hope  that  some  future  occasion 
would  bring  him  the  honor.  He  died  suddenly  in 
1913.  He  will  ever  be  regarded  by  the  world  as  a 
great  cardinal  and  a  faithful  servant  of  the  Church. 


Raphoe,  Diocese  of  (Rapotensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XII — -647b),  in  the  province  of  Ulster  (Ireland), 
is  suffragan  of  Armagh,  with  residence  at  Letter- 
kenny,  Co.  Donegal.  His  Eminence  Cardinal 
Michael  Logue,  former  bishop  of  Raphoe,  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Patrick  O’Donnell,  who  fills  the 
see  since  1888.  He  was  born  at  Rilzaine,  Glenties, 
28  November,  1855,  studied  at  Maynooth,  and  later 
served  as  a  professor  there;  was  prefect  of  Dunboyne, 
rector  of  the  Catholic  University  of  Ireland,  and 
was  appointed  26  February,  1888;  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Irish  Convention  in  1917.  Statistics 
for  1921  report  26  parishes,  57  churches,  90  secular 
priests,  2  monasteries  for  men,  5  convents  for  women, 
45  Brothers,  60  Sisters;  1  college  for  boys  opened  in 
1916,  with  9  teachers  and  90  students,  1  high  school 
for  women  with  50  students,  221  elementary  schools 
with  485  teachers  and  16,532  pupils,  1  industrial 
school  with  75  pupils,  technical  schools  with  attend¬ 
ance  of  50  pupils  for  each,  5  workhouses,  1  county 
asylum  for  the  insane;  besides  two  workhouse  hos¬ 
pitals  there  are  2  more  maintained  by  public  funds, 
and  the  Shiel  hospital;  the  priests’  ministry  is  unre¬ 
stricted  in  all  public  institutions;  primary  and 
secondary  schools  receive  government  grants.  One 
society  is  organized  among  the  clergy  for  the  support 
of  disabled  clergy,  and  several  branch  associations 
among  the  laity  such  as:  the  Apostolic  Union,  Father 
Mathew’s  Union,  Pia  Unia  pro  missionibus,  Associa¬ 
tion  of  Clerical  Managers  of  schools,  temperance 
societies,  reading  rooms,  clubs,  confraternities  and 
sodalities.  The  diocesan  periodical,  “The  Crann,” 
is  published  here.  During  the  World  War  six  priests 
served  as  army  chaplains.  Canon  Maguire’s  His¬ 
tory  of  the  Diocese  of  Raphoe  was  published  in  1920. 

Ratisbon  (Regensburg),  Diocese  of  (Ratis- 
bonensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XII-657a),  suffragan  of 
Munich-Freising.  The  present  incumbent  is  the  Rt. 
Rev.  ’Anthony  von  Henle,  b.  at  Weissenhorn  22  May, 
1851,  ordained  23  November,  1873,  elected  bishop  of 
Passau  3  April,  1901,  consecrated  16  June  following, 
transferred  to  Ratisbon  6  November,  1906,  enthroned 
6  February,  1907.  He  was  also  councillor  for  the 
Kingdom  of  Bavaria  until  1918.  During  his  adminis¬ 
tration  he  introduced  the  diocesan  hymn  book,  im¬ 
proved  the  famous  cathedral  choir  and  also  the 
International  School  of  Music,  catalogued  the 
valuable  library  of  music  of  Canon  Proske,  created  a 
diocesan  archive  for  Christian  Art,  remodelled  the 
episcopal  residence  into  a  hospice  for  the  clergy  and 
laity,  transferred  the  old  Roman  Porta  Pretoria  to 
the  cathedral  of  St.  Peter,  established  a  central 
diocesan  bureau  of  charities,  disbanded  fourteen  un¬ 
denominational  churches,  established  many  parishes 
in  Ratisbon  and  other  places.  There  are  889,951 
Catholics  in  the  diocese,  of  whom  600  are  Austrians, 
500  Poles,  150  Hungarians,  30  Jugoslavs,  20  Ru¬ 
manians  and  20  Russians. 

The  diocese  contains  38  deaneries,  490  parishes, 
186  benefices,  89  Expositurships,  36  other  pastoral 
offices,  600  churches,  740  succursal  churches,  720 
chapels,  1100  secular  priests,  200  regulars,  and  300  lay 
brothers.  The  following  orders  of  men  have  founda¬ 
tions  in  the  diocese:  Benedictines,  2  abbeys  at  Metten 


627 


RAVENNA 


628 


RAVENNA 


and  Wettenburg;  Carmelites,  5  houses;  Franciscans  5; 
Capuchins  2;  Redemptorists  3;  Augustinians  4; 
Minorites  2  hospices;  Brothers  of  Mercy  5;  School 
Brothers  4;  Premonstratensians  1;  Salesians  of  Don 
Bosco  1;  Pallottini  Fathers  1;  Fathers  of  the  Divine 
Word  1;  Brotherhood  of  Hermits  1;  The  following 
orders  of  women  are  represented:  Poor  Clares  3 
houses  (104  Sisters);  Dominicans  3  houses  (166); 
Cistercians  2  houses  (199);  UrsulineR  1  house  (95); 
Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  1  house  (64);  English 
Ladies  3  houses  (120);  Carmelites  2  houses  (25); 
Elizabethines  1  house  (28);  Salesians  4  houses  (314); 
24  establishments  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  (127); 
82  of  the  Poor  School  Sisters  (576);  115  of  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Francis  of  Mallersdorf  (939);  1  of  the 
Daughters  of  the  Divine  Redeemer  of  Niederbronn; 

1  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  (3);  12  of  the 
Franciscans  (49).  In  all  there  are  2662  Sisters  in  the 
diocese.  The  diocesan  seminary  is  at  Ratisbon  with 
165  seminarians  and  there  are  3  preparatory  semin¬ 
aries  with  559  students. 

The  following  educational  institutions  for  men 
exist  in  the  diocese:  1  Hochschule  with  a  philosophical 
and  theological  faculty  at  Ratisbon  (13  professors, 
220  students),  6  gymnasia,  1  Oberrealschule  (9  years 
scientific  course),  1  International  School  of  Church 
Music  (5  professors,  20  students),  5  Realschulen  (6 
years  scientific  course,  64  professors,  1607  scholars), 

2  teachers’  training  schools  (23  teachers,  351  students) , 
4  preparatory  training  schools  (13  teachers,  168 
students),  9  industrial  schools  (25  teachers,  650 
students),  12  agricultural  schools,  1  central  agricul¬ 
tural  association  with  a  continuation  school  for  100 
young  farmers  and  a  house-keeping  school  for  farm 
maids.  The  following  institutions  exist  for  women: 
11  Hohere  Schulen  for  young  women  conducted  by  the 
Sisters,  divided  as  follows:  English  Ladies  (1  school, 

15  teachers,  300  pupils),  School  Sisters  (1  school, 

16  teachers,  243  pupils),  3  training  schools  for 
teachers,  1  municipal  school  for  young  ladies  (17 
teachers,  457  pupils),  5  gymnasia,  also  12  house¬ 
keeping  schools.  There  are  2547  State  elementary 
schools  (10  years  course)  with  2547  teachers  and 
about  190,000  pupils,  71  needle-work  schools  for  girls, 
10  private  soup  kitchens,  1  association  for  male 
teachers,  1  association  for  juvenile  teachers,  1  asso¬ 
ciation  for  women  teachers,  11  societies  for  women 
teachers.  The  following  institutions  have  been 
established  for  children:  18  homes,  45  orphan  asy¬ 
lums,  4  institutions  for  imbeciles,  2  homes  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  5  shelters,  97  infant  schools.  The  various 
religious  and  social  societies  are  well  organized.  They 
are:  1  Archconfraternity  of  the  Association  of 
Christian  Mothers  which  includes  4000  associations, 
18  Women’s  Leagues,  Association  of  the  Holy  Family, 
500  Associations  of  Parents  for  the  Support  of 
Christian  schools,  7  childrens’  associations,  3  Womens’ 
Associations  (13,000  members),  172  Young  Womens’ 
Associations  (40,000  members),  12  Young  Men  and 
Men’s  Associations  (25,000  members),  1  anti-alcohol 
league,  50  sodalities  for  young  men  under  the  guidance 
of  priests,  39  for  women,  9  associations  for  merchants’ 
employees  (600  members),  54  apprentice  associations 
with  10  hospices,  116  boys’  sodalities  (3370  rural 
members),  150  rural  associations  for  servants  (7000 
members),  2  homes  for  servants,  3  associations  for 
servants,  133  associations  for  workmen  and  work¬ 
women,  established  since  1848  (10,000  members), 
800  Farmers’  Associations  (25,000 members),  Railroad 
Men’s  Union  of  Bavaria,  the  two  last  named  estab¬ 
lished  since  1897.  The  laity  have  formed  Christian 
trade  unions,  a  League  for  Metal-Workers  and  the 
Merchants’  Hanseatic  Union.  The  following  chari¬ 
table  institutions  exist  in  the  diocese:  65  hospitals, 
37  infirmaries  for  the  aged,  3  homes  for  invalids,  4 
homes  for  servants,  4  homes  for  the  aged,  6  poor- 


houses,  3  lunatic  asylums,  1  house  of  correction  at 
Straubing,  2  institutions  for  prisoners,  50  nursing 
stations.  The  following  charitable  organizations  have 
been  formed:  Conference  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul, 
established  1848,  1  bureau  of  charities,  1  association 
for  supplying  poor  churches  with  vestments,  1  Priests’ 
Association,  1  branch  of  the  St.  Raphael  Society  for 
Catholic  Emigrants. 

Since  1911  the  diocese  has  lost  the  following  dis¬ 
tinguished  priests  and  laymen:  Rev.  Dr.  Haberl, 
founder  of  the  school  of  church  music;  Canon  Miihl- 
bauer,  builder  of  the  Erhardihaus ,  a  hospice  for  ap-  * 
prentices;  Dr.  Schreiner,  who  planned  and  promoted 
the  excavation  of  the  Roman  Castle  Abusina  Eining; 
Canon  Michael  Haller,  composer  of  church  music; 
Dean  Sollner,  builder  of  the  basilica  at  Weiden; 
Privy  Councillor  Carl  Pustet,  printer  to  the  Holy 
See;  Joseph  Habbel,  merchant,  publisher  and  public 
official;  Count  Dr.  Hugo  v.  Walderdorff,  historian; 
Eugenia  Nentwig,  Abbess  of  the  Poor  Clares,  apostle 
of  the  poor.  Since  1911  the  following  important 
events  have  taken  place  in  the  diocese:  A  new  dioce¬ 
san  register  was  published  (1916),  also  a  diocesan 
hymn-book.  Many  churches  were  erected  and  new 
parishes  were  founded,  numerous  missions  were  given, 
Eucharistic  congresses,  Catholic  congresses,  and 
sodality  conferences  were  held,  pilgrimages  were  made 
to  Amberg  and  A1  totting,  and  15,000  persons  partici¬ 
pated  in  the  Farmers’  Congress. 

During  the  war  the  clergy  most  generously  gave 
their  services  in  caring  for  the  spiritual  and  bodily 
wants  of  the  soldiers.  Twenty  of  them  acted  as  field 
chaplains,  20  nursed  the  wounded,  160  seminarians 
joined  the  army.  At  the  three  large  prisoners’  camp 
at  Grafenwohr,  Amberg,  and  Ratisbon,  the  clergy 
were  actively  engaged  in  ministering  to  the  spiritual 
needs  of  the  soldiers  and  prisoners.  The  Sisters  of 
Mercy  cared  for  the  wounded  in  30  hospitals:  Count 
Albert  and  Countess  Margareta  of  Thurn  and  Taxis 
nursed  the  soldiers;  the  Catholic  Press  Association 
provided  reading  matter  for  them.  At  the  principal 
railroad  station  at  Ratisbon  325,000  prisoners,  in¬ 
cluding  Germans,  Austrians,  Hungarians  and  Jugo¬ 
slavs,  were  taken  care  of.  Thirty  thousand  soldiers 
of  this  diocese  fell  on  the  field  of  battle,  of  whom  86 
were  seminarians.  An  association  has  been  formed 
which  looks  after  the  graves  of  the  fallen  soldiers  both 
at  homeland  abroad. 

Ravenna,  Archdiocese  of  (Ravenatensir;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XII — 662b),  in  the  province  of  Romagna, 
Central  Italy.  A  consistorial  decree  of  3  January, 
1917,  modified  the  confines  of  the  archdiocese. 
Ravenna,  which  claims  metropolitan  rights  over  all 
the  province  of  Emelia,  is  governed  by  Most  Rev. 
Pasquale  Morganti,  b.  in  the  Diocese  of  Milan,  13 
January,  1853,  appointed  bishop  of  Bobbio,  9  June, 
1902,  promoted  to  Ravenna  14  November,  1904, 
succeeding  Mgr.  Guido  Maria  Conforti,  resigned  for 
reasons  of  health,  and  appointed  Bishop  of  Parma, 
12  October,  1904,  later  Bishop  of  Cervia,  7  January, 
1909;  died  8  December,  1921 .  It  has  (1922)  a  Catholic 
population  of  about  220,000  souls,  60  parishes,  200 
churches,  2  monasteries  for  women,  2  convents  for 
men,  4  for  women,  150  secular  priests,  125  nuns, 

1  seminary  with  54  seminarians,  1  college  for  men 
with  8  teachers  and  70  students,  3  for  women  with 
15  teachers  and  105  students.  The  institutions  under 
the  authority  of  the  government  are:  3  high  schools 
with  40  teachers  and  300  boys  and  50  girls,  1  academy 
with  10  teachers  and  40  boys  and  10  girls,  1  normal 
school  with  80  students,  1  professional  school  with 
70  students.  Charitable  institutions  include  14 
asylums  and  3  hospitals.  A  Mutual  Aid  Society  and 
a  society  for  deceased  clergy  are  organized  among  the 
clergy,  and  three  Circles  among  the  laity.  During 


RECANATI 


629 


REGINA 


the  World  War  the  clergy  in  cooperation  with  the 
laity  helped  the  needy  of  the  diocese  and  several  of  the 
clergy  received  citations.  The  sixth  centenary  of  the 
death  of  Danke  was  observed  with  fftting  solemnity 
under  the  ausrices  of  the  Catholic  Committee  led  by 
the  Archbishop. 

Recanati  and  Loreto,  Diocese  of  (Recine- 
tensis  et  Lauretanensis,  cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 675d), 
in  the  Province  of  Ancona,  Central  Italy,  directly 
dependent  on  the  Holy  See.  The  present  bishop  is 
Rt.  Rev.  Alfonso  Andreoli,  b.  at  Pergola,  1850,  elected 
Bishop  of  Montefeltro  6  December,  1896,  transferred 
20  December,  1911,  succeeding  Mgr.  Ranuzzi  de 
Bianchi,  promoted  to  the  titular  archdiocese  of  Tyre. 
On  12  September,  1920,  took  place  the  solemn  conse¬ 
cration  of  the  statue  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  as  patroness 
and  protectress  of  aviators  (q.  v.)  under  the  title  of 
Our  Lady  of  Loreto,  in  the  presence  of  the  military 
authorities  and  a  vast  throng.  It  was  this  statue  that 
was  destroyed  in  the  fire  which  broke  out  in  the  Santa 
Casa  during  the  night  of  22  February,  1921.  The 
late  Holy  Father,  Pope  Benedict  XV,  promised  to 
assist  in  repairing  the  damage.  Statistics  for  1920  credit 
the  diocese  with  26,000  Catholics,  8  parishes,  40 
secular  and  30  regular  priests,  35  churches  or  chapels 
in  Loreto;  25,000  Catholics,  12  parishes,  42  secular 
and  20  regular  clergy,  20  seminarians,  40  churches  or 
chapels  in  Recanati.  By  a  decree  of  the  Consistory 
(23  December,  1915),  the  Bishop  of  Loreto  was 
accorded  the  privilege  of  the  pallium. 

Recife,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Olind a  and  Recife. 

Rector  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII-676c). — A  priest  in  charge 
of  a  church  that  is  neither  parochial  nor  capitular, 
nor  annexed  to  the  house  of  a  religious  community 
which  holds  its  services  there,  is  called  its  rector. 
Rectors  are  usually  appointed  by  the  local  ordinary 
where  there  is  a  right  of  election  or  presentation,  or 
where  the  church  is  under  the  control  of  an  exempt 
religious  order  or  congregation,  the  rector  requires  the 
ordinary’s  approbation.  In  all  cases  a  rector  may  be 
removed  by  the  ordinal  at  will  for  just  cause,  but  if 
the  rector  is  a  religious  his  superior  is  to  be  notified 
of  the  removal.  As  a  rule  the  superior  of  a  seminary 
or  college  directed  by  clerics  is  rector  of  any  annexed 
church.  Rectors  must  refrain  from  acting  as  parish 
priests, — thus  they  may  not  hold  funerals  in  their 
churches;  they  may  be  ordered  by  the  local  ordinary 
to  say  Mass  at  a  convenient  hour,  to  announce  the 
feasts  and  fasts,  and  to  explain  the  Gospel  and  the 
catechism,  if  the  parish  church  is  so  far  away  that 
parishioners  cannot  attend  it  without  great  incon¬ 
venience. 

Reformed  Churches — I.  The  Reformed  (Dutch) 
Church  in  America  is  a  member  of  the  “Alliance 
of  Reformed  Churches  throughout  the  World  hold¬ 
ing  the  Presbyterian  System,”  and  of  the  “Council 
of  Reformed  Churches  holding  the  Presbyterian 
System,”  which  is  the  American  branch  of  the 
former.  In  1920  this  church  reported  727  churches, 
769  ministers  and  133,000  members  (135,000  in 
1922).  In  1'916  the  foreign  missions  reported  29 
stations,  343  out-stations,  141  missionaries,  61 
churches  and  6827  members. 

II.  The  Reformed  (German)  Church  in  the 
United  States,  is  also  a  member  of  the  Presbyterian 
Alliance  and  Council.  This  church  has  recently 
sought,  without  success,  to  effect  a  union  with  the 
Presbyterians  and  with  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Church.  The  Hungarian  Reformed  Church  in  1922 
entered  into  an  agreement  with  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church,  whereby  its  ministers  may  ac¬ 
cept  ordination  from  the  latter,  without  repudiat¬ 
ing  their  existing  orders. 


The  Reformed  German  Church  reported  in  1916 
on  its  foreign  mission  work  in  Japan  and  China,  6 
stations,  70  American  missionaries,  35  churches, 
3768  members,  17  schools,  3  hospitals,  1  orphanage. 
In  the  United  States  the  Church  reported  in  1920, 
1767  churches,  1260  ministers,  330,000  members 
(331,369  in  1922). 

III.  Reformed  Churches  in  the  Union  of  South 
Africa,  according  to  the  census  of  1918,  had  800,178 
European  constituents  (including  adherents  as 
well  as  communicants),  and  204,702  non-European 
constituents. 

Religious  Bodies,  1916  (Washington,  1919);  Year  Book  of  the 
Churches  (New  York,  annual);  Statesman’s  Year-Book  (London, 
annual);  Keeler,  Protestant  Hungarians  and  Episcopalians  in 
America,  XXVI  (1922),  344. 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Reggio  di  Calabria,  Archdiocese  of  (Rhegi- 
nensis,  cf.  C.  E.,XII — 717a),  in  Calabria,  Southern 
Italy,  is  still  governed  by  Rt.  Rev.  Rinaldo  Camillo, 
Rousset,  O.C.D.,  who  came  to  the  see  in  1909  in  suc¬ 
cession  to  Cardinal  Portanova,  deceased.  He  was 
bom  at  Beaulard,  Italy,  in  1860,  entered  the  Carme¬ 
lites  in  1877,  ordained  in  1884,  held  various  posts  in 
his  order  and  was  elected  Bishop  of  Bagnorea  in  1916, 
promoted  to  Reggio  after  having  acted  as  adminis¬ 
trator  apostolic.  The  statistics  for  1920  credit  it 
with  89  parishes,  12  vicariates,  180  secular  and  15 
regular  priests,  45  seminarians,  10  Brothers,  50  Sis¬ 
ters,  200  churches  and  chapels,  and  200,000  Catholics. 

Reggio  dell’ Emilia,  Diocese  of  (Reginensis), 
suffragan  of  Modena,  in  Central  Italy.  It  is  under 
the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Eduardo  Brettoni, 
born  in  the  diocese  of  Florence,  1864,  who  was 
appointed  bishop  12  October,  1910.  In  1912  a 
Eucharistic  Congress  was  held  in  this  diocese.  In 
1913  the  diocese  lost  its  vicar  general  by  the  death 
of  Mgr.  Campano.  In  1920  the  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  numbered  175,600,  and  by  1921  statistics  there 
are:  247  parishes,  300  churches,  3  monasteries  for 
men  and  3  for  women,  407  secular  priests,  20  semi¬ 
naries,  about  75  seminarians,  200  Sisters,  1  second¬ 
ary  school  for  girls,  1  normal  school  and  1  profes¬ 
sional  school.  Among  the  charitable  institutions 
are  the  diocesan  congregation  of  missionaries,  1 
poor  house,  2  communal  asylums,  3  hospitals,  and 
dispensaries  for  the  care  of  babies.  A  mutual  aid 
society  is  established  among  the  clergy  and  three 
Catholic  periodicals  are  published. 

Regina,  Archdiocese  of  (Reginensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  XII — 718b),  in  Saskatchewan,  Canada,  erected 
4  March,  1910,  was  raised  to  metropolitan  rank  4 
December  1915,  with  Prince  Albert  as  its  suffragan, 
and  Most  Rev.  Olivier-Elzear  Mathieu,  appointed  at 
the  consistory  of  9  December,  1915,  as  its  first  arch¬ 
bishop.  Born  at  St.  Roch,  Quebec,  24  December, 
1853,  he  received  his  degree  as  doctor  of  theology  in 
Quebec  in  1878,  was  ordained  2  June  following, 
served  as  professor  of  philosophy  at  the  seminary 
from  1878  to  1911,  made  doctor  of  philosophy  in 
Rome  in  1882,prothonotary  apostolic  17  June,  1902, 
appointed  first  Bishop  of  Regina,  21  July,  1911, 
consecrated  5  November  following  and  accorded  the 
privilege  of  the  pallium  21  June,  1916.  In  1911 
Bishop  Mathieu  was  appointed  fellow  of  the  Order 
of  St.  Michael  and  St.  George  by  Edward  VII;  he 
had  been  previously  honored  in  1902,  by  being  named 
an  officer  of  public  instruction  and  chevalier  of  the 
Legion  of  honor. 

According  to  1922  statistics  there  are  in  the  arch¬ 
diocese,  79  parishes,  130  churches,  140  missions,  90 
stations,  20  parishes  served  by  religious,  20  convents 
for  women,  71  secular  and  50  regular  priests,  3 
brothers,  235  nuns,  10  seminarians,  2  classical  col- 


REGISTERS 


630 


REIMS 


leges  for  men  with  GO  teachers  and  1G0  students.  20 
higher  schools  for  boys  and  girls  with  110  teachers 
and  825  students,  5  academies  with  125  pupils,  3 
industrial  schools  with  375  pupils  and  1  boarding 
house  for  girls;  missionary  work  is  done  among  the 
Indians;  there  are  3  hospitals  which  receive  a  govern¬ 
ment  allowance  for  every  patient.  Societies  organ¬ 
ized  among  the  clergy  are:  League  of  Priests  Adorers, 
Pious  Union  for  a  Happy  Death,  and  the  Association 
of  the  Mass;  among  the  laity:  Knights  of  Columbus, 
the  French  Canadian  Association,  Volks  verein,  and 
various  parochial  confraternities.  The  Catholic  popu¬ 
lation  of  85,000  is  made  up  of  French,  German,  Eng¬ 
lish  and  other  nationalities.  In  1918  two  classical 
colleges  were  built  at  Regina;  Campion  College,  an 
English  college  conducted  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers,  and 
“Le  College  Mathieu”  at  Gravelbourg,  a  French 
college  under  the  direction  of  the  Oblate  Fathers* 

Registers,  Parochial  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII-721c).— 
Registration  of  a  baptism  must  be  made  by  the 
parish  priest  without  delay,  he  may  not  leave  the 
registration  to  the  priest  who  administers  the  sacra¬ 
ment,  or  to  nuns  or  laymen.  The  Ritual  directs  that 
the  entry  should  be  made  before  the  child  leaves  the 
church  or  the  sponsors  leave  the  baptistery.  V  hen 
baptism  has  been  administered  neither  by  the  parish 
priest  nor  in  his  presence  the  minister  is  bound  to 
inform  the  parish  priest  without  delay  so  that  the 
record  may  be  made  in  the  parochial  register;  the 
parish  priest  referred  to  is  the  proprius  parochus  of 
the  subject  baptized,  that  is  the  pastor  of  the  place 
of  domicile  of  the  infant’s  parents.  The  decree  aNe 
Temere”  made  it  obligatory  to  note  opposite  one’s 
name  in  the  baptismal  register  the  fact  of  his  or  her 
marriage;  the  Code  confirmed  this  practice  and 
ordered  further  that  a  similar  record  should  be  made 
when  the  party  was  confirmed,  solemnly  professed, 
or  ordained  subdeacon.  The  detailed  facts  of  con¬ 
firmation  must  be  noted  in  a  special  confirmation 
book,  in  addition  to  the  annotation  m  the  baptismal 
record  mentioned  above;  if  the  confirmed  party  s  own 
parish  priest  was  not  present  he  is  to  be  notified  by 

the  minister  of  the  sacrament  as  soon  as  possible. 

Murphy,  Parish  Records  in  Eccl.  Rev.,  LXV  (Philadelphia, 
1921),  1-12. 

Registro  do  Araguaya,  Prelature  Nullius  in  the 
province  of  Matto  Grosso,  Brazil,  erected  12  May, 
1914.  It  is  under  the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev. 
Antoine  Malan,  O.  S.  F.  S.,  b.  in  1862,  ordained 
1889,  superior  of  the  Salesians  of  Matto  Grosso  in 
1901  and  elected  titular  bishop  of  Amissus  and  prelate 
nullius  25  May,  1914.  The  prelature  was  enlarged 
29  October,  1920,  by  the  addition  of  territory  taken 
from  Belem  do  Para.  According  to  1920  statistics 
there  are  100,000  Indian  inhabitants  in  10  tribes,  of 
whom  15,000  are  civilized,  1  parish,  3  sub-parishes, 

3  chapels,  8  convents,  of  which  4  are  Salesian  and 

4  of  the  Sisters  of  Mary-Auxiliatrice. 

Reims,  Archdiocese  of  (Rhemensis),  com¬ 
prises  the  district  of  Reims  in  the  department  of 
the  Marne  and  the  whole  department  of  Ardennes 
in  France.  The  present  incumbent,  His  Eminence 
Louis  Cardinal  Lugon  was  born  at  Maulevier  in 
1842,  ordained  1865,  appointed  Bishop  of  Belley, 
1887.  During  his  administration  in  that  see  lie 
terminated  the  process  of  beatification  of  the  Cure 
d’Ars  and  was  presented  at  the  festivities  attend¬ 
ing  this  event  in  Rome.  He  was  promoted  to  the 
Archdiocese  of  Reims  21  February,  1906,  and  cre¬ 
ated  a  cardinal  priest  16  December,  1907. 

This  territory,  which  saw  some  of  the  fiercest 
fighting  during  the  World  War,  has  suffered 
severely,  and  irreparable  damage  was  done  to  some 
of  its  finest  buildings.  Notable  among  these  is  the 


cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  built  during  the  thir¬ 
teenth  century,  one  of  the  most  famous  examples 
of  Gothic  architecture.  For  two  and  a  half  years 
it  was  subject  to  constant  though  intermittent 
bombardment,  its  tall  spires  always  in  view  of  the 
German  army.  In  1917,  during  a  three  days’  siege 
more  than  1500  shells  fell  in  the  city  itself,  while 
40,000  more  fell  on  the  cathedral  or  around  during 
May.  The  roof  of  the  choir  collapsed  upon  the 
beautiful  marble  altar  and  today  the  gaping  roof 
and  broken  windows  and  statues  stand  as  a  con¬ 
stant  reminder  of  the  war.  Among  the  other 
churches  of  the  diocese  66  were  totally  destroyed, 
84  suffered  severe  damage  and  177  others  received 
slight  injury.  The  Abbey  d’Igny,  founded  by  St. 
Bernard,  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  explosion  of 
a  mine;  a  house  of  scholastics  for  the  African  Mis¬ 
sionaries,  at  Binson,  was  destroyed,  the  Carmelite 
Convent,  burned  during  the  siege;  the  monastery 
of  the  Visitation,  destroyed;  the  monastery  of  the 
Good  Shepherd,  1  house  of  the  Congregation  of 
Notre  Dame;  mother  house  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Holy  Child  Jesus,  2  houses  of  the  Sisters  of 
Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  destroyed  and  1 
damaged;  1  house  of  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor; 
house  of  the  Sisters  of  Adoration  and  Reparation, 
in  Reims  the  house  of  the  Helpers  of  the  Holy 
Souls  damaged ;  the  upper  seminary  burned  and 
the  lower  seminary  damaged.  The  demoralizing 
effect  of  the  war  has  been  particularly  serious  for 
the  educational  institutions:  all  the  elementary 
schools  were  closed  and  have  not  yet  been  opened, 
the  greater  number  having  been  destroyed.  The 
College  of  St.  Joseph  at  Reims,  with  350  pupils, 
suffered  severely;  boarding  schools  under  the 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  and  Sisters  of  the  Infant 
Jesus  were  burned,  and  all  the  normal  schools  were 
destroyed  or  burned,  but  these  latter  have  been 
reconstructed.  The  property  of  the  professional 
school  of  arts  and  crafts  of  St.  John  Baptist  de  la 
Salle,  having  been  destroyed  the  school  is  now 
transferred  to  other  quarters.  All  the  asylums,  1 
for  the  aged  under  the  Augustinians  and  2  under 
the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  1  at  Reims  and  1  at 
Glaire,  have  been  destroyed.  The  only  charitable 
institutions  remaining  are  the  institutions  of  the 
diocesan  Missionary  Society  at  Charleville  which 
has  only  4  members;  and  spiritual  retreat  houses 
for  men  and  jmung  men,  1  under  the  Jesuits  and  1 
under  the  Christian  Brothers. 

Before  the  war  there  were  634  priests  in  the 
diocese;  now  there  are  about  520.  Two  hundred 
priests  and  seminarians  were  mobilized  and  of 
these  5  were  decorated  with  the  legion  d’honneur, 
6  with  the  medaille  militaire,  57  with  the  croix 
de  guerre,  9  with  the  medaille  des  epidemies,  1 
with  the  Cross  of  Serbia.  1  with  the  Cross  of  St. 
George  and  1  with  the  Eagle  of  Serbia;  this  list 
testifies  to  the  bravery  and  devotion  of  the  clergy, 
at  the  front  and  in  the  occupied  territory. 

There  are  at  present  (1921)  41  parishes,  550  suc- 
cursal  parishes,  105  missions  and  663  churches. 
There  are  two  houses  of  priests  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus  and  1  Capuchin  convent  with  7  religious. 
Besides  the  Sisters  mentioned  above  as  having 
suffered  the  ravages  of  the  war,  there  are  the 
Augustinians,  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Saviour,  who 
visit  the  poor  in  their  homes,  the  Ladies  of  Naza¬ 
reth,  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family,  1  branch  of 
which  (Branch  of  Hope)  maintains  two  houses  and 
1  clinic,  and  the  Tertiary  Franciscans.  The  Insti¬ 
tute  of  St.  Remi  at  Charleville  is  still  flourishing, 
with  an  enrollment  of  250  pupils  and  a  boarding 
school  under  the  Sisters  of  Nazareth  is  success¬ 
fully7  conducted.  Among  the  clergy  there  is  an 


RELATIONS 


631 


RELIGIOUS 


Association  of  St.  Joseph  for  deceased  clergy,  an 
Association  of  Priest-Adorers,  and  an  altar  society. 
Among  the  laity  a  great  number  of  societies  are 
organized  for  the  young,  both  boys  and  girls;  circles 
of  study,  patronages  and  sodalities;  the  confer¬ 
ence  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  and  the  Third  Order 
of  St.  Francis  for  men;  the  association  of  Chris¬ 
tian  Mothers,  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis, 
Ladies  of  Mercy  and  various  societies  for  good 
works  among  the  women.  Before  the  war  there 
were  many  foreigners,  mostly  Belgians  and  Ger¬ 
mans,  found  in  this  diocese,  but  since  then  the 
foreign  element  has  been  composed  chiefly  of  the 
workmen  engaged  in  reconstruction.  The  popula¬ 
tion  now  numbers  about  524,340. 

Relations,  Jesuit. — What  are  commonly  styled 
the  “Jesuit  Relations”  are  transcripts  of  letters 
written  by  the  first  Jesuit  missionaries  among  the 
Algonquins,  Abenakis,  Iroquois,  Hurons,  Illinois,  and 
other  Indian  tribes  of  North  America.  These  letters 
•were  sent  down  to  Quebec  when  the  opportunity 
presented  itself,  and  after  being  carefully  collated  and 
edited  were  transmitted  to  France  and  issued  annually 
in  book  form  from  1632  to  1672.  There  they  were 
stopped  by  an  order  from  Rome  forbidding  all 
descriptions  of  missionary  work  in  any  part  of  the 
world.  The  reason  of  this  injunction  was  the  fact 
that  the  discussion  about  the  liceity  of  the  Malabar 
Rites  in  India  had  become  so  animated  that  it  was 
thought  wise  to  resort  to  this  drastic  measure  in  order 
to  prevent  similar  controversies  elsewhere.  The  sus¬ 
pension  of  the  “Relations”  incensed  Louis  XIV  and 
was  not  therefore  due  to  the  enmity  of  Frontenac, 
who  would  not  have  dared  to  set  himself  in 
opposition  to  His  Majesty.  Unfortunately  the  letters 
and  maps  of  Marquette  arrived  in  1673  and  could  not 
be  made  public  until  circumstances  arose  which  made 
their  publication  imperative. 

The  “Relations”  are  invaluable  as  historical  docu¬ 
ments.  Indeed  they  are  almost  the  only  source  of  our 
knowledge  about  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  what 
is  now  the  United  States  and  Canada.  From  them 
we  learn,  at  first  hand,  all  about  their  mode  of  life, 
their  traditions,  their  superstitions,  their  religious 
practices,  their  funeral  rites,  their  dress,  their  dwell¬ 
ings,  their  wars,  their  habits  in  time  of  peace,  their 
government,  their  tribal  relations,  their  language,  etc. 
There  is  an  added  value  to  them  inasmuch  as  they 
were  written  under  the  most  adverse  conditions;  in 
canoes,  in  fetid  wigwams,  on  rocks  or  fallen  trees; 
often  at  the  risk  of  the  life  of  the  chronicler;  amid 
drunken  or  crazy  Indians,  for  whom  note-taking  by 
those  mysterious  white  strangers  was  like  witchcraft, 
whose  spell  they  dreaded  and  which  they  had  a  right 
to  ward  off  by  a  blow  of  the  tomahawk.  The  writers 
themselves  were  often  overcome  with  fatigue  or 
hunger  or  disease,  or  were  crippled  by  the  wounds 
received  at  the  hands  of  their  neophytes.  Apart  from 
their  scientific  value  these  “Relations”  are  also,  at 
times,  personal  psychological  revelations  of  the  highest 
order.  The  letters  of  de  Brebeuf  and  Jogues,  for 
instance,  are  of  intense  interest  in  this  respect;  and  it 
would  be  difficult  to  find  anything  to  surpass  Bres- 
sani’s  study  of  his  emotions  before,  during,  and  after 
the  terrible  tortures  inflicted  on  him  by  the  savages. 
Besides  their  contributions  to  ethnology,  sociology, 
and  the  aboriginal  religion,  they  have  made  the 
geographers  of  the  world  their  debtors.  It  was 
Marquette  who  first  traced  the  course  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  and  first  saw  the  Missouri  and  Ohio  rivers;  de 
Brebeuf  mapped  out  the  whole  north  shore  of  Lake 
Erie  from  Niagara  to  Detroit;  Allouez  and  Dablon 
made  the  circuit  of  Lake  Superior  and  located  the 
copper  deposits;  Le  Moyne  found  the  salt  springs  of 
Syracuse;  du  Quen  discovered  Lake  St.  John,  etc. 


Over  and  above  this,  almost  all  of  them  set  to  work 
at  making  dictionaries  and  elaborating  grammars  of 
these  unknown  tongues,  which  had  no  cognate  con¬ 
nection  with  any  of  the  European  languages;  while  all 
of  them  differed  from  each  other  in  their  forms  of 
speech. 

The  composition  of  these  “Relations,”  says 
Thwaites,  “excites  wonder  that  they  could  be  written 
at  all.  Nearly  always  the  style  is  simple  and  direct. 
Never  does  the  narrator  descend  to  self-glorification. 
He  never  complains  of  his  lot,  but  sets  forth  his 
experience  in  the  most  matter  of  fact  phrases.  Not 
only  do  these  devout  missionaries,  whose  personal 
heroism  has  never  been  surpassed  in  any  field,  live 
and  breathe  in  these  “Relations,”  but  we  have  in 
them  our  first  competent  account  of  the  red  Indian  at 
a  time  when  relatively  uncontaminated  by  contact 
with  Europeans.”  Seven  of  these  great  contributors 
to  science  were  butchered  by  the  Indians,  and  one  of 
them  survived  torture  almost  miraculously.  They 
were  Jogues,  Brebeuf,  Chabanel,  Gamier,  Daniel, 
Buteux,  and  Bressani. 

The  first  40  volumes  of  the  “Relations”  that  were 
published  in  France,  were  known  as  the  “Cramoisy,” 
reprints  of  which  followed  later  in  Paris  and  Lyons. 
There  were  issues  in  Rome  and  other  cities  of  Italy, 
and  also  partial  ones  in  the  “Mercure  Frangais”  and 
“Litterse  Annuae  Societatis  Jesu.”  In  the  United 
States  interst  in  the  “Relations”  was  excited  by  D. 
O’Callaghan’s  “Documental  History  of  New  York.” 
Shea’s  various  histories  were  based  on  the  three 
large  octavo  volumes  printed  by  the  Canadian  Gov¬ 
ernment,  at  the  instance  of  Father  Martin,  S.  J.,  the 
founder  of  St.  Mary’s  College,  Montreal.  Parkman 
drew  on  these  copiously.  The  publication  of  72 
volumes  by  the  Burrowses  Brothers  of  Cleveland 
surpasses  and  sums  up  the  work  of  all  others.  This 
edition  is  in  alternate  pages  of  French  and  English, 
and  has  had  the  advantage  of  the  vast  fund  of  infor¬ 
mation  of  the  old  archivist  of  St.  Mary’s,  Montreal, 
Father  Arthur  E.  Jones,  who  contributed  to  each 
volume  several  pages  of  precious  notes  and  explana¬ 
tions  of  the  text,  which  for  many  readers  would 
have  been  otherwise  unintelligible.  The  whole  is 
completed  by  two  volumes  of  marvellous  indexes, 
which  enable  the  student  to  find  immediately  every 
item  contained  in  the  vast  work. 

Relationship  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 731c). — Spiritual 
relationship  arises  now  only  in  three  cases:  (a)  be¬ 
tween  the  baptizer  and  the  person  baptized;  (b)  be¬ 
tween  the  sponsor  and  the  person  baptized;  (c) 
between  the  sponsor  and  the  person  confirmed.  It 
is  now  a  matrimonial  impediment  (minor)  only  when 
arising  from  baptism;  formerly  the  relationship 
existed  also  between  the  sponsors  and  the  recipient’s 
parents  and  was  a  bar  to  marriage. 

Religious  Life  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII— 748d) .—Expres¬ 
sions  like  “religious  life,”  “religious  ordqr,”  or 
“nuns”  are  frequently  used  in  ordinary  conversation 
or  writing  in  a  wider  sense  than  is  customary  with 
theologians  or  canonists.  As  might  be  expected  the 
Code  in  the  preliminary  canons  dealing  with  religious 
lays  down  the  meaning  to  be  given  to  those  and 
kindred  terms  when  used  in  canon  law  as  follows: 
A  religion,  or  religious  institute  in  general,  is  any 
society  approved  by  legitimate  ecclesiastical  au¬ 
thority,  whose  members  according  to  the  special  laws 
governing  their  society  make  public  vows,  whether 
perpetual  or  temporary,  to  be  renewed,  if  temporary, 
after  the  lapse  of  a  specified  time,  and  thus  tend  after 
evangelical  perfection.  An  order  is  a  religion  in 
which  solemn  vows  are  made;  a  monastic  congrega¬ 
tion  is  a  union  of  several  self-governing  monasteries 
under  one  superior;  an  exempt  religion  is  an  institute 


RELIGIOUS 


632 


RELIGIOUS 


with  solemn  or  simple  vows,  withdrawn  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  local  ordinary;  a  religious  congre¬ 
gation,  or  simply  a  congregation,  is  a  society  with 
simple  vows  only,  whether  perpetual  or  temporary. 
A  pontificial  religion  or  institute  ( religio  juris  ponti- 
ficii )  is  a  religious  organization  which  has  received 
approbation  or  at  least  a  commendatory  decree 
(, laudis  decretum)  from  the  Holy  See;  a  diocesan 
institute  is  a  religious  organization  erected  by  an 
ordinary  and  as  yet  without  the  commendatory 
decree.  A  religious  organization  is  termed  clerical  if 
its  members  generally  receive  the  priesthood;  other¬ 
wise  it  is  called  lay.  A  religious  house  is  the  residence 
of  any  religious  organization;  a  regular  house  is  one 
belonging  to  an  order;  an  established  house  ( domus 
formaia )  is  a  religious  house  in  which  there  are  at 
least  six  professed  religious,  of  whom,  if  the  institute 
is  clerical,  four  must  be  priests.  A  province  is  a  union 
of  several  religious  houses  belonging  to  one  religious 
organization  and  under  the  same  superior. 

Religious  are  those  who  have  made  vows  in  any 
religious  organization;  religious  with  simple  vows  are 
professed  members  of  a  congregation;  regulars  are 
professed  members  of  an  order;  sisters  ( sorores )  are 
women  religious  with  simple  vows;  nuns  { moniales ) 
are  women  religious  with  solemn  vows,  or  if  the  very 
nature  of  things  or  the  context  does  not  imply  other¬ 
wise,  women  religious  whose  vows  by  rule  should  be 
solemn,  but  which  for  certain  localities  have  been 
declared  simple  by  the  Holy  See.  By  higher  superiors 
are  meant  the  abbot  primate,  abbot  superiors  of  a 
monastic  congregation,  abbots  of  monasteries  sui 
:uris,  even  if  the  monastery  belongs  to  a  monastic 
congregation,  the  general  or  supreme  ruler  of  a 
religious  society,  the  provincial  superiors,  their  vicars 
and  all  others  having  the  same  jurisdiction  as  pro¬ 
vincials. 

Bishops,  but  not  vicars  capitular  or  vicars  general, 
can  erect  religious  congregations;  however,  they 
must  neither  do  so  nor  forbid  their  erection,  without 
consulting  the  Holy  See;  moreover,  where  there  is 
question  of  tertiaries  living  a  common  life,  they  must 
be  aggregated  by  the  supreme  ruler  of  the  first  order. 
A  diocesan  congregation,  even  though  it  has  spread 
through  several  dioceses,  remains  diocesan  and 
subject  to  the  various  local  ordinaries  until  it  obtains 
the  papal  approbation  or  commendatory  decree. 
The  name  or  habit  of  a  constituted  religious  organiza¬ 
tion  may  not  be  assumed  either  by  those  not  belong¬ 
ing  to  it  or  by  a  new  religious  body.  No  legally 
established  religious  organization,  even  if  it  is  dio¬ 
cesan  and  has  only  one  house,  can  henceforth  be 
suppressed  except  by  consent  of  the  Holy  See,  to 
which  in  case  of  suppression  the  disposal  of  the 
property  is  reserved,  due  respect,  however,  being 
shown  for  the  wishes  of  the  donors  or  benefactors  of 
the  organization.  It  is  the  exclusive  prerogative  of 
the  Holy  See  to  divide,  unite  or  modify  provinces 
of  a  pontifical  order  or  congregation  or  to  found  or 
suppress  new  provinces  thereof,  or  to  separate 
independent  monasteries  from  a  monastic  congrega¬ 
tion  and  unite  them  to  another.  If  a  province  is 
suppressed  the  general  chapter,  or,  if  it  is  not  in 
session,  the  supreme  ruler  with  his  council,  has  the 
right  to  dispose  of  its  property,  unless  the  constitu¬ 
tions  provide  otherwise,  due  regard  being  had  for  the 
claims  of  justice  and  the  wishes  of  founders.  A 
diocesan  religious  congregation  cannot  establish  a 
house  in  another  diocese  without  leave  of  the  local 
ordinaries  both  of  the  mother-house  and  of  the  other 
diocese;  the  first-named  ordinary,  however,  is  not  to 
refuse  permission  without  grave  cause.  If  the  con¬ 
gregation  exists  in  several  dioceses  none  of  its  laws 
may  be  changed  without  the  consent  of  each  of  the 
ordinaries  into  whose  diocese  it  has  been  introduced. 
(N.  B.  The  Acta,  1021,  p.  313,  gives  the  new  rules 


governing  the  approbation  of  religious  congregations; 
cf.  C.  E.  XII— 758).  ,  ,  , 

The  approval  of  the  Holy  See  and  the  local  ordi- 
narv’s  written  consent  are  required  for  the  erection 
of  an  exempt  religious  house,  whether  fully  estab¬ 
lished  or  not,  or  of  a  monastery  of  nuns  {moniales), 
or  of  any  religious  house  in  a  territory  subject  to 
the  Congregation  of  Propaganda;  in  all  other  cases 
the  ordinary’s  leave  suffices.  Permission  to  erect  a 
new  house  authorizes  clerical  religious  to  have  a 
church  or  public  oratory  annexed  to  the  house, 
though  before  building  it  in  a  specified  place  they 
must  obtain  the  ordinary’s  leave,  and  to  exercise 
their  sacred  ministry  within  the  limits  of  the  law; 
it  also  authorizes  both  clerical  and  lay  religious  to 
carry  on  the  pious  works  proper  to  them,  unless  they 
are  restricted  by  the  terms  of  the  permit.  To  erect 
and  open  schools,  hospitals  or  other  such  buildings 
apart  from  a  religious  house,  even  exempt,  it  is 
sufficient  but  necessary  to  get  the  ordinary’s  leave  in 
writing;  formerly  these  institutions  needed  the  same 
authorization  as  the  religious  house.  To  convert  a 
religious  house  to  other  purposes  permission  must  be 
obtained  from  the  same  authorities  as  authorized  its 
erection,  unless  the  change  is  merely  a  matter  of 
internal  discipline  and  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of 
the  foundation.  A  religious  house,  whether  fully 
established  or  not,  belonging  to  an  exempt  religion, 
cannot  be  suppressed  without  leave  of  the  Holy  See; 
if  it  belongs  to  a  non-exempt  pontifical  congregation, 
it  can  be  suppressed  by  the  general,  with  the  local 
ordinary’s  consent;  those  belonging  to  a  diocesan 
congregation  can  be  suppressed  by  the  mere  au¬ 
thority  of  the  local  ordinary,  after  hearing  the 
moderator  of  the  congregation,  unless  it  is  the  only 
house  of  the  institute,  but  an  appeal  with  suspensive 
effect  may  always  be  made  to  the  Holy  See. 

Superiors. — Exempt  clerical  superiors  have  ec¬ 
clesiastical  jurisdiction  over  their  subjects  in  both 
the  internal  and  external  fora.  However,  the  abbot 
primate  or  abbot  superior  of  a  monastic  congregation 
does  not  enjoy  all  the  power  and  jurisdiction  con¬ 
ferred  by  the  common  law  on  higher  superiors,  but 
is  limited  in  accordance  with  the  constitutions  and 
with  special  papal  decrees. 

Higher  superiors  should  hold  office  temporarily, 
unless  the  constitutions  provide  otherwise  minor 
local  superiors  must  not  be  appointed  for  more  than 
three  years,  though  they  may  be  reappointed  for  a 
second  term,  if  the  constitutions  so  permit,  but  not 
for  a  third  consecutive  term  in  the  same  house. 
What  is  here  said  of  minor  local  superiors  applies  to 
superiors  and  directors  of  schools,  hospitals,  and  other 
pious  houses,  if  they  are  superiors  of  religious,  haying 
power  over  other  religious  even  in  matters  of  religious 
discipline.  Superiors  are  to  reside  in  their  own 
house  and  not  to  leave  it,  except  as  permitted  by  the 
constitutions.  All  superiors  must  see  that  their 
subjects  are  informed  about  papal  decrees  relating  to 
religious  and  that  the  decrees  are  observed.  Local 
superiors  are  to  have  the  constitutions  and  certain 
prescribed  papal  decrees  read  publicly  on  stated  days 
at  least  once  a  year;  they  must  also  cause  to  be  given, 
at  least  twice  a  month,  an  instruction  in  Christian 
doctrine,  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  the  hearers,  to 
the  lay-brothers  or  lay  sisters  and  the  domestic 
servants,  and  a  pious  exhortation  to  all  the  members 
of  the  house,  especially  in  non-clerical  religious. 
Abbot  primates,  superiors  of  monastic  congregations, 
and  generals  of  pontifical  orders  and  congregations 
must  transmit  to  the  Holy  See  every  fifth  year 
(formerly  every  three  years),  or  oftener  if  the  con¬ 
stitutions  so  provide,  a  report  on  the  religious  condi¬ 
tion  of  their  order  or  congregation,  signed  by  them¬ 
selves  and  their  councils,  and  in  case  of  congrega¬ 
tions  of  women,  signed  also  by  the  ordinary  of  the 


RELIGIOUS 


633 


RELIGIOUS 


place  of  residence  of  the  mother-general  and  her 
council .  In  religion  there  must  be  no  merely  honorary 
titles  of  offices,  or  dignities;  however,  those  who 
have  been  higher  superiors  may  retain  their  title,  if 
the  constitutions  of  their  religion  so  permit. 

Administration  of  Property. — To  invest  or  re¬ 
invest  money  the  consent  of  the  local  ordinary  must 
be  obtained  by  (a)  mother  superiors  of  nuns  ( moniales ) 
or  of  diocesan  congregations,  in  all  cases — formerly 
the  ordinary’s  approbation  was  not  required;  if  the 
monastery  is  subject  to  a  regular  superior  his  per¬ 
mission  also  is  needed;  (b)  mother  superiors  of 
pontifical  congregations  for  the  investment  of  dowries 
of  professed  religious;  congregations  approved  by  the 
Holy  See  were  until  the  promulgation  of  the  Code 
completely  exempt  from  episcopal  jurisdiction  in  the 
administration  of  their  temporal  property;  (c) 
superioresses  of  houses  belonging  to  religious  con¬ 
gregations,  if  money  has  been  given  by  will,  or 
otherwise,  to  be  spent  in  the  service  of  God;  (d)  any 
religious,  even  a  regular,  if  the  money  has  been  given 
for  the  benefit  of  a  parish  or  mission.  Important 
changes  in  regard  to  the  alienation  of  property  and 
the  contracting  of  debts  were  made  by  the  Code. 
To  contract  debts  now  amounting  to  more  than 
30,000  francs  ($6000  or  £1200)  or  to  alienate  property 
exceeding  that  sum  the  consent  ( beneplacitum )  of  the 
Holy  See  is  required;  for  smaller  amounts  it  is  suffi¬ 
cient  but  necessary  to  have  the  written  permission  of 
the  superior  according  to  the  constitutions  of  each 
organization,  with  the  consent  of  his  chapter  or 
council  given  by  secret  ballot;  but  nuns  or  sisters 
of  diocesan  institutes  must  have  the  written  consent 
of  the  local  ordinary,  and  of  the  regular  superior  if 
the  nuns  are  subject  to  a  regular  superior.  Formerly 
the  consent  of  the  Holy  See  was  required  to  alienate 
property  valued  over  $250  or  £50,  or  to  contract 
debts  exceeding  $2000  or  £400,  the  consent  of  the 
bishop  being  unnecessary  where  smaller  values  were 
involved.  In  a  petition  for  leave  to  contract  debts 
or  obligations  it  is  necessary  to  set  forth  all  the  other 
debts  or  obligations  incurred  to  date  by  the  moral 
person,  order  or  congregation,  province,  or  house; 
otherwise  the  permission  if  granted  would  be  invalid. 

In  all  monasteries  of  nuns  {moniales),  even  exempt, 
an  accounting  must  be  made  once  a  year,  or  oftener, 
if  the  constitutions  so  provide,  by  the  reverend  mother 
to  the  local  ordinary,  and  to  the  regular  superior  also, 
if  the  monastery  is  subject  to  one.  Should  the  ac¬ 
counting  be  unsatisfactory  the  ordinary  can  apply 
suitable  remedies,  and  should  circumstances  demand 
it  may  even  remove  the  oeconomus  and  other  ad¬ 
ministrator,  if  the  monastery  is  subject  to  a  regular 
superior  the  ordinary  should  notify  him  in  the  first 
instance  and  if  he  neglects  to  act  the  ordinary  may 
then  take  measures  to  correct  the  evil.  In  all  other 
female  religious  orders  or  congregations,  an  account¬ 
ing  is  to  be  made  to  the  local  ordinary  during  visita¬ 
tion,  or  oftener,  if  he  judges  it  necessary,  concerning 
the  administration  of  the  dowry  investments.  The 
local  ordinary,  moreover,  is  entitled  to  be  informed  of 
the  economic  condition  of  houses  of  diocesan  insti¬ 
tutes,  and  of  the  administration  of  funds  and  legacies 
for  the  welfare  of  a  parish  or  mission  to  be  spent 
locally  in  the  service  of  God. 

If  an  institute,  province,  or  house,  contracts  debts 
or  obligations  even  with  the  superiors  leave,  it  incurs 
the  responsibility;  if  a  regulai  incuis  obligations  with 
his  superior’s  consent,  the  responsibility  devolves  on 
the  moial  person  whose  superior  granted  permission; 
a  religious  of  a  congregation  with  simple  vows  who 
contracts  debts  is  responsible,  unless  he  was  acting 
on  behalf  of  the  congregation  with  the  superior’s 
leave.  However,  if  the  religious  contracts  without  his 
superior’s  leave  his  institute,  province,  or  house 


incurs  no  responsibility.  Religious  superiors  are 
warned  not  to  run  into  debt,  unless  it  is  certain  that 
their  ordinary  revenues  are  sufficient  to  pay  the  interest 
and  extinguish  the  debt  by  amortization  within  a 
reasonable  time.  It  may  be  noted  here  that  the  Code 
does  not  renew  the  prohibition  contained  in  the 
Instruction  “Inter  ea”  (1909),  against  erecting  new 
monasteries  or  houses  or  even  irom  enlarging  or 
changing  those  already  built  unless  the  necessary 
funds  were  already  in  hand.  Donations  may  not  be 
made  from  the  property  of  a  house,  province,  con¬ 
gregation  or  order,  except  as  alms  or  for  another  just 
cause,  and  then  only  with  the  superior’s  leave  and 
according  to  the  constitutions. 

Studies. — Every  clerical  religious  should  have  a 
scholasticate:  common  life  must  be  followed  therein, 
otherwise  the  students  are  ineligible  for  ordination. 
If  the  religion  or  province  have  no  house  of  studies  the 
students  are  to  be  sent  to  the  scholasticate  of  another 
province  or  religion,  or  to  the  episcopal  seminary,  or  a 
public  Catholic  athenaeum.  Religious  who  study  at 
a  distance  from  their  own  house  must  reside  in  a 
place  approved  by  the  Holy  See  and  not  in  private 
houses.  During  their  studies,  scholastics  must  be 
under  the  special  guidance  of  a  spiritual  father  or 
prefect,  who  has  the  qualifications  prescribed  in 
canon  law  for  masters  of  novices;  they  must  be  granted 
ample  time  for  study  and  the  general,  or  in  special 
cases  other  superiors,  can  exempt  students,  if  neces¬ 
sary,  from  certain  community  duties,  such  as  choir, 
especially  at  night.  Religious  are  to  devote  at  least 
two  years  to  the  study  of  philosophy  and  four  years 
to  theology  according  to  the  method,  principles  and 
doctrines  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas.  After  completing 
their  studies  they  are  to  be  examined  annually  for 
five  years  by  some  of  the  learned  members  of  the 
order  or  institute.  In  every  fully  established  house 
there  must  be  at  least  once  a  month  a  discussion  of  a 
case  of  moral  theology  or^liturgy,  at  which  all  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  house  who  afe  studying  or  have  studied 
theology  must  attend,  unless  the  constitutions  provide 
otherwise. 

Divine  Office. — In  accord  with  the  hitherto 
commonly  accepted  view,  the  Code  prescribes  that 
choral  recitation  of  the  Office  is  obligatory  in  houses  in 
which  there  are  at  least  four  religious  or  even  less,  if  the 
constitutions  so  prescribe,  who  are  bound  to  choir 
and  who  are  not  lawfully  impeded. 

Correspondence. — All  religious,  male  or  female, 
can  freely  send  letters,  exempt  from  all  inspection, 
to  the  Holy  See  or  its  legate  in  the  country,  to  their 
cardinal  protector,  to  their  higher  superiors,  and  to 
the  superior  of  their  own  house,  if  absent,  to  the  local 
ordinary  to  whom  they  are  subject,  and,  in  case  of 
nuns  under  the  jurisdiction  of  regulars,  to  the  higher 
superiors  of  the  order;  furthermore,  the  religious  can 
receive  from  all  of  these  letters  which  nobody  has  the 
right  to  inspect.  Formerly  communication  to  or 
from  the  local  superiors  and  papal  legates  were  not 
guaranteed  privileged,  while  correspondence  with  the 
cardinal  was  only  doubtfully  privileged. 

Obligations  and  Privileges. — The  obligations 
of  clerics  are  as  a  rule  binding  on  religious:  they  must 
make  an  annual  retreat,  attend  daily  Mass  if  possible, 
meditate  daily  and  perform  the  works  and  devotions 
prescribed  by  their  rules;  they  are  to  go  to  confession 
weekly  and  receive  Holy  Communion  frequently, 
even  daily;  but  provisions  in  their  rules  regarding  the 
reception  of  the  sacraments  on  certain  days  have 
only  a  directive  force.  On  the  other  hand  all  religious, 
even  lay  religious  and  novices,  enjoy  the  clerical 
privileges  of  the  canon,  the  forum,  immunity  and 
competence.  In  certain  cases  the  ordinary  is  au¬ 
thorized  to  interfere  with  exempt  religious.  Not  to 
mention  the  election  of  superioresses,  and  the  ad- 


RELIGIOUS 


634 


RELIGIOUS 


ministration  of  convent  property,  he  may  punish  a 
regular  for  a  fault  committed  outside  of  his  house, 
if  the  regular  superior,  after  being  informed,  fails  to 
do  so;  he  must  notify  the  Holy  See  about  abuses  in 
exempt  houses  if  the  regular  superior,  after  be:ng 
warned,  takes  no  steps  to  reform  conditions;  and 
finally  he  is  bound  to  give  special  attention  to  houses 
not  fully  established,  to  see  that  no  abuse  creeps  in  and 
in  case  of  necessity  he  can  apply  provisional  remedies. 
In  the  case  of  non-exempt  institutes  approved  by  the 
Holy  See,  the  ordinary  cannot  make  any  change  in 
the  constitutions,  nor  inquire  into  the  administration 
of  property  except  as  stated  above,  nor  interfere  with 
the  internal  government  and  discipline,  except  as 
authorized  by  the  canons,  yet  in  lay  institutes  he  may 
inquire  regarding  religious  discipline,  morality, 
the  law  of  enclosure,  the  reception  of  the  sacraments, 
and  provide  a  remedy  for  abuses,  if  the  superior  on 
being  notified  does  not  do  so.  but  in  matters  of 
grave  import  must  notify  the  Holy  See  about  his 
action.  Any  indult  granted  legitimately  by  the 
local  ordinary,  dispensing  from  an  obligation  of  the 
common  law,  avails  likewise  for  all  religious  living 
in  the  diocese,  as  far  as  their  vows  and  constitutions 
allow. 

Collection  of  Alms. — Regulars  belonging  to 
mendicant  orders  strictly  so-called  (not,  however, 
Dominicans  and  others  who  are  loosely  termed 
mendicants)  may  collect  alms  in  the  diocese  where 
their  house  is  situated  with  the  sole  authorization  of 
their  superior;  outside  of  the  diocese,  however,  they 
require  the  written  consent  of  the  ordinary  of  the  place 
in  which  they  would  collect.  All  other  religious  of 
pontifical  congregations  are  forbidden  to  collect  alms, 
unless  they  have  a  special  indult,  in  which  case, 
however,  they  need  the  written  consent  of  the  local 
ordinary,  if  the  indult  does  not  excuse  them  from 
obtaining  it;  while  members  of  diocesan  congregations 
require  the  written  consent  of  their  own  local  or¬ 
dinary  and  of  the  ordinary^  the  place  of  collection. 
The  local  ordinary  must  not  grant  leave  to  collect 
to  the  religious  just  mentioned  except  in  case  of  real 
necessity,  which  cannot  be  met  in  any  other  way;  if  a 
sufficiently  large  collection  can  be  made  in  the  dis¬ 
trict  in  which  the  religious  live  he  must  not  permit 
them  to  collect  outside  of  it. 

Leaving  an  Institute. — No  religious  can  pass  to 
another,  even  a  stricter,  institute,  or  from  one  in¬ 
dependent  monastery  to  another,  without  leave  of 
the  Holy  See.  When  anyone  is  authorized  to  make 
such  a  change  he  has  to  make  his  novitate  again  in 
the  new  institute;  during  this  time  he  is  bound  by  his 
vows  (by  the  vow  of  obedience  to  his  new  superior 
and  his  master  of  novices),  but  his  other  religious 
rights  and  obligations  are  suspended.  On  the  com¬ 
pletion  of  his  novitate  he  is  to  be  admitted  to  perpetual 
profession  or  else  he  must  return  to  his  former  in¬ 
stitute.  If  the  vows  in  the  first  institute  were  solemn 
and  those  in  the  second  simple,  the  religious  who  has 
been  transferred  is  bound  henceforth  only  by  simple 
vows,  unless  the  Apostolic  indult  expressly  provides 
for  the  contrary.  Religious  life  on  the  other  hand 
may  be  entirely  abandoned,  either  temporarily  or 
perpetually.  For  good  reasons  a  religious  might 
obtain  an  indult  of  exclaustration  (permission  to 
reside  outside  of  a  religious  house)  from  the  local 
ordinary  if  his  institute  is  diocesan,  or  in  any  other 
case  from  the  Holy  See.  In  virtue  of  such  an  indult 
the  religious  remains  bound  by  his  vows  and  other 
obligations  of  his  profession  compatible  with  his 
new  condition,  but  he  may  not  wear  the  religious  dress; 
while  he  is  thus  away  from  the  institute  he  has  no 
voice  in  its  affairs,  though  he  enjoys  its  privileges, 
and  is  bound  by  the  vow  of  obedience  to  the  ordinary 
of  the  diocese  in  which  he  resides,  not  to  the  superior 


of  his  institute.  Again,  a  religious  might  obtain  an 
indult  of  secularization;  in  virtue  of  such  an  indult, 
the  religious  is  entirely  free  from  his  vows  and  rule, 
but  one  in  major  orders  remains  bound  by  the  obliga¬ 
tions  annexed  to  them.  Those  who  have  made  only 
temporary  vows  are  quite  free  to  leave  when  the  term 
of  their  vows  has  expired;  their  institute,  too,  might 
dismiss  them  at  that  time,  for  a  just  and  reasonable 
cause,  but  not  on  the  score  of  ill-health,  unless  the 
religious  had  fraudulently  hidden  or  dissimulated  the 
illness  before  his  first  profession.  These  methods  of 
changing  one’s  condition  are  lawful;  on  the  other  hand 
an  attempt  to  abandon  religious  life  by  apostasy  or 
by  flight  would  be  unlawful.  An  apostate  from  re¬ 
ligion  is  one  who  having  made  perpetual  vows  leaves 
his  religious  house  unlawful^  with  the  intention  of 
not  returning  or  who  to  withdraw  himself  from 
religious  obedience,  does  not  return  after  he  has  left 
the  house  with  permission.  This  intention  is  legally 
presumed  when  the  religious  does  not  return  or  notify 
his  superior  within  a  month  of  his  intention  to  return. 
Apostates  and  fugitives  remain  bound  by  their  vows 
and  must  return  at  once;  their  superiors  should  en¬ 
deavor  to  have  them  come  back;  if  they  return  peni¬ 
tently  they  are  to  be  received;  in  the  case  of  an  apostate 
or  fugitive  nun  the  local  ordinary  is  to  pursue  the 
matter  prudently,  while  the  regular  superior  is  to 
act  if  the  nun  belongs  to  an  exempt  monastery. 

Dismissal. — -There  are  three  crimes  for  which 
a  religious  is  ipso  facto  dismissed  from  religious 
life:  public  apostacy  from  Catholicism;  flight  with  a 
person  of  the  opposite  sex;  and  attempted  marriage, 
even  so-called  civil  marriage.  For  the  canonical 
dismissal  of  religious  bound  by  temporary  vows  there 
must  be  grave  reasons,  such  as  the  absence  of  the 
religious  spirit  to  a  degree  causing  scandal,  when 
admonition  and  penance  have  failed  to  reform  him. 
If  the  religious  belongs  to  a  pontifical  order  or  con¬ 
gregation  the  dismissal  is  effected  by  the  general  with 
the  consent  of  his  council,  obtained  by  secret  ballot, 
or  in  the  case  of  nuns  ( moniales )  by  the  local  ordinary 
and  the  regular  superior,  if  any,  but  they  may  act 
only  after  the  superioress  with  her  council  have  stated 
in  writing.  To  dismiss  any  professed  religious,  the 
religious  must  have  been  guilty  of  a  serious  fault  or 
have  lost  the  religious  spirit  to  such  a  degree  that 
neither  admonition  nor  penance  has  been  able  to 
effect  an  amendment  of  life.  If  the  vows  are  tem¬ 
porary  and  the  party  belongs  to  a  pontifical  institute 
the  superior  general  and  his  council  effect  the  dismissal; 
in  the  case  of  a  nun  ( monialis ) ,  the  local  ordinary  and 
regular  superior,  if  any,  dismiss  at  the  written  request 
of  the  superioress  and  her  council,  finally,  a  diocesan 
sister  would  be  dismissed  by  the  local  ordinary  with 
the  knowledge  and  acquiescence  of  her  superioress. 
In  all  these  cases  the  religious  must  be  notified  of 
the  accusations;  he  may  reply  and  his  answer  must 
form  part  of  the  records  of  the  case.  He  may  appeal 
to  the  Holy  See  against  the  dismissal,  which,  pending 
the  answer,  remains  ineffective,  If  finally  dismissed, 
the  party  is  ipso  facto  released  from  all  his  vows  of 
religion. 

When  the  vows  are  perpetual:  if  the  religious  be¬ 
longs  to  a  non-exempt  clerical  or  lay  institute  of  men, 
and  having  been  guilty  of  three  serious  offences,  has 
failed  to  amend  after  being  admonished  twice,  the 
general  and  his  council,  if  they  favor  dismissal,  refer 
the  case  to  the  local  ordinary  for  action,  when  the 
institute  is  diocesan;  or  they  issue  the  decree  them¬ 
selves  if  the  institute  is  pontifical,  though  in  this  case 
the  decree  to  be  effective  must  be  approved  by  the 
Holy  See.  To  dismiss  a  nun  or  sister,  there  must  be 
grave  external  reasons  combined  with  hopeless  in¬ 
corrigibility;  if  the  religious  is  a  diocesan  sister  she 
can  be  dismissed  by  her  local  ordinary;  if  she  is  a  nun, 


RENAISSANCE 


635 


RENAISSANCE 


the  local  ordinary  sends  the  record  of  her  case  with 
his  own  decision  (and  that  of  the  regular  superior, 
if  any)  to  the  Holy  See  for  action;  if  the  religious  be¬ 
longs  to  any  other  pontifical  institute,  the  mother 
general  sends  all  the  documents  in  the  case  to  the 
Holy  See  for  decision. 

In  case  of  serious  scandal  and  imminent  risk  of  very 
grave  danger  to  the  community  a  religious  with  per¬ 
petual  vows  in  a  non-clerical  institute  may  be  sent 
back  into  the  world  by  the  local  superior  with  the  con¬ 
sent  of  his  council  and  of  the  local  ordinary,  but  the 
ordinary  or  one  of  the  higher  superiors  must  put  the 
matter  before  the  Holy  See  without  delay. 

An  exempt  cleric  professed  perpetually  cannot  be 
dismissed  without  a  canonical  trial  or  investigation; 
he  must  have  been  guilty  of  three  offenses,  of  the  same 
kind  or  at  least  indicative  of  a  permanent  evil  will, 
the  first  and  second  each  being  followed  by  a  formal 
admonition  and  threat  of  dismissal  given  by  his 
immediate  higher  superior,  or  guilty  of  continuous 
offence  despite  two  warnings  given  at  least  three 
months  apart.  The  immediate  higher  superior  re¬ 
ports  to  the  general,  who  with  his  council  (of  at  least 
four  assistants)  form  the  tribunal  with  power  to  order 
dismissal;  the  sentence,  however,  cannot  become 
effective  till  it  has  been  approved  by  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Religious.  In  an  extraordinary  case 
where  there  is  grave  scandal  and  imminent  danger 
of  very  serious  injury  to  the  community  the  religious 
may  be  sent  back  to  the  world  by  a  local  superior  with 
the  consent  of  his  council  when  there  is  not  time  to 
have  recourse  to  the  higher  superior,  but  the  regular 
canonical  investigation  must  be  instituted  without 
delay.  A  religious  professed  perpetually,  on  being 
dismissed,  remains  bound  by  his  vows  of  religion 
unless  the  contrary  is  provided  by  the  constitutions 
of  the  institute  or  by  an  Apostolic  indult.  If  he  is  in 
sacred  orders  and  his  offence  was  very  serious  he 
may  be  deprived  perpetually  of  clerical  dress;  if  his 
fault  was  less  grievous,  he  is  under  suspension  until 
he  is  absolved  by  the  Holy  See;  he  may  be  ordered  by 
the  Sacred  Congregation  to  remain  in  a  certain  diocese, 
the  ordinary  of  which  can  send  him  to  do  penance  in 
a  religious  house  or  place  him  under  the  care  and  super¬ 
vision  of  a  priest;  if  he  is  unable  to  support  himself 
the  institution  is  to  do  so  through  the  local  ordinary,  on 
condition  that  he  lives  a  good  life;  the  ordinary  may 
after  the  lapse  of  a  year  ask  the  Holy  See  to  remove  the 
suspension  and  may  admit  him,  if  he  is  a  priest,  to 
say  Mass  and  engage  in  some  remunerative  pastoral 
work.  If  he  is  still  bound  by  his  vows  of  religion 
he  is  under  an  obligation  to  return  to  religion;  if  he 
has  given  proof  of  real  amendment  during  those  years 
his  order  must  take  him  back,  unless  the  Holy  See 
decides  otherwise;  if  the  vows  were  dissolved  he  may 
be  accepted  by  any  benevolent  bishop;  otherwise  the 
matter  is  to  be  referred  to  the  Holy  See. 

Codex  juris  canonici,  can.  487-672;  Vermeersch,  De  religiosis 
VI  (Bruges,  1911),  44-5;  Kinane,  Nuns  and  Sisters  in  Irish 
Eccl.  Record  (Dublin,  1918-9). 

Renaissance. — By  the  term  Renaissance  is  gen¬ 
erally  understood  the  vast  intellectual  movement 
of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  This 
movement  manifested  itself  first  in  Italy,  after¬ 
wards  successively  in  the  other  countries  of  Western 
Europe.  It  was  marked  by  a  wider  and  deeper 
knowledge  of  Greco-Roman  antiquity,  and  a  pas¬ 
sionate  love  for  its  literature  and  art.  The  scholars 
who  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  of  the  Greco- 
Roman  civilization  were  called  Humanists,  and  the 
epoch  in  which  they  lived  is  known  as  the  Renais¬ 
sance.  The  term  Renaissance  or  re-birth,  as  applied 
to  the  above  mentioned  intellectual  movement,  is 
a  misnomer.  It  wrongly  implies  that  the  knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  literature  and  art  of  Greece  and  Rome 


had  been  dead  and  buried  for  centuries  and  that 
suddenly  it  was  born  again,  and  developed  during 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  Against  this 
false  contention  is  the  fact  that  Humanism  was 
but  the  natural  development  of  the  learning  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  a  flowering  out  of  the  knowledge  of 
the  preceding  centuries. 

Already  in  the  time  of  Charlemagne  we  note  a 
widespread  revival  of  classical  learning.  Everyone 
recalls  how  this  powerful  patron  of  letters,  notwith¬ 
standing  continual  wars,  established  schools 
throughout  his  empire,  how  he  invited  from  Eng¬ 
land  the  celebrated  Alcuin,  a  distinguished  scholar 
and  disciple  of  the  Venerable  Bede,  under  whose 
direction  academies  were  established  where  the 
sons  of  the  more  wealthy  were  taught  Latin,  Greek, 
Hebrew,  philosophy,  theology  and  mathematics. 
This  new  impulse  thus  given  to  letters  was  con¬ 
tinued  by  the  successors  of  Charlemagne  and 
stimulated  anew,  successively,  by  such  scholars  and 
apostles  of  learning  as  Dante  (1265-1321),  Petrarch 
(1304-1474),  Pope  Nicholas  V  (1397-1455).  During 
the  centuries  which  separated  the  Humanists  from 
Charlemagne,  scholarly  monks  had  been  preserv¬ 
ing,  copying,  studying,  teaching  the  writings  of  the 
ancient  Roman  and  Greek  poets,  historians,  and 
philosophers.  Alongside  the  scientific  language 
which  the  modern  tongues  had  developed,  popular 
poetry  had  come  into  being,  the  great  epics  had 
seen  the  light  of  day,  the  unprecedented  philo¬ 
sophical  and  theological  progress  of  the  twelfth 
century  had  astounded  the  world,  and  experimental 
science  had  appeared  on  the  scene  of  history  with 
the  English  philosopher,  Roger  Bacon  (1214-94). 
The  Crusades  had  given  a  new  impulse  to  learning, 
the  first  encyclopedias  had  summarized  the  knowl¬ 
edge  of  their  times,  the  splendor  of  plastic  arts  had 
covered  Europe  with  monuments  which  are  the 
admiration  no  less  than  the  despair  of  our  age, 
voyages  of  exploration  had  extended  the  geo- 
-  graphical  knowledge  of  the  learned,  and  basic  in¬ 
ventions  had  made  further  discoveries  possible  to 
mankind. 

Since  the  wider  diffusion  of  classical  learning  in 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  is  but  the 
gradual  outgrowth  of  the  learning  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  how  unscholarly  is  the  gratuitous  assertion 
of  many  writers  that  the  Renaissance  sprang  into 
existence  over  night  with  the  arrival  in  Europe  of 
some  Greek  professors  driven  from  the  Orient  by 
the  advancing  Turk.  These  professors,  they  claim, 
brought  to  Western  Europe  the  knowledge  and 
love  of  the  literary  masterpieces  of  antiquity.  But 
the  fact  is  that,  when  these  professors  appeared, 
the  monks  of  the  Middle  Ages  had  for  a  thousand 
years  been  spending  themselves  to  preserve  and 
make  known  many  of  these  treasures  of  mankind. 
Whatever  additional  writings  Western  Europe  re¬ 
ceived  at  that  time  it  had  learned  to  appreciate  by 
its  own  centuries-long  literary  studies. 

The  leading  characteristic  of  the  Renaissance 
was  a  general  infatuation  with  the  writings  and  the 
art  of  pagan  antiquity.  From  the  admiration  of 
the  ancient  literary  and  artistic  forms  there  was, 
with  some  of  the  Humanists,  but  one  step  to  the 
imitation  of  pagan  morals* and  manners,  and  but 
another  step  to  the  consequent  contempt  of  Chris¬ 
tianity  and  the  further  attempt  to  paganize  the 
modern  world.  This  extreme  led  some  well-mean¬ 
ing  but  narrow-minded  persons  to  the  opposite, 
perhaps  not  less  dangerous,  extreme.  Seeing  that 
the  study  of  pagan  art,  pagan  literature,  and 
ancient  science  led  to  the  rejection  of  the  Christian 
faith  and  Christian  morals,  these  extremists  con¬ 
tended  that  this  study  should  be  abandoned  and 


RENNES 


636 


RENUNCIATION 


that  Christians  should  confine  themselves  to  the 
acquisition  of  the  divine  sciences.  But  this  extreme 
runs  counter  to  the  ancient  axiom ,  Propter  abusus 
non  tollitur  usus,  the  abuse  of  a  thing  does  not  do 
away  with  its  use.  Again,  others,  the  rigorists  of 
the  moral  order,  attributed  the  corruption  of  their 
time  to  luxury,  and  dreamed  of  forcing  people 
back  into  the  simple  living  of  former  times,  at  the 
expense  of  man’s  noblest  prerogative,  his  individual 
liberty,  as  later  happened  in  the  cases  of  the  Puri¬ 
tans  in  America,  and  of  Calvin  in  the  Commune 
of  Geneva.  These,  too,  were  extremists,  because 
Christianity  does  not  condemn  any  human  faculty, 
not  even  the  faculty  of  lawful  enjoyment,  nor 
demand  of  civilization  the  surrender  of  any  of  its 
legitimate  conquests. 

What  stand  did  the  Church  take  at  this  mo¬ 
mentous  crisis  in  history?  The  Catholic  Church 
did  not  follow  the  lead  of  either  kind  of  extrem¬ 
ists.  She  took  the  sane  middle  way.  In  medio 
virtus,  in  medio  tutissimus  ibis,  safety  lies  in  a 
middle  course.  In  the  midst  of  the  great  move¬ 
ment  of  the  Renaissance  which  had  well-nigh  swept 
Europe  off  its  feet,  she  remembered  her  perpetual 
mission  to  teach  all  nations,  the  Greek  as  well  as 
the  barbarian,  the  enlightened  as  well  as  the  ignor¬ 
ant,  the  rich  as  well  as  the  poor.  Far  from  hurling 
anathemas  at  the  progress  of  science  and  the  opu¬ 
lence  of  arts  (though  she  often  saw  them  misused) 
she  invoked  heaven’s  blessing  upon  them,  inspired 
them  with  Christian  principles  which  permeated 
their  whole  mass,  and  thus  made  of  them  instru¬ 
ments  to  promote  the  glory  of  God  and  the  salva¬ 
tion  of  souls.  And  with  this  true  Christian  broad¬ 
mindedness,  confident  in  the  unfailing  presence  of 
Christ  the  Savior  and  of  the  Divine  Paraclete,  she 
wisely  directed  the  unparalleled  intellectual,  artis¬ 
tic,  and  scientific  movement,  and,  beaming  with  a 
new  hope,  took  the  road  of  the  future.  There  was 
a  revival;  she  made  it  truly  Catholic. 

In  all  lands  there  were  men  not  less  eminent  fot 
their  Christian  piety  than  for  their  classical  learn¬ 
ing  who,  though  given  to  the  passionate  study  of 
pagan  antiquity,  remained  thoroughly  Christian, 
who,  appropriating  the  good  there  was  in  pagan 
antiquity,  nevertheless  remained  conscious  of  their 
own  Christian  superiority;  who  made  pagan  art, 
literature,  and  science  not  mistresses  but  humble 
handmaids  of  Christianity. 

Among  these  Christian  humanists  it  will  suffice 
to  quote  Rudolph  Agricola  (Huysmann)  of  Hol¬ 
land,  who  zealously  promoted  the  study  of  classics 
in  Germany;  Vittorino  da  Feltre,  who  organized  a 
school  of  classical  learning  at  Mantua,  Italy,  and 
desired  his  pupils  to  receive  Holy  Communion 
every  month;  Aleandro  Girolamo,  professor  and 
later  rector  of  the  University  of  Paris,  and  after¬ 
wards  papal  nuncio  in  Germany;  Cardinal  Sado- 
leto,  who  as  poet,  orator,  theologian,  and  philoso¬ 
pher  was  in  the  foremost  rank  of  his  time;  Vida, 
the  author  of  the  Christian  epic  “Christias”  and  of 
“De  Arte  Poetica”;  Pico  della  Mirandola,  poet  and 
Christian  apologist;  Alexander  Hegius  of  West¬ 
phalia,  priest  and  founder  of  a  classical  school  in 
Holland;  Blessed  Thomas  More,  knight,  Lord 
Chancellor  of  England,  author  and  martyr;  Blessed 
Cardinal  Fisher,  Chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  and  martyr; 
Vives,  the  Spanish  philosopher,  author  of  a  great 
variety  of  works;  Cleynaerts,  the  Belgian  priest, 
Orientalist,  and  missionary  among  the  Moham¬ 
medans. 

But  it  was  in  Rome,  about  all  other  places,  that 
Catholic  leaders  guided  the  intellectual  movement 
in  the  right  direction,  making  the  Renaissance  an 


auxiliary  of  Christianity.  The  names  of  Pius  II, 
Nicholas  V,  Julius  II,  and  Leo  X  summarize  the 
history  of  the  most  powerful  patronage  accorded  to 
literature,  art,  and  science  in  the  history  of  our 
race.  These  pontiffs  were  surrounded  by  the  most 
glorious  phalanx  of  artists  with  the  peerless 
Bramante,  the  world-renowned  Michelangelo,  and 
the  divine  Raphael  at  their  head.  These  names 
recall  the  Dome  of  St.  Peter’s,  the  Sistine  Chapel, 
the  Stanze  and  the  Loggie  of  the  Vatican,  produc¬ 
tions  unsurpassed  in  the  history  of  art.  The  Popes 
of  the  Renaissance  kept  Christianity  abreast  of  the 
enlightenment  of  their  age,  and  placed  on  the 
brow  of  the  Church  a  new  tiara,  a  threefold  crown 
of  science,  art,  and  poetry,  whose  lustre  is  not 
likely  to  fade. 

Kurth,  trans.  Day,  The  Church  at  the  Turning  Points  of  His¬ 
tory;  Idem,  Les  Origines  de  la  Civilisation  Moderne,  Manuel  d’ 
Histoire  Universelle. 

Victor  Day. 

Rennes,  Archdiocese  of  (Rhedonensis),  com¬ 
prises  the  department  of  Ue-et-Vilaine  in  France. 
His  Eminence  Auguste-Rene  Cardinal  Dubourg, 
who  came  to  this  see  7  August,  1906,  died  22  Sep¬ 
tember,  1921.  Born  at  Loguioy-Plougras,  1842,  he 
was  ordained  in  1866,  served  as  professor  in  the 
lower  seminary  of  Treguier,  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Moulins,  19  January,  1893,  which  see  he  filled 
until  his  promotion  to  Rennes.  He  was  created 
cardinal  priest  4  December,  1916,  being  the  first 
cardinal  of  Breton  origin.  To  Cardinal  Dubourg’s 
activity  is  due  the  construction  of  the  beautiful 
college  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  for  secondary  educa¬ 
tion  and  the  complete  restoration  of  the  upper 
and  lower  seminaries  and  the  episcopal  residence 
as  well  as  the  reconstruction  of  the  diocese  from 
the  demoralized  condition  caused  by  the  separation 
of  Church  and  State.  The  Cardinal  was  succeeded 
by  his  auxiliary,  Rt.  Rev.  Alexis  Charost,  the  pres¬ 
ent  incumbent. 

During  the  World  War  600  priests  from  this  ter¬ 
ritory  and  200  seminarians  were  mobilized  and  of 
these  18  were  decorated  with  the  Order  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  2  became  officers  and  2  served  as 
navy  chaplains,  274  students  preparing  for  the  col¬ 
lege  of  St.  Cyr,  fell  on  the  field. 

By  1921  statistics  the  total  population  of  this 
diocese  is  608,100;  there  are  43  parishes,  319  suc- 
cursal  parishes,  396  churches,  6  convents  of  men 
and  65  for  women,  1100  secular  priests  and  50  reg¬ 
ulars,  a  number  of  Brothers  who  have  become 
secularized  since  the  law  of  1901,  numbers  of  Sis¬ 
ters,  secularized  also,  1  lower  seminary  with  250 
students,  4  secondary  schools  for  boj^s  with  120 
teachers  and  1600  pupils,  14  boarding  schools  for 
the  secondary  education  of  girls  with  150  teachers 
and  1200  pupils,  140  elementary  schools  for  boys 
with  260  teachers  and  41,000  pupils,  266  elementary 
schools  for  girls  with  800  pupils.  The  charitable 
institutions  include :  5  retreats,  7  asylums,  55 

clinics,  sanitariums  and  hospitals,  2  refuge  homes 
and  2  nurseries.  All  public  institutions’  permit 
the  ministry  of  priests  and  all  the  hospitals,  except 
the  military  hospital  at  Rennes,  are  conducted 
by  religious.  The  “Semaine  Religieuse,”  “Nouvel- 
liste  de  Bretagne,”  and  various  parish  bulletins  are 
published. 

Renunciation  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII — 774a). — A  renun¬ 
ciation  of  an  ecclesiastical  office  to  be  valid  must  be 
made  in  writing,  or  orally  in  presence  of  two  witnesses, 
personally  or  by  proxy;  if  it  is  made  to  a  local  ordinary 
it  must  be  accepted  or  refused  by  him  within  a  month. 
If  the  renunciation  has  been  lawfully  accepted  the 
office  becomes  vacant  as  soon  as  the  person  renouncing 


RESCRIPTS 


637 


RETREATS 


is  informed  ot  the  fact.  A  cleric  is  considered  by  the 
law  to  have  renounced  his  office  tacitly:  (a)  if  he 
becomes  a  professed  religious;  benefices,  however,  in 
this  case  are  not  vacated  immediately;  (b)  if  he 
neglects  to  take  up  his  post  within  the  time  appointed 
by  law,  or  by  the  ordinary  if  the  law  is  silent  on  the 
point;  (c)  if  he  comes  into  peaceful  possession  of  a  post 
incompatible  with  a  former  office;  (d)  if  he  apostatizes 
publicly;  (e)  if  he  contracts  marriage  even  civil;  (f) 
if  without  just  cause  lie  becomes  a  soldier  voluntarily; 

(g)  if  he  unjustifiably  and  of  his  own  accord  leaves 
off  his  clerical  dress  and  after  being  warned  by  the 
ordinary  does  not  put  it  on  again  within  a  month; 

(h)  finally ,  if  when  he  is  bound  by  the  law  of  residence 
he  absents  himself  unlawfully  and,  when  not  legitimate¬ 
ly  excused,  neglects  to  obey  or  to  answer  the  ordinary 
within  a  suitable  time  prescribed  by  the  latter. 

Rescripts  (cf.  C.  E.,  XII— 783c;  V— 691d).— Con¬ 
cealment  of  the  truth  or  subreption  in  a  petition  for 
a  rescript  does  not  necessarily  render  it  invalid,  nor 
does  a  falsehood  or  obreption,  provided  the  sole 
reason,  or  at  least  one  of  those  alleged,  is  true.  The 
use  of  the  clause  motu  proprio  in  a  rescript  validates 
what  would  otherwise  be  void  through  subreption, 
it  would  not,  however,  validate  obreption  except  in  a 
petition  for  a  dispensation  from  a  minor  matrimonial 
impediment.  A  rescript  granted  motu  proprio  to  a 
person  who  by  canon  law  is  disqualified  from  obtain¬ 
ing  the  favor  in  question,  or  if  it  is  contrary  to  a 
legitimate  local  custom,  private  statute,  or  acquired 
right  is  ineffective,  unless  it  expressly  contains  a 
derogating  clause.  The  words  of  a  rescript  are  to  be 
taken  in  their  common  acceptation;  in  case  of  doubt 
a  wide  interpretation  is  allowed,  except  where  the 
interests  of  third  parties  or  of  the  public  are  involved, 
or  in  reference  to  lawsuits,  or  when  the  petition  was 
made  to  secure  a  benefice.  A  rescript  if  revoked  by 
a  superior  is  still  valid  until  revocation  has  been  made 
known  to  the  person  who  obtained  it;  it  is  not  revoked 
by  a  contrary  law,  unless  the  law  provides  for  this  or 
unless  the  law  has  been  enacted  by  a  superior  of  the 
grantor  of  the  rescript  . 

Resurrection  Sisters.— This  Congregation  was 
founded  in  Rome  in  1891  by  Mother  Celine  Bor- 
zecka.  The  community  has  as  its  chief  aim  the 
education  of  girls,  although  other  works  fall  also 
within  the  scope  of  its  activities.  Besides  the 
mother-house  in  Rome  and  a  novitiate  in  Austria 
the  community  has  also  established  a  novitiate  at 
Norwood  Park,  Ill.,  U.  S.  A. 

Retreat  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Congregation  of 
the  (cf.  C.E.,  XII — 795b). — There  are  twenty-three 
houses  belonging  to  the  institute:  16  in  France,  2 
in  Brussels,  and  5  in  England.  The  house  at 
Clevedon  was  closed  in  1920,  and  a  new  house 
opened  at  Clifton  with  a  hostel  for  Catholic  women 
students,  ^studying  at  the  Bristol  University.  The 
Life  of  Victoire  de  St.  Luc,  French  Revolutionary 
martyr,  has  been  written  by  Mother  St.  Patrick,  a 
religious  of  the  institute. 

Retreats  for  Laymen.  — In  January,  1909, 
Mr.  Sidney  J.  Finley,  of  New  York,  called  a  small 
meeting  of  Catholic  laymen  to  consider  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  a  House  of  Retreats  for  Laymen  in  or  near 
New  York  City,  similar  to  those  which  had  been 
founded  in  Belgium  and  in  England.  As  a  result  of 
this  meeting  request  was  made  of  the  provincial  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus  that  the  Society  undertake 
direction  of  the  work.  This  request  received  the 
cordial  assent  of  the  provincial  and  the  approval  of 
Archbishop  Farley  of  New  York,  and  Father  Terence 


J.  Shealy,  S.  J.,  was  appointed  director  of  the  move¬ 
ment,  which  in  May,  1909,  was  tentatively  organized. 
It  was  decided  that,  pending  the  actual  acquisition 
ot  a  suitable  house  for  retreats,  an  inaugural  "week- 
retreat  should  be  held  in  the  summer  months  at 
rordham  University,  during  the  vacation  season, 
and  on  July  9th  eighteen  men  composing,  for  the 
most  part,  the  organized  group,  made  the  first  retreat 
under  Father  Shealy’s  direction.  From  the  inception 
of  the  movement  it  was  recognized  that  to  meet  the 
exigencies  of  modern  business  conditions  the  ‘ 'week¬ 
end  retreats  could  not  begin  before  Friday  evening 
and  must  terminate  early  on  Monday  morning,  and 
this  has  been  the  rule  since  that  time. 

The  success  of  the  first  retreat  led  to  the  holding 
of  three  more  retreats  at  Fordham  University  before 
the  end  of  the  vacation,  and  in  the  autumn  six  more 
"week  ends’’  were  held  at  Keyser  Island,  South 
Norwalk,  the  total  attendance  at  the  ten  retreats  in 
1909  being  179  men.  In  November,  1909,  a  public 
meeting  in  aid  of  the  movement  was  held  at  Cathedral 
College  in  the  presence  of  Archbishop  Farley.  Early 
in  1910  "week  ends’’  were  resumed  at  Keyser  Island, 
and  once  more  Fordham  University  was  used  during 
the  summer  vacation,  return  being  made  to  Keyser 
Island  in  the  autumn,  and  the  total  results  for  i910 
were  nineteen  retreats  attended  by  three  hundred 
men.  Active  search  for  a  suitable  house  was  made 
during  1910  and  many  houses  were  inspected.  None 
of  them,  however,  met  the  combined  requisition  of 
adaptability  and  price — the  latter  being  a  verv 
formidable  limitation.  In  January,  1911,  it  was 
decided  to  incorporate  what  had  up  to  that  time  been 
known  as  the  "Laymen’s  Retreat  Movement”  and 
the  "Laymen’s  League  for  Retreats  and  Social 
Studies”  was  founded,  the  name  being  later  changed 
to  that  of  the  "Laymen’s  League  for  Retreats  and 
Social  Service.” 

In  March,  1911,  Father  Shealy’s  search  fora  house 
was  finally  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  an  estate  on 
Staten  Island  known  as  "Fox  Hill  Manor.”  This 
consisted  of  a  large  double  house  standing  in  twenty 
acres  of  ground  near  Fort  Wadsworth.  The  house 
had  been  built  some  forty  years  before  by  Mr.  L.  H. 
Meyer  for  the  occupancy  of  his  own  family  and  that 
of  a  married  daughter.  It  contained  twenty-seven 
large  rooms  and  was  admirably  suited  for  a  Retreat 
House,  as  it  stood  well  secluded  from  the  public 
roads.  The  grounds  had  been  lavishly  improved  by 
Mr.  Meyer  in  his  lifetime  but  on  his  death  the  prop¬ 
erty  suffered  considerable  neglect  and  when  dis¬ 
covered  by  Father  Shealy  both  house  and  grounds 
were  in  a  state  of  deplorable  disrepair.  It  was  pur¬ 
chased  in  April,  1911,  for  $50,000.  At  that  time  the 
funds  actually  at  Father  Shealy’s  disposal  were  less 
than  $13,000,  laboriously  collected  in  the  preceding 
two  years.  With  the  aid  of  the  Emigrant  Savings 
Bank,  which  lent  $30,000  on  the  property  and  of  two 
friends  who  advanced  $7,000  more,  Father  Shealy 
paid  $50,000  cash  to  the  executors  of  Mr.  Meyer’s 
estate  and  the  first  House  of  Retreats  for  men  in 
the  United  States  was  an  accomplished  fact. 

Announcement  was  made  of  this  achievement  at  a 
public  meeting  held  in  May  at  Carnegie  Hall  in  the 
presence  of  Archbishop  Farley  and  the  provincial 
of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  again  the  emphatic  ap¬ 
proval  of  the  archbishop  was  publicly  accorded  to  the 
work.  The  Laymen’s  League  was  busily  at  work 
obtaining  members  for  the  League  and  retreatants 
for  the  week-end  bands,  and  a  committee  was  at 
work  organizing  the  School  of  Social  Studies.  In  the 
intervals  of  his  work  as  Lecturer  on  Jurisprudence  in 
the  Law  School  of  Fordham  University  and  his  work 
as  director  of  the  week-end  retreats  (which  were  being 
held  at  Keyser  Island  and  later  at  Fordham  Uni¬ 
versity),  Father  Shealy  was  busied  throughout  the 


638 


RHODE  ISLAND 


RHA2TIA 


spring  and  early  summer  with  the  details  of  making 
Fox  Hill  Manor  ready  for  retreats.  The  house  had 
to  be  largely  refurnished  and  running  ■  repairs  on  a 
large  scale  were  necessary.  It  was  decided  to 
rechristen  it  as  “Mount  Manresa”  and  to  hold  the 
first  retreat  therein  beginning  on  September  8th — a 
most  appropriate  date.  Some  idea  of  the  obstacles 
to  be  overcome  may  be  gleaned  from  the  fact  that 
the  last  of  the  beds  and  the  chairs  arrived  and  were 
placed  in  position  at  5  p.m.  on  that  day.  At  7  p.m. 
on  September  8th,  however,  the  provincial  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  Father  Joseph  Hanselmann,  S.  J., 
presided  in  the  dining  room  where  some  seventy  men 
were  assembled  for  the  first  retreat  and  at  8:30  p.m. 
Father  Shealy  gave  the  “Points”  in  the  chapel. 

An  important  feature  of  the  retreat  work  of 
Mount  Manresa  has  been  the  Extension  Retreats 
given  by  Father  Shealy  each  year  at  Philadelphia, 
Ogdensburg  and  other  centres.  These  retreats  have 
been  largely  attended.  The  movement  begun  so 
successfully  in  New  York  is  spreading  rapidly 
throughout  the  United  States,  and  special  houses 
have  been  opened  in  Albany  (N.  Y.),  Boston,  Chi¬ 
cago,  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  St.  Mary’s  (Kan.), 
Syracuse  (N.  Y.),  and  Trenton  (N.  J.),  and  other 
cities.  The  Passionist  houses  as  a  rule  have  accom¬ 
modations  for  retreats  for  laymen  as  well  as  priests. 
The  English  Jesuits  have  six  houses  of  retreat:  at 
Stamford  Hill,  Osterley,  Roehampton,  Romiley,  St. 
Asaph  (Wales),  and  Bothwell  (Scotland);  while  the 
Irish  Jesuits  have  one  at  Rathfarnham  Castle,  Dublin. 

Rhsetia,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (R^ethorum; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 18b),  in  the  Canton  of  Orisons, 
Switzerland,  is  bounded  on  the  South  by  Lombardy, 
on  the  West  by  the  cantons  of  Tessin,  Uri  and  Glarus, 
on  the  East  by  the  Tyrol,  and  is  entrusted  to  the 
Capuchins.  It  reports  (1920)  a  total  population  of 
10,000  inhabitants  of  whom  6541  are  Catholic;  3621 
Zwinglians;  22  churches,  with  resident  and  27  with 
non-resident  priests,  22  Capuchins,  36  schools  with 
1116  pupils,  and  1  orphanage  with  12  inmates.  The 
prefect  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Santini, 
O.  S.  F.  C.,  b.  in  Rieti,  5  August,  1867,  professed 
8  December,  1890,  missionary  in  Rhsetia,  14  August, 
1892;  prefect  apostolic  of  Rhsetia,  2  January,  1905, 
resigned  in  1912,  chaplain  to  the  Austrian  prisoners 
of  war  in  January,  1916,  re-elected  prefect  apostolic 
of  Rhsetia,  13  September,  1918.  He  resides  at  Sagens 
(or  Thief en  Kastell). 

Rhode  Island,  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 20a).— The  area 
of  the  State  of  Rhode  Island  is  1248  square  miles. 
In  1920  the  population  was  604,937,  a  gain  of  11.4 
per  cent  since  1910.  Of  this,  97.5  per  cent  was 
urban;  2.5  per  cent  was  rural.  The  average  number 
of  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile  is  566.4  as  against 
508.5  in  1910.  The  largest  cities  are  Providence, 
with  a  population  of  237,595;  Pawtucket  64,248; 
Woonsocket  43,496.  According  to  the  Federal 
Census  (1920)  the  number  of  foreign  born  in  Rhode 
Island  is  as  follows:  born  in  Italy  32,241;  in  Canada 
36,412;  in  England  25,782;  in  Ireland  22,253;  in 
Sweden  6542;  in  Scotland  5692;  in  Portugal  8624; 
in  Russia  8055;  in  Germany  3126;  in  Poland  8158; 
this  classification  does  not  distinguish  the  Jews,  who 
are  rapidly  increasing,  and  who  in  1918  numbered 
20,512.  There  were  besides  593,980  whites,  10,036 
negroes,  110  Indians  and  225  Chinese.  Of  the 
population  of  10  years  of  age  and  over  (483,788), 
there  were  31,312  illiterates  or  6.5  per  cent.  Of  these 
the  foreign  born  numbered  171,032  (16.5  per  cent). 

Economic  Conditions. — Manufactures. — In  1919 
there  were  2466  establishments  (a  gain  of  12.6  per  cent 
since  1914),  with  a  total  capitalization  of  $589,- 
937,000;  employing  155,547  workers  with  a  payroll 


of  $168,675,000,  and  an  output  to  the  value  of 
$747,323,000.  Cotton  spinning  and  dyeing  are  the 
principal  industries,  also  the  manufacture  of  rubber 
and  elastic  goods.  The  State  has  deposits  of  graphite, 
lime,  and  building  stone,  the  value  of  the  stone 
quarried  in  1917  being  $518,785;  of  other  minerals, 
$198,338. 

Agriculture — The  general  trend  of  agriculture  is 
revealed  in  the  latest  agricultural  census  (1920), 
which  shows  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  farms  from' 
5292  in  1910  to  4083  in  1920.  The  farmland  area  is 
331,600  acres,  of  which  132,855  is  in  improved  land. 
The  value  of  all  farm  property  is  $33,636,766;  of  the 
livestock,  $4,840,279;  of  the  crops,  $5,340,000. 

The  direct  foreign  commerce  is  still  small,  the 
exports  in  1919  were  valued  at  $426,741;  the  imports, 
$5,456,800.  The  total  assets  of  the  banks  and  trust 
companies  in  June,  1919,  were  $356,030,000.  The 
State  bonded  debt  in  January,  1921,  was  $9,200,082, 
with  a  sinking  fund  of  $1,397,428;  the  assessed  value 
of  real  property,  $600,000,000;  of  personal  property, 
$390,000,000. 

In  1919  the  railroads  of  the  State  comprised  209 
miles  of  single  track  and  351  miles  of  electric  railway. 

Religion. — The  federal  census  of  1916  gives  the 
following  statistics  of  religious  denominations: 


Body 

Members 

Churches 

Catholics . 

261,312 

102 

Protest, a, nt,  Episcopalians . 

20,176 

20,180 

60 

Baptist . 

117 

Methodist,  Episcopalians . 

7,801 

10,531 

2,783 

41 

Cnngrpgationalists . 

43 

Lutherans . 

9 

Free  Baptists . \ . 

514 

2 

Value  of  property:  Protestant  Episcopalian 
$1,775,430;  Congregationalist  $1,263,572;  Baptist 
$1,777,880;  Unitarian  $257,500;  Universalist  $380,- 
500;  Free  Baptist  $35,000.  For  Catholic  statistics 
see  Providence,  Diocese  of. 

Education. — The  laws  governing  private  and 
parochial  schools  are  as  follows:  Parochial  schools 
must  maintain  approved  standards  and  are  subject 
to  inspection.  The  State  Board  of  Education  may 
visit,  inspect,  and  examine  private  schools  at  pleasure. 
The  conditions  for  approval  are:  The  term  must  be 
substantially  equal  to  that  required  by  law.  (2.) 
The  instruction  must  be  in  English.  (3.)  Thorough 
and  efficient  teaching  must  be  given.  (4.)  A  register 
must  be  kept  and  reports  furnished  to  school  com¬ 
mittees  and  truant  officers.  The  instruction  in 
private  schools  must  be  in  the  subjects  taught  in 
public  schools  and  in  the  English  language.  On 
designated  holidays  no  session  of  any  school  in  the 
State  shall  be  held. 

According  to  the  U.  S.  Census  )1920)  there  were 
173,404  children  of  school  age  and  108,817  attended 
school  (62.8  per  cent.) 

The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  2093  public 
elementary  schools  in  1919  was  83,300;  of  teachers, 
2585;  in  the  163  high  schools,  381  teachers  and 
8756  pupils.  The  total  expenditure  on  education 
was  $3,503,091.  The  number  of  school  buildings  is 
509;  the  valuation  of  school  property  $12,439,076. 
The  parochial  school  children  in  the  State  numbered 
18,481;  the  attendance  of  the  children  in  the  parochial 
schools  and  academies  was  20,066  in  1918.  These 
schools  cost  in  1919  $3.79  per  month  for  each  pupil. 
Allowing  ten  months  of  the  school  year  on  the  basis 
of  that  cost,  the  18,481  parochial  school  children,  in 
attending  the  public  schools  would  have  cost  the 
State  $699,610.  Open-air  schools  were  established 
in  1912.  In  1917  the  maximum  school  age  was 
increased  to  sixteen  years.  In  1918  the  national 


RHODES 


630 


RICHMOND 


Smith-Lever  Act  in  relation  to  vocational  education 
was  passed,  and  another,  granting  State  aid  to  towns 
which  established  courses  in  vocational  education. 
Provisions  were  made  the  next  year  for  State  aid  to 
crippled  and  injured  children  under  the  supervision 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Schools. 

At  the  same  time  a  division  of  Child  Welfare  was 
created  in  the  State  Board  of  Health  and  the  cause  of 
Americanization  promoted  by  the  establishment  of 
free  night  schools  for  the  purpose  of  teaching  English. 
Bible  reading  is  neither  permitted  nor  excluded  in  the 
public  schools.  There  are  enrolled  in  Brown  Univer¬ 
ity  89  professors  and  teacjiers  and  1349  students. 
The  appropriation  for  teachers’  salaries  for  both 
elementary  and  secondary  schools  in  1918  was 
$2,159,668;  for  graded  and  high  schools,  $33,000. 

Sunday  Laws. — Sunday  concerts  of  a  serious, 
classical,  or  musical  nature  are  allowed.  Milk, 
fruit,  confectionery,  and  tobacco  may  be  sold  on 
Sunday.  Amateur  athletic  games  can  be  played  in 
the  open  air  between  the  hours  of  noon  and  six 
o’clock  in  the  afternoon  on  Sunday.  In  1919  laws, 
were  passed  licensing  professional  athletic  games, 
thus  eliminating  the  trouble  caused  by  the  defunct 
Sunday  laws. 

Recent  Legislation  and  History. — In  1912  a 
Public  Utilities  Commission  was  created,  also  a 
Board  of  Control  and  Supply  to  take  charge  of  the 
regulation  and  control  of  State  institutions.  An 
Employer’s  Liability  Act  was  passed.  In  1913  the 
hours  and  conditions  of  working  women  and  children 
were  regulated.  On  17  April  Rhode  Island  granted 
'presidential  suffrage  to  women ,  the  first  state  in  the 
East  to  do  so.  It  was  decided  at  the  same  time 
that  a  person  over  twenty-one  years  of  age  could  not 
unreasonably  neglect  to  support  parents  who  were 
destitute  without  fault  of  their  own.  The  lease  of 
prison  labor  to  private  contractors  was  forbidden. 
The  State  Board  of  Labor  was  created  in  1919.  The 
Federal  Suffrage  Amendment  was  ratified  on  6 
January,  1920;  the  State  refused  to  ratify  the 
Federal  Prohibition  Amendment,  June,  1919. 

During  the  European  War  Rhode  Island  con¬ 
tributed  16,861  soldiers  to  the  United  States  Army 
(.45  per  cent).  As  in  the  case  of  all  men  from  New 
England,  the  Rhode  Island  soldiers  joined  either  the 
26th  or  76th  Division  at  Camp  Devens,  Massa¬ 
chusetts.  The  summary  of  casualties  of  Rhode 
Island  members  of  the  American  Expeditionary 
Force  is  as  follows:  deceased,  15  officers,  340  men; 
prisoners,  35  men;  wounded,  42  officers,  1130  men. 
At  the  end  of  the  war  a  bonus  was  granted  to  all 
veterans  of  the  war  by  the  legislature. 

Rhodes,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (Rhodien- 
sis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I — 791c;  XIII — 24c),  comprises  the 
Island  of  Rhodes  and  adjacent  islands,  and  is  the 
seat  of  a  titular  archbishopric  united  to  the  see  of 
Malta  (q.v.).  The  prefecture  is  confided  to  the 
Franciscans.  The  first  prefect  apostolic  was  Rt.  Rev. 
Andrea  Felici,  O.F.M.,  who  died  in  1911.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Ignatius  Beaufais,  O.F.M., 
and  in  1920  Rt.  Rev.  Bona ventura  Rossetti  was 
named  prefect,  succeeding  Beaufais.  The  prefecture 
is  now  vacant,  Rt.  Rev.  Rossetti  having  died  12 
August,  1921.  Statistics  for  1921  report:  2  churches, 

3  convents  for  men,  1  for  women,  4  regular  priests, 

2  lay  brothers,  1  college  for  boys  with  10  teachers  and 
200  students,  1  for  girls  with  7  teachers  and  155  stu¬ 
dents,  1  elementary  school  with  5 'teachers  and  102 
pupils,  1  commercial  school  with  5  teachers  and  70 
pupils,  1  orphanage,  1  refuge  in  the  course  of  con¬ 
struction,  and  a  Catholic  population  of  1000  souls. 
The  island  came  under  the  Italian  dominion  in  1912; 
they  erected  Italian  schools  both  elementary  and 
technical  in  charge  of  the  Christian  Brothers.  During 

41 


the  World  War  2  priests  and  one  lay  brother  served 
at  the  front  in  the  Italian  army. 

Ribeirao  Preto,  Diocese  of  (De  Ribeirao 
Preto;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 31a),  in  the  state  of  Sao 
Paulo,  Brazil,  is  suffragan  of  Sao  Paulo.  It  is  governed 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Alberto- Jos6  Gonsalves,  first  bishop, 
b.  20  July,  1859,  ordained  17  September,  1882;  he 
served  as  rector  of  Curityba  where  he  constructed  the 
church  now  used  as  the  Cathedral,  became  vicar 
general  of  the  diocese,  a  deputy  and  president  of  the 
Chamber  of  Parana,  federal  senator  for  Parana, 
secretary  to  the  Brazilian  Senate  from  1895-1905, 
prothonotary  apostolic  23  August,  1897,  decorated 
with  the  cross  Pro  Ecclesia  et  Pontijice ,  appointed 
5  December,  1908,  consecrated  2  February,  1909. 
There  are  in  the  diocese  (1920),  45  parishes,  85 
churches  and  chapels,  50  secular  priests,  12  semi¬ 
narians,  5  communities  of  men  with  18  religious,  and 
10  of  women  with  60  nuns;  6  Catholic  schools  with 
600  pupils;  a  total  population  of  800,000  of  whom 
only  1000  are  non-Catholic. 

Richmond,  Diocese  of  (Richmondiensis),  com¬ 
prises  an  area  of  34,808  square  miles  in  the  States 
of  Virginia  and  West  Virginia,  U.  S.  A.  Rt.  Rev. 
Augustine  Van  De  Vyver  died  16  October,  1911, 
and  was  buried  on  the  twenty-second  anniversary 
of  his  consecration  as  Bishop  of  Richmond.  He 
was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev. 
Dennis  Joseph  O’Connell,  a  priest  of  this  diocese 
who  had  been  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Sebaste 
and  auxiliary  to  the  Bishop  of  San  Francisco,  24 
December,  1908,  and  who  was  installed  as  Bishop 
of  Richmond,  19  March,  1912,  in  the  presence  of 
Cardinal  Gibbons,  several  archbishops  and  bishops, 
the  Governor  of  Virginia,  the  Mayor  and  other  no¬ 
tables.  Bishop  O’Connell  was  born  in  Donough- 
more,  Ireland,  1849,  ordained  1877,  appointed  a 
prelate  of  the  Holy  See  1887,  served  as  rector  of 
the  American  College,  Rome,  and  later  of  the  Cath¬ 
olic  University  at  Washington  which  position  he 
filled  when  called  to  the  episcopacy.  The  diocese 
has  made  remarkable  progress  under  the  able  admin¬ 
istration  of  Bishop  O’Connell;  additional  religious 
have  been  brought  into  this  territory,  many  new 
churches  have  been  built,  parishes  established  and 
schools  erected,  notable  among  these,  the  Sacred 
Heart  Cathedral  School  which  is  in  keeping  with 
the  majestic  cathedral  itself. 

Upon  the  entrance  of  this  country  into  the  World 
War  the  bishop  placed  every  diocesan  and  parish 
organization  at  the  disposal  of  the  President,  and 
before  .the  draft  was  ordered  the  flower  of  Catholic 
youth  was  enlisted  in  the  service.  The  priests  sta¬ 
tioned  at  or  near  the  various  army  and  navy  posts, 
did  valiant  work  as  volunteer  chaplains;  particular 
mention  should  be  given  to  the  work  of  the  Oblate 
Fathers,  who,  upon  the  invitation  of  Bishop 
O’Connell  and  financed  by  the  Knights  of  Columbus, 
established  headquarters  for  five  chaplains  who  at¬ 
tended  Jamestown  naval  base,  St.  Helena  Train¬ 
ing  Station  at  Berkley,  Virginia  Beach  rifle  range, 
the  Naval  hospital  and  the  Marine  barracks  at 
Portsmouth  as  well  as  various  warships  and  trans¬ 
ports  in  the  Hampton  Roads  district.  The  Knights 
of  Columbus  of  Virginia  did  splendid  work  both' 
at  home  and  abroad,  and  a  home  established  by 
them  in  conjunction  with  the  McGill  Catholic 
Union,  in  Richmond,  became  the  centre  of  patriotic 
activities  for  all  Richmond  Catholic  societies.  As 
an  example  of  the  consistently  fine  work  done 
throughout  the  diocese  we  may  take  the  records 
of  the  Catholic  Club  of  Portsmouth  which  show 
that  on  New  Year’s  day,  1919,  dinners  were  served 
to  3500  uniformed  men. 


RIDOLFI 


640 


BIOBAMBA 


By  1921  statistics  the  diocese  comprises  45 
priories,  7  convents  of  women,  80  secular  priests 
and  16  regulars,  65  Brothers,  305  Sisters,  30  semi¬ 
narians,  1  college  for  boys  with  100  students,  15 
high  schools  with  60  teachers  and  an  attendance 
of  275  boys  and  425  girls,  24  academies  with  120 
teachers  and  1000  boys  and  1400  girls,  35  elementary 
schools  with  170  teachers  and  6000  pupils,  and  3 
industrial  schools  with  46  teachers  and  380  pupils. 
The  charitable  institutions  include  1  home  for  the 
aged,  3  orphan  asylums,  1  hospital,  1  refuge  home 
for  boys  and  1  refuge  home  for  girls.  The  Rich¬ 
mond  Clerical  Fund  Association  and  the  Euchar¬ 
istic  League  are  organized,  and  among  the  laity 
the  Knights  of  Columbus,  Holy  Name,  and  Junior- 
Holy  Name  Societies,  Hibernian  and  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul  Societies  with  women’s  auxiliaries,  Boy 
Scouts,  Children  of  Mary,  Angels  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament,  Alumnian  Association  and  local  parish 
societies  of  men,  women  and  children  are  estab¬ 
lished.  The  Catholic  population  numbers  44,000 
of  whom  700  are  negroes;  the  whites  comprise 
Americans,  Irish,  German,  Italians,  English,  a  few 
French  and  small  numbers  of  Bohemians,  Poles, 
Slovaks  and  Syrians. 

Ridolfi,  Fortunatus,  Regular  Cleric  of  St.  Paul, 
b.  at  Zenano,  in  the  Diocese  of  Brixen,  on  8  Novem¬ 
ber,  1777;  d.  8  April,  1850;  son  of  Joseph  and  Angela 
(Tonni)  Ridolfi.  In  1887  he  was  sent  to  study  in  the 
College  at  Monza,  conducted  by  the  suppressed  Jesu¬ 
its.  Some  years  later  he  manifested  his  desire  to 
become  a  religious  but  the  revolutionary  troubles  of 
that  time  prevented  him  from  carrying  out  his  pur¬ 
pose.  In  1799  he  was  compelled  to  join  the  army  at 
the  time  of  the  establishment  of  the  Cisalpine  Repub¬ 
lic,  but  he  remained  untouched  by  the  corruption 
around  him .  On  30  September  of  that  year  he  entered 
the  Barnabite  novitiate,  after  which  he  studied  the¬ 
ology  at  Milan  and  took  his  solemn  vows  in  1802. 
He  was  a  professor  of  literature  at  Cremona  and  else¬ 
where,  but  when  the  decrees  of  the  French  Govern¬ 
ment,  which  then  ruled  Lombardy,  suppressed  all 
religious  orders,  he  found  refuge  in  the  house  of  his 
uncle  who  was  an  arch-priest  of  Brixen.  In  1816,  dur¬ 
ing  which  what  was  almost  a  famine  desolated  Lom¬ 
bardy,  Ridolfi  appeared  like  an  angel  of  charity  in 
aiding  the  distressed .  As  the  religious  orders  had  been 
re-established  in  Italy  in  1815,  he  made  haste  to  join 
his  brethren  in  the  college  of  Carrobrole,  where  he 
concerned  himself  chiefly  in  the  work  of  inaugurating 
and  directing  oratories  for  the  youth  of  both  sexes. 
The  cause  of  his  beatification  and  canonization  was 
introduced  on  12  November,  1919. 

Rieti,  Diocese  of  (Rietinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 54a),  in  the  province  of  Perugia,  Southern 
Italy,  directly  dependent  on  the  Holy  See.  Rt. 
Rev.  Bonaventura  Quintarelli,  who  came  to  the  see 
in  1895,  died  31  October,  1915,  and  was  succeeded 
9  Dec.,  1915,  by  Rt.  Rev.  Tranquillo  Guarneri, 
b.  at  Castelnuovo  in  1871.  He  resigned  and  was 
transferred  to  the  titular  see  of  Europus  16  June, 
1916,  and  is  now  bishop  of  Acquapendente.  He  has 
been  succeeded  by  Mgr.  Francesco  Sidoli,  b.  at 
Ceresota,  Diocese  of  Piacenza,  2  Nov.,  1874,  elected 
20  June,  1916,  and  consecrated  25  July  following. 
According  to  1920  statistics  there  are  160  parishes, 
142,100  Catholics,  served  by  200  secular  and  40 
regular  priests,  50  seminarians,  20  Brothers,  100 
Sisters,  402  churches  or  chapels. 

Riga,  Diocese  of  (Rigensis),  in  Lettonia  or 
Latvia,  depending  directly  on  the  Holy  See,  revived 
on  22  September,  1918,  by  separation  from  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Mohileff .  It  is  governed  by  Mgr.  Antonius 


Springowic,  b.  at  Rositten,  Latgale  in  Lettgalia,  in 
the  Diocese  of  Riga,  31  October,  1876.  He  studied 
in  the  ecclesiastical  seminary  at  Petrograd,  was 
ordained  in  1901,  and  was  named  dean  of  Lixna  in 
April,  1920,  in  succession  to  Mgr.  O’Rourke,  who 
resigned.  The  Diocese  of  Riga  comprises  the 
Republics  of  Lettonia  and  Esthonia.  It  has:  130 
parishes;  175  churches;  145  secular  priests;  412,356 
Catholics  (330,574  Letts;  39,244  Poles;  23,036  White 
Russians;  16,338  Lithuanians;  and  3164  of  German, 
Esthonian  and  other  nationalities);  1  seminary,  36 
students;  1  boys’  college,  5  teachers,  50  pupils;  2 
elementary  schools,  5  teachers,  200  pupils;  1  home  for 
the  aged;  3  orphanages.  There  are  about  1000  state 
primary  schools,  50  gymnasia,  and  3  prisons,  in  all 
of  which  ministrations  of  the  clergy  are  permitted. 
The  clergy  have  a  cooperative  society  for  the  pur¬ 
chase  of  church  supplies.  Among  the  laity  there  are: 
a  Catholic  Association  of  Lettish  Farmers,  a  general 
Lettish  Catholic  Association,  and  a  society  for  the 
publication  of  Catholic  works.  Catholic  periodicals 
published  are  a  weekly,  “Latgolas  Words,”  and  a 
monthly,  “Wairogs.”  Among  those  who  died  are 
Father  Casimir  Skrynda  and  Antonius  Skrynda,  a 
physician,  who  for  years  devoted  themselves  to  the 
religious  and  patriotic  education  of  the  Lettish  youth 
and  the  promotion  of  Catholic  and  Lettish  writings. 
Five  priests,  Fathers  Marcinjan,  Biksis,  Kero  vie, 
Tukiss,  and  Petrus  Osien  were  put  to  death  in  the 
religious  persecution  carried  out  by  the  Russian 
Maximalists.  On  18  November,  1918,  the  Letts 
proclaimed  their  independence  of  Russia  and  were 
at  once  attacked  by  the  Maximalists,  whom  they 
fought  until  1920.  During  the  European  War  the 
clergy  and  laity  made  every  effort  to  alleviate  suf¬ 
fering  especially  among  the  refugee  poor .  They 
raised  over  2,000,000  Russian  roubles  for  that  purpose. 
During  the  war  when  the  Letts  were  conscripted  to 
fight  for  Russia,  they  quietly  organized  themselves 
into  cohorts,  which  later  formed  the  nucleus  of  the 
first  national  army.  In  1920,  two  years  after  the 
erection  of  the  Diocese  of  Riga,  Mgr.  Antonius 
Springowic  was  consecrated  at  Aglona  in  Lettgalia, 
before  the  miraculous  image  of  the  Blessed  Virgin, 
in  the  presence  of  the  civil  authorites,  50  priests,  and 
about  60,000  of  the  faithful. 

Rimini,  Diocese  of  (Ariminensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII— 57d),  in  the  province  of  Forli,  northern 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Ravenna.  It  is  still  under  the 
administration  of  Mgr.  Vincenzo  Scozzoli,  who  came 
to  the  see  in  1900.  Statistics  for  1920  credit  it  with 
124  parishes,  125,400  Catholics,  ministered  to  by 
336  secular  and  56  regular  priests,  64  seminarians, 
15  Brothers,  183  Sisters,  254  churches  or  chapels. 

Rimouski,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Germani  de 
Rimouski;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 58d),  Canada,  suffragan 
of  Quebec.  Mgr.  Andre  Albert  Blais,  who  came  to 
the  see  in  1891,  died  23  January,  1919,  and  was 
succeeded  18  Dec.,  1919,  by  Mgr.  Joseph-Romuald 
Leonard,  b.  at  St.  Joseph  de  Carleton  m  1876, 
ordained  1899,  consecrated  25  Feb.,  1920.  The 
Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  145,758.  There 
are  198  secular  priests,  11  regular  priests,  5  religious 
communities  of  men  and  10  of  women.  There  are 
105  parishes  and  135  churches  and  chapels,  1  upper 
seminary  with  30  seminarians,  1  lower  seminary 
with  338  students,  12  convents  and  academies,  1 
home  for  the  aged  and  infirm,  1  orphanage,  1  hospital. 

Riobamba  (or  Bolivar),  Diocese  of  (Bolivaren- 
sis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 61d),  suffragan  of  Quito,  Ecua¬ 
dor.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Carlos-Mana 
Xavier  de  la  Torre,  b.  at  Quito,  12  November,  1873, 
ordained  19  December,  1896,  appointed  Bishop  of 


RIPATRANSONE 


641 


ROCHESTER 


Laja,  30  December,  1911,  consecrated  20  May,  1912, 
transferred  to  the  Diocese  of  Riobamba  21  August, 
1919,  to  succeed  Bishop  lilpieno  Perez  y  Quinones 
(b.  4  August,  1803;  d.  27  December,  1918).  Statistics 
for  1921  give:  37  parishes,  44  churches,  1  mission  in 
Macos,  1  monastery  for  women,  3  convents  for  men, 
/  convents  for  women,  10  Christian  Brothers,  19 
Sisters,  11  seminarians  at  the  Seminary  of  Mayor  de 
Quito,  3  colleges  for  men  with  200  students,'  0  for 
women  with  40  teachers  and  700  students,  1  normal 
school,  80  elementary  schools,  2  asylums,  2  hospitals, 
2  charitable  centres.  One  Catholic  periodical  is  pub¬ 
lished.  The  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  diocese  was 
celebrated  in  1915,  and  the  Basilica  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception  of  Jesus  was  consecrated  in  the  same  year. 
On  11  November,  1920,  the  centenary  of  the  inde¬ 
pendence  of  Riobamba  was  celebrated. 

Ripatransone,  Diocese  of  (Ripanensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII — 62d),  in  the  Province  of  Ascoli-Piceno, 
Central  Italy,  suffragan  of  Fermo.  The  present 
bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Luigi  Boschi,  b.  1853,  appointed 
bishop  5  May,  1902,  nominated  administrator  apos¬ 
tolic  of  Montalto  25  July,  1910.  There  are  (1922)  in 
the  diocese:  15  parishes,  70  churches,  65  secular  and  6 
regular  priests,  2  convents  for  men,  2  for  women, 20 
bisters,  1  seminary  with  28  seminarians,  3  colleges  for 
women,  1  normal  school,  12  elementary  schools,  1 
orphanage  for  girls,  6  asylums  for  children,  6  hospitals, 
and  a  Catholic  population  of  43,000  souls.  The  Pop¬ 
ular  Union  is  organized  among  the  laity. 

Ritualists — The  influence  of  the  Ritualists  in 
Anglican  church  life  is  evident  in  many  ways  in 
recent  years.  Numerous  wayside  shrines  or  “Cal¬ 
varies/'  instead  of  the  bronze  tablets  in  the  vesti¬ 
bules,  are  found  today  in  England,  to  commemorate 
the  fallen  soldiers,  while  occasionally  prayers  are 
offered  for  the  dead.  In  religious  communities 
particularly  are  found  doctrine  and  practice  dif¬ 
ficult  to  distinguish  from  the  true  Catholic  de¬ 
posit  :  masses  are  said  for  the  repose  of  the  souls 
ol  the  dead;  the  saints  are  invoked  and  honored 
and  relics  venerated;  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  to  be 
worshipped  with  hyperdulia  and  belief  is  incul¬ 
cated  in  her  Assumption  and  Immaculate  Concep¬ 
tion;  the  Sacrament  is  reserved  in  chapel  for  the 
adoration  of  the  religious,  and  in  1916,  1000  min¬ 
isters  petitioned  that  reservation  for  adoration  by 
the  people  be  legalized.  The  growth  of  religious 
life  itself  is  significant:  since  the  Oxford  move¬ 
ment  about  thirty-five  Anglican  sisterhoods  have 
been  founded  in  England  among  which  are  found 
such  titles  as  the  “Sisterhood  of  St.  Mary  the 
Virgin,”  the  "Community  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary,”  that  of  the  “Holy  Name  of  Jesus,”  and  in 
1907  there  was  founded  at  Cowley,  Oxford,  an 
enclosed  Order  of  the  Love  of  God.  There  were 
about  twelve  orders  of  men  founded  in  the  same 
period,  but  with  far  less  success.  According  to 
the  “Dictionary  of  English  Church  History”  there 
were  more  women  in  (Anglican)  religious  orders 
in  England  in  1912  than  at  the  time  of  the  suppres¬ 
sion  under  Henry  VIII;  this  work  claims  1300 
Sisters  in  1912,  and  places  the  number  at  the  sup¬ 
pression  as  745;  Gasquet  (Henry  VIII  and  the 
English  Monasteries,  p.  360),  lists  1560  nuns  at 
that  period;  naturally  we  must  admit  a  notable 
increase  of  religious  in  the  Anglican  Church,  but 
in  comparing  the  present  state  to  that  at  the  time 
of  Henry  VIII  we  must  not  forget  the  vast  dif¬ 
ference  in  population  at  the  two  periods  specified. 

A  significant  event  in  Anglican  religious  circles 
was  the  submission  to  Rome  in  a  body  in  February, 
1913,  of  the  Anglican  Benedictine  monks  of  Caldey 
Island,  and  the  community  of  nuns  at  St.  Bride’s 


Milford  Haven,  affiliated  with  the  former.  The 
lormer  were  a  foundation  in  1898,  directed  by 
Aeired  Carlyle,  under  the  special  sanction  of  Arch¬ 
bishop  1  emple,  to  revive  the  strict  rule  of  St. 
Benedict.  The  community  began  in  the  Isle  of 
Dogs,  moved  later  to  Painsthorpe,  and  finally  to 
Caldey  I  he  nuns  were  originally  the  Community 
ol  bt.  Mary  and  St.  Scholastica,  founded  by'  Father 
Ignatius  in  1868  to  observe  the  strict  rule  of  St. 
Benedict.  They  separated  from  his  community 
moXe<^  iff  1893  to  Mailing  Abbey  and  in 
1911,  to  St.  Bride’s  Abbey,  Milford  Haven,  after 
having  in  1907  become  affiliated  with  the  Caldey 
Island  Benedictines.  The  founder  of  the  Caldey 
community,  Dorn  Aeired  Carlyle,  O.S.B.,  was  10 
Aug.,  1914,  appointed  bv  the  Holy  See  the  first 
abbott  of  the  new  Catholic  community. 

Despite  what  Catholics  may  consider  Catholic 
tendencies  in  Anglicanism  there  is  a  decidedly 
strong  current  of  opposition  to  the  Ritualistic  or 
Catholic  party  in  the  English  Church  today, 
the  Kikuyu  incident  and  its  outcome  (see  An¬ 
glicanism),  and  various  decisions,  almost  uni¬ 
formly  against  the  High  Church  party,  show  this. 
In  1909,  in  the  case  of  the  Bishop  of  Oxford  v. 
Henly,  the  reservation  of  the  blessed  sacrament 
and  the  service  of  benediction  were  held  unlawful, 
and  the  defendant,  who  did  not  appear,  was  de- 
pri\  ed.  Again  in  the  Open  Letter  of  the  Bishop  of 
Zanzibar,  regarding  the  Kikuyu  Conference,  there 
«S-  case  L)r.  Langford  James,  who  was 

‘  inhibited  from  ministering”  in  the  diocese  of  St. 
Albans  (the  very  diocese  to  which  the  editor  of 
‘-Foundations”  was  attached),  because  “he  had 
invoked  our  Lady  and  two  other  saints.”  Further¬ 
more  the  bishop  announced  his  “refusal  both  of 
ordination  and  jurisdiction  to  any  who  practice 
these  invocations.”  Finally  the  greatest  weight  be¬ 
hind  the  mo\  ement  to  revise  the  Book  of  Common 
Piayei  (q.  v.)  is  probably  that  of  those  who  wish 
so  to  word  the  Ornaments  Rubric  and  other  pas- 
sages  that  in  no  way  can  it  be  held  that  there  is  any 
official  Anglican  sanction  for  such  Catholic  practices 
as  those  mentioned  in  this  article.  The  conclusion 
seems  inevitable  that  whatever  may  be  the  senti- 
nients  and  private  beliefs  of  many  good  Anglicans 
in  the  Catholic”  party  today,  the  almost  uniform 
trend  of  official  decision  is  against  them  and  on  the 
side  of  the  Low  Church  or  “Protestant”  party. 

CT TV  ® A£Pct  °f  Anglican  Continuity  in  Dublin 
\oc  rii  Cr'?vT(wi4c  i o?5; o?N£x -  Tendencies  of  Anglicanism, 
CT>  (1?]S).  25;  F°x,  “High.  Churchism ”  versus 

Ritualism  in  The  Month,  CXXIII  (1914)  255*  Oliard  ANn 

fouiTp  P.ic.tiona!^.  °f  ,En^lish  Church  History,  s’.vv.  (London 
^ltualTcas,es-  etc-<  Henson,  Church  of  England, 
Its  A  ature  and  Future  (London,  1919),  a  Low  Church  exposition. 

Gerald  Shaughnessy. 

Rochester,  Diocese  of  (Roffenensis;  cf.  C.  E., 

nf  7osi102c*  ’-in  NewJork'  ^T-  A-,  covers  an  area 

ol  7081  sq.  miles,  and  is  suffragan  to  New  York.  It 

na,s  62  parishes,  111  churches  with  resident  priests,  42 
missions  with  churches,  19  chapels,  218  secular  and  6 
regular  priests,  1  theological  seminary  for  secular 
priests  with  208  seminarians,  1  preparatory  sem¬ 
inary  with  107  seminarians,  2  academies,  3  high 
schools  with  1524  students,  3  orphan  asylums  with 
480  mrnates,  1  home  for  the  aged  with  159  inmates, 

4  hospitals,  and  a  Catholic  population  of  185  876 
1  he  diocese  is  under  the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev 
Thomas  Francis  Hickey,  D.D.,  b.  at  Rochester,  New 
York,  4  February,  1861,  ordained  25  March,  1884 
vicar  general  and  rector  of  the  Cathedral  of  Rochester’ 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Berenice  and  coadjutor 
to  the  Bishop  of  Rochester,  18  February,  1905,  con¬ 
secrated  24  May  following,  succeeded  to  the  see  18 
January,  1909,  upon  the  death  of  Bishop  McQuaid. 


ROCHET 


ROMAN  CONGREGATIONS 


642 


Rochet  (cf.  C.  C.,  XIII,  104).— by  a  motu  proprio 
of  25  April,  1920,  the  Holy  See  granted  all  regular 
bispops  the  right  to  wear  the  rochet,  but  when  they 
are  in  the  Eternal  City  they  must  always  have  a 
mantellette  over  the  rochet. 

Rockford,  Diocese  of  (Rockfordiensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  XIII— 105c),  in  Illinois,  U.  S.  A.,  covers  an  area 
of  6867  sq.  miles,  with  a  Catholic  population  of 
61,043.  It  is  suffragan  to  Chicago.  The  first  and 
present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Peter  James  Muldoon,D.D., 
b.  10  October,  1863,  ordained  18  December,  1886, 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Tamassus  and  auxiliary 
Bishop  of  Chicago  10  June,  1901,  consecrated  25 
July  of  the  same  year,  transferred  to  Rockford  28 
September,  1908,  proclaimed  29  April,  1909,  refused 
transfer  to  Monterey  and  Los  Angeles  at  the  Con¬ 
sistory  of  22  March,  1917.  Statistics  for  1922  report: 
77  churches  with  resident  priests,  22  missions  with 
churches,  3  stations,  10  chapels,  214  secular  priests, 
21  ecclesiastical  students,  1  academy  for  boys  with  30 
pupils,  1  for  girls  with  60  pupils,  4  high  schools  with 
450  students,  33  parochial  schools  with  6473  pupils,  1 
orphan  asylum  with  206  inmates,  2  homes  for  old 
people,  and  6  hospitals.  Educational  and  charitable 
institutions  are  in  charge  of  the  religious  communities 
established  in  the  diocese. 

Rockhampton,  Diocese  of  (Rockhamptoniensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 105c),  in  Queensland,  Australia,  is 
suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Brisbane.  Rt.  Rev. 
James  Duhig,  who  came  to  this  see  in  1905,  was 
created  titular  Archbishop  of  Amida  and  coadjutor 
with  right  of  succession,  to  the  Archbishop  of  Bris¬ 
bane,  26  February,  1912.  He  was  succeeded  by  the 
present  incumbent  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Shiel,  born  in 
Meath,  Ireland,  2  February,  1873,  ordained  at  May- 
nooth,  19  June,  1898,  volunteered  for  the  Australian 
Missions  and  served  in  the  archdiocese  of  Melbourne 
and  the  diocese  of  Rockhampton  and  Ballarat; 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Rockhampton  26  January, 
1913.  In  September,  1912,  the  golden  jubilee  of  the 
diocese  was  celebrated  and  the  following  year  on 
11  May,  the  enthronement  of  Bishop  Shiel  took  place. 
The  apostolic  delegate,  Mgr.  Cattaneo  visited  the 
diocese  22  June,  1918,  and  the  following  day  the 
foundation  was  laid  for  the  new  St.  Patrick’s  church 
which  replaces  the  first  church  in  Rockhampton. 
During  the  WorldWar  three  priests  of  this  diocese  and 
a  full  quota  of  the  Catholic  young  men  served  at  the 
front.  Through  the  death  of  Rev.  Julien  Plormel, 
15  March,  1921,  the  diocese  lost  one  of  its  pioneer 
priests  who  had  served  in  this  territory  for  thirty- 
five  years.  The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese 
numbers  about  40,000,  the  majority  of  whom  are  of 
Irish  origin.  By  1921  statistics  there  are:  20  parishes, 
1  convent  for  men  (Marist  Fathers),  38  secular  priests, 
200  sisters,  7  high  schools  with  14  teachers  and  atten¬ 
dance  of  150  boys  and  100  girls,  17  boarding  schools 
with  250  boys  and  430  girls,  35  elementary  schools 
with  150  teachers  and  attendance  of  5700,  1  orphan¬ 
age  receives  one  shilling  day  from  the  government 
for  each  child. 

Roman  Colleges,  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 131).  Under 
Pius  X  certain  changes  were  made  affecting  the 
Seminario  Romano:  the  philosophical  and  theological 
faculties  were  transferred  to  the  Lateran  and  renamed 
Seminario  maggiore;  the  faculty  of  law  is  in  the 
Piazza  S.  Apollinare,  49;  and  the  classical  school  or 
Seminario  minore  at  St.  Peters.  The  Seminario 
Pio  has  been  incorporated  in  the  Seminario  maggiore 
at  the  Lateran.  There  are  two  new  colleges:  the 
Collegio  Pontificio  Etiopico,  for  the  Abvssinians, 
which  was  founded  on  1  October,  1919,  in  Piazzo  S. 
Martin,  and  is  under  the  care  of  the  Capuchin  Friars; 


and  the  Collegio  Pontificio  per  le  Missioni  Estere 
Italiane,  for  the  Italian  foreign  missions,  founded  on 
13  March,  1914,  and  enlarged  in  1921;  which  is  in  the 
via  della  Scrofa.  The  Collegio  Beda_,  in  the  via 
Pietro  Cavallini,  which  was  founded  in  1892,  was 
separated  from  the  English  College  in  1917. 

Roman  Congregations  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 136a).— 
The  congregation  of  the  Holy  Office  (C.  E.,  XII— 137) 
is  now  charged  with  the  duties  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Index,  which  was  suppressed  on  25  March,  1917; 
it  alone  is  competent  to  deal  with  questions  relating 
to  the  Eucharistic  fast  of  priests  celebrating  Mass. 
On  the  other  hand,  what  relates  to  the  use  and  con¬ 
cession  of  indulgences,  except  dogmatic  pronounce¬ 
ments  regarding  new  prayers  and  devotions,  has  been 
transferred  from  the  Holy  Office  to  the  Apostolic 
Penitentiary. 

The  Congregation  of  the  Consistory  (C.  E.,XIII — 
139)  has  now  a  third  cardinal  ex-officio  member, 
namely  the  prefect  of  the  Congregation  of  Seminaries 
and  of  Universities  of  Studies,  and  a  new  ex-officio 
consultor,  the  secretary  of  the  last-mentioned  con¬ 
gregation.  It  no  longer  decides  questions  of  com¬ 
petency  arising  between  the  various  congregations, 
tribunals,  and  offices  of  the  Roman  Curia,  these  being 
settled  by  a  body  of  cardinals  selected  by  the  pope 
each  time  a  dispute  arises. 

The  Congregation  of  Propaganda  (C.  E.,  XII — 
456;  XIII — 143)  has  jurisdiction  also  over  societies 
of  ecclesiastics  and  seminaries  founded  exclusively 
for  the  training  of  missionaries  for  foreign  missions, 
particularly  in  connection  with  their  rules  and  ad¬ 
ministration  and  the  granting  of  concessions  regard¬ 
ing  the  ordination  of  the  alumni.  It  has,  no  longer, 
any  jurisdiction  over  Catholics  of  Eastern  Rites, 
even  in  questions  involving  Latins.  For  them  the 
Congregation  of  the  Eastern  Church  has  been  estab¬ 
lished  with  the  same  power  over  the  subjects  and 
churches  of  the  Eastern  Rites  as  the  other  congrega¬ 
tions  have  over  those  of  Latin  Rite,  respecting, 
however,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  Office. 

The  Congregation  for  Extraordinary  Ecclesiastical 
Affairs  (C.E., XIII— 145)  is  charged  with  the  formation 
or  division  of  dioceses  and  the  filling  of  vacant  sees, 
when  civil  governments  have  to  be  consulted  on  these 
matters;  it  deals,  moreover,  with  affairs  entrusted 
to  its  examination  by  the  pope  through  the  cardinal 
secretary  of  State,  when  foreign  civil  law  or  papal 
concordats  are  involved. 

On  4  November,  1915,  the  Congregation  of  Semi¬ 
naries  and  of  Universities  of  Studies  was  formed  to 
have  jurisdiction  over  everything  pertaining  to  semi¬ 
naries,  which  previously  had  been  controlled  by  the 
Congregation  of  the  Consistory;  it  supervises  the 
government  and  course  of  studies  in  Catholic  faculties 
or  universities,  including  those  directed  by  religious; 
it  grants  permission  to  confer  academic  degrees  and 
may  itself  confer  them  on  men  distinguished  for  their 
attainments.  The  cardinal  secretary  of  the  Con¬ 
sistory  is  an  ex-officio  member,  and  the  consistorial 
assessor  an  ex-officio  consultor  of  this  congregation. 
During  a  papal  vacancy  the  sacred  congregations  re¬ 
tain  their  ordinary  powers;  they  may  exercise  these 
freely  in  matters  of  minor  importance;  in  more  serious 
affairs  they  should  await  the  election  of  the  new 
pope,  but  if  the  matter  is  very  urgent  it  may  be 
settled  provisionally  by  the  prefect  and  a  few  of  the 
cardinals  of  the  congregation  to  whom  the  pope  would 
likely  have  entrusted  it.  They  may  not,  however, 
deal  with  matters  which  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
pope  they  cannot  decide  without  consulting  the 
sovereign  pontiff  or  in  virtue  of  special  and  extra¬ 
ordinary  faculties,  which  the  pope  is  accustomed  to 
grant  the  prefects  or  secretaries  of  the  congregations. 


/ 


ROSEAU 


643 


ROUEN 


Roseau  (or  Charlottetown),  Dioce.se  of 
(Rosbnensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 191b),  Island  of 
Dominica,  British  Antilles,  is  suffragan  of  Port-of- 
Spain.  Rt.  Rev.  Philip  Sehelfhaut  having  died  22 
May,  1921,  the  see  is  still  (1922)  vacant.  There  are 
in  the  diocese  17  parishes,  24  churches,  9  chapels, 
19  priests,  39,600  Catholics,  4  convents  for  women, 
3  high  schools  with  13  teachers  and  160  pupils,  6 
elementary  schools  with  24  teachers  and  1200  pupils. 
There  are  charitable  institutions  but  not  under  Catholic 
control.  The  ministry  of  priests  is  admitted  in 
public  institutions.  A  grant  is  given  to  some  of  the 
parochial  schools,  but  the  three  convent  high  schools 
receive  nothing  from  the  Government.  The  “Ec¬ 
clesiastical  Bulletin,”  of  Roseau  (monthly),  and  the 
“Dominica  Chronicle”  (twice  a  week)  are  published 
in  the  diocese.  Mgr.  P.  Sivienne  after  laboring  for 
forty-nine  years  as  secular  priest,  died  in  1912; 
Gustave  S.  Delisle,  a  man  remarkable  for  his  devoted¬ 
ness  to  church  and  religion,  died  in  October,  1918. 
On  1  April,  1917,  the  Danish  Islands  were  transferred 
to  the  United  States.  In  1919  the  Redemptorist 
Fathers  extended  their  mission  work  outside  the 
diocese  of  Roseau  to  St.  Lucia,  Guadeloupe,  and  as 
far  as  Haiti.  There  is  great  enthusiasm  everywhere 
for  the  missions.  During  the  World  War  170  Catholic 
men  enlisted  for  active  service,  of  whom  10  fell  on 
the  battlefield.  The  clergy,  in  co-operation  with  the 
laity ,  endeavored  to  raise  several  thousands  of 
dollars,  which  amount  was  sent  to  the  British  Red 
Cross  especially,  also  to  the  French  and  Belgian  Red 
Cross. 

Rosenau,  Diocese  of.  See  Roznava. 

Ross,  Diocese  of  (Rossensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 
20 Id),  in  Ireland,  includes  a  part  of  Cork  and  is 
suffragan  of  Cashel.  Rt.  Rev.  Denis  Kelly,  consecrat¬ 
ed  9  May,  1897,  still  fills  the  see.  He  resides  at 
Skibbereen.  Diocesan  statistics  for  1920  report 
a  Catholic  population  of  31,801  (1911  Census),  3026 
non-Catholic.  There  are  11  parishes,  28  priests  and 
curates,  22  parochial  and  district  churches,  3  con¬ 
vents,  71  primary  schools  with  6800  pupils.  The 
Societies  of  St.  \incent  de  Paul  are  organized  in  the 
diocese. 

Rottenburg,  Diocese  of  (Rottenburgensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII — 207),  includes  Wurtemburg  and  is  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Frieburg  im  Breisgau.  The  diocese  is  divided 
into  715  parishes,  146  chaplaincies,  19  mission  stations 
and  122  vicariates;  there  are  1158  active  and  102 
pensioned  secular  clergy,  and  771,811  Catholics. 
After  the  abdication  of  the  King  in  1918,  the  bishop 
demanded  the  provisional  government  to  re-admit  the 
Franciscans  at  Weggental,  to  reinstall  the  Redemp- 
torists  in  the  former  house  of  the  Jesuits  on  the 
Schonberg,  near  Ellwangen  and  the  Recollects  in  the 
old  abbey  of  Weingarten.  At  a  meeting  of  the  coun¬ 
cil  of  the  provisional  government,  held  23  Dec., 
1918,  it  was  unanimously  voted  to  permit  the  return 
of  the  religious  orders  of  men  who  had  been  banished 
since  the  Secularization  Act  in  1803.  There  are  now 
in  the  diocese  the  following  orders  of  men:  Benedic¬ 
tines  at  Neresheim,  16  priests,  16  Brothers,  8  novices; 
and  branches  of  the  following  orders  who  have  houses 
outside  of  the  diocese:  Franciscans  at  Weggental 
near  Rottenburg,  4  priests,  3  Brothers;  Franciscans 
at  Weingarten,  5  priests,  3  Brothers;  Redemptorists  at 
Schonenberg,  near  Ellwangen,  6  priests,  1  brother; 
Jesuits  at  LTlm,  1  priest;  Jesuits  at  Stuttgart,  2  priests; 
Society  of  the  Divine  Savior  (Salvatorians)  at 
Wurzach,  3  priests;  Oblates  of  the  Immaculate  Con¬ 
ception  at  Aufhofen,  4  priests,  2  Brothers;  scholasticate 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at  Schrez- 
heim,  1  priest,  2  Brothers;  Pallotini  Fathers  at 
Gmund;  Capuchins  at  Laudenbach,  Christian  Broth¬ 


ers  at  Dietenheim.  In  1921  the  following  orders  and 
congregations  of  women  had  establishments  in  the 
diocese;  Congregation  of  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis  at  Bonlanden,  150  Sisters,  2  branch  houses; 
Sisters  of  St.  Francis  from  Heiligenbronn,  228  Sisters, 
3  branch  houses;  School  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  with  a 
mother-house  at  Ravensburg,  50  Sisters  and  a  house 
at  Wurzach,  30  Sisters;  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order 
of  St.  Francis  from  Reute,  1136  Sisters,  182  branches, 
and  at  Siessen  480  sisters,  34  branch  houses;  Sisters 
of  Mercy  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  at  Untermarchtal, 
1680  Sisters  of  Charity,  215  branch  houses;  Con¬ 
gregation  of  the  Salesians  at  Obermarchtal,  16 
Sisters;  branch-house  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Cross  from  Strasburg  in  Donzdorf,  14  sisters;  branch 
house  of  the  Servants  of  the  Most  Sacred  Heart  of 
Jesus  of  Vienna  in  Kirchheim  (16  Sisters),  branch  of 
the  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Holy  Cross  of  Strasburg 
at  Donzdorf  (14  Sisters);  branch  of  the  Servants  of  the 
Most  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  of  Vienna  at  Kirchenheim 
(3  Sisters). 

In  1921  the  diocese  had  the  following  institutions: 
208  day  nurseries,  216  needlework  schools,  8  cooking 
schools,  3  asylums,  4  asylums  for  children,  4  reforma¬ 
tories,  8  homes  for  girls,  3  homes  for  working  girls, 

27  hospitals,  1  home  for  the  aged,  1  institution  for 
the  blind,  2  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb 
3  for  idiots,  3  for  the  insane,  1  for  incurables,  2  for 
epileptics,  4  houses  of  retreat,  4  sanitoriums.  For 
the  priests  the  following  associations  have  been  es¬ 
tablished:  Association  for  the  support  of  sick  priests, 
Marian  Congregation  of  Priests,  Unio  Apostolica, 
Unio  Cleri  pro  missionibus,  Association  for  Priestly 
Perseverance,  Association  of  the  Eucharistic  League. 
The  laity  have  established  the  following  associations: 
95  boys  and  young  Mens’  Associations,  60  Marian 
Congregations  for  young  women,  220  Young  Womens’ 
Sodalities,  45  Journeymen’s  Unions  (Gesellenvereine) 
7  Merchants’  associations,  13  Civil  employees  as¬ 
sociations  164  workingmen’s  associations,  56  working 
women’s  associations,  236  mothers’  associations, 
Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  with  18,600  members. 

During  the  war  110  priests  were  employed  in  caring 
for  the  soldiers  in  the  following  capacities;  32  were 
active  at  the  front,  31  were  stationed  at  sub-head¬ 
quarters  and  in  field  hospitals,  47  were  employed  in 
sanitary  service.  Several  hundred  sisters  of  various 
charitable  orders  were  also  active  in  sanitary  service. 
The  present  incumbent  of  the  diocese  of  Rottenburg 
is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Paul  William  de  Iveppler,  b.  at 
Gmund,  Swabia,  28  Sept.,  1852,  ordained,  2  Aug., 
1875,  professor  of  Exegesis  and  Scripture  at  Tu¬ 
bingen  1883,  and  of  moral  theology  in  1889,  also 
professor  of  moral  theology  at  Freiburg  in  1894, 
elected  bishop  of  Rottenburg  11  Nov.,  1898,  con¬ 
secrated  18  Jan.,  1899,  made  a  prelate  asistant  to  the 
Pontifical  Throne,  28  April,  1918. 

Rouen,  ^  Archdiocese  of  (Rothomagensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII — 208d),  includes  the  Department  of 
Seine-Inferieure,  France.  The  archdiocese  is  gov¬ 
erned  by  Most  Rev.  Andre  du  Bois  de  la  Villerabel, 
who  also  bears  the  title  of  Primate  of  Normandy,  b. 

28  June,  1864,  of  a  very  old  family  of  the  diocese  of 
St.  Brieuc,  ordained  in  1887,  director  of  the  Semaine 
Religieuse  from  1891-1902,  vicar-general  in  1906, 
appointed  Bishop  of  Amiens  1  June,  1915,  conse¬ 
crated  29  July,  promoted  at  the  Consistory  of  16 
December,  1920,  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Rouen,  took 
possession  25  January,  1921,  succeeding  Cardinal 
Louis-Ernest  Dubois,  promoted  to  Paris.  In  March, 
1921,  Mgr.  Villerabel  took  possession  of  the  old 
episcopal  palace  of  his  predecessors.  Statistics  for 
1920  report:  63  curacies,  599  succursal  parishes,  53 
vicariates,  30  vicariate  chapels,  17  communal  chap¬ 
els,  and  2  parish  chapels.  On  16  October,  1921,  took 
place  the  celebration  of  the  erection  of  Notre  Dame 


ROUTHIER 


644 


RUMANIA 


de  Bon-Secours  into  a  minor  basilica,  accorded  by  the 
brief  of  28  March,  1919. 

Routhier,  Adolphe,  Canadian  lawyer,  b.  1839 
at  St.  Placide,  Quebec,  d.  19  June,  1920.  He 
received  the  degrees  of  LL.D.  and  Lit.D.  from  Laval 
University.  He  was  admitted  to  the  Canadian  bar 
1861,  became  Professor  of  International  Law  at 
Laval  University,  Judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of 
Quebec  (1873-1904)  and  Chief  Justice  (1904-6), 
President  of  the  Court  of  Admiralty  for  the  Province 
of  Quebec  from  1904  and  was  knighted  1911.  He  was 
made  Knight  Commander  of  St.  Gregory  by  Pius 
IX  and  a  Grand  Commander  of  St.  Gregory  by  Leo 
XIII.  He  wrote  a  number  of  volumes  in  prose  and 
verse  under  the  pen  name  of  “Jean  Picquefort.” 

Roznava  (or  Rosenau),  Diocese  of  (Rosena- 
viensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 192b),  suffragan  of 
Eger. — The  diocese  suffered  greatly  from  the  ravages 
of  the  war,  and  moreover  was  called  upon  in  1919  to 
fight  against  the  invading  Bolsheviki.  The  schools 
devoted  themselves  to  making  warm  clothing  for  the 
soldiers,  and  various  associations  were  formed  among 
clergy  and  laity  for  tending  the  needy.  The  creation 
of  the  new  republic  of  Czechoslovakia  divided  the 
diocese  into  two  parts — Hungarian  and  Slavonic; 
the  episcopal  see  remains  in  Czechoslovakia  and  19 
parishes  in  Hungary  fall  under  its  administration,  the 
Apostolic  See  having  refused  to  dismember  the  dio¬ 
cese.  Of  special  note  are  the  following  recently 
deceased:  Bishop  Louis  Balas  de  Sipek  (d.  1920), 
who  ably  governed  the  diocese  through  the  crucial 
period  of  the  war;  Rev.  Anthony  Szuszai  (d.  1917), 
pastor  of  Dobsina  and  ecclesiastical  author  of  merit; 
Paul  Vener  and  Martin  Gobi,  cathedral  canons; 
Adalvert  Serenyi  (d.  1919),  minister  of  agriculture  and 
commerce  during  the  war. 

The  statistics  of  1910  give  the  total  population 
of  the  diocese  as  372,914,  divided  as  follows:  Catholics 
204,076;  Greek  Uniats  10,140;  Greek  Orthodox  747; 
Lutherans  100,571;  Calvinists  45,308;  Jews  11,921; 
Unitarians  2;  Baptists  38;  Nazarenes  111.  There  are 
165  secular  and  22  regular  priests;  99  parishes  and  180 
churches;  1  monastic  house  for  men;  3  convents  for 
men  and  4  for  women;  1  seminary;  151  normal  schools 
with  202  teachers  and  14,000  students;  1  asylum  and 
1  orphanage;  4  hospitals;  4  religious  organizations 
among  the  clergy  and  6  among  the  laity;  1  Catholic 
periodical.  The  Government  supports  the  Catholic 
institutions. 

Rumania;  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 224d). — A  monarchy  in 
Southeastern  Europe  which  has  an  area  of  122,282 
square  miles  and  a  population  of  about  8,631,000. 
The  present  state  includes  Moldavia  (14,170  square 
miles),  Grand  Wallachia  (29,810  square  miles), 
Oltenia  and  Dobrudja  (8969  square  miles);  the  depart¬ 
ments  of  Durostor  and  Caliacra  (2969  square  miles) , 
ceded  by  the  Treaty  of  Bucharest  in  1913  ,  Bessarabia 
( 17, 146  square  miles) ,  j oined  in  March ,  1918;  Bukovina 
(4030  square  miles),  joined  in  November,  1918,  and 
Transylvania  (22,312  square  miles)  in  December, 
1918.  The  largest  cities  are  Bucharest,  with  a 
population  in  1917  of  308,987;  Chisinau,  114,100; 
Cernauti,  87,128;  Ismail,  85,600;  Iasi  (Jassy),  76,120; 
Galatz,  73,512;  Timisivara,  72,223;  Braila,  65,911. 
In  1918  there  were  103,072  births,  297,310  deaths, 
57,345  marriages,  and  in  1919,  865  divorces  were 
granted . 

Religion. — Of  the  total  population  of  Rumania 
in  1918,  9,695,714  belonged  to  the  Orthodox  Church; 
1,456,147  were  Greek  Catholics,  1,483,929  were 
Roman  Catholics,  1,344,970  Protestants,  17,596 
Armenians,  834,344  Jews,  and  44,087  Moham¬ 
medans.  The  government  of  the  Orthodox  Church 


rests  with  4  archbishops,  the  first  being  called  the 
Primate  of  Rumania,  the  second,  the  Archbishop  of 
Moldavia;  the  third,  of  Transylvania,  and  the 
fourth  of  Bukovina;  besides  these  there  were  10 
bishops  of  the  National  Church.  Transylvania  has 
a  Greek  Catholic  archbishop  and  3  bishops.  The 
clergy  of  the  National  Orthodox  Church  are  paid  by 
the  State;  those  of  other  denominations,  sub ventioned 
by  the  State.  Religious  liberty  prevails  throughout 
the  country.  The  Catholic  population  is  divided 
among  the  Archdiocese  of  Jassy  and  the  dioceses  of 
Bucharest,  Csanad,  Nagy-Varad,  Transylvania  and 
Szathmar. 

Economics. — In  1921  extensive  agrarian  reforms, 
foundations  of  which  were  laid  in  1917,  were  taken 
in  hand  by  the  government.  It  was  ordered  that 
all  estates  of  500  hectares  in  Rumania  proper,  and 
of  over  100  hectares  in  Bessarabia,  Bukovina,  and 
Transylvania,  should  be  distributed  to  the  peasantry, 
who  were  required  to  pay  65%  of  the  pre-war  value, 
the  State  paying  the  remaining  35%;  time  for  pay¬ 
ment  to  extend  over  a  period  of  45  years.  In  1920  a 
series  of  paralyzing  strikes  culminated  in  an  attempt 
to  overthrow  the  government.  The  scheme  was 
defeated  by  the  Premier,  General  Averescu,  who 
caused  the  arrest  of  all  Socialist  and  Syndicalist 
leaders  who  had  endorsed  the  Third  International. 
By  his  order  all  technical  workers  were  called  to  the 
colors  and  placed  under  military  discipline.  The 
chief  crops  with  their  area  and  production  for  1920 
were:  Wheat,  2,095,890  acres,  630,000  tons;  rye, 
183,675  acres,  52,000  tons;  barley,  1,053,736  acres, 
460,000  tons;  oats,  971,102  acres,  425,000  tons; 
maize,  4,051,494  acres,  1,773,000  tons;  tobacco, 
11,250  acres,  5000  tons.  In  1919  the  imports  were 
valued  at  £143,317,825;  the  exports,  £4,115,647. 
The  revenue  for  1921-22  was  estimated  at  £208,- 
800,000,  and  the  expenditure,  £199,250,035. 

Education. — Education  is  free  and  compulsory, 
as  far  as  possible.  In  1918-19  there  were  5764  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  with  11,088  teachers  and  692,896 
pupils.  The  same  year  educational  institutions  were 
as  follows:  for  boys,  56  lyceums,  13  gymnasiums 
and  7  seminaries,  with  a  total  of  1287  teachers  and 
44,983  pupils;  for  girls,  66  (12  state  and  54  private) 
high  schools  with  1051  teachers  and  9584  pupils; 
12  normal  schools  for  men  and  4  for  women;  75 
professional  schools  for  boys  and  54  for  girls;  25  com¬ 
mercial  schools,  25  agricultural  schools,  and  4 
universities  at  Bucharest,  Cluj  in  Transylvania 
(founded  in  1919),  Iasi  (Jassy),  and  Cernauti  (Czer- 
nowitz)  in  Bukovina,  (founded  in  1920).  In  Tran¬ 
sylvania  extreme  bitterness  resulted  from  a  Govern¬ 
ment  decree  in  1921  requiring  Magyar  children  to 
attend  Rumanian  schools. 

Defence. — Military  service  in  Rumania  is  com¬ 
pulsory  and  universal,  from  the  ages  of  21  to  46. 
The  Rumanian  losses  in  killed  and  missing  during 
the  war  amounted  to  335,706.  In  January,  1921, 
the  approximate  strength  of  the  army  was  250,000 
men.  The  public  debt  of  Rumania  amounted  on 
April  1,  1921,  to  20,311,293,312  lei  (1  lei  =  $.193 
normal  exchange),  of  which  3,733,862,452  lei  con¬ 
stitutes  the  consolidated  debt,  and  121,500,000  lei 
the  floating  debt.  This  is  exclusive  of  the  propor¬ 
tions  of  the  debts  of  Austria-Hungary  and  Russia, 
which  have  been  assumed  by  Rumania,  the  total  of 
which  is  about  10,000,000,000  lei. 

Communications. — Notwithstanding  the  efforts  of 
the  Government,  railway  transportation  at  the  end 
of  1920  was  still  almost  as  impossible  as  in  1914. 
The  bridge  at  Cernavoda  (over  the  Borea)  con¬ 
necting  the  interior  of  the  country  with  Constantza, 
the  only  all-year  port  of  Rumania,  was  not  repaired 
in  1921.  Motor  transport  has  been  attempted  with 
little  success.  The  railway  mileage  in  1920  was 


RUSSIA 


645 


RUSSIA 


7240,  all  worked  by  the  State,  which  also  supervises 
the  navigation  on  the  Danube  and  Black  Sea. 

Government. — In  1920  the  national  Cormals  of 
Transylvania,  Bukovina,  and  Bessarabia,  were  dis¬ 
solved  and  the  entire  state  was  subdivided  into 
departments,  with  prefects  nominated  directly  from 
Bucharest.  In  the  reduction  of  the  number  of 
deputies  in  the  chamber  from  548  to  324  the  Tran¬ 
sylvanians  lost  more  seats  in  proportion  than  the 
old  kingdom,  and  charged  discrimination.  The 
present  ruler  is  Ferdinand  I,  who  succeeded  King 
Carol  on  11  October,  1914. 

World  War. — At  the  outset  of  the  struggle  Ruma¬ 
nia  preserved  a  strict  neutrality,  awaiting  the  out¬ 
come  of  the  struggle  before  she  cast  her  lot  with 
either  party.  In  April,  1916,  when  Teuton  fortunes 
appeared  most  favorable,  the  Rumanian  minister 
at  Berlin  signed  a  convention  with  Germany  pro¬ 
viding  for  free  exchange  of  domestic  products. 
However,  on  16  August,  she  signed  a  secret  treaty 
with  the  Entente,  agreeing  to  break  off  all  economic 
relations  with  Germany,  to  declare  war,  and  to 
begin  an  offensive  in  10  days;  in  return,  the  Allies 
promised  her  military  support  and  Bukovina,  Tran¬ 
sylvania,  and  the  Banat  of  Temesvar.  On  27 
August,  1916,  war  was  declared  on  Austria- 
Hungary.  To  crush  Rumania,  the  German  com¬ 
mander,  Field  Marshal  Paul  von  Hindenburg,  col¬ 
lected  a  composite  Bulgar-Turco-Teutonic  army. 
Meanwhile,  the  Rumanian  General  Staff,  counting 
on  General  Sarrail  in  Macedonia  to  engage  the 
attention  of  Bulgaria  (in  alliance  with  Austria)  ,  and 
upon  Russia’s  promise  to  inaugurate  an  offensive  in 
Bukovina  and  thereby  prevent  the  shifting  of 
Austro-German  troops  from  Poland  and  Galicia, 
threw  the  bulk  of  its  available  forces  into  Transyl¬ 
vania,  with  little  regard  for  the  possibility  of  counter¬ 
attacks.  The  Rumanians  pressed  heavily  on  the 
Wallachian  and  Moldavian  fronts,  and  from  Mol¬ 
davia,  they  swiftly  penetrated  into  eastern  Transyl¬ 
vania.  Passing  into  Wallachia,  they  took  Orsova 
and  marched  to  Mehadia.  In  three  weeks  they 
had  delivered  one-fourth  of  Transylvania  from  Magyar 
rule.  Another  Teutonic  army  under  Field  Marshal 
von  Mackensen  invaded  the  Dobrudja  and  cap¬ 
tured  Constanza  on  22  October,  1916,  in  spite  of 
Russia’s  sending  one  of  her  ablest  generals,  Vladimir 
Sakharov,  with  reinforcements  to  stiffen  the  line. 
In  the  west,  von  Falkenhayn  captured  Vulcan  Pass 
on  25  October,  defeated  the  Rumanians  in  a  bloody 
battle,  and  on  21  November  captured  Craiova,  thus 
winning  one-third  of  Wallachia.  Advancing  down 
the  slopes  of  the  Transylvanian  Alps,  the  Teutons 
marched  into  Rumania  and  on  6  December,  1916, 
von  Mackensen  entered  Bucharest.  By  January, 
1917,  the  Rumanians  had  lost  all  of  Wallachia,  all 
the  Dobrudja,  and  part  of  southern  Moldavia;  their 
king  was  in  Jassy,  and  their  armed  remnants,  sup¬ 
ported  by  the  Russians,  were  at  bay  along  the 
Sereth  River  from  Galatz  westwards.  General  Sar¬ 
rail  attempted  an  offensive,  but  was  driven  back. 
The  collapse  of  Russia  in  1917  completed  Rumania’s 
downfall  and  on  7  March,  1918,  she  signed  the 
Treaty  of  Bucharest  with  Germany,  giving  up  all 
the  Dobrudja,  the  Petroseny  coal  basin,  and  the 
Carpathian  passes.  Subsequently  the  Central  Em¬ 
pires  consented  to  the  incorporation  of  Bessarabia 
into  Rumania,  which  had  been  voted  by  a  Bessara¬ 
bian  Council  on  27  March,  1918.  After  the  collapse 
of  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy  in  1918  the 
Rumanians  ousted  the  pro-German  Marghilonian 
Ministry.  Following  a  short  military  administra¬ 
tion  under  General  Coanda,  parliament  was  dissolved 
and  a  new  election  held.  The  new  Government 
immediately  declared  for  the  incorporation  within 
the  kingdom  of  the  Rumania-speaking  parts  of 


Transylvania,  Hungary  (Banat),  Bukovina  and 
Bessarabia.  On  1  December,  1918,  the  National 
Assembly  of  Transylvania  voted  to  unite  with 
Rumania  on  the  basis  of  universal  manhood  suf¬ 
frage,  liberty  of  language,  religious  and  civil  reforms. 
During  1919  a  continuous  warfare  was  waged  with 
Soviet  Russia  and  Bolshevist  Hungary.  By  royal 
decree  on  28  May,  1919,  all  Jews  of  Rumania  were 
emancipated  and  given  every  right  of  citizenship. 

The  arrangement  of  her  Western  boundary  was 
unsatisfactory  to  Rumania,  and,  in  the  summer  of 
1919,  she  sent  troops  to  the  river  Theiss  to  establish 
boundaries  in  keeping  with  her  national  aspirations. 
So  successful  was  this  little  invasion  that  the  troops 
advanced  beyond  the  river  and  on  4  August,  1919, 
occupied  Bucharest,  contrary  to  the  explicit  orders 
of  the  Peace  Conference,  and  demanded  the  reduc¬ 
tion  of  Hungary’s  army  and  the  surrender  of  part 
of  her  supplies;  Bessarabia  was  annexed.  Repeated 
warnings  of  the  Supreme  Council  forced  Rumania 
to  sign  the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain  in  December, 
1919,  and  to  withdraw  her  troops  from  Hungary 
in  February,  1920.  On  28  October,  1920,  Rumania, 
Britain,  France,  Italy  and  Japan  signed  a  treaty 
giving  Bessarabia  to  Rumania,  the  permission  of 
Russia  being  considered  unnecessary.  Rumania 
joined  the  “Little  Entente,”  a  defensive  alliance 
entered  into  by  Czechoslovakia  and  Jugoslavia,  on 
14  August,  1920.  Each  country  pledged  itself  to 
support  the  others  in  case  of  unprovoked  attack  by 
Hungary.  Rumania,  however,  stipulated  that  Ad¬ 
riatic  questions  should  not  concern  the  alliance. 
Under  the  -inspiration  and  guidance  of  France,  a 
formal  “defensive”  alliance  against  Soviet  Russia 
was  entered  into  by  Rumania,  Poland,  and  Hungary 
on  2  March,  1921. 

Russia  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 231d),  Soviet  republic, 
has  an  area  of  about  1,867,737  square  miles  (excluding 
Poland  and  Finland,  but  including  the  new  States. 
A  census  taken  throughout  the  territories  of  the 
Russian  Soviet  Republic  on  20  August,  1920,  showed 
a  population  of  136,000,000  of  whom  47  per  cent  were 
males  and  53  per  cent  were  females.  About  22 
millions  (16.2  per  cent)  were  settled  in  cities  and 
towns. 

Religion. — The  Soviet  Government  disestablished 
the  Church  and  declared  for  freedom  of  worship. 
The  prevailing  religion  is  Greek  Orthodox.  In  1922 
the  Soviet  Government  decreed  the  confiscation  of  all 
Church  property,  and  ordered  the  arrest  of  any 
Orthodox  Church  officials  who  resisted,  as  it  was  felt 
that  the  wealth  of  the  Russian  Church,  hidden  in 
monasteries  and  churches,  was  sufficient  to  feed 
thousands  of  starving  Russian  peasants.  The 
Catholics  are  in  a  majority  in  the  former  Polish  pro¬ 
vinces,  the  Mohammedans  are  scattered  throughout 
Eastern  and  Southern  Russia,  while  the  Jews  are 
settled  in  the  towns  of  the  western  and  southwestern 
provinces.  Before  the  Revolution,  Russia  was 
divided  into  66  bishoprics,  under  3  metropolitans,  14 
archbishops,  and  50  bishops,  and  the  management  of 
the  Church  was  in  the  hands  of  62  consistoria. 

Agriculture.— Up  to  1905  the  Russian  peasant 
had  no  political  significance,  although  he  constituted 
87  per  cent  of  the  population  and  his  labors  produced 
43  per  cent  of  the  world’s  corn  supply.  The  war  took 
away  many  of  the  peasants,  and  brought  the  mobilized 
peasantry  for  the  first  time  in  contact  with  the  indus¬ 
trial  workers.  In  1917  the  peasants  sided  with  the 
revolutionists  almost  to  a  man.  After  the  inaugura¬ 
tion  of  the  Soviet  regime,  the  decree  went  forth  that 
“the  private  possession  of  land,  of  natural  wealth, 
waters  and  forces  of  nature”  was  abolished,  and  that 
these  were  handed  over  to  the  working  classes.  The 
land  properties  were  immediately  divided  up  and 


RUSSIA 


646 


RUSSIA 


handed  over  to  the  peasants.  The  unequal  division 
of  some  estates  caused  local  committees  to  be  estab¬ 
lished  to  divide  an  estate  in  mathematical  proportion 
to  the  number  of  souls  on  it.  So  great  was  the  dis¬ 
trust  of  the  system  which  caused  large  quantities  of 
land  to  be  uncultivated  in  thinly-populated  districts 
and  intensely  cultivated  in  thickly  populated  dis¬ 
tricts,  that  in  1920  the  Government  forbade  any  re¬ 
partition  of  the  land  for  twelve  jrears  and  abolished 
the  Committees.  The  State  proclaimed  also  a  monop¬ 
oly  of  wheat,  paying  for  it  in  worthless  paper  and  in 
promises  of  manufactured  goods  and  agricultural 
implements  which  it  could  not  fulfill.  The  lack  of 
initiative  on  the  part  of  the  peasants  resulted  in  the 
decrease  of  18  per  cent  in  the  total  quantities  of  land 
cultivated  in  1918,  as  compared  with  1916. 

Economics. — The  principal  industries  are  nation¬ 
alized,  and  are  concentrated  under  the  various  depart¬ 
ments  of  the  Supreme  Economic  Council.  Organized 
labor  in  Russia  is  by  no  means  overwhelmingly  Bol¬ 
shevik,  as  many  of  the  trade  unions  are  Social  Revo¬ 
lutionaries  and  Anarchists,  or  belong  to  the  Menshe¬ 
viks,  or  minority  faction  of  the  Marxists.  Owing  to 
the  enormous  depreciation  of  the  ruble,  due  to  colossal 
emissions  of  paper  money,  payment  is  generally  being 
made  in  kind.  Industrial  production  has  depreciated 
greatly;  the  production  of  the  coal  mines  in  1920  being 
only  20  per  cent,  of  their  normal  pre-war  output;  of 
cast-iron  2  per  cent.;  textiles  5  per  cent.;  paper  21  per 
cent;  sugar  6  per  cent.  In  the  Ural  the  mines  yielded 
only  half  of  their  pre-war  output.  The  sole  cause  of 
this  deplorable  state  of  affairs  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Communist  Government,  which  balks  at  every  turn, 
the  activities  of  labor  and  has  brought  the  country  to 
ruin.  The  membership  of  the  Russian  labor  unions  in 
January,  1921,  aggregated  6,970,000,  of  whom  30 
per  cent,  were  specialists,  7  per  cent,  were  clerical 
workers,  and  63  per  cent,  manual  workers.  The 
struggle  between  the  labor  unions  and  the  Soviets  for 
supremacy  was  so  grave  that  in  March,  1921,  it  was 
announced  that  the  purely  communistic  state  was  an 
impossibility  and  that  for  the  sake  of  economic  devel¬ 
opment  Russia  must  compromise  with  the  capitalistic 
bourgeoisie .  More  concessions  were  made  at  the  same 
time  to  which  the  more  radical  Communists  objected. 
These  included  more  freedom  in  exchange  of  goods, 
abandonment  of  compulsory  requisitioning  of  farm 
produce,  more  liberty  for  private  initiative,  and  lastly 
greater  freedom  for  co-operative  societies.  There  is 
hardly  any  faith  in  the  Soviet  Government’s  ability  to 
pay  its  financial  obligations.  In  February,  1918,  the 
Soviets  repudiated  all  the  debts  of  Russia  contracted 
up  to  1917,  confiscated  the  banks,  and  maritime  enter¬ 
prises,  and  on  23  April,  nationalized  foreign  trade. 
The  French,  who  had  loaned  the  State  about  1,300,- 
000,000  rubles,  were  for  that  reason  reluctant  to 
recognize  the  present  Government  of  Russia.  In  1920 
French  credit  in  Russia  was  about  13,540,000,000 


rubles.  The  total  indebtedness  of  Russia  on  1  Sep¬ 
tember,  1917,  amounted  to  32,300  million  rubles, 
made  up  as  follows:  pre-war  debt  8800  million  rubles; 
seven  internal  war  loans  10,500  million  rubles;  loans 
contracted  abroad  8000  million  rubles;  short-dated 
loans  5000  million  rubles.  At  the  Economic  Confer¬ 
ence  at  Genoa  there  were  negotiations  on  the  part  of 
Russia  for  a  loan  of  three  billion  gold  rubles  to  be  used 
for  the  reconstruction  of  the  country.  In  October, 
1917,  the  railway  mileage  was  34,000,  but  at  present 
the  railroads  are  operating  at  7  per  cent  of  their  former 
capacity.  After  three  years  in  which  there  was 
hardly  any  foreign  trade,  due  to  the  allied  boycott  of 
Russia,  it  picked  up  again  in  1920,  following  the  peace 
with  Esthonia,  where  most  of  Russia’s  port  outlets  are 
situated.  A  trade  agreement  between  the  British 
Government  and  Soviet  Russia  was  signed  on  16 
March,  1921. 

Education. — The  highest  educational  authority  is 
centered  in  the  Commissariat  for  Education  which  has 
jurisdiction  even  over  the  art  schools,  theatres,  labor 
schools,  music,  and  libraries.  The  unified  labor  school 
has  been  introduced  by  the  Soviets  to  replace  the 
various  types  of  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools 
of  the  pre-revolutionary  period.  Education  is  com¬ 
pulsory  and  free;  children  are  provided  with  lunches 
and  necessary  books.  In  1919  there  were  in  the  Soviet 
republic,  63,317  schools  and  4,796,284  pupils.  All 
the  schools  have  been  secularized.  New  universities 
have  been  established  at  Jarolslav,  Smolensk,  Kos¬ 
troma,  Tambov,  Astrakhan,  Tashkent,  Samara, 
Simbirsk,  Orel,  Ekaterinburg,  Ekaterinodar,  and 
Veliki  Ustivig.  The  number  of  students,  which  was 
117,000  in  1919,  has  risen  to  120,000  (1920).  In 
1921  there  were  3,758  technical  schools  with  298,263 
students.  In  1919  the  education  budget  was  17,244, 
million  rubles;  in  1920,  100,049  million  rubles. 

Government. — The  Russian  republic  is  a  Federal 
Socialist  community  Government  under  the  constitu¬ 
tion  of  19  July,  1918,  adopted  in  the  fifth  All-Russian 
Soviet  Congress.  All  central  and  local  authority  is 
vested  in  Soviets  of  workers,  soldiers,  and  peasants; 
all  private  property  is  abolished,  all  mines,  factories, 
and  means  of  production  belong  to  the  State.  There 
is  compulsory  military  service,  freedom  of  conscience, 
and  universal  obligation  to  labor.  The  centre  and 
source  of  executive  power  is  the  All-Russian  Congress 
of  Soviets,  consisting  of  representatives  from  the 
town  Soviets  on  the  basis  of  one  for  every  25,000  elec¬ 
tors,  and  from  provisional  congresses  on  the  basis  of 
one  for  every  125,000  inhabitants.  The  executive 
authority  is  entrusted  to  the  All-Russian  Central 
Executive  Committee  of  not  more  than  200  members , 
elected  by  Congress.  This  is  called  the  Council  of 
the  People’s  Commissioners  and  at  present  has  18 
members.  The  government  was  removed  on  14 
March,  1918,  from  Petrograd  to  Moscow.  (See 
Bolshevism;  Soviet.) 


Sabadel,  Armand  (well-known  as  Pere  Pie  de 
Langogne),  theologian  and  canonist,  b.  at  Langogne, 
France,  on  16  November,  1850;  d.  at  Rome  on  4  May, 
1914.  He  entered  the  Capuchin  order  in  1873,  was 
ordained  two  years  later,  and,  after  teaching  theology 
at  Crest,  was  called  to  Rome  as  secretary  to  the 
definitor-general  of  his  order.  In  that  position  he 
revealed  himself  as  a  theologian  and  canonist  of  high 
rank.  His  ability  was  recognized,  and  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  successively  by  the  Holy  See  consultor  to  five 
of  the  more  important  congregations.  He  was  intru- 
mental  in  bringing  about  some  of  the  reforms  in  the 
marriage  procedure  included  in  the  decree  “Ne 
Temere.”  He  was  named  titular  Bishop  of  Corinth 
in  191 1 ,  and  died  just  as  Pius  X  was  about  to  raise  him 
to  the  cardinalate.  He  was  a  favorite  director  of 
many  of  the  leading  Catholic  laity  in  Rome.  He  is 
the  author  of  lives  of  Blessed  Crispin  of  Viterbo  (Paris, 
1899)  and  Venerable  Philomene  de  Sainte-Colombe 
(Paris,  1893);  he  succeeded  Mgr.  Chaillot  as  editor 
of  the  “Analecta,”  and  published  the  “Diurnal  de 
Marie,”  a  collection  of  olden  hymns  and  poems  in 
honor  of  Our  Lady. 

Sabina,  Diocese  of  (Sabinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 290d),  a  suburbicarian  see  in  Italy,  with  the 
perpetual  title  of  Abbot  of  Farfa.  The  chapter  and 
clergy  of  St.  Blaise  and  St.  Giles  at  Palombara,  Sabina, 
were  given  new  laws  by  consistorial  decree  of  3  Febru¬ 
ary,  1918.  The  present  bishop  is  Cardinal  Gaetano 
de  Lai,  b.  1853,  ordained  1876,  created  cardinal 
deacon  1907,  chose  the  suburbicarian  see  of  Sabina 
27  November,  1911,  consecrated  by  Pius  X  at  the 
Vatican  17  December,  and  enthroned  31  December 
following.  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio  Nicozzi,  titular  Bishop 
of  Caesarea  Philippi,  is  auxiliary  bishop  of  Sabina. 
The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  54,200. 
There  are  35  parishes,  56  secular  priests,  52  regular 
priests,  27  seminarians,  72  churches  and  chapels. 

Sabotage,  a  term  derived  from  the  French  word 
sabot,  meaning  foot-wear  carved  out  of  wooden  blocks, 
Spanish  zapato.  This  kind  of  foot-wear  is  used  in 
some  French  rural  districts.  The  root  of  the  French 
word  sabot  is  probably  derived  from  the  Iberian  dialect. 
The  term  sabotage  has  different  meanings  but  common¬ 
ly  it  signifies  a  dishonest  act  committed  by  a  workman 
while  performing  his  work  for  the  purpose  of  injuring 
the  interests  of  his  employer,  in  which  sense  the  word 
is  frequently  used  in  French  Syndicalist  literature. 
The  use  of  the  term  in  its  present  sense  may  be  ex¬ 
plained  by  the  alleged  fact  that  at  the  time  of  the  in¬ 
troduction  of  mechanical  processes  into  industry,  the 
workers,  disappointed  with  the  installation  of  ma¬ 
chines,  which  decreased  the  number  of  workers  em¬ 
ployed,  threw  their  sabots  into  the  wheels,  thus 
causing  the  stoppage  of  the  work  and  the  destruction 
of  the  machines.  In  our  day,  the  word  sabotage  is 
widely  used  in  official  decrees  of  the  Soviets  in  Russia. 
Its  meaning  implies  opposition  to  or  interference  with 
orders  issued  by  the  Bolshevik  authorities.  The 
first  public  document  in  which  the  word  sabotage  was 
officially  used  by  the  Soviets  dates  back  to  8  December 
1917,  when  the  notorious  “Decree  for  Combating  the 
Bourgeoisie  and  their  Agents,  as  well  as  those  who 


are  Engaged  in  Sabotage  of  the  supply  of  the  army,” 
was  issued.  On  this  date  another  decree,  No.  30, 
was  issued  pertaining  to  the  measures  for  “Combat¬ 
ing  the  sabotage  among  the  employes  of  higher  rank 
in  postal  and  telegraph  institutions.”  Therein  the 
same  term  is  used  in  connection  with  organized  oppo¬ 
sition  to  the  wealth-owning  classes  in  general.  The 
decree  urges  the  combating  of  “ sabotage  of  the  bour¬ 
geois  coalition,”  and  it  suggests  to  the  workers  that 
they  themselves  get  rid  of  “every  kind  of  sabotage  of 
the  people’s  power.”  Later  the  term  sabotage  has 
been  found  repeatedly  in  the  Soviet  press. 

In  practice  the  term  sabotage  is  applied  in  Soviet 
Russia  to  any  kind  of  opposition  to  the  Soviet  au¬ 
thorities.  Thus,  the  stoppage  of  work  in  industrial 
concerns  for  improving  the  living  conditions  of  the 
workers  is  classed  as  sabotage.  The  same  term  is 
used  for  describing  desertions  from  the  Red  Army. 
The  full  title  of  the  “Cheka”  is  “Extraordinary  Com¬ 
mittee  for  Combating  Counter-revolution,  Specula¬ 
tion  and  Sabotage.”  The  penalty  for  sabotage  varies 
from  imprisonment  for  short  terms  to  capital  punish¬ 
ment.  The  term  sabotage  is  frequently  applied  by 
the  Bolsheviki  to  the  passive  resistance  of  the  peasants 
to  the  Soviets,  especially  as  regards  their  refusal  to 
grow  more  wheat  than  they  need  for  themselves;  also 
in  connection  with  the  marked  tendency  of  the 
peasants  to  decrease  the  area  of  land  under  cul¬ 
tivation.  Thousands  of  Russians  have  been  shot  on 
the  charge  of  sabotage,  which,  in  many  instances,  is 
used  as  a  synonym  for  the  word  “counter-revolution.” 

Boris  Brasol. 

Sacramentals  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 292d)  are 
things  or  actions  made  use  of_by  the  Church  after 
the  manne^  of  the  sacraments  to  obtain  spiritual 
blessings,  especially  through  the  prayers  of  the 
Church,  which  alone  has  power  to  constitute,  in¬ 
terpret,  change  or  abolish  them.  The  only  legitimate 
minister  of  the  sacramentals  is  a  cleric  authorized 
for  that  purpose;  however,  the  term  sacramental  is 
sometimes  loosely  used  to  include  holy  water  and  the 
like,  which  may  be  used  by  tjie  laity  themselves. 
No  one  but  a  bishop  can  consecrate  unless  he  is 
authorized  by  canon  law  or  by  an  Apostolic  indult. 
A  priest  can  give  any  blessing,  however,  except 
those  expressly  reserved  to  bishops  or  others;  if  he 
gave  a  reserved  blessing  it  would  ordinarily  be  valid 
but  unlawful.  Deacons  and  lectors  can  give  only  the 
blessings  specified  in  the  law.  If  a  minister  neglects 
to  employ  the  formula  prescribed  by  the  Church  for 
blessings  of  consecrations  they  are  invalid.  Though 
blessings  are  intended  specially  for  Catholics,  they 
may  be  given  to  catechumens,  and,  if  the  Church  has 
not  forbidden  it,  to  non-Catholics  also,  in  order  that 
they  may  obtain  the  light  of  faith  or  even  health 
along  with  faith.  A  cleric  under  personal  interdict 
may  not  administer  the  sacramentals,  nor,  as  a  rule, 
may  he  if  excommunicated,  though  sometimes  this 
is  allowed  if  he  is  requested  by  the  faithful  when  no 
other  priest  is  available.  Finally  the  sacramentals 
may  not  be  used  by  excommunicates  vitandi  or 
tolerated  excommunicates  after  condemnatory  or 
declaratory  sentence. 


647 


SACRAMENTO 


648 


SACRED  HEART 


Sacramento,  Diocese  of  (Sacramentensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII — 294a),  comprises  territory  in  the  States 
of  California  and  Nevada,  suffragan  of  San  Francisco. 
The  Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  includes: 
22,000  Americans,  15,000  Italians,  5000  Portuguese, 
4000  Germans,  3000  Slavs,  3000  Irish,  1000  Mexicans, 
500  Syrians  and  Armenians,  500  Spaniards,  and 
2500  others.  During  the  World  War  2500  young  men 
joined  the  colors,  and  two  priests  were  chaplains. 
The  Catholic  societies  took  active  part  in  the  Liberty 
Bond  drives,  Red  Cross  work,  etc.  The  late  bishop, 
Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  Grace,  celebrated  his  episcopal 
silver  jubilee  16  June,  1921.  He  died  27  December, 
1921,  and  at  present  the  diocese  is  in  care  of  the 
auxiliary  Bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Patrick  J.  Keane,  who 
was  elected  vicar  capitular  by  the  diocesan  council. 
Bishop  Keane  was  born  6  January,  1872,  in  Co. 
Kerry,  Ireland,  educated  in  St.  Patrick’s  College, 
Carlow,  Ireland,  and  the  Catholic  University, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  where  he  was  ordained  priest 
20  June,  1895.  He  was  consecrated  auxiliary 
Bishop  of  Sacramento  14  December,  1920. 

Statistics  for  the  diocese  for  1922  give:  50  parishes, 
107  churches,  57  missions,  43  stations,  73  secular 
priests,  4  regular  priests,  9  lay  brothers,  254  Sisters, 
1  college  for  men  with  9  teachers  and  210  students, 
1  high  school  with  an  attendance  of  200  boys,  7 
academies  with  an  attendance  of  650  girls,  11  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  with  an  attendance  of  1600,  1  home, 
1  asylum,  4  hospitals,  and  1  day  nursery.  Rev.  J. 
Cunha  is  pastor  of  the  church  for  Indians  at  Mason, 
Nevada.  All  county  hospitals  admit  the  ministry 
of  priests.  Organizations  among  the  clergy  are  the 
Priests’  Eucharistic  League  and  the  Diocesan  Aid 
Society;  among  the  laity,  the  Knights  of  Columbus, 
Young  Men’s  Institute,  and  National  Catholic 
Councils  for  Men  and  Women.  The  “Catholic 
Herald,”  published  in  Sacramento,  is  the  official 
organ  of  the  diocese. 

Sacred  Heart,  Brothers  of  the  (cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 305b). — In  1912,  the  Province  of  Canada  had 
acquired  such  an  extension,  that  the  General  Coun¬ 
cil  of  the  Congregation  deemed  advisable  to  divide 
it  into  two  provinces:  the  Province  of  Arthabaska, 
P.Q.,  and  that  of  Montreal.  The  former  has  its 
postulate,  novitiate,  and  scholasticate  at  Arthabaska, 
and  the  latter  at  St.  Hyacinth,  P.Q.  To  the  Pro¬ 
vince  of  Montreal  are  attached  four  houses  established 
in  French-Canadian  parishes  of  New  England.  The 
constitutions  of  the  congregation  were  approved  by 
the  Holy  See  in  1914.  A  general  chapter  held  in  1919, 
at  Renteria,  Spain,  re-elected  Brother  Alberic  as 
superior  general  for  a  third  term  of  six  years.  In 
1921  the  Brothers  celebrated  the  centenary  of  the 
foundation  of  their  order.  The  congregation  num¬ 
bers  at  present  (1921)  1260  Brothers  and  350  pos¬ 
tulants  and  novices,  137  colleges  and  schools,  of 
which  68  are  in  Europe  and  69  in  America,  with  a 
total  of  30,000  pupils  from  40  dioceses;  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  there  are  18,000  pupils  under  the 
instruction  of  650  Brothers.  The  congregation  is 
divided  into  7  provinces,  with  the  mother-house  at 
Renteria  (Guipuzcoa),  Spain.  Like  all  religious 
orders  in  France,  the  Brothers  furnished  their  con¬ 
tingent  in  defense  of  their  country  during  the  World 
War.  Of  the  121  religious  mobilized,  22  were  killed, 
12  wounded,  and  33  cited.  The  congregation  has  a 
total  of  800  deceased  members. 

Sacred  Heart,  College  of  the,  Manhattan ville, 
New  York  City,  was  established  by  provisional 
charter  on  1  March,  1917,  and  given  the  right  to 
issue  the  usual  academic  degrees.  Their  charter  was 
made  absolute  on  29  May,  1919.  The  college  is 
under  the  direction  of  the  Religious  of  the  Sacred 


Heart  who  established  the  Academy  of  Manhattan- 
ville  in  1847,  which  they  still  conduct  in  connection 
with  the  college.  The  college  buildings  include  a  well- 
equipped  museum,  gymnasium,  laboratories  and 
library.  The  college  is  governed  by  11  trustees  and  a 
faculty  of  18. 

Sacred  Heart,  Mission  Helpers  of  the  (cf.  C. 
E.,  VIII — 55a). — The  mother-house  of  this  institute 
is  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  and  there  are  branch  houses  in 
Irvington,  Md.;  Trenton,  N.  J.;  New  York,  N.  Y., 
and  Pittsburg,  Pa.  There  are  92  Sisters,  13  novices, 
and  13  postulants. 

Sacred  Heart,  Sons  of  the  (Institute  of  Verona), 
an  institute  founded  in  1867  at  Verona  by  Mgr. 
Daniel  Comboni  as  a  society  of  secular  priests  for  the 
African  missions.  In  1885  the  society  became  a 
religious  congregation,  and  its  members  were  named 
Sons  of  the  Sacred  Heart.  They  were  under  the 
direction  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers  until  1900,  when  a 
member  of  the  new  congregation  was  elected  superior 
general.  The  congregation  has  been  finally  approved 
by  the  Holy  See.  At  present  this  institute,  besides 
small  residences  in  Italy,  has  the  mother-house  at 
Verona  for  students  of  theology  and  philosophy,  the 
novitiate  at  Venegono  near  Milan,  and  an  apostolic 
school  at  Brescia.  A  novitiate  for  German  speaking 
members  is  at  Brixen  (Tyrol)  and  a  house  at  Gratz 
(Austria).  The  field  for  the  mission  work  of  the 
institute  is  the  whole  of  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan 
and  the  northern  part  of  the  Uganda  Protectorate. 
At  present  there  are  two  vicariates  apostolic,  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Khartoum  and  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  Bahr-el-Ghazel  and  Uganda,  with  more 
than  20  residences  of  missionaries.  Priests  of  this 
congregation  are  also  at  Cairo,  Helouan,  and  Assuan 
in  Egypt. 

Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  Missionary  Sisters  of 
the  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII-305d). — This  congregation, 
with  mother-house  at  Rome,  received  the  decree  of 
praise  from  the  Holy  See,  17  July,  1921.  The  Sisters 
conduct  homes  for  the  aged  and  the  sick,  orphanages, 
industrial  schools,  academies,  sewing  classes;  they 
visit  hospitals  and  prisons  and  give  religious  instruc¬ 
tion  in  their  convents,  which  are  open  to  women 
desirous  of  making  retreats.  The  present  superior 
general  is  Mother  Antoinette  Della  Casa,  who  suc¬ 
ceeded  Mother  Frances  Xavier  Cabrini  (d.  22  Dec., 
1917).  The  Sisters  came  to  America  in  1889,  and 
have  convents  in  the  archdioceses  of  New  York, 
New  Orleans,  Chicago,  and  Philadelphia,  and  the 
dioceses  of  Brooklyn,  Denver,  Los  Angeles,  Newark, 
Scranton,  Seattle,  and  Nicaragua.  Among  new 
foundations  are:  the  Sacred  Heart  School  at  Dobbs 
Ferry,  N.  Y.,  overlooking  the  Hudson;  a  home  for 
young  girls,  with  accommodations  for  private  boarding 
pupils;  an  orphanage  in  Philadelphia;  “Mother 
Cabrini  Memorial,”  one  of  the  best  educational 
institutions  in  Denver;  “Mother  Cabrini  Pro- 
ventorium”  at  Burbank,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.;  Columbus 
Sanitarium,  Seattle,  Wash.;  Columbus  Hospital 
Extension,  Chicago,  Ill.;  Columbus  Hospital  Ex¬ 
tension,  New  York,  formerly  the  St.  Lawrence 
Hospital  at  West  163d  Street.  At  the  present  time 
the  Sisters  have  in  the  United  States  alone,  500 
sisters,  8  orphanages,  many  parochial  schools  in 
various  States,  day  nurseries,  5  hospitals  with  train¬ 
ing  schools  for  nurses,  and  a  dispensary. 

Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  Priests  of  the  (Bethar- 
ramites)  . — Betharram,  situated  in  the  Diocese  of 
Bayonne,  only  twelve  miles  from  Lourdes,  is  a  very 
old  pilgrimage,  the  history  of  the  origin  of  which  is 
partly  legendary.  Before  the  apparition  of  Our 
Lady  in  the  famous  grotto,  Betharram  was  by  far 


SACRED  HEART 


649 


SACRED  HEARTS 


the  best  known  and  most  frequented  of  the  miraculous 
shrines  of  the  Pyrenees.  Some  regular  priests  were 
for  centuries  the  chaplains  of  the  church.  This 
church  and  the  monastery  were  closed  and  partly 
destroyed  during  the  French  Revolution.  Fr. 
Garieoits,  born  in  the  Basque  country,  15  April, 
1797,  was  sent  to  Betharram  as  professor  in  the 
school  which  had  been  opened  in  the  old  monastery 
in  1812.  The  school  was  closed  in  1832  and  Fr. 
Garieoits  remained  at  Betharram  as  chaplain.  It  was 
in  this  year  that  he  associated  himself  with  some 
priests  and  began  to  preach  to  the  surrounding 
populations  which,  during  these  stormy  times,  had 
grown  up  in  total  ignorance  of  religion.  ‘  The  number 
of  these  priests  soon  increased  and  they  became  the 
first  members  of  the  new  congregation.  The  religious 
teaching  of  youth  was  as  urgent  as  the  missions  to  the 
old,  and  a  first  college  was  opened  near  the  shrine. 
Fr.  Garieoits  thus  became  the  founder  of  a  preaching 
and  teaching  congregation.  Many  colleges  were 
built  by  them  or  passed  into  their  hands,  and  some 
of  the  priests  went  to  the  Argentine,  where  there  was 
a  great  Basque  population.  Fr.  Garieoits  died  14 
May,  1863,  renowned  for  his  sanctity.  Since  his 
death  his  tomb  has  been  venerated  and  many  miracles 
induced  the  Bishop  of  Bayonne  to  investigate  these 
facts  and  begin  the  process  of  canonization.  The 
cause  was  introduced  at  Rome,  15  May,  1899,  and 
the  heroicity  of  his  virtues  was  declared  28  Nov., 
1916.  The  Congregation  received  the  decree  of 
praise,  30  July,  1875,  and  final  approbation  5  Sept., 
1877.  The  constitutions  were  approved  provisionally 
28  April,  1890,  and  definitively  6  Sept.,  1901.  The 
congregation  has  increased  in  members  and  extended 
the  works  of  preaching  and  teaching.  The  persecu¬ 
tion  of  late*years  has  obliged  them  to  close  many  of 
the  colleges  in  France,  but  others  have  been  opened 
in  South  America:  in  Buenos  Aires,  Rosario,  La 
Plata,  Montevideo,  Asuncion.  The  missions  of  the 
Yun-nan  have  been  lately  transferred  to  the  Priests 
of  the  Sacred  Heart.  They  have  in  Spain  a  house  of 
studies  for  the  young  members,  another  at  Bethlehem 
(Palestine),  where  they  were  called  in  1877  as  chap¬ 
lains  to  the  Carmelite  nuns,  and  another  at  Nazareth. 

Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  Priests  of  the  (of  St. 
Quentin),  a  congregation  of  priests  founded  in  1877 
at  St.  Quentin  (France)  by  Canon  Leo  Dehon,  their 
first  and  present  superior  general.  They  received  the 
decree  of  praise  25  February,  1885,  and  definitive 
approbation  4  July,  1906.  There  are  now  over  500 
members,  with  4  novitiates  for  various  nationalities. 
The  special  object  of  the  congregation  is  to  offer  to 
the  Sacred  Heart  a  worship  of  love  and  atonement, 
by  lives  of  zeal  and  piety.  The  works  of  zeal  are: 
the  education  of  youth,  preaching,  missions,  and  the 
evangelization  of  native  populations  of  Africa  and 
America. 

The  congregation  has  4  provinces  (French  Belgian, 
German,  Dutch  and  Italian),  and  numbers  aljout 
18  large  and  20  small  establishments  in  the  European 
countries.  There  are  304  priests,  155  seminarians, 
124  lay  brothers  and  73  novices.  At  present  the 
priests  have  seven  missions:  two  in  Africa,  at  Stanley 
Falls  (Congo)  and  Adamaua  (Kamerun);  three  in 
America,  in  the  north  and  south  of  Brazil  and  in 
Canada;  one  in  London;  and  one  in  Finland.  New 
mission  work  will  be  taken  up  very  soon  in  the 
Dutch  colony  of  Celebes,  Asia,  and  in  the  near  future 
also  in  the  United  States.  The  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  Stanley  Falls  was  erected  in  1908,  having  been 
established  as  a  mission  by  the  Priests  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  in  1897,  and  erected  into  a  prefecture  apostolic 
in  1904.  The  congregation  has  eleven  mission  posts 
within  the  vicariate:  St.  Gabriel  Falls,  two  at  Stanley¬ 
ville,  Ponthierville,  Lokandu,  Beni,  Bafwalaka, 


Avakubi,  Banalya,  Basoko,  Yanonge.  The  Pre¬ 
fecture  Apostolic  of  Adamaua,  erected  28  Apm, 
1914,  had  been  confided  as  a  mission  to  the  Priests 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  in  1912,  was  interrupted  in  1915 
and  taken  up  again  in  1920.  There  are  4  mission 
stations  in  the  prefecture,  with  the  usual  works 
attached.  More  than  20  members  of  the  congrega¬ 
tion  labor  in  the  Diocese  of  Santa  Caterina  in  the 
southern  part  of  Brazil;  4  priests  are  in  the  dioceses 
of  Olinda  and  Recife  Maceio  in  northern  Brazil;  while 
7  other  priests  conduct  the  diocesan  seminary  in 
Taubate  (Sao  Paulo).  In  Canada  they  have  7 
priests  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Edmonton  with  5  mission 
stations  established:  Chauvin,  Wainwright,  Viking, 
Tofield,  and  Elm-Cark,  the  residence  of  the  superior 
of  the  mission.  The  congregation  has  5  priests  with  the 
care  of  four  parishes  in  Sweden.  For  four  years  the 
priests  labored  among  the  native  Catholics,  Poles 
and  Germans,  scattered  through  schismatic  Finland, 
until  in  1911,  under  the  intolerant  government  of  the 
Czar,  and  for  the  usual  pretexts  they  were  obliged 
to  leave  Russian  territory.  They  now  have  4  priests 
in  Helsingfors,  Finland. 

More  than  500  students  attend  the  five  flourishing 
apostolic  schools  which  each  year  give  a  certain 
number  of  subjects  to  the  novitiate.  The  congrega¬ 
tion  has  also  four  houses  of  philosophy  and  theology 
with  an  annual  number  of  twenty  priests.  But  many 
more  are  needed  for  the  vast  work  of  the  missions. 
In  the  houses  of  studies  at  Rome,  Bologna,  Louvain, 
Luxemburg,  and  Breda  are  received  young  men  who 
have  concluded  their  studies  at  one  of  the  apostolic 
schools  or  at  other  private  and  public  schools,  have 
finished  their  novitiate,  and  wish  to  continue  their' 
philosophical  and  theological  studies.  There  they 
perfect  themselves  in  the  life  to  which  they  are 
called.  Many  of  the  European  houses  propagate  the 
devotion  to  the  Sacred  Heart  by  preaching  and  by 
numerous  publications. 

Sacred  Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  Congregation 
of  the  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 308c). — The  founder  of  the 
Congregation,  Fr.  Mary  Joseph  Coudrin,  died  27 
March,  1837,  and  was  succeeded  as  superior  general 
by  Mgr.  Bonamie  who  was  previously  Archbishop  of 
Tyre  and  Chalcedon.  He  was  followed  in  1853  by 
Fr.  Euthyme  Rouchouze,  who  was  superior  general 
until  1869,  when  Fr.  Marcellin  Bousquet  undertook 
the  government  of  the  congregation.  This  was  just 
before  the  outbreak  of  the  Commune  in  Paris,  during 
which  Fr.  Bousquet’s  four  assistants  were  martyred. 
They  were:  Fr.  Ladislas  Radique,  prior  of  the  mother- 
house,  b.  at  St.  Patrice-du-desert,  Orne,  8  May,  1823; 
Fr.  Polycarp  Tuffier,  procurator  of  the  mother- 
house,  b.  at  Malzieu,  Lozere,  14  March,  1807;  Fr. 
Marcellin  Rouchouze,  secretary,  b.  at  St.  Julien-en- 
Jarrets,  Lozere,  14  Dec.,  1810;  Fr.  Frczal  Tardieu, 
councillor,  b.  at  Chasserades,  Lozere,  18  Nov.,  1814. 
All  four  were  massacred  by  the  communists,  26  May, 
1871,  after  having  been  imprisoned  since  12  April, 
1871.  Fr.  Bousquet  was  ordered  to  dissolve  his  con¬ 
gregation  throughout  French  territory,  and  imme¬ 
diately  evacuate  the  mother-house.  This  he  re¬ 
fused  to  do,  and  for  twenty-six  months  he  and  six 
companions  remained,  in  spite  of  many  privations. 
On  19  June,  1905,  he  was  dragged  from  his  retreat 
and  forced  to  seek  refuge  in  Belgium.  All  the  houses 
in  France  were  confiscated,  and  the  communities 
dispersed.  Fr.  Bousquet  died  in  exile  at  Braine-le- 
Comte,  Hainaut,  Belgium,  10  Sept.,  1911,  and  was 
succeeded,  14  Jan.,  1912,  by  the  present  superior 
general,  Fr.  Flavian  Prat.  Another  distinguished 
member  of  the  congregation  was  Fr.  Damien  de 
Veuster,  who  went  as  a  missionary  to  Hawaii  in  1864, 
and  in  1873  began  his  sixteen  years  of  labor  among 
the  lepers  of  Molokai,  dying  a  victim  to  the  disease. 


SAHARA 


650 


SAINT  AUGUSTINE 


England  erected  a  monument  to  him  on  Molokai,  the 
place  of  his  sacrifice,  and  Belgium  erected  a  statue 
of  him  at  Louvain. 

Until  1909  the  congregation  admitted  a  novice  to 
perpetual  vows  after  eighteen  months.  Since  then 
the  novitiate  lasts  only  one  year,  after  which  tem¬ 
poral  vows  are  made  for  three  years,  and  then  per¬ 
petual  vows  are  taken.  The  Belgian  province  form¬ 
erly  comprised  all  the  houses  of  the  order  in  Belgium, 
Holland,  and  Germany.  On  15  August,  1920,  a 
German  province  was  formed  and  a  Dutch  province 
is  to  be  erected  in  Holland.  A  novitiate  for  the 
French  province  was  opened  at  Montgeron,  11  Sept., 
1920,  and  the  same  province  took  over  a  school  at 
Saturce,  Spain,  and  a  parish  at  Gibara,  Cuba,  in 
October,  1918.  New  foundations  of  the  Belgian 
province  are:  a  house  at  Ginneken  (Holland),  founded 
in  1916  as  the  national  centre  for  the  work  of  the 
Enthronement  in  Holland,  and  a  novitiate  and 
scholasticate  for  Dutch  students  opened  at  Valken- 
burg  (Holland)  in  September,  1920.  New  founda¬ 
tions  of  the  German  province  are:  novitiate  and 
scholasticate  (philosphy)  at  Arnstein  (1919);  apostolic 
school  (upper  classes)  at  Niederlahustein  (1920); 
apostolic  school  (lower  divisions),  at  Waldernbach 
(1920);  residence  and  general  secretariate  for  the 
Enthronement  in  Germany,  at  Aachen  (1916); 
boarding  school  at  Herzogenrath;  mission  at  Chris¬ 
tiania,  Norway  (1920).  A  college  and  novitiate  for 
the  South  American  province  was  opened  at  Vina  del 
Mar,  Chile,  and  blessed  4  Nov.,  1920.  The  apos¬ 
tolic  school  of  Grave,  Holland,  which  was  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1920,  will  be  reopened  at  Saint  Oederode  in 
North  Brabant,  Holland.  The  congregation  has  a 
total  of  661  professed  religious,  of  whom  6  are  bishops, 
387  priests,  144  students,  2  choir  brothers,  and  123 
lay  brothers.  The  present  number  of  foundations  is 
34.  There  are  15  almonries  or  chaplainships  with  the 
Sisters  of  the  Sacred  Heart;  6  apostolic  schools, 
with  345  students;  6  colleges,  with  1908  students; 
and  1  boarding  school  with  an  attendance  of  25. 

Sahara,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See  Bamako; 
Waghadugu 

Saint  Agnes,  Sisters  of. — The  Congregation  of  the 
Sisters  of  Saint  Agnes  of  Rome,  whose  mother-house 
is  at  Fond  du  Lac,  Wisconsin,  was  founded  at  Barton, 
Wisconsin,  in  1846,  by  the  pioneer  missionary  priest, 
Rev.  Caspar  Rehrl,  who  conceived  the  idea  of  found¬ 
ing  a  community  of  Sisters  for  the  education  of  chil¬ 
dren.  The  location  first  selected,  proving  undesir¬ 
able,  the  community  was  transferred,  with  ecclesias¬ 
tical  approval,  to  its  present  location  at  Fond  du  Lac, 
Wisconsin,  the  first  home  being  a  small  frame  dwell¬ 
ing.  Here  are  now  located  the  mother-house,  the 
novitiate  and  postulate,  the  training  schools  for  the 
young  members  of  the  community;  St.  Mary’s  Springs 
Academy,  a  boarding-school  for  young  girls;  St. 
Agnes  Hospital,  connected  with  which  is  a  training 
school  for  nurses;  the  Henry  Boyle  Catholic  Home 
for  the  Aged.  The  young  community  was  guided 
through  many  hardships  and  difficulties  by  its 
superior  general,  Mother  Mary  Agnes  Hazotte. 
Their  spiritual  guide  and  adviser  was  Francis  Haas, 
O.  M.  Cap.,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Capuchin 
Order  in  the  United  States.  On  7  Dec.,  1875,  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Propaganda  issued  to  the 
community  a  decree  of  praise  and  on  16  August, 
1880,  the  institute  and  its  constitutions  were  ap¬ 
proved  by  Pope  Leo  XIII.  The  congregation  is 
governed  by  a  superioress  general  and  a  council 
of  four  members,  elected  every  six  years.  There  is 
no  distinction  of  dress  or  rank  among  members  of 
the  community,  each  being  employed  according  to 
her  fitness  and  aptitude.  The  time  of  probation 
consists  of  a  juniorate  for  young  girls  and  a  pos¬ 


tulate  of  not  over  one  year,  after  which,  if  accepted 
by  the  council,  the  candidate  is  clothed  with  the 
religious  habit  and  begins  her  novitiate  year.  Vows 
are  made  for  three  years,  at  the  expiration  of  which 
time,  the  religious  is  admitted  to  perpetual  pro¬ 
fession,  according  to  the  rules  and  constitutions  of 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Agnes.  From  the  small  colony 
in  1870,  the  congregation  has  grown  to  a  flourishing 
community  of  611  professed  members,  22  novices, 
35  postulants,  and  has  under  its  direction  42  schools, 

1  academy,  2  hospitals,  1  training  school  for  nurses, 

2  orphanages,  1  home  for  the  aged,  and  1  house  for 
emigrants.  These  establishments  are  distributed 
throughout  the  States  of  Wisconsin,  Michigan, 
Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  New  York 
and  Kansas,  in  eleven  archdioceses  and  dioceses. 

Saint  Albert,  Diocese  of.  See  Edmonton, 
Archdiocese  of 

Saint  Alexander  Orosci.  See  Miridite 

Saint  Andrews  and  Edinburgh,  Archdiocese  of 
(S.  Andrew  et  Edinburgensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 
330c) ,'  in  Scotland.  The  present  bishop  is  the  Most 
Rev.  James  Augustine  Smith,  who  has  administered 
the  diocese  since  1900.  According  to  the  statistics  of 
1922  the  archdiocese  contains:  99  churches,  chapels 
and  stations,  59  missions,  22  convents,  92  secular 
priests  including  5  retired,  14  regulars  (5  Oblates,  9 
Jesuits),  49  congregational  day  schools.  The  Catholic 
population  in  1920  numbered,  77,804. 

Saint  Augustine,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Augus¬ 
tine;  cf.  C.  E.,  VI — 118c),  in  Florida,  suffragan  of 
Baltimore.  The  area  of  the  diocese  is  46,959  square 
miles  and  the  Catholic  population  is  51,014,  including 
about  10,000  Italians,  20,000  to  25,000  Cubans  and 
Spaniards,  and  about  2500  colored.  On  15  December, 
1910,  Maurice  P.  Foley,  rector  of  the  cathedral, 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  the  newly-erected  Diocese 
of  Tuguegarao,  P.  I.  At  the  death  of  Bishop  Kenny 
of  St.  Augustine  on  23  October,  1913,  the  diocese 
was  administered  by  Very  Rev.  John  O’Brien,  V.  G., 
who  died  8  July,  1917.  On  30  June,  1914,  Michael 
J.  Curley  was  consecrated  bishop  to  succeed  the 
late  Bishop  Kenny.  In  1915  the  first  Catholic 
hospital  was  opened  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity. 
Bishop  Curley  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Baltimore 
26  July,  1921.  During  his  seven  years  as  bishop 
much  progress  was  made  in  every  feature  of  the 
Church,  a  number  of  churches  and  chapels  were 
built  and  several  new  parochial  schools  erected,  the 
total  value  of  buildings  under  construction  being  over 
half  a  million.  Florida  become  noted  for  its  bigotry 
during  the  administration  of  Governor  Catts  (1916- 
20),  who  was  elected  on  an  anti-Catholic  platform. 
The  present  Bishop  of  St.  Augustine  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Patrick  Barry,  appointed  22  February,  1922.  In 
January,  1920,  occurred  the  death  of  Rev.  Stephen 
Langlade,  a  pioneer  priest,  who  for  over  forty  years 
labored  among  the  Catholics  in  Moccasin  Branch  and 
Bakerville,  building  churches  and  doing  most  of  the 
work  himself.  Over  700  Catholic  young  men  were 
in  active  service  during  the  World  War  and  21  died 
for  their  country.  Rev.  John  F.  Conoley  and  Rev. 
A.  C.  Baczyk  served  as  chaplains.  The  laity  were 
active  in  all  war  works. 

Statistics  for  the  diocese  for  1922  give:  28  parishes; 
75  churches;  45  missions;  150  stations,  1  abbey  for 
men;  29  secular  priests;  28  regular  priests;  18  lay 
brothers  (16  Benedictine  and  2  Jesuit);  16  convents 
for  women  with  189  Sisters  (Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
Sisters  of  the  Holy  Names,  and  Benedictines);  1 
Benedictine  seminary  with  10  seminarians;  2  colleges 
for  men  with  19  teachers  and  195  students;  13  acade¬ 
mies;  an  attendance  of  4318  pupils  in  academies  and 


SAINT  BONAVENTURE 


651 


SAINT  CASIMIR 


parochial  schools;  1  orphan  home  for  girls  in  Jackson¬ 
ville,  with  75  orphans;  1  hospital  (St.  Vincent’s)  in 
Jacksonville.  The  priests  have  missions  which  they 
attend  regularly.  The  Priests’  Eucharistic  League  is 
established  among  the  clergy,  and  among  the  laity  are 
organized  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  Catholic  Daugh¬ 
ters  of  America,  Holy  Name  Society,  and  Knights  of 
St.  John  among  the  colored. 

Saint  Bonaventure,  College  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — ■ 
339a),  at  Quaracchi,  near  Florence,  Italy,  has  long 
been  famous  as  the  center  of  literary  activity  in  the 
Order  of  Friars  Minor.  Of  late  the  staff  of  editors 
has  been  increased  and  now  consists  of  12  Fathers, 
5  for  the  theological  and  5  for  the  historical  section, 
and  two  managers.  The  theological  section  has 
brought  out  a  second  volume  of  “Quaestiones  Dis- 
putatse,”  by  Cardinal  Matthew  of  Aquasparta  (1914), 
and  a  new  critical  edition  of  “Libri  IV  Sententiarum” 
by  Peter  the  Lombard,  in  two  volumes  (1916). 
Olivis  “Quaestiones  in  II  Sententiarum,”  edited  by  B. 
J ansen ,  S .  J . ,  is  in  print  and  will  comprise  three  volumes 
of  the  “Bibliotheca  Franciscana  Scholastica.”  The 
first  part  of  the  long  announced  new  edition  of  the 
“Summa  Theologica”  of  Alexander  of  Hales  is  almost 
ready  for  print.  The  historical  section  has  pub¬ 
lished  two  more  volumes  of  “Analecta  Franciscana”: 
vol.  V  (second  part  of  “Bartholomew  of  Pisa”)  in 
1912  and  vol.  VI  (Necrologia)  in  1917;  whilst  vols. 
VII  (Franciscan  documents  of  Bologna)  and  VIII 
(Process  of  Canonization  of  St.  Louis  of  Toulouse) 
will  shortly  appear.  Volume  XIX  of  the  con¬ 
tinuation  of  the  “Annals  Minorum”  by  Wadding  was 
reprinted  in  1914.  The  most  important  work  of  the 
historical  section  in  recent  years,  however,  is  the 
publication  of  the  “Archivum  Franciscanum  His- 
toricum,”  an  international  quarterly  review  for 
original  research  in  the  field  of  Franciscan  history. 
The  contributions  to  this  paper  are  published  either  in 
Latin  or  in  English,  French,  German,  Italian,  or 
Spanish.  Since  1908  fourteen  large  volumes  have 
been  published.  Many  minor  publications  have 
been  made  both  by  members  of  the  college  and  out¬ 
siders.  In  1920  the  new  Breviary  was  printed  at 
Quaracchi  on  behalf  of  the  Franciscan  Order. 

Saint  Boniface,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti  Boni- 
facii;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 339),  Manitoba,  Canada, 
is  governed  by  Mgr.  Arthur  Beliveau,  who  succeeded 
Mgr.  Langevin,  O.  M.  I.,  who  died  on  15  June,  1915. 
Mgr.  Beliveau  was  born  at  Mt.  Carmel,  in  the  diocese 
of  Three  Rivers,  on  2  March,  1870,  studied  at  St. 
Boniface  and  later  at  Rome,  where  he  graduated 
doctor  of  theology,  was  ordained  on  24  September, 
1883;  appointed  auxiliary  and  titular  Bishop  of 
Dumitiopolis  on  24  March,  1913;  consecrated  at  St. 
Boniface  25  July  following;  promoted  at  the  Con¬ 
sistory  of  9  December,  1915,  receiving  the  pallium 
on  7  June,  1916.  On  4  December,  1915,  the  erection 
of  the  new  Archdiocese  of  Winnipeg  necessitated 
changes  in  the  limits  of  that  of  St.  Boniface,  which 
is  now  bounded  on  the  east  by  91  degrees  long.,  on 
the  south  by  the  international  boundary,  on  the  west 
by  the  meridian  dividing  ranges  12  and  13  west  of  the 
principal  meridian,  by  the  line  separating  townships 
9  and  10,  and  by  the  Red  River  and  Lake  Winnipeg, 
and  on  the  north  by  the  line  dividing  townships 
44  and  45,  protracted  eastward  to  its  intersection 
with  the  91  degrees  long.  The  Catholic  population 
within  the  present  area,  excluding  the  Ruthenian 
Catholics,  who  have  been  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a 
bishop  of  their  own  Rite  since  1912,  is  35,000;  French 
21,525,  English  2372;  Poles  2079;  Flemish  1699; 
Indians,  689;  German,  257;  Hungarian,  119;  other 
nationalities,  321.  There  are  105  priests,  53  secular 
and  52  religious.  The  religious  orders  are:  Oblates 


of  Mary  Immaculate,  24  priests;  Jesuits,  7;  Trappists, 
10;  Canons  Regular  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
2;  Sons  of  Mary  Immaculate,  3;  Redemptorists,  4; 
Clerics  of  St.  Viator,  2.  There  are  77  religious  teach¬ 
ing  or  lay  brothers,  belonging  to  the  orders  just 
mentioned;  and  16  American  Marist  Brothers  and  10 
Brothers  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy.  The  institutes  of 
women  are:  Grey  Nuns,  189;  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  55;  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame 
des  Missions,  13;  Daughters  of  the  Cross,  20;  Sisters 
of  Mercy,  9;  Sisters  of  the  Five  Wounds  of  Our 
■Savior,  42;  Sisters  of  Providence,  9;  Carmelite  Sisters, 
12;  Adorers  of  the  Precious  Blood,  12;  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph,  7;  Presentation  Sisters,  8;  Belgian  Ursulines, 
8;  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family,  20;  Oblate  Sisters  of 
the  Sacred  Heart  and  Mary  Immaculate,  founded 
in  1904  by  Mgr.  Langevin,  53;  total  456  Sisters.  The 
institutions  of  the  archdiocese  are:  1  Jesuit  College, 
400  students;  1  minor  seminary  (founded  1909),  60 
pupils;  1  Oblate  juniorate,  50  students;  21  convents; 
2  general  hospitals,  and  1  for  contagious  diseases; 
2  orphan  asylums,  1  home  for  the  aged;  1  agricultural 
college,  3  Indian  boarding  schools.  The  State- 
supported  Catholic  schools  or  separate  schools  in  the 
Catholic  homogeneous  parishes  continue  to  be  con¬ 
ducted  along  Catholic  lines  as  far  as  possible.  The 
same  condition  obtains  in  two  large  schools  in  the 
City  of  St.  Boniface,  the  Marist  Brothers  Boys’ 
school,  and  the  Holy  Name  of  Jesus  and  Mary  girls’ 
school.  Being  legally  public  schools  inspected  by  the 
civil  authorities,  they  are  administered  by  trustees 
elected  by  the  parents  and  are  sustained  by  the 
ordinary  school  taxes  and  the  money  grant  of  the 
provisional  Government.  In  the  mixed  centres  this 
system  cannot  work,  and  in  such  places  these  are 
parochial  schools,  which  involves  double  taxes. 
Among  the  persons  deceased  in  recent  years  may  be 
mentioned  in  addition  to  the  late  Archbishop  Lan¬ 
gevin,  Mr.  Louis  Arthur  Prud’homme,  historian, 
and  for  thirty  years  judge  of  County  Court;  his  son 
who  has  been  recently  consecrated  Bishop  of  Prince 
Albert  and  Saskatoon,  is  the  first  bishop  born  in 
Western  Canada. 

Saint-Brieuc  and  Treguier,  Diocese  of  (Brio- 
censis  et  Trecorensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 340b), 
comprises  the  department  of  Cotes-duTNord  (Brit¬ 
tany),  France,  and  is  suffragan  of  Rennes.  The 
present  bishop  is  Mgr.  Jules-Laurent-Benjamin 
Morelle,  b.  at  Plessier-Rozainvillers,  Diocese  of 
Amiens,  16  May,  1849,  ordained  1873,  elected  13 
July,  1906,  to  succeed  Mgr.  Fallieres,  deceased.  On 
9  August,  1919,  Bishop  Morelle  was  made  a  com¬ 
mander  of  the  Order  of  Leopold  II,  by  the  Kr  g  of 
the  Belgians.  About  600  priests  were  mobilized 
during  the  war,  50  priests  and  39  seminarians  died 
in  the  army,  5  were  decorated  with  the  Legion  of 
Honor,  14  with  the  medaille  militaire ,  125  priests, 
44  seminarians  with  the  croix  de  guerre ,  and  15  with 
the  medaille  des  eyidemies.  The  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  numbered  (1919)  605,523.  There  are  48  dean¬ 
eries,  404  parishes,  977  secular  priests  (1921)  and  150 
seminarians. 

Saint  Casimir,  Lithuanian  Sisters  of,  founded  by 
Rev.  Anthony  Staniukynas,  with  the  help  of  Bishop 
Shanahan  of  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania.  The  first 
three  members  were  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters  of 
the  Holy  Cross  in  Ingenbohl,  Switzerland  when  it 
was  decided  that  they  come  to  America  and  be  trained 
for  religious  teachers.  Mother  M.  Cyril,  then 
Superior  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mary,  at  Mount  Saint  Mary’s,  Scranton,  Pa.,  under¬ 
took  their  training  and  the  Lithuanian  postulants 
arrived  at  Mt.  St.  Mary’s,  2  Nov. ,  1905.  Rather  than 

form  a  branch  of  a  well  organized  community,  they 

% 


SAINT  CHARLES 


652 


SAINT  CLOUD 


were  desirous  of  establishing  a  Lithuanian  Sisterhood 
for  the  needs  of  the  Lithuanian  people.  Permission 
for  this  was  given  by  Pius  X,  19  April,  1907.  The 
first  three  postulants  received  the  religious  habit  30 
August,  1907,  at  Mount  Saint  Mary’s  Seminary 
Chapel .  They  were  Sister  Maria  (Casimira  Kaupas) , 
Sister  M.  Immaculata  (Judith  Dvaranauskas)  and 
Sister  M.  Concepta  (Antoinette  Unguraitis).  Their 
habit  was  designed  by  Casimira  Kaupas  (later  Mother 
Maria).  On  7  Oct.,  1907,  the  first  house  of  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Casimir  was  opened  at  Mount  Carmel 
in  the  Diocese  of  Harrisburg,  Pa.  In  1909  Bishop 
Quigley  of  Chicago  took  the  small  congregation  into 
his  archdiocese,  and  the  mother-house  was  trans¬ 
ferred  from  Harrisburg  to  Chicago  in  1911.  Rev. 
A.  Staniukynas  took  charge  of  the  community  until 
his  death,  15  December,  1918,  when  Rev.  Francis 
Bucys  became  their  chaplain  and  spiritual  director. 
On  5  Oct.,  1920,  four  Sisters  of  St.  Casimir  opened  a 
novitiate  in  Pazaislis,  Lithuania.  The  special 
work  of  the  congregation  is  teaching  and  taking  care 
of  orphans.  At  present  the  Sisters  conduct  Saint 
Casimir  Academy  at  the  mother-house,  and  Lithuan¬ 
ian  parochial  schools  in  the  archdioceses  of  Chicago, 
Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore,  and  the  dioceses  of 
Harrisburg  and  Scranton.  There  are  170  members 
in  the  community. 

Saint  Charles  Borromeo,  Missionaries  of 
(cf.  C.  E.,  X — 368a).  In  the  general  chapter  of 
August,  1919,  held  in  Rome,  Most  Rev.  Pacifico 
Chenuil,  formerly  superior  provincial  of  the  western 
province  of  the  United  States,  was  elected  superior 
general.  The  western  and  eastern  provinces  of  the 
United  States  were  united  into  one  province,  with 
headquarters  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  Since  1911,  five  new 
missions  have  been  established  in  the  United  States 
and  in  some  the  church  has  already  been  erected; 
4  new  kindergartens  and  6  new  parochial  schools 
have  been  built.  The  present  number  of  foundations 
in  the  United  States  is:  26  parishes,  5  chapels,  12 
parochial  schools,  8  kindergartens,  2  St.  Raphael 
societies.  These  are  under  the  care  of  62  priests  and 
2  lay  brothers. 

Saint  Clara  College,  in  Sinsinawa,  Wisconsin,  was 
founded  as  St.  Clara  Academy  in  1852  by  the  very 
Rev.  Samuel  Charles  Mazzuchelli,  O.P.  The  institu¬ 
tion  was  entrusted  to  the  Sisters  of  St.  Dominic  for 
the  higher  education  of  Catholic  women  and  in  1901 
it  was  empowered  by  the  State  to  confer  degrees.  In 
connection  with  the  college  is  a  high  school  known  as 
St.  Clara  Academy.  St.  Clara  College  has  had  a 
steady  growth  since  its  foundation  and  now  (1920-21) 
has  a  student  enrollment  of  336;  college  149;  training 
school  20;  Sister  students  70;  academy  97.  The  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas  Library  contains  some  10, 000 volumes 
and  the  college  faculty  numbers  31.  Plans  are  made 
to  transfer  the  college  department  in  the  fall  of  1922 
from  Sinsinawa  to  River  Forest,  Illinois  a  suburb  of 
Chicago,  and  the  institution  will  then  be  known  as 
Rosary  College. 

Saint-Claude,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Claudii;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII — 341b),  in  France,  suffragan  of  Lyons. 
The  present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Frangois- Alexan¬ 
dre  Maillet,  b.  at  Bourges,  12  Jan.,  1854,  elected  24 
March,  1898.  took  possession  of  the  see,  18  June,  con¬ 
secrated  29  June,  following,  made  assistant  to  the 
pontifical  throne,  16  April,  1921.  In  1920  there  were 
in  the  diocese  252,713  Catholics,  34  parishes,  356 
succursal  parishes,  23  vicarages  formerly  supported  by 
the  state. 

Saint  Cloud,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Clodoaldi; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 342d),  suffragan  of  St.  Paul, 
Minnesota.  On  account  of  his  age  and  failing 


strength  the  venerable  and  saintly  Bishop  Trobec 
on  15  April,  1914,  transmitted  his  resignation  to 
Rome,  and  was  named  titular  Bishop  of  Lycopolis. 
His  successor  was  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  F.  Busch,  second 
Bishop  of  Lead,  South  Dakota.  During  the  tenure 
of  that  see  Bishop  Busch  had  upheld  the  observance 
of  Sunday  as  a  day  of  rest  despite  much  adverse 
criticism  and  the  greed  of  a  powerful  corporation. 
The  decree  of  his  translation  to  the  See  of  St.  Cloud 
was  dated  19  January,  1915,  and  on  18  March  of 
the  same  year  he  took  solemn  possession,  being 
installed  by  the  late  Archbishop  John  Ireland.  From 
the  beginning  he  directed  his  attention  to  systematiz¬ 
ing  the  business  of  the  diocese,  and  took  up  the 
thorough  organization  of  his  people  to  carry  on 
charitable  and  welfare  work  as  the  needs  of  the 
times  demanded.  To  knit  his  people  more  closely 
together  he  began  in  June,  1916,  the  holding  of  an 
annual  Diocesan  Convention.  The  delegates  com¬ 
posing  this  convention  were  the  pastors,  trustees  of 
the  various  parishes,  and  representatives  of  the 
different  parish  societies.  Parish  Committees 
organized  on  the  same  principle  were  ordered  to  be 
formed  in  every  parish  with  a  view  of  taking  care 
of  all  situations  that  might  arise,  and  of  cooperating 
with  the  central  Executive  Committee  in  all  diocesan 
problems.  In  all  this  he  was  years  ahead  of  the 
rest  of  the  country  and  his  position  and  action  have 
since  been  splendidly  vindicated  by  the  program  of 
action  adopted  and  urged  by  the  united  hierarchy 
of  the  country.  Hence,  when  the  National  Councils 
of  Catholic  Men  and  Women  were  called  into  being 
by  the  National  Catholic  Welfare  Council,  the 
Diocese  of  St.  Cloud  proved  a  well  prepared  field  for 
immediate  action.  Under  his  direction  the  Holy 
Name  Society  was  established  in  every  parish  and 
mission. 

Under  the  administration  of  Bishop  Busch  the 
diocese  has  been  registering  a  steady  growth.  The 
Catholic  population  is  now  nearly  65,000  and  the 
number  of  parishes  and  missions  has  increased  to 
135.  There  are  105  secular  priests  and  56  regular 
priests,  2  monasteries  for  men  and  3  convents  for 
women  numbering  28  lay  brothers  and  350  Sisters. 
To  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist  belong  113  Fathers  and  25  Brothers. 
Under  the  authority  of  St.  Joseph’s  Convent  of 
the  diocesan  Benedictine  Sisters  stand  800  Sisters. 
The  diocesan  Franciscan  Sisters  number  49.  The 
educational  system,  always  good,  has  been  much 
improved.  It  counts  at  present  1  university  and 
college  for  men  with  465  students,  1  college  for 
women,  2  academies  for  girls  with  an  attendance  of 
270,  1  normal  school  with  about  60  pupils,  1  seminary 
with  46  students,  4  high  schools  and  37  elementary 
schools  in  which  258  nuns  teach  6669  children. 
Other  institutions  in  the  diocese  are  as  follows: 
4  hospitals,  1  orphan  asylum,  1  infants’  home,  3 
homes  for  the  aged.  Three  State  institutions  admit 
the  ministrations  of  the  priest.  The  Clerical  Benefit 
Association  largely  assumes  the  care  of  infirm  and 
aged  priests.  For  the  laity  there  are  the  Central 
Verein,  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  the  Catholic 
Order  of  Foresters,  the  A.  O.  H.,  the  L.  C.  B.  A., 
the  Holy  Name  Society,  the  Holy  Childhood,  the 
Woman’s  Missionary  Association,  the  different 
Women’s  Guilds  for  social  welfare  and  charitable 
work,  and  notably  the  National  Councils  of  Catholic 
Men  and  Women. 

During  a  period  of  little  more  than  a  year,  death 
has  claimed  six  personages  who  contributed  in  a 
notable  degree  to  the  upbuilding  of  the  works  of  the 
diocese.  The  first  of  these  was  the  Rev.  Dr.  Leo 
Gans,  who  died  26  November,  1920.  Born  in  St. 
Cloud,  he  received  his  elementary  education  in  the 
cathedral  school.  His  college  course  was  made 


SAINT  CLOUD 


053 


SAINT-DENIS 


under  the  Capuchins  of  Mt.  Calvary,  Wisconsin, 
and  his  seminary  training  was  completed  at  the 
American  College  in  Rome,  where  he  received  the 
degree  of  J.  C.  D.  Upon  his  return  to  his  native 
country  he  taught  for  several  years  at  the  Seminary 
of  St.  Paul  and  was  then  recalled  to  his  diocese  as 
pastor  of  the  Pro-Cathedral  of  the  Holy  Angels  in 
St.  Cloud.  His  chief  pastoral  care  was  the  work 
of  the  schools.  He  built  and  brought  to  the  highest 
point  of  efficiency  the  Cathedral  High  School,  which 
has  been  affiliated  with  the  State  University. 

To  Rev.  Cornelius  Wittmann,  O.  S.  B.,  the  dio¬ 
cese  owes  the  establishment  of  its  first  elementary 
school;  in  fact  he  is  the  founder  of  the  first  school 
of  any  kind  that  existed  within  the  territory  now 
comprised  in  the  St.  Cloud  jurisdiction.  In  his 
honor  a  commemorative  bronze  tablet  has  been 
erected  in  the  new  St.  Cloud  High  School  of  Me¬ 
chanics  and  Arts.  Born  in  Bavaria  on  11  October, 
1828,  he  came  to  St.  Vincent’s  Abbey  in  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  at  the  age  of  twenty-four. .  Two  years  later 
he  came  to  Minnesota  at  the  request  of  Bishop 
Cretin  of  St.  Paul,  by  whom  he  was  ordained  priest. 
In  1850  he  established  the  first  school  in  Stearns 
County  and  in  October  of  the  same  year  he  erected 
a  building,  in  what  is  now  the  city  of  St.  Cloud, 
that  was  to  serve  the  twofold  purpose  of  church 
and  school.  In  1857  he  became  one  of  the  incor¬ 
porators  and  the  first  professors  of  St.  John’s  Semi¬ 
nary,  which  has  since  developed  into  St.  John’s 
University  at  Collegeville.  He  was  actively  engaged 
in  parochial  and  educational  work  until  failing  eye¬ 
sight  compelled  him  to  return  in  1904  from  Wash¬ 
ington,  whither  he  had  gone  as  a  volunteer  to  help 
establish  the  new  Benedictine  Abbey  at  Lacey.  He 
continued  to  reside  at  St.  John’s  Abbey,  Collegeville, 
until  his  death  on  22  September,  1921. 

The  cause  of  charity  suffered  a  great  loss  when 
Mother  Mary  Rose,  O.  S.  F.,  died  at  the  hospital 
in  Breckenridge,  in  1921.  She  was  born  in  Canada 
in  the  little  village  of  Assumption,  near  Montreal, 
8  April,  1857.  Her  parents  were  French  Canadians 
and  her  name  in  the  world  was  Rose  de  Lima  Ethier. 
She  was  eighteen  years  old  when  she  entered  a 
convent  of  Franciscans.  At  the  end  of  her  time  of 
religious  probation  she  labored  for  several  years  in 
the  negro  missions  of  Georgia,  and  then,  with  a 
little  band  of  courageous  Franciscan  Nuns,  came  to 
the  Diocese  of  St.  Cloud,  where  they  founded  the 
diocesan  Franciscan  Congregation.  For  many  years 
Mother  Rose  directed  the  destinies  of  the  little 
community,  whose  mother-house  and  novitiate  she 
established  at  Little  Falls,  Minn.  The  Sisters  are 
now  in  charge  of  5  hospitals,  2  homes  for  the  aged, 
an  orphan  asylum,  and  an  infants’  home. 

On  27  November,  1921,  occurred  the  death  of 
Right  Rev.  Peter  Engel,  O.  S.  B.,  fourth  Abbot  of 
the  Abbey  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  at  Collegeville, 
Minn.  Born  3  February,  1856,  at  St.  Nicholas, 
Wisconsin,  he  received  his  early  education  in  the 
parochial  schools  of  that  locality.  Taking  up  his 
collegiate  course  in  St.  John’s  University  as  an 
aspirant  for  the  order,  he  made  his  religious  pro¬ 
fession  19  July,  1875,  and  was  ordained  priest, 
15  December,  1878.  After  the  demise  of  Abbot 
Bernard  Locnikar,  he  was  elected  abbot  28  Novem¬ 
ber,  1894,  and  solemnly  blessed  11  J  illy ,  1895. 
Under  his  able  and  paternal  administration  the  work 
and  influence  of  his  monastery  were  very  widely 
extended,  and  from  St.  John’s  sprang  the  monastery 
of  Lacey,  Washington,  and  the  Abbey  Nullius  of 
St.  Peter,  Saskatchewan,  Canada.  Himself  a  ripe 
scholar,  he  bent  every  effort  to  raise  the  standard 
of  studies  at  St.  John’s  University,  and  in  this  he 
succeeded  wonderfully.  Many  of  His  young  Fathers 
were  sent  to  the  different  universities  at  home  and 


abroad,  and  returned  amply  equipped  to  take  up 
the  many  different  departments  newly  created  to 
extend  the  usefulness  of  the  educational  establish¬ 
ment  under  his  direction,  so  that  from  a  small 
college  St.  John’s  has  taken  on  the  dimensions  of  a 
university.  So  widely  known  and  fully  appreciated 
did  his  personality  become  among  the  other  Bene¬ 
dictines  in  the  United  States  that  for  twelve  years 
Abbot  Engel  was  the  President  of  the  American 
Cassinese  Congregation. 

The  death  of  Bishop  Trobe  coccurred  15  Decem¬ 
ber,  1921.  The  venerable  prelate  was  born  in 
Billiggratz,  Carinthia,  16  July,  1838.  He  received 
his  elementary  education  in  the  schools  of  his  home 
village,  and  his  college  course  in  the  gymnasium  at 
Laibach.  Upon  the  completion  of  his  collegiate 
studies  he  entered  the  Seminary  of  Laibach.  While 
there  he  met  the  saintly  Bishop  Baraga  of  Northern 
Michigan,  to  whose  eloquent  appeal  for  workers  in 
the  American  mission  field  he  gave  eager  and  gen¬ 
erous  response.  He  arrived  in  New  York  4  April, 

1864,  whence  he  proceeded  to  St.  Vincent’s  Semi¬ 
nary  at  Beatty,  Pa.  Having  completed  his  studies, 
he  came  to  St.  Paul,  where  Bishop  Thomas  L. 
Grace  ordained  him  to  the  priesthood  8  September, 

1865.  The  first  pastoral  charge  assigned  to  him 
was  at  Belle  Prairie,  Minn.,  the  earliest  parish 
within  the  limits  of  the  present  Diocese  of  St.  Cloud. 
In  1866  he  was  sent  to  Wabasha,  to  which  a  large 
number  of  missions  were  attached.  Many  parishes 
in  Southern  Minnesota  owe  their  existence  to  his 
untiring  zeal.  In  1887  he  was  called  to  St.  Paul, 
where  he  founded  and  developed  St.  Agnes’  parish. 
After  the  death  of  Bishop  Marty  he  was  conse¬ 
crated  third. Bishop  of  St.  Cloud  by  the  Most  Rev. 
John  Ireland,  26  September,  1897.  During  seven¬ 
teen  years  he  administered  the  affairs  of  the  dio¬ 
cese  with  the  same  holy  zeal  and  quiet  ability  that 
he  had  so  constantly  shown  in  his  pastoral  work. 

Monsignor  Bernard  Richter  of  Melrose  died  18  De¬ 
cember,  1921.  Born  in  Westphalia  in  1853,  his 
first  clerical  studies  were  made  at  the  seminary  of 
Munster,  in  his  native  province.  These  studies 
were  completed  at  St.  Francis  Seminary,  Milwaukee, 
whither  he  came  in  1874.  He  was  ordained  in  1877. 
His  first  field  of  priestly  labor  was  at  White  Lake, 
South  Dakota.  He  was  then  made  pastor  of  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Cloud  by  the  first  bishop,  Zardetti, 
upon  whose  resignation  Fr.  Richter  was  appointed 
to  Melrose.  There  he  spent  twenty-seven  years  of 
his  pastoral  activities.  He  was  appointed  a  Domestic 
Prelate  of  His  Holiness  in  1912. 

In  common  with  their  brethren  throughout  the 
United  States,  the  Catholics  of  the  Diocese  of  St. 
Cloud  bore  their  fair  proportion  of  the  burden 
imposed  by  the  country’s  participation  in  the  World 
War.  Six  of  the  priests  saw  service  with  the  army. 
Four  were  overseas  and  the  other  two  were  employed 
in  camps  in  the  United  States.  The  graduate  nurses 
of  all  the  hospitals  were  prompt  in  offering  their 
services  to  the  Government;  one  hospital  having 
the  distinction  of  one  hundred  per  cent,  of  its 
graduates  accepted  for  war  work  at  home  and  abroad. 
Catholic  young  men  enlisted  in  both  branches  of  the 
service,  and  priests  and  people  in  their  respective 
localities  were  active  in  every  kind  of  war  and  wel¬ 
fare  work.  In  this  they  followed  the  example  of 
their  bishop,  who  has  the  proud  distinction  of  having 
been  publicly  eulogized  in  the  United  States  Senate 
Chamber  by  the  senior  Senator  from  Minnesota,  the 
Honorable  Knute  Nelson. 

Saint-Denis  (or  Reunion),  Diocese  of  (Sancti 
Dionysii;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 344b),  includes  the 
island  of  Reunion  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  350  miles 
east  of  Madagascar.  The  diocese  was  formerly  a 


SAINT-DIE 


654 


.  .  SAINT  GABRIEL 


suffragan  of  Bordeaux,  but  is  now  directly  dependent 
on  the  Holy  See.  The  present  bishop  is  Mgr.  Georges- 
Marie  de  la  Bonniere  de  Beaumont,  C.  S.  Sp., 
b.  at  Idron,  diocese  of  Bayonne,  12  December, 
1872,  studied  at  the  French  Seminary  in  Rome,  or¬ 
dained  there  1897,  volunteer  chaplain,  65th  Division, 
Infantry,  1914,  then  chaplain- in-chief,  16th  Aimy 
Corps  until  August,  1917,  elected  titular  Bishop 
of  Paphos  and  coadjutor  of  Saint  Denis  22  March, 

1917,  consecrated  at  Pau  14  October,  and  sailed  for 
Reunion.  He  succeeded  Mgr.  Fabre,  26  December, 
1919.  Mgr.  de  Beaumont  was  cited  in  the  orders  of 
the  Army  in  1916  for  “courage  and  abnegation  under 
intense  fire”  and  was  awarded  the  croix  de  guerre 
avec  etoile  d’argent.  His  predecessor,  Mgr.  Jacques- 
Paul  Antonin  Fabre,  was  born  in  Nimes  (Gard)  16 
October,  1837,  ordained  1863,  chaplain  in  the  war 
of  1870,  named  Bishop  of  St.  Denis  1892,  arrived 
there  June,  1893,  left  for  France  May,  1915,  and  died 
26  December,  1919,  at  Pessac  (Gironde).  Mgr. 
Fabre  was  a  Doctor  in  Letters,  and  published  many 
books  and  numerous  articles.  Influenza  caused 
great  trouble  at  Saint  Denis  in  1919,  as  many  as 
250  persons  dying  in  one  day  in  the  episcopal  city  of 
20,000  inhabitants.  All  the  priests  called  to  the 
front  during  the  war  returned  to  the  diocese  dec¬ 
orated  with  the  croix  de  guerre.  A  very  large  propor¬ 
tion  of  young  men  of  the  island  were  killed,  a  great 
number  decorated  for  bravery .  The  bishop  is  oc¬ 
cupied  in  creating  a  native  clergy  and  he  has  estab¬ 
lished  a  presbyteiial  school  at  Cilaos.  The  diocese 
contains  49  parishes,  66  churches,  2  convents  of 
men  and  39  of  women,  35  secular  and  14  regular 
priests,  14  lay  Brothers,  190  Sisters,  1  seminary,  15 
seminarians,  1  high  school  with  14  professors  and  180 
girls,  41  elementary  schools,  134  instructors  and 
3788  pupils,  2  refuges,  11  asylums,  3  hospitals,  7 
organizations  among  the  laity.  Two  papers  are 
published.  The  government  aids  four  of  the  insti¬ 
tutions.  The  Catholic  population  numbers  171,979, 
all  French. 

Saint-Die,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Deodati; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 344d),  comprises  the  department  of 
the  Vosges,  France,  and  is  suffragan  of  Besangon. 
The  episcopal  city  was  occupied  August-September, 
1914,  by  German  troops  and  part  of  the  diocese  was 
laid  waste  and  occupied  (1914-18),  by  the  invaders. 
The  present  bishop  is  Mgr.  Alphonse  Gabriel  Fou¬ 
cault,  b.  at  Senoches  (Eure-et-Loire) ,  24  March, 
1843,  named  Bishop  of  Saint-Die  3  January,  1893, 
consecrated  at  Chartres,  20  March,  and  made  solemn 
entry  into  Saint-Die,  6  April.  Mgr.  Foucault  was 
made  a  chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  27  July, 
1919,  was  presented  with  the  silver  medal  of  souvenir 
frangais,  celebrated  his  sacerdotal  (fifty  years)  and 
episcopal  jubilee,  upon  which  occasion  he  received  the 
personal  privilege  of  the  pallium. 

During  the  war  240  of  the  525  priests  of  the  diocese 
were  mobilized,  44  of  the  48  seminarians  in  the  upper 
seminary  in  1914  and  17  of  the  25  there  from  1915  to 

1918.  Of  this  number  10  priests  were  killed  on  the 
battlefield,  5  died  in  the  army,  3  were  shot  by  the 
enemy,  1  was  killed  by  bombardment,  8  seminarians 
were  killed  and  2  died;  11  were  severely  wounded; 
28  were  decorated  (7  with  the  Legion  of  Honor,  8  with 
the  medaille  militaire,  1  with  the  Order  of  St.  George 
(English),  1  with  the  Order  of  St.  George  (Russian), 
1  with  the  Cross  of  Rumania,  1  with  the  croix  de 
guerre  beige ,  6  with  the  medaille  des  epidemies ,  2  with 
the  Medaille  argent  du  souvenir  frangais,  more  than 
50  with  the  croix  de  guerre.  There  were  129  citations. 
Thirty-four  priests  were  taken  as  hostages.  There 
are  two  minor  basilicas  in  the  diocese,  that  of  St. 
Peter  Fourier  at  Mattaincourt  and  that  of  St.  Joan 
of  Arc  at  Domremy.  St.  Joan  of  Arc, whose  birthplace 


was  Domremy,  was  canonized  13  May,  1920,  in  St. 
Peter’s  at  Rome.  The  diocese  comprises  388  parishes, 
465  churches,  1  monastery  and  5  convents  of  women, 
481  secular  priests,  2  seminaries,  152  seminarians,  1 
free  college  for  boys  and  7  for  girls,  10  free  elementary 
schools  for  boys  and  30  for  girls,  1  mission  institute 
with  4  secular  priests,  3  orphanages,  8  hospitals. 
Priests  are  admitted  to  minister  in  a  prison,  a  lyceum 
and  4  colleges.  Two  journals  are  printed,  besides 
numerous  parish  bulletins  and  “va  semaine  religeuse 
The  Catholic  population  numbers  about  400,000  of 
the  429,800  inhabitants. 

Saint  Elizabeth,  College  of*  at  Convent  Station, 
New  Jersey,  in  1921  had  a  faculty  of  34,  classified 
as  follows:  diocesan  clergy,  1;  religious,  26;  lay,  7. 
The  registration  of  students  was  170,  of  whom  22 
were  graduated.  Sister  Mary  Pauline  Kelligherk, 
LL.D.,  is  president  of  the  college. 

Saint-Flour,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Flori,  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 347d),  comprises  the  department  of  Cantal, 
France  and  is  suffragan  of  Bourges.  The  present 
bishop  is  Mgr.  Paul- Augustin  Lecceur,  b.  at  Rouen, 
13  March,  1848,  served  in  the  ambulance  corps  in 
1870,  ordained  1872,  elected  Bishop  of  Saint-Flour 
13  July,  1906,  consecrated  at  Rouen  3  August, 
enthroned  24  August.  The  diocese  contains  many 
shrines  to  which  thousands  of  Catholics  make  pil¬ 
grimages  each  year.  In  1920  the  coronation  of  Our 
Lady  of  Quezec  took  place  in  the  presence  of  8  bishops, 
150  priests  and  15,000  faithful.  About  40,000 
pilgrims  visit  this  shrine  each  year.  In  1921  the 
Church  of  Notre  Dame  des  Miracles  in  Mauriac 
was  erected  into  a  minor  basilica.  In  the  diocese 
there  are  314  parishes;  8  monasteries  of  women  (2 
Carmelites,  2  Visitation,  1  Infant  Jesus,  1  Notre 
Dame,  1  St.  Joseph,  1  Holy  Family),  and  48  convents 
with  a  total  of  600  Sisters;  486  secular  priests,  50 
Brothers,  1  upper  seminary  with  45  seminarians,  1 
lower  with  60;  2  colleges  for  boys  with  550  students 
and  4  for  girls  with  600,  1  normal  school,  70  elemen¬ 
tary  schools,  6  asylums,  23  hospitals,  1  refuge,  2 
creches,  association  of  Catholic  youth,  3  papers 
published  in  Saint-Flour,  4  in  Aurillac  and  1  in 
Mauriac.  The  population  of  the  diocese  is  223,000, 
nearly  all  Catholic. 

Saint  Francis  Xavier,  Brothers  of.  See  Xaver- 
ian  Brothers. 

Saint  Gabriel,  Brothers  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VI — 330c). 
— This  institute  has  continued  to  spread  in  spite  of 
persecution  and  war,  and  the  resultant  lack  of  re¬ 
cruits.  The  houses  of  religious  training  after  this 
enforced  retarding  of  progress  are  now  beginning  to 
prosper.  During  the  World  War  (1914-18)  200 
members  of  the  institute  gave  proof  of  their  patriot¬ 
ism  on  many  battlefields,  and  25  of  them  sacrificed 
their  lives  for  their  country.  The  government 
awarded  well-merited  decorations  to  many  and  of¬ 
ficially  acknowledged  that  all  the  religious  had  nobly 
fulfilled  their  duty.  During  this  trying  period,  as 
well  as  during  the  difficulties  of  the  persecution  of 
1903,  the  institute  was  wisely  governed  by  the  present 
superior  general,  Rev.  Brother  Martial,  b.  at  Tauves, 
Puy  de  Dome,  11  June,  1850,  entered  the  congrega¬ 
tion,  6  Oct.,  1864,  was  successively  professor  in  the 
boarding-school  at  the  mother-house,  master  of 
novices,  assistant  general,  elected  superior  at  the 
chapter  of  1898,  and  since  re-elected.  His  generous 
activity  has  encouraged  the  spirit  of  holiness,  learning, 
and  zeal  among  the  Brothers,  spread  the  work  of  the 
institute  throughout  many  pagan  countries,  and  saved 
it  from  destruction  during  the  persecutions  of  1903. 
On  19  February,  1910,  the  constitutions  of  the  order 
were  temporarily  approved  by  the  Holy  See.  Having 


SAINT  GALL 


055 


SAINT  JOAN 


been  revised  to  conform  to  the  hormae ,  no  notable 
change  in  the  constitutions  Was  necessary  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  the  new  Code  of  Canon  Law*  The  institute 
is  governed  by  a  superior  general  elected  for  twelve 
years  and  eligible  for  re-election  indefinitely.  He  has 
four  assistants,  a  secretary  general,  and  a  general 
economist.  The  institute  is  divided  into  provinces; 
each  governed  by  a  provincial  assisted  by  a  council 
of  four  members;  Since  1914  many  members  have 
died,  due  especially  to  the  war.  Among  the  notable 
deceased  are:  Brother  Fortune,  assistant  general,  d 
i8  May,  1914,  at  the  age  of  seventy-five  years, 
having  passed  twenty-five  years  in  the  administra¬ 
tion  of  the  congregation;  Brother  Pothin,  procurator 
general,  died  suddenly,  24  April,  1921. 

At  present  (1921)  there  are  1100  members  of  the 
congregation  and  117  foundations.  Besides  20,000 
children  educated  in  their  schools,  the  Brothers  in¬ 
struct  498  orphans,  495  deaf  mutes,  and  119  blind. 
The  institute  has  13  mission  posts  with  58  missionary 
Brothers,  6  institutions  for  .deaf  mutes,  3  institutions 
for  the  blind,  0  novitiates,  and  5  juvenates.  The 
following  foundations  have  been  made  since  1909: 
Canet  de  Mar,  Spain,  novitiate  (1909);  Saluzzo, 
Italy,  novitiate  (1909);  Bangalore,  India  (1909); 
Convitto  Silvio  Pellico,  Saluzzo,  Italy  (1910); 
Chantabon,  Siam  (1910);  Tetraultville,  Canada 
(1910);  Nuritter,  Holland,  novitiate  (1911);  St.  Bruno, 
Canada  (1911;  Rotheun,  Liege  (1912);  Rome,  Italy 
(1912);  Liedekerke,  Brabant,  Belgium  (1913);  Tin- 
divanam,  India,  school  (1913);  Caracas,  Venezuela, 
(1914);  Tindivanam,  India,  normal  school  (1919); 
Ste.  Anne  dcs  Plaines,  Montreal,  Canada  (1919); 
Samsen,  Bangkok,  Siam  (1920);  Petriou,  Siam  (1920); 
St.  Romuald,  Quebec,  Canada  (1920);  Ste.  Madeleine, 
Outremont,  Montreal  (1920);  Barcelona,  Spain 
(1920);  and  a  number  of  foundations  in  France. 

Saint  Gall,  Diocese  of  (Sangallensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 349b),  includes  the  canton  of  St.  Gall  and  two 
half-cantons  of  Appenzell  in  Switzerland.  The 
diocese  is  directly  dependent  on  the  Holy  See.  The 
present  bishop  is  Mgr.  Robert  Burkler,  born  at 
Rorschach  5  March,  1863,  ordained  1888,  proposed 
by  the  chapter  29  October  and  elected  16  December, 
1913,  consecrated  at  St.  Gall  1  February,  1914,  to 
succeed  Mgr.  Ruegg,  deceased.  St.  Gall  has  (1919) 
a  Catholic  population  of  204,000  from  a  total  of  375,- 
000  inhabitants,  120  parishes,  8  missions,  4  monas¬ 
teries  of  Capuchins,  2  of  women,  13  convents  of 
women,  261  secular  and  30  regular  priests,  55  Broth¬ 
ers,  700  Sisters,  1  seminary,  10  seminarians,  1  college 
for  boys  and  210  churches  or  chapels. 

Saint  George’s,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Georgii; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 351a),  Newfoundland,  extends 
along  the  sea  coast  from  Fortune  Bay  on  the  south¬ 
west  to  Flowers  Cove  on  the  extreme  northwest  of 
the  island.  The  people  for  the  most  part  depend  for 
livelihood  on  the  fisheries  and  as  a  consequence  the 
parishes,  which  now  number  12,  are  all  on  the  sea¬ 
board.  Rt.  Rev.M.  F.  Power,  late  bishop,  died  in 
Sydney,  N.  S.,  6  March,  1920,  at  the  age  of  forty- 
three  years,  after  nine  years  in  the  episcopate.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Henri  Thomas  Renouf, 
formerly  parish  priest  of  St.  Patrick’s  in  the  city  of 
St.  Johns,  who  was  consecrated  8  December,  1920, 
and  took  possession  of  his  see  15  January,  1921. 
During  the  episcopate  of  Bishop  Power  many  develop¬ 
ments  took  place.  A  new  wing  was  added  to  the 
Convent  of  Mercy  at  St.  George’s  and  in  this  way  a 
large  number  of  young  girls  of  the  diocese  are  enabled 
to  secure  a  first  class  education,  and  an  ample  number 
of  competent  teachers  are  provided  for  the  different 
parish  schools.  The  Sisters  of  Mercy  were  introduced 
into  the  growing  town  of  Bay  of  Islands  and  conduct 

42 


a,  day  school  there.  Four  new  parishes  were  estab¬ 
lished,  among  them,  the  new  parish  of  Bay  d’Espoir, in¬ 
cluding  the  Mic-mac  Indian  settlement  at  Conne  River. 
With  very  few  exceptions  the  population  is  native- 
born  of  French,  Scotch,  Irish  and  English  ancestry.  All 
speak  the  English  language,  though  French  and 
Gaelic  may  still  be  heard,  in  the  homes.  The  growth 
of  the  population  is  altogether  due  to  natural  increase. 
According  to  latest  statistics  the  Catholic  population 
numbers  13,000;  there  are  14  priests  engaged  in  the 
work  Of  fhe  mission;  The  diocese  has  40  churches, 
about  30  stations,  and  80  schools  with  an  average 
attendance  of  2000  pupils.  The  government  gives  an 
annual  per  capita  grant  to  the  Catholic  school  boards, 
of  which  the  local  priest  is  chairman.  There  are 
two  convents  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  and  one  of  the 
Presentation  Order,  with  a  total  of  15  Sisters.  Three 
seminarians  are  at  present  preparing  abroad  for  work 
in  the  diocese.  Among  the  laity  the  Holy  Name 
Society  and  the  League  of  the  Sacred  Heart  are  in  a 
flourishing  condition. 

Saint  Hyacinthe,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Hya- 
cinthi;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 351c),  in  the  Province  of 
Quebec,  suffragan  of  Montreal.  The  present  bishop  is 
Rt.  Rev.  Alexis-Xyste  Bernard,  b.  1847,  ordained 
1871,  elected  1905,  consecrated  1906.  A  normal 
school  was  founded  at  St*.  Hyacinthe,  in  1912.  The 
diocese  has:  76  parishes,  77  churches,  1  mission,  1 
monastery  for  men,  1  monastery  for  women,  220  secu¬ 
lar  priests,  19  regular  priests,  277  Brothers,  1347 
Sisters,  1  seminary  with  477  seminarians,  4  colleges 
for  boys  with  42  teachers  and  700  students,  26  colleges 
for  girls  with  429  teachers  and  5481  students,  44  acade¬ 
mies  and  schools  under  religious  orders  with  266 
teachers  and  7050  pupils  (2700  boys,  4350  girls), 
1  normal  school  with  26  professors  and  211  students, 
1  house  of  retreat,  10  asylums  and  hospitals,  and  1 
refuge.  Organizations  among  the  clergy  are:  La 
Caisse  Ecclesiastique,  L’Union  Apostolique,  Les 
Pr^tres  Adorateurs;  and  among  the  laity:  Syndicate 
Ouvriers  Nationals  Catholiques,  Association  Catho- 
lique  de  la  Jeunesse,  Association  Catholique  des 
Voyogeurs,  and  Association  des  Zouaves.  There  are 
120,852  Catholics  and  11,721  Protestants  in  the  dio¬ 
cese. 

Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne,  Diocese  of  (Mau- 
riannensis;  cf.  C.  E.,XIII — 353d),  includes  part  of 
the  department  of  Savoy,  France,  and  is  suffragan  of 
Chambery.  The  present  bishop  is  Mgr.  Adrien 
Alexis  Fodere,  born  at  Bessans,  in  the  diocese, 
student  at  the  French  Seminary  in  Rome,  ordained 
there  in  1866,  consecrated  at  St.  Peter’s  by  Pius 
X  25  February,  1906,  to  succeed  Mgr.  Rosset, 
deceased.  The  bishop  of  the  see  has  the  title  of 
Prince  of  Aiguebelle.  During  the  war  55  priests  and 
23  seminarians  were  mobilized,  8  died  in  the  war, 
1  was  decorated  with  the  medaille  militaire  and  17 
with  the  croix  de  guerre.  The  diocese  has  87  parishes 
and  69,000  Catholics. 

Saint  Joan  of  Arc,  Sisters  of,  a  community  found¬ 
ed  in  1914  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  U.  S.,  by  Fr.  Clement 
Staub.  After  three  years  of  organization  the  mother- 
house  was  transferred  to  Quebec,  29  September,  1917 , 
and  definitely  fixed  at  Bergerville,  near  Quebec,  6 
September,  1918.  The  institute  received  diocesan 
approbation  from  Cardinal  Begin,  2  March,  1917, 
and  was  canonically  erected  as  a  religious  congrega¬ 
tion  by  Benedict  XV,  31  May,  1920.  The  object  of 
the  community  is  the  spiritual  and  temporal  service 
of  priests,  through  love  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  in  a  spirit 
of  expiation,  under  the  patronage  of  St.  Joan  of  Arc, 
model  of  sacrifice.  The  Sisters  render  spiritual  ser¬ 
vice  in  offering  up  for  the  priesthood  their  interior 


SAINT  JOHN 


656 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


life.  They  give  temporal  service  in  taking  care  of 
presbyteries,  apostolic  schools,  ecclesiastical  colleges 
and  seminaries,  and  homes  for  aged  and  retired  priests. 
They  have  charge  of  the  presbyteries  of  the  Church  of 
St.  Roch  and  the  Basilica  of  Quebec,  and  the  Apostolic 
School  of  Notre  Dame  at  Quebec.  In  Worcester, 
Mass.,  they  have  a  postulate,  and  the  care  of  three 
presbyteries  in  Nashua,  N.  H.  In  all,  they  have 
5  houses  in  Canada  and  6  in  the  United  States,  and 
number  35  religious,  of  whom  17  are  professed. 

Saint  John,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Joannis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  XIII — 355a),  in  the  Province  of  New  Brunswick. 
Canada.  The  present  administrator  is  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Edward  Alfred  Le  Blanc,  b.  at  St.  Bernard,  Halifax, 
15  Oct.,  1870,  ordained  23  Dec.,  1893,  elected  2 
Aug.,  1912,  published  2  Dec.,  consecrated  10  Dec., 
following.  He  succeeded  the  Rt.  Rev.  Timothy 
Casey,  who  was  transferred  to  the  Archdiocese  of 
Vancouver,  31  July,  1912.  According  to  the  statis¬ 
tics  of  1922  the  diocese  contains:  45  churches  with 
resident  priests,  51  missions  with  churches,  57  secular 
priests,  23  regulars,  20  seminarians  who  are  being 
educated  in  seminaries  of  other  dioceses.  Educational 
and  charitable  institutions  are:  1  college  conducted 
by  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Cross,  4  academies,  3 
orphan  asylums,  1  asylum  for  old  people,  1  hospital. 
The  Catholic  population  numbers  65,000. 

Saint  John’s,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti  Joannis 
Terr^e  Nowe;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 356b),  in  New¬ 
foundland.  Most  Rev.  M.  F.  Howley,  first  arch¬ 
bishop,  died  16  October,  1914.  He  was  succeeded  by 
Most  Rev.  Edward  Patrick  Roche,  who  was  born  in 
Placentia,  Newfoundland,  in  1874,  received  his  early 
education  at  St.  Bonaventure’s  College,  St.  John’s, 
and  his  ecclesiastical  training  at  All  Hallow’s  College, 
Dublin,  Ireland.  Ordained  priest  in  1897,  after  some 
years  of  parochial  work,  he  occupied  successively  the 
posts  of  chancellor,  administrator  of  the  cathedral 
parish,  and  vicar  general,  and  on  the  death  of  Arch¬ 
bishop  Howley  became  administrator  apostolic  of 
the  archdiocese.  In  1915  he  succeeded  to  the  epis¬ 
copacy,  being  consecrated  29  June,  and  receiving  the 
pallium  on  12  December  of  that  year.  Already  during 
the  present  episcopate  a  considerable  addition  has 
been  made  to  St.  Bride’s  College  for  young  ladies,  the 
Convent  of  the  Presentation  Sisters  has  been  enlarged 
by  a  new  building,  and  the  Presentation  Schools  of 
St.  Patrick’s,  St.  John’s,  have  been  replaced  by 
new  and  modern  ones.  A  Memorial  School,  the 
Academy  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy  for  the  higher  educa¬ 
tion  of  Catholic  girls,  honoring  those  Knights  of 
Columbus  who  gave  their  lives  during  the  Great  War, 
is  equipped  with  all  the  latest  educational  require¬ 
ments.  Besides  giving  his  attention  to  the  completion 
and  embellishing  of  St.  Patrick’s  Church,  St.  John’s, 
the  present  archbishop  has  undertaken  also  the 
important  work  of  the  restoration  of  the  cathedral. 
The  communities  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  as  also 
those  of  the  Presentation  Nuns,  formerly  independent 
houses,  have  been  amalgamated  into  provinces  with 
a  superior-general  for  each  order.  A  new  Catholic 
hospital,  St.  Clare’s,  has  been  opened  under  the  man¬ 
agement  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  Two  new  convents 
have  been  established,  many  new  schools  built,  the 
orphanages  have  been  improved  and  enlarged,  whilst 
the  archdiocese  has  benefitted  much  spiritually  by 
the  erection  of  fourteen  new  churches  and  several  new 
parishes.  The  episcopal  palace  of  St.  John’s,  the  resi¬ 
dence  of  the  archbishop,  was  destroyed  by  fire  in 
February,  1921.  A  new  building  has  been  erected 
to  replace  the  venerable  edifice  built  in  the  year  1854. 

The  Catholic  population  of  the  archdiocese  is  50,000, 
all  English-speaking.  There  are:  28  parishes,  27 
churches,  35  missions,  1  monastery  for  men  with  25 


Christian  Brothers,  9  convents  of  Presentation  Nuns 
with  121  Sisters,  8  convents  of  Sisters  of  Mercy  with 
88  Sisters,  25  seminarians,  1  college  for  men  (St. 
Bonaventure’s)  with  12  teachers  and  460  students, 
1  college  for  women  (St.  Bride’s)  with  14  teachers  and 
141  students,  39  high  schools,  1  Academy  of  Our  Lady 
of  Mercy  with  23  teachers  and  450  girls,  2  training 
schools  forming  departments  of  St.  Bonaventure’s 
(16  students)  and  St.  Bride’s  colleges  (35  students), 
146  elementary  schools  with  420  teachers  and  11,065 
pupils,  1  industrial  school  with  152  pupils  under  the 
instruction  of  6  Brothers  assisted  by  lay  teachers,  1 
hospital  (St.  Clare’s)  under  the  Sisters  of  Mercy, 
Belvedere  Orphanage  with  153  girls  under  the  care 
of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Mount  Cashel  Orphanage  with 
152  boys  under  the  care  of  the  Christian  Brothers. 
All  institutions  are  assisted  by  government  grants. 
The  general  hospital,  poor  asylum,  lunatic  asylum, 
and  sanitorium  admit  the  ministry  of  priests.  Organi¬ 
zations  among  the  laity  are  the  Benevolent  Irish 
Society,  Total  Abstinence  Society,  Star  of  the  Sea 
Association,  Holy  Name  Society,  Knights  of  Colum¬ 
bus,  and  other  pious  sodalities. 

Saint  John’s  University,  of  Toledo,  Ohio,  was 
opened  in  September,  1898,  and  incorporated  as  “St. 
John’s  College”  on  22  May,  1900.  On  29  August, 
1903,  the  charter  was  amended  and  the  institution 
became  “St.  John’s  University.”  In  September,  1908, 
the  Law  Department  was  opened  and  the  university 
now  consists  of  the  High  School  Department,  College 
of  Arts  and  Sciences,  including  a  pre-medical  depart¬ 
ment,  and  the  Law  School,  which  is  a  night  school. 
The  university  is  conducted  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers  and 
their  usual  course  of  training  is  followed.  During  the 
summer  a  course  of  studies  is  given  for  members  of 
other  religious  orders  wishing  to  attend,  and  during 
the  winter  an  extension  course  of  studies  is  given  in 
the  evenings.  A  library  of  5500  volumes  is  at  the 
disposal  of  the  students,  and  a  Law  Library  of  1000 
volumes.  A  bi-weekly  paper,  “The  Gleaner,”  is 
published  by  the  students.  In  1921  the  High  School 
Department  registered  250  students  under  a  faculty 
of  16;  the  College  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  39  students, 
faculty  15;  Law  School,  44  students,  faculty  24. 
Rev.  Francis  X.  Busch,  S.J.,  is  president  of  the 
university. 

Saint  Joseph,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Josephi; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 356d),  in  Missouri.  The  City  of  St. 
Joseph  has  at  present:  8  parishes  with  13  resident 
pastors,  each  parish  having  a  parochial  school, 
attended  by  over  2000  pupils;  a  Catholic  high  school 
for  boys  conducted  by  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools;  a  Catholic  high  school  for  girls,  conducted 
by  the  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart;  and  an  academy 
and  junior  college  for  young  ladies,  conducted  by  the 
Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart;  one  hospital  conducted 
by  the  Daughters  of  Charity  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul. 
The  City  of  St.  Joseph  has  a  Catholic  population  of 
about  15,000.  Outside  of  the  city  may  be  mentioned 
the  Benedictine  Abbey  of  Conception,  established  in 
1874.  The  Benedictine  Fathers  conduct  a  seminary 
for  their  own  students,  and  a  classical  college.  For 
the  present  several  parishes  and  missions  in  the  dio¬ 
cese  are  attended  by  the  Benedictines  from  Conception 
Abbey.  The  mother-house  and  academy  of  the  Bene¬ 
dictine  Sisters  of  Perpetual  Adoration  is  at  Clyde; 
and  at  Maryville  is  the  mother-house  of  the  Francis¬ 
can  Sisters,  who  conduct  hospitals  at  Maryville, 
Hannibal,  and  Moberly.  An  academy  at  Chillicothe 
is  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph,  and  one  at 
Moberly  is  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Loretto. 

By  a  decree  of  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Con¬ 
sistory,  dated  Rome,  16  June,  1911,  the  territory  con¬ 
tained  in  the  counties  of  Adair,  Clark,  Knox,  Lewis, 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


657 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


Macon,  Marion,  Monroe,  Rails,  Randolph,  Shelby, 
Schuyler, Scotland,  and  that  part  of  Chariton  County 
east  of  the  Chariton  River  was  detached  from  the 
Archdiocese  of  St.  Louis  and  attached  to  the  Diocese 
of  St.  Joseph.  By  reason  of  this  extension  the  Diocese 
of  St.  Joseph  now  comprises  the  whole  northern  part 
of  the  State  of  Missouri  extending  from  the  Missouri 
to  the  Mississippi  River  and  is  bounded  on  the  south 
bv  the  counties  of  Howard,  Boone,  Audrain,  and  Pike. 
The  diocese  has  32  parochial  schools  with  an  atten¬ 
dance  of  1985  boys  and  1980  girls,  or  a  total  of  3905. 
The  Catholic  population  is  about  42,000.  On  account 
of  the  advanced  age  and  continued  infirmity  of  Bishop 
M.  F.  Burke,  by  virtue  of  a  decree  of  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  the  Consistory,  dated  18  April,  1921, 
Rt.  Rev.  James  P.  Brady  was  named  apostolic 
administrator  of  the  Diocese  of  St.  Joseph,  with  all 
the  rights  and  privileges  annexed  by  law  to  that  office. 
The  Rt.  Rev.  James  P.  Brady  took  official  possession 
of  the  administration  according  to  the  terms  of  the 
decree  25  April,  1921. 

Saint  Joseph,  Missionaries  of,  of  Mexico 
(Josephites). — This  congregation  was  founded  in 
the  City  of  Mexico  in  1872,  during  the  time  of  Presi¬ 
dent  Juarez,  when  anti-religious  laws  had  been  pro¬ 
mulgated  and  all  the  religious  congregations  driven 
from  Mexican  soil.  A  member  of  the  Congregation 
of  the  Mission,  expelled  from  his  convent,  conceived 
the  idea  of  founding  a  congregation  with  a  native 
character,  to  help  efface  the  evil  caused  by  the  dis¬ 
persion  of  the  religious  who  had  existed  there.  This 
priest  was  Fr.  Jose  M.  Vilaseca,  born  in  Igualda, 
Spain,  19  January,  1831.  Fr.  Vilaseca’s  idea  was 
to  found  an  order  similar  to  the  institutes  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul,  with  organizations  like  the  Lazarists 
and  Sisters  of  Charity.  The  two  institutes  were 
placed  under  the  protection  of  St.  Joseph  and  were 
called  Missionaries  of  St.  Joseph  (Josefines)  and 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  (Josefinas).  Their  object  was 
to  preach  the  gospel  to  the  people,  especially  to  the 
poor  and  the  numerous  Indians  in  Mexico,  still 
living  in  savagery  and  idolatry.  The  Sisters  were  to 
instruct  the  young  and  nurse  the  sick  in  hospitals. 
In  the  beginning  the  circumstances  of  the  persecu¬ 
tion  of  congregations  caused  the  two  institutes  to 
lead  a  concealed  life.  The  men  mingled  with  the 
students  of  a  seminary  called  the  Clerical  College, 
which  gave  to  the  dioceses  of  Mexico  two  hundred 
priests  in  those  troubled  years.  The  Sisters  passed  as 
Daughters  of  Mary.  However,  in  a  short  time, 
the  founder  and  some  of  his  religious  managed  to 
elude  the  authorities,  and  give  missions  in  the  country 
and  small  centers. 

During  the  presidency  of  General  Porfirio  Diaz  the 
persecution  was  very  much  abated  and  some  expelled 
congregations  returned  to  Mexico,  but  not  the 
Sisters  of  Charity.  The  Josephite  Institutes  took 
advantage  of  this  truce  to  consolidate  and  increase 
their  numbers.  The  missionaries  separated  from  the 
Clerical  College  and  started  their,  own  seminary  in 
spite  of  great  difficulty,  through  lack  of  vocations. 
In  Mexico  there  is  a  great  scarcity  of  religious  voca¬ 
tions  among  men.  The  dioceses  of  the  central  sec¬ 
tion  of  the  country,  like  Guadalajara,  Michoacan, 
and  Zamora,  produce  a  large  number  of  secular  priests 
each  year  but  very  few  religious.  The  other  dioceses 
even  lack  secular  priests.  The  Congregation  of  St. 
Joseph  did  not  have  many  subjects,  and  of  the  few 
foundations  made  several  disappeared  for  various 
reasons.  In  1892  the  first  missionaries  succeeded  in 
penetrating  the  country  of  the  savage  Indian  tribes. 
The  Trahumares  in  the  State  of  Chihuahua  and  the 
Yaquis  in  Sonora  were  evangelized  but  these  missions 
were  not  permanent,  as  the  priests  were  no  more  than 
explorers  of  the  land.  Later  the  Fathers  penetrated 


the  mountains  called  Nayarit  which  lie  in  the  States 
of  Zacatecas,  Durango,  and  Jalisco.  There  they 
established  themselves  and  for  ten  years  evangelized 
the  Indians  until  the  destructive  revolution  of  1914 
and  the  following  years  expelled  the  missionaries 
and  destroyed  their  w’orks. 

In  1895  the  congregation  opened  a  house  in  Rome, 
established  there  their  procurator  general,  and  ordered 
its  students  to  follow  the  scholastic  courses  of  the 
Roman  University.  In  1898  the  Decretum  Laudis 
was  obtained  from  the  Holy  See.  In  1902  the 
Sacred  College  approved  the  constitutions  of  the 
congregation  conditionally  for  seven  years,  and  on 
14  September,  1911,  granted  final  approbation. 
Fr.  Vilaseca  had  died  3  April,  1910,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Fr.  Jose  M.  Troncoso,  now  head  of  the  institute. 
The  religious  persecution  which  ravaged  Mexico 
through  the  instrumentality  of  President  Carranza 
was  as  fierce  and  terrible  as  that  of  President  Juarez 
fifty  years  before,  and  caused  great  harm  to  the 
Josephites.  All  their  houses  were  occupied  by 
soldiers  and  their  religious  dispersed,  among  them 
their  superior  general,  who  emigrated  to  the  United 
States,  while  others  went  to  Central  America.  The 
revolutionary  trouble  has  now  passed  and  the  re¬ 
ligious  can  return  to  their  houses  and  take  up  their 
missions.  At  present  the  number  of  missionaries  is 
100  with  12  houses,  all  in  Mexico,  and  a  procurator 
general  in  Rome. 

Saint  Joseph,  Sisters  of. — Congregation  of  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 511a), 
founded  at  Le  Puy,  France,  in  1650  by  Fr.  Jean- 
Paul  Medaille,  S.J.,  and  dispersed  during  the  French 
Revolution.  Among  the  religious  who  survived  the 
reign  of  terror  was  Mother  St.  John  Fontbonne,  who, 
anxious  to  reassemble  her  community,  established  a 
novitiate  at  Saint  Etienne  in  1807  at  the  expressed 
wish  of  Cardinal  Fisch  for  the  reconstruction  of  the 
congregation.  This  foundation  was  a  fe.w  years  later 
removed  to  Lyons  which  then  became  the  mother- 
house  for  that  archdiocese,  the  congregation  at  that 
time  being  diocesan.  The  community  now  at  Le 
Puy  has  a  mother-house  on  the  site  of  the  original 
foundation  of  1650.  It  has  suffered  much  under 
recent  legislation.  The  mother-house  at  Lyons  is 
still  in  existence  and  had  numerous  schools  and 
institutions  previous  to  1905.  From  it  foundations 
have  been  made  in  Armenia,  Egypt,  Corsica,  the 
Indies,  Mexico,  and  the  United  States.  The  Sisters 
were  introduced  into  the  United  States  through 
correspondence  between  Bishop  Rosati  of  St.  Louis 
and  Fr.  Charles  Cholleton,  Spiritual  Father  of  the 
Sisters  in  the  Diocese  of  Lyons  and  also  foreign  vicar 
of  St.  Louis.  They  settled  first,  in  Carondelet,  in  the 
Diocese  of  St.  Louis,  in  1836,  and  later  Bishop  Rosati 
sent  three  religious  to  Cahokia.  The  foundation  in 
Canada  was  made  by  Sister  Delphine,  one  of  the 
original  band  of  six  who  came  to  Carondelet  from 
Lyons. 

Boston  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 512d). — In  1873  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph  from  the  Brooklyn  foundation  opened  a 
parochial  school  in  connection  with  St.  Thomas 
Church,  Jamaica  Plain,  at  the  request  of  Fr.  Thomas 
Magennis,  pastor  there.  They  were  soon  asked  to 
take  charge  of  similar  schools  in  South  Boston, 
Stoughton,  Amesbury.  In  1876  a  novitiate  was 
opened  and  Boston  became  an  independent  establish¬ 
ment  of  the  Sisters  under  Archbishop  Williams,  with 
Mother  Mary  Regis  as  superior.  The  novitiate  was 
transferred  to  Cambridge  in  1885  and  Mt.  St.  Joseph 
Academy  was  opened  there,  but  this  property  was 
sold  for  Metropolitan  Park  purposes  in  1891  and  a 
novitiate  and  academy  were  built  at  Brighton.  In 
1902  a  normal  school  was  opened  at  Canton,  and  the 
novitiate  transferred  there.  In  1921  these  were 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


658 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


removed  to  Framingham  to  the  magnificent  estate 
given  the  Sisters  by  the  late  Thomas  Fitzpatrick  of 
Boston.  The  mother-house  is  still  at  Brighton. 
The  Sisters  are  now  teaching  throughout  the  arch¬ 
diocese,  and  (1922)  number  603  in  charge  of  1 
academy,  27  parish  schools,  including  5  high  schools, 
a  school  for  the  deaf,  and  an  industrial  school  for 
girls.  They  have  in  their  schools  14,745  boys  and 
girls.  The  present  superior,  Mother  Mary  Borgia, 
was  re-elected  in  July,  1920,  for  her  sixth  term  of 
office.  Since  1910  the  Sisters  have  made  26  new 
foundations,  the  present  number  being  38.  In 
addition  to  their  schools  they  conduct  homes  for 
working  girls,  homes  for  aged  women,  and  rest 
houses  for  women.  Their  foundress,  Mother  Mary 
Regis,  died  in  1917,  at  Brighton,  where  she  had 
retired  due  to  failing  health.  She  had  entered  the 
community  at  Brooklyn  in  1863,  was  made  superior 
of  the  Boston  foundation  in  1873,  and  governed  it 
as  an  independent  establishment  from  1876  to  1890. 
Subsequently  she  was  appointed  local  superior  of 
Saint  Joseph’s,  Amesburv,  and  again  superior  of 
St.  Thomas  Convent,  Jamaica  Plain. 

Brooklyn  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII— 512d).— In  1856,  Bishop 
Loughlin  of  Brooklyn  applied  to  the  mother-house  of 
Philadelphia  for  Sisters  of  Saint  Joseph  who,  in  the 
rapidly  widening  field  of  education  in  Long  Island,  were 
to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  new  community.  The  three 
Sisters  named  for  the  foundation  arrived  25  August, 
1856,  and  8  September  opened  Saint  Mary’s  Academy 
in  Williamsburg.  Two  years  later  a  parochial  school 
was  inaugurated  in  a  neighboring  parish.  In  1860 
the  mother-house,  novitiate,  and  boarding  school 
were  removed  to  Flushing,  L.  I.,  whence  the  varied 
activities  of  the  Sisters  were  extended  over  the 
diocese.  Several  years  later,  the  mother-house  and 
novitiate  were  transferred  to  Brentwood,  where  an 
academy  for  young  ladies  was  opened  8  September, 
1903.  Saint  Joseph’s  alumnae  indudes  Flushing  and 
Brentwood  graduates,  whose  loyalty  has  been  sub¬ 
stantially  proved,  especially  in  reference  to  their 
Alma  Mater.  The  former  students’  patronage  is 
noticeable,  in  their  representatives  at  the  Brentwood 
Academy,  even  to  the  second  and  third  generation. 
The  Congregation  of  the  Sisters  of  Saint  Joseph  in 
the  Diocese  of  Brooklyn,  now  (1921)  numbering  800 
members,  must  be  filially  recognized  in  5  branch 
communities:  Ebensburg,  Pa.;  Rutland,  Vt.;  Boston, 
Chicopee  Falls,  and  Springfield,  Mass.  In  the 
Diocese  of  Brooklyn  the  Sisters  preside  over  6 
academies,  50  parochial  schools,  4  orphanages,  and 
2  hospitals.  In  accordance  with  the  requirements  of 
Canon  Law,  several  changes  have  been  recently  made 
among  the  local  superiors.  During  the  past  decade 
15  missions  were  opened,  including  an  academy,  2 
commercial  schools,  a  summer  resort  for  the  Sisters, 
10  parochial  schools,  and  Saint  Joseph’s  Day  College 
for  Women. 

In  June,  1920,  the  first  college  graduates,  twelve 
in  number,  received  from  the  State  University  the 
degree  B.  A.  At  present,  several  of  this  pioneer  class, 
holding  important  positions  as  teachers,  are  extending 
the  work  of  Catholic  education.  As  the  college  is 
patronized  chiefly  by  Brooklyn  high  schools,  the 
academies  in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  Saint  Joseph 
are  well  represented.  The  college  building  was 
formerly  known  as  the  Pratt  Mansion.  On  8  August, 
1921,  the  college  sustained  a  great  loss  in  the  death  of 
its  venerated  founder  and  president,  Bishop  Mc¬ 
Donnell,  who,  five  years  before,  had  named  the 
present  Bishop  Molloy  head  of  the  faculty,  and  is 
now  succeeded  by  him. 

Buffalo  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 512d). — Four  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph  from  Carondelet  introduced  the  congrega¬ 
tion  into  the  Diocese  of  Buffalo  in  1854,  the  com¬ 
munity  becoming  autonomous  there  in  1861.  The 


general  superiors  have  been  Mother  M .  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Mother  M.  Scholastica,  and  the  present 
superior,  Mother  M.  Austin  Teresa.  The  term  of 
superior  has  been  changed  from  three  to  six  years, 
and  the  novitiate  has  been  reduced  from  five  to  three 
years,  according  to  the  revised  Code  of  Canon  Law. 
Since  1910  the  Sisters  have  opened  5  new  schools  and 
a  finely  equipped  hospital.  At  present  they  have 
40  institutions  under  their  charge,  including  1  deaf 
mute  asylum,  3  orphan  asylums,  1  infant  asylum,  1 
hospital,  1  home  for  women  and  working  girls  and  3 
schools,  of  which  one  is  a  boarding  academy.  The 
community  numbers  360,  and  they  have  under  in¬ 
struction  9000  children. 

Burlington  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 513a). — In  the 
Diocese  of  Burlington  65  professed  Sisters,  31  novices, 
and  4  postulants  are  in  charge  of  1  home  and  7  schools 
with  2000  pupils. 

Chicago  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 513a). — In  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  Chicago  60  professed  Sisters,  29  novices, 
and  5  postulants  teach  1540  pupils  in  7  parochial 
schools  and  2  academies.  The  mother-house  is  at 
La  Grange,  Ill. 

Cleveland  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 513a). — In  the  Diocese 
of  Cleveland  140  professed  Sisters,  19  novices,  and 
2  postulants  conduct  an  academy  and  12  parochial 
schools  with  5200  pupils.  The  mother-house  is 
at  West  Park,  Ohio. 

Concordia  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 513b). — Established 
by  four  Sisters  from  Rochester  in  1883,  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph  of  Concordia  now  number  380  and  have 
under  their  care  37  institutions.  Since  1910  they 
have  opened  a  boarding  school  for  girls  at  Cawker 
City,  Kansas,  and  a  parochial  school  in  connection 
with  it;  a  diocesan  orphanage  at  Abilene,  Kansas; 
and  an  old  people’s  home  also  at  Abilene,  with  20 
inmates 

Detroit  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 513b). — In  the  Diocese  of 
Detroit  253  professed  Sisters,  24  novices,  and  16 
postulants  have  charge  of  3810  pupils  and  425  or¬ 
phans.  The  mother-house  is  Nazareth  Convent, 

1\Tq  ?9rpfli  lVTipn 

Erie  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII— 513b).— The  present  supe¬ 
rior  of  this  cpmmunity,  founded  from  Carondelet  in 
1860,  is  Mother  M.  Helena,  elected  in  July,  1918, 
and  re-elected  in  1921.  She  had  been  appointed  by 
Bishop  Fitzmaurice  to  fill  the  unexpired  term  of 
office  of  Mother  M.  Eugenia,  fourth  general  superior, 
who  died  23  December,  1917,  Mother  M.  Ambrosia, 
second  general  superior,  died  9  October,  1916.  Due 
to  the  revised  Code  of  Canon  Law,  the  novitiate  is 
shortened  from  seven  to  five  years;  local  superiors 
are  changed  every  three  years,  and  superiors  of  major 
institutions  every  six  years.  At  present  the  com¬ 
munity  numbers  227  Sisters  and  6  postulants.  They 
have  i9  institutions  under  their  care,  all  in  Pennsyl¬ 
vania.  These  are:  Villa  Maria  Academy,  mother- 
house  and  young  ladies’  boarding  school,  Erie;  St. 
Vincent’s  Hospital,  Erie;  Spencer  Hospital,  Meadville; 
St.  Joseph’s  Orphanage,  Erie;  Catholic  Boys’  Home, 
Harbour  Creek;  St.  Mary’s  Home  for  the  Aged, 
Erie;  Cathedral,  St.  Patrick’s,  St.  Joseph’s,  St. 
Michael’s,  St.  Ann’s,  St.  John’s,  and  Sacred  Heart 
parochial  schools,  Erie;  St.  Bernard’s  parochial  and 
high  school,  Bradford;  St.  Francis’s  parochial  and  high 
school,  Clearfield;  St.  Agatha’s  parochial  and  high 
school,  Meadville;  St.  Bridget’s  parochial  school, 
Meadville;  St.  Mary’s  parochial  and  high  school, 
Reynoldsville;  St.  Leo’s  parochial  and  high  school, 
Ridgeway.  The  Sisters  care  for  6800  patients,  320 
orphans,  50  aged,  and  4800  pupils  annually. 

Fall  River  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 513c). — In  the  Diocese 
of  Fall  River  43  Sisters  teach  1781  pupils  in  5  paro¬ 
chial  schools. 

Fort  Wayne  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII-513c). — In  the  Dio¬ 
cese  of  Fort  Wayne  65  professed  Sisters,  12  novices, 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


659 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


and  7  postulants  teach  1000  pupils.  The  mother- 
house  is  at  Tipton,  Ind. 

Ogdensburg  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIIL — 513c). — There  are 
80  Sisters  in  the  Diocese  of  Ogdensburg,  with  mother- 
house  at  Watertown,  N.  Y. 

Philadelphia  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 513c). — This 
community,  with  mother-house  at  Chestnut  Hill, 
Philadelphia,  conducts  establishments  in  the  arch¬ 
dioceses  of  Baltimore  and  Philadelphia,  and  in  the 
dioceses  of  Harrisburg,  Newark,  and  Trenton.  There 
are  712  professed  Sisters,  350  juniors  and  novices,  and 
41  postulants.  Statistics  for  1921  are  as  follows: 
5  academies,  655  pupils;  1  deaf-mute  institute,  53 
boarders,  225  Sunday  School  deaf-mute  pupils;  3 
high  schools;  4  parish  high  schools;  17  commercial 
schools;  63  elementary  schools;  36,840  pupils;  3 
asylums,  970  inmates;  3  day  nurseries,  125  children; 
1  settlement  house. 

Pittsburgh  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 513d). — This  com¬ 
munity  has  its  mother-house  at  Baden,  Beaver  Co., 
Penn . ,  and  conducts  establishments  in  the  Dioceses  of 
Altoona  and  Pittsburgh.  There  are  266  professed 
Sisters,  45  novices,  11  postulants,  and  9000  pupils. 

Rochester  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 514a). — In  the  dioceses 
of  Rochester  and  Syracuse  there  are  441  professed 
Sisters,  115  novices,  and  12  postulants.  They  have 
under  their  care  2  orphan  asylums  with  357  orphans 
1  home  for  the  aged  with  85  inmates,  teach  and 
14,152  pupils. 

Sacramento. — On  22  June,  1912,  in  response  to 
the  late  Bishop  Grace’s  urgent  call  for  Sisters,  Mother 
Bernard  Gosselin,  then  assistant  Superior  at  La 
Grange,  Ill.,  with  nine  companions,  established  a 
novitiate  in  Eureka,  Cal.,  under  the  direction  of 
Mgr.  L.  Kennedy,  V.G.  Shortly  after  their  arrival 
a  large  academy  and  parochial  school  were  built. 
In  1916  St.  Bernard’s  Institute  for  boys  was  opened 
at  Ferndale,  Cal.  The  Sisters  also  conduct  schools 
in  Brawley,  Imperial  Valley,  Santa  Ana,  and  Ontario-, 
in  the  Diocese  of  Monterey  and  Los  Angeles.  On 
1  Nov.,  1920,  the  Sisters  opened  to  the  public  one  of 
the  most  modern  and  fully  equipped  hospitals  on  the 
coast.  The  following  year  marked  the  opening  of  St. 
Mary’s  Chinese  Mission,  conducted  by  the  Paulist 
Fathers,  San  Francisco,  where  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  teach  600  Chinese  pupils  daily.  On  the  feast 
of  the  Conversion  of  St.  Paul,  six  months  after  the 
birth  of  this  new  mission,  over  75  converts  were 
baptized,  four  priests  performing  the  impressive 
ceremony  at  the  same  time.  The  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph  of  Eureka  follow  the  rules  of  their  original 
foundation  of  Lyons,  and  in  addition  to  educational 
and  hospital  work,  undertake  all  missionary  works 
and  wrorks  of  mercy.  Though  only  ten  years  es¬ 
tablished  the  community  already  numbers  nearly 
100  members. 

St.  Augustine  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 514a).— In  the. 
Diocese  of  St.  Augustine  113  professed  Sisters,  7 
novices,  and  2  postulants  conduct  8  mission  houses, 
1  orphanage  with  70  orphans,  3  academies,  15 
schools,  attended  by  2434  children. 

St.  Louis  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 514b). — The  six  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph  who  came  from  Lyons  in  1836  to  Saint 
Louis  were:  Sisters  Felicite  Bout6,  Febronie  Chapellon, 
Philomene  Vilaine,  Saint  Protais  Deboille,  Febronie 
and  Delphine  Fontbonne.  They  were  joined  in 
1837  by  two  more  Sisters  from  Lyons,  Sisters  Celestine 
Pommerel  and  Saint  John  Fournier.  Sister  Delphine 
Fontbonne,  niece  of  Mother  Saint  John  Fontbonne, 
superior  general  of  the  Lyons  congregation,  was 
appointed  superior  in  Carondelet,  then  a  small 
French  village  of  several  hundred  inhabitants.  The 
'Sisters  were  given  charge  of  the  village  school  in  1837 , 
and  in  the  following  year  began  the  instruction  of 
deaf-mutes.  Bishop  Rosati  obtained  an  appropriation 
for  this  deaf-mute  school  from  the  Missouri  Legisla¬ 


ture  in  1839.  Mother  Celestine  Pommerel  (1839- 
57)  succeeded  Mother  Delphine  and  governed  the 
congregation  for  eighteen  years.  She  organized  St. 
Joseph’s  Academy,  chartered  in  1853,  and  in  1845 
sent  Sister  teachers  to  the  oldest  parochial  school  in 
St.  Louis,  St.  Vincent’s,  now  (1921)  celebrating  its 
76th  anniversary  and  to  a  school  for  Catholic  colored 
children  of  the  city.  This  was  maintained  until 
obstacles  were  placed  by  the  civil  authorities  in  the 
way  of  its  continuance.  During  her  term  of  office, 
houses  of  the  congregation  were  established  in  the 
dioceses  of  Philadelphia,  St.  Paul  (Minn.),  Toronto 
(Canada),  Wheeling  (Va.),  Buffalo  (N.  Y.),  and 
Natchez  (Miss.).  Her  successor,  Mother  St.  John 
Facemaz  (1857-72),  on  the  advice  of  Archbishop 
Kendrick  of  St.  Louis,  and  with  his  cooperation, 
formed  a  generalate  comprising  the  houses  in  Missouri, 
Minnesota,  Mississippi,  and  Illinois,  with  mother- 
house  at  St.  Louis,  and  obtained  for  it  the  approba¬ 
tion  of  Pius  IX.  Mother  Agatha  Guthrie  (1872- 
1904),  a  native  of  St.  Louis,  was  an  indefatigable 
worker  in  the  cause  of  charity,  and  extended  the 
activities  of  the  congregation  to  the  Creole  children 
of  the  South  and  to  the  Western  Indian  tribes.  At. 
her  death  in  1904,  the  congregation  counted  numer¬ 
ous  institutions  in  17  dioceses  of  the  United  States. 
Mother  Agnes  Gonzaga  Ryan  (1905-17)  was  suc- 
ceded  by  the  present)  mother  general,  Mother  Mary 
Agnes  Rossiter  (1917 — ). 

The  congregation  numbers  (1921)  2300  professed 
members,  with  a  large  novitiate  in  each  of  the  four 
provinces,  the  average  number  of  novices  being  150. 
At  the  last  enumeration  in  1920,  novices  and  postu¬ 
lants  numbered  173.  The  community  maintains 
2  instituutes  for  deaf-mutes;  1  Creole  and  4  Indian 
schools,  among  the  latter  that  of  San  Xavier  del  Bac 
in  Arizona,  one  of  the  largest  day  schools  for  Indians 
in  the  United  States;  17  academies;  1  conservatory 
of  music  and  art,  with  over  1000  pupils;  3  colleges, 
two  juniors  and  one  senior.  The  last,  a  member  of 
the  American  Association  of  Colleges,  was  opened 
under  the  auspices  of  Archbishop  Ireland,  in  St. 
Paul,  where  his  sister,  Mother  Seraphine,  was  pro¬ 
vincial  superior  for  many  years.  The  sisters  are 
teaching  in  34  high  schools  and  163  parochial  schools, 
with  a  total  enrollment  of  56,791  pupils.  They  also 
have  charge  of  1  day  nursery;  1  infant  asylum;  1 
home  for  the  friendless;  7  orphanages-  and  10  hospitals 
which  cared  for  16,605  patients  during  1920.  These 
educational  and  benevolent  institutions  are  spread 
throughout  23  archdioceses  and  dioceses. 

Savannah  (cf.  C.  E.,  VII — 515a). — In  the  Diocese 
of  Savannah  there  are  58  Sisters,  with  750  pupils 
under  instruction.  The  mother-house  is  at  Augusta, 
Ga. 

Springfield  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 515a). — In  the  Dio^ 
cese  of  Springfield  400  professed  Sisters  and  30 
novices  teach  4600  pupils  in  23  parochial  schools. 

Superior. — This  community  was  founded  in  1907 
by  three  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  from  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
at  the  request  of  Bishop  Schinner  of  Superior  and 
through  the  kindness  of  Rev.  Albert  Dierckes,  S.J., 
president  of  St.  Xavier  College,  Cincinnati,  and 
Rev.  F.  X.  O’Neil,  S.J.  Mother  Evangela,  accom¬ 
panied  by  Sisters  M.  Xavier  and  M.  Joseph  ?  first 
took  charge  of  a  school  then  in  course  of  erection  in 
Superior.  The  first  mother-house  was  in  Billings 
Park,  in  St.  Patrick’s  parish.  In  1909  the  Jesuits 
from  Cincinnati  took  charge  of  this  parish  in  Superior 
and  began  the  organization  of  the  Cloude  Allouez 
College.  Fr.  Dierckes  died  in  1914,  and  being  short 
of  men  the  Jesuits  were  withdrawn  from  Superior, 
and  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  took  over  the  Cloude 
Allouez  College,  establishing  a  girls’  high  school 
there.  In  March,  1909,  the  Sisters  undertook  the 
work  of  a  government  day  school  for  Indian  children 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


660 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


at  Reserve,  Wis.  They  also  had  charge  of  a  parochial 
school  at  Hayward,  Wis.,  until  all  work  there  closed 
down.  Billings  Park  is  now  the  Good  Samaritan 
Hospital,  conducted  by  the  Sisters,  and  the  mother- 
house  has  been  transferred  to  Central  Park,  a  beautiful 
location  on  the  Bay  of  Superior,  facing  Lake  Superior. 
The  community  numbers  (1921)  17  Sisters,  6  novices, 
and  3  postulants. 

Wheeling  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 515b). — In  the  Diocese 
of  Wheeling  there  are  119  professed  Sisters,  22  novices, 
and  3  postulants. 

Wichita  (cf.  C.  k,  XIV— 515b).— The  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph  were  established  with  the  mother-house  in 
this  diocese,  at  the  re-division  of  the  Kansas  dioceses 
in  1897,  the  first  foundation  having  been  made  at 
Abilene,  Kansas,  in  1887,  by  Sisters  from  Concordia. 
The  first  general  superior  was  Mother  M.  Bernard 
Sheridan  (1887-1908) .  She  was  succeeded  by  Mother 
M.  Aloysia  Kelleher,  who  served  an  extra  year 
beyond  her  two  terms  in  order  to  complete  the 
new  mother-house,  St.  Mary’s  Convent.  This  was 
solemnly  dedicated  by  Bishop  Hennessy  of  Wichita, 
11  February,  1915.  Mother  M.  Colette  Kipp  was 
elected  general  superior,  4  July,  1915,  and  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  superior,  Mother  M. 
Aloysia  Kelleher,  15  August,  1921.  The  work  of 
the  community  is  the  education  of  children  and  the 
care  of  the  sick  in  hospitals.  At  the  present  time 
(1921)  the  Sisters  number  270,  and  have  1  academy, 
2  high  schools,  20  parochial  schools,  6  hospitals,  and 
5  nurses’  training  schools. 

Canada. — Hamilton  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 515c). — 
This  community  with  mother-house  at  Hamilton, 
Ont.,  numbers  183  professed  Sisters,  33  novices,  and 
9  postulants.  The  Sisters  conduct  10  schools  in  the 
city  of  Hamilton,  and  have  foundations  at  Paris 
(1858),  Brantford  (1859),  Guelph  (1861),  Arthur 
(1870),  Dun  das  (1879),  and  Mt.  Forest  (1908). 

London  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 515c). — The  community 
of  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  at  London,  Ontario  now 
(1922)  number  234,  in  charge  of  15  mission  houses, 
2  hospitals,  19  schools,  an  orphan  asylum  and  a  house 
of  refuge  for  the  aged.  They  also  teach  the  separate 
schools  of  the  city.  About  3000  children  are  under 
their  care.  In  1914  a  larger  mother-house  became 
necessary  so  the  Convent  of  the  Sacred  Heart  was  pur¬ 
chased  from  the  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart  who 
left  for  other  fields  of  labor. 

Peterborough  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 515d). — In  1890 
several  Sisters  from  the  mother-house  at  Toronto 
established  a  house  at  Petersborough  which  became 
in  turn  the  nucleus  of  a  new  congregation.  The 
community  now  (1921)  numbers  292  professed  Sisters, 
73  novices,  and  6  postulants.  The  Sisters  have 
charge  of  2  academies,  3  hospitals,  2  orphanages,  a 
home  for  the  aged,  and  29  separate  schools  in  the 
diocese  of  Peterborough,  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Ottawa, 
and  Alexandria.  In  1910  a  foundation  was  made  at 
Douglas  in  the  Diocese  of  Pembroke.  Other  foun¬ 
dations  in  the  same  diocese  were  Killaloe  (1914)  and 
Mount  St.  Patrick  (1916).  In  1921  the  Diocese  of 
Pembroke  was  granted  its  own  mother-house  at 
Pembroke,  with  a  community  of  27  members  from 
the  Peterborough  community.  Other  recent  foun¬ 
dations  were  Almonte  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Ottawa 
in  1914  and  St.  Andrews  West  in  the  Diocese  of 
Alexandria  in  1917.  Among  recent  deaths  was  that 
of  Mother  Annunciation,  in  May,  1920.  She  was 
one  of  the  pioneers  of  the  Peterborough  community, 
Superior  of  St.  Joseph’s  Academy,  Lindsay,  for 
many  years,  and  translator  of  “The  Life  of  Mother 
Sacred  Heart.”  In  1918  Mother  Clotilde,  who  had 
been  Superior  General  for  sixteen  years,  resigned  her 
office  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  Superior, 
Mother  Aldegonde. 

Toronto  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII— 515d).— In  1914  the 


constitutions  of  the  institute  were  revised  according 
to  the  requirements  of  Canon  Law.  General  gov¬ 
ernment  was  established  and  the  system  of  election 
by  delegation  introduced.  The  houses  of  the  Diocese 
of  Toronto  and  the  missions  of  Western  Canada 
elected  a  superior  general  and  general  council  to 
administer  the  affairs  of  the  institute.  In  1916  ap¬ 
plication  was  made  to  the  Holy  See  for  pontifical 
approval  of  the  congregation  and  its  constitutions. 
In  July,  1920,  the  initial  step  in  the  process  was  taken 
by  the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Regulars,  and  the 
decree  of  praise  was  granted,  the  institute  thereby 
ceasing  to  be  diocesan  and  taking  rank  among  the 
approved  congregations  of  the  Church.  In  1921  the 
constitutions  were  further  revised  to  meet  the  ruling 
of  the  new  Code  of  Canon  Law,  and  application  was 
made  to  the  pope  for  final  approbation. 

£>ince  1910  the  following  new  foundations  have 
been  made:  St.  Joseph’s  College,  Toronto,  was 
affiliated  with  St.  Michaels,  the  Catholic  college  of 
the  University  of  Toronto,  in  1911,  and  college 
courses  were  begun  in  October  of  that  year;  St. 
Joseph’s  had  carried  on  the  work  of  secondary  edu¬ 
cation  for  nearly  fifty  years;  the  graduates  of  the 
four  or  five  years’  college  course  now  receive  their 
degree  from  the  University  of  Toronto  upon  passing 
the  regular  annual  examinations  there;  an  alumnae 
association  was  formed  in  1911  and  in  the  same  year 
appeared  the  initial  number  of  the  college  quarterly 
“St.  Joseph’s  Lilies.”  St.  Joseph’s  Hospital  at 
Comox,  Vancouver  Island,  B.  C.,  the  first  mission  of 
the  Sisters  in  Western  Canada,  was  opened  in  July, 
1913;  primarily  for  the  benefit  of  the  men  in  the 
logging  and  mining  camps  of  the  district,  the  hospital 
is  however  open  to  all,  and  the  great  work  accom¬ 
plished  in  relieving  physical  suffering  and  ministering 
to  the  care  of  souls  has  removed  the  barrier  of  anti- 
Catholic  prejudice  which  at  first  seemed  insur¬ 
mountable;  9  Sisters  are  now  engaged  in.  the  institu¬ 
tion,  and  the  number  of  patients  registered  during 
1921  was  420.  St.  Joseph’s  Convent,  Prince  Rupert, 
B.  C.,  was  opened  15  August,  1916,  at  the  urgent 
request  of  Rt.  Rev.  E.  I.  Bunoz;  4  sisters  took 
charge  of  the  parochial  school  and  in  1917  St.  Joseph's 
boarding  and  day  school  were  opened;  the  com¬ 
munity  now  numbers  9  Sisters,  and  the  number  of 
pupils  registered  during  1921  was  80  in  the  boarding 
and  day  school  and  130  in  the  parochial  school. 
St.  Joseph’s  Convent,  Ladysmith,  Vancouver  Island, 
B.  C.,  was  founded  in  September,  1917;  there  are  5 
Sisters  in  charge  of  a  parochial  school  with  125 
pupils.  St.  Joseph’s  Convent,  Penetanguishene, 
Ont.,  has  6  sisters  in  the  mission  opened  there  in 
September,  1918,  and  4  sisters  with  7  lay  teachers  in 
charge  of  the  public  school,  with  465  pppils.  St. 
Joseph’s  Convent,  Winnipeg,  Manitoba,  was  founded 
in  March,  1919,  at  the  request  of  Archbishop  Sinnot, 
the  Sisters  taking  charge  of  the  parochial  school  in 
St.  Joseph’s  parish;  there  are  9  Sisters  in  the  mission, 
and  5  Sisters  in  the  school,  with  300  pupils;  in 
January,  1921,  two  Sisters  were  sent  to  teach  in  St. 
Alphonsus  School  in  the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Boniface, 
Manitoba,  with  110  pupils  registered  there.  St. 
Anne’s  Convent,  St.  James  (Winnipeg),  Manitoba, 
was  established  in  September,  1921,  when  a  com¬ 
munity  house  was  opened  in  St.  Anne’s  parish; 
there  are  4  Sisters  in  the  mission,  and  3  Sisters  teach 
in  the  parochial  school,  with  143  pupils.  St.  Joseph’s 
Hospital,  Toronto,  was  opened  in  October,  1921,  at 
Sunnyside  to  relieve  the  needs  of  the  western  section 
of  the  city;  the  hospital  at  present  accomodates  25 
patients. 

The  following  distinguished  members  of  the  con¬ 
gregation  are  recently  deceased:  Mother  M-  M.  de 
Pazzi  Kennedy  (d.  1915),  superior  general  of  the 
congregation  for  eighteen  years,  being  twice  elected 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


061 


to  the  office  (1887-90,  1902-8);  memorials  of  her  zeal 
are  the  beautiful  chapel  in  the  mother-house,  St. 
Michael’s  Hospital,  Toronto,  and  St.  Joseph’s 
Hospital,  Port  Arthur,  erected  during  her  administra¬ 
tion,  and  the  founding  of  many  libraries  for  the  spread 
of  Catholic  literature  in  poor  localities.  Sister  M. 
Emerentia  Lonergan,  esteemed  and  revered  as 
teacher,  literary  devotee,  and  religious,  for  sixteen 
years  secretary  general  of  the  congregation,  also 
editor  of  “St.  Joseph’s  Lilies.”  Sister  M.  Austin 
McKay-Warnock,  prominent  educationalist  and  at 
the  time  of  her  death  head  of  the  faculty  of  St. 
Joseph’s  University  College,  having  made  a  brilliant 
course  of  studies  there,  winning  the  Edward  Blake 
Scholarship,  the  George  Brown  Scholarship,  and  the 
Italian  prize  granted  by  the  minister  of  foreign 
affairs  for  Italy. 

At  present  (1921)  there  are  18  foundations  of  the 
institute:  13  in  the  Diocese  of  Toronto  and  5  in 
Western  Canada.  The  Sisters  number  400.  Thej^ 
conduct  a  university  college,  4  academies,  1  high 
school ,  and  30  separate  schools  with  a  total  attendance 
of  8903  pupils.  They  are  also  in  charge  of  3  hos¬ 
pitals  which  have  an  annual  registration  of  5891 
patients,  a  House  of  Providence  for  the  poor  and  the 
aged  with  420  inmates,  and  an  orphanage  for  225 
children.  The  present  superior  general  is  Mother 
M.  Victoria,  elected  in  1920. 

Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Annecy  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 
515d). — The  mother-house  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph 
of  the  English  province  is  at  Annecy,  Savoy. 
At  present  the  congregation  has  19  houses  in 
France,  and  6  in  Switzerland.  The  Sisters  in  the 
Province  of  Annecy  are  engaged  in  teaching  10 
schools  for  poor  children,  and  3  boarding  schools, 
each  of  which  latter  has  a  finishing  course  for  training 
girls  in  housekeeping.  The  Sisters  have  charge 
of  8  hospitals  and  hostels,  3  houses  where  nursing 
Sisters  reside  who  go  to  nurse  the  sick  ;n  their  homes, 
and  from  12  of  the  existing  houses  the  Sisters  visit 
and  tend  the  sick.  They  also  have  .1  orphanage,  and 
in  5  of  the  houses  there  are  work-rooms  and  organiza¬ 
tions  for  the  protection  of  girls  and  for  procuring  them 
employment.  The  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Annecy, 
in  England,  are  entirely  devoted  to  the  teaching 
profession.  There  are  6  houses  of  the  congregation 
in  England:  Newport  (the  provincial  house  and 
novitiate),  Devizes,  Malmesbury,  Bristol,  Clifton, 
Taunton.  The  last  was  founded  in  1920  and  the 
Sisters  took  charge  there  of  the  elementary  schools, 
at  the  desire  of  the  Bishop  of  Clifton.  The  total 
number  of  pupils  taught  by  the  Sisters  in  the  elemen¬ 
tary  schools  in  England  is  about  2500.  The  Sisters 
have  charge  of  10  schools.  They  also  have  2  boarding 
schools  to  which  are  attached  large  day  schools,  with 
a  total  of  about  500  pupils.  At  Blairs  College, 
Aberdeen,  Scotland,  there  are  13  Sisters  in  charge 
of  the  domestic  arrangements  and  housework  of  the 
college.  At  Newport  and  in  all  the  other  houses  of 
the  congregation  in  England,  the  Sisters  devote 
their  evenings  to  instructing  and  preparing  non- 
Catholic  women  for  reception  into  the  Catholic 
Church.  They  also  visit  the  sick  and  poor  in  their 
homes  as  well  as  in  the  hospitals,  and  help  many  to 
die  well.  The  Sisters  in  England  (1921)  number  in 
all  89  members.  In  the  Province  of  Vizagapatam , 
India,  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  are  in  charge  of  8 
schools,  5  for  Europeans  and  3  for  natives;  2  boarding 
schools;  4  orphanages;  4  dispensaries;  1  work  depot; 
3  hospitals.  The  number  taught  and  cared  for  by 
the  Sisters  is  about  5000  children  and  270  orphans. 
They  nurse  in  the  hospitals  and  at  their  homes, 
about  8200  sick  persons  every  year.  In  their  mis¬ 
sionary  journeys  they  baptize,  on  an  average,  6000 
children  in  articulo  mortis. 

Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Bourg  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 


516a). — These  Sisters,  with  mother-house  at  Bourg, 
have  a  novitiate  at  New  Orleans,  La.,  in  the  United 
States,  where  they  conduct  establishments  in  the 
archdioceses  of  Cincinnati,  Dubuque,  New  Orleans, 
and  St.  Paul  and  in  the  dioceses  of  Duluth,  Natchez, 
and  Superior.  There  are  in  the  United  States  175 
Sisters  in  charge  of  25  schools,  1  orphan  hospital,  1 
industrial  school,  1  asylum,  and  1  home  for  working 
girls,  with  2500  pupils  under  their  instruction. 

Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Chambery  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 
516b). — Mother  Leonide  continued  to  govern  the 
congregation  until  1919.  Her  generalate  was  a 
troubled  one,  having  witnessed  the  closing  of  so  many 
of  the  houses  in  France;  as  assistant,  in  1903,  she 
took  up  the  tangled  threads  of  the  government  at 
an  inauspicious  time.  It  was  a  great  care  for  her  to 
provide  for  the  needs  of  so  many  of  her  Sisters  who 
were  scattered  far  and  wide.  In  August,  1912,  the 
congregation  celebrated  the  hundredth  anniversary  of 
the  foundation  of  the  mother-house  at  Chambery. 
In  the  early  stages  of  the  war  the  Sisters  had  to  flee 
from  Odessa,  and  before  the  war  was  over,  the 
Russian  province  was  practically  annihilated.  While 
Russia  was  with  the  Allies,  three  of  the  Hospital 
Sisters  of  Petrograd  followed  the  army  as  nurses,  and 
were  captured  by  the  Germans.  They  were  liberated 
some  time  later,  through  the  influence  of  the  Danish 
government,  and  returned  to  Petrograd.  Under  the 
Soviet  Government,  several  Sisters  were  imprisoned, 
some  for  months,  but  God  ever  watched  over  them. 
Finally,  the  Sisters,  not  being  able  to  render  service 
to  their  neighbor,  and  being  constantly  in  danger  of 
imprisonment,  decided  to  leave  Russia,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  who  were  Russian  subjects,  and 
therefore  could  not  obtain  passports.  During  the 
occupation  of  Blegium,  the  Sisters  kept  their  schools 
open  and,  in  spite  of  great  privations,  lived  to  witness 
the  return  of  the  King.  In  the  war  countries  and  in  the 
adjacent  neutral  countries,  the  Sisters  distinguished 
themselves  by  the  help  they  gave  to  the  wounded  or 
the  passing  regiments.  Several  governments  awarded 
medals  and  crosses  to  members  of  the  congregation 
for  the  services  rendered.  A  gold  medal  was  awarded 
to  the  congregation  in  token  of  gratitude  by  the  French 
government;  55  medals  were  given  to  individual 
Sisters,  of  which  three  were  from  the  King  of  Greece, 
and  six  from  Queen  Elizabeth  of  Belgium.  During 
the  war  the  Sisters  opened  an  ambulance  hospital 
near  the  mother-house  at  Chambery,  another  at 
Courbevoie,  Seine.  The  two  hospitals  of  Aix-les- 
Bains  (Savoie)  and  one  at  Rumilly  (Savoie)  were 
converted  into  ambulances.  In  all  of  these,  the 
Sisters  devoted  themselves  to  the  care  of  the  wounded 
and  the  dying.  At  the  age  of  eighty- two,  after  a 
life  devoted  to  the  interests  of  her  congregation, 
Mother  Leonide  died  at  Chambery,  17  January,  1919. 

At  the  General  Chapter  held  in  August,  1919, 
Mother  Mary  Sacred  Heart  was  elected  superior 
general.  Some  months  after  the  Sisters  of  Tarnopol 
(Galicia)  had  to  flee  before  the  advancing  army  of 
the  Bolsheviki  and  abandon  their  convent  and  school. 
Within  the  last  few  years,  several  houses  have  been 
reopened  in  France,  new  foundations  made  and  the 
novitiate  has  been  repeopled.  Soon  after  her  election, 
the  superior  general  undertook  a  journey  to  some  of 
the  provinces,  Rome,  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark, 
and  Brazil. 

The  following  new  foundations  have  been  made: 
in  Italy;  a  school,  kindergarten,  and  sewing  class 
(1912)  in  Tuscany;  in  Denmark,  four  schools  and  one 
academy;  in  Brazil,  one  academy  and  two  hospitals; 
in  the  United  States:  five  schools,  of  which  one 
academy  is  in  Stamford,  Conn.,  one  parochial  school 
in  West  Haven,  Conn.,  a  school  for  boys  in  Deep 
River,  Conn.,  two  schools  in  St.  Mary’s  County, 
Md.  At  present  150  houses  belong  to  the  congre- 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


662 


gation,  105  of  which  are  outside  of  France.  There 
are  about  1830  Sisters  in  the  institute.  Their  work 
is  educational  and  charitable.  The  institute  has 
hospitals,  schools,  homes  for  the  aged,  orphan  asylums 
and  one  refuge  for  lepers.  The  schools  are  parochial, 
high  schools,  academies  for  young  ladies,  training 
schools  for  nurses.  In  France,  since  the  persecu¬ 
tions,  a  large  number  of  sewing-classes  have  been 
opened  for  young  girls,  also  sanitariums  for  the  pre¬ 
vention  of  tuberculosis,  for  war-orphans,  or  otherwise 
afflicted  persons.  In  the  American  province  alone, 
there  are  about  11,703  patients  cared  for  yearly. 
There  are  about  3345  pupils  attending  the  parochial 
schools;  about  1700  in  the  Sunday-school  classes. 

As  the  rule  has  been  revised  at  Rome  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  a  generalate  in  1874  and  to  obtain 
papal  approbation,  few  changes  had  to  be  made  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  new  Canon  Law. 
The  term  of  office  for  local  superiors,  however,  has 
been  limited  to  three  years  and,  exceptionally,  to 
six  years. 

Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  St.  Vallier  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 
516d). — This  congregation,  with  mother-house  at 
St.  Vallier,  France,  has  a  provincial  house,  novitiate, 
and  boarding  school  in  Quebec,  and  7  other  founda¬ 
tions  in  Canada,  all  of  which  are  model  and  element¬ 
ary  schools  and  3  of  which  are  boarding  schools  as 
well. 

Little  Daughters  op  St.  Joseph  (cf.  C.  E., 
VIII — -517a). — The  community  now  has  two  houses 
in  Montreal,  the  original  foundation  at  45  rue  Notre 
Dame  de  Lourdes  and  the  new  mother-house  at  989 
rue  Sherbrooke  Ouest,  erected  in  1911.  There  are 
109  professed  Sisters,  13  novices,  and  4  postulants. 
The  superior  general  is  Sister  Marie-Philomene. 

Polish  Franciscan  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  (cf. 
C.  E.,  VIII — 517b). — This  community,  with  mother- 
house  and  novitiate  at  St.  Joseph’s  Convent,  Stevens 
Point,  Wisconsin,  numbers  381  professed  Sisters, 
70  novices,  and  33  postulants.  They  are  in  charge 
of  39  schools  with  21,468  pupils. 

Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Peace  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII 
— 517c). — In  1909  there  was  an  election  of  a  general 
superior  at  the  mother-house,  in  Nottingham,  Eng¬ 
land,  and  Mother  Teresa  was  elected  for  a  second 
term  of  six  years.  At  the  expiration  of  this  time,  in 
1915,  a  general  chapter  could  not  be  convened  owing 
to  difficulty  in  travelling  during  war  time.  Dis¬ 
pensation  was  therefore  obtained  each  year  until 
1919,  when  the  chapter  assembled  at  Englewood, 
N.  J.,  and  elected  Mother  Agatha  superior  general 
for  six  years.  In  May,  1910,  the  constitutions,  which 
had  been  previously  submitted  to  the  Sacred  Con¬ 
gregation  of  Religious  for  approval,  were  returned 
with  directions  to  have  them  altered  to  conform  to  the 
requirements  of  the  Revised  Code  of  Canon  Law. 

The  Sisters  have  charge  of  the  following  homes  for 
working  girls:  St.  Joseph’s,  Jersey  City,  opened  in 
1885;  a  large  summer  home  at  Englewood,  N.  J., 
erected  in  1888;  the  Hotel  Washington,  Jersey  City, 
purchased  in  1902,  and  accommodating  100;  Loretto 
Hall,  at  Newark,  N.  J.,  opened  in  1915  and  enlarged 
in  1918,  with  accommodations  for  100,  and  extensive 
adjoining  grounds  for  outdoor  exercise,  and  purchased 
in  1921;  Villa  Lourdes,  Englewood, erected  in  1916  as  a 
summer  vacation  house  for  St.  Mary’s  and  Loretto 
Hall;  St.  Teresa’s  at  Seattle,  Wash.,  accommodating 
only  50  girls,  bought  in  1909,  and  the  work  trans¬ 
ferred  in  1921  to  the  Terry  Hotel,  accommodating 
170,  and  purchased  through  the  zeal  of  Bishop 
O’Dea;  Rosary  Hall,  Vancouver,  B.C.;  opened  in 
1914  and  enlarged  to  double  its  capacity  in  1919. 
The  following  hospitals  are  under  their  care:  St. 
Joseph’s,  Bellingham,  Wash.,  established  in  1890, 
removed  to  a  more  suitable  location  and  enlarged  in 
1900,  and  enlarged  to  double  its  capacity  in  1909; 


M.  M.  Hospital,  Rossland,  B.C.,  established  m 
1896  and  enlarged  for  the  jubilee  in  1921;  St.  Anthony’s 
Wenatchee,  Wash.,  established  in  1916,  and  a  new 
building  accommodating  60  patients  erected  in  1921. 
The  hospitals  in  Greenwood,  B.C.,  and  in  Seward, 
Alaska  (founded  1915),  were  closed  in  1918  owing  to 
war  conditions.  The  Domestic  Science  School 
Jersey  City,  was  closed  as  the  site  was  needed  for 
building  for  another  purpose.  The  school  for  the 
Blind  at  Jersey  City,  purchased  in  1909,  was  added 
to  in  1915,  and  now  has  accommodations  for  200. 
At  Englewood  in  1912  accommodation  was  provided 
for  orphan  boys  who  were  removed  from  York  St., 
Jersey  City;  the  orphan  girls  remained  at  York  St. 
An  office  was  erected  for  the  “Orphan’s  Messenger” 
in  1912,  where  boys  are  taught  printing  and  girls 
office  work.  In  1916  Mrs.  Barbara  Givernaud 
donated  her  estate  at  Homestead,  N.  J.,  to  be  used  as 
an  orphanage  for  boys  and  girls  between  the  ages  of 
two  and  seven  years;  the  Givernaud  Orphanage  ac¬ 
commodates  115.  In  1917  Mr.  and  Mrs.  T.  J. 
Maloney  donated  their  estate  at  Waldwick,  N.  J., 
to  the  Sisters;  the  farm  at  St.  Joseph’s  Villa  is  cul¬ 
tivated  for  the  benefit  of  the  orphans  and  in  1920  a 
school  was  opened  on  the  estate.  But  later  on  St. 
Luke’s  parochial  school  was  opened  on  church  grounds 
with  an  attendance  of  138.  In  the  same  year  St. 
Joseph’s  High  School  at  Nelson,  B.  C.,  was  erected. 
In  1921  a  school  was  opened  in  Vancouver,  B.  C. 

A  new  convent  in  Nottingham,  England,  was  pur¬ 
chased  in  1910,  and  a  club  house  for  working  girls  was 
erected  in  Nottingham  in  1912.  A  new  convent  was 
purchased  in  London,  England,  in  1921. 

The  total  number  of  members  in  the  community 
is  222,  and  there  are  21  foundations.  There  are 
4  homes  for  working  girls,  accommodating  420; 

1  home  for  the  blind,  accommodating  200;  4  or¬ 
phanages  with  capacity  for  450  children;  6  parochial 
schools  with  an  attendance  of  1170;  4  middle  class 
schools  with  an  attendance  of  350;  3  hospitals  with 
1530  patients  treated  annually;  3400  visits  to  the  sick 
poor  annually;  280,000  publication  memberships  of 
the  “Orphan’s  Messenger”  with  an  annual  corres¬ 
pondence  of  110,000.  Sodalities  and  Sunday  schools 
are  connected  with  most  of  the  institutions. 

Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  St.  Hyacinthe  (cf. 
C.  E.,  VIII — 518b). — This  congregation,  with 
mother-house  at  St.  Hyacinthe,  Canada,  has  3 
elementary  and  model  schools  in  St.  Hyacinthe, 
22  outside  the  city  and  within  the  diocesan  limits, 

2  in  the  Diocese  of  St.  Boniface,  and  1  in  the  Diocese  ' 
of  Regina.  There  are  265  professed  Sisters,  23 
novices,  12  postulants,  and  46  juvenists. 

Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  the  Apparition  (cf. 
C.  E.,  VIII — 518b),  a  congregation  founded  in 
1830  at  Gaillac  (Tarn),  France,  by  Mile.  Emdie  de  . 
Vialar,  who  placed  it  under  the  patronage  of  St. 
Joseph.  The  institute  has  for  its  principal  object  to 
honor  the  mystery  of  the  Incarnation  revealed  to 
St.  Joseph,  thus  the  title  of  “The  Apparition.”  The 
Sisters  devote  themselves  to  the  education  of  chil¬ 
dren,  rich  and  poor,  and  the  care  of  the  sick  of  all 
classes;  and  in  the  missions  all  kinds  of  charitable 
works  are  undertaken.  They  have  numerous  estab¬ 
lishments  in  different  parts  of  the  world;  there  are 
31  in  the  English  colonies.  In  addition  to  many 
hospitals,  homes,  orphanages,  and  dispensaries,  there 
are  120  houses  mostly  for  education.  The  number  of 
pupils  in  1920  was  about  18,200;  orphans  1100; 
113,537  people  were  attended  in  the  dispensaries; 
5845  were  admitted  into  the  hospitals  for  a  long 
period  and  285,998  for  a  short  time  only.  The 
Manchester  home  for  aged,  infirm,  and  sick  ladies 
of  every  creed  will  have  to  be  enlarged  to  accomodate 
its  many  patrons.  There  are  1200  members  of  the 
congregation,  many  of  whom  have  received  dis- 


SAINT  JOSEPH 


663 


SAINT  LOUIS 


tinctions  such  as  the  Legion  of  Honor,  Academic 
Palms,  Gold  and  Silver  Medal  decorations,  etc. 
The  mother-house  is  at  Marseilles.  The  institute 
is  governed  by  a  mother  general  and  four  assistants, 
and  is  divided  into  provinces  with  a  mother  pro¬ 
vincial  for  each.  The  constitutions  of  the  order  are 
adapted  to  the  Rule  of  St.  Augustine  and  were 
modified  according  to  the  new  Code  of  Canon  Law 
when  they  were  finally  approved  in  January,  1910. 
The  present  superior  general  is  Mother  Celine  J. 
Le  Bouffo,  unanimously  re-elected  for  the  fourth 
time. 

Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  the  Most  Sacred 
Heart  of  Jesus  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 518c). — The 
rules  and  constitutions  of  this  community  were 
approved  by  Pope  Pius  IX  in  1874,  Sister  Mary 
(Mackillop)  having  gone  to  Rome  in  the  preceding 
year  to  obtain  papal  approbation.  In  1881  Pope 
Leo  XIII  sent  a  rescript  authorizing  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  the  mother-house  in  Sydney  and  in  1888  he 
raised  the  institute  to  a  congregation.  Final  approba¬ 
tion  of  the  constitutions  of  the  congregation  was 
granted  by  Pope  Benedict  XV,  18  January,  1920. 
The  first  mother  general  was  Mother  Mary  of  the 
Cross  (Mackillop),  who  was  succeeded  by  Mother 
Bernard  and  re-elected  upon  the  latter’s  death  in 
1898.  Mother  Mary  had  not  completed  her  second 
term  as  superior  when  she  died  in  1909,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Mother  M.  Baptista  (d.  1918).  The 
present  mother  general  is  Mother  M.  Laurence, 
elected  1918.  The  congregation  is  spread  thoughout 
Australia  and  New  Zealand,  and  numbers:  1219 
Sisters,  183  houses,  11  charitable  institutions  with 
2409  inmates,  209  schools  with  26,401  pupils. 

Saint  Joseph,  Sons  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 519c). — 
The  centenary  of  the  foundation  of  the  institute  was 
celebrated  privately  because  of  the  war,  on  1  May, 
1917.  The  term  of  the  present  superior  general, 
Fr.  Felix  de  Vlieghe,  expires  in  1922.  The  rules 
of  the  congregation,  revised  to  conform  with  the  Code 
of  Canon  Law,  have  been  submitted  to  the  Holy  See 
for  approval.  The  Fathers  have  as  their  special 
work  the  education  of  boys  of  the  high  and  middle 
classes  in  boarding  and  day  schools.  They  have 
four  institutions  as  follows:  Grammont,  with  an  at¬ 
tendance  of  450  boys;  Melle,  with  330  boys;  Louvain, 
with  600  boys;  Weybridge,  with  150  boys;  making 
a  total  of  1530  boys  under  their  instruction.  The 
Belgian  houses  suffered  much  during  the  World 
War,  but  they  are  still  maintained  and  in  repair. 
The  congregation  numbers  100  members,  of  w'hom 
54  are  priests. 

Saint  Joseph’s  Society  for  Colored  Missions  (cf. 
C.  E.,  VIII — 521c),  commonly  called  the  Josephite 
Fathers,  had  its  origin  in  the  foundation  of  St. 
Joseph’s  Foreign  Missionary  Society,  established  at 
Mill  Hill,  England,  1866,  by  Herbert  Cardinal 
Vaughan.  In  1871  the  first  band  of  missionaries 
to  set  out  from  Mill  Hill  came  to  Baltimore  and  was 
assigned  to  St.  Francis  Xavier’s  church.  Afterwards 
missions  were  established  in  Louisville,  Charleston, 
Norfolk,  Richmond,  Washington,  and  other  places 
in  the  South.  Some  years  later,  the  bishops  who 
assembled  in  the  Third  Plenary  Council  of  Baltimore, 
expressed  the  necessity  of  providing  for  an  organiza¬ 
tion  of  priests  who  should  labor  exclusively  for  the 
conversion  of  the  colored  people  of  the  United  States. 
Accordingly,  in  1892,  through  a  Memorial  addressed 
by  Cardinal  Gibbons  to  Cardinal  Vaughan,  the 
Society  in  the  United  States  was  made  independent 
of  Mill  Hill  and,  under  the  title  of  St.  Joseph’s 
Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  for  Colored  Missions, 
established  its  mother-house  in  Baltimore.  St. 
Joseph’s  Society  is  a  congregation  of  secular  priests 


depending  in  a  direct  way  upon  the  Holy  See  and 
engaged  exclusively  in  laboring  for  the  conversion  of 
the  negro  race.  The  Society  is  governed  by  a  superior 
general  who  is  elected  for  a  period  of  six  years  by  a 
general  chapter,  and  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  four 
consultors.  The  present  superior  general,  the  Very 
Rev.  Louis  B.  Pastorelli,  was  elected 'in  June,  1918. 

Since  the  American  foundation  in  1892,  the  Society, 
then  few  in  numbers,  has  developed  steadily  in 
membership  and  in  influence  in  the  work  for  which  it 
was  established.  At  present  there  is  a  membership 
of  73  priests,  in  charge  of  47  parishes  and  24  attached 
missions.  These  are  scattered  throughout  15  dioceses, 
situated  for  the  most  part  in  the  South.  There  are 

6  missions  in  Alabama,  1  in  Arkansas,  2  in  Delaware, 
1  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  2  in  Florida,  11  in 
Louisiana,  4  in  Maryland,  4  in  Mississippi,  2  in  North 
Carolina,  1  in  New  York,  at  Buffalo,  3  in  Tennessee, 

7  in  Texas,  and  3  in  Virginia.  Their  missionary 
activities  extend  to  all  Southern  States  with  the 
exception  of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina.  Efforts  are 
made  to  build  up  an  educational  system  in  both 
urban  and  rural  communities.  Besides  conducting 
51  parochial  grammar  schools,  there  has  been  a 
recent  development  of  high  school  departments  of 
which  at  present  there  are  four.  At  this  date  there 
is  an  enrollment  of  8606  colored  pupils.  In  addition 
to  activities  in  the  mission  field  itself,  St.  Joseph’s 
Society  conducts  St.  Joseph’s  Seminar}',  the  mother- 
house,  in  Baltimore,  where  aspirants  are  trained  for 
the  colored  missions;  Epiphany  Apostolic  College, 
Walbrook,  Baltimore,  a  preparatory  college  for 
St.  Joseph’s  Seminary;  St.  Joseph’s  Industrial 
School,  Clayton,  Delaware;  an  agricultural  and 
trade  school  for  colored  boys;  and  St.  Joseph’s 
Orphanage,  Wilmington,  Delaware,  for  colored  boys. 
The  “Colored  Harvest,”  bi-monthly,  is  the  official 
organ  of  the  Josephite  Fathers,  published  in  Balti¬ 
more.  “St.  Anthony’s  Guide”  is  the  monthly  organ 
of  St.  Joseph’s  Industrial  School,  Clayton,  Del. 

Louis  B.  Pastorelli. 

Saint  Joseph's  Society  for  Foreign  Missions. 

See  Foreign  Missions,  Saint  Joseph’s  Society  for. 

Saint  Louis,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti  Ludovici; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 357c),  in  Missouri.  Among  the 
Catholics  in  the  Archdiocese  of  St.  Louis  there  are 
many  and  various  nationalities;  aside  from  the 
descendants  of  the  early  Irish  and  German  people 
we  find  those  of  Polish  extraction  and  Polish  immigra¬ 
tion,  many  of  French  extraction,  and  a  decided 
number  of  Italians,  Slovaks,  Lithuanians,  Bohem¬ 
ians,  and  some  few  from  Spain,  Mexico,  Austria, 
and  Servia.  During  the  past  few  years  many  notable 
clergymen  and  laymen  have  departed  this  life. 
Among  the  clergy  were:  Rt.  Rev.  P.  W.  Tallon, 
president  of  the  Kenrick  Seminary  Board  and  pastor 
of  the  Visitation  Church,  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  Rev. 
David  S.  Phelan,  editor  of  the  ‘Western  Watchman,” 
a  man  as  brave  as  he  was  learned,  and  one  who  ac¬ 
complished  much  for  Catholic  journalism  during  his 
days.  Among  the  laymen  were:  Wm.  J.  Kinsella, 
the  vice-president  of  the  Calvary  Cemetery  board; 
Edward  Devoy,  the  president  of  the  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  Society;  and  Theophile  Papin,  Jr.,  a  member 
of  the  Cathedral  Association.  Many  events  of  im¬ 
portance  have  transpired  since  1912;  among  them 
were  the  visits  of  Their  Excellencies,  Cardinal 
Vannutelli  and  Cardinal  Mercier.  There  have  been 
many  impressive  and  memorable  celebrations,  one 
of  which  was  the  celebration  held  at  the  Old  Cathedral 
on  Sunday,  6  January,  1918,  commemorating  the 
Centennial  of  the  coming  to  St.  Louis  of  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Bishop  DuBourg.  Pontifical  High  Mass  was  cele¬ 
brated  at  the  Old  Cathedral  Church  with  the  Most 
Rev.  Jeremiah  Hartv,  Archbishop  of  Omaha,  as 


SAINT  MARTIN 


664 


SAINT  MARY 


the  celebrant.  His  Grace,  the  Archbishop  of  St. 
Louis,  preached  the  sermon.  An  appropriate  sou¬ 
venir  containing  a  brief  historical  sketch  of  St.  Louis 
100  years  ago  was  published  by  the  Catholic  Historical 
Society  of  St.  Louis,  An  afternoon  service  was  held 
at  the  St.  Louis  New  Cathedral,  at  which  a  number 
of  old  French  canticles  were  sung  by  a  select  choir, 
and  an  address  made  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  P.  W. 
Tallon,  on  the  early  French  Catholic  days  in  Missouri. 
The  two  celebrations,  however,  that  stand  out  most 
prominently,  were  the  dedication  of  the  new  Kenrick 
Seminary,  and  the  blessing  and  formal  opening  of  the 
New  Cathedral  on  Lindell  Boulevard. 

On  21  April,  1913,  on  a  choice  tract  of  land  out¬ 
side  the  city  limits,  called  Glennon  Park,  the  Most 
Rev.  John  J.  Glennon  turned  the  first  spade  of  earth 
for  the  foundation  of  the  new  Kenrick  Seminary. 
The  laying  of  the  corner  stone  of  this  institution  took 
place  on  Thanksgiving  day,  27  November,  1913. 
On  12  September,  1915,  visitors’  day,  a  crowd  rated 
close  to  25,000,  was  admitted  to  inspect  the  completed 
buildings  just  before  the  opening  of  the  scholastic 
year.  The  opening  of  the  new  seminary  for  class 
work  took  place  on  15  September;  the  solemn  dedica¬ 
tion  of  the  institution  on  27  April,  1916.  Archbishop 
Glennon  blessed  the  new  buildings  and  the  stately 
chapel.  Pontifical  Mass  was  celebrated  by  His 
Excellency,  the  Most  Rev.  John  Bonzano,  D.D., 
Apostolic  Delegate.  The  sermon  was  preached 
by  His  Grace,  the  Most  Rev.  Archbishop  Edward 
J.  Hanna,  D.D.,  of  San  Francisco,  California. 
Twenty-two  members  of  the  hierarchy  and  more 
than  350  prelates  and  priests  from  every  part  of  the 
United  States  assisted  at  the  function. 

The  dedication  of  the  New  St.  Louis  Cathedral 
took  place  on  18  October,  1914.  The  ceremony  was 
the  simple  blessing  of  the  new  church  as  found  in  the 
Roman  ritual.  Archbishop  John  J.  Glennon  of¬ 
ficiated  in  this  ceremony.  After  the  blessing  Ponti¬ 
fical  Mass  was  celebrated  by  the  Rt  Rev.  Bishop 
John  J.  Hennessy,  D.D.,  of  Wichita,  Kansas.  He 
was  assisted  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  Joseph  A.  Connolly, 
V.G.,  P.R.,  as  assistant  priest.  The  Revs.  J.  J. 
Tannrath,  chancellor  of  the  archdiocese,  and  James 
T.  Coffey,  pastor  of  St.  Leo’s  Church,  St.  Louis,  were 
deacons  of  honor;  the  Rev.  F.  J.  Jones,  deacon  of  the 
Mass,  and  the  Rev.  E.  J.  Lembes,  sub-deacon. 
Archbishop  Glennon,  who  preached  the  sermon,  was 
attended  by  the  Very  Rev.  M.  S.  Ryan,  C.  M., 
president  of  the  Kenrick  Seminary,  and  the  Rev. 
P.  W.  Tallon,  rector  of  the  Visitation  Church,  as 
deacons  of  honor.  The  Rev.  Martin  S.  Brennan 
was  master  of  ceremonies,  assisted  by  the  Rev.  John 
P.  Spencer,  S.  T.  L.  Though  the  function  was  very 
simple, the  Rt.  Rev.  Bishops  Thos.  F.  Lillis  of  Kansas 
City,  John  Ward  of  Leavenworth,  John  Cunningham 
of  Concordia,  Morris  Francis  Burke  of  St.  Joseph, 
Richard  Scanned  of  Omaha,  honored  the  occasion 
with  their  presence.  At  the  time  there  was  no 
permanent  altar  in  the  cathedral  and  the  Mass  was 
celebrated  at  a  temporary  altar  brought  from  the 
abandoned  cathedral  chapel.  The  cathedral  itself  was 
in  an  unfinished  state  throughout  and  the  only  relief 
from  bare  brick  was  afforded  by  the  Lady  Chapel 
which  was  finished  in  Italian  mosaics.  About  30 
priests  were  present  and  a  full  choir  of  200  seminarians 
from  the  Kenrick  Seminary,  assisted  by  a  male 
choir  of  40  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Camille 
Becker,  chanted  the  Gregorian  Mass  of  the  dedica¬ 
tion.  Over  7000  people  were  present.  About  5000 
of  these  were  within  the  building  and  the  other  2000 
were  grouped  in  the  vestibule  and  at  the  Lindell 
Boulevard  front  along  the  Newstead  Avenue  side  of 
the  edifice.  The  seating  capacity  of  the  cathedral  is 
2500,  with  the  galleries  about  3500,  its  ultimate 
capacity  being  5000  to  6000  persons.  Its  greatest 


length  is  365  feet,  its  greatest  width  204  feet.  The 
area  of  the  clear  or  open  auditorium  is  13,500  square 
feet.  The  height  of  the  main  dome  is  227  feet. 
The  exterior  is  close  textured  gray  granite  from  Con¬ 
cord,  N.  H.  Interiorly  the  cathedral  is  brick  set  in 
cement,  which  later  is  to  be  overlaid  with  mosaic 
and  marble.  The  estimated  cost  of  the  cathedral 
was  $3,000,000. 

Statistics  for  the  archdiocese  are:  425,692  Catholics, 
300  parishes,  379  churches,  79  missions,  79  stations, 
4  monasteries  for  men,  20  convents  for  men,  360 
secular  priests,  242  regular  priests,  12  seminaries, 

1  university,  4  colleges  for  men,  17  academies  for 
young  girls,  10  high  schools  with  an  attendance  of 
1766,  3  training  schools,  120  elementary  schools  with 
an  attendance  of  38,000,  6  industrial  schools  with  an 
attendance  of  1000,  6  missionary  works,  9  homes, 
6  asylums,  10  hospitals,  4  refuges,  5  settlement 
houses,  4  day  nurseries. 

Saint  Martin  de  Pannonia.  See  Martinsberg. 

St.  Mary,  Sisters  of  (Beaverton,  Ore.),  founded 
in  1886  by  Archbishop  Gross  of  Oregon  City.  The 
number  of  Catholics  in  the  archdiocese  at  that  time 
was  small,  and  they  were  scattered  over  a  large 
territory.  The  archbishop,  recognizing  from  the  first 
the  value  of  Catholic  education  as  a  potent  factor  in 
spreading  and  preserving  the  faith,  was  anxious  to 
establish  parochial  schools  throughout  the  arch¬ 
diocese,  and  to  accomplish  this  great  work  more  suc¬ 
cessfully  founded  the  Congregation  of  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Mary,  at  Sublimity,  Oregon.  On  the  feast  of  the 
Assumption,  1886,  five  young  women  consecrated  their 
lives  to  the  service  of  the  Divine  Master.  An  old, 
abandoned  school  building  which,  together  with  a 
tract  of  land,  had  been  donated  to  the  archbishop  for 
educational  purposes,  served  as  the  first  mother- 
house  of  the  little  community.  They  made  their 
novitiate  under  the  direction  of  the  Benedictines,  and 
during  that  time  laid  the  foundation  of  their  spiritual 
life.  The  object  of  the  congregation  is  to  labor  in¬ 
cessantly  for  the  salvation  and  instruction  of  youth 
in  academies  and  parochial  schools.  Archbishop 
Gross,  as  the  founder  of  the  community,  took  an 
active  interest  in  its  spiritual  and  temporal  progress. 
He  confided  the  spiritual  direction  of  the  community 
to  Father  Wernher,  O.  S.  B.,  who,  after  three  years 
of  zealous  labors,  died  1  January,  1889,  and  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  the  Rev.  Joseph  Fessler.  After  a  growth 
of  six  years  the  community  spread  to  other  fields  of 
labor.  In  January,  1891,  the  first  mission-house  was 
opened  at  Verboort,  Ore.  Two  months  later  the 
Sisters  assumed  charge  of  the  diocesan  orphanage 
at  St.  Mary’s  near  Beaverton.  Vocations  steadily 
increased.  The  erection  of  a  larger  building  with 
suitable  accommodations  became  an  imperative  need. 
Sublimity  had  no  railroad  facilities,  and  it  was  de¬ 
cided  to  seek  another  situation  for  a  new  mother-house. 
A  tract  of  land  beautifully  situated  at  St.  Mary’s, 
within  easy  reach  of  Portland,  was  donated  by  a 
generous  benefactor  for  this  purpose.  On  15  August, 
1893,  the  corner-stone  was  laid,  and  in  the  following 
January  the  archbishop  solemnly  dedicated  the  con¬ 
vent  to  Our  Lady  of  Perpetual  Help.  With  this 
approval,  the  novitiate  was  transferred  from  Sub¬ 
limity  to  St.  Mary’s.  The  community  was  now  es¬ 
tablished  on  a  solid  basis  and  a  code  of  rules  approved 
by  the  archbishop  was  adopted.  On  2  Nov.,  1898, 
the  founder  of  the  community  died.  Six  months 
later  he  was  succeeded  in  the  archepiscopal  see  oy 
the  Rt.  Rev.  Alexander  Christie,  formerly  Bishop  of 
Victoria,  B.  C.  Under  his  supervision  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Mary  progressed,  and  their  rules  were  revised 
and  perfected  by  the  Jesuit  Fathers.  At  present 
(1922)  the  Sisters  conduct  two  academies  for  girls  and 


SAINT  MARY 


665 


SAINT  MARY’S 


young  ladies,  a  hoarding-school  for  small  boys,  and 
the  diocesan  home  for  orphan  boys;  they  are  also  in 
charge  of  the  parochial  schools  in  St.  Stephen’s,  St. 
Agatha’s,  St.  Andrew’s,  and  Holy  Cross  parishes,  in 
Portland,  and  parochial  schools  in  Milwaukee, 
Sublimity,  Verboort,  St.  Louis,  Gervais,  Tillamook, 
Roy,  Beaverton,  and  Hillsboro,  all  in  the  Archdiocese 
of  Oregon  City.  There  are  113  professed  Sisters,  5 
novices,  and  2  postulants,  with  1440  pupils. 

SainUMary,  Sisters  of  (Namur,  Belgium) . — This 
institute,  whose  sole  purpose  is  the  education  of 
young  girls,  was  founded  in  1819,  in  the  old  city  of 
Namur,  Belgium,  where  the  mother-house  of  the 
order  is  located  and  it  was  canonically  approved  by 
the  Holy  See.  Early  in  1861  the  renowned  missionary 
Rev.  P.  J.  DeSmet,  S.  J.,  while  making  a  short 
sojourn  in  his  native  land  visited  Namur,  and  during 
an  interview  with  Rev.  Mother  Claire  removed  all 
doubts  as  to  the  advisability  of  complying  wth  his 
request  to  send  Sisters  to  America.  Bishop  Timon 
of  Buffalo,  had  long  desired  to  procure  a  community 
of  foreign  nuns  to  conduct  schools  in  his  diocese. 
Accordingly  upon  the  bishop’s  initiative  negotiations 
were  entered  into  and  in  August,  1863,  five  Sisters 
set  sail  for  America.  Fr.  Smarius,  S.  J.,  acted  as  their 
guide  and  protector.  These  religious  were  Sister 
Emelie,  superior  and  later  first  provincial  of  the 
American  missions,  Sisters  Mary  Claver,  Mary  of 
Saint  Joseph,  Augustine,  and  Paula.  Of  that  little 
band  one  still  survives.  This  aged  religious  has 
enjoyed  the  unusual  experience  of  having  welcomed  to 
Saint  Joseph’s  Academy  six  successive  bishops  of 
Buffalo.  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  the  first  American  mission 
naturally  became  the  provincial  mother-house. 
Bishop  Timon  having  been  one  of  the  first  missionary 
priests  of  Texas,  was  not  unmindful  of  the  needs  of 
the  South,  and  in  response  to  an  appeal  made  by 
Bishop  Dubois  of  Galveston,  he  asked  Mother  Emelie 
to  send  a  community  to  that  diocese.  The  mis¬ 
sions  in  the  South  spread  rapidly.  In  1921  Texas 
became  a  separate  province.  Meanwhile  the  tree 
planted  in  1863  was  spreading  out  other  branches. 
At  present  the  institute  comprises  three  provinces  in 
America  besides  those  in  Europe,  namely:  the  North, 
with  the  provincial  house  at  Lockport,  N.  Y.;  Canada, 
with  provincial  house  at  Ottawa;  and  Texas,  with 
provincial  house  at  Fort  Worth.  Belgium  and 
England  constitute  the  provinces  of  Europe.  The 
novices  in  each  province  are  assigned  to  duties  within 
that  province.  Special  facilities  for  the  training 
of  teachers  are  afforded.  Saint  Mary’s  House  of 
Studies  enjoys  the  honor  of  being  the  first  permanent 
building  of  the  Sisters  College  of  the  Catholic  Uni¬ 
versity  of  America,  Washington,  D.  C.  This  enables 
the  American  Sisters  to  pursue  university  courses 
of  study  and  to  obtain  degrees  as  the  European  Sisters 
do  at  Oxford  and  Louvain.  Saint  Joseph’s  Academy, 
Lockport,  is  chartered  under  the  Albany  Board  of 
Regents.  In  1921  the  Sisters  in  America  numbered 
282,  with  13  novices,  14  postulants,  and  6538  pupils. 

Saint  Mary,  Sisters  of  (St.  Louis,  Mo.),  a  con¬ 
gregation  of  nursing  Sisters  founded  in  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
in  1872,  by  five  members  of  the  Servants  of  the 
Divine  Heart  of  Jesus,  who  migrated  from  Elberfield, 
Germany,  during  the  persecutions  of  the  Kultur- 
karnpf.  The  original  order  was  founded  in  Paris 
in  1866  with  the  consent  of  Archbishop  Darboy  for 
the  nursing  of  orphans.  Two  of  its  members  being 
German  were  compelled  to  leave  France  during  the 
Franco-Prussian  War  and  established  a  temporary 
home  at  Elberfield,  where  they  devoted  themselves 
to  the  nursing  of  wounded  soldiers.  These  were 
Sisters  Ottilia  and  Magdalena,  who  in  1872,  with 
Sisters  Elizabeth,  Francisca,  and  Marianna,  accepted 


the  invitation  of  Mgr.  Muehlsiepen,  Vicar  General  of 
St.  Louis,  to  settle  in  that  archdiocese.  The  Sisters 
rented  three  rooms  opposite  St.  Mary’s  Church,  and 
the  pastor  of  this  church,  Fr.  Faerber  (d.  1905), 
became  their  spiritual  adviser  and  lifelong  friend. 
Soon  after  their  arrival  a  smallpox  epidemic  gave 
them  opportunity  for  active  service;  this  was  followed 
in  1873  by  cholera,  and  in  1878  by  yellow  fever.  In 
the  latter  year  the  community  numbered  38  members, 
of  whom  eight  went  to  Memphis,  Tenn.,  and  five  to 
Canton,  Miss.,  to  nurse  the  yellow  fever  victims; 
these  thirteen  Sisters  contracted  the  disease  and  five 
of  them  died.  A  building  had  been  erected  for  the 
community  in  1873,  and  became  their  first  mother- 
house.  They  were  incorporated  under  the  laws  of 
the  State  of  Missouri  in  1874  as  Sisters  of  St.  Mary 
of  St.  Louis,  Mo.  On  4  October,  1880,  Mother 
Ottilia  and  sixteen  other  Sisters  made  their  first 
vows  in  the  presence  of  Mgr.  Muehlsiepen  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  the  Rules  of  the  Third  Order  Regular  of 
St.  Francis  and  the  particular  constitutions  of  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Mary.  A  few  days  after  this  event 
(17  Oct.)  Mother  Ottilia  died  and  was  succeeded  as 
superior  by  Mother  Seraphia  (d.  1912)  who  remained 
in  office  till  1910,  when  Mother  Aloysia  was  elected 
superior.  She  was  succeeded  in  1921  by  Mother 
Concordia,  formerly  mistress  of  novices.  The  present 
mother-house  and  novitiate  is  St.  Mary’s  Infirmary 
(St.  Louis),  opened  for  occupancy  in  1889.  Rt. 
Rev.  O.  S.  J.  Hoog,  Vicar  General  of  St.  Louis,  is 
the  spiritual  adviser  of  the  community,  which  now 
numbers  307  Sisters  and  30  novices.  Fr.  Henry 
Henry  Jaegering  (d.  1919)  was  the  faithful  chaplain 
of  St.  Mary’s  Infirmary  for  thirty-seven  years. 

From  1895  till  1905  the  Sisters  assumed  charge  of 
the  German  Hospital  (now  Research  Hospital), 
Kansas  City,  Mo.,  at  the  invitation  of  the  hospital 
directors.  In  1904  they  decided  to  build  a  hospital 
of  their  own  in  that  city,  and  the  new  St.  Mary’s 
Hospital  was  completed  in  1909.  Connected  with  it 
is  a  training  school  for  nurses  organized  in  1916,  with 
a  present  attendance  of  50  students.  The  number  of 
patients  cared  for  at  this  hospital  in  1920  was  4705, 
of  whom  565  were  free  patients,  1214  Catholics, 
and  3491  non-Catholics.  Since  its  completion  (1909) 
the  hospital  has  received  38,255  patients,  of  whom 
6488  were  free  patients.  It  has  a  capacity  of  175 
beds.  In  addition  to  this  and  St.  Mary’s  Infirmary, 
with  a  capacity  of  150  beds,  the  Sisters  have  5  other 
hospitals:  Mt.  St.  Rose  Sanatorium,  for  diseases  of 
the  throat  and  chest,  opened  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  in 
1902,  with  a  capacity  of  150  beds;  St.  Joseph’s 
Hospital,  St.  Charles  Mo.,  founded  1885,  capacity, 
35  beds;  St.  Mary’s  Hospital,  Jefferson  City,  Mo., 
opened  in  1905  with  a  capacity  of  45  beds;  St. 
Francis  Hospital,  Blue  Island,  Ill.,  first  building 
opened  for  patients  1905,  new  hospital  opened  1916, 
capacity  100  beds;  St.  Mary’s  Hospital,  Madison, 
Wis.,  opened  in  1913,  capacity,  75  beds. 

Saint  Mary’s  College,  at  Prairie  du  Chien,  in  the 
State  of  Wisconsin,  U.  S.  A.,  is  an  outgrowth  of  St. 
Mary’s  Institute  and  was  established  in  1872.  The 
college  occupies  the  site  of  Fort  Crawford,  which 
was  built  in  1829  by  Colonel,  afterwards  President, 
Zachary  Taylor,  and  served  as  a  bulwark  against 
the  Indians.  Government  troops  were  withdrawn 
from  it  in  1859,  and  it  was  purchased  in  the  sixties 
by  Mr.  John  Lawlor,  who,  with  the  assistance  of 
Mgr.  P.  M.  Abbelen  and  Mother  Caroline,  foundress 
of  the  Order  of  School  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame,  in 
America,  established  the  Institute  for  the  furtherance 
of  Catholic  education.  In  1897  its  name  was  legally 
changed  to  St.  Mary’s  Academy,  made  famous  in 
1910  by  the  erection  on  its  extensive  grounds  of  a 
splendid  monument  to  Father  Marquette.  In  1913 


SAINT  MARY’S 


666 


SAINT-PIERRE 


college  courses  were  opened  and  since  then  the  progress 
of  the  college  has  been  rapid.  It  comprises  a  good 
laboratory,  gymnasium,  and  a  library  of  5000 
volumes.  A  monthly  paper,  the  “ News-Letter,” 
published  here,  will  be  developed  into  a  quarterly 
magazine  in  June,  1922,  in  commemoration  of  the 
golden  jubilee  of  the  foundation.  Student  organiza¬ 
tions  comprise  the  League  of  the  Sacred  Heart, 
Sodality  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  The  Cru¬ 
saders,  Missionary  Sewing  Circle,  Les  Deux  Pleiades, 
Dramatic  Club,  and  Musical  Societies.  Eight 
religious  and  1  lay  teacher,  all  university  graduates, 
compose  the  faculty.  The  present  registration  (1922) 
numbers  235  students. 

Saint  Mary’s  Seminary,  Baltimore,  was  founded  al¬ 
most  simultaneously  with  the  establishment  of  the 
American  hierarchy,  as  it  was  formally  opened  under 
the  patronage  of  the  first  American  bishop,  the 
lit.  Rev.  John  Carroll,  on  3  October,  1791.  The 
Seminary  was  in  charge  of  the  Sulpician  Fathers 
under  the  Rev.  Francis  Nagot,  with  three  priests  and 
five  seminarians.  In  1804  the  rank  and  privilege  of 
a  State  University  were  granted  to  the  Seminary  by 
the  Maryland  Assembly  and  in  1822  Pope  Pius  VII 
solemnly  conferred  upon  it  the  title,  rights,  and 
privileges  of  a  Catholic  University.  A  complete 
faculty  of  able  professors  was  maintained  during 
the  administrations  of  Frs.  Nagot  (1791-1810), 
John  M.  Tessier  (1810-29),  and  Louis  R.  Deluol 
(1829-49),  and? although  the  students  were  very 
few  they  included  some  of  the  most  zealous  mission¬ 
aries  and  prominent  churchmen  of  the  time.  An  era 
of  growth  and  prosperity  for  the  Seminary  was  ushered 
in,  however,  with  the  establishment  of  St.  Charles 
College,  Ellicott  City,  Md.,  in  1848,  and  under 
the  administration  of  Frs.  Francis  Lhomme  (1848- 
60),  Alphonse  Magnien  (1878-1902),  and  R.  Dyer 
(1902-  )  the  institution  has  made  marked  progress. 

Since  1853  St.  Mary’s  Seminary  has  been  exclusively 
a  theological  seminary  with  philosophy  and  theology 
courses.  In  the  year  1920-21  there  were  21  members 
in  the  faculty  and  a  registration  of  320  students,  of 
whom  56  were  ordained  priests.  The  number  of  de¬ 
grees  conferred  was  as  follows:  B.A.,  20;  M.A.,  15; 
Bachelor  of  Theology,  6;  Doctor  of  Canon  Law,  1; 
Doctor  of  Letters,  1. 

Saint  Maurice  en  Valais,  Abbey  Nullius  of. 

See  Agaunum  * 

Saint  Paul,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti  Pauli; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 366d),  in  Minnesota.  On  25  Sep¬ 
tember,  1918,  occurred  the  death  of  Archbishop  John 
Ireland  (q.  v.).  He  was  succeeded  by  Most  Rev. 
Austin  Dowling,  who  was  ordained  24  June,  1891, 
appointed  Bishop  of  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  31  January, 
1912,  consecrated  25  April  following,  nominated  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  St.  Paul,  1  February,  1919.  The  campaign 
for  educational  works  of  the  archdiocese  in  October 
and  November,  1920,  secured  $5,700,000  in  pledged 
subscriptions.  The  Catholic  population  of  the  arch¬ 
diocese  is  about  265,000  of  various  nationalities,  the 
French  and  German  elements  predominating.  A 
Catholic  newspaper  called  the  “Catholic  Bulletin”  is 
published  at  St.  Paul.  Bureaus  of  Catholic  Charities 
are  established  in  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis.  There 
are  in  the  archdiocese:  200  parishes,  262  churches,  62 
missions,  3  convents  for  men,  295  secular  priests,  51 
regular  priests,  1380  Sisters,  2  seminaries  with  170 
seminarians,  1  college  for  men  with  48  professors  and 
850  students,  22  high  schools  with  143  teachers  and 
3171  pupils,  1  normal  school  with  an  attendance  of 
56,  105  elementary  schools  with  600  teachers  and 
23,692  pupils,  4  homes,  3  asylums,  3  hospitals,  1 
refuge,  2  settlement  houses.  The  Priests’  Eucharistic 


League  and  the  Apostolic  Union  are  established  among 
the  clergy. 

Saint  Paul  of  Hungary,  Hermits  of  (cf.  C.  E., 

XI — 587c). — In  1864  the  Pauline  Order  had  in 
Russian  Poland  19  convents,  but  in  the  same  year 
these  foundations  were  annihilated  by  the  Russian 
government.  Only  one,  Jg,sna  Gora  (Czestochowa), 
in  the  Diocese  of  Wladislaw,  remained.  In  Austrian 
Poland,  after  the  edict  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II 
all  the  Pauline  convents  were  closed,  except  that  at 
Skalka,  in  the  Diocese  of  Cracow.  The  German 
government  was  always  opposed  to  Polish  orders,  hence 
there  were  never  any  Pauline  convents  in  Prussian 
Poland.  Immediately  after  the  end  of  the  war 
(1919)  the  order  recovered  one  of  its  ancient  founda¬ 
tions  at  Lesna,  near  Brest  Litovsk,  in  the' Diocese  of 
Podlachia.  .  In  1920  these  three  Pauline  convents, 
at  Jasna  Gora,  Skalka,  and  Lesna,  elected  as  general 
superior  Fr.  Peter  Markiewicz.  He  was  born  at 
Kalisz  in  1877,  made  his  ecclesiastical  studies  at 
Wladislaw  and  higher  theological  studies  at  Rome, 
and  was  ordained  in  1906.  The  last  general  superior 
had  died  in  1871,  since  which  time  the  Russian 
government  had  forbidden  the  election  of  a  successor. 

The  Pauline  Order  is  now  beginning  to  extend  its 
work,  endeavoring  to  recover  its  ancient  foundations, 
and  has  a  rule  conformed  to  the  new  Code  of  Canon 
Law.  There  are  46  members  of  the  order.  An  ec¬ 
clesiastical  school  or  juvenate  for  boys  who  feel 
inclined  to  enter  the  religious  life,  has  been  establish¬ 
ed.  The  order  also  directs  some  religious  and  pious 
congregations  in  Czestochowa.  In  Lesna  the  mem¬ 
bers  have  parochial  duties  as  well  as  the  spiritual 
care  and  direction  of  the  teachers’  seminary  there. 

The  novitiate  and  house  of  studies  are  in  Cracow. 

In  1915  occurred  the  death  of  Fr.  Justin  Welonski, 
who  had  been  prior  since  1910,  previously  rector  of 
the  ecclesiastical  seminary  at  Plock,  and  had  entered 
the  order  as  a  rector. 

Saint  Paul-without- the- Walls  (San  Paolo 

fuori  le  Mura;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 369b),  a  Benedic¬ 
tine  abbey  nullius  of  the  Cassinese  Congregation,  and 
one  of  the  patriarchal  churches  of  Rome,  dependent 
directly  on  the  Holy  See.  On  13  March,  1918, 
occurred  the  death  of  the  Abbot  Nullius  Dom  Gio¬ 
vanni  del  Papa,  O.S.B.,  b.  1850,  professed  1871,  I 
ordained  1876,  elected  23  September,  1904,  blessed 
13  November  following.  He  was  succeeded  by  Dom 
Ildefonso  Schuster,  O.S.B.,  b.  1880,  professed  1899, 
ordained  1904,  elected  6  April,  1918,  blessed  13  April 
following.  The  abbey  nullius  has  3  parishes,  13 
churches,  4  secular  priests,  25  regular  priests,  15  lay 
brothers,  11  seminarians,  and  the  care  of  5000  Catho¬ 
lics.  Dependent  on  it  are  1  monastery  of  nuns  and 
3  convents  of  Sisters.  Three  day  nurseries  are  estab¬ 
lished.  There  are  10  confraternities  and  many  asso¬ 
ciations  among  the  young  men  and  women.  A 
monthly  diocesan  bulletin  is  published. 

Saint  Peter,  Abbey  of.  See  Muenster,  Abbey 
Nullius 

Saint-Pierre  and  Miquelon,  Prefecture  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  (Insularum  S.  Petri  et  Miquelonensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 376a),  comprises  a  small  group  of 
islands  south  of  Newfoundland,  belonging  to  France. 

The  prefect  Apostolic  is  Mgr.  Joseph  Oster,  b.  at 
Berstheim,  in  diocese  of  Strasburg,  France,  19 
April,  1846,  entered  the  Congregation  of  Holy  Ghost, 
1862,  provincial  in  United  States,  pro-prefect  in  1912, 
prefect  16  January,  1916,  with  residence  at  Saint 
Pierre.  On  the  islands  there  are  3  parishes,  3 
churches,  2  convents  of  women,  6  regular  priests,  1 
lay  brother,  28  Sisters,  1  college  for  boys,  with  3 
instructors  and  58  students  and  1  for  girls  with  15 


SAINT  TERESA 


667 


SAINT  VIATOR 


instructors  and  150  students,  1  academy  with  60 
boys  and  80  girls,  1  elementary  school  with  40  pupils, 
a  commercial  school  for  boys  with  120  students  and 
for  girls  with  90,  3  associations  among  the  laity,  who 
number  4000  and  are  mostly  French.  During  the 
war  350  laymen  and  1  priest  were  mobilized,  99  of 
whom  were  victims. 

Saint  Teresa  of  Jesus,  Society  of,  founded  by 
Enrique  de  Osso,  on  the  feast  of  the  Sacred  Heart 
of  Jesus  23  June,  1876,  at  Taragona,  Spain,  and 
approved  by  Pope  Pius  X,  18  December,  1908.  Fr. 
de  Osso’s  desire  was  to  stem  the  torrent  of  impiety 
which  threatened  to  engulf  vast  numbers  of  young 
souls.  The  object  of  the  institute  is  the  Christian 
education  of  young  people,  to  extend  the  knowledge 
and  love  of  God  by  means  of  the  apostleship  of 
prayer,  teaching  and  sacrifice.  The  mother-house 
is  in  Barcelona,  Spain,  where  the  mother  general 
and  her  council  reside.  The  four  provinces  with  a 
total  of  51  houses  in  Spain,  Africa,  Mexico,  South 
America,  Cuba  and  the  United  States.  The  acad¬ 
emies  have  courses  of  study  from  the  kindergarten 
to  the  grammar  and  academic  grades,  and  in  some 
places  normal  courses  are  conducted.  There  are 
three  novitiates:  one  in  Tortosa,  Spain;  one  in 
Montevideo,  Uruguay,  South  America;  and  one 
in  San  Antonio,  Texas.  The  members  of  the  So¬ 
ciety  make  the  three  simple  vows  of  poverty, 
chastity  and  obedience,  and  must  be  imbued  with 
the  spirit  of  their  holy  patron,  the  seraphic  doctress, 
St.  Teresa  of  Jesus.  There  are  teaching  and  lay 
religious.  The  society  is  governed  by  its  own  con¬ 
stitutions  and  rules,  which  follow  the  rule  of  St. 
Ignatius. 

The  province  of  St.  Teresa  of  Jesus,  with  pro¬ 
vincial  house  and  novitiate  at  Jesus  de  Tortosa, 
Spain,  has  academies  and  schools  in  Spain  at  Barce¬ 
lona  (3),  Valencia,  Taragona,  Saragossa,  Tortosa, 
Villanueva,  Vinebre,  San  Celoni.  Almunia,  Maella 
and  Enguers;  in  Africa,  at  Oran,  Algeria.  The 
province  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus  has  acad¬ 
emies  and  schools  in  Spain  at  Madrid  (2),  Ciudad 
Rodrigo,  Valladolid,  Pamplona,  Oviedo,  Bilbao, 
Calahorra,  Huelva,  Duenas  and  Mora  de  Toledo. 
The  province  of  St.  Francis  de  Sales,  with  provin¬ 
cial  house  at  Mixcoac,  Mexico,  and  novitiate  at 
San  Antonio,  Texas,  has  academies  and  schools  in 
Mexico  at  Mixcoac,  Mexico  City,  Puebla,  Morelia, 
Zacatacas,  Guadalajara  and  Merida;  in  Cuba  at 
Havana,  Camaguey,  Santa  Clara,  Ciego  de  Avila 
and  Guantanamo ;  in  the  United  States  at  San 
Antonio,  Tex.,  Uvalde,  Tex.  (parochial  school),  New 
Orleans,  La.  (parochial  school).  The  province  of 
St.  Joseph  with  provincial  house  and  novitiate  at 
Montevideo,  Uruguay,  South  America,  has  acad¬ 
emies  and  schools  at:  Montevideo,  Uruguay  (2); 
Buenos  Aires,  Argentina;  Santiago  de  Chile,  Chile; 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil;  Santa  Ana,  Brazil;  Itaqui, 
Brazil;  Asuncion,  Paraguay;  Rocha,  Uruguay,  and 
Dolores,  Uruguay. 

Saint  Thomas,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Thom,® 
in  insula;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 381c),  in  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  suffragan  of  Lisbon.  The  last  bishop  died 
in  1847.  The  see  then  remained  vacant.  Since  1865 
it  has  been  ruled  as  a  vicariate.  In  1920  the  Catholics 
numbered  about  21,000. 

Saint  Thomas  of  Guiana, Diocese  of  (deGuayana; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 382c),  in  Venezuela,  suffragan  of 
Caracas.  The  present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Xiste  Sosa,  b.  at  Tinaco,  20  Oct.,  1876,  elected  titular 
bishop  of  Claudiopolis  14  June,  1915,  consecrated  28 
Oct.,  published  9  Dec.  following,  and  made  adminis¬ 
trator  apostolic  of  Guiana,  transferred  5  Dec.,  1918, 


published  10  March,  1919.  He  succeeded  the  lit. 
Rev.  Antonio  Maria  Duran,  who  died  18  July,  1917. 
According  to  the  statistics  of  1920  the  diocese  con¬ 
tained  400,500  Catholics,  43  parishes,  20  filial 
churches,  53  chapels  and  26  priests. 

Saint  Thomas  of  Mylapur,  Diocese  of  (Sancti 
Thom.®  de  Meliapor;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 382d), 
suffragan  of  Goa,  India.  The  Catholic  population 
of  the  diocese  is  80,000,  including  Indians,  Anglo- 
Indians,  and  Europeans.  The  All-India  Eucharistic 
Congress  was  held  in  1912.  In  1921  the  Marian 
Congress  was  held  at  Madras  and  the  Episcopal 
Conference  at  Mylapore.  During  the  World  War 
several  units  from  the  diocese  served  in  different  de¬ 
partments.  Rev.  A.  A.  Teixeira  was  chaplain  to 
the  British  forces  in  Mesopotamia  and  Rev.  Faustino 
Barreto  was  chaplain  to  the  native  Indian  forces. 
The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Teotonio  Manuel 
Ribeiro  Vieira  de  Castro,  b.  1859,  elected  1899. 
There  are  in  the  diocese:  51  parishes,  60  churches,  5 
vicariates  forane,  178  stations  and  chapels,  1  monas¬ 
tery  for  men,  3  convents  with  37  European  Sisters, 
9  convents  with  93  Indian  Sisters,  76  secular  priests, 
7  regular  priests  (Salesians),  5  lay  brothers,  2  semi¬ 
naries  with  28  seminarians,  6  high  schools  with  60 
teachers  and  an  attendance  of  1239  boys  and  150 
girls,  81  elementary  schools  with  324  teachers  and 
an  attendance  of  4865  boys  and  girls,  2  industrial 
schools  with  15  teachers  and  226  pupils,  2  homes  for 
men  and  women,  3  orphanages  for  boys  with  350 
inmates,  6  orphanages  for  girls  with  230  inmates, 
4  dispensaries,  1  day  nursery.  Most  of  the  institu¬ 
tions  are  aided  by  the  British  Government.  The 
Mylapore  Diocese  Educational  Society  is  established 
among  the  clergy,  and  the  Catholic  South  Indian 
Association  among  the  laity.  A  Catholic  periodical 
is  published,  called  “The  Catholic  Register  of 
Mylapore.” 

Saint  Viator,  Clerics  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 399d). — 
In  1912  the  Holy  See  erected  into  provinces,  with  the 
canonical  advantages  and  obligations  such  erection 
brings,  the  four  obediences  of  the  institute,  viz. 
Vourles,  Rodez,  Montreal,  and  Chicago.  In  the 
same  year  the  superior  general,  Fr.  P.  D.  Lajoie, 
celebrated  the  sixtieth  anniversary  of  his  sacerdotal 
ordination.  In  1914  the  general  chapter  of  the  order 
was  to  be  held  at  Jette-St. -Pierre,  and  the  delegates 
were  en  route,  some  having  already  reached  the 
mother-house,  when  the  war  broke  out.  This 
forced  the  superior  general  to  postpone  the  chapter 
indefinitely  During  the  German  occupation  of 
Belgium  all  communication  with  the  A°.Vher-house 
was  cut  off.  The  personnel  of  the  juVGiate  of  West- 
malle  succeeded  in  crossing  the  frontier  and  took 
refuge  in  Holland,  where  they  were  given  generous 
hospitality  by  the  Benedictines  of  St.  Paul  Abbey, 
Osterhout;  they  numbered  70  and  remained  at 
Osterhout  for  fifty  months.  Four  years  of  physical 
and  mental  suffering  were  patiently  borne  by  the 
superior  and  his  assistants.  One  of  these,  Brother 
Buchon,  died,  during  the  war,  from  privation. 
Another,  Fr.  Coutu,  after  tedious  parleys  with  the 
German  authorities  and  humilating  formalities, 
succeeded  in  getting  out  of  Belgium  on  the  mission 
of  making  the  canonical  visit  of  the  provinces.  He 
went  to  America  (1916)  to  visit  the  American  and 
Canadian  provinces  and  in  1917  returned  to  France, 
where  he  died  the  following  year  from  disease  caused 
by  the  conditions  of  life  while  in  Belgium.  Fr. 
F.  M.  Robergfe,  from  the  Canadian  province,  was  ap¬ 
pointed  assistant  general  to  succeed  Fr.  Coutu,  and 
joined  his  post  in  December,  1918,  a  few  weeks  after 
the  armistice  was  signed.  The  superior  general,  Very 
Rev.  P.  D.  Lajoie,  died  at  Jette-St. -Pierre,  25  Feb., 


SAINT  VINCENT 


668 


SALAMANCA 


1919,  in  his  ninety-third  year.  Born  in  Canada  in 
1826,  he  had  joined  the  institute  at  Joliette  in  1847, 
was  ordained  priest  in  1852,  afterwards  professor 
and  director  at  Joliette  College  and  pastor  of  Joliette, 
provincial  of  Canada  in  1870,  vicar  of  the  institute 
in  1880,  and  elected  superior  general  in  1890.  He 
governed  the  institute  for  twenty-nine  years,  safely 
guiding  it  through  the  agitated  period  of  spoliation, 
persecution  and  dispersion  in  France,  and  the  dis¬ 
astrous  years  of  the  World  War.  He  transferred  the 
general  direction  of  the  institute  from  Vourles  to 
Paris  in  1896,  and  after  the  French  edict  against  re¬ 
ligious  congregations  in  1903  transferred  it  again  to 
Belgium,  first  at  Aerschot  and  then  in  1908  at  Jette- 
St-Pierre.  He  was  succeeded  as  superior  general 
by  Very  Rev.  Pierre  Robert,  elected  by  the  general 
chapter  convened  at  Jette-St-Pierre,  22  May,  1919. 
Fr.  Robert  was  born  in  France  in  1862,  joined  the 
congregation  in  1876,  was  ordained  in  1886,  director 
of  St.  Michel  secondary  school  at  Paris  in  1890, 
provincial  at  Vourles  1900,  vicar  of  the  institute  1909, 
elected  superior  general  1919,  author  of  a  life  of  the 
founder  of  the  institute  and  history  of  the  congrega¬ 
tion  up  to  1860:  “Vie  du  Pere  Louis  Querbes” 
(Brussels,  1922).  Very  Rev.  Frangois-Michel 
Roberge  was  elected  vicar  of  the  institute  and  two 
new  assistants  were  also  appointed:  Brothers  Joseph- 
Bruno  Gareau  and  Jules  Chomienne.  The  chapter 
also  revised  the  statutes  according  to  the  new  Code 
of  Canon  Law,  but  this  effected  no  important  change 
in  the  form  of  government  or  in  the  rules.  It  chiefly 
consisted  in  introducing  into  the  text  of  the  statutes 
the  rights,  privileges,  or  obligations  resulting  from  the 
rescripts  or  indults  obtained  from  the  Holy  See  since 
the  primitive  text  of  the  statutes  was  confirmed  by 
Pope  Gregory  XVI  in  1839. 

Among  recent  transfers  and  foundations  of  in¬ 
stitutions  of  the  order  were  the  establishment  at 
Outremont,  near  Montreal,  in  1915,  of  the  scholas- 
ticate  of  the  Canadian  province,  and  the  transfer 
in  1921  of  the  novitiate  of  the  French  province  of 
Rodez  from  Zarauz,  Spain,  to  Escoriaza,  Spain. 
In  1921,  Columbus  College,  Chamberlain,  S.  D., 
officially  closed  its  career  as  an  educational  institu¬ 
tion,  owing  to  the  opening  in  September  of  the  same 
year,  of  a  new  diocesan  Catholic  college  at  Sioux 
Falls,  S.  D.  The  authorities  of  the  institute  trans¬ 
ferred  to  Chamberlain,  in  the  buildings  of  Columbus 
College,  the  novitiate  of  the  American  province 
heretofore  located  in  Chicago;  and  in  this  place  they 
opened  a  scholasticate  for  theological  studies.  The 
Institute  of  the  Clerics  of  St.  Viator  at  present 
(1922)  controls  104  educational  institutions  of  dif¬ 
ferent  kmds  and  degeees:  primary  and  secondary 
schools,  cl3S^cal  and  commercial  colleges.  It  also 
has  the  care  of  9  parishes  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  The  Montreal  Catholic  Institution  for 
Deaf  Mutes  (male)  is  under  its  direction.  The  deaf  and 
dumb  pupils  cared  for  number  170.  The  following 
table  supplies  statistics  of  the  institute: 


Professed 

Priests 

Professed 

Brothers 

Scholasticates 

Novices 

Juvenists 

Institutions 

Students 

Taught 

Gen.  Direction. 

2 

3 

Provinces 

V  ourles . 

6 

97 

3 

8 

75 

23 

2100 

Rodez . 

5 

140 

2 

9 

75 

34 

2200 

Montreal. . .  . 

49 

330 

34 

40 

92 

37 

7860 

Chicago . 

37 

32 

10 

5 

20 

9 

340 

Totals .... 

99 

602 

49 

62 

262 

104 

12,500 

Saint  Vincent  de  Paul,  Brothers  of,  a  congregation 
of  priests  and  brothers  living  in  community  and  con¬ 
secrating  their  lives  to  the  service  of  the  poor  and 
workmen  and  the  care  of  the  needy  in  general.  The 
institute  was  founded  in  Paris  in  1845  by  Fr.  Jean- 
Leon  Le  Prevost,  one  of  the  first  collaborators  of 
Frederic  Ozanam.  It  received  the  decree  of  praise, 
10  May,  1869,  and  papal  approbation,  6  June,  1874; 
the  constitutions  were  provisionally  approved  13 
February,  1906.  The  mother-house  is  in  Tournay, 
Belgium,  and  the  present  superior  general  is  Fr. 
Fernand  Desrousseaux,  elected  1914,  and  re-elected 
25  August,  1920.  The  institute  is  established  in 
France,  Belgium,  and  Canada.  The  principal 
Canadian  foundation  is  at  Quebec  where  there  are  a 
novitiate  and  juvenate,  a  school  with  350  students, 
two  societies  for  young  people,  an  association  for 
students,  and  a  maison  de  famille  where  50  orphans 
are  taught  trades.  The  procurator  general  resides 
at  Rome,  where  there  is  a  scholasticate. 

Saints  Cyril  and  Methodius,  Daughters  of,  a 
congregation  of  religious  women  for  the  instruction 
of  Slovak  children,  founded  by  Rev.  M.  Jankola 
and  several  other  Slovak  priests,  who  saw  the  great 
necessity  the  Slovak  people  in  America  had  of 
Catholic  schools .  The  first  three  members  were  sent 
to  Mt.  St.  Mary’s,  Scranton,  Pa.,  where  they  re¬ 
mained  for  several  years  under  the  kind  direction  of 
the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary.  In 
the  year  1909  their  rule  was  approved  by  Pope  Pius 
X,  and  on  11  September,  1909,  the  first  three  members 
pronounced  the  vows.  As  their  numbers  increased 
they  were  obliged  to  leave  these  Sisters,  and  assume 
the  government  of  the  institute  themselves.  Ac¬ 
cordingly,  they  opened  a  mother-house  in  Middle- 
town,  and  two  years  later  it  was  moved  to  Danville, 
Pa . ,  to  which  is  also  attached  a  novitiate .  In  Middle- 
town  they  have  an  orphanage.  The  congregation 
now  numbers  (1921)  83  professed  Sisters,  22  novices, 
and  15  postulants.  The  Sisters  have  seven  houses  in 
the  Scranton  Diocese;  5  houses  in  the  Harrisburg 
Diocese;  and  houses  at  Bridgeport,  Conn.;  Gary, 
Ind.;  Chicago,  Ill.;  Vandergrift  and  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Saints  Vincent  and  Anastasius,  Abbey  Nullius 
of  (Sanctorum  Vincentii  et  Anastasii  ad  Aquas 
Salvias;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 380d),  near  Rome.  The 
diocese  of  the  abbey  nullius,  under  the  Reformed 
Cistercians,  is  at  Orbetello,  comprising  several  village 
and  two  small  islands,  divided  into  8  parishes, 
administered  by  50  priests.  The  abbey  nullius  main¬ 
tains  an  elementary  school,  with  105  children  taught 
by  5  Sisters,  and  a  residence  for  the  workmen  con¬ 
nected  with  the  monastery,  who  number  32  families 
and  48  unmarried.  There  is  a  religious  association 
established  among  these  workmen.  Upon  the  death 
of  Cardinal  Oreglia  (3  December,  1913),  the  Holy 
Father  appointed  Rt.  Rev.  Andrea  Caron,  titular 
Bishop  of  Chalcedon,  apostolic  administrator  of  the 
spiritual  needs  of  the  diocese,  1  January,  1916.  Rt. 
Rev.  Leo  Ehrhard,  prior  of  the  abbey,  was  elected 
abbot  in  November,  1919,  and  blessed  22  January, 
1920. 

Salamanca,  Diocese  of  (Salamantinensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII — 391b),  suffragan  of  Valladolid,  Spain. 
The  present  bishop  is  Mgr.  Julio  de  Diego  y  Garcia 
Alcolea,  born  in  the  Diocese  of  Sigtienza  at  Honta- 
nares  16  February,  1859,  ordained  1881,  elected 
bishop  of  Astorga  14  November,  1904,  consecrated  at 
Valladolid  5  February,  1905,  transferred  to  Sala¬ 
manca  18  July,  1913,  to  succeed  Mgr.  Valdes  y 
Noriega,  deceased.  A  Eucharistic  Congress  was  held 
in  Salamanca,  with  representatives  from  every  parish 
(20,000  in  all),  attending  the  notable  discourses,  ser- 


SALE 


G69 


SALFORD 


inons  and  social  conferences.  The  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  is  350,000.  The  diocese  includes  286  parishes, 
539  churches,  1  convent  of  men,  27  of  women,  462 
secular  and  80  regular  priests,  56  lay  brothers,  791 
Sisters,  1  seminary,  337  seminarians,  1  university,  5 
asylums,  4  hospitals,  2  refuges  and  1  day  nursery. 
There  are  2  organizations  among  the  clergy  and  sev¬ 
eral  among  the  laity.  A  Catholic  daily  and  2  reviews 
are  published. 

Sale,  Diocese  of  (Saliensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 
395d),  in  Victoria,  Australia.  The  present  diocese 
was  part  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Melbourne  until 

1887,  when  the  late  James  Francis  Corbett,  then 
parish  priest  of  St.  Kilda,  Melbourne,  was  consecrated 
first  Bishop  of  Sale.  The  diocese  covers  the  civil 
province  of  Gippsland,  an  area  of  16,700  square 
miles,  extending  due  east  from  50  miles  from  Mel¬ 
bourne  to  the  border  of  the  State  of  New  South 
Wales,  and  on  the  south  is  washed  by  the  Southern 
Ocean.  The  first  bishop  found  in  this  vast  district 
only  a  few  priests,  who  eventually  returned  to  the 
Archdiocese  of  Melbourne,  and  no  convent  school. 
When  he  died  in  May,  1912,  he  left  three  fine  con¬ 
vents  of  the  Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  de  Sion,  with 
primary  and  secondary  schools,  at  Sale,  Barinsdale, 
and  Warragul.  In  1921  the  diocese  had  eight 
convents  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  with  primary  schools  at  Sale,  Cowwarr, 
Leongatha,  Maffra,  Morwell,  Omeo,  Traralgon,  and 
Yarram.  The  summary  of  the  diocese  for  that  year 
is:  districts,  12;  churches,  50;  secular  priests,  23; 
primary  schools,  10;  secondary  schools,  3;  number  of 
children  in  Catholic  schools,  1296.  According  to 
the  last  available  census,  the  total  population  of  the 
diocese  is  73,507,  and  the  Catholic  population  is 
12,480.  The  second  Bishop  of  Sale  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Patrick  Phelan.  Born  in  Co.  Kilkenny,  Ireland,  in 
1860,  Dr.  Phelan  was  educated  at  Mount  Melleray 
Seminary,  Co.  Waterford,  and  at  St.  Patrick’s 
College,  Carlow,  where  he  was  ordained  26  May, 

1888.  He  commenced  ecclesiastical  work  in  the 
Archdiocese  of  Melbourne  in  October  of  that  year. 
In  1896  he  was  appointed  pastor  of  St.  Joseph’s, 
Collingwood,  and  in  March,  .1900,  was  appointed 
dean  of  Melbourne  and  administrator  of  St.  Patrick’s 
Cathedral.  In  1908  Dr.  Phelan  became  vicar  general 
of  the  archdiocese,  and  in  1912  was  created  pro- 
thonotary  apostolic  by  Pope  Pius  X.  Through  the 
death  of  Bishop  Corbett  the  See  of  Sale  became 
vacant  that  year,  and  Dr.  Phelan  was  consecrated 
second  Bishop  of  Sale  at  St.  Patrick’s  Cathedral, 
Melbourne,  2  March,  1913,  by  Archbishop  Carr  of 
Melbourne.  When  the  apostolic  delegate  visited 
Sale  six  years  after  Dr.  Phelan’s  appointment,  the 
bishop  was  able  to  declare  that  he  had  opened 
several  convent  schools  in  the  diocese,  had  expended 
£75,000  in  building  churches,  schools,  and  presby¬ 
teries,  and  was  then  engaged  in  building  a  college  or 
secondary  school  for  boys  at  Sale  which  was  costing 
over  £25,000.  The  Marist  Brothers  are  in  charge  of 
this  college.  Bishop  Phelan  is  the  author  of  several 
works.  Some  were  the  result  of  controversy  in  the 
public  press  with  Protestant  Divines,  such  as  “Chris¬ 
tian  Marriage”  and  the  “Refutation  of  Protestant 
Calumnies.”  Others  are. of  a  devotional  character, 
viz.  “The  Holy  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass,”  “The  Mission 
of  St.  Ignatius  of  Loyola,”  and  “The  Priesthood  of 
Christ.” 

Salerno,  Archdiocese  of  (Salernitanensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII — 396b),  in  the  Province  of  Naples, 
Southern  Italy.  The  present  administrator  is  the 
Most  Rev.  Carlo  Maria  Grasso  of  the  Benedictines  of 
Monte  Cassino.  He  was  b.  at  Genoa,  22  April,  1869, 
ordained  1  April.  1893,  named  administrator  apostolic 


of  Cava  and  Sarno  in  1914,  promoted  to  Salerno  7 
April,  1915,  consecrated  at  Rome  22  April  and 
received  the  pallium  19  July,  published  6  December 
following.  On  16  September,  1919,  he  was  named 
administrator  of  Nusco  and  of  Nole  8  December  fol¬ 
lowing.  He  succeeded  the  Most  Rev.  Valerio  Laspro, 
who  died  22  November,  1914.  According  to  the  sta¬ 
tistics  of  1920  the  archdiocese  contained  149  parishes, 
364  churches  and  chapels,  659  secular  priests  and  60 
seminarians.  In  1920  the  united  see  of  Acerno  con¬ 
sisted  of  7  parishes,  7  churches,  and  16  secular  priests. 

Salesian  Society  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 398c). — The 
Society  has  a  total  of  341  houses  and  numbers  over 
5000  members — priests,  lay  brothers  and  clerics. 
There  are  230  festive  oratories  or  recreation  grounds 
with  chapel  for  religious  instruction,  with  over 
100,000  children  in  attendance.  The  130  colleges, 
for  the  poor  in  particular,  have  as  boarders, 35, 000  boys 
In  many  of  the  colleges  there  is  a  department  for 
learning  trades,  with  15,000  boys  under  instruction. 
In  52  agricultural  colonies  there  are  3000  boys.  The 
132  clubs  have  a  membership  of  over  7000.  Over 
22,000  pupils  are  educated  by  the  Salesians  in  over 
150  elementary  schools,  mostly  in  Italy  and  South 
America.  The  Salesians  have  under  their  jurisdic¬ 
tion  13  shrines,  91  parishes,  and  over  300  churches 
and  chapels.  They  have  43  missions  among  the 
heathens,  chiefly  in  South  America  (Brazil,  Ecuador, 
etc.) ,  with  250,000  souls.  A  new  mission  in  the  coast 
region  of  Assam,  northern  India,  was  taken  over  by 
them  in  December,  1921.  Here  there  are  only  5000 
Catholics  out  of  a  population  of  7,000,000.  The 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Shiu-Chow,  China,  was  en¬ 
trusted  to  the  Salesians  in  1920.  This  vast  territory 
is  divided  into  10  missions  and  has  about  3,000,000 
souls  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Mgr.  Louis  Versiglia, 
S.  C.  The  Vicariate  Apostolic  for  the  Aborigines  in 
Kimberley,  Australia,  is  to  be  given  to  the  Salesians 
in  the  fall  of  1922.  At  Elizabethville,  Congo,  Africa, 
there  is  a  large  mission.  Since  the  armistice  of  the 
World  War  important  foundations  have  been  es¬ 
tablished  for  the  first  time  in  Ireland,  Germany,  and 
Russia.  Among  prominent  members  of  the  Society 
are:  John  Cagliero,  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Frascati,  one 
of  Don  Bosco’s  early  pupils  and  the  head  of  the 
first  band  of  Salesian  missionaries  who  went  to  Buenos 
Aires  in  1875;  Archbishop  Guerra  of  Santiago  de 
Cuba,  Bishop  Piani,  auxiliary  of  Puebla,  Mexico; 
and  six  other  bishops  in  Italy  and  South  America. 
Recently  deceased  is  Don  Paolo  Albera,  second  suc¬ 
cessor  of  the  Ven.  Don  Bosco,  died  in  Turin,  29  Oct., 
1921.  Salesian  institutes  in  the  United  States  are 
at:  Ramsey,  N.  J.;  New  Rochelle,  N.  Y.;  Philadelphia, 
Penn.;  Watsonville,  Cal.  (orphanage).  In  England 
they  have  schools  at:  Battersea,  London;  Farn- 
borough,  Hampshire;  Burwash,  Sussex;  Chertsey, 
Surrey.  There  is  an  agricultural  school  at  Pallask- 
enry,  Co.  Limerick,  Ireland.  The  novitiate  and  house 
of  studies  for  the  United  States  is  at  New  Rochelle, 
N.  Y.;  for  England  and  Ireland,  at  Oxford. 

Salford,  Diocese  of  (Salfordiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 399c),  suffragan  of  Liverpool,  England.  The 
Catholic  population  of  the  diocese  is  about  293,400, 
of  whom  1,000  are  Italians  and  900  Lithuanians, 
Poles,  Ruthenians,  etc.  Recently  deceased  Catholic 
laymen  of  note  were:  Sir  Daniel  McCabe,  K.S.S., 
Deputy  Lieutenant  of  the  County  of  Lancashire, 
twice  Lord  Mayor  of  Manchester,  died  29  Sept., 
1919;  Alderman  Carus,  K.S.G.,  several  times  Mayor 
of  Darwen,  died  in  December,  1920.  During  the 
World  War  some  25  priests  of  the  diocese  went  out 
as  chaplains.  Of  these  Rev.  J.  Birch  lost  a  limb, 
Rev.  John  O’R.  Browne  was  honored  by  a  military 
cross  with  bar,  and  Revs.  R.  McGuinness,  W. 


SALMAS 


670 


SALTA 


Leighton,  R.  V.  O’Shaughnessy,  and  Arthur  O’Connor 
won  military  crosses.  Rev.  E.  M.  Bray,  D.D.,  did 
heroic  work  in  the  Messina  earthquake  and  was  made 
a  Cavalier  by  the  King  of  Italy.  The  Catholic  Truth 
Society  Conference  was  held  at  Salford  in  1916.  The 
present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Louis  Charles  Casartelli,  b. 
1852,  consecrated  1903.  The  auxiliary  bishop  is  Rt. 
Rev.  John  S.  Vaughan,  titular  Bishop  of  Sebastopolis, 
b.  1853,  consecrated  1909.  Statistics  for  the  diocese 
are:  135  parishes,  134  churches,  12  chapels  of  ease, 
52  convent  and  private  chapels,  18  institutions 
(chapels)  where  Mass  is  said,  1  abbey  of  Poor  Clares, 
44  convents  for  women,  289  secular  priests,  86 
regular  priests  (7  Benedictines,  8  Friars  Minor, 
7  Dominicans,  55  Jesuits,  5  Premonstratensians, 
3  Servants  of  Mary,  1  Missionary  Father  of  St. 
Joseph),  11  religious  congregations  of  men*  23  re¬ 
ligious  congregations  of  women,  4  colleges  for  boys 
with  1163  students,  14  colleges  for  girls  with  2790 
students,  1  training  school  and  hostel  with  an  at¬ 
tendance  of  118,  141  elementary  schools,  2  industrial 
schools  with  965  pupils,  5  rescue  homes  for  children, 
3  homes  for  working  girls,  1  hospital  for  men  (Alexian 
Brothers’  at  Newton  Heath,  Manchester),  1  hos¬ 
pital  for  women  (The  Home,  Whalley  Range,  Man¬ 
chester),  1  refuge.  Ecclesiastical  students  attend 
St.  Bede’s  College  and  Ushaw  College.  Most  of  the 
public  institutions  admit  the  ministry  of  priests. 
Practically  all  the  institutions  are  aided  by  the 
Government,  except  Stonyhurst  and  a  few  convents. 
The  Government  aids  all  the  elementary  schools, 
Loretto  College  for  girls,  St.  Bede’s  College  and 
Xaverian  College  for  boys.  The  Priests’  Eucharistic 
League  and  Lancashire  Infirm  Clergy  Fund  are 
established  among  the  clergy.  There  are  seventeen 
associations  among  the  laity.  Catholic  periodicals 
are:  “The  Catholic  Federationist,”  monthly  organ 
of  the  Catholic  Federation;  “The  Harvest,”  monthly 
organ  of  the  Catholic  Protective  and  Rescue  Society; 
and  the  “Annual  Diocesan  Almanac  and  Directory.” 

Salmas,  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 402c),  a  Chaldean  see 
included  in  the  ancient  Archdiocese  of  Adhorbigan  or 
Adherbaidjan.  The  present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Pierre  Aziz,  b.  at  Mossul,  6  April,  1866,  ordained  in 

1890,  elected  25  Jan.,  1910,  consecrated  15  Aug.  fol¬ 
lowing,  published  30  Nov.,  1911.  During  the  war  all 
the  villages  in  the  diocese  were  devastated  and  burned 
and  many  of  the  men  were  killed.  At  the  time  of  the 
Persian  massacre  in  1918,  Bishop  Aziz  was  deported 
by  the  Turks,  but  was  providentially  saved  after  hav¬ 
ing  been  imprisoned  for  two  months  and  enduring 
great  suffering.  He  arrived  at  Diabekir  with  several 
priests  after  a  journey  of  50  days  on  foot.  According 
to  the  statistics  of  1920  the  diocese  contained  10,460 
Chaldean  Catholics,  24  secular  priests,  33  churches 
and  chapels,  14  stations  and  14  schools. 

Salt  Lake,  Diocese  of  (Lacus  Salsis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII — 404c),  comprises  territory  in  Utah  and 
Nevada.  The  foundations  of  the  Catholic  Church  in 
the  Diocese  of  Salt  Lake  were  laid  by  the  intrepid 
missionary  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Lawrence  Scanlan,  D.D., 
who  was  appointed  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Utah,  25  Janu¬ 
ary,  1887,  and  first  Bishop  of  Salt  Lake,  25  January, 

1891,  when  the  diocese  was  erected.  Bishop  Scanlan 
was  an  apostolic  man,  inured  to  the  hardships  of 
frontier  mission  life,  and  greatly  beloved  by  all 
classes.  After  forty-seven  years  of  missionary  toil 
he  died  10  May,  1915.  The  second  Bishop  of  Salt 
Lake,  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  S.  Glass,  C.M.,  D.D.,  was 
born  in  Bushnell,  Ill.,  13  March,  1874,  made  his  class¬ 
ical  studies  at  St.  Vincent’s  College,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 
and  his  theological  studies  at  St.  Mary’s  Seminary, 
Barrens,  Mo.,  where  he  was  ordained  to  the  priest¬ 
hood,  15  August,  1897.  After  spending  two  years  in 


Rome,  he  took  his  degree  in  theology  in  1899,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  in  the  Vincentian 
Seminary  at  Barrens,  Mo.  In  1901  Dr.  Glass  was 
sent  by  his  community  as  president  of  St.  Vincent’s 
College  and  rector  of  St.  Vincent’s  Church,  Los 
Angeles,  Cal.,  where  he  labored  with  success  for  four¬ 
teen  years.  He  was  appointed  to  the  see  of  Salt  Lake 

1  June,  1915;  consecrated  in  St.  Vincent’s  Church, 
Los  Angeles,  24  August,  and  installed  in  the  See  of 
Salt  Lake  1  September,  1915. 

The  new  bishop  found  himself,  with  but  seven 
diocesan  priests  and  a  number  of  borrowed  clergy, 
in  charge  of  the  largest  diocese  in  the  United  States, 
embracing,  according  to  the  latest  data,  167,657 
square  miles,  including  the  entire  State  of  Utah, 
84,990  square  miles,  and  two-thirds  of  the  State  of 
Nevada,  72,667  square  miles.  His  first  work  was 
to  get  priests  and  to  place  them  at  strategic  points, 
so  that  they  could  reach  the  scattered  parishes  and 
missions  of  the  vast  diocese.  Nearly  every  known 
language  is  spoken  in  the  mining  camps  and  sick 
calls  of  a  hundred  miles  are  a  common  occurrence. 
The  unsettled  conditions  of  the  mining  industry  made 
it  necessary  to  proceed  with  caution  and  deliberation, 
for  a  few  months  of  depression  often  changed  a  thriv¬ 
ing  .parish  into  a  deserted  mining  camp.  In  spite 
of  many  difficulties  and  a  scarcity  of  resources,  the 
bishop,  with  characteristic  energy,  augmented  the 
clergy,  erected  nine  new  parishes,  of  which  three 
were  in  the  episcopal  city,  and  sent  missioners  to 
administer  to  the  scattered  Catholics  in  the  remote 
parts  of  the  diocese.  The  cathedral  of  the  Mag- 
delaine  was  refurnished  and  decorated  and  made  one 
of  the  most  imposing  churches  in  the  intermountain 
section;  valuable  church  property  was  acquired;  and 
the  Catholic  people  were  organized  and  instructed. 
The  growth  of  the  Church  has  been  steady,  but  owing 
to  the  migratory  habits  of  a  large  part  of  the  mining 
population,  largely  immigrants  from  various  parts 
of  Europe,  many  of  the  smaller  parishes  are  unstable 
and  temporary.  At  present,  there  are  29  priests 
working  in  the  diocese,  and  12  ecclesiastical  students  * 
in  various  seminaries.  Salt  Lake  City  has  5  parishes, 

2  free  grammar  schools,  St.  Ann’s  Orphanage  and 
School,  besides  St.  Mary’s  Academy  and  Boarding 
School.  There  are  parochial  schools  at  Ogden, 
Park  City,  and  Eureka. 

The  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  have  done  pioneer 
work  in  the  dicoese,  having  opened  St.  Mary’s 
Academy  and  Holy  Cross  Hospital  in  1875,  and  the 
Sacred  Heart  Academy  in  Ogden  in  1876.  All  these 
institutions  have  grown  rapidly.  The  Holy  Cross 
Sisters  have  charge  of  the  day  schools  at  Ogden,  Park 
City,  and  Eureka,  and  at  the  cathedral,  Salt  Lake. 
In  1920,  Bishop  Glass  invited  the  Daughters  of 
Charity  of  St.  Vincent  to  the  diocese,  and  gave  them 
charge  of  the  large  Catholic  free  school.  Each  year 
a  grade  is  added  to  the  curriculum,  and  the  high 
school  will  soon  be  completed.  The  Knights  of 
Columbus  are  well  organized  in  the  diocese  and  con¬ 
duct  an  evening  trade  school  for  ex-service  men  in 
Salt  Lake.  The  Catholic  Women’s  League  is  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  aggressive  Catholic  organiza¬ 
tions  of  women  in  the  West.  Their  war  record  was 
conspicuous  and  they  perform  much  charity  and 
philanthropic  work.  The  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  is  organized  in  all  the  city  parishes,  and  the  Boy 
Scouts  are  well  organized  and  doing  efficient  workjn 
some  places.  The  vast  deposits  of  iron  and  coal  'in 
Utah  mark  the  diocese  as  one  of  the  future  steel  centers 
of  the  West.  With  the  development  of  this  industry 
and  the  revival  of  copper  and  silver  mining,  an  im¬ 
mense  increase  of  population  is  expected. 

Salta,  Diocese  of  (Saltensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII- 
404a),  in  the  northern  Dart  of  the  Republic  of  Ar- 


SALTILLO 


671 


SALVATION  ARMY 


gentina,  suffragan  of  Buenos  Aires.  The  last  ad¬ 
ministrator  of  the  see  was  the  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph 
Gregory  Romero.  He  was  born  at  Salta,  14  Oct. 
1862,  elected  titular  bishop  of  Therm®  18  Feb., 
1914,  and  auxiliary  bishop  of  Salta,  published  25 
May  following,  appointed  bishop  of  Salta,  29  Oct., 
1914,  died  17  Aug.,  1919.  He  succeeded  the  Rt. 
|Rev.  Matias  Linares  who  died  24  April,  1914.  The 
see  is  still  vacant.  According  to  the  statistics  of 
1920,  the  diocese  contains:  37  parishes,  131  chapels, 
54  seminarians. 

Saltillo,  Diocese  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 404), 
Coahuila,  Mexico,  suffragan  of  Linares,  is  still  gov¬ 
erned  by  Mgr.  Jesfis  Maria  Echavarria.  It  has  27 
parishes  and  1  vicariate  or  vice-parish;  the  number  of 
churches  and  chapels  is  greater,  for  there  is  hardly  a 
hamlet  or  village  that  has  not  at  least  a  poor  chapel; 
the  spiritual  wants  of  the  diocesans  are  attended  to  by 
34  priests,  of  whom  7  are  regular — Jesuits  in  Saltillo 
and  Carmelites  and  Josephites  in  Torreon.  There 
are  15  communities  of  Sisters  with  52  religious:  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  with  3  hospitals  in  Torredn  and 
1  in  San  Pedro;  Sisters  of  Charity  of  the  Good  Shep¬ 
herd  with  a  Magdalen  Asylum  at  Saltillo;  the  Sisters 
of  the  Incarnate  Word,  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  of  the 
Purity  of  Mary,  and  the  Guadalupe  Sisters  engage  in 
teaching;  the  Sisters  of  Christian  Mercy  have  orphan¬ 
ages  at  Saltillo  and  Parras.  Before  1913  there  were 
many  other  communities  of  men  and  women  in  Coa¬ 
huila  teaching  or  exercising  works  of  charity  towards 
the  poor  and  the  sick,  but  in  the  late  revolution  the 
diocese  suffered  great  losses,  as  for  instance  the  total 
destruction  of  the  famous  Jesuit  College  of  Saint  John. 
The  diocesan  seminary  was  disbanded  and  has  not 
yet  been  reorganized,  as  the  Government  is  using  the 
building  for  its  offices.  There  are,  however,  at  present 
5  boys’  schools,  3  colleges  and  3  schools  for  girls  with 
a  total  of  2500  pupils.  Among  the  social  organiza¬ 
tions  of  the  laity  are:  The  Catholic  Association  of 
Young  Mexico,  the  newly-established  Catholic  Union 
of  Coahuila;  and  the  Catholic  Workingmen’s  Society 
in  Saltillo,  Torredn,  Parras,  and  San  Pedro.  Among 
those  who  have  died  in  the  diocese  in  recent  years 
mention  must  be  made  of  Senor  Don  Enrique  and  his 
wife  Senora  Dona  Trinidad  Narro  de  Maas.  They 
founded  and  endowed  an  orphan  asylum  which  was 
confided  to  the  Josephite  Sisters,  but  the  Sisters  have 
been  driven  out  and  the  orphanage  turned  over  to  lay 
directors.  They  likewise  contributed  very  generously 
towards  the  erection  of  the  new  Gothic  Sanctuary  of 
our  Lady  of  Guadalupe,  the  most  beautiful  in  Saltillo 
but  not  yet  completed  owing  to  the  political  distur¬ 
bances.  They  also  gave  St.  Vincent’s  Hospital,  which 
bears  the  name  of  the  donor,  “Enrique  Maas,”  but  it 
too  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Government.  Finally  they 
left  an  adequate  bequest  for  the  foundation  of  a 
school  of  arts  and  crafts,  but  it  has  not  been  possible 
to  carry  out  this  plan  either. 

Salto,  Diocese  of  (Saltensis;  cf.  C.  E.,XIII — 
405b),  in  Uruguay,  suffragan  of  Montevideo.  The 
erection  of  this  diocese  did  not  go  into  effect  until 
1919,  when  the  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  Camacho  was  ap¬ 
pointed  to  the  new  see.  He  was  b.  at  San  Jose  16 
Feb.,  1868,  and  elected  3  July,  1919. 

Saluzzo,  Diocese  of  (Saluci^e,  Salutiensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 405d),  in  the  Province  of  Cuneo, 
Piedmont,  Upper  Italy,  suffragan  of  Turin.  The 
present  incumbent  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Oberti, 
of  the  Clerks  Regular  of  the  Pious  Schools;  b.  at 
Ovada,  Italy,  21  Nov.,  1862,  elected  16  Dec.,  1901, 
made  assistant  to  the  pontifical  throne  20  Feb., 
1913.  According  to  the  statistics  of  1920  the  diocese 
contained: 160, 500  Catholics,  92  parishes,  671  churches 


and  chapels,  304  secular  priests,  31  regulars,  112 
seminarians,  24  Brothers,  220  Sisters. 

Salvation  Army,  The. — The  Salvation  Army  is 
an  organization,  religious  and  philanthropic  in  pur¬ 
pose,  which  was  formed  under  the  above  name  in 
1878,  by  William  Booth,  as  the  result  of  a  defection 
from  the  Methodist  Church  in  England  in  1865,  the 
movement  being  known  by  various  names  previous 
to  1878. 

I.  Doctrine. — Its  doctrine  is  contained  in  the 
“Articles  of  War,”  sixteen  in  number,  eight  doctrinal, 
eight,  chiefly  pledges  of  personal  conduct,  which 
constitute  the  “fighting  faith,”  and  in  the 
“Doctrines”  which  contain  the  “teaching  faith.” 
Neither  of  these  confessions,  however,  is  considered 
as  a  strict  creed,  binding  the  soldiers  to  intellectual 
assent,  although  the  “Articles  of  War”  are  signed  by 
each  soldier  when  enlisting.  The  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  is  accepted;  the  Bible  is  viewed  as  the  sole 
Rule  of  Faith;  they  reject  Calvinistic  predestinarian- 
ism  and  hold  that  Christ  died  for  all,  not  merely  for 
the  elect,  and  that  ample  provision  is  made  for  entire 
deliverance  from  sin  by  the  salvation  of  God;  sin  is 
the  enemy  which  the  Army  is  to  combat;  conversion 
from  sin  is  an  emotional  experience  accompanied  by 
outward  manifestations,  such  as  the  vociferous  utter¬ 
ing  of  “Hallelujahs”  and  “Amens,”  and  by  the  interior 
assurance  of  salvation.  There  are  no  sacraments,  the 
administration  of  Baptism  and  the  Lord’s  Supper  being 
discontinued  in  1882,  the  distinctive  uniform  and  the 
pledge  of  the  Articles  being  considered  as  sufficiently 
taking  their  place.  Religious  worship  consists 
chiefly  in  “holiness”  or  experience  meetings,  a  feature 
being  stirring  hymns  sung  to  the  accompaniment  of 
a  band  or  of  some  other  instrumental  music. 

Stress  is  laid  upon  personal  conduct,  the  soldier 
upon  his  conversion  pledging  himself  to  live  a  Chris¬ 
tian  life,  to  be  humane,  and  to  abstain  entirely  from 
intoxicating  liquors  and  all  harmful  drugs.  Self- 
sacrifice  in  order  to  procure  the  salvation  of  others 
is  inculcated  as  a  duty  at  all  times,  while  more 
specifically  a  week  is  set  aside  annually  as  “self- 
denial  week,”  in  which  all  members  are  urged  to 
make  a  self-denial  offering  through  saving,  thrift  and 
abstention  from  personal  pleasures  or  luxuries  during 
that  period.  The  Army  is  chiefly  concerned  in  prac¬ 
tising  the  corporal  works  of  mercy,  not,  however, 
to  the  exclusion  of  the  spiritual  works  of  mercy,  as 
they  see  the  latter. 

There  are  no  ministers  or  pastors  in  the  Salvation 
Army,  the  commissioned  officers  being  the  nearest 
approach  to  such,  and  women  being  fully  eligible  for 
any  position;  there  are  no  churches,  understanding 
by  the  term  edifices  set  apart  for  Divine  worship, 
for  the  Army  property  is  used  indiscriminately  for 
philanthropic  and  for  devotional  purposes — a  hall 
may  be  in  the  evening  a  chapel  and  in  the  night  a 
dormitory;  in  a  certain  sense  there  are  no  congrega¬ 
tions,  since  those  who  accept  the  full  Army  tenets 
become  themselves  workers  for  the  salvation  of 
others,  even  though  they  be  only  private  soldiers 
in  the  Army,  while  those  who  do  not  become  active 
soldiers  after  their  conversion  usually  join  some  other 
church  if  they  persevere. 

Although  there  are  no  ministers,  yet  the  organiza¬ 
tion  is  hierarchical,  autocratic,  and  monarchical  in 
character.  The  chief  officer  is  the  General  (known 
formerly  as  the  Commander-in-chief),  who  issues  all 
orders  and  regulations,  to  whom  unquestioning 
obedience  is  to  be  yielded,  in  whom  as  trustee  is 
vested  the  ownership  of  all  Army  property,  and  who, 
himself  appointed  for  life,  appoints  his  own  successor. 
Associated  with  the  General  at  the  International 
Headquarters  in  London  are  the  Chief  of  the  Staff, 
the  Foreign  Secretary  and  the  Chancellor.  In  the 


SALVATION  ARMY 


672 


SALVATION  ARMY 


“field”  the  army  is  divided  into  Territories  (usually 
corresponding  to  countries),  these  being  subdivided 
into  Provinces,  these  again  into  Divisions.  Each 
Division  contains  a  certain  number  of  corps,  each 
of  the  latter  having  its  own  Captain  and  Lieutenant, 
the  corps  being  the  nearest  Army  equivalent  to  an 
ordinary  denominational  congregation.  Officers 
usually  give  their  full  time  to  the  work  and  receive 
sufficient  remuneration  to  support  themselves; 
soldiers  usually  pursue  their  ordinary  occupations 
during  the  day  and  in  the  evening  devote  themselves 
to  the  work  of  the  Army.  There  are  training  schools 
or  garrisons  for  officers,  the  course  varying  from  1  to 
3  years. 

II.  History. — The  Salvation  Army  was  founded 
by  William  Booth,  who,  born  an  Anglican  in  England 
in  1829,  later  joined  the  Wesleyan  Methodists, 
becoming  a  local  preacher  when  fifteen  or  sixteen 
years  old.  His  open-air  preaching  not  being  ac¬ 
ceptable  to  the  Wesleyans,  he  joined  the  Methodist 
New  Connexion  and  was  ordained  minister,  only  to 
leave  that  denomination  in  1861.  He  and  his  wife 
then  turned  themselves  exclusively  to  itinerant 
evangelical  work,  intending  at  first  not  to  found  a 
new  sect,  but  rather  to  send  their  converts  to  existing 
organizations.  In  1865,  after  having  come  in  contact 
with  the  slums  of  London,  his  ideas  took  more 
definite  shape,  and  he  founded  the  East  London 
Revival  Society,  changing  the  name  later  to  East 
London  Christian  Mission,  and  again  to  the  Christian 
Mission.  By  1878  the  movement  had  spread;  one 
of  Booth’s  co-workers  in  a  seaport  town  was  known 
as  the  “captain,”  and  he  preparing  a  reception  for 
his  leader  announced  that  the  “General”  was  coming. 
The  program  spoke  of  the  “Christian  Mission”  as  a 
“volunteer  army.”  This  Booth  changed  to  “Salvation 
Army,”  which  accordingly  in  1878  became  the  name 
of  the  movement,  its  official  and  definitive  acceptance 
taking  place  in  1880. 

Opposition  to  the  movement  and  its  general 
methods,  at  first  bitter,  subsided  after  a  few  years. 
In  1890,  following  out  the  development  of  his  ideas 
on  the  relief  of  poverty,  uplift  of  the  slum-dwellers, 
reform  of  criminals,  and  similar  points,  Booth  pub¬ 
lished  his  “In  Darkest  England  and  the  Way  Out,” 
advocating  as  remedies  for  those  evils,  city,  farm, 
and  over-sea  colonies,  homes  for  fallen  women, 
prisoners’  aid  work,  and  legal  and  financial  associa¬ 
tions  to  aid  the  poor.  The  scheme  has  been  realized 
to  a  considerable  extent.  William  Booth  died  in 
1912  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Bramwell  Booth. 

The  Army  spread  rapidly  to  countries  outside  of 
England,  the  inauguration  in  different  countries 
being  as  follows:  Scotland  1878;  Ireland,  the  United 
States,  Australia  1880;  France  1881;  Canada,  Swe¬ 
den,  India,  Switzerland  1882;  South  Africa,  Ceylon, 
New  Zealand  1883;  Germany  1886;  Denmark,  Italy, 
Holland  1887;  Norway  1888;  South  America  (5 
republics),  Finland,  Belgium  1889;  West  Indies  1892; 
Dutch  East  Indies  1894;  Iceland,  Japan  1895;  Korea 
1908;  Burma  1914;  China  1915;  Russia  1917. 

III.  Statistics. — In  1920  the  Salvation  Army  was 
located  in  70  countries  and  colonies;  it  numbered 
11,173  corps  and  outposts;  it  was  in  charge  of  1276 
social  institutions,  751  day  schools;  it  had  18,321 
officers  and  cadets,  71,419  local  officers,  32,000  bands¬ 
men;  it  issued  82  periodicals. 

In  the  United  States  in  1920  an  administrative 
reorganization  was  effected,  three  territories  being 
created,  instead  of  one  as  formerly.  Miss  Evangeline 
Booth,  daughter  of  the  first  general,  remains,  how¬ 
ever,  in  supreme  charge  of  all  the  work  in  this  coun¬ 
try.  In  1920  there  were  1036  corps  and  outposts; 
3649  officers  and  cadets;  28,586  members;  52  hotels 
for  men,  3  for  women,  4  boarding  houses  for  young 
women;  82  industrial  homes;  3  children’s  homes; 


19  slum  posts  and  nurseries;  26  rescue  homes  and 
maternity  hospitals.  The  Army  also  dispenses  char¬ 
ity  through  Christmas  dinners,  distribution  of  toys, 
finding  temporary  or  permanent  work  for  the  unem¬ 
ployed,  and  distribution  of  coal  and  ice  to  the  poor. 

IV.  Criticism. — A  discussion  of  the  doctrines  held 
by  the  Salvation  Army  is  unnecessary  here,  since  they 
are  common  also  to  Protestantism  in  general,  partly 
to  liberal  and  partly  to  “orthodox”  sects.  There  is 
little  new  in  doctrine  in  the  Army;  its  methods  are 
not  entirely  new;  its  work  is  to  a  considerable  extent- 
new  to  Protestantism.  So  far  as  it  performs  the  work 
to  which  it  has  assigned  itself  the  Army  deserves 
credit.  Mam7-,  chiefly  Protestants,  have  attacked 
its  methods,  and  the  sincerity  of  its  members.  The 
most  serious  charge  that  can  be  brought  against  it, 
however,  is  its  minimizing  of  dogma,  of  spiritual  truth, 
of  the  concursus  of  God  in  the  affairs  of  men  through 
the  Sacraments  and  sacramentals,  through  the  super¬ 
natural  in  general.  The  statement  that  the  Army 
performs  work  which  no  other  sect  can  or  will  perform 
is  fairly  true;  but  the  additional  assertion  that  it 
engages  in  work  and  remedies  conditions  with  which 
not  even  the  Catholic  Church  can  cope  is  unfounded. 
In  the  Catholic  Church  various  religious  orders 
perform  similar  work  without  sacrificing  anything  on 
the  religious  or  dogmatic  side;  rather  are  the  latter 
intensified  by  such  work.  Prominent  among  these- 
may  be  mentioned  the  Alexian  Brothers,  founded, 
originally  to  combat  the  plague  in  the  fifteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  the  various  Hospitallers,  the  military  orders, 
the  Mercedarians,  the  Magdalens,  the  Sisters  of  the 
Good  Shepherd,  especially  devoted  to  the  redemption 
of  fallen  women,  the  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  the 
Sisters  of  Charity,  while  a  typical  lay  society  is  that 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul.  An  interesting  conversion  of 
a  Salvationist  to  the  Catholic  Church  is  that  (1897)  of 
Miss  Susie  Swift,  Brigadier  of  the  Army,  head  of  the 
Auxiliary  League  of  America  and  editor  of  “All  the 
World”  (Curtis,  “Some  Roads  to  Rome  in  America”). 

V.  The  Volunteers  of  America  is  the  name  of 
an  American  off-shoot  of  the  Salvation  Army.  In 
1896  Ballington  Booth,  a  son  of  the  founder  of  the 
Army,  together  with  his  wife,  left  the  Army  through 
dissatisfaction  with  the  autocratic  rule  of  the  general. 
They  formed  a 'rival  organization  under  the  above 
title,  having,  however,  practically  the  same  doctrines, 
aims  and  methods  as  the  Army  .  In  organization  the 
Volunteers  are  more  democratic,  the  government  of 
the  corporate  society  being  vested  in  the  “Grand  Field 
Council,”  which  elects  eleven  directors  as  financial 
officers  and  trustees  of  all  property.  The  commander- 
in-chief  or  general  is  elected  for  a  term  of  five  years. 
More  generally  than  is  the  case  with  the  Salvation 
Army  converts  are  urged  to  join  the  church  with 
which  they  were  previously  connected,  or  some  other 
church  of  their  choice.  A  distinctive  feature  of  the 
work  of  this  sect  is  the  Volunteer  Prisoners’  League, 
which  has  for  its  object  the  salvaging  and  reformation 
of  persons  sentenced  to  prison.  In  1920  there  were 
reported  in  the  United  States,  97  churches  or  edifices, 
307  ministers  (officers,  etc.),  and  10,204  members. 
They  conduct  one  hospital,  19  homes  for  children 
and  girls,  and  various  homes  for  working  girls. 

There  have  been  many  other  off-shoots  or  imitators 
of  the  Army.  Major  Moore,  one  of  General  Booth’s 
first  envoys  to  the  United  States,  seceded  in  1884 
and  formed  an  organization  which  he  called  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Salvation  Army.  Litigation  over  the  name 
ensued  between  him  and  the  parent  organization, 
ending  in  1913  when  the  dissenting  body  received 
from  the  Salvation  Army  $4100  and  adopted  the 
name  of  American  Rescue  Workers.  The  names  of 
some  of  the  others  are:  Gospel  Army,  Redeemer’s 
Army,  Christian  Army,  Christian  Union  Army, 
American  Volunteer  Army,  Christian  Volunteers, 


SALZBURG 


673 


SAMOA 


Christian  Volunteer  Association,  American  Salva¬ 
tionists,  Samaritan  Association,  Samaritan  Christian 
Association. 

Friederichs  (et  al.).  Selected  Papers  on  Social  Work  of  Salva¬ 
tion  Army  (St.  Albans,  1907-08);  Begbie,  Life  of  Gen.  William 
Booth  (New  York,  1920);  Booth,  In  Darkest  England  and  the 
Way  Out  (New  York,  1890)  Booth-Tucker,  Life  of  Catherine 
Booth  (New  York,  1892);  Idem,  Social  Relief  Work  of  the  Salvation 
Army  in  the  United  States  (New  York,  1900);  Friederichs, 
The  Romance  of  the  Salvation  Army  (London,  1907);  From  the 
Jaws  of  Death  (report  of  anti-suicide  bureau);  St.  Albans,  1912); 
Salvation  Army  Year  Book  (London,  annual);  Booth — (Bal- 
lington),  The  Volunteers  of  America  in  Independent,  XLVIII — • 
(1896),  437.  Attacks  on  the  Salvation  Army:  Lamb,  The 
Social  Work  of  the  Salvation  Army  (New  York,  1909);  Manson, 
The  Salvation  Army  and  the  Public  (London,  1906);  White  (etal.), 
The  Truth  About  the  Salvation  Army  (London,  1892);  Williams, 
Salvation  Army  Today  (Chicago,  1915);  Haggard,  Regeneration 
(London,  1910);  Huxley,  Evolution  and  Ethics  and  other  Essays 
(New  York,  1902);  Idem,  Social  Diseases  and  Worse  Remedies 
(London,  1891). 

Gerald  Shaughnessy. 

Salzburg,  Archdiocese  of  (Salisburgensis)  ,  in 
Austria.  It  contains  290,000  Catholics,  2615 
Protestants  and  302  Jews;  187  parishes,  335  churches, 
8  monasteries  and  2  Benedictine  Abbeys  (St.  Peter 
at  Salzburg  and  Michaelbeuren)  for  men,  2  monaster¬ 
ies  and  1  Benedictine  abbey  (Nonnberg,  Salzburg)  for 
women,  with  1074  sisters,  18  deaconries  and  2 
collegiate  churches.  The  clergy  number  478  seculars 
and  172  regulars.  The  following  orders  for  men  and 
women  are  represented:  Franciscans,  Capuchins, 
Servites,  Mission  Fathers,  Ursulines,  Poor  Clares, 
Dominican  Sisters,  Augustinian  Sisters,  Sisters  of 
Charity,  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  Charity,  Sisters  of  the 
Cross  and  School  Sisters.  The  archdiocese  has  a 
cathedral  chapter  which  has  twelve  members  and 
collegiate  churches  at  Mattsee  (1  provost  and  9 
capitulars)  and  at  Seekirchen  (1  provost  and  9 
canons).  An  important  change  took  place  in  the 
archdiocese  when  in  1920  the  diocese  of  Trent  and 
in  1921  the  diocese  of  Brixen  were  separated  from  the 
Archdiocese  of  Salzburg  and  placed  under  the  direct 
jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See.  In  1810  the  University 
was  dissolved  but  the  theological  faculty,  with  the 
right  of  promotion  remained  and  now  consists  of  8 
professors  and  40  students. 

The  following  schools  exist  in  the  archdiocese:  1 
archiepiscopal  private  gymnasium  (180  students),  1 
state  gymnasium  (310  students,  4  girls),  1  state 
obberealschule  (9  years  scientific  course,  517  students), 
1  realgymnasium  for  girls  conducted  by  the  Ursulines 
(6  years  scientific  course,  87  students),  1  teachers’ 
training  school  in  charge  of  the  Ursulines  (165 
students),  1  reform  realgymnasium  (6  years  scientific 
course,  12  teachers),  1  high  school,  2  training  schools, 
180  elementary  schools,  1  industrial  school,  2  mis¬ 
sionary  schools.  These  schools  are  supported  by  the 
Government.  There  are  also  in  the  archdiocese  3 
homes,  3  asylums,  58  hospitals,  3  refuges,  24  day 
nurseries,  28  public  institutions,  admitting  ministry 
of  priests.  The  following  associations  exist  among 
the  clergy:  Association  for  the  Support  of  Sick 
Priests,  Association  of  Catechists  and  Association  of 
Clergy.  The  laity  have  forty  associations.  Four 
Catholic  periodicals  are  published  in  the  archdiocese. 
The  cathedral  at  Salzburg  (1647-1675)  ranks  as  the 
finest  example  of  Germanic  Renaissance  architecture. 

Throughout  the  nineteenth  century  the  see  of 
Salzburg  was  governed  by  many  saintly  and  zealous 
prelates  among  whom  the  Mt.  Rev.  Augustin  Gruber 
(1823-1835)  stands  out  pre-eminent.  Ilis  successors 
were:  Frederick  Cardinal  Count  zu  Schwarzenberg 
(1836-1856),  Maxmilian  Joseph  Cardinal  von  Tarnozy 
(1850-1876),  Francis  Albert  Cardinal  Eder  (1876- 
1890),  John  Evangelistus  Cardinal  Haller  (1890-1900), 
John  Baptistus  Cardinal  Katschthaler  (1900-1914), 
b.  20  May,  1832,  d.  27  Feb.  1914,  author  of  “Theo- 
logica  dogmatica”  (1876-1888),  “History  of  Church 


-  Music”  (1893),  “Sermons”  (1892-1908).  In  1906  he 
i  held  a  Provincial  Council  at  Salzburg,  actively 

furthered  the  Catholic  University  Association  and  the 

-  St.  Caecilia  Society.  His  successor,  Most  Rev. 
|  Balthasar  Kaltner,  b.  at  Goldegg,  12  April,  1840,  d. 
»  6  July,  1918,  a  learned  and  devout  prelate  who  had 
i  been  auxiliary  bishop  of  Gurk  (1910-1914),  and  was 
;  most  active  and  zealous  in  all  that  concerned  the 
•  welfare  of  the  archdiocese.  He  was  well  known  as  an 

■  eminent  jurist  and  architect.  He  built  the  prepara- 
\  tory  seminary  and  the  parish  churches  at  Itzling, 
,  Oberndorf,  St.  Andra,  was  professor  of  theology  at 
.  Salzburg  and  author  of  an  advanced  catechism  for 
[  use  in  the  high  schools.  From  1914  to  1918  he 
,  labored  indefatigably  for  the  spiritual  and  bodily 
{  welfare  of  the  soldiers.  The  present  incumbent  is 

the  Most  Rev.  Ignatius  Rieder,  b.  at  Grossarl,  1 
February,  1859,  professor  of  theology  at  Salzburg, 
elected  titular  bishop  of  Sura  and  auxiliary  bishop  of 
f  Salzburg  2  Jan.,  1911,  succeeded  Most  Rev.  Balthasar 
»  Kaltner,  10  March,  1919. 

>  During  the  war  the  clergy  and  laity  worked  with 
great  zeal  and  encouraged  the  soldiers  by  giving  them 

■  spiritual  and  temporal  comfort.  Twenty-six  priests 
were  appointed  field  chaplains,  2  regulars  were  active 

!  in  cholera  hospitals,  2  in  refugees’  camps,  3  in  military 
!  hospitals.  All  the  clergy  contributed  from  4  to 
^  7%  of  their  incomes  for  war  purposes,  about  60,000 
kronen.  War  welfare  committees  were  established, 
collections  were  taken  up  in  churches,  the  prisoners 
received  spiritual  aid  and  the  wounded  were  cared  for 
in  reserve  hospitals.  An  asylum  was  founded  for  war 

■  orphans  and  good  literature  was  distributed  among 
the  soldiers  (central  distribution  bureau  at  Salzburg) . 
Many  rectories,  Sisters’  private  schools  and  two  sum¬ 
mer  homes  of  the  Ursulines  were  given  over  for  hospital 
purposes,  gifts  and  clothes  were  distributed  to  the 
soldiers  at  the  front.  Catholic  Women’s  Associations 
provided  refreshments  at  the  depots,  the  war  loan 
was  promoted,  church  and  private  property  was  used 
to  further  the  war  loan  (several  million  kronen),  the 
soldiers  graves  were  cared  for,  the  Red  Cross  Associa¬ 
tion  was  supported,  the  church  bells  were  given  over 
to  the  government,  the  St.  Peter  foundation  cared 
for  twenty  wounded  soldiers,  and  the  missionaries 
at  Lieferung  and  St.  Rupert  placed  100  beds  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Government. 

Samar  and  Leyte,  Diocese  of.  See  Calbayog. 

Samoa;  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 421a),  a  group  of 
islands  in  the  Western  Pacific  Ocean,  formerly 
belonging  to  the  United  States  and  Germany.  On 
29  August,  1914,  the  western  islands  of  the 
group  (Savaii,  Upolu,  Apolima,  Manono),  held  by 
Germany,  were  occupied  .by  a  force  of  New  Zea¬ 
landers.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  World  War, 
Western  Samoa  was  assigned  to  New  Zealand  under 
a  mandate  from  the  League  of  Nations,  dated  17 
December,  1920.  The  Governor  General  of  New 
Zealand  in  Council  has  made  laws  for  Western  Samoa, 
and  Hon.  E.  P.  Lee,  Minister  of  General  Affairs  for 
New  Zealand,  is  in  charge  of  Samoa  and  other  former 
German  islands  assigned  to  New  Zealand.  Provision 
has  been  made  for  a  nominated  Legislative  Council, 
to  which  are  eligible  for  appointment  natural  born 
British  subjects,  Samoans,  or  those  born  in  Samoa. 
The  Council  consists  of  not  less  than  four  official 
members  and  an  equal  number  of  unofficial  members, 
all  meetings  being  presided  over  by  the  administrator. 
The  civil  administration  was  inaugurated  1  May, 
1920.  German  currency  is  replaced  by  New  Zealand 
bank  notes  and  specie.  Military  training  of  the 
natives  except  for  local  police  or  defence  purposes  is 
prohibited,  and  no  military  or  naval  force  or  any 
fortification  may  be  established.  These  islands  are 


SAMOGITIA 


674 


SAN  GABRIEL 


ecclesiastically  administered  by  a  vicar  apostolic  and 
called  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Navigators’  Islands 
(q-  v.).  . 

The  United  States  still  retains  Tutuila  and  other 
islands,  which  for  political  reasons  form  a  separate 
ecclesiastical  territory  but  are  not  a  prefecture  prop¬ 
erly  so  called.  They  are  administered  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Joseph  Darnand,  S.  M.,  titular  Bishop  of  Pole- 
monium,  and  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Navigators’  Islands, 
the  former  administrator,  Rt.  Rev.  Peter  John 
Broyer  having  died  27  October,  1918.  During  the 
last  months  of  1918  great  havoc  among  the  natives 
was  caused  by  influenza,  7000  falling  victims  to  the 
disease.  The  total  Catholic  population  of  the  islands 
is  8000.  The  whites  number  1500,  natives,  37,000, 
and  Chinese  coolies  1500.  There  are:  15  parishes; 
57  churches;  74  stations;  2  native  priests;  15  Marist 
Fathers;  9  teaching  brothers  and  2  lay  brothers; 
21  European  and  15  native  Sisters;  15  high  schools, 
with  25  teachers  and  1091  pupils,  of  whom  576  are 
boys  and  515  girls;  1  training  school  for  catechists 
with  4  teachers  and  35  students;  69  elementary 
schools  with  69  teachers  and  1293  pupils.  A  Catholic 
periodical,  “O  le  Auauna,”  is  published  in  the 
native  language. 

Samogitia,  Diocese  of.  See  Zemaiti. 

San  Andres  and  Providencia,  Prefecture  Apos¬ 
tolic  of,  in  Columbia,  S.  A.  This  prefecture  was 
erected  20  June,  1912,  and  was  placed  in  charge  of  the 
Missionary  Fathers  of  Mill  Hill.  The  Very  Rev. 
Richard  Turner  was  named  first  superior.  No 
statistics  are  available. 

San  Antonio,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Antoninii; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 424c),  in  Texas,  suffragan  of 
New  Orleans.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Arthur  Drossaerts,  b.  at  Breda,  11  Sept.,  1362, 
ordained  at  Bois-le-Duc,  15  June,  1889,  elected  18 
July,  1918,  consecrated  at  New  Orleans,  8  Dec. 
following,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  John  William  Shaw, 
promoted  to  New  Orleans.  There  are  in  the  diocese 
86  parishes,  180  churches,  94  missions,  66  mission 
stations,  1  monastery  for  women,  72  secular  priests, 
88  regulars,  47  lay  brothers,  1349  Sisters,  3  seminaries 
and  165  seminarians.  The  educational  institutions 
include:  4  colleges  for  women  with  88  teachers  and 
375  students,  14  academies  with  220  teachers  and 
2155  pupils  (508  boys  and  1647  girls),  2  training 
schools  with  19  teachers  and  65  students,  71  element¬ 
ary  schools  with  236  teachers  and  8128  pupils.  The 
diocese  has  the  following  charitable  institutions:  2 
homes  for  the  aged  (82  inmates),  1  asylum  with  70 
boys,  1  asylum  with  84  girls,  1  house  of  the  Good 
Shepherd,  (57  inmates),  3  hospitals  which  took  care 
of  4491  sick  persons  in  1921,  1  day  nursery  with 
105  children  and  32  orphans,  a  National  Catholic 
Community  House  for  Mexicans.  Connected  with 
the  State  University  is  a  Catholic  students’  club¬ 
house  called  Newman  Hall.  The  following  associa¬ 
tions  exist  among  the  priests:  the  Eucharistic  League 
and  the  Purgatorial  Association.  The  laymen 
have  organized  the  following  associations:  Knights  of 
Columbus,  Catholic  Knights,  Holy  Name  Society, 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society,  Boy  Scouts.  A  Catholic 
periodical  called  “The  Southern  Messenger,”  is 
published  in  the  diocese.  It  was  founded  and  manag¬ 
ed  by  the  late  L.  .William  Menger.  In  October, 
1919  a  drive  was  planned  to  collect  funds  for  a 
diocesan  seminary  which  netted  the  sum  of  $132,000. 
The  building  was  erected  in  1920>  During  the  war 
1  priest  served  with  the  United  States  army  overseas, 
1  with  the  Navy  home  service,  2  priests  as  Knights 
of  Columbus  chaplains.  The  diocese  has  a  Catholic 
population  of  140,000.  The  following  nationalities 


are  represented:  Germans  15,000,  Poles  6000,  Bo¬ 
hemians  12,000,  Mexicans  75,000,  negroes  1000. 

San  Carlos  de  Ancud,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Caroli 
Ancudre;  cf.  C.  Et,  XIII — 426a),  in  Southern  Chili, 
suffragan  of  Santiago.  The  present  bishop  is  the 
Rt.  Rev.  Antoine  Louis  Castro  y  Alvarez,  b.  at 
Valpariso,  24  April,  1867,  entered  the  Congregation 
of  the  Picpus,  elected  21  Feb.,  1918,  published  10 
March,  1919,  succeeding  the  Rt.  Rev.  Pedro  Valen¬ 
zuela  who  resigned.  According  to  the  statistics  of 
1920  the  diocese  contained:  15  missions,  207  chapels, 
62  secular  priests,  50  seminarians,  6  congregations 
of  men,  3  congregations  of  women. 

San  Francisco,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti  Fran- 
cisci;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 439c),  in  California.  On  27 
Dec.,  1914,  occurred  the  death  of  the  Most  Rev. 
Patrick  William  Riordan.  -He  was  succeeded  by  the 
Most  Rev.  Edward  Joseph  Hanna,  b.  at  Rochester, 
21  July,  1860,  ordained  at  Rome,  30  May,  1885, 
elected  titular  Bishop  of  Titopolis,  22  Oct.,  1912, 
and  auxiliary  Bishop  of  San  Francisco,  consecrated 
4  Dec.  following,  and  promoted  1  June,  1915,  pub¬ 
lished  6  Dec.  following.  According  to  the  statistics 
of  1922  the  Catholics  number  about  364,826.  All 
races  of  Europe  are  represented.  The  archdiocese 
contains  146  parishes,  70  missions,  30  stations,  216 
churches,  6  monasteries  and  12  convents  for  men,  1 
monastery  and  71  convents  for  women  with  about 
1230  Sisters,  250  secular  priests,  185  regulars,  about 
200  lay  brothers,  1  seminary  with  260  seminarians. 
The  educational  institutions  are:  2  universities,  75 
professors,  650  students;  8  higher  educational  institu¬ 
tions  for  women,  161  teachers,  2391  students;  1  nor¬ 
mal  school;  2  training  schools;  70  elementary  schools, 
about  840  teachers,  and  15,500  students.  Among  the 
missionary  works  are  several  schools  for  the  Japanese 
and  Chinese  in  San  Francisco,  and  for  the  Indians  in 
Lake  and  Mendocino  counties.  The  following  char¬ 
itable  institutions  exist  in  the  diocese:  3  homes,  5 
asylums,  1  institution  for  the  blind,  1  institution  for 
deaf-mutes,  7  hospitals,  2  refuges,  3  settlement 
houses,  7  day  nurseries.  The  City  and  State  prisons, 
insane  asylums,  etc.,  admit  the  ministry  of  priests. 
The  orphan  asylums  and  1200  children  under  the  care 
of  the  Little  Childrens’  Aid  are  partly  aided  by  the 
Government.  The  Eucharistic  League  has  been  es¬ 
tablished  among  the  clergy.  The  Holy  Name  Society 
for  men  exists  in  many  parishes.  A  Catholic  paper 
called  “The  Monitor”  is  published  in  the  archdiocese. 
Recently  the  Poor  Clares  and  Sisters  of  the  Third 
Order  of  St.  Dominic  have  settled  in  the  archdiocese. 
The  Missionary  Sons  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of 
Mary  are  in  charge  of  Newman  parish.  The  following 
clergymen  of  note  have  died  since  1912:  Rev.  Philip 
O’Ryan,  S.T.L.,  apologist  in  A.P.A.  struggle  and 
organizer  of  the  League  of  Holy  Cross  Cadets;  Rt. 
Rev.  Mgr.  J.  J.  Prendergast,  who  was  Vicar  General 
from  1878  to  1914.  During  the  war  10  priests  served 
as  chaplains  in  the  army,  5  overseas  and  5  in  camps. 
The  Knights  of  Columbus  were  active  in  the  various 
camps. 

San  Gabriel  delPAddolorata  de  Maranon,  Prefec¬ 
ture  Apostolic  of  (S.  Gabrielis  de  Virgine  Per- 
dolente),  erected  by  a  Decree  of  27  February,  1921, 
which  divided  the  former  prefecture  of  Sao  Leon 
de  Amazonas,  cutting  off  the  regions  which  lie 
around  the  Maranon  or  Upper  Amazon,  and  its 
tributaries,  within  the  limits  of  Peru,  and  extending 
as  far  as  the  rivers  Huncway  and  Ancutiyo,  and 
erecting  this  territory  into  the  new  prefecture.  The 
district  is  chiefly  populated  with  Indian  tribes,  and 
is  entrusted  to  the  Passionists.  Rt.  Rev.  Atanasio 
Jauregui  was  named  first  prefect  apostolic.  No 
statistics  are  published. 


SAN  JOSE 


675 


SAN  SEVERINO 


San  Jose  de  Costa  Rica,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti 
Joseph i  de  Costarica;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 446d), 
metropolitan,  in  Costa  Rica,  Central  America.  This 
see  was  erected  into  an  archdiocese  on  1(5  Feb.,  1921, 
and  the  Most  Rev.  Othon  Raphael  Castro  was  ap¬ 
pointed  first  archbishop.  He  was  elected  at  the  con¬ 
sistory  of  10  March,  1921.  The  bishop  of  the  former 
diocese  was  the  Rt.  Rev.  Jean  Gaspar  Stork,  C.  M., 
b.  at  Cologne  7  June,  1856,  elected  1  June,  1904, 
consecrated  28  Aug.,  published  14  Nov.  following. 
He  succeeded  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop  Thiel,  who  died  in 
December,  1920.  In  1920  the  diocese  consisted  of 
65  parishes,  65  parish  churches,  98  chapels,  102 
secular  priests,  12  regulars,  10  seminarians,  708 
children  in  Catholic  schools.  The  Catholics  num¬ 
bered  355,500. 

San  Juan,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Joannis  de 
Cuyo;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 447a),  in  the  Argentine 
Republic,  suffragan  of  Buenos  Aires.  The  present 
administrator  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Americ  Orzali,  b. 
at  Buenos  Aires,  13  March,  1863,  ordained  19 
December,  1885,  elected  30  December,  1911,  conse¬ 
crated  10  March,  1912,  published  2  December  follow¬ 
ing.  He  succeeded  Rt.  Rev.  Marcolino  del  Carmelo 
Benavente  who  died  in  September,  1910.  Rt.  Rev. 
Marco  Zapata,  titular  bishop  of  Castabala,  is  the 
auxiliary  bishop.  In  1920  there  were  in  the  diocese 
37  parishes,  149  churches  and  chapels,  40  seminarians 
of  whom  3  were  in  Rome,  482,000  inhabitants. 

San  Leon  del  Amazonas,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of, 
in  Northern  Peru.  Formerly  a  prefecture  apostolic 
it  was  erected  into  a  viciariate  22  Feb.,  1921,  and 
entrusted  to  the  August inians.  The  present  vicar  is 
the  Rt.  Rev.  Soter  Redondo  Herrero,  titular  bishop 
of  Aucanda.  He  was  b.  at  Valencia,  9  Nov.,  1868, 
named  prefect  apostolic  of  San  Le6n  del  Amazonas, 
Nov.,  1915,  elected  at  the  Consistory  of  16  June,  1921, 
named  vicar  apostolic  of  San  Le6n  del  Amazonas 
26  May  following.  According  to  the  statistics  of 
1920,  the  prefecture  apostolic  contains  4  stations  and 

4  August inian  Fathers. 

San  Luis  Potosi,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Ludovici 
Potosiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 448c),  in  Mexico, 
suffragan  of  Linares.  The  last  administrator  of  the 
diocese  was  the  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Montes  de  Oca  y 
Obregon.  He  was  born  at  Guanajuato  in  Mexico, 

26  June,  1840,  ordained  28  Feb.,  1863,  curate  in 
England,  then  in  Guanajuato,  chaplain  to  the  Em- 
perior  of  Mexico,  elected  bishop  of  Tamaulipas  and 
consecrated  6  March,  1871,  transferred  to  Linares, 
19  Sept.,  1879,  and  to  St.  Luis  Potosi,  13  Nov., 
1884,  assistant  to  the  pontifical  throne  13  Dec., 
1887,  made  titular  archbishop  of  Cesarea  de  Pont 
July,  1920,  published  16  Dec.  following,  died  at 
New  York,  19  Aug.,  1921.  The  see  is  still  vacant. 
According  to  the  statistics  of  1920  the  diocese  con¬ 
tained  620,000  Catholics,  46  parishes,  150  churches 
and  chapels,  132  secular  priests,  8  regulars,  15 
seminarians.  There  is  a  school  in  every  parish  and 

5  colleges. 

San  Marco  and  Bisignano,  Diocese  of  (Sancti, 
Marci  et  Bisinianensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 448d) 
in  Calabria,  Italy,  immediately  subject  to  the  Holy 
See.  The  present  administrator  of  the  diocese  is  the 
Rt.  Rev.  Salvatore  Scaun,  b.  at  Ozieri,  11  Dec. 
1859,  ordained  12  April,  1884,  elected  27  March, 
1909,  consecrated  30  June,  made  administrator 
Apostolic  of  Cassanoall  Tonio  March,  1910,  published 

27  Nov.,  1911.  He  succeeded  Vincenzo  Ricotta,  who 
lied  14  Jan.,  1909.  According  to  the  statistics  of 
1920  the  diocese  contains  70,900  Catholics  in  San 
Marco  and  70,900  in  Bisignano,  64  parishes,  212 
Lurches  and  chapels,  174  secular  priests,  6  regulars, 

5  convents  for  men,  8  for  women  and  40  seminarians. 


San  Martino  al  Cimino  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 449c) 
an  abbey  nullius  in  the  Province  of  Rome,  directly 
dependent  on  the  Holy  See.  The  present  Abbot  is 
Most  Rev.  Antonio-Doinenico  Rossi,  born  in  Pia¬ 
cenza  in  1866,  incorporated  into  the  Diocese  of  Chi- 
avari,  made  an  honorary  canon  extra  urbem  in  1878, 
1905  and  1914,  made  a  prelate  of  the  Holy  See  in  1915 
and  named  Abbot  of  San  Martino  al  Cimino  in  April 
of  the  same  year.  There  are  about  2070  Catholics 
included  in  this  territory;  it  comprises  1  parish,  3 
churches,  1  abbey,  8  secular  priests,  5  Sisters,  3  sem¬ 
inarians,  1  elementary  school  with  5  teachers  and  100 
pupils,  which  receives  aid  from  the  Government,  and 
1  public  institution  in  which  the  priests  are  permitted 
to  minister.  Recently  occurred  the  death  of  a  prom¬ 
inent  member  of  the  clergy,  Monsignor  Francesco 
Spolverini,  apostolic  nuncio  to  Brazil  and  sub-datary 
to  the  Holy  See. 

San  Miguel,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Michaelis),  in 
the  Republic  of  San  Salvador,  Central  America.  It 
was  erected  11  Feb.,  1913  by  a  division  of  the  diocese 
of  San  Salvador  and  comprises  the  civil  provinces  of 
San  Miguel,  La  Union,  Morizan  and  Usulutan. 
The  present  and  first  bishop  of  the  diocese  is  the 
Rt.  Rev.  Juan  Duenas  y  Argumedo,  b.  at  Apico, 
San  Salvador,  18  Jan.,  1868,  ordained  1  Nov., 
1891,  elected  1  Aug.,  1913,  published  25  May,  1914, 
made  assistant  to  the  pontifical  throne,  11  Aug., 
1920.  The  diocese  covers  an  area  of  about  4234 
square  miles  and  contains  335,500  inhabitants,  1 
congregation  of  men  and  2  of  women.  No  further 
statistics  are  available. 

San  Miniato,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Miniati; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 449d),  in  Northern  Italy,  suffragan 
of  Florence.  The  present  administrator  is  the  Rt. 
Rev.  Carlo  Falconi,  b.  at  Prato,  23  March,  1848, 
elected  titular  bishop  of  Arethusa  24  June,  1907, 
transferred  30  August  following.  He  succeeded  the 
Rt.  Rev.  Pio  Alberto  del  Corona  who  resigned.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  statistics  of  1920  the  diocese  contained 
106,800  Catholics,  100  parishes,  250  churches  and 
chapels,  246  secular  priests,  42  regulars,  19  Brothers 
136  Sisters  and  7  seminarians. 

San  Pedro  de  Sulan,  Vicariate  Apostolic  ofJ 
in  the  Republic  of  Honduras.  It  was  erected  2  Febru¬ 
ary,  1916,  by  the  division  of  the  diocese  of  Comaya- 
gua,  of  which  it  takes  in  all  the  northern  part  and  com¬ 
prises  the  civil  provinces  of  Cortes,  Islas  de  la  Bahia, 
Atlantida  and  Colon.  It  is  confided  to  the  care  of 
the  Lazarists.  The  Very  Rev.  Antoine  Casulleras  was 
appointed  administrator  in  1917.  No  further  data 
are  available. 

San  Salvador,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti  Salvatoris 
in  America  Centrali;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 450d). — 
On  11  Feb.,  1913,  the  former  diocese  of  San  Salvador 
was  erected  into  an  archdiocese  and  two  other  dio¬ 
ceses,  those  of  San  Miguel  and  Santa  Ana,  were 
formed  therefrom.  The  present  incumbent  is  the 
Most  Rev.  Anthony  Perez  y  Aguilar,  b.  at  San 
Salvador,  20  March,  1839,  elected  13  Jan.,  1888, 
appointed  archbishop  11  Feb.,  1913,  and  made 
assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  2  April,  1916. 
According  to  the  statistics  of  1920  the  former  diocese 
contained  1,000,000  Catholics,  295  churches,  180 
secular  priests,  13  colleges,  18  hospitals,  8  homes  and 
asylums. 

San  Severino,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Severini; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 452),  in  Central  Italy,  suffragan 
of  Fermo,  was  erected  in  early  days.  The  saint 
whose  name  it  bears  was  its  second  or  third  bishop 
and  governed  it  from  440  to  442-3.  The  diocese 
was  subsequently  united  to  that  of  Camerino,  but 


SAN  SEVERO 


G76 


SANKT  POLTEN 


was  restored  in  1586.  San  Severino  is  situated 
about  a  kilometer  from  the  ancient  Picene  city  of 
Septempeda,  where  the  Romans  later  established  a 
colony.  It  has  two  cathedrals,  the  older  being  in  an 
ancient  castle.  In  1827  the  Augustinian  church  be¬ 
came  the  new  cathedral,  and  to  it  the  Madonna  of 
Pinturicchio  was  transferred  recently  from  the  castle, 
while  Pomaranico’s  paintings  are  in  the  Church  of  the 
Madonna  della  Misericordia.  The  crypt  of  the 
Church  of  San  Lorenzo  in  Doliolo,  a  Cistercian 
abbey  church,  is  believed  to  be  the  ancient  temple 
of  Feronia.  It  is  in  this  church  that  the  relics  of 
the  martyrs  SS.  Hippolytus  and  Justin  are  preserved. 
The  sanctuary  of  San  Pacifico  attracts  large  crowds 
of  pilgrims  from  the  adjoining  dioceses.  Near  Monte 
Sanvicino  St.  Dominic  Loricato  passed  his  extraor¬ 
dinarily  penitential  life  and  when  his  monastery  fell 
into  ruin  his  body  was  transferred  to  the  parish 
church  of  Santa  Anna  in  Frontale.  This  little 
diocese  of  San  Severino  has  a  population  of  about 
20,000;  the  Capuchins  have  1,  the  Friars  Minor  1, 
and  the  Cistercian  monks  2  houses;  1  monastery  of 
Cistercian  nuns;  1  convent  of  Poor  Clares;  the  Vin¬ 
centian  Sisters  of  Charity  have  an  orphanage  and  a 
hospital;  the  Sisters  of  the  Child  Jesus  have  a  flourish¬ 
ing  college,  and  the  Daughters  of  Providence  an 
orphanage.  There  are  29  parishes,  100  church 
chapels  and  oratories,  about  120  priests.  The 
present  Bishop  of  San  Severino,  Mgr.  Adamo  Bor- 
ghini,  w*as  born  in  Gualdo  in  the  Archdiocese  of 
Ferrara  on  13  December,  1859,  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Carpasia  on  13  January,  1909,  and  auxiliary 
of  Ferrara,  and  transferred  to  San  Severino  on  4 
July,  1913,  suceeding  Mgr.  Bicchi,  who  died  on 
18  January,  1913. 

By  the  Constitution  “Boni  Pastoris”  of  Benedict 
XV,  dated  20  February,  1920,  the  diocese  of  Treja 
was  perpetually  united  to  that  of  San  Severino  in 
such  a  way  that  the  Bishop  of  the  latter  diocese  is  to 
be  Apostolic  Administrator  of  Treja.  The  bishop 
is  to  reside  a  notable  part  of  each  year  in  either 
diocese.  Treja  had  been  made  a  diocese  on  8 
February,  1916,  but  never  had  a  bishop  of  its  own, 
having  been  administered  by  the  Bishops  of  Caine- 
rino  until  1913,  when,  owing  to  the  inconvenience 
arising  from  its  location,  it  was  placed  temporarily 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Bishop  of  San  Severino. 
The  Diocese  of  Treja  comprises  a  commune  in  the 
province  of  Macerata,  with  (in  1914)  9597  inhabi¬ 
tants;  8  parishes;  46  churches,  chapels,  and  3  orato¬ 
ries,  and  30  secular  priests;  there  were  a  convent  of 
Friars  Minor;  a  convent  of  Salesian  Sisters,  while 
the  Sisters  of  Charity  had  a  refuge  and  a  girls’ 
orphanage,  in  addition  to  directing  the  public  hos¬ 
pital. 

San  Severo,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Severini;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII — 453b),  in  southern  Italy,  suffragan  of 
Benevento.  By  a  consistorial  decree  of  23  February, 
1916,  two  parishes  of  the  archdiocese  of  Benevento 
were  assigned  to  the  diocese  of  San  Severo.  The 
present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Gaetano  Pizzi,  b.  at 
Miranda,  Italy,  15  February,  1854,  elected  bishop  of 
Lacedonia,  21  July,  1907,  consecrated  15  September, 
transferred  5  November,  1912,  enthroned  1  February, 
1913,  suceeding  the  Rt.  Rev.  Emmanuele  Merra, 
who  died  20  July,  1911.  In  1920  the  diocese  con¬ 
tained:  45,920  Catholics,  7  parishes,  25  churches  and 
chapels,  94  secular  priests,  6  seminarians. 

Sanctuary,  Right  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 430). — 
Churches  still  enjoy  the  right  of  asylum  to  this 
extent,  that  culprits  taking  refuge  there  are  not  to 
be  removed,  except  in  case  of  necessity,  without  the 
assent  of  the  ordinary  or  at  least  of  the  rector  of  the 
church. 


Sandhurst,  Diocese  of  (Sandhurstensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 436c),  in  Victoria,  Australia,  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Melbourne,  The  present  administrator 
is  the  Rt.  Rev.  John  McCarthy,  b.  at  Fermoyle, 
diocese  of  Kilfenora,  Ireland,  1  Nov.,  1858,  elected 
14  Feb.,  1917,  consecrated  7  June  following.  He 
succeeded  the  Rt.  Rev.  Stephen  Reville,  O.  S.  A., 
who  died  19  Sept.,  1916.  The  diocese  contains 
26  parishes,  109  churches,  38  stations,  1  monastery 
for  men,  8  Marist  Brothers,  44  secular  priests,  8 
regulars,  202  Sisters,  1  orphange  with  150  orphans, 

58  penitents.  Educational  institutions  include  the 
following:  1  college  for  men  with  2  teachers  and  36 
students;  13  colleges  for  women  with  59  teachers  and 
988  students;  26  elementary  schools  with  104  teachers 
and  3612  pupils. 

Sandomir,  Diocese  of  (Sandomiriensis;  cf.  C. 

E.,  XIII— 436d),  in  Poland,  suffragan  of  Warsaw. 

The  present  incumbent  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Marianus 
Joseph  Ryx,  b.  at  Warsaw,  Poland,  10  Dec.,  1853, 
ordained  in  1879,  elected  7  April,  1910,  consecrated 
20  June,  published  27  Nov.,  1911.  In  1920  the  dio¬ 
cese  contained  892,278  Catholics,  21  deaneries,  215 
parishes,  50  filial  churches,  333  secular  priests,  1 
regular,  45  Sisters,  96  seminarians,  1  college  at 
Opatow. 

Sandwich  Islands,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. 

See  Hawaii. 

Sankt  Polten, Diocese  of  (Sancti  Hippolyti;  cf. 

C.  E.,  XIII — 447b),  in  Lower  Austria,  suffragan  of 
Vienna.  There  are  now  (1921)  in  the  diocese, 
650,800  Germans,  of  whom  644,000  are  Catholics 
and  6800  belong  to  other  denominations.  It  con¬ 
tains  40  parishes,  503  churches,  '9  monasteries,  7 
abbeys  and  1  convent  for  men,  104  convents  with 
1140  sisters;  510  secular  and  449  regular  priests 
and  20  lay  brothers.  There  is  one  diocesan  semi-  ■ 
nary  with  180  students,  two  preparatory  seminaries 
for  boys  and  one  diocesan  theological  institution. 
With  very  few  exceptions,  the  educational  institu¬ 
tions  are  under  the  care  of  the  government.  In 
high  schools  ( Mitt  els  chulen)  and  elementary 

schools,  Catholic  religious  instruction  is  obligatory. 
Owing  to  the  proximity  of  Vienna  there  is  no 
university  at  Sankt  Polten.  There  are,  however,  2 
diocesan  high  schools  ( Hohere  Schulen)  with  29 
teachers  and  450  students  (girls),  1  normal  school 
(diocesan),  for  girls,  with  15  teachers  and  250  stu¬ 
dents,  20  elementary  schools  (diocesan),  120  teach¬ 
ers,  5000  students,  7  industrial  schools  of  which  1  Is 
commercial  and  6  are  housekeeping  schools  with  40 
teachers  and  850  students  (girls)  and  2  mission 
schools. 

The  following  institutions  exist  in  the  diocese: 

1  home  for  the  blind,  1  institute  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb.  All  other  institutions  are  under  the  care 
of  the  state  and  about  750  sisters  give  their  serv¬ 
ices  in  caring  for  the  inmates.  Four  associations 
exist  among  the  clergy  and  28  among  the  laity. 
Only  5  Catholic  periodicals  are  published  at  Sankt. 
Polten,  all  others  are  issued  in  Vienna  and  in  other 
nearby  places.  _  i 

During  the  war  both  clergy  and  laity  were  active 
in  caring  for  the  wounded  in  hospitals,  for  the 
prisoners  and  refugees.  Entertainment  was  pro¬ 
vided  for  the  soldiers,  homes  were  established  and 
spiritual  and  bodily  comforts  were  given  to  them. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  the  following  dis¬ 
tinguished  prelates  and  laymen  who  have  died 
since  1912:  Rev.  John  Kirschbaumer,  Provost  at 
Krems,  a  well  known  author;  Very  Rev.  Anthony 
Erdinger,  Very  Rev.  Karl  Erdinger,  both  prelates 
at  Sankt  Polten  and  writers  of  renown,  the  latter 


SANT’  ANGELO 


677 


SANTA  LUCIA 


also  a  botanist;  Count  Julius  Fa.lkenhayn  and 
Count  Ferdinand  Kuefstein  who  were  well  known 
public-spirited  men  of  their  day. 

At  present  (1922)  the  diocese  is  administered  by 
the  Rt.  Rev.  John  Baptist  Roessler,  b.  at  Nieder- 
Schrems,  23  June,  1850,  ordained  19  July,  1874, 
appointed  to  the  see  of  Sankt  Polten  10  April, 
1894,  consecrated  10  June  following. 

Sant’  Angelo  de’  Lombardi  et  Bissaccia,  Dio¬ 
cese  of  (Sancti  Angeli  Lombardorum  et  Bis- 
acciensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 459b),  in  Southern  Italy, 
suffragan  of  Conza.  The  present  bishop  is  the  Rt. 
Rev.  Giulio  Tommasi,  b.  at  Scanzano,  Italy,  13 
August,  1855,  elected  19  April,  1897,  made  assistant 
to  the  pontifical  throne  12  August,  1915.  According 
to  the  statistics  of  1920  Sant’  Angelo  contains  27,000 
Catholics,  6  parishes,  30  churches  and  chapels,  75 
secular  priests.  Bisaccia  contains  15,570  Catholics,  3 
parishes,  15  churches  and  chapels,  43  secular  priests, 
.2  regulars. 

# 

Sant’  Angelo  in  Vado  and  Urbania, Diocese 
of  (Sancti  Angeli  in  Vado  et  Urbaniensis;  cf. 
O.E.,  XIII — 459c),  in  Italy,  suffragan  of  Urbino. 
The  present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Luigi-Giacomo 
Baccini,  a  Capuchin,  b.  at  Taggia,  Italy,  17  Novem¬ 
ber,  1869,  elected  18  August,  1908,  consecrated  4 
October  following,  published  29  April,  1909.  He 
succeeded  the  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio  Valbonesi  who  re¬ 
signed.  According  to  the  statistics  of  1920  Sant’ 
Angelo  contained:  5000  Catholics,  36  churches  and 
chapels,  18  secular  priests,  and  16  seminarians.  Ur¬ 
bania  contained  10,000  Catholics,  42  parishes,  50 
churches  and  chapels,  54  secular  priests,  6  regulars, 
and  20  seminarians. 

Santa  Agata  dei  Goti,  Diocese  of  (S.  Aga- 
ra.E  Gothorum;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 454b),  in  Southern 
Italy,  has  29  parishes;  93  churches;  2  convents  of 
nuns  with  12  members,  and  6  communities  of  Sisters; 

3  religious  houses  of  men;  89  secular  and  13  regular 
priests;  9  Brothers;  1  seminary,  55  seminarians; 

1  girls’  college,  2  teachers,  15  students;  many  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  with  a  very  large  attendance;  6 
infant  asylums;  1  hospital.  All  the  elementary 
schools  in  the  diocese  are  state  or  city  institutions. 
The  clergy  has  a  Mutual  Benefit  Association  and  a 
dasa  del  Clero;  for  the  laity  there  are  several  rural 
Danks,  2  Catholic  circles,  and  various  pious  unions, 
ncluding  the  Daughters  of  Mary.  The  population  of 
:he  diocese  is  entirely  Catholic  and  numbers  about 
12,000.  One  of  the  most  interesting  events  in  the 
liocesan  history  in  recent  years  was  the  coronation  of 
:he  Madonna  on  Mount  Taburno.  During  the  war 
Doth  clergy  and  laity  devoted  themselves  to  the  care 
)f  the  refugees  and  the  orphans.  In  August,  1921,  a 
periodical  for  the  Franciscan  Tertiaries  of  Southern 
Italy  was  started  at  Airola  in  the  diocese. 

Santa  Casa  di  Loreto.  See  Recanati  and  Loreto. 

Santa  Catharina,  Diocese  of  (Florianopolis; 
;f.  C.‘E.,  XIII — 456b),  in  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Porto 
\legre  (Sao  Pedro  do  Rio  Grande).  The  present 
idministrator  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Joachim  Dominiques  de 
Jliveira.  He  was  b.  at  Villanova  de  Gaya,  Portugal, 

1  December,  1878,  ordained  21  December,  1901, 
elected  2  April,  1914,  published  28  May  following, 
consecrated  31  May,  succeeding  the  Rt.  Rev.  Borges 
^uintao,  who  was  elected  but  never  accepted  the 
lonor.  According  to  the  statistics  of  1920  the  diocese 
contained  486,960  inhabitants,  of  whom  about 
200,000  are  Protestants,  most  of  them  German  emi¬ 
grants.  No  further  statistics  are  available. 


I  Santa  Clara,  University  of, — founded  by  the 
n  Rey.  John  Nobili,  S.J.,  19  March,  1851,  upon  the 
invitation  of  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Sadoc  Alemany,  O.P 
V  Bishop  of  San  Francisco.  On  28  April,  1855,  the 
-  institution  was  chartered  as  a  university,  but  it  was 
b  known  as  Santa  Clara  College  until  29  April,  1912, 
b  when  its  title  was  officially  changed  to  “University  of 
Santa  Clara.”  In  1907  the  courses  in  law.  medicine 
and  engineering  were  begun  and  by  1911  the  pre^ 
_  medical  and  law  schools  were  well  established,  and  in 
_  1912  the  school  of  engineering.  At  present  (1921) 

the  university  consists  of  the  colleges  of  philosophy 
and  letters,  general  science,  institute  of  law,  college 
}  of  engineering,  school  of  pedagogy  and  pre-medical 
b  course.  A  preparatory  school  is  conducted  under 
r  the  supervision  of  the  university  authorities.  Rev. 
j  Timothy  Leo  Murphy,  S.J.,  is  president  of  the 
;  university  and  the  faculty  numbers  48.  The  total 
;  registration  for  all  departments  in  1921  was  369. 

,  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra,  Diocese  of  (Sanct^e 
Crucis  de  Sierra;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 456c),  in  Bolivia, 
suffragan  of  La  Plata  (Charcas).  According  to 
:  the  statistics  of  1920  the  diocese  contained  54  parishes 
,  70  churches  and  chapels  and  105  priests  The  present 

bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Santistevan  who  has 
►  administered  the  see  since  1901. 

Santa  Fe,  Archdiocese  of  (Sanctve  Fidei 
;  in  America;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 456d),  in  New  Mexico. 

'  Archbishop  John  B.  Pitaval  resigned  February,  1918, 

‘  and  was  appointed  titular  archbishop  of  Amida  29 
July,  1918.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  Most  Rev. 
Albert  T.  Daeger,  O.  F.  M.,  b.  at  St.  Anne,  diocese  of 
,  Indianapolis,  in  1872,  ordained  1896  missionary 
among  the  Indians,  promoted  at  the  consistory  of 
10  March,  1919,  consecrated  7  May  and  received  the 
pallium  11  May  following.  The  archdiocese  con¬ 
tains  50  parishes,  315  missions  with  churches,  50 
churches  with  resident  priests,  315  mission  churches, 
104  mission  stations,  50  secular  priests,  47  regulars’ 

6  seminarians,  160  religious  including  the  Brothers 
of  the  Christian  Schools  at  Santa  F6  and  Las  Vegas, 
Sisters  of  Loretto,  of  Charity,  of  the  Most  Blessed 
Sacrament,  of  St.  Francis  and  of  the  Sorrowful 
Mother.  Educational  institutions  existing  in  the 
archdiocese  are:  3  colleges  for  men  with  28  teachers 
and  398  students;  6  high  schools  with  29  teachers  and 
413  students  (62  boys,  351  girls);  4  academies  with 
40  teachers  and  773  girl  students;  1  normal  school 
with  25  students;  26  elementary  schools  with  98 
teachers  and  4993  pupils.  The  following  charitable 
institutions  have  been  founded  in  the  archdiocese: 

5  hospitals  at  Santa  Fe,  Albuquerque,  Gallup,  East 
Las  Vegas  and  Roswell;  St.  Anthony’s  Orphanage  at 
Albuquerque  and  St.  Vincent’s  Orphanage  at  Santa 
Fe,  which  receives  an  annual  appropriation  from  the 
Government.  A  periodical  called  the  “Southwestern 
Catholic,”  the  official  organ  of  the  archdiocese  of 
Santa  Fe,  is  regularly  printed.  During  the  war  two 
priests  became  chaplains  and  many  of  the  laity  en¬ 
tered  the  service.  The  Catholics  number  141,573, 
of  whom  121,000  are  Americans  and  Spaniards’ and 
20,573  are  Indians. 

Santa  Fe,  Diocese  of  (Sanct^e  Fidei;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII— 457b),  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  suffragan  of 
Buenos  Aires.  According  to  the  statistics  of  1920  the 
diocese  contains:  1,050,000  inhabitants,  73  parishes, 
52  succursal  parishes,  153  churches  and  chapels  in 
the  State  of  Santa  Fe.  The  governments  of  Chaco 
and  Formosa  have  4  mission  centres.  The  first  and 
present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Jean  Boneo,  who  has 
administered  the  diocese  since  1898. 

Santa  Lucia  del  Mela,  Prelature  Nullius  of 
(cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 457d),  within  the  territorv  of  the 


SANTA  MARIA 


678 


SANTA  MARTA 


Archdiocese  of  Messina,  under  the  direct  jurisdiction 
of  the  Holy  See.  The  prelature  is  administered  by 
the  Archbishop  of  Messina  (q.  v.)  and  comprises  7 
parishes,  76  priests  and  13,354  inhabitants. 

Santa  Maria,  Diocese  of  (Sanct^e  Marine;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII — 458a),  in  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Porto 
Alegre.  The  first  and  present  administrator  is  the 
Rt.  Rev.  Miguel  de  Lima  Val verde,  b.  at  Bahia, 
Brazil,  29  Sept.,  1872,  ordained  30  March,  1895, 
deputy  and  president  of  the  chamber  of  Deputies  of 
Bahia,  elected  6  Feb.,  1911,  consecrated  15  Oct. 
following.  According  to  the  statistics  of  1920,  the 
diocese  contained:  28  parishes,  15  secular  priests, 
38  regulars,  25  Brothers  and  about  50  Sisters,  1 
college  and  more  than  40  secondary  schools.  The 
inhabitants  numbered  435,000  of  whom  400,000  were 
Catholics,  20,000  Protestants  and  15,000  Jews. 

Santa  Maria  de  Monserrato,  Abbey  Nullius 
of  (Beatte  Marde  Virginis  de  Monserrato; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 458a),  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil. 
The  arch-abbot,  Dom  Gerardo  van  Caloen  resigned 
the  charge  of  the  Biazilian  Benedictine  Congiegation 
in  July,  1915.  Before  he  resigned  a  coadjutor 
cum  jure  successionis ,  Dom  Chrystomo  van  Saegher, 
had  been  chosen.  Both  have  now  retired,  the  first 
to  the  monastery  of  St.  Andrew  in  Lophem  (Bruges), 
Belgium,  the  second  to  Regina  Coeli  Abbey  in 
Louvain.  The  present  arch-abbot  of  the  Brazilian 
congregation  is  Dom  Jose  da  Santa  Escolastica 
Faria,  elected  28  October,  1920,  and  blessed  by 
Cardinal  Gasparri  24  June  following.  He  lives  at 
the  monastery  of  Sao  Bento  in  the  suburb  Alto  Boa 
Vista  da  Tijuca,  in  the  mountains  which  surround 
Rio  de  Janeiro.  Today  the  abbey  nullius  is  gov¬ 
erned  by  Dom  Pedro  Eggerath,  formerly  rector  of 
the  gymnasio  of  Sao  Bento  in  Sao  Paulo,  who  was 
elected  14  October,  1915,  blessed  13  February,  1916, 
elevated  to  abbey  nullius  by  apostolic  bull  in  August, 
1921.  The  new  abbot  has  continued  the  works  com¬ 
menced  by  his  predecessors,  but  from  the  beginning 
has  enlarged  the  social  activity  of  the  abbey.  The 
works  of  the  abbey  are: 

1.  Mission  of  Rio  Branco. — In  August,  1912,  two 
new  Fathers  and  a  lay  brother  reinforced  the  staff 
working  there,  making  four  priests  and  3  lay  brothers 
in  the  teiritory  between  the  Rio  Branco  and  Rio 
Negro.  A  group  of  Benedictine  nuns  will  soon  follow 
them.  The  Brazilians  (f aimers  and  laborers)  in  the 
territory  number  about  20,000  and  the  Indians  about 
5000,  nearly  all  of  whom  are  baptized. 

2.  Care  of  Souls. — Besides  the  abbatial  church  in 
Alto  B5a  Vista,  the  monks  have  charge  of  the  paro¬ 
chial  church  of  Sant’  Amaro  in  the  neighboring 
city  of  Campos,  State  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  in  other 
places  in  the  Diocese  of  Nictheroy.  The  Benedictines 
also  have  charge  of  care  of  souls  in  the  navy  hos¬ 
pital  on  the  Island  of  Cobras,  as  well  as  the  gariison 
and  prison  on  the  same  island  and  the  hospital  of 
Sao  Sebastiao  for  tubercular  patients.  They  look 
out  for  the  immigiants  coming  from  Europe  who 
are  stationed  in  the  Island  of  Flores,  in  the  bay  of 
Guanabora. 

3.  Education  (Secondary). — 1  gymnasio  attended 
by  300  students.  (Primary)  1  “populai”  school  for 
200  boys,  1  night  school  for  adults,  1  shelter  for 
naval  sailors.  These  schools  are  taught  by  the 
monks  assisted  by  lay  teachers  paid  and  directed 
by  them.  The  shelter  for  sailors  is  helped  by  the 
naval  authorities  and  officers  instruct  there  in  some 
subjects.  The  personnel  of  the  abbey  includes  17 
priests  (inclusive  of  arch-abbot  and  abbot),  1  cleric 
with  solemn  vows,  2  clerics  with  simple  vows,  1 
choir  novice,  5  lay  brothers  and  2  lay  novices; 
total  28. 


Santa  Maria  di  Polsi.  See  Polsi,  Santa  Maria  di 

Santa  Marta,  Diocese  of  (Sanct^e  Martha; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 458),  in  Colombia,  suffragan  of 
Cartagena,  is  governed  by  Mgr.  Joaquin  Garcia, 
Eudist,  who  was  born  at  Bucaramanga,  in  the  Diocese 
of  Nueva  Pamplona  on  4  April,  1883,  and  was 
appointed  to  this  see  on  15  September,  1917,  in  suc¬ 
cession  to  Mgr.  Toro,. who  had  been  transferred  to  the 
See  of  Antoiquia.  The  diocese  contains  about  86,000 
inhabitants. 

The  first  bishop  of  this  diocese,  Mgr.  Tomas  Ortiz, 
O.P.,  was  appointed  in  1531,  but  owing  to  ill-health 
he  was  unable  to  receive  episcopal  consecration  after 
his  arrival  in  Spain  from  America,  where  he  had  pre¬ 
viously  passed  some  time  as  protector  of  the  Indians. 
Don  Alonso  Tobes  was  appointed  his  successor,  but 
shortly  after  his  consecration  he  died  in  Spain  when 
preparing  for  the  journey  to  his  diocese.  Finally 
Bishop  Juan  Fernandez  de  Angelo  succeeded  in  reach¬ 
ing  his  see  in  1536.  Pope  Paul  IV  reduced  the  diocese 
to  the  rank  of  an  abbey,  but  ten  years  later  (1572) 
Gregory  XIII  made  it  a  diocese  once*  more,  with  Fray 
Juan  Mendez  as  bishop.  The  diocese  now  contains 
26  rather  extensive  parishes  with  35  churches;  among 
the  latter  the  most  notable  are  the  Cathedral,  in 
Roman  style,  very  solidly  built  on  artistic  lines,  and 
the  mother  church  of  Santa  Ana  in  Ocana,  a  work  of 
beauty. 

The  religious  communities  are:  the  Capuchins  and 
Eudists  at  Santa  Marta;  the  Jesuits  at  Ocana;  the 
Presentation  Sisters  of  Tours  at  Santa  Marta,  Cien- 
aga,  Ocana  and  Convencidn;  and  Visitandines  at 
Ocana.  Devoted  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  the  educa¬ 
tion  of  girls,  the  Presentation  Sisters  have  excellent 
colleges  in  each  of  the  towns  just  mentioned,  with  a 
total  of  over  2000  pupils,  and  they  direct  3  hospitals 
in  Santa  Marta,  Cienaga  and  Ocana.  There  are  35 
secular  and  11  regular  priests,  and  a  seminary  with 
38  seminarians,  which  is  under  the  care  of  the  Eudists. 
The  work  of  the  Jesuits  who  were  introduced  by  the 
presiding  bishop,  Mgr.  Toro,  is  twofold;  some  of  the 
Fathers  are  engaged  in  missionary  work  in  the  part  of 
the  diocese  bounded  by  the  east  bank  of  the  Rio 
Magdalena,  others  are  teaching  in  the  College  at 
Ocana,  where  they  have  200  students.  Besides  the 
educational  institutions  mentioned  above  there  are 
in  Santa  Marta  the  Liceo  Celedon,  which  is  chartered 
to  confer  the  baccalaureate  degree,  and  normal  schools 
for  men  and  women  each  with  about  12  professors  and 
300  students.  In  Ocana  there  are  advanced  and  ele¬ 
mentary  technical  schools;  and  in  the  entire  diocese 
more  than  320  primary  schools.  There  is  a  diocesan 
“Boletin  eclesidstico”  published  every  fortnight;  and 
a  weekly  paper  published  in  the  parish  of  El  Sagrario 
and  San  Miguel  de  Santa  Marta.  The  sodalities  and 
societies  among  the  laity  are  very  active  and  produc¬ 
tive  of  consoling  results;  chief  among  them  are: 
The  Brothers  of  the  Most  Blessed  Sacrament,  the 
Sodality  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  the  Adorers  of  the 
Blessed  Sacrament,  the  Nazarenes,  the  Knights  of 
Columbus,  the  Daughters  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount 
Carmel,  the  Rosary  Sodality,  the  Third  Order  of  St. 
Francis.  The  Societies  of  the  Propagation  of  the 
Faith  and  of  the  Holy  Childhood  were  established 
some  years  ago  and  are  rapidly  increasing  their  mem¬ 
bership. 

In  1905  the  diocese  was  divided  to  provide  for  a 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Goagira,  whose  first  Vicar  Mgr. 
Anastasis  Vicente  Soler  y  Royo  with  his  zealous 
brother  Capuchin  missionaries  have  reaped  so  much 
fruit  among  the  Indians  of  that  country.  Most  of  the 
Goagiros  and  the  Arhuacos  now  are  civilized;  while 
the  Motilones  also  are  abandoning  their  proud  pagan¬ 
ism  and  savagery  for  Catholicity, 


SANTA  ROSA 


679 


SANTO  DOMINGO 


Santa  Rosa  de  Capan,  Diocese  of  (Sanct^e 
Ros^e  de  Capan),  in  the  Republic  of  Honduras, 
suffragan  of  Tegucigalpa.  This  diocese  was  erected 
2  Feb.,  1916,  by  the  division  of  the  diocese  of  Comay- 
agua,  of  which  it  takes  in  the  western  part  and  in¬ 
cludes  the  civil  provinces  of  Santa  Barbara,  Capan, 
Gracias,  Ocutepeque,  and  Intibuca.  The  present 
and  first  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Claude  Volio,  b.  at 
Cartago,  in  Costa  Rica,  28  Oct.,  1874,  elected  8 
Feb.,  1916,  published  4  Dec.,  following.  No  statis¬ 
tics  are  available. 

Santa  Rosa  de  Osos,  Diocese  of  (Sanctte 
Ros/E  de  Osos)  in  Colombia,  South  America, 
suffragan  of  Medellin.  This  diocese  was  erected  5 
February,  1917,  and  the  Rt.  Rev.  Maximilian 
Crespo  was  appointed  its  bishop.  He  was  born  at 
Buga,  Colombia,  18  October,  1861,  elected  bishop 
of  Antioquia,  18  October,  1910,  published  27  Novem¬ 
ber,  1911,  transferred  7  February,  1917,  published 
22  March  following.  No  statistics  for  this  diocese 
have  been  published  up  to  this  time  (1922). 

Santa  Severina,  Archdiocese  of  (Sanctte 
Severing;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 459d),  in  Calabria, 
Southern  Italy.  The  present  Archbishop  is  the  Most 
Rev.  Carmelo  Pujia,  b.  at  Filadelfia,  Italy,  25 
Oct.,  1852,  elected  bishop  of  Anglona-Tursi  13 
July,  1897,  published  14  March,  1898,  promoted 
October,  1905,  published  11  December,  following. 
He  was  made  assistant  to  the  pontifical  throne  9 
February,  1912,  and  named  administrator  of  Cotrone 
1  April,  1921.  He  succeeded  the  Rt.  Rev.  Nicolas 
Piccirilli  who  was  transferred.  According  to  the 
statistics  of  1920  the  diocese  contained:  42,000 
Catholics,  23  parishes,  5  vicarages,  53  churches  and 
chapels,  67  secular  priests,  16  regulars,  17  seminarians. 

Santander,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Anderii,  San- 
tanderiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 458c),  in  Spain, 
suffragan  of  Burgos.  The  present  administrator  is 
the  Rt.  Rev.  Juan  Plaza  y  Garcia,  b.  at  Hortezuela  de 
Ocen,  Spain,  ordained  4  June,  1887,  elected  titular 
bishop  of  Hippos  27  August,  1913,  consecrated  27 
December,  following,  transferred  16  December,  1920. 
He  succeeded  the  Rt.  Rev.  Vincent  Sanchez  y  Castro, 
who  died  19  September,  1920.  According  to  the  sta¬ 
tistics  of  1920  the  diocese  contained  239,000  Catholics, 
478  parishes,  500  secular  priests,  20  convents  for  men 
with  151  priests,  61  convents  with  573  sisters. 

Santarem,  Prelature  Nullius  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 459d),  in  North  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Belem  do 
Pard,  erected  21  September,  1903.  The  first  prelate 
was  Rt.  Rev.  Frederico  Benitio  Costa.  The  area  of 
the  prelature  is  231,660  square  miles.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Guiana,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  the  Xingu  River,  on  the  south  by  the  state 
of  Matto  Gross  and  on  the  west  by  the  State  of  Ama¬ 
zonas.  There  are  about  200,000  civilized  inhabitants 
and  about  50,000  Indians.  More  than  half  of  the 
prelature  is  yet  unexplored.  The  civilized  people  live 
along  the  Amazon  River  and  near  the  mouths  of  the 
rivers  that  flow  into  it.  There  are  20  parishes  erected. 
Santarem,  Obidos,  Alemquer,  Monte  Alegre,  Macapa 
and  Itaituba  have  residing  pastors.  The  other  par¬ 
ishes  are  frequently  visited  by  the  missionaries: 
Faro,  Juruty,  Almeirim,  Boim,  Alter  do  Chao,  Avei- 
ros,  and  Altamira  by  the  Franciscan  Fathers;  Masa- 
gao  and  Amapd  by  the  Missionaries  of  the  Holy  Fam¬ 
ily.  In  the  prelature  there  are  12  Franciscan  Fathers 
and  2  Franciscan  lay  brothers,  5  Missionaries  of  the 
Holy  Family  (from  Grave  in  Holland),  and  1  secular 
priest,  an  Italian.  In  Santarem  is  the  monastery  of 
the  Franciscan  Fathers,  and  the  principal  convent  of 
the  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  Order  who 
number  50  Sisters,  30  in  Santarem  and  20  with  resi¬ 


dences  in  Obidos,  Monte  Alegre,  St,  Joseph’s  Colony, 
and  amongst  the  Indians.  These  Sisters  have  a  no¬ 
vitiate  in  Muenster  (Westphalia) ,  for  novices  who  come 
from  Germany.  1  he  Franciscan  Fathers  come  from 
the  Province  of  St.  Anthony  in  Brazil  and  are  all 
Germans.  They  have  a  Seraphic  College  in  Bardel 
(Westphalia)  for  German  postulants,  the  college  being 
directly  dependent  on  St.  Anthony’s  Province  in 
Brazil. 

The  city  of  Santarem,  situated  where  the  Tapajoz 
enters  the  Amazon,  is  a  healthy  city  of  about  5000 
inhabitants.  It  has  the  Cathedral"  Church  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  St.  Sebastian’s  Church  in 
the  east  and  St.  Raymundus’  Church  in  the  west  of 
the  city,  and  the  2  convents  of  the  Franciscan  Fath¬ 
ers  and  the  Conceptionist  Sisters  in  the  south  of  the 
city.  The  population  of  the  whole  prelature  is  Cath¬ 
olic  with  very  few  exceptions.  There  are  about  20 
Protestants  in  Santarem  and  perhaps  a  dozen  in  some 
other  cities.  Obidos  has  about  3000  inhabitants  and 
Alemquer,  Macap£  and  Monte  Alegre  less  than  3000. 
The  people  are  descendants  of  Indians  and  some 
European  immigrants,  mostly  of  mixed  origin  and 
some  colored,  the  pure  European  and  quite  white 
people  being  very  few.  In  Macapd  is  a  Congregation 
of  the  Daughters  of  the  Heart  of  Mary;  14  Sisters  in 
Macapd,  3  in  Masagao,  4  in  the  Indian  mission 
amongst  the  Waupes,  and  5  in  the  Diocese  of  Piauhy. 
The  mission  among  the  Mandurucus  Indians  of  the 
prelature  was  founded  in  1910  and  has  2  schools  for 
boys  and  girls,  directed  by  the  Franciscan  Fathers 
and  the  Conceptionist  Sisters.  There  are  about  600 
Indians  civilized  and  instructed.  The  Mandurucus 
have  a  special  idiom,  in  some  way  like  the  Lupi  lan¬ 
guage,  but  with  considerable  difference.  Fr.  Hugo 
Mense,  who  stayed  10  years  amongst  these  Indians, 
composed  a  very  interesting  grammar  and  dictionary 
of  the  language  and  wrote  also  a  catechism.  The 
present  prelate  of  Santarem  is  Rt.  Rev.  Amandus 
Bahlmann,  O.F.M.,  titular  bishop  of  Argos,  born  in 
Essen  (Oldenburg),  8  May,  1862,  entered  the  Fran¬ 
ciscan  Order  in  1879,  consecrated  19  July,  1908. 

Santiago  de  Compostela,  Archdiocese  of.  See 
Compostela. 

Santiago  del  Estero,  Diocese  of  (Sancti 
Jacobi  de  Estero;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 462c),  in  the 
Argentine  Republic,  suffragan  of  Buenos  Aires.  The 
present  and  first  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Juan  Martin 
Janiz.  He  was  b.  at  Cordoba,  Argentina,  23  October, 
1840,  elected  7  February,  1910,  consecrated  8  May. 
In  1920  the  diocese  contained  220,000  inhabitants,  i3 
parishes  and  46  chapels. 

Santo  Domingo,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti 
Dominict;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 463c),  in  the  Island  of 
San  Domingo,  Greater  Antilles.  The  present  ad¬ 
ministrator  is  the  Most  Rev.  Adolph  Nouel  y  Boba- 
dilla  (see  Dominican  Republic),  b.  at  San  Domingo, 
12  December,  1862,  ordained  19  December,  1885, 
elected  titular  archbishop  of  Methymna,  8  October, 
1904  and  coadjutor  to  the  Archbishop  of  San  Domingo, 
consecrated  at  Rome  16  October,  published  14 
November  following.  He  succeeded  Most  Rev. 
Ferdinand  Antoine  Merion,  deceased  on  20  August, 
1906.  He  was  elected  President  of  the  Republic  of 
San  Domingo  2  December,  1912,  resigned  28  March 
following,  having  fulfilled  his  mission  of  peace  by 
that  time.  On  3  November,  1913,  he  was  named 
Apostolic  Delegate  to  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  which 
position  he  held  until  1915.  He  was  made  assistant 
to  the  pontifical  throne  30  April,  1916.  According  to 
the  statistics  of  1920  the  archdiocese  contains  60 
secular  and  4  regular  priests,  55  churches,  20  Sisters 
of  Charity,  246  schools. 


SAO  CARLOS 


680 


SAULT  SAINTE  MARIE 


Sao  Carlos  do  Pinhal,  Diocese  of  (Sancti 
Caroli  Pinhalensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 465b),  in 
Brazil,  suffragan  of  Sao  Paulo.  The  first  and  present 
incumbent  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Jos6  Marcondes  Homem 
de  Mello,  who  has  administered  the  see  since  1906. 
According  to  the  statistics  of  1920  the  diocese  con¬ 
tains  28  parishes. 

Sao  Luiz  de  Caceres,  Diocese  of  (Sancti 
Aloysii  de  Caceres;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 465b)  in 
Brazil,  suffragan  of  Cuyaba.  The  present  incumbent 
is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Pierre-Louis  Galibert  of  the  Third 
Order  of  Franciscans,  b.  at  Lasfaillades,  France,  31 
December,  1877,  ordained  24  June,  1902,  went  as  a 
missionary  to  Brazil,  August,  1904,  elected  15  March 
1915,  consecrated  15  August,  published  6  December 
following,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Modeste  Auguste 
Vieira  who  resigned.  There  are  no  statistics  avail¬ 
able  for  this  diocese  as  yet. 

Sao  Luiz  do  Maranhao, r  Diocese  of;  (cf.  C. 
E.,  XIII — 465),  in  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Belem  de 
Par£.  The  present  bishop  is  Mgr.  Ilelvetius  Gomez 
de  Oliveira,  a  member  of  the  Salesians,  who  was  born 
at  Anchieta,  Brazil,  on  19  February,  1876;  was  ap¬ 
pointed  to  the  see  of  Corumba  on  15  February,  1918, 
and  transferred  to  Sao  Luiz  on  18  June  following. 
The  diocese  has  54  parishes:  130  churches,  4  convents 
for  men  and  7  for  women;  45  priests,  of  whom  28 
are  secular;  2  seminaries  with  65  seminarians,  1 
girl’s  college  with  20  teachers  and  100  students;  2 
asylums,  1  hospital,  1  day  nursery,  and  a  Catholic 
union  of  workingmen  with  800  members.  The 
population  of  the  diocese  is  about  890,000,  Brazilian, 
Portuguese,  French,  English,  Italians  and  Germans. 
The  late  bishop  Mgr.  Francisco  de  Paula  Silon,  who 
died  on  4  June,  1918,  was  the  most  gifted  orator 
among  the  Brazilian  bishops. 

Sao  Paulo,  Archdiocese  of  (Sancti  Pauli  in 
Brasilia;  cf.  C.  E.,  465d),  in  Brazil.  The  present 
administrator  is  the  Most  Rev.  Leopoldo  Duarte  e 
Silva  who  has  administered  the  diocese  since  1908. 
According  to  the  statistics  of  1920  the  archdiocese 
contains:  1,800,000  Catholics,  35,000  Protestants, 
12,000  infidels,  44  parishes,  500  churches  and  chapels, 
270  secular  priests,  318  regulars,  16  orders  of  men  in 
32  houses,  21  congregations  of  women  in  46  houses 
and  5  colleges.  In  1908  a  faculty  of  philosophy  was 
founded  at  the  university  under  the  direction  of  the 
Benedictines. 

Sao  Salvador  de  Bahia  de  Todos  os  Santos, 

Archdiocese  of  (Sancti  Salvatoris  omnium 
Sanctorum;  cf.  C.  E.  XII— 466a),  in  Brazil.  On 
20  October,  1913,  the  dioceses  of  Barra,  Caetite  and 
Ilheos  were  taken  from  the  archdiocese  of  Sao  Sal¬ 
vador  on  which  they  depended.  The  present  in¬ 
cumbent  is  Most  Rev.  Jerome  Thome  da  Silva,  b.  at 
Sobral,  Brazil,  12  June,  1849,  ordained  21  December, 
1872,  elected  bishop  of  Belem  de  Para,  26  June,  1890, 
consecrated  26  October,  following,  promoted  12  Sep¬ 
tember,  1893,  enthroned  28  February,  1894.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  the  statistics  of  1920,  the  archdiocese  contains 
1,050,000  inhabitants,  9  congregations  of  men  with 
18  houses  and  180  religious,  7  congregations  of  women 
with  20  convents  and  220  Sisters. 

Sao  Thiago  de  Cabo  Verde,  Diocese  of  (Sancti 
Jacobi  Capitis  Viridis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 467a), 'in 
the  Cape  Verde  Archipelago,  suffragan  of  Lisbon. 
The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Jose  Alves  Martins, 
b.  at  Verga,  Portugal,  22  March,  1874,  ordained 
18  July,  1897,  elected  10  March,  1910,  published 
27  November,  1911.  According  to  the  statistics  of 
1920,  the  diocese  contained  147,000  inhabitants  with 
143,000  Catholics  in  the  archipelago,  and  300,000 


with  5000  Catholics  in  Portuguese  Guinea;  35  parishes, 

8  of  which  are  in  Guinea,  24  parishes  and  25  churches 
in  the  archipelago  and  38  chapels  4  of  which  are  in 
Guinea. 

Sappa,  Diocese  of  (Sappensis,  Sappatensis, 
Zappatensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 467d),  in  Albania, 
suffragan  of  Scutari.  The  present  administrator  is 
the  Rt.  Rev.  George  Koletsi,  b.  at  Kalmeti,  28  Jan., 
1868,  elected  21  Sept.,  1911,  published  30  Nov., 
following.  He  succeeded  the  Rt.  Rev.  James 
Serecci,  who  was  promoted.  According  to  the  statis¬ 
tics  of  1920  the  diocese  contained:  20,120  Catholics, 

25  parishes  of  which  thirteen  are  without  pastors, 

51  churches  and  chapels,  1  convent  of  the  Friars 
Minor  at  Trosciani,  17  secular  priests  and  3  regulars. 

II 

Sapporo,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of,  in  Japan, 
was  erected  in  1915.  The  present  Prefect  Apostolic 
is  Rev.  Wenceslaus  Kinold,  O.  F.  M.  The  Catholics 
number  1450  Japanese,  who  are  looked  after  by 
10  Franciscan  missionary  priests  and  2  lay  brothers. 
There  are  10  churches,  14  missions,  9  stations,  1 
convent  for  men  and  2  for  women,  1  seminary  with  8 
alumni,  1  asylum,  and  1  Catholic  weekly. 

Saragossa,  Archdiocese  of  (Cesaraugustanen- 
sis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 468b.),  in  Spain.  His  Eminence 
Cardinal  Juan  Soldevila  y  Romero  has  filled  this  see 
since  16  December,  1901.  Born  at  Fuente  la  Pena, 
in  the  diocese  of  Zamora  in  1843,  he  studied  at  the 
seminaries  of  Valladolid,  Tuy  and  Compostella;  he 
served  as  a  pastor  at  Valladolid,  became  a  canon  of 
Orense  and  secretary  to  the  bishop,  then  a  canon 
and  archpriest  of  Valladolia  and  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Taragona  14  February,  1889,  which  see  he  filled 
until  his  promotion.  He  was  made  a  cardinal  priest 
15  December,  1919.  He  is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary, 
Rt.  Rev.  Miguel  Diaz  y  Gomara,  titular  Bishop  of 
Thagora.  The  archdiocese  covers  an  area  of  7879 
sq.  m.  and  embraces  a  Catholic  population  of  475,614; 
380  parishes,  9  filial  parishes, '852 priests,  429  churches, 
476  chapels,  4  seminaries  and  84  convents  with  334 
religious  and  1363  Sisters. 

Saratow,  Diocese  of.  See  Tiraspol. 

Sarsina,  Diocese  of  (Sarsinatensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 478c)  in  Italy,  suffragan  of  Ravenna.  The 
present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Ambrogio  Riccardi, 
b.  at  Scavolino,  Italy,  29  June,  1856,  elected  1  July, 

1916,  consecrated  22  September,  published  7  Decem¬ 
ber  following,  succeeding  the  Rt.  Rev.  Eugenio 
Giambro  who  was  transferred.  According  to  the 
statistics  of  1920  the  diocese  contained  32,000 
Catholics,  54  parishes,  120  churches  and  chapels, 

76  secular  priests  and  36  seminarians. 

Sassari,  Archdiocese  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 
485a),  in  Sardinia,  Italy.  The  present  adminis¬ 
trator  is  the  Most  Rev.  Cleto  Cassani,  b.  at  Vailate, 
Italy,  8  September,  1866,  elected  auxiliary  Bishop  of 
Sassari,  19  January,  1911,  promoted  5  January, 

1917,  published  22  March  following.  He  succeeded 
the  Most  Rev.  Emilio  Parodi,  who  died  20  December, 
1916.  According  to  the  statistics  of  1920  the  arch¬ 
diocese  contained:  132,200  Catholics,  35  parishes, 
123  churches  and  chapels,  117  secular  and  41  regular 
priests,  17  brothers,  and  69  Sisters. 

—  I  I;  i  O  ,  fr  ,  \  fi  ‘-C.  J’i*  QtJKjl 

Sault  Sainte  Marie,  Diocese  of  (Sancti  Marle- 
Ormensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 487c),  in  Canada.  The 
Rt.  Rev.  David  Joseph  Scollard,  the  first  adminis¬ 
trator  of  the  diocese,  is  the  present  incumbent.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  statistics  of  1922  the  diocese  contains: 
50,000  Catholics,  including  5500  Indians,  35  secular 
priests,  33  regulars,  87  churches,  40  parishes,  72 


SAULT  SAINTE  MARIE 


681 


SCOUT  MOVEMENT 


missions,  1  college,  2  academies,  3  hospitals,  50  Cath¬ 
olic  schools,  70  public  schools  with  Catholic  teachers, 
3  industrial  schools  for  Indians. 

Sault  Sainte  Marie  and  Marquette,  Diocese  of. 
See  Marquette 

Savannah,  Diocese  of  (Savanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII— 488a),  comprises  the  State  of  Geoigia.  After 
administering  the  diocese  for  twenty-two  years  the 
Rt.  Rev.  Benjamin  J.  Keiley  resigned  in  February, 
1922.  The  Very  Rev.  Joseph  D.  Mitchell  is  the  pres¬ 
ent  administrator  of  the  diocese,  until  the  appoint¬ 
ment  of  a  new  bishop.  On  11  September,  1921,  the 
Catholic  Laymen’s  Convention  was  held  at  Atlanta. 
The  diocese  contains  23  parishes,  34  missions,  57 
mission  stations,  57  churches,  5  convents  for  men,  11 
for  women  with  137  Sisters,  21  secular  priests,  40 
regulars,  8  lay  brothers,  10  seminarians  who  are  being 
educated  in  another  diocese.  The  educational  insti¬ 
tutions  are:  4  high  schools  with  18  teachers  and  320 
students  (200  boys,  120  girls),  6  academies  with  20 
teachers  and  250  girl  students,  9  elementary  schools 
with  88  teachers  and  2316  pupils.  For  the  campaign 
against  the  forces  of  anti-Catholic  prejudice  in  the 
State  see  the  article  on  the  Catholic  Laymen’s  Asso¬ 
ciation  of  Georgia.  The  following  hospitals  and 
homes  exist  in  the  diocese:  Home  of  the  Little  Sisters 
of  the  Poor,  Savannah,  St.  Joseph’s  Orphan  Home  for 
Boys,  Washington,  Ga.,  St.  Joseph’s  Hospital,  Sa¬ 
vannah,  St.  Joseph’s  Hospital,  Atlanta.  One  Cath¬ 
olic  periodical  called  The  Bulletin  is  published  in  the 
diocese.  The  clergy  have  founded  the  Eucharistic 
League.  Among  the  laity  there  exist  the  following 
societies:  Holy  Name,  Children  of  Mary,  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul,  etc.  There  are  20,517  Catholics  in  the  dio¬ 
cese  with  about  300  Syrians  and  65  Croatians.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  war  two  priests  of  the  diocese  served  as  chap¬ 
lains. 

Savona  and  Noli,  Diocese  of  (Savonensis  et 
Naulensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 489d),  in  northern 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Genoa,  is  governed  at  present  by 
Mgr.  Giuseppe  Scatti,  "who  was  born  at  Lecco  in  the 
Diocese  of  Milan  on  19  January,  1843,  and  appointed 
to  the  see  on  9  January,  1898.  His  cathedral  church 
is  the  Basilica  of  Our  Lady  of  Mercy.  During  the 
World  War  many  of  the  parish  priests  were  with  the 
colors;  and  all  the  colleges,  seminaries,  and  religious 
houses  were  converted  into  military  hospitals.  Some 
of  the  clergy  were  decorated  with  the  Cross  of  Merit 
for  their  invaluable  assistance.  On  25  October, 
1921,  there  was  a  violent  explosion  in  Fort  S.  Elena 
which  caused  great  destruction  in  Bergeggi  and  its 
environs;  the  clergy  rendered  great  aid  to  the  suf¬ 
ferers.  The  diocesan  reports  for  1922  are  as  follows: 
63  parishes;  about  270  churches  and  chapels;  245 
priests,  of  whom  75  are  religious;  8  religious  houses 
for  men,  5  for  women;  1  abbey;  1  seminary;  3  boys’ 
colleges;  1  girls’  college;  2  state  normal  schools;  1 
state  trade  school;  4  state  classical  schools;  refuges 
and  hospitals  in  almost  all  the  parishes.  There  are 
the  following  clerical  associations  or  societies:  Apos¬ 
tolic  Union,  Borsa  Ecclesiastica,  Operai  Evangelici, 
and  the  Clerical  Cooperative  Society;  for  the  laity 
there  are  among  others  the  Catholic  Workers’ 
Society  and  the  Young  Men’s  Society.  The  Catholic 
population  is  about  90,000. 

Saxony,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Saxoniensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIII  —  501b),  incorporated  with  the  Pre¬ 
fecture  Apostolic  of  Lusatia,  in  the  ancient  diocese  of 
Meissen,  reestablished  by  a  decree  of  24  June,  1921. 

Scannell,  Thomas  Bartholomew,  theologian,  b. 
in  London  on  8  July,  1854;  d.  at  Brighton  on  17 
February,  1917.  He  studied  at  St.  Edmund’s  College, 


Ware,  and  after  winning  first  place  in  the  LL.B. 
examination  in  London  University,  with  honors  in 
jurisprudence  and  Roman  Law,  graduated  in  theology 
from  the  English  College,  Rome,  and  was  ordained 
in  1878.  He  taught  philosophy  at  Ware,  and  subse¬ 
quently  served  on  the  English  mission,  becoming 
missionary  rector  at  Weybridge  in  1905,  and  a  canon 
of  Southwark  diocese  in  1908.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  papal  commission  on  Anglican  orders  (1896),  and 
besides  c^tributing  to  the  “Dublin  Review”  and 
other  periodicals,  he  is  the  author  of  “The  Priest’s 
Studies,”  “A  Manual  of  Catholic  Theology”  (in 
collaboration  with  Dr.  Wilhelm),  and  revised  and 
enlarged  “The  Catholic  Dictionary”  of  Addis  and 
Arnold. 

Schleswig-Holstein.  See  Germany,  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of;  Denmark 

Schools,  Clerks  Regular  of  the  Pious.  See 
Pious  Schools,  Clerks  Regular  of  the 

Schwenckfeldians  (or  Schwenkfelders;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 597). — In  recent  3^ears  a  responsiveness  to 
modern  influences  has  taken  the  place  of  their  early 
clannish  exclusiveness;  all  rules  and  regulations 
against  secret  societies  have  been  dropped  and  par¬ 
ticipation  in  war,  formerly  forbidden,  is  now  left  to 
the  individual  conscience.  The  establishment  of 
the  Perkiomen  School  (Pennsburg,  Pa.),  has  in¬ 
creased  their  general  interest  in  education.  In  1921 
this  sect  reported  4  churches,  6  ministers  and  1150 
members,  all  in  Pennsylvania. 

Religious  Bodies,  1916  (Washington,  1919);  Year  Book  of  the 
Churches  (New  York,  annual). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Scopia,  Archdiocese  of  (Scopiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII— 609d),  in  Albania,  under  the  direct  jurisdiction 
of  the  Holy  See.  The  present  administrator  is  the 
Most  Rev.  Lazare  Miedia,  b.,  at  Scutari,  Albania,  6 
March,  1859,  elected  Bishop  of  Sappa  28  March 
1900,  made  titular  archbishop  of  Arepolis  and  co¬ 
adjutor  to  the  Archbishop  of  Scutari  24  December, 
1904,  transferred  14  April,  1909,  published  29  of  the 
same  month.  He  succeeded  the  Most  Rev.  Pascal 
Trosksi  who  resigned.  According  to  1920  statistics 
there  are:  15,400  Catholics,  24  parishes,  14  churches, 
4  secular  and  14  regular  priests. 

Scoraille,  Raoul  de,  author,  b.  at  Perigueux, 
France,  on  24  January,  1842;  d.  at  Toulouse  on  11 
July,  1921.  He  studied  at  Sarlat  and  Paris,  pre¬ 
paring  for  admission  to  St.  Cyr;  but  in  1860  he  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus  at  Pau.  He  was  ordained  in 
1874  and  consequently  taught  philosophy  at  Vais. 
In  1887  he  was  appointed  director  of  “Etudes,”  the 
noted  Catholic  review,  which  was  to  resume  publica¬ 
tion  the  following  year,  after  its  enforced  suspension 
resulting  from  the  intolerant  Ferry  decrees.  He  was 
superior  of  the  Toulouse  province  when  the  Society 
was  again  exiled  from  France  at  the  time  of  the 
separation,  and  he  became  rector  of  the  scholasticate 
at  Gemert  in  Holland  where  the  young  Jesuits  found 
refuge.  It  was  during  this  exile  that  he  wrote  his 
“Francois  Suarez,”  a  valuable  biography  of  the  great 
Spanish  philosopher  and  theologian. 

Dudon  in  Etudes  (Paris,  5  October,  1921). 

Scout  Movement,  Catholic  Boys'. — The  Boy 
Scouts  of  America  represent  a  nation-wide  movement 
for  the  betterment  of  the  American  boy.  Educational 
in  its  spirit  and  purpose,  this  movement  aims  to  de¬ 
velop  self-reliance,  initiative,  resourcefulness  and  the 
spirit  of  service  in  growing  boys.  Membership  in  a 
scout  troop  and  active  participation  in  the  attractive 
scout  program  bring  to  the  boy  opportunity  for  clear 
thinking,  a  broadening  of  his  interests,  the  formation 


SCOUT  MOVEMENT 


G82 


SCOUT  MOVEMENT 


of  good  habits  and  the  inculcation  of  virtues  essential 
to  good  character.  The  Scout  Movement  appre¬ 
ciates  and  understands  the  sentiments  and  interests 
which  belong  to  the  boy.  These  interests  are  met  and 
satisfied  by  a  program  of  activities  so  varied  and  so 
broad  that  the  true  scout  is  always  moving  forward, 
becoming  keener  in  his  capacity  for  observation  and 
deduction  and  growing  stronger  as  desirable  habits  are 
woven  permanently  into  his  character.  The  genius 
of  scouting  lies  in  its  appeal  to  the  boy.  Scouting 
makes  a  Hoy  eager  to  learn.  The  scout’s  recreation 
is  the  scout’s  education.  Scouting*  has  proved  an 
excellent  solution  of  the  much-discussed  boy  problem. 
The  activities  which  every  normal  boy  craves  are 
utilized  in  scouting  for  the  making  of  a  sturdy  and 
manly  boyhood,  the  brightest  promise  of  an  honor¬ 
able  and  loyal  citizenship.  Yet  scouting  is  not  play, 
it  is  a  serious  work.  Scouting  awakens  a  sense  of 
personal  responsibility  and  stirs  up  in  heart  and  mind 
the  spirit  of  earnest  devotion  to  duty.  The  scout 
promises  on  his  honor  to  do  his  duty  to  God  and  to  his 
country,  to  obey  the  scout  law,  to  help  other  people 
at  all  times  and  to  keep  himself  physically  strong, 
mentally  awake  and  morally  straight.  The  scout  is 
trustworthy,  loyal,  helpful,  friendly,  courteous,  kind, 
obedient,  cheerful,  thirfty,  brave,  clean  and  reverent. 
“Be  Prepared,”  is  the  scout  motto.  For  what? 
“For  a  Good  Turn  daily  and  for  every  emergency,” 
is  the  answer.  Parents,  teachers,  leaders  of  boys,  have 
begun  to  see  the  movement  in  its  clear  light.  They 
are  recognizing  in  Scouting  a  distinct  contribution  to 
the  happiness  and  welfare  of  the  boy  of  today  and  to 
the  community  and  civic  prosperity  of  tomorrow. 

Scout  activities  constitute  in  their  admirable  variety 
a  splendid  program  of  endeavor  for  every  normal  boy. 
Whether  he  be  rich  or  poor,  in  school  or  facing  his 
first  struggle  with  the  industrial  or  commercial  world, 
scout  activities  offer  him  definite  aims  and  positive 
purposes  which  hold  his  interests  fast.  These  ac¬ 
tivities  are  almost  beyond  counting.  Yet  there  is  no 
confusion  in  their  arrangement  and  presentation. 
Each  has  a  purpose,  clear  and  definite,  with  its  pecu¬ 
liar  appeal  to  the  young  mind.  The  program  of 
scout  training  meets  a  need  vital  to  all  organizations 
for  boys.  Scouting  succeeds  where  many  other 
worthy  efforts  fail,  for  scouting  keeps  scouts  busy. 
The  scout  never  loses  spirit  for  want  of  something 
interesting  to  do.  Troops  do  not  disband  because 
membership  is  irksome.  Under  intelligent  interpre¬ 
tation  and  application  the  activities  of  the  scout 
program  do  not  fail  to  develop  and  to  maintain  the 
interests  of  aspiring  young  scouts. 

SCOUT 

The  religious  policy  of  the  Scout  Movement  is 
clearly  defined  in  Article  III  of  the  Constitution: 
“The  Boy  Scouts  of  America  maintain  that  no  boy 
can  grow  into  the  best  citizenship  without  recog¬ 
recognizing  his  obligation  to  God.  The  recognition  of 
God  as  the  ruling  and  leading  power  in  the  universe, 
and  the  grateful  acknowledgment  of  His  favors  and 
blessings,  is  necessary  to  the  best  type  of  citizenship 
and  a  wholesome  thing  in  the  education  of  the  growing 
boy.  No  matter  what  the  boy  may  be — Catholic, 
Protestant,  or  Jew — this  fundamental  need  of  good 
citizenship  should  be  kept  before  him.  The  Boy 
Scouts  of  America  as  an  organized  body  recognizes 
the  religious  element  in  the  training  of  a  boy,  but  it 
is  absolutely  non-sectarian  in  its  attitude  toward 
religious  training.  Its  policy  is  that  the  religious 
organization  or  institution  with  which  the  Boy 
Scout  is  connected  shall  give  definite  attention  to 
his  religious  life.”  No  argument  is  necessary  to  show 
the  great  good  that  can  result  from  such  a  program 
of  ideal  Americanism;  sincere  devotion  to  our  own 
best  principles  and  respect  for  our  fellow  man  in  his 


equally  sincere  convictions — the  only  true  democracy. 
The  twelfth  point  of  the  Scout  Law  is  called  by  many 
“the  cardinal  point”  in  Scouting.  Its  sets  forth  the 
foregoing  principle  as  follows:  He  is  reverent  toward 
God.  He  is  faithful  in  his  religious  duties  and 
respects  the  convictions  of  others  in  matters  of  custom 
and  religion.  The  receipt  of  the  Letter  from  Cardinal 
Gasparri,  Papal  Secretary  of  State,  allayed  any  doubt 
that  remained  in  the  mind  of  Catholics  as  to  their 
proper  attitude  toward  Scouting.  That  letter  bespeaks 
the  full  approbation  for  scouting  of  His  Holiness,  Pope 
Benedict  XV,  and  confers  the  “Apostolic  Blessing  on 
all  those  who  further  the  Catholic  Extension  of  the 
Scout  Movement  under  the  auspeies  of  the  ecclesias¬ 
tical  authorities.” 

The  National  Council  of  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America 
has  more  than  played  fair.  In  the  early  days  of  its 
organization  it  cordially  endorsed  the  establishment 
of  the  Bureau  of  Catholic  Extension  of  the  Boy  Scout 
Movement,  which  was  organized  with  the  approval 
of  His  Eminence,  the  late  Cardinal  Farley,  by  a 
group  of  Catholic  men  interested  in  boys’  work: 
“The  creation  of  this  Catholic  Bureau  for  the  handling 
of  the  Boy  Scout  Movement  among  Catholics  fur¬ 
nishes  us  with  a  tremendously  effective  medium 
through  which  to  aid  in  the  development  of  that 
master  creation,  high  principles,  clean  and  clear 
thinking,  independent  manhood. 

“Our  National  Catholic  Societies  can  aid  materially 
in  this  work.  These  organizations  can  best  stimulate 
interest  by  stretching  out  a  paternal  hand,  aiding  the 
activities  of  the  Scout  troops  not  by  sympathy  only 
but  by  supplying  scoutmasters;  men  to  take  an  active 
part  in  troop  athletics,  hikes,  etc.  This  is  not  the 
work  of  any  single  society  but  the  work  of  all.  There 
will  be  plenty  to  .go  around.  We  must  have  a  com¬ 
bination  of  forces  and  we  must  eliminate  waste 
energy.  There  must  be  more  than  idle  words  of 
commendation  .  .  .  there  must  be  action.”  (N.C. 
W.C.  Bulletin,  Aug.,  1919.) 

This  Bureau  exists  for  the  following  purposes: 
to  promote  the  formation  of  Boy  Scout  troops  among 
Catholic  boys;  to  assist  Local  Scout  Councils  in 
securing  the  co-operation  of  the  Catholic  authorities 
in  their  several  communities;  to  bring  to  the  at¬ 
tention  of  pastors  and  others  having  the  direction  of 
groups  of  Catholic  boys,  the  benefits  of  the  Scouting 
program;  to  stimulate  among  young  men  of  the  Church 
the  desire  for  leadership  as  scoutmasters;  in  localities 
where  there  are  no  troops  of  Catholic  boys,  to  assist  1 
scoutmasters  to  understand  and  to  execute  the  wishes 
of  the  Catholic  authorities  concerning  the  religious 
duties  of  Catholic  boys  in  other  troops.  In  the 
execution  of  this  program  the  Bureau  will,  from 
time  to  time,  issue  such  literature  as  may  be  neces¬ 
sary,  and  will  publish  in  the  official  Scout  publications 
matters  interesting  or  informatory  to  troops  of 
Catholic  boys.  Catholic  scoutmasters,  scoutmasters 
who  have  Catholic  boys  as  members  of  their  troops, 
and  persons  planning  the  organization  off  Local 
Councils,  are  invited  to  consult  with  the  Bureau  in 
order  that  every  facility  for  participation  in  Scouting 
may  be  opened  to  Catholic  boys,  which  is  the  aim  of 
the  Bureau. 

Girl  Scouts. — In  the  United  States,  Girl  Scouts, 
Incorporated,  a  national  organization,  consisting  of 
girls  between  the  ages  of  ten  and  eighteen,  who  meet 
periodically  to  undergo  training  which  shall  prepare 
them  for  a  fuller  life  in  their  personal  as  well  as 
social  relations.  The  organization,  patterned  after 
the  Girl  Guides  of  England,  the  sister  organization 
of  the  Boy  Scouts,  was  founded  in  March,  1912,  by 
Mrs.  Juliette  Low  of  Savannah,  Georgia.  In  1915 
the  growth  of  the  movement  warranted  its  national 
incorporation.  Girl  Scouts  and  their  leaders,  to  the 
number  of  114,000,  were  in  1922  organized  in  every 


SCRANTON 


683 


SCRANTON 


State,  and  in  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico  and  Alaska.  Through 
the  International  Council  the  Girl  Scouts  are  affiliated 
with  the  Girl  Guides  of  England  and  all  parts  of  the 
British  Empire  and  similar  organizations  in  other 
parts  of  the  world.  At  the  1920  meeting  of  the 
International  Council  at  London,  reports  were 
received  from  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  the 
British  Empire  and  from  Italy,  France,  Belgium, 
Switzerland,  Poland,  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark, 
Holland,  Portugal,  Russia,  Czechoslovakia,  Brazil, 
Argentina,  Japan,  China  and  Siberia.  The  activities 
of  the  Girl  Scouts  center  about  three  main  interests: 
(1)  Home,  the  program  provides  incentives  for 
practising  woman’s  world-old  arts  of  cooking,  house¬ 
keeping,  first  aid,  and  home  nursing;  (2)  Health, 
personal  health,  both  physical  and  mental,  as  well 
as  community  health,  is  the  key-note  of  scout  ac¬ 
tivities,  which  aim  at  developing  the  habit  of  health 
rather  than  merely  to  give  information  about  anatomy 
or  physiology;  (3)  Citizenship,  gregarious  interests 
and  occupations  tending  to  make  of  the  girls  women 
effective  in  modern  political  society  are  encouraged. 
The  self-governing  unit  of  a  patrol,  which  is  the 
basis  of  organization,  the  conduct  of  their  own 
meetings  according  to  elementary  parliamentary 
law,  working  together  in  groups,  all  contribute  to 
valuable  training  in  democratic  ideals. 

.  A  realization  of  the  important  role  of  play  in  educa¬ 
tion  has  dictated  a  method  largely  recreational  in 
all  scout  activities,  resulting  in  a  program  of  story- 
telling,  games,  dancing,  hiking,  camping,  boating, 
athletics  and  sports  of  all  kinds.  The  scout  slogan: 
“Do  a  good  turn  daily”  encourages  the  habit  of  help¬ 
fulness  which  may  be  said  to  be  the  core  of  the 
movement,  and  the  motto  “Be  Prepared,”  holds  forth 
the  ideal  of  being  ready  to  meet  intelligently  most  of 
the  situations  that  are  likely  to  arise  in  later  life. 
A  code  of  such  unquestioned  values  as  honor,  loyalty, 
kindness,  courtesy,  humanity,  cheerfulness,  obedience 
thrift,  and  cleanliness  forms  the  laws  to  which  every 
girl  scout  voluntarily  subscribes. 

The  Organization  is  as  follows:  (1)  Patrol,  the 
working  unit,  consisting  of  eight  girls,  one  of  whom 
is  elected  patrol  leader;  (2)  Troop,  the  administra¬ 
tive  unit  recognized  by  the  national  organization, 
consisting  of  one  or  more  patrols,  under  the  direction 
of  a  captain,  who  must  be  at  least  twenty-one  years 
of  age  and  who  has  been  commissioned  by  National 
Headquarters;  (3)  Local  Councils,  link  between  the 
Girl  Scout  troops  and  the  community,  consisting  of 
women  and  men  representing  all  the  best  interests  of 
the  community — social,  educational,  religious,  busi¬ 
ness,  civic.  In  all  communities  one  or  more  Catholic 
men  or  women  have  a  place  on  the  Council;  (4) 
National  Council,  the  central  governing  body,  made 
of  elected  delegates  from  all  local  groups,  working 
through  an  executive  board  which  conducts  National 
Headquarters  in  New  York. 

From  the  start  the  organization  has  been  non¬ 
sectarian  in  practise  as  well  as  theory,  one  of  the 
most  convincing  proofs  of  which  is  that  the  move¬ 
ment  has  received  the  endorsement  of  many  of  the 
hierarchy  who  have  given  it  their  serious  considera¬ 
tion.  The  national  organization,  appreciating  the 
zeal  with  which  the  Catholic  Church  safeguards  the 
faith  of  her  children,  requires  there  be  Catholic,  as 
well  as  Protestant  and  Jewish,  representation  on 
every  council  formed.  Catholic  interests  on  the 
National  Executive  Board  are  represented  by  Mrs. 
Nicholas  F.  Brady,  a  prominent  Catholic  woman,  who 
is  also  a  national  offiicer  of  the  organization, 
and  at  National  Headquarters  there  is  a  special  con¬ 
sulting  Catholic  Board  to  which  all  questions  in¬ 
volving  the  organization  of  Catholic  troops  are 
referred.  It  a  rule  of  the  organization  that  at  every 
Girl  Scout  Camp  attended  by  Catholic  children, 


there  must  be  at  least  two  Catholic  councillors  to 
assure  to  them  the  opportunity  of  attending  Mass  on 
Sundays  and  holy  days  of  Obligation,  as  well  as  to 
regulate  the  menu  for  Fridays  and  other  fast  days. 
Late  breakfast  is  served  to  all  children  who  wish  to 
receive  Holy  Communion.  Grace  before  meals  is 
silent,  and  each  child  says  her  own  evening  prayers, 
for  there  is  never  any  evening  camp  fire  prayer 
service  fields 

The  movement  in  the  Catholic  field  was  given  its 
chiefest  impetus  in  the  East  by  the  encouragement  of 
Archbishop  Patrick  J.  Hayes  of  New  York  who,  after 
a  review  of  all  the  broader  recreational  programs  for 
girls,  endorsed  that  of  the  Girl  Scouts.  Cardinal 
Doughtery  of  Philadelphia,  Archbishop  Mundelein 
of  Chicago,  Archbishop  Messmer  of  Milwaukee  also 
led  in  endorsing  the  movement.  It  is  being  supported 
by  bishops  throughout  the  country,  among  whom 
are  Bishop  Donahue  of  Wheeling,  Bishop  O’Connor 
of  Newark,  Bishop  Neelan  of  Sioux  City,  Bishop 
Nilan  of  Hartford,  Bishop  Kieley  of  Savannah, 
Bishop  Hoban  of  Scranton,  and  Bishop  Grimes  of 
Syracuse.  The  centers  most  active  in  organizing 
Catholic  girls  into  troops  are  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  Chicago,  Richmond,  Milwaukee, 
and  Savannah.  In  the  Archdiocese  of  New  York 
there  were  organized  on  31  December,  1920,  75  troops 
in  36  parishes,  8  community  houses,  3  girls’  clubs  and 
3  homes  for  girls.  This  represents  2000  Catholic 
girls  enrolled  at  National  Headquarters  as  scouts, 
under  the  leadership  of  57  Catholic  volunteer  cap¬ 
tains.  The  Catholic  Charities  of  the  Archdiocese  of 
New  York  has  adopted  scouting  as  the  chief  recrea¬ 
tional  program  for  the  adolescent  girls  in  7  orphan 
asylums  where  upward  of  600  children  have  been 
organized  under  the  direction  of  an  experienced  field 
captain  from  National  Headquarters.  Six  Catholic 
colleges  were  among  the  first  women’s  colleges  to 
introduce  a  course  in  Scout  Leadership  into  the 
departments  of  Sociology  or  Physical  Education. 
The  Colleges  of  New  Rochelle,  St.  Elizabeth,  Mt.  St. 
Vincent,  Marymount,  Sacred  Heart,  and  the  Trinity 
College  joined  with  Smith,  Vassar,  and  Simmons  in 
holding  such  classes,  which  were  in  each  case  directed 
by  a  Catholic  member  of  the  Education  Department 
in  co-operation  with  the  faculty  of  the  college.  A 
report  of  March,  1922,  shows  a  total  of  192  students 
registered  for  these  courses  in  the  Catholic  colleges, 
of  whom  40  were  actually  doing  the  practical  work  of 
leading  parochial  troops. 

Scranton,  Diocese  of  (Scrantonensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  XIII — 633a),  in  Pennsylvania,  suffragan  of 
Philadelphia.  The  present  administrator  is  the  Rt. 
Rev.  Michael  John  Hoban,  b.  at  Waterloo,  Diocese 
of  Newark,  6  June,  1853,  ordained  22  May,  1880, 
elected  titular  bishop  of  Alali,  1  Feb.,  1896,  and 
coadjutor  bishop  of  Scranton,  consecrated  22  March 
and  published  26  June  following.  He  succeeded  Rt. 
Rev.  William  O’Hara,  3  Feb. ,  1899.  The  diocese  has  a 
Catholic  population  of  274,978,  and  includes  the 
following  nationalities:  Irish,  Germans,  Slovaks, 
Lithuanians,  Italians,  Magyars  and  Slovenians. 
On  12  Oct.,  1921,  the  diocese  celebrated  its  golden 
jubilee  and  also  the  silver  jubilee  of  its  bishop,  Rt. 
Rev.  John  Hoban.  The  diocese  contains  178  parishes 
57  missions,  19  stations,  1  monastery  for  men,  60 
convents  for  women  with  733  Sisters,  270  secular 
priests,  28  regulars,  14  lay  brothers.  The  following 
educational  institutions  exist  in  the  diocese:  1  college 
for  men  with  15  teachers  and  375  students;  1  for 
women  with  30  teachers  and  180  students;  25  high 
schools  with  150  teachers,  5  academies  with  100 
teachers;  86  elementary  schools  with  520  teachers  and 
25,101  pupils;  1  industrial  school  with  10  teachers  and 
268  students.  State  appropriations  made  for  educa- 


SCUTARI 


684 


SECKAU 


tion  were  declined  in  1921.  The  diocese  has  the  fol¬ 
lowing  charitable  institutions:  2  homes,  2  asylums, 

3  hospitals,  1  day  nursery.  A  weekly  called  the 
“Catholic  Light”  is  printed  in  the  diocese.  During 
he  war  13  priests  acted  as  chaplains. 

Scutari,  Archdiocese  of  (Scutarensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII — 648a),  in  Albania.  The  last  archbishop 
was  the  Most  Rev.  Jacques  Sereggi,  who  adminis¬ 
tered  the  archdiocese  from  1910  to  1921.  The  see  is 
now  vacant.  Statistics  for  1920  give  34,820  Catholics, 
23  foreign  and  39  native  priests,  29  churches  and  15 
chapels. 

Searle,  George  Mary,  Paulist,  astronomer,  b. 
at  London  on  27  June,  1839;  d.  at  New  York,  on 
7  July,  1918.  He  was  a  descendant  of  Governor 
Dudley  of  Massachusetts  Bay.  After  the  death  of 
his  parents,  who  were  Episcopalians,  he  was  edu¬ 
cated  as  a  Unitarian  at  Brookline,  Mass.,  but  at 
Harvard  University,  while  retaining  a  belief  in  God, 
he  lost  faith  in  a  Revelation;  at  a  later  date,  how¬ 
ever,  he  recovered  his  faith  and  eventually  entered 
the  Catholic  Church  (1862).  After  acting  as  com¬ 
puter  for  the  “American  Ephemeri  and  Nautical 
Almanac,”  he  was  appointed  assistant  astronomer  at 
Dudley  Observatory,  Albany,  New  York,  where 
he  discovered  the  asteroid  Pandora.  Subsequently 
he  taught  mathematics  in  the  Annapolis  Naval 
Academy  ,  and  was  called  to  Harvard  Observatory  as 
assistant  in  1866.  Joining  the  Paulist  congregation  in 
1868,  he  subsequently  held  the  chair  of  mathematics 
and  astronomy  in  the  Catholic  University,  Wash¬ 
ington.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  his  forecast 
of  the  last  return  of  Halley’s  Comet  was  accepted  by 
American  astronomers  as  the  most  reliable  compu¬ 
tation.  Though  so  well  known  to  the  public  as  an 
astronomer,  Father  Searle’s  chief  work  was  pastoral; 
as  a  confessor  and  preacher  he  was  popular;  and  his 
religious  spirit  is  evidenced  by  his  election  as  superior 
general  of  the  Paulists  in  1904.  He  was  a  Fellow  of 
the  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  and 
a  member  of  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and 
Sciences  and  other  kindred  societies.  He  con¬ 
tributed  articles  to  the  “Astronomical  Journal,” 
“Astronomische  Nachrichten,”  “The  Catholic 
World,”  and  Catholic  Encyclopedia.  His  “Plain 
Facts  for  Fair  Minds,”  a  popular  explanation  of  the 
chief  Catholic  doctrines,  has  enjoyed  great  popularity, 
and  in  his  last  work,  “Truth  About  Christian  Science/’ 
he  corroborates  Thurston’s  verdict  that  Eddyism  is 
neither  Christian  nor  scientific. 

Powers  in  America  (27  July,  1918),  378-80. 

Seattle,  Diocese  of  (Seattlensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 665a),  comprising  the  State  of  Washington, 
U.  S.  A.  The  Rt.  Rev.  Edward  J.  O’Dea  who  has 
administered  the  diocese  since  1896,  celebrated  the 
twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  his  episcopal  consecra¬ 
tion  on  8  Sept.,  1921.  The  diocese  contains  79 
parishes,  66  missions,  45 mission  stations,  77  churches, 
1  abbey  and  3  convents  for  men,  1  monastery  and 
12  convents  for  women,  74  secular  priests,  70  regu¬ 
lars,  28  lay  brothers,  565  Sisters.  Twenty  semi¬ 
narians  are  being  educated  at  seminaries  in  other 
dioceses.  The  following  educational  institutions 
exist  in  the  diocese;  2  colleges  for  men  with  31 
teachers  and  591  students;  10  high  schools  with  30 
teachers  and  630  students  (230  boys,  400  girls), 
6  academies  with  60  teachers  and  1301  girl  students; 

1  normal  school  with  5  teachers  and  244  students; 
31  elementary  schools  with  180  teachers  and  5924 
pupils;  1  industrial  school  with  5  teachers  and  120 
pupils.  Charitable  institutions  in  the  diocese  are: 

2  homes,  4  orphan  asylums  (308  inmates),  1  refuge, 
11  hospitals,  1  day  nursery.  All  city  and  county 
hospitals  and  jails  admit  the  ministry  of  priests. 


The  following  societies  exist  among  the  clergy: 
Clerical  Relief  bund,  Eucharistic  League.  Among 
the  laity:  Holy  Name  Society,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
Society,  National  Catholic  Welfare  Council.  A  paper 
called  the  “Catholic  Northwest  Progress”  is  pub¬ 
lished  in  the  diocese. 

Sebastia,  Archdiocese  of  (Sebasten  Armen- 
orum;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII— 667d) ,  of  the  Armenian  rite, 
with  Tokat  as  a  dependency,  in  Asia  Minor.  The 
see  has  been  vacant  since  1919.  According  to  1920 
statistics  the  archdiocese  contains  3000  Armenian 
Catholics,  12  mission  parishes  and  4  churches. 

Sebenico,  Diocese  of  (Sebenicensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 668d),  in  Dalmatia,  Jugoslavia,  suffragan  of 
Zara.  The  last  bishop  was  the  Rt.  Rev.  Luca  Pappa- 
fava.  The  see  has  been  vacant  since  1919.  According 
to  the  statistics  of  1920  the  diocese  contained:  98,853 
Catholics,  50  parishes,  7  curacies,  54  secular  and  64 
regular  priests. 

Seckau,  or  Graz,  Diocese  of  (Secoviensis),  in 
Austria,  suffragan  of  Salzburg.  The  downfall  of  the 
Austro-Hungarian  Empire  and  the  disruption  of 
Styria  which  had  existed  for  the  past  twelve  cen¬ 
turies,  brought  about  great  changes  in  the  diocese. 
During  the  World  War  which  caused  so  much 
misery  and  suffering,  both  the  clergy  and  laity  of 
the  diocese,  served  their  country  with  great  zeal 
and  unselfish  devotion.  The  houses  of  the  Domin¬ 
icans,  Lazarists,  Brothers  of  Charity,  as  well  as  the 
convents  of  the  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart  and 
Sisters  of  St.  Elizabeth,  were  used  as  hospitals  for 
the  wounded,  and  as  convalescent  homes.  Five 
seculars  and  several  regulars  gave  their  services  as 
chaplains.  The  first  diocesan  synod  was  held  in 
August,  1911,  and  in  1919  the  present  incumbent  of 
the  see,  Bishop  Leopold  Schuster,  celebrated  his 
fiftieth  anniversary  as  priest,  and  his  twenty-fifth 
anniversary  as  bishop. 

The  population  of  the  diocese  consists  of  948,096 
Catholics  and  about  21,235  non-Catholics.  The 
inhabitants  are  Germans  with  about  20,000  Slo¬ 
venes.  There  are  339  parishes,  474  churches,  28 
monasteries  and  1  abbey  for  men,  13  convents  for 
women  with  128  branches,  and  2086  Sisters;  627 
seculars  and  348  regulars,  224  lay  brothers.  The 
Cathedral  Chapter  consists  of  3  honorary  canons 
(Dignitare)  and  7  residential  canons.  The  state 
university  is  at  Graz  and  has  a  theological  faculty 
with  10  professors  and  2  privatdozenten.  The 
Benedictines  have  a  theological  school  (university 
course)  at  Admont  (3  students),  the  Redemptor-  ; 
ists,  one  at  Mantern  (7  lectors,  18  clerical  profes¬ 
sors),  the  Dominicans  one  at  Graz  (6  lectors,  15 
clerical  professors),  where  there  is  also  a  diocesan 
seminary  for  boys  connected  with  a  gymnasium 
(21  professors,  300  students).  Preparatory  schools 
for  classical  studies  ( Unter  gymnasium ,  6  years 
course)  are  conducted  by  the  Benedictines  at  Ad¬ 
mont  and  St.  Lambrecht,  a  realschule  (6  years  sci¬ 
entific  course  with  Latin  in  curriculum)  by  the 
Brothers  of  Mary,  and  2  normal  schools  for  girls  by 
the  Ursulines  at  Graz,  and  the  School  Sisters  at 
Algersdorf,  near  Graz.  There  are  45  common 
elementary  schools  and  5  kindergartens  which  are 
in  charge  of  the  following  orders:  Brothers  of 
Maiy  (2),  Religious  of  the  Sacred  Heart  (2),  Ur¬ 
sulines  (2),  School  Sisters  (28),  Dominicans  (2), 
Sisters  of  Charity  (8),  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  (1) ; 
an  industrial  school  for  girls  has  been  established 
by  the  Ursulines.  With  few  exceptions  the  schools 
are  supported  by  the  government.  The  following 
institutions  are  established  in  the  diocese:  1  Cath¬ 
olic  workingmen’s  home,  2  homes  for  working- 


SECULARIZATION 


685 


SEMINARY 


women,  1  club  for  young  men,  1  asylum  for  the 
blind,  1  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  House  of  Mercy 
for  incurables  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  St.  Eliza¬ 
beth,  1  home  for  sick  and  aged  priests,  1  sanatorium 
for  women  in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  1  hospital  for  men,  8  children’s  asylums, 
3  houses  of  correction,  3  homes  and  11  day  nur¬ 
series.  The  ministry  of  priests  is  permitted  in  all 
public  institutions.  In  addition  to  the  religious 
orders  that  already  had  foundations  in  the  diocese, 
the  following  have  been  established  since  1912: 
Jesuits  at  Graz,  Brothers  of  Mary  at  Graz,  Pious 
Workers  of  St.  Joseph  Calasanctius  at  Deutsch- 
Goritz,  Sons  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at  Messendorf, 
Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  at  Graz,  Dominicans 
at  Gleisdorf,  School  Sisters  at  Wildon  with  a 
mother-house  at  Algersdorf  near  Graz  (26 
branches),  Daughters  of  the  Divine  Love  at  Maria- 
trost,  and  Daughters  of  the  Divine  Redeemer  at 
Grafenegg.  Orders  established  in  the  diocese  prior 
to  1912  have  opened  new  houses  at  the  following 
places:  Franciscans  at  Tieschen,  and  the  Capuchins 
at  Graz  and  Mittersdorf.  Among  the  clergy  8 
associations  have  been  established  and  in  every 
parish  a  number  of  societies  and  associations  are 
formed  among  the  laity.  Two  daily  Catholic  news¬ 
papers,  4  weeklies,  and  9  monthlies  are  published 
in  the  diocese.  The  following  distinguished  clergy¬ 
men  have  lately  died:  Dr.  Anton  Griessl,  Provost 
of  the  Cathedral,  for  many  years  director  of  the 
diocesan  seminary,  and  a  well  known  writer  on 
Canon  law,  and  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  John  Graus,  a 
writer  on  ecclesiastical  art  and  editor  of  “Der 
Kirchenschmuck.” 

Secularization  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 677d). — Religious 
who  become  secularized  are  freed  from  their  vows  of 
religion,  but  not  from  the  obligations  incurred  if  and 
when  they  received  major  orders.  Formerly  they 
owed  not  merely  canonical  obedience  to  the  bishop 
but  also  obedience  in  virtue  of  their  religious  vow7. 
If  a  religious  in  sacred  orders  who  did  not  lose  his 
diocesan  rights  by  perpetual  profession  leaves  his 
institute,  either  when  he  does  not  renew  his  vows  or 
in  virtue  of  an  indult  of  secularization,  he  must  re¬ 
turn  to  his  diocese  and  be  received  by  his  own  bishop; 
if  he  has  lost  those  rights,  he  cannot  exercise  his 
sacred  orders  after  leaving  his  institute  until  some 
bishop  consents  to  receive  him  or  the  Holy  See  pro¬ 
vides  otherwise.  A  bishop  may  receive  such  a  re¬ 
ligious  unconditionally,  in  which  case  he  is  thereby 
incardinated  in  the  diocese;  or  he  may  admit  him  on 
probation  for  three  years,  or  even  six  but  not  for  more; 
when  the  term  of  probation  ends,  if  he  has  not  been 
dismissed  he  is  by  the  very  fact  incardinated  in  the 
diocese.  The  restrictions  placed  on  secularized 
religious,  mentioned  in  C.  E.,  XIII — 678c,  are  prac¬ 
tically  unchanged,  except  that  in  the  first  case  they 
are  prohibited  from  receiving  benefices  only,  not 
offices,  while  the  fifth  regulation  limiting  the  place 
of  residence  is  omitted.  The  restrictions,  however, 
are  extended  to  those  who  have  been  dispensed  from 
their  temporary  vows,  or  oaths  of  perserverance,  or 
any  special  promises  made  according  to  their  consti¬ 
tutions,  provided  they  had  been  thus  bound  for  six 
complete  years.  Those  who  leave  their  institute  on 
the  completion  of  the  period  of  their  temporary  vows 
or  who  are  secularized  or  dismissed  can  claim  nothing 
for  their  work  while  in  the  institute.  If,  however,  a 
nun  or  sister  who  was  received  without  a  dowry,  has 
not  sufficient  means  to  support  herself,  the  institute 
is  bound  in  charity  to  give  her  the  expenses  of  her 
journey  home  and  enough  to  enable  her  to  live 
respectably  for  some  time;  the  amount  is  to  be  agreed 
upon  mutually,  or  in  case  of  disagreement  it  is  to  be 
fixed  by  the  local  ordinary. 


Seez,  Diocese  of  (Sagiensis;  cf.  0.  E.,  XIII — 
681d),  comprises  the  Department  of  Orme,  France, 
and  is  suffragan  to  Rouen.  The  diocese,  is  divided 
into  5  archipresbyterates,  36  deaneries,  and  513 
parishes.  The  population  is  274,500.  There  is  a 
diocesan  seminary,  and  preparatory  seminaries  are 
at  Flers  and  S6ez.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Claude  Bardel,  b.  1851,  preconized  titular  Bishop  of 
Parium  and  auxiliary  of  Cardinal  Boyer,  Archbishop 
of  Bourges,  in  1894,  named  Bishop  of  Scez,  1897, 
assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne  1918. 

Segni,  Diocese  of  (Segninsis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII 
— 683d),  in  Province  of  Rome,  Italy,  directly  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See.  The  present  incum¬ 
bent  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Angelo  Maria  Sinibaldi,  b.  at 
Gavignano,  Spain,  14  April,  1846,  elected  titular 
Bishop  of  Europus,  13  December,  1904,  and  suffragan 
of  Velletri,  transferred  16  April,  1915,  published  6 
December  following  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Pancrazio 
Giorgi  who  died  30  March,  1915.  Statistics  for  1920 
report:  19,450  Catholics,  12  parishes,  34  churches,  63 
secular  and  18  regular  priests,  8  Brothers,  and  27  Sis¬ 
ters. 

Segorbe  (or  Castellon  de  La  Plana)  ,  Diocese 
of,  (Segobiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 684c),  in  the 
ecclesiastical  province  of  Valencia,  Spain.  The 
present  bishop  is  Mgr.  Luis  Jose  Amigo  y  Ferrer, 
Capuchin,  born  at  Masamagrell,  Archdiocese  of 
Valencia,  17  October,  1854,  novice  at  Bayonne  1874, 
ordained  1879,  founder  of  a  congregation  of  Our 
Lady  of  Sorrows  to  educate  abandoned  children, 
elected  titular  bishop  of  Thagaste  18  April,  1907, 
and  administrator  of  Solsona,  consecrated  in  Madrid 
2  June  following,  transferred  18  July,  1913,  to 
succeed  Mgr.  Massanet,  deceased.  A  pilgrimage  of 
25,000  faithful  took  place  on  29  April,  1917,  for  the 
translation  of  the  remains  of  Venerable  Bonifacio 
Ferrer,  brother  of  the  apostle  St.  Vincent  Ferrer,  on 
the  sixth  centenary  of  his  death  and  to  pray  for  the 
intercession  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  for  the  peace  of  the 
world.  The  diocese  contains  83,460  Catholics,  64 
parishes,  77  churches,  2  monasteries  of  women,  2 
convents  of  men,  133  secular  and  13  regular  priests, 
36  lay  brothers,  1  seminary  writh  70  seminarians,  1 
college  for  boj7s,  3  for  girls,  1  academy  for  40  boys, 
124  elementary  schools  with  148  instructors  and 
9500  pupils,  1  asylum.  The  Government  contributes 
to  the  support  of  nearly  all  the  elementary  schools. 
Besides  ecclesiastical  bulletins,  two  religious  papers 
are  published. 

Segovia,  Diocese  of  (Segoviensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 684c),  in  Spain,  suffragan  of  Valladolid.  The 
present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Manuel  de  Castro  y 
Alvuso,  b.  at  Valladolid,  16  April,  1863,  elected  bishop 
of  Jaca  28  October,  1913,  published  25  May,  1914, 
transferred  9  July,  1920.  He  succeeded  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Remi  Gandasegui  y  Garrochategui,  who  was  pro¬ 
moted.  According  to  the  statistics  of  1920  there  are 
in  the  diocese  80,500  Catholics,  311  parishes,  361 
churches,  205  chapels,  363  priests,  28  convents  with 
65  religious  and  90  Sisters. 

Sehna,  Diocese  of  (Sehanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 687b),  a  Chaldean  see  in  Persia.  The  present 
administrator  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Jean  Nissan,  b.  at 
Dehoc,  Turkey  in  Asia,  in  1880,  elected  July,  1914, 
published  8  September,  confirmed  by  a  brief  of  the 
Propaganda  15  September  following.  Statistics  for 
1920  give:  900  Chaldean  Catholics,  2  churches,  3  sec¬ 
ular  priests  and  1  school. 

Seminary  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 694b). — Every  semi¬ 
nary  is  to  have  two  advisory  boards,  one  for  discipline 
and  one  for  the  administration  of  property;  each  board 


SENEGAL 


686 


SEOUL 


consists  of  two  priests  appointed  by  the  bishop  for 
six  years,  after  consulting  the  chapter.  The  vicar 
general,  the  rector  of  the  seminary,  the  oeconomus,  the 
ordinary  confessors,  and  members  of  the  bishop's 
household  may  not  be  members  of  the  board.  The 
bishop  must  see  that  the  seminarians  each  day  recite 
in  common  their  morning  and  evening  prayers,  make 
a  meditation  and  assist  at  Mass,  that  they  go  to  con¬ 
fession  at  least  once  a  week  and  receive  Holy  Com¬ 
munion  frequently,  that  on  Sundays  and  feasts,  they 
be  present  at  Mass  and  Vespers,  taking  part  in  the 
ceremonies,  especially  in  the  cathedral,  if  the  bishop 
judges  that  discipline  and  studies  would  not  suffer 
thereby,  that  they  make  the  spiritual  exercise  an¬ 
nually  for  some  days,  and  assist  at  a  religious  instruc¬ 
tion  at  least  once  a  week.  No  one  is  to  be  admitted 
to  a  seminary  without  written  attestation  of  his 
iegitimacy,  and  his  reception  of  baptism  and  con¬ 
firmation;  nor  may  one  who  has  been  dismissed  from 
another  seminary  or  from  a  religious  institute,  until 
the  bishop  has  been  informed  by  his  old  superiors 
why  he  was  dismissed,  and  has  found  him  to  be  not 
unworthy  of  being  raised  to  the  priestly  dignity. 
The  seminary  is  not  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
parish  priest;  for  those  who  live  therein  the  rector 
of  the  seminary  is  parish  priest  except  in  regard  to 
matrimony.  He  may  not,  however,  hear  the  con¬ 
fessions  of  the  students,  except  in  a  particular  case 
when  for  a  grave  urgent  reason  a  student  freely  asks 
him  to  do  so.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  Code  pre¬ 
scribes  that  there  must  be  separate  profession  in 
seminaries  for  Scripture,  dogmatic  theology,  moral 
theology  and  church  history. 

Senegal,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See  Sene- 

GAMBIA 

Senegambia,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 715b),  to  which  is  joined  the  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of  Senegal,  both  in  French  West  Africa, 
although  a  portion  of  the  vicariate  is  British  territory 
called  Gambia.  The  two  territories  are  entrusted  to 
the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost  with  residence  for  the 
vicariate  at  Dakar  and  for  the  prefecture  at  St.  Louis. 
The  vicar  and  prefect  is  Mgr.  Louis  Le  Hunsec,  born 
at  Ploemer,  diocese  of  Vannes,  France,  6  January, 
1878,  novice  in  1897,  student  at  French  Seminary  in 
Rome  in  1898,  ordained  1901,  professed  in  1902,  sent 
to  the  mission  1903,  elected  Bishop  of  Europus  22 
April,  1920,  named  vicar  and  prefect  23  April,  conse¬ 
crated  in  Paris  30  May  following.  His  predecessor  was 
Mgr.  Hyacinthe  Jalabert,  b.  at  Chambery,  12  Novem- 
berr,  1859,  ordained  1882,  missionary  in  Guiana,  left  fo 
Senegal  in  1896,  elected  13  February,  1909,  conse¬ 
crated  in  Paris  1  May  following,  titular  bishop  of 
Telepta,  vicar  and  prefect,  died  with  seventeen  mis¬ 
sionaries  11  January,  1920,  on  his  way  back  to  Dakar 
when  the  steamship  “Africa”  was  shipwrecked.  The 
French  Government  named  Bishop  Jalabert  a 
Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  for  his  devotion 
in  the  epidemic  of  yellow  fever  which  desolated  Sene¬ 
gal  in  1901.  In  the  vicariate  and  prefecture  there  are 
1,300,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  about  800,000  are 
Mussulmans.  There  are  two  races  of  natives,  the 
Divals  and  Serers,  who  have  remained  pagans  but  are 
being  converted  little  by  little  to  the  Cathoic  religion. 
In  July,  1919,  M.  William  Pouty,  Governor  General 
of  French  West  Africa,  died.  In  March,  1919,  the 
celebration  of  the  centenary  of  the  arrival  of  the  Sis¬ 
ters  of  St.  Joseph  in  the  colony,  and  in  October,  1921, 
the  visit  of  M.  Sarrant,  minister  of  the  colonies,  and 
in  December,  1921,  the  visit  of  General  Mangin,  were 
important  events.  The  blacks  who  live  in  the 
towns  of  St.  Louis,  Rufique,  Goree  and  Dakkar  are 
citoyens  electeurs  and  in  1915  they  were  mobilized. 
Three  hundred  of  these  soldiers  were  killed  in  the  war. 


Besides  this,  many  black  French  subjects  were  in¬ 
corporated  in  the  Senegalais  tirailleurs ,  thousands  of 
whom  died.  All  of  the  missionaries  within  the  age 
limits  were  mobilized,  and  many  of  them  served  in 
campaigns  in  France  and  Kamerun  as  chaplains  or 
infirmarians.  Two  missionaries  won  the  legion 
d’honneur,  one  the  medaiUe  militaire ,  nearly  all  others 
the  croix  de  guerre.  One  black  missionary,  Abbe 
Sonko-Saue,  chaplain  with  the  Senegalais  tirailleurs , 
was  killed  in  Champagne  in  the  attack  of  April,  1917. 
There  are  in  this  territory  27,942  Catholics,  4  par¬ 
ishes,  14  churches,  10  missions,  24  stations,  3  con¬ 
vents  of  Sisters,  4  secular  and  26  regular  (Holy  Ghost) 
priests,  6  lay  brothers,  1  seminary,  5  seminarians, 
1400  pupils  in  schools,  4  hospitals.  The  Sodality  of  the 
Children  of  Mary  and  other  parish  associations  are 
organized  among  the  laity  and  one  monthly  bulletin 
is  published.  There  are  established  under  the  Gov¬ 
ernor  of  Senegal  many  practical  works  among  the 
natives  such  as,  a  lycee  at  St.  Louis,  normal  school  at 
Goree,  an  industrial  school  at  Goree,  a  medical 
school,  a  maternity  hospital  and  a  creche  at  Dakkar. 

Sens,  Archdiocese  of  (Senonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 720b),  comprises  the  department  of  Yonne, 
France,  and  has  as  suffragans  Troyes,  Nevers  and 
Moulin.  The  present  archbishop,  who  also  has  the 
title  of  Bishop  of  Auxerre,  is  Mgr.  Jean-Victor- 
Emile  Chesnelong,  b.  at  Orthez,  Diocese  of  Bayonne, 
6  April,  1856,  ordained  in  Paris  1879,  pastor  of  St. 
Michel  and  in  1902  of  Ste-Madeleine;  elected  bishop 
of  Valence  21  February,  1906,  consecrated  in  Rome 
by  Pius  X,  25  February  and  enthroned  29  March; 
promoted  12  January,  1912,  succeeding  Mgr.  Etienne 
Ardin,  deceased.  During  the  war  129  priests  and  26 
seminarians  were  mobilized  from  the  archdiocese,  7 
priests  and  12  seminarians  were  killed;  1  legion 
d’honneur,  5  medailles  ?nilitaires  and  38  croix  de  guerre 
were  awarded  them .  In  the  archdiocese  there  are  about 
305,000  Catholics,  491  parishes,  more  than  500 
churches,  318  secular  priests;  1  upper  seminary  with  30 
seminarians,  1  lower  seminary  with  forty-three,  an 
Ecole  du  Sacre  Coeur  with  17  seminarians;  2  colleges,  the 
Ecole  St.  Jacques  with  150  students  (43  seminarians), 
the  Ecole  St.  Edme,  120  students,  in  both  colleges  there 
being  28  professors;schools  (primary  and  higher  primary 
8  for  boys,  48  for  girls,  total  134  classes,  2567  pupils, 
with  175 instructors;  6 orphanages  directed  by  religious. 
The  important  hospitals  are  dependent  on  the  civil 
administration  but  except  in  the  one  at  Auxerre,  the 
nurses  are  furnished  by  the  Sisters.  The  Sisters  of 
Ste.  Colombe  (Sisters  of  the  Holy  Childhood  of 
Jesus  and  Mary)  form  a  congregation  for  hospital 
work,  founded  in  1842.  They  occupy  the  grounds 
and  some  of  the  buildings  of  the  old  monastery  of 
Ste.  Colombe.  The  Catholic  press  includes  “La 
Semaine  Religieuse,”  official  organ  of  the  archbishop, 
and  “La  Liberte  de  1’ Yonne,”  a  Catholic  weekly 
directed  by  an  ecclesiastic  named  by  the  bishop. 
The  congregations  of  women  include  Sisters  of  the 
Holy  Childhood,  Carmelites,  Daughters  of  Charity, 
Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd  of  Angers,  Presentation 
Sisters  of  Tours,  Bon  Secours  Sisters  of  Troyes,  Fran¬ 
ciscans  Sisters  of  Providence  of  Alengon,  Augustinians, 
Ursulines.  On  account  of  the  situation  of  the  religious 
in  France,  it  is  impossible  to  give  accurate  statistics 
concerning  them. 

Seoul,  (cf.  C.  E.,  XVI — 84d),  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of,  in  Corea.  It  comprises  northern  and 
central  Corea  with  the  exception  of  two  north¬ 
eastern  provinces,  Ham-Kyeng,  which  were  given 
to  the  Benedictine  Congregation  of  St.  Ollilien  on 
1  May,  1921.  Following  this  division  there  remained 
to  the  Vicariate  of  Seoul  seven  of  the  thirteen  prov¬ 
inces  which  form  Corea.  Its  area  covers  43,769 


SERAJEVO 


687 


SESSA  AURUNCA 


square  miles  and  its  population  numbers  8,429,021, 
of  whom  51,674  are  native  Catholics,  with  120 
European  and  500  Japanese.  The  present  vicar 
Apostolic  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Gustav  Charles  Marie 
Mutel  of  the  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  b.  at  Blume- 
ray,  8  March,  1854,  ordained  24  Feb.,  1877,  departed 
for  Corea  5  April  following.  He  was  made  director 
of  the  seminary  at  Paris  in  1885,  elected  2  Sept., 
1890,  and  made  vicar  apostolic  of  Corea,  consecrated 
21  Sept.,  following  and  named  vicar  apostolic  of 
Seoul  8  April,  1911,  made  assistant  to  the  pontifical 
throne,  24  May,  1921.  On  20  Aug.,  1920.  Rt. 
Rev.  Emile  Alexander  Devred  was  named  coadjutor 
with  the  right  of  succession.  According  to  the 
statistics  of  1922  the  vicariate  apostolic  is  divided 
into  40  districts  and  has  612  stations,  156  churches, 
24  European  missionaries,  26  native  priests,  15 
catechists,  1  Benedictine  abbey  (12  monks,  12 
brothers,  5  Corean  postulants),  1  convent  of  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Paul  of  Chartres  (11  European  and  80 
Corean  nuns),  1  seminary  with  18  seminarians,  1 
preparatory  seminary,  57  students.  The  secondary 
schools  are:  54  parochial  schools  for  boys  (2122  pupils) 
13  parochial  schools  for  girls  (1254  pupils);  1  agricul¬ 
tural  and  industrial  school,  conducted  by  the  Bene¬ 
dictines  (35  pupils).  The  Sisters  of  St.  Paul  of 
Chartres  have  charge  of  2  orphanages,  with  293 
orphans.  There  are  also  two  dispensaries.  During 
the  year  1921,  5462  persons  were  baptized,  including 
1015  adults,  2502  children  of  Christians  and  1360 
children  of  pagans,  and  36,318  Easter  communions 
were  made.  In  the  government  hospitals,  priests 
are  permitted  to  visit  the  sick  and  to  administer  the 
sacraments,  but  they  are  not  permitted  to  visit  the 
public  institutions.  Every  year  a  double  retreat 
brings  together  the  European  and  the  native  clergy 
and  also  whenever  a  synod  is  held.  A  monthly 
Latin  review  edited  by  the  Superior  of  the  Seminary 
is  published  for  all  the  clergy  of  the  Corean  missions. 
A* fortnightly  review  in  Corean  is  printed  at  Seoul. 
In  1917  occured  the  death  of  the  pro-vicar  Rev. 
Father  Doucet,  who  for  forty  years  labored  with  un¬ 
tiring  zeal  for  the  propagation  of  the  Faith.  During 
the  first  ten  years  he  endured  all  the  sufferings  of  a 
persecution. 

In  1910  Corea  was  annexed  to  Japan.  Although 
the  Catholics  did  not  suffer  thereby,  it  is  noticeable 
that  since  then  the  number  of  conversions  among  the 
pagans  has  grown  less.  During  the  uprising  in 
March,  1919,  some  Catholics  were  accused  of  foment¬ 
ing  disorder  and  of  ill-treating  the  natives.  Upon 
investigation  it  was  discovered  that  the  police  had 
confused  them  with  S9me  adherents  of  the  Prot¬ 
estant  sects  who  were  implicated  in  the  movement. 
The  authorities  did  not  fail  to  accord  justice  to  the 
Catholics,  and  remarked  the  loyalty  which  the  latter 
had  shown  under  the  circumstances.  Since  1908  the 
cause  of  the  Corean  martyrs  has  progressed.  Mgr. 
Imbert  and  his  companions,  eighty-two  martyrs  who 
died  between  1839  and  1846,  passed  before  the  anti- 
preparatory  Congregation  on  22  November,  1921. 
The  cause  of  Mgr.  Berneux  and  his  companions, 
twenty-six  martyrs  who  died  in  1866,  was  introduced. 
13  Nov.,  1918.  ”  The  remissorial  letters  sent  to  Rome 
allowed  the  apostolic  process  to  begin  in  the  Spring 
of  1921.  During  the  World  War  thirteen  out  of 
thirty  missionaries  were  mobilized  and  returned  to 
France.  Three  of  them  fell  on  the  field  of  honor, 
the  others  returned  in  1919,  but  one  of  them  was  so 
severely  gassed  that  he  will  be  invalided  for  the  re¬ 
mainder  of  his  life.  During  the  war  the  support 
which  the  vicariate  had  received  from  the  Propaga¬ 
tion  of  the  Faith  and  from  the  Holy  Childhood  Society 
was  considerably  diminished,  but  happily  the  alms 
which  were  sent  from  the  United  States  made  up 
the  deficiency.  Five  perpetual  scholarships  and 

44 


nineteen  yearly  scholarships  which  were  sent  by  the 
clergy  and  faithful  of  the  United  States  proved  of 

great  benefit  to  the  vicariate. 

• 

Serajevo  (Sarajevo  or  Uriibosna),  Archdiocese 
of  (Seraiensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 725a),  in  province 
of  Bosnia,  Jugoslavia.  Serajevo  is  a  city  with  over 
50,000  inhabitants,  the  capital  of  Bosnia,  which 
country  with  Herzegovina,  was  annexed  to  Austria- 
Hungary  in  1908,  and  was  the  scene  of  the  murder  of 
the  Austrian  Prince  Francis  Ferdinand  which  started 
the  European  war  and  resulted  in  the  dissolution  of 
the  Empire  and  the  joining  of  Bosnia-Herzegovina  to 
the  new  kingdom  of  Jugoslavia.  The  first  archbishop 
of  Serajevo,  Dr.  Joseph  Stader,  b.  at  Brod,  diocese 
of  Sirmium  (Diakovar),  14  January,  1843,  professor 
of  theology  at  Zagreb,  was  elected  18  November, 
1881,  consecrated  30  November  following,  died  8 
December,  1918.  His  successor  has  not  been  ap¬ 
pointed.  The  diocese  is  administered  by  the  auxiliary 
bishop,  Mgr.  John  Saric,  born  in  the  diocese  at 
Travnick  22  Sept.,  1871,  canon  of  the  metropolitan, 
elected  titular  bishop  of  Csesaropolis  8  April,  1908,  and 
consecrated  28  May  following.  Canon  John  Koscak 
died  in  1915.  Marian  Congregations  are  forbidden  in 
the  schools  by  the  new  Government.  The  Catholic 
population  (1921)  numbers  240,000,  of  whom  230,000 
are  Croats,  the  rest  Germans,  Hungarians,  Bohe¬ 
mians,  Poles  and  Rumanians.  There  are  93  parishes 
(40  of  which  are  entrusted  to  Franciscans),  105 
churches,  7  convents  of  men,  18  of  women,  79  secular 
and  96  regular  priests,  15  lay  brothers,  2  seminaries 
(1  at  Serajevo  for  the  entire  province  of  Bosnia- 
Herzegovina  under  the  Jesuits),  with  197  seminarians, 

I  college  for  boys  with  70  students,  6  for  girls  with 
200  students,  1  home  for  the  aged  poor,  2  hospitals, 

II  day  nurseries,  1  association  for  the  clergy.  Marian 
Congregations  and  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  for 
the  laity  exist  in  nearly  all  parishes.  Four  papers  are 
published  and  the  Government  gives  part  support  to 
Catholic  institutions. 

Serbs,  Croats  and  Slovenes,  Kingdom  of.  See 
Jugoslavia 

Serena,  La,  Diocese  of  (de  Serena;  cf.  C.  E. 
XIII — 726d),  embracing  the  Coquimboand  Altacarna 
provinces,  Chile,  is  suffragan  of  Santiago.  Rt.  Rev. 
Carlos  Silva  Cotapos,  b.  in  the  Diocese  of  Santiago, 
10  May,  1868,  ordained  21  September,  1891,  doctor  of 
civil  law  and  professor  at  the  seminary  in  1890,  later 
at  the  Catholic  University  from  1902  to  1907,  secre¬ 
tary  in  1902,  chancellor  in  1907,  principal  and  vicar 
general  in  1915,  was  appointed  bishop  20  February, 
1918,  succeeding  Mgr.  Raymond- Auge  Jara  (b.  1 
August,  1852;  d.  9  March,  1917). 

There  are  (1921)  34  parishes,  151  churches,  11 
monasteries  for  men,  18  for  women,  52  secular  and 
50  regular  priests,  170  sisters,  1  seminary  with  325 
seminarians,  1  college  for  men  with  7  teachers  and  85 
students,  3  for  women  with  20  teachers  and  250 
students,  1  professional  school  with  25  teachers  and 
1000  pupils,  1  home,  5  hospitals  in  care  of  the  nuns. 
The  lay  charitable  centers  are  in  the  convents  of 
women.  The  hospital,  seminary,  colleges  and  schools 
receive  Government  aid.  The  Society  of  St.  Joseph 
is  organized  among  the  clergy  and  numerous  sodali¬ 
ties,  mostly  of  women,  among  the  laity.  The  Chilean 
daily  and  four  minor  periodicals  are  published  in 
La  Serena. 

Servants  of  the  Most  Blessed  Sacrament.  See 

Blessed  Sacrament,  Servants  of  the  Most 

Servia.  See  Jugoslavia 

Sessa  Aurunca,  Diocese  of  (Suessana;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII — 737d),  in  Southern  Italy,  suffragan  of 


SETON  HALL 


688 


SHANTUNG 


Capua.  The  present  administrator  is  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Fortunato  de  Santo,  b.  at  Forni  di  Sopra,  1  August, 
1862,  elected  25  April,  1914,  published  25  May  fol¬ 
lowing  to  succeed  the  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Battista 
Diamare,  who  died  9  January,  1914.  According  to 
1920  statistics  there  are:  62,750  Catholics,  42  par¬ 
ishes,  103  churches  and  chapels,  80  secular  priests, 
and  15  seminarians. 

Seton  Hall  College,  South  Orange,  New  Jersey, 
was  founded  in  1856  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  James  Roose¬ 
velt  Bayley,  Bishop  of  Newark.  The  new  college 
was  named  after  Mother  Elizabeth  Seton,  aunt  of 
the  founder,  and  was  first  situated  in  Madison,  N. 
J.,  but  in  1861  was  moved  to  more  spacious  build¬ 
ings  in  South  Orange.  The  same  year  the  institution 
was  incorporated ;  by  the  charter  the  corporate 
powers  were  vested  in  a  board  of  thirteen  trustees 
with  the  Roman  Catholic  Bishop  of  Newark  per¬ 
petual  trustee  ex-officio  and  President  of  the  Board. 

During  the  Civil  War  the  college  so  ably  with¬ 
stood  its  difficulties  that,  in  1865,  under  the  man¬ 
agement  of  Father  McQuade,  it  had  to  enlarge  its 
building  to  twice  the  original  size.  In  1867  Father 
McQuade  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Rochester  and 
Rev.  Michael  A.  Corrigan,  D.D.,  was  chosen  presi¬ 
dent.  In  1873  Dr.  Corrigan  was  appointed  Bishop 
of  Newark  and  his  brother,  the  Rev.  James  H. 
Corrigan,  A.  M.,  succeeded  him.  Dr.  Corrigan 
resigned  in  1888  and  Rev.  William  F.  Marshall, 
whose  term  of  office  was  marked  by  great  financial 
success  for  the  college,  was  his  successor,  but  in 
1897  illness  forced  Father  Marshall  to  resign  and 
Rev.  Joseph  J.  Sinnott,  D.D.,  became  president, 
for  two  years,  until  his  death.  Dr.  Sinnott  estab¬ 
lished  the  Seton  Hall  High  School  and  his  suc¬ 
cessor,  Mgr.  John  A.  Stafford,  S.L.L.,  opened  the 
Bayley  Hall  Grammar  School.  After  the  golden 
jubilee  of  the  college  in  1906  Mgr.  Stafford  asked 
to  be  relieved  of  the  presidency  and  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr. 
James  F.  Mooney,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  the  present  head 
of  the  college,  was  appointed  to  succeed  him. 

The  college  now  consists  of  eight  buildings,  in¬ 
cluding  the  library,  in  which  there  is  a  collection 
of  25,000  volumes.  In  1921  the  college  had  a  fac¬ 
ulty  of  10,  a  student  registration  of  82  with  19 
graduates;  the  high  school  had  a  faculty  of  20 
with  a  student  registration  of  172.  Since  1862  the 
degrees  conferred  by  Seton  Hall  College  are  as 
follows:  Doctor  of  Laws,  42;  Doctor  of  Science, 
1;  Master  of  Arts,  8;  Master  of  Science,  1;  Bache¬ 
lor  of  Arts,  4. 

Seville,  Archdiocese  of  (Hispalensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 744b),  in  Spain.  The  see  is  at  present  under 
the  incumbency  of  Most  Rev.  Eustachio  Ilundain 
y  Esteban,  b.  at  Pampeluna,  20  September,  1862, 
professor  at  the  seminary  1891,  chancellor  and  arch-' 
priest  of  the  cathedral  of  Segovia  in  1901,  rector  of 
the  seminary,  appointed  Bishop  of  Orense,  14 
November,  1904,  consecrated  12  March,  1905,  pro¬ 
moted  to  the  rank  of  Archbishop  of  Seville  at  the 
Consistory  of  16  December,  1920,  succeeding 
Cardinal  Enrique  Almaraz  y  Santos,  transferred  to 
Toledo.  Statistics  for  1920  credit  the  archdiocese 
with  293  parishes  divided  into  23  archpresbyteries, 
409  chapels,  1751  priests,  213  convents  with  580 
religious  and  3204  sisters.  On  8  Dec.,  1917,  there 
was  celebrated  the  third  centenary  of  the  vow  taken 
by  the  canons  to  defend  the  dogma  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception . 

Sex,  Freudian  Theory  of.  See  Psychoanalysis. 

Seychelles  Islands.  See  Port  Victoria,  Diocese 

of. 


Shan-si,  Northern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Scian-si  Septentrionalis,  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 752b), 
in  China.  It  has  a  Catholic  population  of  38,014 
and  Ji8,300  catechumens,  all  Chinese.  Rt.  Rev. 
Agapito  Augusto  Fiorentini,  titular  Bishop  of  Russad- 
dir,  b.  at  Palestrina  (Italy),  27  September,  1866, 
appointed  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Northern  Shan-si, 
6  March,  1902,  resigned  in  1909,  reappointed  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Northern  Shan-si,  7  July,  1916,  resides 
at  Tai-yuan-fu.  The  vicariate  numbers  (1921): 
35  missions,  279  churches,  421  stations,  1  convent  for 
men,  1  for  women,  22  secular  and  20  regular  clergy,  2 
Brothers,  14  Sisters,  2  seminaries  with  55  seminarians, 

1  college  for  boys  with  163  students,  1  for  girls  with 
145  students,  1  normal  school  with  20  students,  327 
elementary  schools  with  327  teachers  and  3621  pupils, 

2  hospices  for  aged  men  with  142  inmates,  2  for  aged 
women  with  100  inmates,  1  hospital  with  1007  beds, 
1  dispensary  where  15,663  have  been  cared  for,' 

8  orphanages  with  248  boys  and  830  girls,  5  nurseries. 
The  prisons  of  Tai-yuan-fu  admit  the  ministry  of 
priests.  The  Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  is  organized 
among  the  laity.  During  the  World  War  none  of  the 
missionaries  were  mobilized,  but  in  the  last  five  years 
12  missionaries  have  died  of  typhus,  prevalent  in  this 
district.  In  1920  the  famine  resulting  from  the  drought 
of  the  preceding  summer  caused  one  million  deaths. 
This  was  the  lowest  mortality  from  this  cause  in  all 
the  provinces,  due  to  the  efforts  of  the  missionaries 
and  the  Central  Committee,  founded  by  the  pro¬ 
vincial  government,  who  worked  zealously  to  help 
the  suffering  poor.  At  Ping-tin-chou,  in  the  most 
afflicted  district,  they  maintained  at  their  own 
expense  for  a  year  and  a  half  an  orphanage  caring 
for  nearly  400  starving  boys  and  girls.  In  return 
the  government  officially  recognized  the  work  of  the 
vicariate  by  deoorating  it  with  the  medal  of  civil 
merit. 

Shan-si,  Southern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Scian-si  Meridionalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 752c),  in 
China .  The  vicariate  is  entrusted  to  the  Franciscans , 
and  has  an  entirely  Chinese  population  of  whom 
32,000  are  Catholic.  Rt.  Rev.  Albert  Odoric  Timmer, 
O.  F.  M.,  titular  Bishop  of  Drusipara,  b.  18  October, 
1859,  consecrated  20  July,  1901,  is  vicar  apostolic, 
with  residence  at  Lu-an-fu.  The  vicariate  has: 
30  parishes,  61  churches,  490  missions,  244  stations, 

9  secular  and  31  regular  clergy,  about  100  Tertiary 
Nuns,  1  theological  seminary  with  8  students,  1 
preparatory  seminary  with  31  students,  3  colleges  for 
boys  with  15  teachers  and  185  pupils,  2  for  girls  with 
5  teachers  and  56  pupils,  4  normal  schools  with 
4  teachers  and  25  students,  250  elementary  schools 
with  265  teachers  and  3750  pupils  (boys  and  girls). 
The  work  of  the  mission  is  carried  on  by  annual 
missions,  catechumenate  offices  of  consultation, 
and  lecture  rooms  or  halls  for  the  pagans.  There 
are  2  asvlums  of  the  Holy  Childhood,  3  refuges,  2 
nurseries.  The  schools  are  not  supported  by  the 
Government  but  some  of  the  pupils  receive  a  sub¬ 
sidy  from  the  provincial  government.  The  Action 
Sociale  Catholique  is  organized  among  the  laity. 

Shan-tung,  Eastern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Scian-tom  Orientalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 752c), 
in  China,  comprises  a  total  population  of  about 
9,000,000  and  includes  three  civil  prefectures  (Teng- 
chow-fu,  Lai-chow-fu ,Tsing-chow-fu ) ,  and  twenty  four 
subprefectures.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Franciscan 
Fathers.  The  present  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Adeodat  Wittner,  O.  F.  M.,  titular  Bishop  of  Milet, 
b.  at  btrasburg,  21  November,  1868,  appointed 
coadjutor  with  future  succession,  29  April,  1907,  and 
vicar  apostolic  9  September,  1911.  He  resides  at 
Che-fu.  According  to  1921  statistics  there  are 


SHANTUNG 


G89 


SHENSI 


1905  Christian  communities.  373  churches  or  chapels, 
15,215  Catholics,  16,533  catechumens,  25  Franciscan 
Fathers,  3  Brothers,  18  secular  priests,  1  upper 
seminary  with  10  seminarians,  1  lower  seminary  with 
22  seminarians,  2  boarding  schools  for  girls  with 
70  European  and  95  Chinese  pupils,  198  schools  with 
2493  pupils,  4  orphanages  with  23  boys  and  444 
girls,  4  hospitals,  1  leper  hospital,  5  dispensaries, 
i  printing  plant  with  23  boys,  4  work  rooms  with  660 
girls,  15,186  instructions  given  to  the  pagans. 

Shan-tung,  Northern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Scian-si  Septentrionalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 752d), 
in  China,  comprises  the  northwestern  part  of  the 
Province  of  Shan-tung,  including  the  cities  of  Tsi-nan- 
fu,  Tung-chang-fu,  Wu-ting  fu,  Tai-au-fu,  and  Ling- 
tsing-chou.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Franciscans. 
Rt.  Rev.  Adalbertus  Schmticker,  O.  F.  M.,  titular 
Bishop  of  Elearchia,  b.  at  Olsberg,  6  September, 
1878,  was  appointed  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Northern 
Shan-tung,  29  June,  1921.  He  resides  at  Tsi-nan- 
fu.  The  population  of  the  vicariate  is  estimated 
between  13,000,000  and  14,000,000.  There  are  in 
the  vicariate  (1921):  43  central  stations  with  resident 
missionaries,  732  sub-stations,  1900  smaller  stations, 
442  churches  and  chapels  (besides  some  400  oratories 
owned  by  Chinese  families),  2  clerical  seminaries 
with  54  students,  2  normal  schools  with  40  female 
and  22  male  students,  179  religious  schools  with  1327 
male  and  1913  female  pupils,  36  elementary  schools 
with  487  boys  and  147  girls,  2  dispensaries  in  which 
13,256  cases  have  been  treated,  2  homes  for  the 
aged  with  59  male  and  48  female  inmates,  1  orphan¬ 
age  with  49  boys,  5  orphanages  for  girls  with  364' 
inmates,  besides  671  orphans  placed  in  Christian 
homes,  1  printing  plant.  The  missionary  activity 
has  been  greatly  hampered  on  account  of  the  famine 
which  obliged  many  Christians  to  migrate,  and  the 
help  of  the  missionaries  was  requisitioned  for  the 
distribution  of  the  relief  funds. 

Sheehan,  Patrick  Augustine,  novelist,  b.  in 
Mallow,  Ireland,  in  March,  1852;  d.  at  Doneraile, 
County  Cork  on  5  December,  1913;  son  of  Patrick 
and  Joanna  (Regan)  Sheehan.  He  received  his  classi¬ 
cal  education  in  St.  Colman’s,  Fermoy,  and  entered 
Mavnooth  College  in  1869;  despite  his  delicate  consti¬ 
tution  he  completed  his  theological  studies  with  hon¬ 
ors,  while  still  a  year  below  the  age  for  the  priesthood, 
which  he  received  at  Cork  in  1875.  He  was  sent  to 
England  to  begin  his  pastoral  career  and  after  serving 
at  Plymouth  and  Exeter  was  recalled  in  1877  and  ap¬ 
pointed  curate  at  Mallow,  where  he  spent  four  years, 
and  later  at  Queenstown.  On  4  July,  1895,  he  was 
made  parish  priest  of  Doneraile,  and  in  1905  was  made 
a  canon  of  the  cathedral.  As  early  as  1881  Fr.  Sheehan 
had  begun  writing  in  the  “Irish  Ecclesiastical  Review” 
and  other  periodicals;  he  was  encouraged  by  Father 
Matthew  Russell,  S.J.,  then  editor  of  “The  Irish 
Monthly”  the  literary  mentor  of  so  many  of  the  Irish 
writers.  His  first  novel,  “Geoffrey  Austin,  Student,” 
which  appeared  in  1895,  depicted  student  life  in  Dub¬ 
lin  and  was  well  received.  It  was  followed  by  “The 
Triumph  of  Failure”;  “Luke  Delmege”  and  “My 
New  Curate”,  which  attained  great  popularity. 
This  was  due  in  part,  aside  from  the  literary  merit, 
to  the  fact  that  the  reader  was  introduced  into  an 
unknown  but  real  world,  the  genuine  life  of  the 
average  Irish  priest,  with  its  joys,  its  troubles,  its 
difficulties  and  consolations.  Canon  Sheehan  drew 
largely  on  the  life  around  him  for  his  characters;  in 
his  writings  he  reveals  his  ideals  and  aims  as  a  pastor 
of  souls;  there  is  a  vast  vista  behind  the  action  in  his 
fiction  that  leads  the  reader  to  thoughts  of  higher 
livings.  His  novels  were  written  mainly  as  a  recrea¬ 
tion,  a  rest  from  his  pastoral  work,  which  was  always 


his  chief  concern.  Of  his  later  works,  “The  Blindness 
of  Dr.  Gray”  and  “The  Queen’s  Fillet”  were  the  most 
successful.  “Under  the  Cedars  and  the  Stars”  and 
“Parerga”  are  collections  of  literary  and  philosophical 
notes  and  observations.  In  addition  to  the  works 
mentioned  above  Canon  Sheehan  wrote  “Glenanaar”, 
“Lisheen”,  “Miriam  Lucas”,  “The  Intellectuals”,  and 
a  volume  of  poems,  “Cithara  Mea”.  “Mariae 
Corona”  is  a  volume  of  sermons  in  honor  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  and  “The  Graves  at  Kilmorna”,  published 
posthumusly,  is  a  novel  of  the  Fenian  rising  in  ’67. 

Heuser,  Canon  Sheehan  of  Doneraile  (London,  1918). 

Shen-si,  Central,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Scen-si  Centralis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XVI — 84d),  in 
China,  separted  from  Northern  Shen-si  and  erected 
into  a  separated  vicariate  12  April,  1911.  It  is  en¬ 
trusted  to  the  Friars  Minor.  Rt.  Rev.  Eugenio 
Massi,  O.F.M.,  titular  Bishop  of  Jaffa,  b.  in  the  Dio¬ 
cese  of  Ripatransone,  13  August,  1875,  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Central  Shen-si,  7  July, 
1916.  He  resides  at  Sian-fu.  There  are  in  the 
vicariate  (1921):  208  churches,  54  chapels,  11  Euro¬ 
pean  and  32  native  priests,  38,198  Catholics,  46,559 
catechumens,  2040  baptisms  of  adults,  1092  confirma¬ 
tions,  35  seminarians  in  the  upper  seminary  and  45 
in  the  lower  seminary,  112  schools  with  4220  pupils, 
4  homes,  2  asylums,  1  orphanage  of  the  Holy  Child¬ 
hood  with  20  boys.  Institutions  in  charge  of  the 
Franciscan  Missionaries  of  Mary  are:  1  orphanage, 
6  pharmacies,  3  hospitals  (2  for  women,  1  for  men), 
3  schools  with  335  pupils,  4  boarding  schools  with 
600  pupils  (girls),  and  3  laboratories. 

Shen-si,  Northern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Scen  si  Septentrionalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 755d), 
in  China.  On  12  April,  1911,  the  Vicariate  of  North 
era  Shen-si  was  divided  into  two  vicariates,  Northern 
and  Central  Shen-si,  and  both  entrusted  to  the  Friars 
Minor.  Northern  Shen-si  has  a  population  of  3,000,000 
pagans,  2257  Catholics,  and  4109  catechumens.  Rt. 
Rev.  Celestin  Ibanez  y  Aparicio,  O.  F.  M.,  titular 
Bishop  of  Bagis,  b.  at  Becerril  de  Campos,  Diocese 
of  Palencia,  19  May,  1873,  was  appointed  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  Northern  Shen-si,  10  September,  1911. 
He  resides  at  Yen-an-fu.  Statistics  for  1921  credit 
the  vicariate  with  5  rural  districts,  11  missions,  11 
principal  residences,  13  churches,  14  chapels,  92 
secular  Tertiaries,  10  Franciscan  priests,  1  upper 
seminary  with  14  seminarians,  1  college  for  boys  with 
30  students,  23  primary  schools  for  boys  with  266 
pupils,  8  primary  schools  for  girls  with  76  pupils, 
2  orphanages  for  girls. 

Shen-si,  Southern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Scen-si  Meridionalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 756a),  in 
China.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Foreign  Missions  of 
Sts.  Peter  and  Paul  of  Rome.  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio 
Maria  Capettini,  titular  Bishop  of  Evaria,  b.  in  the 
Diocese  of  Vigevano,  11  January,  1877,  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Southern  Shen-si,  8  Sep¬ 
tember,  1919.  He  resides  at  Han-chung-fu.  The 
population  of  the  vicariate  is  6,000,000,  of  whom 
16,900  are  Catholics,  all  Chinese.  There  are  (1921 
census):  55  parishes,  55  churches,  100  missions,  85 
stations,  22  secular  clergy,  17  European  and  25 
Chinese  Sisters,  2  seminaries  with  40  seminarians,  4 
colleges  for  boys  with  8  teachers  and  110  pupils,  4 
colleges  for  girls  with  8  teachers  and  200  pupils,  40 
elementary  schools  with  40  teachers  and  1200  stu¬ 
dents,  1  industrial  school  with  2  teachers  and  30 
pupils,  5  orphanages,  1  leper  hospital,  4  hospices  for 
the  aged,  5  homes,  4  asylums,  2  hospitals,  5  refuges, 
2  day  nurseries.  None  of  the  institutions  are  aided 
by  the  Government.  Several  pious  associations 
proved  by  the  church  are  organized  among  the  chM 
and  laity.  Among  the  recently  deceased  of  nol4 


SHERBROOKE 


690 


SHIPMAN 


Mgr.  Pie  Joseph  Passerini,  former  vicar  apostolic,  a 
zealous  worker  for  the  faith,  founder  of  the  cathedral, 
an  orphanage,  schools,  and  a  hospital,  d.  16  April, 
1918;  Fr.  01  into  Tomada,  a  zealous  missionary,  d. 
25  Jan.,  1917;  Mother  Seraphine  Battajola,  a  religious 
of  Canosa,  d.  17  April,  1919,  from  an  infection  con¬ 
tracted  while  caring  for  the  wounded.  Of  recent  years 
the  vicariate  has  suffered  from  military  anarchy  and 
war,  invasion  of  soldiers,  sieges,  pillage,  flood,  and 
famine.  Nevertheless,  the  progress  of  religion  and  its 
moral  influence  among  the  highest  classes,  civilian  and 
military,  is  evident.  The  vicar  apostolic,  Rt.  Rev. 
Capettini,  was  decorated  2  March,  1920,  with  the 
Star  of  the  Tiger  by  the  President  of  the  Republic,  in 
recognition  for  his  devotion  to  the  wounded  and 
refugees  for  two  years. 

Sherbrooke,  Diocese  of  (Sherbrookiensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII  756d),  suffragan  of  Montreal.  The 
present  administrator  of  the  diocese  is  the  Rt.  Rev. 
Paul  S.  La  Rocque,  who  celebrated  the  fiftieth  anni¬ 
versary  of  his  ordination  and  the  twenty-fifth  of  his 
consecration  in  May  1919.  A  new  community  of  Sisters 
known  as  the  Missionairesde  la  Chine,  have  establish¬ 
ed  a  house  at  Sherbrooke.  A  new  cathedral  is  in 
course  of  construction  and  the  episcopal  residence  has 
lately  been  completed.  The  death  in  1918  of  the  Rev. 
J.  C.  Choquettewas  a  severe  loss  to  the  diocese.  He 
was  a  scientist  of  note,  an  indefatigable  worker  in  the 
cause  of  temperance  and  a  leader  of  men.  According 
to  the  statistics  of  1922  the  Catholic  population 
numbers  100,000.  The  diocese  contains  87  parishes, 
5  missions,  145  secular  priests,  21  regulars,  560 
Sisters,  and  30  seminarians  wflo  are  being  educated 
in  seminaries  in  other  dioceses.  The  Benedictines, 
Franciscans  and  Redemptorists  have  monasteries  in 
the  diocese.  About  20,000  pupils  attend  the  schools 
which  have  been  established  in  every  parish.  A 
weekly  review  called  “Le  Messager”  is  printed  at  the 
cathedral. 

Shields,  Thomas  Edward,  educationist;  born  at 
Mendota,  Minnesota,  on  9  May,  1862;  died  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  on  15  February,  1921.  Though 
as  a  young  child  he  was  rather  bright,  about  the  age 
of  ten  he  became  backward  and  his  youth  was  en 
shrouded  by  a  dullness  that  arose  from  alternating 
phases  of  physical  and  mental  development.  He 
seemed  a  hopeless  dullard,  but  in  his  nineteenth  year 
his  normal  capacities  began  to  assert  themselves /and 
in  1882  he  entered  St.  Francis  College  at  Milwaukee, 
where  he  remained  three  years.  In  1885  he  entered 
the  Seminary  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas  at  St.  Paul, 
Minnesota.  He  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood  on 
14  March,  1891,  after  which  he  spent  fourteen  months 
as  curate  at  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Paul.  In  1892  he 
enrolled  at  St.  Mary’s  Seminary  at  Baltimore,  whence 
he  graduated  as  Master  of  Arts.  In  October  of  the 
same  year,  entered  Johns  Hopkins  University,  special¬ 
izing  in  biology  and  physiology.  He  won  his  doctorate 
of  philosophy  there  with  his  thesis  entitled,  "Effect 
of  Odors  and  Mental  Work  on  the  Blood  Flow,"  in 
preparing  for  which  he  discovered  an  ingenious  im¬ 
provement  of  the  plethy sinograph.  On  receiving  his 
degree  in  June,  1895,  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair 
of  natural  sciences  at  St.  Paul  Seminary.  In  1898  he 
was  assigned  to  pastoral  work  at  St.  Joseph’s  Church 
in  St.  Paul,  where  he  seems  to  have  remained  until 
1902,  when  he  became  instructor  of  physiological 
psychology  at  the  Catholic  University,  becoming 
associate  professor  of  this  science  in  1905,  and  pro¬ 
fessor  of  psychology  and  education  in  1909.  He 
^)ined  the  staff  of  Trinity  College  in  1904,  and 
kcanized  there  the  department  of  education.  In 
received  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D.  from 
•'./  kit  tan  College.  He  founded  the  summer  school 


for  Catholic  Sisters  at  the  Catholic  University  in 
1911,  and  was  named  its  first  dean,  holding  that 
post  until  his  death.  The  immediate  outcome  of  this 
foundation  was  the  establishment  of  the  Sister’s 
College,  in  October,  1911,  for  the  professional  training 
of  members  of  the  educating  sisterhoods.  He  engaged 
actively  in  affiliating  of  Catholic  schools  and  colleges 
with  the  Catholic  University,  and  instituted  a  corre¬ 
spondence  school  in  education  for  the  private  in¬ 
struction  and  study  of  Catholic  sisterhoods.  He 
inaugurated  a  movement  to  restore  music  to  the 
people,  considering  it  a  basic  element  in  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  intellect  and  the  formation  of  character,  and 
he  developed  complete  system  of  musical  instruction — 
vocal  and  instrumental.  In  1920,  he  undertook,  with 
Mrs.  Justine  Ward,  the  construction  of  a  building  to  be 
devoted  to  the  school  of  music  of  the  Sisters’  College. 

Dr.  Shields  founded  "The  Catholic  Educational 
Review,"  and  "The  Catholic  Education  Press,"  in 
1911.  He  contributed  the  "Notes  on  Education" 
in  "The  Catholic  University  Bulletin,”  from  1907  to 
1910.  In  addition  he  is  the  author  of  “The  Index 
Omnium"  (1887);  "The  Making  and  Unmaking  of 
a  Dullard"  (1908);  "The  Education  of  Our  Girls" 
(1907);  "The  Teacher’s  Manual  of  Primary  Methods" 
(1912);  "The  Psychology  of  Education"  (1908);  and 
several  treatises  on  Religion  and  Reading.  He  con¬ 
tributed  to  "The  Dolphin,"  "The  Catholic  World." 
"The  School  Review,"  and  “The  Catholic  University 
Bulletin,"  and  wrote  a  few  articles  for  "The  Catholic 
Encyclopedia." 

The  Catholic  Educational  Review,  (Washington,  1921),  193-302. 

Shi-koku  (Sikok),  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
(cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 758b),  comprises  the  Island  of 
Shi-koku,  the  smallest  of  the  four  islands  of  Japan. 
The  population,  according  to  1920  statistics,  is 
3,046,625.  The  prefecture  is  entrusted  to'  the 
Dominicans  formerly  in  the  Philippines.  Rt.  Rev. 
Joseph  Marie  Alvarez,  O.P.,  b.  at  Burgos  16  March, 
1871,  professed  8  September,  1886,  ordained  6  April, 
1895,  was  appointed  first  Prefect  Apostolic  of  Shi¬ 
koku,  2  October,  1904,  with  residence  at  Tokushima. 
There  are  in  the  vicariate:  541  Catholics,  3  churches, 
5  missions,  11  stations,  8  regular  priests,  4  Brothers,  1 
seminary  with  4  seminarians,  1  elementary  school  with 
69  students,  1  orphanage  with  17  inmates,  1  ma¬ 
ternity  school.  In  1918  four  high  schools  were  op¬ 
ened,  one  in  each  civil  prefecture:  that  in  Tokushima 
is  an  industrial  school,  and  that  in  Takamatsu  is  a 
commercial  school.  A  housekeeping  school,  to  be  con¬ 
ducted  by  Dominican  Sisters,  is  under  construction 
at  Matsuyama.  The  Confraternity  of  the  Holy 
Rosary  is  established  at  Kochi. 

Shipman,  Andrew  Jackson,  lawyer  and  Sla¬ 
vonic  scholar,  b.  in  Springvale,  Fairfax  County, 
Virginia,  on  15  October,  1857;  d.  at  New  York  on 
17  October,  1915;  son  of  John  James  and  Priscilla 
(Carroll)  Shipman.  His  mother  was  a  lineal  de¬ 
scended  of  Thomas  Carroll,  who  settled  in  Mary¬ 
land  in  1725,  while  the  Shipmans  came  from  England 
about  a  quarter  of  a  century  earlier.  He  studied  at 
Georgetown,  where  he  entered  the  Catholic  Church, 
and  after  graduating  became  the  editor  of  a  local 
paper,  the  “Vienna  Times,"  and  subsequently  assis¬ 
tant  manager  of  a  coal-mining  company  in  Hock¬ 
ing  Valley,  Ohio.  There  he  acquired  his  first  knowl¬ 
edge  of  several  Slavonic  languages  from  the  foreign- 
born  miners,  whose  lay  apostle  he  beeame.  They 
had  arrived  in  the  United  States  only  to  find  a  com¬ 
plete  absence  of  priests  speaking  their  tongues  or 
using  their  local  rite;  Shipman  saw  the  danger  in 
which  they  were  and  taking  the  matter  up  with  the 
hierarchy  had  their  needs  attended  to.  In  1884  he 
entered  the  United  States  customs  service  at  New 


SIIIRE 


691 


SIAM 


York,  and  two  years  later  graduated  in  law  from  the 
University  of  the  City  of  New  York  and  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  bar,  of  which  he  became  one  of  the 
mofct  distinguished  members.  He  was  probably  the 
greatest  lay  authority  in  America  on  the  laws  of 
the  Catholic,  Episcopal,  and  Orthodox  Russian 
Churches.  He  took  an  important  part  in  the  New 
York  Constitutional  Convention  of  1915.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  University 
of  the  State  of  New  York,  and  an  active  worker  in 
all  the  chief  Catholic  organizations  and  charitable 
associations  in  New  York.  Apart  from  the  law, 
his  chosen  work  was  for  the  peoples  of  Eastern 
Europe,  among  whom  he  was  wont  to  pass  his  annual 
vacations.  He  interested  himself  in  the  Slavic,  Hun¬ 
garian  and  Italian  immigrants,  he  lectured  and  wrote 
about  Russia,  Poland,  Ruthenia  and  the  Greek  Rites, 
and  on  the  occasion  of  the  dedication  of  St.  George’s 
Ruthenian  Greek  Catholic  Church  in  New  York, 
October,  1911,  he  published  “The  Holy  Mass  Accord¬ 
ing  to  the  Greek  Rite,”  in  Slavic  with  his  own  trans¬ 
lation  in  English.  He  was  advisor  to  Mgr.  Soter  S. 
Ortynskv,  the  first  Catholic  bishop  of  Greek  Rite  in 
the  United  States,  and  acted  as  a  counsellor  of  the 
Syrian  Catholics.  His  zeal  is  instanced  in  his  expo¬ 
sure  in  “America”  in  1910  of  the  attempt  of  the 
Presbyterians  at  Newark  in  New  Jersey,  New  York, 
and  other  centres  to  proselytize  the  newly-arrived 
Slavic  Catholics  by  the  fraudulent  use  of  the  Greek 
Rite  Liturgy  and  ceremonial,  a  Presbyterian  “Mass.” 
His  funeral  services  were  held  in  St.  Patrick’s  Cathe¬ 
dral,  New  York.  After  the  solemn  requiem  Mass, 
a  burial  service  was  conducted  according  to  the 
Greek  Rite  by  Bishop  Ortynsky,  attended  by  Greek, 
Ruthenian  and  Maronite  priests.  Members  of  the 
Ukranian  choir  chanted  the  music  of  the  service. 
This  was  the  first  time  a  burial  service  according  to 
this  rite  was  held  in  a  church  of  the  Latin  Rite  in 
the  United  States.  Shipman  was  one  of  the  chief 
promoters  of  the  publication  of  the  Catholic  Ency¬ 
clopedia,  to  which  he  contributed  numerous  articles. 

Pallen,  A  Memorial  of  Andrew  J .  Shipman;  His  Life  and  Writ¬ 
ings  (New  York,  1916). 

Shire,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Shirensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII — 759a),  in  Nyasaland  Protectorate, 
Africa.  In  the  beginning  of  1915  an  insurrection 
fomented  by  a  negro,  John  Chilembroe,  the  head  of  a 
Protestant  mission,  broke  out  in  Nyasaland,  and 
several  Europeans  were  massacred.  The  principal 
Catholic  mission,  St.  Joseph  du  Nguludi,  seat  of  the 
Vicar  Apostolic,  was  attacked  at  night  by  the  in¬ 
surgents.  Most  of  the  missionaries  were  able  to  save 
themselves,  but  one  of  them  was  severely  wounded 
and  left  for  dead,  and  his  recovery  was  almost 
miraculous.  Six  large  buildings  of  the  mission  were 
reduced  to  ashes,  the  losses  amounting  to  more  than 
100,000  francs.  The  government  of  the  Protectorate 
of  Nyasaland  (English)  indemnified  the  mission  to  the 
extent  of  £800.  Since  then  the  Mission  of  Nguludi  has 
been  rebuilt  but  the  effects  of  the  insurrection  are 
still  being  felt.  When  the  war  broke  out  in  1914  one 
Father  and  one  Brother  who  were  in  France  at  the 
time  were  mobilized  and  remained  in  the  French  army 
throughout  the  war.  Father  M .  Ryo  was  several  times 
cited  in  orders  of  the  day  and  received  the  Croix  de 
Ouerre.  The  French  Government  excused  the  other 
missionaries  from  military  duty.  They  offered  their 
services  to  the  English.  Nine  priests  and  four  sisters 
during  several  years  worked  in  the  sanitary  division 
of  the  English  army  and  in  the  ambulance  service  and 
hospitals.  All  of  them  were  remarkable  for  their 
devotion,  their  endurance  and  their  self-sacrifice. 
One  priest  and  one  Sister  died  in  the  service.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  statistics  of  1922  the  vicariate  apostolic 
contains  2  churches,  23  chapels,  9  principal  stations, 


17  succursal  stations,  9  houses  of  the  missionary 
Fathers,  4  convents  of  the  Daughters  of  Wisdom  with 
12  sisters,  24  regular  priests,  3  lay  brothers,  1  seminary 
with  7  seminarians.  The  educational  institutions 
are:  1  boarding  school  for  girls,  2  teachers,  25  pupils, 
2  training  schools,  2  teachers,  30  pupils,  296  element¬ 
ary  schools,  200  teachers,  17,530  pupils.  The  ele¬ 
mentary  schools  receive  an  annual  allowance  of 
£130  from  the  government.  Two  orphanages,  3 
hospitals  and  six  dispensaries  for  the  natives  exist  in  the 
diocese.  A  catechism,  prayer  book,  Bible  history, 
hymn  book  and  2  grammars  have  been  printed  in 
Cinyanja,  the  language  of  the  natives.  In  1922  there 
were  8000  native  Catholics,  5130  catechumens,  50 
European  and  30  Goanese  Christians. 

Shorter,  Dora  Sigerson,  poetess,  b.  in  Dublin; 
d.  on  6  January,  1918.  Miss  Sigerson,  who  became 
later  Mrs.  Clement  Shorter,  published  her  “Verses” 
in  1894.  Her  other  works  are  “The  Fairy  Change¬ 
ling,”  “The  Lady’s  Slipper,”  “Ballads  and  Poems,” 
“The  Father  Confessor,”  “The  Woman  Who  Went 
to  Hell,”  “The  Song  of  Earl  Roderick”  and  “Collected 
Poems.”  All  her  writings  are  said  to  be  raoy  of  the 
soil  on  which  she  was  born,  absolutely  original  and 
no  mere  imitative  culture  product. 

Shrewsbury,  Diocese  of  (Salopiensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIII — 759c),  in  England,  suffragan  of  Bir¬ 
mingham.  According  to  the  census  of  1921  there 
were  867,960  inhabitants  in  the  diocese,  of  whom 
67,591  were  Catholics  of  English  and  Irish  extraction. 
On  8  July,  1914,  took  place  the  opening  of  St.  Ed¬ 
mund’s  Orphanage  and  Certified  Poor  Law  School, 
named  in  honor  of  Bishop  Edmund  Knight,  second 
bishop  of  the  diocese.  In  August,  1920,  the  Faithful 
Companions  of  Jesus  celebrated  the  centenary  of 
their  foundation  at  Upton  Hall.  Cardinals  Bourne 
and  Gasquet,  many  archbishops  and  bishops  and 
heads  of  religious  orders  were  present  at  the  celebra¬ 
tion.  During  the  war  9  secular  priests  went  to  the 
front  as  chaplains,  of  whom  1  was  killed.  Numerous 
war  memorials  were  erected  in  churches  throughout 
the  diocese.  The  diocese  contains  46  parishes,  58 
churches,  6  missions,  3  stations,  22  convents  for 
women,  86  secular  priests,  12  regulars.  The  educa¬ 
tional  institutions  are:  12  high  schools  with  1305 
pupils,  42  elementary  schools  with  11,678  pupils,  1 
industrial  school  with  50  inmates.  Of  these  40  ele¬ 
mentary  schools,  1  industrial  school  and  1  orphanage 
are  supported  by  the  Government.  There  is  one 
house  of  retreats  in  the  diocese.  The  following  char¬ 
itable  institutions  exist  in  the  diocese:  2  homes,  1 
orphanage  and  poor  law  school,  1  infant  welfare 
centre.  All  the  institutions  admit  the  ministry  oe 
priests.  Organizations  among  the  clergy  are:  Shrewsf 
bury  Secular  Clergy  Fund,  Diocesan  Conferences- 
Among  the  laity:  Catholic  Young  Men’s  Society. 
Catholic  Women’s  League,  Society  of  St.  Vincent  d, 
Paul,  Catholic  Needlework  Guild  and  the  Rescue 
Society. 

Siam,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Siamensis;  of. 
C.  E.,  XIII — 765),  Asia,  is  governed  by  Mgr.  Ren6- 
Marie- Joseph  Perros,  b.  at  Guewenheim  in  Alsace,  12 
March,  1870,  entered  the  Seminary  of  the  Paris 
Foreign  Missions  in  1888,  ordained  on  15  October, 
1893,  and  sent  to  Siam  in  December  following,  ap¬ 
pointed  titular  Bishop  of  Zoara  and  Vicar  Apostolic 
on  17  September,  1909,  being  consecrated  at  Bangkok 
on  30  January,  1910.  The  diocesan  statistics  for  1921 
record  a  native  population  of  5,200,000  (Siamese, 
Annamites,  Chinese),  with  26,600  Catholics;  20  mis¬ 
sions;  60  churches  and  chapels;  25  Brothers  of  St. 
Gabriel;  51  Sisters  of  St.  Paul  of  Chartes,  Europeans; 
96  native  Sisters,  Lovers  of  the  Cross;  1  seminary 


SIBERIA 


G92 


SIENKIEWICZ 


with  09  seminarians;  3  boys’  colleges,  51  teachers, 
2000  students;  3  girls’  colleges,  40  teachers,  820  stu¬ 
dents;  1  normal  school,  3  professors,  28  students;  78 
elementary  schools,  110  teachers,  3901  pupils;  inci¬ 
dentally  it  may  be  stated  that  it  was  the  French  mis¬ 
sionaries  in  Siam  who  initiated  the  education  of  the 
native  boys  and  girls;  5  houses  for  the  aged;  2  hos¬ 
pitals;  2  infant  asylums.  There  is  an  association  of 
the  past  pupils  of  the  Assumption  College.  The 
mission  has  a  printing  press  for  publishing  religious 
books  and  its  two  Catholic  reviews,  “Echo  de  Y 
Assomption,”  a  quarterly  in  English,  French,  and 
Siamese;  and  “Sarasat  Christang,”  a  Siamese  month¬ 
ly.  As  the  missionaries  in  the  vicariate  are  French 
religious  activities  were  curtailed  during  the  war, 
the  Vicar  Apostolic,  13  priests  and  9  Brothers  having 
been  called  to  the  colors;  2  priests  and  1  Brother  lost 
their  lives;  a  priest  and  a  Brother  won  the  croix  de 
guerre  and  several  of  their  brethren  were  cited  in  the 
orders  of  the  day. 

Launay,  Histoire  de  la  Mission  de  Siam,  1662-1811  (3  vols. 

Paris,  1920). 


Siberia  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIII — 767c),  formerly  a  part  of 
the  Russian  Empire,  has  an  area  of  4,831,882  square 
miles,  divided  a£  follows: 


Province 

Area 

Population  (1915) 

Amur 

154,795 

261,500 

Kamchatka 

502,424 

41,400 

Irkutsk 

280,429 

821,800 

Primorskaya 

206,486 

631,600 

Sakhalin 

14,668 

34 ,000 

Tobolsk 

535,739 

2,085,700 

Tomsk 

327,173 

4,053,700 

Transbaikal 

238,308 

971,700 

Y  akutsk 

1,530,253 

332,600 

Y  eniseisk 

981,607 

1,143,900 

The  Soviet  government  of  Russia  controls  Siberia, 
as  far  east  as  Lake  Baikal .  The  chief  towns  with  their 
respective  populations  in  1913  are  Irkutsk  129,700, 
Tomsk  116,664;  Vladivostok  91,464;  Krasnoyarsk 
87,500;  Chita  79,200;  Blagoveshchensk  62,500; 
Novo-Nikolaevsk  62,967;  Barnaul  61,330;  Khabarovsk 
51,300. 

History. — Siberia  formed  a  part  of  the  Russian 
Empire  until  the  Russian  revolution  of  1917,  when 
chaos  prevailed  throughout  the  land.  In  1919, 
Admilar  Kolchak,  whose  remarkable  military  suc¬ 
cesses  seemed  to  promise  a  unified  Siberia  under  a 
stable  government,  established  at  Omsk  the  so- 
called  All-Russia  government.  Upon  the  appearance 
of  this  government,  the  Allies  and  Associated 
Powers,  inclined  to  consider  it  as  a  unifying  force  in 
Siberia,  sent  help  to  Kolchak.  His  administration 
however,  succumbed  to  the  Reds,  who  overran 
Siberia,  captured  Omsk  in  November  and  forced 
Kolchak  to  flee  to  Irkutsk  on  Lake  Baikal,  where  he 
set  up  a  new  government.  The  United  States  govern¬ 
ment  realized  by  this  time  the  futility  of  trying  to 
aid  Siberia  and  withdrew  her  troops  in  March,  1920. 
The  American  evacuation  was  followed  by  the  with¬ 
drawal  of  Japanese  troops  from  Transbaikal  and  Amur 
Provinces.  In  June,  1920,  Japan  had  completed  the 
evacuation  of  these  provinces  and  concentrated 
her  troops  some  20,000  in  number,  within  a  radius  of 
150  miles  from  Vladivostok.  The  fall  of  Kolchak 
was  followed  by  a  period  of  chaos.  The  three  pro¬ 
vinces  of  Eastern  Siberia  were  divided  into  three 
governments:  a  government  was  set  up  at  Verkneu- 
dinsk  for  the  Transbaikal  province;  another  at 
Blagovestchensk  for  the  Amur  Province  and  still 
another  at  Vladivostok  for  the  Maritime  Provinces, 
all  dominated  by  Reds  of  the  most  radical  type. 
In  1920  respresentatives  from  the  three  governments 
met  and  in  September  declared  the  union  of  the  three 
states  in  the  Far  Eastern  Republic  of  Siberia  with  its 
seat  at  Chita  in  Transbaikal  Province.  In  January, 
1921  the  Provincial  government  held  an  election 


in  order  to  organize  a  Constituent  Assembly,  which 
sat  in  Chita  and  adopted  a  constitution.  On  May, 
1921,  the  Maritime  Province,  266,000  square  miles 
in  area,  defected  from  the  republic  and  is  controlled 
at  present  by  a  secessionist  government  set  up  in 
Vladivostok  by  a  Moderate  Social  Democrat,  S.  D. 
Merkulov.  A  massacre  of  700  Japanese,  including 
the  Japanese  consul  at  Nikolaevsk  in  March,  1920, 
caused  the  Japanese  government  to  insist  that  the 
Chita  government  should  shoulder  the  responsibili¬ 
ty  for  that  incident  and  agree  upon  a  plan  for  settle¬ 
ment  before  she  removed  her  troops  from  Sakjali, 
which  occupation  was  undertaken  as  a  result  of  the 
massacre.  The  Siberian  “misadventure”  has  already 
cost  Japan  about  $400,000,000.  With  the  presence 
of  Japanese  troops  in  the  Vladivostok  region,  the 
Far  Eastern  Republic  is  powerless  to  overthrow  the 
Merkulov  government  at  Vladivostok,  and  thus 
gain  control  of  the  Maritime  province  which  is 
Siberia’s  outlet  to  the  sea.  Another  difficulty  en¬ 
countered  by  the  Far  Eastern  Republic  is  the  in¬ 
creasing  control  by  the  Chinese  authorities  of  the 
Russian  line  called  the  Chinese  Eastern  Railway, 
linking  Chita  with  Vladivostok.  Since  1917,  this 
railway  has  gradually  passed  into  Chinese  control. 
There  is  a  possibility  that  the  Chita  government 
will  finally  merge  with  the  Soviet  government  of 
Russia. 

According  to'  the  constitution  of  the  Far  Eastern 
Republic,  there  is  no  functionary  corresponding 
exactly  to  president  in  other  republics.  The  Cabinet 
consists  of  Secretaries,  for  Foreign  Affairs,  Agricul¬ 
ture,  Finance,  Home  Affairs,  Communications, 
Education  and  Labor.  Elected  by  the  National 
Assembly,  these  eight  Secretaries  in  turn  elect  from 
among  themselves  a  chairman  who  presides  at  the 
Council  of  Secretaries  and  who  is  commonly  referred 
to  as  President  of  the  Far  Eastern  Republic  (in 
foreign  countries). 

Sidgreaves,  W  alter  ,  astronomer ,  b .  at  Grimsbargh , 
Preston,  England,  on  4  October,  1837;  d.  at  Stony- 
hurst  College,  12  June,  1919.  Entering  the  Society 
of  Jesus  in  his  eighteenth  year,  he  was  ordained  in 
1871.  He  taught  at  Beaumont  College  and  the 
English  College  in  Malta,  but  he  is  more  closely 
associated  with  Stony  hurst,  especially  with  its 
observatory,  all  the  instrumental  equipment  of  which 
was  erected  and  adjusted  by  him.  He  was  a  pioneer 
in  the  study  of  terrestrial  magnetism,  having  begun 
his  observations  in  1863;  and  as  a  result  his  observa¬ 
tory  was  one  of  the  seven  official  meteorological 
stations  in  the  British  Isles.  He  assisted  Fr.  Perry, 
S.  J.,  in  his  magnetic  survey  of  France  and  in  observ¬ 
ing  the  transit  of  Venus  in  Kergueland  Island  (1874) 
and  Madagascar  (1882)  on  behalf  of  the  British 
Government.  Father  Sidgreaves,  who  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  in  1891, 
and  for  years  was  a  member  of  its  Council,  specialized 
in  stellar  spectroscopy,  and  his  remarkable  photos  of 
the  spectra,  especially  of  the  Novae  in  1892  and  1901 
won  for  him  a  gold  medal  at  the  St.  Louis  Exposition 
in  1904,  and  a  grand  prix  at  the  Franco-British  Ex¬ 
position  in  1908. 

Sienkiewicz,  Henryk,  novelist,  b.  on  4  May,  1846, 
at  Vola,  Okrzeyska,  Siedlce,  Poland;  d.  on  14  Novem¬ 
ber,  1916.  He  made  his  studies  at  the  University  of 
Warsaw,  was  editor  of  the  newspaper  “Slovo”  in 
1869,  and  began  his  fiction  work  with  the  novel  “Na 
Marne”  (In  Vain)  in  1870.  In  1876  he  came  to  the 
United  States  and  remained  for  some  time  in  Cali¬ 
fornia  ,  and  he  travelled  also  in  Central  Af rica .  N early 
all  of  his  novels  have  been  translated  into  English  by 
Jeremiah  Curtin.  Besides  his  larger  books,  he  pub¬ 
lished  also  a  number  of  short  stories  which  were  fully 


SIGUENZA 


SION 


093 


up  to  the  level  of  his  other  library  products.  Nearly 
all  of  them  are  inspired  by  the  patriotic  motive  of 
sustaining  his  countrymen  in  their  national  sufferings 
and  are  said  to  have  a  deep  significance  for  his  Polish 
readers:  His  “Quo  Vadis”  is  the  first  one  that  made 
him  known  to  the  English-speaking  world.  That, 
“Pan  Michael,”  “With  Fire  and  Sword,”  and  “The 
Deluge”  are  rated  by  some  as  the  most  brilliant  of  his 
books.  They  have  been  frequently  dramatized  with 
great  success.  In  1905  he  received  the  Nobel  Prize 
of  Literature. 

Siguenza,  Diocese  of  (Seguntina;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 788).  in  Spain,  suffragan  of  Toledo,  has  an 
area  of  approximately  4188  square  miles  with  a 
population  of  155,000  practically  all  Catholics.  The 
statistics  for  1921  record  353  parishes  with  471 
churches,  384  secular  and  20  regular  piiests,  2 
Brothers,  2  religious  houses  for  men,  12  convents 
with  232  Sisters  (Franciscans,  Conceptionists,  Ber- 
nardines,  Ursulines,  Benedictines,  Little  Sisters  of 
the  Poor,  Sisteis  of  St.  Anne,  Sisters  of  Charity), 

1  home,  4  hospitals,  1  seminary  with  132  seminarians. 
The  present  incumbent  of  the  see,  Mgr.  Eustaquio 
Nieto  y  Martin,  was  born  at  Zamora  in  the  Diocese 
of  Madrid-Alcala,  on  12  March,  1866,  ordained  in 
1891,  appointed  crconomus  and  later  rector  of  the 
Concepcion  Church  in  Madrid,  named  bishop  of 
Siguenza  on  22  August,  1916,  and  consecrated  on  27 
December  following,  on  the  resignation  of  Mgr. 
Toribio  Minguella  y  Arnedo  (q.  v.). 

Simla,  Archdiocese  of  (Simlensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII— 796),  in  India,  established  in  1910,  is  still 
governed  by  the  Most  Rev.  A.  E.  J.  Kenealy  of  the 
English  Capuchins,  who  have  charge  of  the  mission. 
He  was  b.  in  Wales,  1864,  entered  the  Franciscans 
1879,  was  ordained  1887,  taught  philosophy  1888-89; 
first  rector  of  the  Franciscan  College,  Oxford;  general 
depositor  of  his  order  1908;  consecrated  1910.  The 
ecclesiastical  boundaries  are  on  the  North  Kashmir 
and  Kafristan,  on  the  South  Rajputana,  on  the 
East  Agra,  and  on  the  West  Lahore.  In  1921  the 
diocesan  statistics  record  the  total  population  as 
about  5  millions  (Hindus,  Mahommedans,  Punjabus, 
Ladakbus  and  a  variety  of  mountain  tribes) ,  Catholics 
numbering  2361;  7  parishes;  11  churches;  1  mission; 
20  stations;  12  Capuchin  and  3  secular  priests;  44 
nuns;  1  women’s  training  college,  5  teachers,  32  stu¬ 
dents;  3  girls’  high  schools,  40  teachers,  448  students; 

2  elementary  schools,  6  teachers,  100  pupils.  All 
these  schools  receive  a  grant-in-aid  from  the  Govern¬ 
ment.  There  are  sodalities  of  the  Children  of  Mary 
and  the  Franciscan  tertiaries,  and  a  Catholic  Club  at 
Simla.  Among  those  who  have  died  since  1912  may 
be  mentioned  Fr.  Denis,  O.S.F.C.  (10  Dec.,  1914), 
who  fled  from  Rome  when  it  was  captured  by  the 
Piedmontese  and  devoted  his  remaining  years  to  the 
missions;  Fr.  Amphian  Plunket  (10  Jan.,  1915),  born 
in  the  United  States,  who  was  a  Christian  Brother 
for  years  in  India,  and  was  later  ordained.  Among 
the  notable  events  have  been  the  establishment  of 
the  “Simla  Times,”  a  Catholic  weekly,  by  Archbishop 
Kenealy;  the  opening  of  a  missionary  colony  at 
Madonnapur  in  Sirsa;  and  the  golden  jubilee  of  St. 
Francis  High  School,  Simla.  Despite  the  small 
number  of  priests,  Simla  supplied  three  chaplains 
during  the  war.  Fr.  Stanislaus  O’Brien,  O.S.F.C., 
ranking  as  a  major,  saw  service  in  France  and  on  sea, 
was  awarded  several  medals,  and  died  after  his  return 
from  service  owing  to  the  hardships  he  had  endured 
for  nearly  seven  years. 

Simony  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV— la),  may  be  an  offence 
against  the  Divine  or  merely  against  ecclesiastical 
law.  The  former  is  deliberate  intention  of  buying  or 


selling  for  a  temporal  price  anything  intrinsically 
spiritual — e.g.,  the  sacraments  or  indulgences — or 
anything  temporal  annexed  to  something  spiritual 
in  such  a  way  that  the  temporal  cannot  exist  without 
the  spiritual — e.g.,  an  ecclesiastical  benefice — or  a 
spiritual  thing  which  is  even  partially  the  object  of  the 
contract — e.  g.,  the  consecration  in  the  sale  of  a  con¬ 
secrated  chalice;  the  latter  is  the  giving  or  exchanging 
of  a  temporal  thing  annexed  to  a  spiritual  for  a  similar 
thing,  or  a  spiritual  thing  for  another  spiritual  thing, 
or  even  a  temporal  thing  for  a  temporal  thing,  if  this 
is  forbidden  by  the  Church  on  account  of  the  danger 
of  irreverence  towards  something  spiritual  resulting 
therefrom.  Under  the  Code  in  speaking  of  simony 
the  words  buy,  sale,  exchange,  etc.,  are  use  in  a  wide 
sense,  so  as  to  include  any  agreement,  even  non- 
executed  or  tacit  in  which  the  simoniacal  intention 
can  be  deduced  from  the  circumstances,  even  if  it 
has  not  been  expressly  manifested.  There  is  no 
simony,  however,  when  an  offering  is  accepted  or 
asked  not  as  a  price  for,  but  on  the  occasion  of  spiritual 
ministrations,  for  the  support  of  religion  and  its 
ministers,  when  this  is  done  in  acordance  with  the 
sacred  canons  or  a  recognized  legitimate  custom — 
e.g.  offerings  for  Masses,  marriages,  baptism,  etc. 
But  as  the  Code  says  “in  the  administration  of  the 
sacraments  the  minister  must  not  for  any  cause  or 
on  any  occasion,  ask  for  or  exact  directly  or  indirectly, 
anything  beyond  the  offering  fixed  for  the  whole 
ecclesiastical  province  by  the  provincial  council  or 
at  a  meeting  of  the  bishops  of  the  province  with  the 
approval  of  the  Holy  See.”  If  a  priest,  therefore, 
should  demand  more  than  the  statutory  or  customary 
fee  he  would  be  guilty  of  at  least  disobedience  and 
injustice  and,  according  to  some,  even  of  simony. 

A  suspicion  of  heresy  is  incurred  by  anyone,  not 
excepting  a  bishop,  who  knowingly  administers  or 
receives  any  sacrament  simoniacally;  in  addition  a 
cleric,  but  not  a  bishop,  would  incur  suspension  re¬ 
served  to  the  Holy  See.  If  simony  is  committed  in 
the  conferring  of  any  ecclesiastical  office,  benefice,  or 
dignity,  it  renders  the  collation  null  and  void;  this 
is  the  case  if  the  beneficiary  was  not  aware  of  the 
simoniacal  act  of  the  collator  and  a  third  party,  unless 
the  simony  was  committed  against  the  positive  wish 
of  the  beneficiary  or  without  his  knowledge  but  with 
the  intent  to  defraud  him;  persons  guilty  of  this  form 
of  simony  incur  excommunication  simply  reserved  to 
the  Holy  See;  they  lose  ipso  facto  and  forever  what¬ 
ever  right  of  election,  presentation  or  nomination 
they  may  have  had,  and  if  they  are  clerics  they  are  to 
be  suspended.  It  is  expressly  laid  down  in  the  law 
that  any  deduction  from  the  revenue  or  compensa¬ 
tion  or  payment  to  be  made  to  the  collator,  patron  or 
other  person,  by  the  cleric  at  his  induction  is  simonia¬ 
cal.  Those  who  traffic  in  indulgences  incur  excom¬ 
munication  reserved  simply  to  the  pope.  The 
censure  formerly  affected  those  who  trafficked  in  other 
spiritual  favors  as  well;  those  who  trade  in  Mass 
stipends  are  to  be  punished  by  the  ordinary  if  neces¬ 
sary  by  suspension  or  privation  of  benefice  or  office, 
or  in  case  of  lay  persons  by  excommunication — 
formerly  the  penalty  was  excommunication  incurred 
ipso  facto. 

Sinn  Fein.  See  Ireland 

Sion,  Diocese  of  (Sedunensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 15,  364),  Switzerland,  dependent  directly  <pn 
the  Holy  See,  almost  co-terminous  with  Le  Valais. 
The  present  Bishop,  Mgr.  Victor  Bieler,  b.  at  Tcher- 
men-Brigue,  on  17  March,  1881,  was  ordained  on  7 
July,  1907,  and  after  acting  as  chancellor  and  pro¬ 
fessor  of  canon  law  was  appointed  on  26  May,  1919,  in 
succession  to  Mgr.  Abbet,  who  had  died  on  12  July, 
1918.  The  diocese  has  133  parishes,  of  which  2  are 


SIOUX  CITY 


694 


SOCIETY  or  JESUS 


in  Vaud;  in  addition  there  are  4  parishes  depending  on 
the  Abbot-Bishop  of  St.  Maurice.  There  are  150 
churches  and  chapels,  1  abbey  (St.  Maurice),  5 
religious  houses  for  men,  3  for  women;  208  secular 
and  116  regular  priests;  1  seminary  with  15  seminari¬ 
ans;  3  cantonal  colleges;  8  boys’  secondary  schools, 
3  girls’;  18  schools  of  domestic  science  (girls);  2  agri¬ 
cultural  schools;  3  cantonal  normal  schools;  in  1914 
there  were  in  Le  Valais  641  primary  schools  (448 
French,  193  German),  taught  by  642  teachers  (of 
whom  292  were  women);  9  infants’  schools,  3  homes 
for  the  old  and  poor  (Souste,  Sierre,  Sion);  1  inebri¬ 
ates’  home;  1  insane  asylum;  1  deaf-mute  institute; 
6  hospitals — these  are  private  but  are  organized  and 
directed  in  a  Catholic  spirit;  2  free  refuges  for  poor 
travelers  (at  the  Simplon  and  the  Great  St.  Bernard). 
All  the  public  institutions  allow  the  ministration  of 
priests.  The  insane  asylum,  3  cantonal  colleges  and 
their  annexes,  and  3  normal  schools,  are  entirely 
government-supported,  while  partial  support  is 
granted  to  all  primary  schools,  domestic  science 
schools,  parish  libraries  and  charitable  institutes. 
Among  the  clergy  is  a  clerical  insurance  society  against 
ill-health,  the  Association  of  Priest  Adorers,  etc., 
while  the  laity  have  the  ‘ ‘Association  populaire  des 
Catholiques  suisses”.  There  are  no  Catholic  papers 
that  are  non-political.  The  population  numbers 
120,000,  two-thirds  French,  one-third  German.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  War,  the  inhabitants  welcomed  and  aided  the 
wounded,  the  interned,  the  refugees,  and  especially 
the  children  of  the  belligerent  nations,  without  dis¬ 
tinction;  in  addition  the  Catholic  students  assisted 
the  poor  students  in  Austria.  The  State  and  the 
Church  are  entirely  separated.  The  cost  of  the  higher 
and  the  public  obligatory  education  is  borne  by  the 
State  of  Valais  and  the  communes;  all  the  other 
institutions  mentioned  alone  except  the  few  specially 
noted  were  established  and  are  administered  privately 
but  are  aided  also  by  the  State. 

Sioux  City,  Diocese  of  (Siopolitanensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 16b),  in  Iowa,  suffragan  of  Du¬ 
buque.  The  present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Edmund 
Heelan,  b.  at  Elton,  diocese  of  Limerick,  5  Feb.,  1868, 
studied  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  ordained  24  June,  .1890, 
elected  titular  bishop  of  Gerasa,  21  Dec.,  1918,  and 
made  auxiliary  bishop  of  Sioux  City,  consecrated  8 
April,  1919.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Sioux  City  at 
the  Consistory  of  8  March,  1920,  succeeding  Rt. 
Rev.  Philip  J.  Garrigan,  who  died  14 Oct.,  1919.  The 
diocese  has  a  Catholic  population  of  66,914,  which 
includes  small  groups  of  Poles,  Lithuanians,  Italians 
and  Bohemians.  In  1922  the  diocese  contained  107 
parishes,  37  missions,  144  churches,  130  secular 
priests,  12  regulars,  5  lay  brothers,  500  Sisters  and  27 
seminarians  who  are  being  educated  in  seminaries  in 
other  dioceses.  The  educational  institutions  are:  1 
college  for  men,  30  high  schools  with  60  teachers  and 
400  students  (150  boys  and  250  girls);  1  academy  with 
10  teachers  and  30  girl  students.  A  diocesan  orphan¬ 
age  (St.  Anthony’s  House)  has  lately  been  estab¬ 
lished  in  the  diocese.  There  are  also  5  hospitals. 
Societies  among  the  clergy  are  the  Eucharistic  League; 
among  the  laity,  Knights  of  Columbus,  Ancient 
Order  of  Hibernians,  etc.  During  the  war,  five 
piiests  served  as  chaplains  in  the  army. 

Sioux  Falls,  Diocese  of  (Siouxormensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIV — 16d),  in  South  Dakota,  suffragan  of 
St.  Paul.  The  Catholic  population  consists  of  69,775 
white  inhabitants  and  1067  Indians.  In  1922  the 
diocese  contained  114  parishes  with  churches  and 
resident  pastors,  83  mission  churches,  144  secular 
priests,  12  regulars.  In  1921  Bishop  Thomas  O’ Gor¬ 
man  founded  the  new  Columbus  College  at  Sioux 
Falls,  in  charge  of  the  priests  of  the  diocese.  The 


faculty  consists  of  12  priests  and  3  lay  professors;  there 
are  187  students.  The  other  educational  institutions 
are  7  high  schools,  1  normal  school  with  82  pupils; 
32  elementary  schools  with  5842  pupils.  There  are 
five  hospitals  in  the  diocese.  All  state  institutions 
admit  the  ministry  of  priests.  Societies  among  the 
priests  are:  the  Eucharistic  League,  Purgatorial 
Society;  among  the  laity:  Holy  N§me  Society,  League 
of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Holy  Childhood  Society.  Ten 
priests  of  the  diocese  served  with  the  American  army 
in  the  World  War,  one  of  whom  was  killed.  Rt.  Rev. 
Thomas  O’ Gorman,  the  last  bishop  of  Sioux  Falls, 
died  19  Sept.,  1921.  His  successor  has  not  yet  been 
appointed. 

Sire,  Dominique,  Sulpician,  b.  at  St.  Jory  in  the 
Diocese  of  Toulouse  on  12  March,  1827;  died  there  on 
11  December,  1917.  He  studied  at  St.  Sulpice  and 
after  his  ordination  in  1851  taught  in  the  seminary  at 
Le  Puy,  and  later  at  St.  Sulpice.  During  the  Paris 
Commune  he  acted  as  a  delegate  for  the  exchange  of 
hostages.  His  great  work  was  the  compilation  of 
translations  of  the  Gull  “Ineffabilis”,  by  which  the 
dogma  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  was  promul¬ 
gated,  in  all  the  known  languages  and  dialects.  Only 
one  copy  in  fifty  folio  volumes  with  hand-illustrations 
was  made,  and  this  is  preserved  in  the  Vatican. 

Sirmium,  Diocese  of.  See  Diakovu 

Sisters.  See  Nuns 

Slovakia.  See  Jugoslavia 

Slovenia.  See  Jugoslavia 

Smederevo,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Belgrade 
and  Smederevo 

Sobral,  Diocese  of  (Sobralensis)  ,  in  the 
State  of  Ceara,  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Fortaleza.  It 
was  erected  10  November,  1910,  by  separation  from 
the  diocese  of  Fortaleza  of  which  it  formed  the  east¬ 
ern  portion,  with  a  population  of  450,000.  The 
first  and  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Jose  Tupinamba 
da  Frota,  b.  at  Sobral  in  1882;  he  studied  at  the 
South  American  College,  Rome,  was  ordained  in 
1905,  elected  24  January,  1916,  and  consecrated 
30  June  in  the  cathedral  of  Balna.  No  statistics  are 
furnished. 

Social  Guild,  Catholic.  See  Catholic  Social 
Guild 

Society  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  See  Blessed 

Sacrament,  Fathers  of  the 

Society  of  Jesus  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 81a). — The 
World  War  proved  to  be  a  very  severe  test  of  the 
Society’s  vitality.  No  less  than  2014  of  its  young  and 
active  men,  some  of  whom  were  occupying  responsible 
positions  in  churches,  colleges  and  universities,  were 
summoned  to  do  service  in  the  armies  of  the  contend¬ 
ing  nations  in  France  and  elsewhere,  not  only  as 
chaplains  and  stretcher-bearers,  but  as  soldiers  in  the 
trenches  or  officers  in  the  army  and  navy.  As  the 
entire  Society  had  only  17,205  on  its  rolls  at  that  time, 
many  of  whom  were  incapacitated  for  any  kind  of 
work  by  age  or  infirmity,  the  effect  was  most 
disastrous.  In  France  alone  855  Jesuits  were 
mobilized.  Of  these  165  died  in  the  service.  How 
many  returned  from  camp,  crippled  or  incurably  ill, 
is  not  recorded.  It  is  worth  noting  that  the  855 
French  Jesuit  army  and  navy  men  gained  1056 
distinctions;  nevertheless  when  the  war  was  over 
they  found  much  of  the  old  anti-clerical  spirit  as 
pronounced  as  ever,  with  the  prospect  of  a  denial 
of  a  corporate  existence  for  the  Society  in  the  country 


SOCIETY  OF  JESUS 


695 


SOCIETY  OF  JESUS 


and  no  hope  of  recovering  its  expropriated  churches 
and  colleges. 

The  wholesale  withdrawal  of  the  educational  staffs 
will  explain  the  collegiate  wrecks  in  France,  Italy  and 
Belgium.  Even  the  buildings  which  had  been  con- 
/  verted  into  hospitals  were  uninhabitable  for  some 
time  after  the  cessation  of  hostilities.  In  the  mis¬ 
sions  the  effects  of  the  upheaval  were  also  felt  severely. 
Thus  the  French  Jesuits  had  to  leave  their  posts 
in  Alexandria,  Aleppo,  Damascus,  and  elsewhere, 
for  the  Turks  were  on  the  German  side  in 
the  fight.  Even  the  great  •  university  of  Beyrut 
closed  its  doors  and  in  the  Bombay  district  of  India 
the  English  Government  objected  to  the  presence 
of  the  German  Jesuits  who  had  labored  there  for 
years.  An  attempt  was  made  by  their  American 
brethren  to  fill  their  places,  but  the  necessary  per¬ 
mission  was  so  long  delayed  by  the  Government, 
that  the  Americans  went  to  the  Philippines  instead, 
while  the  already  overworked  Belgian  Jesuits  of 
Calcutta  did  their  best  to  fill  the  gaps  in  Bombay. 

During  the  war  the  colleges  of  Budapest  and 
Kalocsa  in  Hungary  suffered  from  the  alternate  vic¬ 
tories  and  defeats  of  the  Austrians  and  Russians,  but 
their  lot  was  still  worse  when  after  the  war  the  Bol- 
sheviki  invaded  and  wrecked  the  houses,  sent  their 
inmates  adrift  or  to  jail,  after  ordering  them  to  write 
down  a  declaration  of  their  withdrawal  from  the 
Society.  Poland  also  had  a  hard  experience  during 
the  Russian  and  Ruthenian  conflict. 

At  the  beginning  of  hostilities  it  was  thought  pru¬ 
dent  for  the  Father  General  and  his  Assistants,  on 
account  of  their  complex  nationality,  to  withdraw 
from  Rome  for  the  time  being.  The  General  sought 
the  seclusion  of  Ziziers  in  Switzerland,  but  as  the 
Jesuits  are  not  alllowed  in  this  little  country  permis¬ 
sion  was  granted  only  on  condition  of  their  living  in 
strict  privacy,  and  even  that  concession  could  not 
have  been  obtained  had  not  the  President  of  the  Re¬ 
public  happened  to  be  a  Catholic.  At  the  close  of 
the  war  they  returned  to  Rome. 

The  emergence  of  new  nationalities  in  Europe  as  a 
result  of  the  struggle,  necessarily  called  for  a  read¬ 
justment  of  the  racial  and  national  units  in  the 
Society,  independently  of  other  reasons,  such  as  the 
size  of  some  of  the  provinces.  These  new  provinces 
were  variously  grouped  under  the  larger  sections  of  the 
Italian,  German,  Spanish,  French,  English  and 
American  Assistancies.  Of  these  Assistancies  the 
Italian  is  numerically  the  weakest.  In  1921  it  had 
only  1415  members  as  against  4229  in  the  Spanish 
and  4359  in  the  German  Assistancy.  Not  only  did 
it  gain  nothing  by  this  new  arrangement,  but  it  lost 
149  who  were  transferred  to  the  American  division. 

The  Italian  group  includes  the  Roman,  Neapolitan, 
Sicilian,  Venetian  and  Turin  Provinces.  The  Roman 
had  its  Gregorian  University  and  Biblical  Institute, 
but  both  were  badly  crippled  during  the  war.  Its 
novitiate  also  at  Castel  Gondolfo  had  only  a  very 
limited  number  of  novices  and  juniors;  there  was  no 
tertianship,  and  its  theological  students  had  dwindled 
to  nineteen  theologians.  No  philosophers  appeared 
on  the  lists.  The  explanation  of  this  wreck  is  given 
by  the  constantly  recurring  phrase  in  the  catalogue 
militiavi  agit,  “he  is  in  the  army."  Even  of  the 
nineteen  theologians  nine  are  so  labelled.  All  of  the 
philosophers  had  been  drafted.  On  the  whole  the 
Roman  Province  furnished  18  priests,  41  scholastics 
and  14  lay  brothers  to  the  combatants.  Similar 
conditions  prevailed  in  the  Venetian  section.  Scho¬ 
lastics  and  novices  were  housed  in  the  same  build¬ 
ing  as  well  they  might  be,  for  18  philosophers,  10 
juniors,  2  novices  and  G  lay  brothers  were  under  the 
colors.  Turin  had  only  2  theologians,  7  philosophers, 
6  juniors  and  12  novices,  all  of  whom  lived  in  one 
house  at  Chieri.  There  were  12  priests,  30  scholastics 


and  12  lay  brothers  with  the  troops.  Sicily  had  col¬ 
leges  at  Messina,  Catania  and  Malta  but  as  17  of  its 
priests  and  11  of  its  scholastics  were  in  camp  the 
colleges  were  in  a  moribund  state.  Finally,  Naples 
had  to  furnish  the  army  with  59  Jesuits,  leaving  in  the 
scholasticate  only  7  theologians  and  no  philosophers, 
while  its  novitiate  counted  only  6  scholastics  and  5 
lay  brothers.  The  entire  membership  of  its  province 
amounted  to  only  340. 

Prior  to  the  war  the  German  Assistancy  was 
composed  of  the  Provinces  of  Austria,  Belgium, 
Galicia,  Germany  and  Holland.  The  enormous 
size  of  both  Germany  and  Belgium,  as  well  as  the 
appearance  of  new  nations,  compelled  another  ar¬ 
rangement,  so  that  the  German  Assistancy  is  now 
made  up  of  the  Provinces  of  Austria,  Belgium,  Czecho¬ 
slovakia,  South  Germany,  North  Germany,  Hungary, 
Holland,  Jugoslavia  and  Poland. 

Austria  has  3  colleges,  a  scholasticate,  a  novitiate, 
a  professed  house,  and  6  residences  with  a  member¬ 
ship  of  359.  Belgium  has  13  colleges,  8  residences,  2 
novitiates,  a  scholasticate,  an  apostolic  school,  2 
houses  for  retreats,  and  1291  members.  The 
bilingual  difficulty  which  is  at  present  an  acute 
political  issue  prevents  the  division  of  Belgium  into 
two  or  three  provinces.  The  Province  of  Germany, 
however,  has  been  cut  in  two:  Lower  and  Upper 
Germany;  the  former  with  2  colleges,  a  house  of 
retreats,  a  house  of  writers,  a  novitiate,  a  scholas¬ 
ticate,  and  12  residences;  the  latter  with  a  college,  a 
house  of  writers,  a  novitiate  and  2  residences.  The 
partition  of  the  personnel  is  649  for  the  lower  and 
634  for  the  upper  section.  As  the  German  Jesuits  are 
now  allowed  back  in  their  country,  from  which  they 
had  been  exiled  ever  since  the  time  of  the  Kulturkampf , 
new  changes  must  necessarily  occur.  Hungary ,  which 
was  formerly  part  of  Austria,  has  a  novitiate,  2  resi¬ 
dences,  1  college  and  2  which  are  as  yet  incohate. 
The  membership  of  the  new  province  is  196.  The 
vice-province  of  Czechoslovakia  counts  only  164 
members,  but  has  4  colleges,  a  novitiate  and  4  resi¬ 
dences.  The  vice-province  of  Jugoslavia  counts  only 
117  on  its  register.  It  has  a  novitiate,  a  seminary, 
2  colleges  and  2  residences.  Holland  comprises  4 
colleges,  a  scholasticate,  a  house  of  retreats,  a  novitiate 
and  8  residences.  The  membership  is  587 .  Finally 
Poland  has  a  scholasticate,  a  novitiate  and  tertian- 
ship  and  15  residences,  and  464  members. 

As  Waldeck  Rousseau’s  Association  Laws  of  1901- 
04  had  robbed  the  Society  of  all  its  property  in  France 
we  find  a  continual  recurrence  in  all  the  catalogues  of 
the  words  collegia  dispersa ,  residentia  dispersa,  which 
means  that  some  of  the  members  of  the  extinct  es¬ 
tablishment  are  living  here  and  there  in  rented  houses, 
writing,  preaching  or  teaching  wherever  the  oppor¬ 
tunity  presents  itself.  Hence  the  Jesuit  conscripts 
returning  to  civil  life  after  winning  great  glory  for 
their  country  have  nowhere  to  go  except  to  these 
restricted  quarters,  for  they  find  that  much  of  the 
old  anti-clerical  spirit  is  still  in  France  and  there  is 
little  if  any  hope  of  recovering  the  expropriated  col¬ 
leges  and  churches.  Three  of  the  French  provincials 
are  still  living  outside  of  France.  The  Province  of 
France  numbers  732  against  700  in  Champagne. 
It  has  a  college  at  Canterbury,  which  is  likewise  a 
juniorate.  Its  scholasticate  is  on  the  Isle  of  Jersey. 
Lyons  also  finds  shelter  for  its  scholastics  at  Hastings, 
England,  but  it  has  continued  to  have  a  tertianship 
at  Paray-le-Monial  and  an  Apostolic  School  at 
Thonon.  Like  the  other  two  provinces  Lyons  is 
wrecked.  Counting  those  at  home  and  on  the  mis¬ 
sions  its  members  run  up  to  681. 

Until  recently  the  Spanish  Assistancy  consisted  of 
the  Provinces  of  Aragon,  Castile,  Toledo,  the  dis¬ 
persed  Province  of  Mexico  and  Portugal.  A  new 
province  has  now  been  added  in  the  mother  country, 


SOCORRO 


696 


SOLIMOES  ALTO 


which  is  known  as  Leon,  which  has  521  members,  be¬ 
sides  another  in  Spanish  America  called  the  Argentine- 
Chile  Province,  already  with  396  members.  Even 
Mexico  has  327,  and  has  found  entrance  into 
Chihuahua,  Guatemala,  Nicaragua  and  San  Salvador. 
Argentine-Chile  has  a  novitiate  besides  3  seminaries, 
5  colleges  with  a  sixth  just  beginning,  and  five 
residences.  Since  the  revolution  the  Portuguese 
province  has  ceased  to  exist  in  Europe. 

The  English  Assistancy  has  undergone  no  change, 
but  in  the  American,  New  England  has  been  severed 
from  the  Maryland-New  York  Province  and  is  in 
process  of  adjustment.  The  Provinces  of  California 
and  New  Orleans  have  also  been  established. 

Substantially  all  the  provinces  have  foreign  mis¬ 
sions,  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa  and  America.  They 
are  in  Alaska,  Central  and  Southern  Africa,  Ceylon, 
China,  Japan,  India,  Egypt,  Syria,  Turkey  and  else¬ 
where,  among  Moslems  and  pagans,  semi-civilized, 
or  utter  barbarians  and  degraded  savages.  One  of 
the  most  interesting  of  them  all  is  perhaps  that  of  the 
lepers,  four  or  five  thousand  of  whom  are  being  cared 
for  by  20  Jesuits  in  India,  Madagascar,  the  Philip¬ 
pines,  Java,  Ceylon,  Colombia,  Ecuador,  the  Lesser 
Antilles,  Jamaica  and  even  in  Spain. 

.  In  1921,  the  Society  had  17,540  members,  of  whom 
8586  are  priests,  4957  scholastics,  and  3997  lay 
brothers.  It  is  divided  into  31  provinces  grouped 
into  6  assistancies.  The  Superior  General  is  the 
Very  Reverend  Father  Wladimir  Ledochowski. 

Socorro,  Diocese  of  (de  Succursu;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 118c),  in  Colombia,  suffragan  of  Bogota. 
Mgr.  Antonio  Vicente  Arenas,  b.  at  Zapatoca  in 
1862,  was  vicar  general  when  he  was  elected  at  the 
consistory  of  28  May,  1914,  in  succession  to  Bishop 
Toro,  transferred  to  Santa  Marta  and  now  bishop 
of  Antioquia  (q.v.).  The  diocese  has  230,000  in¬ 
habitants,  50  parishes,  2  congregations  of  men  and 
3  of  women.  A  diocesan  seminary  was  established 
in  1919. 

Sofia  and  Philippopolis,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of. — 
The  present  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Vincent  Pejov, 
O.  M.  Cap.,  who  succeeded  as  vicar  Robert  Menini 
(d.  14  Oct.,  1916),  titular  Archbishop  of  Gangra, 
whose  administration  of  the  vicariate  was  one  of 
prudence  and  wisdom  and  resulted  in  the  founding 
of  many  Catholic  works.  The  Balkan  war  of  1912- 
13,  which  involved  the  vicariate,  was  followed  shortly 
by  the  World  War  of  1914-18,  in  which  3priests  served 
as  chaplains.  The  Catholic  population  of  19,000 
is  largely  Bulgarian,  formerly  followers  of  the  Paul- 
ician  sect,  but  converted  to  Catholicism  by  the 
Franciscan  Fathers.  In  the  cities  of  the  vicariate, 
especially  Sofia,  the  Catholic  population  is  partly 
foreign.  There  are  20  secular  and  37  regular  priests 
and  18  lay  brothers;  13  parishes  and  29  churches;  2 
convents  for  men  and  7  for  women;  2  colleges  for  boys 
with  30  teachers  and  800  students,  and  3  for  girls 
with  34  teachers  and  900  students;  2  elementary 
schools  with  8  teachers  and  300  students;  2  asylums; 
2  hospitals,  and  4  religious  asociations  among  the 
laity.  The  government  does  not  contribute  to  the 
support  of  the  Catholic  institutions 

Soissons,  Diocese  of  (Suessionensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 130c),  in  France,  suffragan  of  Reims.  In 
1920  occurred  the  death  of  the  Rt.  Rev.  Pierre- 
Louis  Pechenard,  who  had  administered  the  diocese 
since  1907.  He  reorganized  the  diocese  after  the 
law  of  Separation  had  become  effective  and  was 
active  in  restoring  the  churches  which  had  been  de¬ 
stroyed  during  the  war.  His  successor  is  the  Rt. 
Rev.  Henri-Joseph  Binet,  b.  at  Juvigny  8  April, 
1869,  ordained  at  Soissons  22  Oct.,  1893.  '  He  joined 
the  army  and  was  decorated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor, 


was  vicar  general  and  archdeacon  of  Laon,  elected 
16  June,  1920,  took  possession  of  the  see  31  July, 
consecrated  24  August  and  published  16  Dec.  follow¬ 
ing.  During  the  war  three-quarters  of  the  diocese 
was  laid  waste  by  the  fierce  battles  which  raged  on  the 
Aisne  front  and  the  continuous  fighting  which  lasted 
from  May  to  November,  1918.  More  than  200 
churches  were  completely  demolished  and  300  were 
badly  damaged.  In  many  places  Mass  was  cele¬ 
brated  in  the  chapels  of  the  barracks.  Eighty  of  the 
clergy  were  cited  in  orders  of  the  day,  the  present 
bishop  and  four  priests  were  decorated  with  the 
Legion  of  Honor  and  several  others  received  the 
military  medal.  Immediately  after  the  armistice 
the  priests  returned  to  the  devastated  regions  and  cour¬ 
ageously  began  the  work  of  restoration.  In  nearly 
all  the  districts  the  Union  Sacree  continued;  the 
clergy  were  invited  to  bless  the  flags  of  the  former 
combatants  and  the  monuments  which  were  erected 
to  the  dead  soldiers.  The  following  persons  of  note 
have  died  since  1912:  M.  Hurier  de  Crecy-sur-Serre, 
an  ardent  champion  of  Catholicism;  Mme.  Hugues 
de  St.  Quentin,  who  was  made  a  chevalier  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor.  With  great  devotion  and  zeal  she 
helped  to  restore  the  homes  of  the  devastated  region 
of  St.  Quentin.  She  died  in  1921.  According  to  the 
statistics  of  1922  the  diocese  contains  578  parishes, 
869  churches,  8  convents  for  women,  488  secular 
priests,  1200  Sisters,  2  seminaries  and  95  seminarians. 
Schools  existing  in  the  diocese  are:  14  high  schools, 
130  teachers  (550  boys,  1000  girls),  35  elementary 
schools,  100  teachers  (1600  pupils).  The  schools' 
are  not  supported  by  the  Government.  The  follow¬ 
ing  institutions  exist  in  the  diocese:  2  homes,  4 
asylums,  2  hospitals,  1  settlement  house,  10  nurseries. 
One  Catholic  paper  is  published  in  the  diocese.  The 
following  organizations  exist  among  the  clergy: 
Mutual  Aid  Society,  Relief  Fund.  Among  the  laity: 

6  Conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  1  Mutual  Aid 
Association,  30  societies  for  young  men  and  women, 
4000  branches  of  the  Patriotic  League  of  France. 

Solicitation,  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV— 134d) Any  con¬ 
fessor  found  guilty  of  the  crime  of  solicitation  is  to 
be  suspended  from  saying  Mass  and  hearing  sacra¬ 
mental  confessions,  and  may  even  be  declared  unable 
to  exercise  again  the  function  of  confessor  because  of 
the  gravity  of  his  offence;  he  is  to  be  deprived  of  all 
benefices,  dignities  and  the  right  of  active  or  passive 
voice  and  to  be  declared  incapable  of  again  acquiring 
these  privileges;  in  a  very  grave  case  he  might  also 
be  canonically  degraded.  If  anyone  personally  or 
through  another  lays  a  false  accusation  of  the  crime 
of  solicitation  against  a  confessor  before  his  superiors 
he  incurs  ipso  facto  excommunication  specially  re¬ 
served  to  the  Holy  See,  from  which  he  cannot  be 
absolved  in  any  case  unless  he  has  formally  retracted 
his  calumny  and  repaired  the  wrong  he  has  done  as 
far  as  possible,  and  has  been  given  a  severe  long 
penance.  False  accusation  is  a  sin  reserved  to  the 
Holy  See  on  its  own  account,  the  only  instance  in 
canon  law  of  such  a  reservation;  for  in  any  other  case 
when  a  crime  is  punished  by  a  censure  reserved  to  t  he 
pope  the  sin  is  reserved  only  in  virtue  of  the  censure. 

Slater  in  Eccl.  Rev.,  LIX  (Philadelphia,  1918),  458-63; 
Gearin,  ibid.,  LX,  61-9. 

Solimoes  Alto,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
(Solimoes  superioris;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 135),  in 
Brazil,  is  bounded  by  the  Vicariate  of  Llanos  de  San 
Martin,  and  the  prefectures  of  Rio  Negro,  Teffe, 
Ucayali,  and  Sao  Leon  des  Amazones.  It  is  confided 
to  the  Capuchins  of  the  Seraphic  Province  (Italy) , 
and  is  divided  into  4  large  parishes,  Sao  Paolo  de 
Olivenca,  Remate  de  Males,  Tonantins,  and  Urutuba, 
which  are  intersected  by  numerous  rivers  and  are 
peopled  by  a  civilized  and  an  uncivilized  populace. 


SOLOMON  ISLANDS 


697 


SONDA  ISLANDS 


Since  1910  the  mission  has  lost  3  of  its  zealous  workers: 
Frei  Jucunds  of  Soliera,  Frei  Agatangelo  of  .Spoleto 
and  Frei  Julio  of  Nova,  whose  deaths  at  the  early 
ages  of  42,  27,  and  25  respectively  were  due  to  the 
hardships  of  such  an  undeveloped  mission  and  the 
severity  of  the  climate.  The  Fathers  are  supported 
entirely  by  alms  from  Propaganda  and  different 
societies  in  Europe.  The  mission  statistics  for  1922 
record:  20,000  Catholics;  4  parishes;  2  churches  and 
12  chapels;  6  Capuchin  Fathers  and  1  lay  brother; 
2  Catholic  associations  or  circles;  1  high  school  with 
20  pupils;  2  primary  schools  with  30  pupils.  The 
government  does  not  contribute  to  the  support  of 
these  schools.  The  first  and  present  prefect  apostolic 
is  Frei  Evangelist,  b.  at  Cefalonia,  Italy,  on  5  Maye 
1882,  entered  the  Capuchins  in  1898,  and  was  mad, 
superior  of  the  mission  and  prefect  apostolic  in 
September,  1910.  He  resides  at  Tonantins. 

Solomon  Islands,  Northern,  Prefecture  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  (Insularum  Salomonicarum;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIY — 138a),  comprises  (1)  the  islands  of  Choiseul 
and  Shortland  in  the  British  Protectorate,  the  island 
of  Isabel  being  since  1912  included  in  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  the  Southern  Solomon  Islands;  (2)  the 
late  German  islands  of  Bougainville,  Buka  and  other 
small  islands  presumably  under  the  Australian 
administration  and  included  politically  in  the  New 
Guinea  territory.  The  first  prefect  apostolic,  Mgr. 
Joseph  Forestier,  appointed  in  1898,  died  3  May, 
1918,  after  a  humble  hidden  life  of  suffering  and 
sacrifices,  in  realization  of  his  motto,  “Good  makes 
no  noise,  noise  does  no  good.”  He  had  spent  eighteen 
years  in  the  Solomon  Islands,  having  previously 
labored  in  Samoa  for  fifteen.  The  present  vicar  is 
Rt.  Rev.  Maurice  Boch,  S.  M.,  elected  18  May,  1920, 
who  makes  his  residence  at  Poporag  on  Shortland. 
Malaria,  black- water  fever  and  dysentery  are  prev¬ 
alent  in  these  islands  and  all  the  missionaries  who 
came  to  establish  the  mission  in  1898  have  been 
carried  off  by  disease.  The  sanitary  conditions  are 
now  improving  owing  to  the  clearing  of  land  and 
drainage  of  swamps.  The  missionaries’  chief  diffi¬ 
culty  is  the  learning  of  native  languages  and  dialects, 
which  are  numerous  and  difficult. 

The  native  Catholic  population  in  1922  is  3024,  but 
there  are  only  eight  Catholics  among  the  white 
population,  which  consists  chiefly  of  government 
officials  and  plantation  overseers.  There  are  2 
churches,  8  districts,  11  stations,  14  regular  priests 
(Marists),  8  Sisters,  2  lay  brothers,  3000  catechumens, 
6  training  schools  for  catechists,  with  80  .students, 
16  elementary  schools  with  809  pupils  taught  by 
9  priests  and  7  Sisters,  1  industrial  school  with  20 
pupils,  8  orphanages  in  connection  with  the  Sisters’ 
schools,  9  dispensaries.  Among  the  clergy  the  Apostle- 
ship  of  Prayer,  the  Association  of  Priests  Adorers, 
the  League  of  Priestly  Holiness,  and  the  St.  Joseph 
Association  for  the  Agonizing  have  been  organized, 
and  among  the  laity  the  Apostleship  of  Prayer  and 
the  Confraternity  of  Mount  Carmel. 

On  30  December,  1914,  occured  the  death  of  Rev. 
Joseph  Bertet,  S.M.,  a  victim  of  his  zeal  in  evangeliz¬ 
ing  Choiseul.  He  was  only  29  and  had  been  only 
two  years  on  the  mission.  Rev.  Charles  Flaus,  S.M.,  d. 
29  December,  1920,  at  Rockhampton,  Queensland, 
of  disease  contracted  during  his  10  years  of  apostolate. 
He  had  been  one  of  the  founders  of  this  mission,  to 
which  he  came  from  Fiji,  where  he  had  spent  seven 
years  and  was  sent  to  Germany  to  found  a  house  of 
missionaries  at  Meppen  in  Hanover.  After  five  years 
he  returned  to  the  Solomon  Islands  in  1905,  to  resume 
his  labors,  but  his  strength  failed  and  he  had  to  go 
to  Australia  where  he  continued  his  work  for  souls. 

On  10  December,  1914,  an  Australian  fleet  arrived 
at  Rieka  to  take  possession  of  Bougainville,  an  island 


attached  by  Germany  to  its  former  colony  of  the 
Bismarck  archipelago.  The  boundary  which  cut  this 
prefecture  in  two  remains.  From  being  Anglo- 
German  it  has  become  Anglo- Australian,  politics  not 
having  taken  into  account  the  real  geographical  situa¬ 
tion  or  the  new  boundary  which  it  makes  necessary. 

Solomon  Islands,  Southern,  Vicariate  Apos¬ 
tolic  of;  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 138b). — By  a  decree  of 
Rome,  dated  1  June,  1912,  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
the  Southern  Solomon  Islands  was  erected  as  a  Vica¬ 
riate  Apostolic  with  new  boundaries  including,  Ysabel, 
New  Georgia,  Guadalcanar,  Florida,  Malaita,  San 
Christoval,  Santa  Cruz  and  adjacent  islands.  A 
brief  dated  2  June,  1912,  appointed  Rev.  J.  M.  E. 
Bertreux,  S.  M.,  Vicar  Apostolic  of  the  new  Vicariate 
and  titular  Bishop  of  Musti.  He  was  consecrated 
at  Nantes,  France,  28  Oct.,  1912.  Bishop  Bertreux 
died  *at  Rua  Sura  4  Jan.,  1919.  His  successor 
is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Louis  Marie  Rancaz  of  the  Marist 
Congregation  and  titular  Bishop  of  Telepte.  He 
was  b.  at  Verrons-Arvey,  1  Feb.,  1879,  professed 
15  June,  1902,  left  for  the  Solomon  Islands  6  Sept., 
1903,  elected  bishop  13  July,  1920;  named  Vicar 
Apostolic  of  the  Southern  Solomon  Islands,  15  July, 
1920,  consecrated  at  Sydney  27  Dec.,  1920,  and 
published  16  Dec.,  following.  In  spite  of  the  death 
of  several  priests  and  Sisters  of  the  mission,  victims 
of  the  unhealthy  climate  of  these  islands,  much  pro¬ 
gress  has  been  made  in  evangelizing  the  natives,  es¬ 
pecially  those  of  the  islands  of  Guadalcanar,  San 
Christoval  and  Malaita.  At  the  end  of  the  year 
1921  the  mission  comprised:  12  Marist  Fathers,  3 
lay  brothers,  12  nuns  of  the  Third  Order  of  Mary, 
8  churches,  109  chapels,  8  schools  for  boys  (410 
pupils)  5  schools  for  girls  (276  pupils).  The  Catholics 
number  3866,  neophytes  2275. 

Solsona,  Diocese  of  (Celsonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 138),  in  Lerida,  Spain,  suffragan  of  Tarragona, 
is  governed  by  Mgr.  Valentin  Cornelias  y  Santamana 
as  Apostolic  Administrator.  Mgr.  Cornelias,  who  suc¬ 
ceeded  Bishop  Benlloch  y  Vidal  (raised  to  the 
cardinalate  7  March,  1921),  on  18  December,  1919, 
was  b.  at  Caserras,  in  the  Diocese  of  Solsona  on  5 
June,  1861.  The  dipcesan  statistics  for  1921  record 
150  parishes;  480  churches,  chapels  and  oratories;  1 
seminary  with  98  seminarians;  1  home  for  the  aged; 
10  hospitals;  12  parish  magazines,  1  official  ecclesias¬ 
tical  bulletin,  8  Catholic  weeklies.  Only  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  schools  receive  State  aid,  but  they  are 
entirely  Catholic,  as  are  the  inhabitants.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  are  the  religious  institutes  not  already  men¬ 
tioned  in  C.  E.,  loc.  cit.:  men,  Franciscans  (Berga); 
Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools  (Berga  and  Mol- 
lerusu);  Dominicans  (Apostolic  School,  Solsona); 
Capuchins  (Tarrega);  women,  Pious  Institute  of 
Charity;  Sisters  of  the  Blessed  Virgin;  Josephines 
(Cardoza);  Franciscan  Tertiaries  of  the  Sacred 
Hearts  of  Jesus  and  Mary  (Villanova;  Miralcamp); 
Servants  of  the  Passion  (Polla  de  Lillet);  in  all  46 
religious  houses,  with  438  religious,  of  whom  198  are 
Sisters. 

Sonda  Islands,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
(Insularum  Sund^  Minorum),  in  Oceania,  was 
erected  16  September,  1913,  and  entrusted  to  the 
Fathers  of  the  Divine  Word.  Rev.  Peter  Noyen 
of  that  congregation  is  the  first  prefect.  The  statis¬ 
tics  for  1920  report  45,700  Catholics,  served  by  24 
Fathers  of  the  Divine  Word,  15  lay  brothers,  4 
Jesuit  Fathers,  6  lay  brothers,  17  Franciscan  Sisters 
from  Heijthuizen,  Holland,  6  Sisters  Servants  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  from  Uden,  64  Catholic  schools  with 
5978  boys  and  4308  girls.  The  residence  is  at 
Lavantocka,  island  of  Flores. 


SONORA 


698 


SOUTH  CAROLINA 


Sonora,  Diocese  of  (de  Sonora;  cf.  C.  E. 
XIV— 145),  in  Mexico,  suffragan  of  Durango,  is 
governed  by  Mgr.  Juan  Navarette,  b.  in  Oaxaca  on 
12  August,  1886;  graduated  doctor  of  theology,  phil¬ 
osophy,  canon  and  civil  law  at  Rome;  driven  into 
exile  during  the  Revolution;  appointed  to  the  see  on  13 
January,  1919,  and  consecrated  at  Aguascalientes  on  8 
June  following.  He  succeeded  Mgr.  Valdespino  y 
Diaz,  who  was  transferred  to  Aguascalientes  on  10 
January,  1913.  As  one  might  naturally  construe  from 
the  lengthy  episcopal  vacancy,  the  diocese  suffered 
very  severely  during  the  Mexican  Civil  wars,  and 
from  the  activity  of  the  sectaries.  The  population, 
however,  is  practically  all  Catholic  and  besides 
Spanish  Mexicans,  includes  creoles,  mestizos  and 
Indians.  The  latest  diocesan  statistics  report  28 
parishes,  85  churches  or  chapels,  19  secular  priests,  5 
seminarians,  25  Sisters,  1  boys’  college,  5  girls’  col¬ 
leges  with  25  teachers  and  500  students.  There  is  a 
Catholic  propaganda  sheet  with  a  circulation  of 
30,000. 

Sons  of  Saint  Joseph.  See  Saint  Joseph,  Sons  of 

Sontag,  James.  See  Mission,  Congregation  of  the 

Sorrento,  Archdiocese  of  (Surrentinensis; 
cf.  C.  E.  XIV — 151h),  in  the  province  of  Naples, 
Southern  Italy.  Most  Rev.  Giuseppe  Giustiniani, 
who  had  succeeded  to  the  see  in  1886,  died  6  July, 
1917,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent 
Most  Rev.  Paolo  lacuzio,  b.  at  Forino,  1862,  elected 
bishop  of  Capaccio  in  1900,  promoted  9  July,  1917. 
From  January  to  April,  1918,  he  was  apostolic  ad¬ 
ministrator  of  Capaccio  and  was  appointed  to  the 
same  office  for  Castellamare  di  Stabia  23  January, 
1920.  The  statistics  for  1920  give  a  Catholic  popu¬ 
lation  of  55,900  divided  into  36  parishes  and  served 
by  266  secular  and  34  regular  priests.  There  are  16 
seminarians,  197  Sisters,  235  churches  and  chapels. 
On  10  December,  1914,  the  church  of  St.  Michael  at 
Piano  was  made  a  minor  basilica. 

Sorrowful  Mother,  Sisters  of  the,  a  community 
with  mother-house  in  Rome,  founded  in  1883,  by 
Mother  Mary  Frances  Streitel  who  was  also  the 
first  mother  general.  In  1889  the  Sisters  came  to 
America  where  they  devoted  their  lives  to  the 
education  of  children  and  the  care  of  the  sick.  The 
American  novitiate  is  at  Marshfield,  Wis.,  where 
ample  means  are  provided  to  prepare  the  Sisters 
for  their  profession  as  teachers  and  nurses.  The 
congregation  numbers  300  Sisters,  6  novices,  and  6 
postulants.  They  are  represented  in  the  Archdio¬ 
cese  of  Santa  Fe  and  the  Dioceses  of  Green  Bay, 
La  Crosse,  Newark,  Oklahoma  City,  Superior, 
Wichita,  and  Winona.  They  have  charge  of  the 
following  institutions:  1  sanitarium;  10  hospitals; 

1  orphanage,  and  5  schools.  Their  rules  have  been 
approved  by  the  Holy  See. 

South  Carolina  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 157b). — The 
area  of  the  State  is  30,989  square  miles.  In  1920  the 
population  was  1,683,724,  an  increase  of  11.1% 
since  1910.  Of  this,  17.5  was  urban;  82,5  was  rural. 
The  average  number  of  persons  to  the  square  mile  is 
55.2  as  against  49.7  in  1910.  Since  1910  three  new 
counties  have  been  organized  from  parts  of  six  others. 
South  Carolina  has  15  cities  of  which  Charleston, 
with  a  population  of  67,957,  is  the  largest.  The 
others  include:  Columbia,  37,524;  Spartanburg, 
22,638;  Greenville,  23,127.  The  negro  population 
exceeds  the  white  population,  the  whites  numbering 
818,538;  the  negroes  864,719,  but  the  percentage  of 
negroes  is  decreasing,  55.2%  in  1910,  51.4%  in 
1920.  Allendale  (77.6%),  Beaufort  (78.4%),  Fair- 
field  (76.1%),  Counties  have  there  gatest  percentage 


of  negroes.  Of  the  population  ten  years  and  over 
220,667  (18.1%)  were  illiterate.  Among  the  native 
whites,  the  illiterates  numbered  38,639;  among  the 
foreign-born  whites  391;  among  the  negroes,  181,422 
The  illiterate  white  males  of  voting  age  numbered 
17,385;  the  illiterate  white  females,  15,988;  the  illite¬ 
rate  male  negroes,  69,185;  female  negroes,  76,842. 

Economic  Status. — According  to  the  census  of 
manufactures  taken  in  1919,  there  are  2004  establish¬ 
ments,  with  an  average  of  79,400  wage  earners,  a 
capital  of  $374,538,000,  products  worth  $381 ,454,000. 

Agriculture  is  more  than  holding  its  own  in  the 
State,  the  number  of  farms  in  1920  being  192,693, 
an  increase  of  9.2%  since  1910.  The  value  of  all 
farm  property  was  $953,064,  of  live  stock,  $91,518; 
of  all  crops,  $437,121,837.  The  chief  crops  were 
oats,  3,597,835  bushels,  valued  at  $4,317,400;  corn, 
27,472,013  bushels,  $54,944,026;  wheat,  630,911 
bushels,  $1,634,062;  rye,  50,342  bushels,  $143,477. 
More  than  one  fourth  of  the  land  is  devoted  to  cotton, 
South  Carolina  being  the  third  State  in  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  cotton,  producing  1,476,645  bales,  valued  at 
$259,889,520.  Tobacco  is  also  extensively  grown, 
71,193,072  pounds,  worth  $23,493,714  in  1919. 

In  1919  there  were  75  national  banks  with  a  capital 
of  $96,757,000;  342  state  banks  wdth  a  capital  of 
$14,820,000,  and  28  savings  banks  with  a  capital  of 
$9,697,647.  On  1  January,  1920,  the  State  debt 
amounted  to  $5,382,059;  the  assessed  value  of  real 
property  $207,829,170;  of  personal  property  $152,- 
670,741.  The  railroad  mileage  is  3824.  Recent 
improvements  to  the  Savannah  River  have  made  it 
navigable  for  over  200  miles  from  Savannah  to  Augusta, 
Ga.  Charleston,  with  its  fine  harbor,  is  a  great 
commercial  port,  its  imports  in  1919,  being  $2,618, 
869,  exports,  $21,407,596. 

Education. — Private  and  parochial  schools  must 
give  their  instruction  in  the  English  language.  There 
shall  be  exempt  from  taxation  all  schools,  colleges,  and 
institutions  of  learning,  except  where  the  profits  are 
applied  to  private  uses;  provided,  that  as  to  real  estate, 
the  exemption  shall  not  extend  beyond  the  buildings 
and  premises  actually  occupied.  Private  schools 
shall  report  to  county  superintendent  relative  to 
enrollment,  attendance,  teachers,  grade,  and  amount 
of  work.  Persons  in  charge  of  private  educational 
institutions  shall  make  such  statistical  reports  to 
state  superintendent  as  he  may  require.  Private 
school  to  be  lawfully  attended  by  children  of  compul¬ 
sory  school  age  must  be  approved  by  the  State  Board. 
Among  the  laws  passed  in  1920  was  an  act  encouraging 
teaching  of  agriculture,  industry,  and  domestic 
science  in  the  public  schools.  A  State  Board  of  cor¬ 
rectional  administration  was  established  in  1918  and 
under  its  control  were  placed  the  South  Carolina 
industrial  School  and  the  State  Reformatory  for 
Negro  Boys  and  the  new  State  Industrial  School  for 
Girls.  In  the  same  year  a  State  Training  School 
for  the  Feeble-Minded  was  opened.  In  1919  an 
equalization  fund  for  needy  schools  was  provided  by 
the  state,  guaranteeing  a  minimum  school  term  of 
7  months  in  any  school  district  voting  an  8  mill  tax. 
Provision  was  made  for  improvement  of  school 
conditions  in  industrial  centres.  School  attendance 
is  compulsory  for  children  between  the  ages  of  eight 
and  fourteen,  for  four  months,  l  the  year,  or  during 
the  school  term,  if  it  is  shorter  than  four  months. 
Bible  reading  in  the  public  schools  is  neither  permitted 
nor  excluded. 

In  1920  there  were  in  the  State  2332  schools  for 
white  children  employing  753  men  teachers,  and 
5646  women  and  teaching  226,065  whites,  with  an 
average  attendance  of  153,511.  For  negro  children, 
there  are  2502  public  schools  employing  670  men  and 
2630  women,  teaching  251,980  pupils  with  an  average 
attendance  of  177,940.  The  tota.  revenue  of  both 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


099 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


white  and  negro  schools  was  $7,659,536.10  out  of 
which  was  expended  $5,894,917.43  for  whites  and 
$765,481.75  for  negroes.  The  State  per  capita  ex¬ 
penditure  in  1920  was  $26.08  for  whites,  $3.04  for 
negroes,  $13.94  average  for  both  races.  There  are 
26  institutions  of  higher  learning  for  whites  and  10 
for  negroes.  Of  the  26  institutions  for  whites,  8  are 
non-sectarian  and  receive  a  total  state  support  of 
$1,067,935.71;  7  are  Presbyterian;  5  are  Baptist; 
3  are  Methodist,  and  3  are  Lutheran.  The  Univer¬ 
sity  of  South  Carolina  has  47  officers  and  faculty, 
579  students,  and  a  total  income  of  $240,184.37; 
Clemson  Agricultural  College  has  170  officers  and 
teachers,  1014  students,  and. an  income  of  $388,422.- 
57;  The  Winthrop  Normal  and  Industrial  College  has 
127  officers  and  an  income  of  $680,798.49. 

Religion. — The  following  statistics  are  taken  from 
the  latest  United  States  Census  of  Religious  Denom¬ 
inations: 


Denominations 

Churches 

Ministers 

Members 

Baptist . 

2,405 

381 

416,341 

Methodist  Episcopalians 
Colored,  South . 

807 

82 

105,306 

Presbyterian . 

407 

144 

38,284 

Lutheran . 

103 

44 

14,788 

Episcopal . 

114 

84 

11,000 

Universalist . 

4 

1 

146 

Congregational . 

6 

5 

501 

A .  R .  Presbyterian . 

40 

27 

4,923 

Catholic . 

32 

16 

9,514 

For  further  religious  and  educational  statistics,  see 
Charleston,  Diocese  of. 

Recent  Legislation  and  History. — During  the 
governorship  of  Coleman  L.  Blease  (1911-15)  several 
conflicts  took  place  between  the  executive  and  the 
judiciary  and  legislature.  Governor  Blease  clashed 
with  the  State  Supreme  Court  over  judicial  appoint¬ 
ments,  refusing  to  commission  any  appointees  except 
his  personal  friends.  He  exercised  his  veto  to  an 
extraordinary  degree,  vetoing  more  bills  in  his  term 
of  office  than  his  predecessors  had  in  twenty  years . 
He  pardoned  so  many  convicts  that  the  prison  popula¬ 
tion  was  depleted.  He  was  nevertheless  re-elected 
in  1912  and  the  following  year  revoked  the  com¬ 
missions  of  notaries  public,  state  constables  and 
officers  in  the  State.  On  11  January,  1915,  he  dis¬ 
banded  the  organized  militia  of  the  State  and  resigned 
the  following  day.  His  successor  revoked  the  order 
of  disbandment.  Marriage  licences  were  required 
by  law  in  1911,  and  regulations  made  for  their  in¬ 
surance.  In  1912  electrocution  was  provided  as  a 
means  of  capital  punishment.  South  Carolina  voted 
for  prohibition  in  1915;  in  1920  free  tuition  in  the 
State  institutions  was  given  to  ex-soldiers. 

During  the  European  War  South  Carolina  contrib¬ 
uted  53,482  soldiers  or  1.42%  of  the  United  States 
Army.  The  South  Carolina  members  of  the  National 
Guard  joined  the  30th  Division  at  Camp  Sevier, 
South  Carolina,  and  those  of  the  National  Army, 
the  81st  Division  at  Camp  Jackson,  South  Carolina. 
The  summar^y  of  casualties  among  the  South  Carolina 
members  of  the  American  Expeditionary  Force  is  as 
follows:  deceased,  50  officers,  1088  men;  prisoners, 
2  officers,  14  men;  wounded,  162  officers,  2603  men. 

South  Dakota  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 160d). — The  area 
of  the  State  is  77,615  square  miles.  In  1920  the 
population  was  636,547,  an  increase  of  9  per  cent 
since  1910.  Of  this,  16%  was  urban;  84%  was 
rural.  The  average  number  of  inhabitants  to  the 
square  mile  is  8.3  as  against  7.6  in  1910  and  5.2  in 
1900.  South  Dakota  has  68  counties,  4  of  which  are 
unorganized.  Since  1910  four  new  counties  have 
been  organized  from  3  unorganized  counties  and  parts 
of  2  organized  counties.  The  largest  cities  are: 


Sioux  Falls,  25,202;  Aberdeen,  14,537;  Watertown, 
9400.  There  are  five  Indian  reservations,  two  of 
which  comprise  the  4  unorganized  counties  of  the 
State.  The  native  whites  of  native  parentage  num¬ 
ber  308,598;  of  foreign  parentage,  141,341;  of  mixed 
parentage  86,817.  The  foreign  born  (82,391)  came 
chiefly  from  Norway  (16,813),  Russia  (11,193), 
Germany  (15,674),  Sweden  (8573) .  There  are  also 
16,384  Indians.  Among  the  population  ten  years  of 
age  and  over  (482,195),  there  are  8109  illiterates. 

Economic  Status. — The  output  of  the  farms  of  the 
state  for  1919  is  as  follows:  corn  91,200,000  bushels, 
worth  $108,528,000;  wheat  30,175,000  bushels,  worth 
$72,420,000;  oats  53,650,000  bushels,  worth  $33,- 
800,000;  barley  19,250,000  bushels,  worth  $22,138,- 
000;  rye  6,500,000  bushels,  worth  $8,125,000;  flax¬ 
seed  1,160,000  bushels,  worth  $4,930,000;  potatoes 
4,450,000  bushels,  worth  $8,550,000;  hay  1,158,000 
tons,  worth  $21,033,000. 

The  number  of  farms  is  74,637  (34,636,491  acres), 
of  which  .1198  are  irrigated.  Agricultural  products 
shipped  out  of  the  state  in  1918  returned  $270,536,- 
000.  In  1917  the  State  produced  gold  to  the  value 
of  $7,364,233;  lime,  cement,  and  other  minerals,  also 
stone,  $973,443;  mica,  $11,008;  in  1919  the  value  of 
the  gold  produced  fell  to  $5,267,600. 

The  latest  census  of  manufactures  gives  the  follow¬ 
ing  summary:  establishments,  1414;  persons  engaged, 
9034;  capital,  $30,933,630;  salaries  and  wages, 
$9,981,625;  cost  of  materials,  $42,985,870;  value  of 
products,  $62,170,582.  The  principal  industries 
ranked  by  the  value  of  their  products  are:  butter¬ 
making,  flour  and  grist  mill  products,  bread  and 
other  bakery  products,  printing,  publishing,  news¬ 
papers  and  periodicals.  The  products  of  the  cream¬ 
eries  were  valued  at  $10,806,000;  of  the  flour  mills, 
$8,873,000 

The  Constitution  limits  the  bonded  debt  of  the  State 
to  $100,000  over  and  above  the  debt  of  the  territory 
of  Dakota  assumed  by  the  State  at  its  foundation. 
The  State  at  present  has  no  bonded  debt.  The 
assessed  value  of  real  and  personal  property  in  1919 
was  $1,846,456,090;  of  moneys  and  credits,  $110,- 
876,049;  of  corporate  property,  $137,802,039.  The 
railroad  mileage  is  4278. 

Education. — The  laws  governing  private  and  paro¬ 
chial  schools  are  as  follows:  All  private  school  in¬ 
struction  and  all  private  instruction  accepted  in 
lieu  of  public  school  instruction  shall  first  be  approved 
by  the  county  superintendent  who  shall  exercise 
supervision  over  such  schools  and  such  instruction 
and  shall  exercise  the  right  of  visitation  and  inspec¬ 
tion  thereof  and  may  revoke  his  approval  of  such 
instruction  at  any  time.  Instruction  shall  be  given 
in  all  common  schools  of  the  State,  both  public  and 
private,  in  the  English  language  only.  Religion 
shall  be  taught  in  English.  No  person  shall  be  per¬ 
mitted  to  teach  in  a  private  school  any  of  the  branches 
to  be  taught  in  the  public  schools  unless  such  person 
shall  hold  a  certificate  entitling  him  to  teach  the  same 
branches  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state.  All 
teachers  in  public  and  private  schools  must  take  oath 
of  allegiance.  No  public  appropriation  to  aid  any 
sectarian  school  shall  ever  be  made  (VIII — 16). 
Branches  to  be  taught  in  public  and  private  schools 
are:  reading,  writing,  orthography,  arithmetic, 
primary  language  and  English  grammar,  United 
States  and  South  Dakota  history,  physiology  and 
hygiene,  civil  government  and  drawing.  Patriotic 
instruction  shall  be  given  one  hour  each  week. 
School  attendance  is  compulsory  for  all  children  be¬ 
tween  the  ages  of  8  and  16  for  the  entire  school  term 
up  to  the  8th  grade  After  a  child  reaches  the  sixth 
grade,  the  period  of  attendance  may  be  reduced  to 
16  continuous  weeks.  A  child  welfare  commission 
was  established  i  n  1919.  Free  tuition  is  given  to 


SOUTHWARK 


700 


SOVIET 


war  veterans  in  all  state  institutions.  The  popula¬ 
tion  of  school  age  numbers  211,870,  of  whom  144,441 
(68.2%)  are  attending  school. 

About  one-third  of  the  school  lands  has  been  sold 
for  the  sum  of  $17,000,000  which  returns  an  annual 
revenue  of  interest  and  rentals  of  over  a  million  dollars. 
The  expenditure  for  school  purposes  in  1920  was 
$11,620,117.  Elementary  and  secondary  education 
is  free  to  all  from  6  to  21  years  of  age.  Between 
the  ages  of  8  and  16  it  is  compulsory  on  all  not 
otherwise  taught.  In  the  4749  elementary  schools  in 
1920  there  were  78,746  pupils  and  4873  teachers; 
421  secondary  schools  with  1018  teachers  and  12,694 
pupils.  The  government  maintains  three  Indian 
schools  in  the  State  at  Flandreau,  Rapid  City,  and 
Pierre.  There  are  four  normal  schools,  a  school  of 
mines,  an  agricultural  college,  and  a  university 
(60  instructors  and  961  students).  The  agricultural 
college  has  67  on  its  faculty  and  1096  students  (1918). 

Religion. — The  following  figures  are  taken  from  the 
United  States  Census  of  Religious  Denominations 
(1916). 


Denominations 

Members 

Churches 

Adventists . 

1,046 

25 

Baptists . 

8,852 

90 

Catholics . . 

72,113 

294 

Congregationalists . 

11,762 

181 

Disciples . 

1,764 

17 

Evangelicals . 

1,752 

40 

Friends . 

192 

3 

German  Evangelicals . 

339 

5 

Independents . 

236 

5 

Jews . 

270 

1 

Lutherans . 

52,035 

478 

Mennonites . 

1,798 

16 

Methodists . 

22,141 

271 

Presbyterians . 

10,077 

116 

Protestant  Episcopal  Church . 

8,156 

119 

Reform  Bodies . 

4,421 

54 

Salvation  Army . 

336 

.... 

Swedish  Evangelical . 

749 

19 

United  Evangelical  Church . 

231 

5 

United  Brethren . 

260 

7 

All  other  denominations . 

336 

7 

Total . 

199,017 

1,756 

For  Catholic  statistics  see  Sioux  Falls,  Diocese  • 
of;  Lead,  Diocese  of. 

Recent  Legislation  and  History. — In  1911  the 
distribution  of  lands  of  the  Sioux  Indian  Reservation 
was  begun  at  Gregory.  There  were  4000  homesteads 
and  50,000  applicants.  Provision  was  made  for  in¬ 
determinate  sentence  for  criminals,  the  length  of  the 
sentence  being  determined  by  the  Warden  and  Board 
of  Charities  and  Corrections.  In  1912  the  new 
Richards  Primary  Law  was  adopted,  so  as  to  do  away 
with  party  elections.  In  1916  State-wide  prohibition 
was  adopted.  In  1917  the  office  of  State  Sheriff  was 
created,  the  city  manager  plan  of  governing  cities 
approved,  a  Workmen’s  Compensation  Act  adopted, 
and  a  school  survey  provided  for.  The  Federal 
Suffrage  Amendment  was  ratified  on  4  December, 
1919;  the  Prohibition  Amendment  on  20  March, 
1918.  In  1917  the  South  Dakota  National  Guard 
was  called  into  Federal  Service  and  entrained  at 
Camp  Greene,  Charlotte,  North  Carolina.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  the  figures  prepared  by  General  W.  A.  Morris, 
South  Dakota’s  contribution  of  men  was  as  follows: 
voluntary  enlistments,  10,268;  selective  draft,  21,517; 
navy  and  marine,  1006.  A  total  of  141,243  regis¬ 
tered  for  the  selective  draft.  South  Dakota  soldiers 
went  over  with  the  first  contingents  sent  across  and 
continued  to  go  at  intervals  until  November,  1918, 
but  as  they  were  brigaded  with  no  reference  to  states  it 
is  impossible  to  follow  units  to  any  extent;  the  veteran 
Fourth  South  Dakota,  however,  was  chiefly  appor¬ 
tioned  to  the  146th,  147th,  148th  Field  Artillery, 
went  to  France  in  December,  1917,  and  January, 


1918,  and  rendered  valiant  service.  The  summary  of 
casualties  of  South  Dakota  men  in  the  American 
Expeditionary  Force  is  as  follows:  deceased,  13 
officers,  541  men;  prisoners,  16  men;  wounded,  43 
officers,  1254  men. 

Southwark,  Diocese  of  (Southwarcensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIV — 162d),  suffragan  of  Westminster,  Eng¬ 
land.  The  present  incumbent  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Peter 
Emmanuel  Amigo,  who  has  administered  the  diocese 
since  1904.  The  following  clergymen  and  dis¬ 
tinguished  laymen  have  died  since  1921:  Canon 
Thomas  Scannell,  joint  author  with  Dr.  Wilhelm  of 
a  manual  of  Catholic  Theology  (Wilhelm  and  Scan¬ 
nell).  He  revised  the  “Catholic  Dictionary”  and 
prepared  the  new  edition  (1918);  Canon  Halloran, 
who  for  sixty  years  was  attached  to  the  mission  of 
Our  Lady  Star  of  the  Sea,  at  Greenwich,  London, 
S.  E.;  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  well  known  for  his 
munificent  generosity  to  the  Church  and  for  his 
interest  in  and  support  of  Catholicity.  In  1918, 
twenty-four  of  the  secular  clergy  of  the  diocese 
were  serving  as  chaplains  in  the  army  and  navy. 
Rt.  Rev.  Anthony  Alphonse  De  Wachter,  auxiliary 
to  Cardinal  Mercier,  was  charged  with  the  spiritual 
interests  of  the  Belgian  war  refugees.  He  resided  at 
the  bishop’s  house  during  the  four  and  a  half  years 
of  his  stay  in  England,  the  episcopal  residence  being 
placed  unreservedly  at  his  disposal  and  made  the 
headquarters  for  his  work.  As  the  diocese  of  South¬ 
wark  was  the  nearest  to  the  seat  of  war,  many  hos¬ 
pitals  were  opened  there  which  were  faithfully  at¬ 
tended  by  the  priests  of  the  diocese.  In  1921  the 
diocese  contained  674  parishes,  158  churches,  150 
private  chapels,  70  stations,  37  religious  houses  for 
men,  142  for  women,  280  secular  priests,  257  regulars, 
9  homes  for  lay  brothers,  1  seminary  with  100  sem¬ 
inarians.  The  following  colleges  and  schools  exist 
in  the  diocese:  17  colleges  for  men,  200  teachers; 
64  colleges  for  women,  500  teachers;  2719  boys  and 
7059  girls  attend  the  various  high  schools;  94  elemen¬ 
tary  schools,  22,757  pupils;  2  industrial  schools,  14 
teachers;  20  Poor  Law  Schools.  Elementary  chools 
as  well  as  Poor  Law,  industrial  and  reformatory 
schools  receive  Government  appropriations.  Charita¬ 
ble  institutions  in  the  diocese  are:  3  homes,  5  hos¬ 
pitals,  2  refuges,  3  settlement  houses,  all  of  which 
admit  the  ministry  of  priests.  The  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  the  diocese  numbers  160,000.  The  Catholic 
paper  of  the  diocese  is  called  the  “Southwark  Record.” 
The  following  socieites  have  been  established  for  the 
priests:  the  Apostolic  Union  and  the  Priests’  Euchar¬ 
istic  League.  There  are  nine  societies  for  the  laity. 

Sovana  and  Pitigliano,  Diocese  of  (Soanensis 
Pitilianensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 165b),  in  the  pro¬ 
vince  of  Grosseto,  Central  Italy,  suffragan  of  Siena, 
with  the  residence  at  Pitigliano.  Mgr.  Riccardo 
Carlesi,  b.  at  Prato  in  1869,  came  to  the  see  8  July, 
1916,  in  succession  to  Bishop  Cardella,  who  governed 
it  from  1896  and  died  6  February,  1916.  The 
Catholic  population  numbers  38,500.  There  are  48 
parishes,  and  78  churches  and  chapels  served  by  96 
secular  and  10  regular  priests,  8  Brothers  and  23 
Sisters. 

Soviet — The  word  is  derived  from  the  Russian, 
meaning  Council.  In  the  modern  sense  it  is  used 
to  describe  a  form  of  revolutionary  organization 
and  is  more  specifically  applied  to  the  organization 
of  the  Communist  governments  which  were  set  up 
in  different  countries  during  the  years  following 
the  World  War.  Thus  Soviet  Governments  were 
formed  in  Russia,  Hungary,  Georgia,  Armenia,  and 
Ukrainia.  In  Russian  governmental  law  the  word 
Soviet  has  been  used  in  different  ways  since  the 


SOVIET 


701 


SOVIET 


first  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  For  instance: 
the  supreme  administrative  power  was  vested  in 
the  Council  of  Ministers,  acting  under  the  authority 
of  the  emperor.  On  the  other  hand,  the  supreme 
legislative  power  in  Russia  was  vested  in  the  Im¬ 
perial  Council,  together  with  the  Imperial  Duma, 
both  houses  acting  under  the  authority  of  the 
emperor.  The  legislative  authority  of  the  Imperial 
Council  corresponded  to  that  of  the  Senate  in  the 
United  States,  the  House  of  Lords  in  England,  and 
the  Senate  in  France.  The  specific  meaning  at¬ 
tached  to  the  word  Soviet  had  its  origin  in  1905  at 
the  time  of  the  first  outbreak  of  the  revolutionary 
movement  in  Russia,  when  the  extremist  leaders 
in  Petrograd  and  other  Russian  cities  induced  the 
industrial  workers  and  employees  in  different  lines 
of  trade  to  elect  their  representatives  to  the  Central 
Council  or  Soviet,  the  institution  of  which  was 
designed  to  control  the  revolutionary  movement. 
Following  out  this  program  the  workers  in  Petro¬ 
grad,  Moscow,  and  elsewhere  elected  their  respec¬ 
tive  deputies,  each  factory  sending  its  own  dele¬ 
gates  to  the  Soviet  of  this  or  the  other  city.  The 
Soviets  thus  elected  became  the  revolutionary  cen¬ 
ters  in  which  the  plans  were  worked  out  for  the 
overthrow  of  the  imperial  Government,  and  through 
which  they  were  actually  put  into  operation. 

In  most  instances  the  elections  of  the  Soviets 
were  merely  staged  and  the  representation  of  the 
factories  consisted  in  self-styled  agitators  who  had 
nothing  in  common  with  the  shop-workers  them¬ 
selves.  The  first  Petrograd  Soviet  of  Workers’ 
Deputies  was  controlled  by  Trotzky  (Bronstein) 
and  Parvus  (Helfandt),  both  of  whom  were  profes¬ 
sional  agitators  and  have  never  been  manual 
workers  themselves.  The  brief  history  of  the  first 
Petrograd  Soviet  was  identified  with  different 
criminal  outbreaks  and  the  looting  of  public  prop¬ 
erty  (banks,  the  treasury,  etc.).  The  first  Moscow 
Soviet  of  Workers’  Deputies  was  engaged  in  the 
organization  of  the  armed  uprising  against  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  in  1905.  During  that  stage  the  make-up 
of  the  Soviets  was  heterogeneous,  for  practically  all 
revolutionary,  radical  and  Communist  factions  were 
represented  therein.  With  the  defeat  of  the  revolu¬ 
tion  of  1905,  all  Soviet  organizations  were  dissolved 
by  the  Russian  Government  and  many  of  their 
members  were  tried  and  imprisoned.  In  1917, 
simultaneously  with  the  outbreak  of  the  March 
Revolution,  Soviet  organizations  were  hurriedly 
formed,  first  in  Petrograd  and  Moscow,  and  later 
in  other  Russian  cities.  Although  at  that  time  the 
Soviets  had  no  official  standing,  their  influence  upon 
governmental  affairs  became  so  great  as  to  over¬ 
shadow  the  significance  of  the  officially  recognized 
Provisional  Government.  Moreover,  Kerensky 
who  after  the  March  Revolution  became  the  head 
of  the  Provisional  Government,  was  vice-chairman 
of  the  Petrograd  Soviet  of  Workers’  and  Soldiers’ 
Deputies.  In  1917  the  make-up  of  the  Soviets  was 
augmented  by  the  representation  of  revolutionary 
army  units  and  the  poorer  peasants.  Thus,  the 
recognized  title  of  these  revolutionary  organizations 
was  “Soviets  of  Workers’,  Soldiers’  and  Peasants’ 
Deputies.”  During  the  first  five  months  subsequent 
to  the  revolution  the  Soviets  were  composed  of  rev¬ 
olutionists  belonging  to  the  different  extreme  fac¬ 
tions,  such  as  the  Bolsheviki,  Mensheviki,  Social 
Revolutionists  and  People’s  Socialists.  Gradually, 
however,  the  influence  of  the  Bolsheviki  or  Com¬ 
munists  became  dominant  and  by  August,  1917, 
the  Soviets  practically  everywhere  fell  under  the 
complete  control  of  the  Communists.  In  the  same 
proportion  as  the  Soviet  influence  grew  the  Provi¬ 
sional  Government  was  losing  its  prestige.  Soviets 


became  the  controlling  factor  not  only  in  the  eco¬ 
nomic  life  but  also  in  military  affairs  in  Russia. 
Every  regiment  and  army  unit  had  a  local  Soviet 
of  its  own  which  took  upon  itself  the  interference 
with  the  orders  of  the  regimental  commanders  and 
sometimes  even  of  the  supreme  command.  Condi¬ 
tions  resulting  therefrom  were  disastrous  as  the 
activities  of  the  different  army  units  became  thor¬ 
oughly  discoordinated  and  military  operations  be¬ 
came  impossible. 

During  this  phase  of  the  history  of  the  Soviets 
a  new  tendency  was  manifested,  namely,  plans  were 
worked  out  for  the  centralization  and  .coordination 
of  the  activities  of  the  various  local  Soviets.  To 
attain  this  end  the  latter  were  urged  to  elect  their 
representatives,  who  were  sent  to  the  capital  where 
they  formed  an  All  Russian  Central  Soviet,  which 
in  turn  elected  an  executive  committee  in  which 
the  supreme  administrative  power  was  vested. 
With  the  overthrow  of  the  Provisional  Govern¬ 
ment  the  Soviets  automatically  seized  the  state 
control.  The  official  “Constitution”  of  the  Soviet 
system  was  adopted  at  the  Fifth  All  Russian  Con¬ 
gress  of  Soviets  in  July,  1918,  according  to  which 
the  “Russian  Socialist  Federal  Soviet  Republic”  is 
governed  by  the  All  Russian  Congress  of  Soviets, 
which  in  turn  is  composed  of  representatives  of 
local,  urban  and  provncial  Soviets.  The  All 
Russian  Congress  of  Soviets  is  convoked  at 
least  twice  a  year  by  the  All  Russian  Central 
Executive  Committee.  In  the  intervals  between 
the  sessions  of  the  All  Russian  Congresses  of 
Soviets  the  supreme  power  is  exercised  by  the  All 
Russian  Central  Executive  Committee.  Paragraph 
31  of  the  Soviet  “Constitution”  provides  that  “The 
All  Russian  Central  Executive  Committee  is  the 
supreme  legislative,  executive  and  controlling  organ 
of  the  Russian  Socialist  Federal  Soviet  Republic.” 
The  same  Central  Executive  Committee  forms  a 
Council  of  People’s  Commissars  for  the  purpose  of 
the  general  management  of  the  affairs  of  the  Soviet 
Republic,  and  it  also  has  authority  to  form  different 
departments  or  People’s  Commissariats  for  the 
purpose  of  conducting  the  various  branches  of  gov¬ 
ernment.  The  Central  Executive  Committee  con¬ 
siders  and  enacts  all  measures  and  proposals  intro¬ 
duced  by  the  Soviet  of  People’s  Commissars,  or  by 
the  various  departments  issuing  decrees  and  regu¬ 
lations  of  its  own.  At  the  same  time  the  Council 
of  People’s  Commissars  has  the  right  to  issue  its 
decrees,  resolutions  and  orders,  notifying  the  All 
Russian  Central  Executive  Committee  of  all  orders 
thus  issued. 

The  Soviet  or  Council  of  People’s  Commissars  is 
composed  of  seventeen  Commissars:  (a)  Foreign 
Affairs;  (b)  Army;  (c)  Navy;  (d)  Interior;  (e) 
Justice;  (f)  Labor;  (g)  Social  Welfare;  (h)  Educa¬ 
tion;  (i)  Post  and  Telegraph;  (j)  National  Af¬ 
fairs;  (k)  Finances;  (1)  Ways  of  Communication; 
(m)  Agriculture;  (n)  Commerce  and  Industry;  (o) 
National  Supplies;  (p)  State  Control;  (q)  Supreme 
Soviet  of  National  Economy;  (r)  Public  Health. 
The  Soviet  of  People’s  Commissars  is  accountable 
to  the  All  Russian  Congress  of  Soviets  and  the  All 
Russian  Central  Executive  Committee.  The  organ¬ 
ization  of  local  Soviets  comprises  Soviet  organiza¬ 
tions  of  four  categories:  (a)  Regional;  (b)  Provin¬ 
cial;  (c)  County;  (d)  Rural  of  Volost,  the  latter 
being  the  smallest  administrative  division  of  the 
Russian  State.  Each  local  Soviet  elects  an  execu¬ 
tive  organ  of  its  own,  the  membership  of  which  in 
regional  and  provincial  Soviets  does  not  exceed 
twenty-five ;  in  county  Soviets,  twenty ;  and  in 
rural  Soviets,  ten.  These  Executive  Committees 
are  responsible  to  the  Congress  which  elects  them. 


SPAIN 


702 


SPAIN 


In  addition,  the  Soviet  “Constitution”  provides 
for  so-called  “Soviets  of  Deputies.”  These  are 
organized  in  the  following  way:  In  cities,  one 
deputy  is  elected  for  each  one  thousand  inhabitants. 
The  total  number  of  deputies  is  not  less  than  fifty 
and  not  more  than  one  thousand  members.  Other 
settlements,  such  as  towns  and  villages,  of  less  than 
ten  thousand  inhabitants,  elect  one  deputy  for  each 
one  hundred  inhabitants,  the  total  being  not  less 
than  three  and  not  more  than  fifty  deputies.  The 
term  of  the  deputy  is  only  for  three  months.  The 
Soviets  of  Deputies,  in  turn,  elect  Executive  Com¬ 
mittees  to  deal  with  current  affairs.  These  Com¬ 
mittees  are  also  accountable  to  the  Soviets  which 
elect  them.  This  complicated  and  clumsy  govern¬ 
mental  system  makes  it  impossible  to  administrate 
governmental  affairs  in  a  way  that  would  be  more 
or  less  efficient.  Conflicting  decrees  are  issued  by 
the  hundreds  of  different  local  Soviets.  Moreover, 
even  within  the  central  state  organization  contra¬ 
dictory  orders  are  given  by  the  Soviet  of  People’s 
Commissars,  the  All  Russian  Central  Executive 
Committee  and  the  All  Russian  Congress  of  Soviets 
• — the  three  bodies  acting  in  a  large  degree  inde¬ 
pendently  one  from  the  other.  The  Commissars 
themselves  have  admitted  on  various  occasions  that 
such  a  system  of  government  is  bound  to  result  in 
a  complete  paralysis  of  the  governmental  machine. 
Thus,  Nevsky,  formerly  Commissar  of  Ways  and 
Communications,  and  Rykofif,  in  charge  of  the 
Supreme  Council  of  National  Economy,  as  far  back 
as  1920,  addressing  the  All  Russian  Congress  of 
Soviets,  gave  a  complete  account  of  the  shortcom¬ 
ings  of  the  Soviet  system,  picturing  in  the  darkest 
colors  the  state  of  Russian  economic  life. 

In  spite,  however,  of  these  warnings,  and  the 
proven  collapse  of  the  whole  governmental  system, 
which  is  in  a  state  of  complete  decay,  no  measures 
have  been  adopted  to  improve  the  situation.  In 
various  countries  revolutionary  movements  have 
been  accompanied  by  attempts  to  set  up  Soviets 
of  rebellious  Workers’  and  Soldiers’  Deputies.  The 
notorious  Communist  rule  in  Hungary  (1918-19), 
under  the  dictatorship  of  Bela  Cohen  (Kuhn),  as¬ 
sumed  the  shape  of  a  Soviet  administration.  In 
the  same  way,  in  November,  1918,  the  mutinous 
sailors  of  the  German  fleet,  after  an  uprising  in 
Kiel,  organized  a  Council  or  Soviet  of  Workmen, 
Soldiers  and  Sailors.  This  revolutionary  outbreak 
was  followed  by  a  similar  Soviet  movement  in 
Hamburg  and  other  ports  and  German  industrial 
districts.  By  the  Fall  of  1918,  Soviets  were  estab¬ 
lished  in  nearly  every  center  of  importance  in 
Germany,  and  their  tactics  became  identified  with 
the  agitation  for  world  revolution  and  the  destruc¬ 
tion  of  the  capitalist  regime  in  Germany  itself. 
The  German  Soviet  movement,  similar  to  that  in 
Russia,  was  dominated  by  the  Bolshevist  faction, 
which  is  known  in  Germany  as  the  Spartacus  group 
(q.  v.).  The  Soviet  system  both  in  Russia  and 
elsewhere  expresses  practically  the  program  of 
proletarian  dictatorship. 

See  Bibliography  for  Bolshevism;  also  Decrees  and  Constitu¬ 
tion  of  Soviet  Russia  (New  York,  1920);  Terne,  In  the  Realm 
of  Lenin  (in  Russian,  Berlin,  1921);  Shcherbina,  Laws  of  Evolu¬ 
tion  and  Russian  Bolshevism  (in  Russian,  Belgrade,  1921); 
Franke,  Die  Wahrheit  ueber  Russland  (Berlin,  1920);  The  Bol- 
sheviki  in  their  Role  of  Managers  and  Rulers  (in  Russian,  Tokio, 
1919);  Memorandum  on  the  Bolshevist  or  Communist  Party  in 
Russia  and  its  Relations  to  the  Third  or  Communist  Internationale 
and  to  the  Soviets  (Washington,  D.  C.,  1920). 

Boris  Brasol. 

Spain  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 169b). — The  kingdom  has 
an  area  of  190,050  sq.  m.,  but  including  the  Balearic 
and  the  Canary  Islands  and  the  Spanish  possessions 
in  Africa,  the  total  area  is  194,783  sq.  m.  The  census 


of  1910  gave  19,950,817  inhabitants,  but  the  estimated 
population  in  1919  was  20,738,844. 

Agriculture. — The  soil  of  Spain  is  subdivided 
among  a  very  large  number  of  proprietors.  In  1919, 
3,300,965  acres  were  under  vines  and  produced 
7,914,252,192  pounds  of  grapes;  in  1918,  3,852,910 
acres  under  olives  yielded  1,403,831  pounds.  Silk 
culture  is  carried  on  in  Valencia,  Murcia,  and  other 
provinces.  There  are  26  cane  sugar  factories  and  40 
beet  sugar  factories  in  Spain.  The  production  in  1917 
totalled  80,034,580  kgs.  The  normal  agricultural 
production  in  1919  was:  wheat,  70,352,992  bushels; 
barley,  35,623,758  bushels;  rye,  11,835,142  bushels; 
maize,  12,882,452  bushels;  oats,  9,555,392  bushels; 
total,  140,249,736  bushels.  Oil,  255,202  tons;  wine, 
543,904,788  gallons. 

Fisheries. — In  the  Spanish  fisheries  the  total 
number  of  boats  employed  in  1917  was  about  15,293, 
of  which  751  were  steamers;  fishermen,  86,287;  the 
value  pf  catch  about  87,229,047  pesetas ,  representing 
a  total  weight  of  135,607  tons.  The  most  important 
catches  are  those  of  sardines,  tunny  fish,  and  cod. 

In  Spain  there  are  677  factories,  with  19,320  workmen 
for  the  preparation  of  sardines  and  fish-preserves. 

Religion. — Religious  liberty  prevails  in  Spain, 
but  the  whole  population  except  30,000  adheres  to 
the  Catholic  faith.  The  law  of  1910  allows  the  public 
exercise  of  all  creeds  in  Spain.  In  the  year  1919  the 
religious  orders  in  Spain  numbered  807  communities 
of  men  and  3585  of  women.  The  number  of  male 
religious  was  9667;  of  female  37,849.  Some  of  these 
religious  communities  have  taken  up  sections  of  the 
most  desolate  and  wild  lands  in  Catalonia  and  the 
North,  lands  which  have  never  been  profitable  or 
even  cultivated,  and  erected  monasteries  there  after 
the  manner  of  the  Middle  Ages  or  of  the  energetic 
missionaries  in  the  Far  West. 

Education. — The  elaborate  system  of  education 
created  by  the  law  of  1857  has  not  been  rigidly  en¬ 
forced,  but  various  improvements  have  been  effected, 
especially  by  a  law  of  9  June,  1909,  which  made  edu¬ 
cation  obligatory.  The  country  is  divided  into  eleven 
educational  districts  with  the  universities  as  centres. 
There  are  seventeen  government  schools  of  com¬ 
merce,  and  the  national  government  maintains 
twenty-five  manual  training  schools.  There  are  also  \ 
26,103  public  schools  and  5669  private  schools,  with 
2,604,308  pupils.  Besides  the  58  secondary  institu¬ 
tions,  or  middle  class  schools,  there  are  253  annexed 
schools  or  colegios,  preparatory  to  the  cultural  : 
institutions.  Educational  conditions  in  Spain  are 
improving.  In  1917  the  amount  expended  by  the 
Government  upon  primary  education  was  $6,894,235, 
an  increase  of  33  per  cent  since  1902;  on  secondary 
education,  an  increase  of  48  per  cent;  on  special 
schools  of  161  per  cent.  The  appropriation  for  uni¬ 
versity  education  in  1916  was  twice  that  of  1902.  By 
royal  decree  of  25  August,  1917,  there  was  organized 
with  the  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction  a  foundation 
for  the  study  and  encouragement  of  the  education  of 
deaf  mutes,  the  blind  and  the  mentally  abnormal. 
The  establishment  of  the  Commission  for  the  Enlarge¬ 
ment  of  Studies  and  Scientific  Investigations,  La  Junta 
para  de  E studios  e  Investigadones  Cientijicas,”  com¬ 
posed  of  eminent  educational  and  scientific  experts, 
chosen  with  "due  regard”  to  the  diversity  of  intel¬ 
lectual  and  religious  tendencies  of  Spain,  is  of  doubtful 
value  as  the  universities  are  really  deprived  of  initia¬ 
tive  and  freedom.  It  supports  Spanish  students  in  1 
foreign  countries  and  encourages  new  types  of  educa¬ 
tional  institutes  as  well  as  scientific  and  sociological 
research. 

Charity. — In  1919  there  were  sixty-three  hospitals 
in  the  capitals  of  the  country,  Madrid  has  eight: 
Provincial,  Princesa,  Clinico  de  San  Carlos,  San  Juan 
de  Dios,  Nino  Jesus,  V.  O.  T.  de  San  Francisco,  Jesus 


SPAIN 


703 


SPAIN 


Nazareno,  Nuestra  Senora  del  Carmen.  On  1  Jan¬ 
uary,  1919,  there  were  2732  patients,  and  with 
21,790  admitted  during  the  year,  the  total  number  of 
patients  included  12,(304  men  and  11,918  women. 
The  five  asylums  of  Madrid,  including  the  Hospicio 
de  Madrid,  Asilo  de  Nuestra  Senora  de  la  Paloma, 
Asilo  de  Vallehermoso,  de  Santa  Cristina,  and  de 
Nuestra  Senora  de  Las  Mercedes,  sheltered  in  1919 
a  total  of  5059  people.  There  are  sixty  emergency 
hospitals  in  the  country.  The  number  of  insane  people 
(2185)  added  in  1919  to  those  already  present  in  the 
asylums  of  the  capitals  brought  the  total  up  to  9187. 
The  number  of  leprosy  cases  treated  in  1914  was 
874  and  in  1920,  1039,  an  increase  of  165. 

Special  mention  should  be  made  of  the  work  of  the 
Society  of  Saint  Vincent  de  Paul  in  Spain.  Owing 
to  the  incomplete  data  given  for  the  year  1919  the 
figures  published  are  those  for  1918.  In  that  year  621 
conferences  and  meetings  were  held;  10,549  families 
were  visited;  1212  marriages  regulated;  444  children 
legitimatized;  5202  children  and  2487  adults  were  in¬ 
structed;  personal  taxes,  23,332  pesetas)  funds:  income, 
1,105,055  pesetas;  expenditure,  1,039,543  pesetas.  In 
all,  the  number  of  benevolent  institutions  were  11,274; 
their  funds  amounted  to  548,811,447  pesetas ,  the 
average  fund  of  each  institution  48,679  pesetas;  their 
total  revenues,  15,995,619  pesetas,  the  average  income 
of  each  foundation*  1418  pesetas;  average  fund  for 
each  inhabitant,  26.49  pesetas. 

Defence. — Military  service  in  Spain  is  compulsory. 
The  total  term  of  service  is  for  18  years,  divided  into 
the  following:  1  year  recruits  in  deposit;  3  years 
active  army  (first  standing);  5  years  active  army 
(second  standing);  6  years  reserve;  and  3  years  terri¬ 
torial  reserve  (not  yet  organized).  In  1916  a  central 
general  staff  of  the  army  was  appointed.  The  coun¬ 
try  is  divided  up  into  eight  territorial  districts,  each 
under  a  Captain-General.  The  peace  establishment 
for  1920  was  fixed  at  216,649  men  of  all  ranks  (64,355 
in  Morocco),  and  the  total  strength  of  the  field  army 
would  probably  be  about  300,000  combatants.  The 
army  is  organized  in  16  divisions,  each  of  2  brigades 
and  1  of  artillery.  There  are  also  the  Guardia  Civil 
and  the  Carabineros,  the  former  a  constabulary,  the 
latter  a  military  police  used  as  customs  guard  on  the 
frontier,  both  recruited  from  the  army  and  under 
military  discipline.  Outside  the  Spanish  peninsula 
there  are  the  three  military  commands  of  Melilla, 
Ceuta  and  Larache  in  Morocco,  also  the  Balearic 
Islands  and  the  Canary  Islands. 

Government. — The  various  provinces  and  com¬ 
munes  of  Spain  are  governed  by  provincial  and  muni¬ 
cipal  laws.  Since  1  January,  1918,  every  commune 
has  its  own  elected  ayuntamiento ,  consisting  of  from 
five  to  fifty  regidores,  or  concejales,  and  presided  over 
by  the  Alcalde,  at  whose  side  stand,  in  the  larger 
towns,  several  tencientes  alcaldes.  The  entire  municipal 
Government,  with  power  of  taxation,  is  vested  in  the 
ayuntamientos.  Half  the  members  are  elected  every 
two  years,  and  they  appoint  the  alcalde,  the  executive 
functionary,  from  their  own  body.  Members  cannot 
be  re-elected  until  after  two  years.  Each  province  in 
Spain  has  its  own  Assembly,  the  Diputacion  Provin¬ 
cial,  the  members  of  which  are  elected  by  the  con¬ 
stituencies.  The  diputaciones  provinciates  meet  in 
annual  session,  and  are  permanently  represented  by 
the  comision  provincial,  a  committee  appointed  every 
year.  The  Constitution  of  1876  secures  to  the  dipu¬ 
taciones  provinciates  and  the  ayuntamientos  the  govern¬ 
ment  and  administration  of  the  respective  provinces 
and  communes.  Neither  the  national  executive  nor 
the  Cortes  has  the  right  to  interfere  in  the  established 
municipal  and  provincial  administration,  notwith¬ 
standing  which  pressure  is  too  frequently  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  local  elections  by  the  Central  Govern- 
45 


ment.  During  the  World  War,  Spain  maintained 
strict  neutrality. 

Political  Situation. — The  various  political  par¬ 
ties  at  present  are  the  Conservatives,  Liberals,  Re¬ 
formists,  Republicans,  Regionalists  (Catalonia),  Carl- 
ists,  and  Independents.  Until  a  recent  date  all  the 
progressive  elements  in  the  country  were  republican, 
anti-clerical  and  Jacobin.  The  monarchy  was  re¬ 
duced  to  seeking  a  basis  in  the  rural  population, 
which,  for  several  causes,  among  which  lack  of  proper 
communications  and  an  insufficient  standard  of  edu¬ 
cation  are  prominent,  were  politically  passive.  The 
result  was  a  political  system,  based  on  the  predomi¬ 
nance  of  local  demagogues,  called  in  Spain  caciques. 
The  cacique  keeps  the  constituency  in  hand  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Government’s  candidate,  and  in  ex¬ 
change,  the  Government  puts  all  the  power  of  the 
•State  at  the  service  of  the  local  activities  of  the  cacique. 
Throughout  the  Restoration  period  the  actual  working 
of  the  system  was  entrusted  to  a  political  machinery 
composed  of  two  parties,  the  Liberals  and  Conserva¬ 
tives.  The  Conservative  party,  now  in  power,  stands 
for  the  old  order  of  things  in  general,  the  “make  haste 
slowly”  principle;  its  adherents  are  of  various  shades 
of  opinion.  The  majority  of  them  are  heart  and  soul 
for  the  present  monarchy  and  for  a  constitutional 
Spain.  Others  are  “Carlists”  and  hark  back  to  the 
older  regime.  Others  want  to  see  no  change  whatever 
— they  are  the  “stand-patters”  of  the  party.  Others 
are  strong  clericals  and  see  in  any  change  an  attack 
on  the  vested  rights  of  the  Church.  The  Liberal 
party  believes  in  developing  Spain  to  the  extreme  lim¬ 
its  of  pure  Constitutionalism  without  actually  destroy¬ 
ing  the  monarchy,  no  matter  what  interests  may 
suffer.  The  majority  of  its  adherents  are  strictly  con¬ 
stitutional  and  devoted  to  the  monarchy.  They  want 
the  broadest  measure  of  modern  political  invention, 
whether  Spain  is  ready  for  it  or  not.  Then  comes  the 
Republican  party,  which  may  be  described  as  being 
in  the  same  relation  (in  the  inverse  order)  to  the  Liber¬ 
als  as  the  Carlists  are  to  the  Conservatives.  They  are 
anti-constitutional  and  anti-monarchical,  and  desire 
a  republic  in  Spain.  They  follow  the  Radicals,  who 
are  the  apostles  of  discontent,  and  whose  members 
are  of  all  shades  of  opinion,  theorists,  Socialists,  and 
some  of  the  “white  glove”  or  philosophical  school  of 
anarchy.  They  are  divided  into  various  groups,  such 
as  Regionalists,  Independents,  etc. 

The  situation  in  Spain  today  is  the  result  of  the 
contemporaneous  maturing  of  two  movements,  each 
aiming  at  a  transformation  of  the  political  and  social 
order  of  the  nation.  The  one  is  called  in  Spain  the 
“regionalist  movement,”  and  the  other,  the  Spanish 
manifestation  of  the  same  social  unrest  that  is  sweep¬ 
ing  the  world,  is  industrial  in  character  and  aims  at 
nothing  less  than  social  revolution.  The  regionalist 
movement,  as  a  whole,  is  a  concerted  attack  on  the 
central  Government.  It  is,  in  other  words,  a  political 
movement  aiming  at  a  decentralization  of  govern¬ 
mental  control  by  a  recognition  of  the  great  historic 
“regions”  of  Spain,  to  be  erected  into  autonomous  or 
even  into  independent  States.  In  two  regions  par¬ 
ticularly,  this  agitation  for  regional  autonomy  is 
intensified  by  a  local  nationalistic  propaganda  of 
more  or  less  ancient  origin.  The  Basques  and  Cata¬ 
lonians,  by  virtue  of  their  Spanish  language,  litera¬ 
ture,  and  race,  are  appealing  to  the  principle  of  self- 
determination  for  “oppressed  nationalities.”  The 
enthusiasm  for  the  movement  has  made  it  powerful 
enough  to  become  an  issue  throughout  the  peninsula. 
With  one-tenth  of  the  total  population  of  the  nation, 
Catalonia  pays  one-fifth  of  the  taxes,  buys  one-half 
the  imports,  and  sells  one-third  of  the  exports  of  the 
whole  nation.  It  is,  therefore,  difficult  to  reconcile 
the  Catalonians  to  the  control  of  the  central  Govern- 


SPALATO 


704 


SPALDING 


ment.  Moreover,  Catalans  feel  alien  from  Castilians, 
Andalusians  from  Galicians.  . 

In  direct  contrast  to  this  movement  is  the  “Span¬ 
ish”  movement,  lacking  the  separatist  patriotic 
animus,  but  aiming  simply  at  a  political  re-organiza- 
tion  of  the  nation  as  the  moral  and  social  renovation 
of  government  in  Spain.  The  proposed  reorganization 
has,  however,  been  radical  enough  to  arouse  deter¬ 
mined  opposition  in  the  central  Government. 

At  present  there  is  division  in  the  ranks  of  the 
Socialist  party.  This  has  strengthened  the  Syndical¬ 
ist  movement,  which  is  economic,  not  political. 
The  Socialists  have  met  with  bitter  and  uncom¬ 
promising  opposition  from  the  established  order  and 
in  their  present  attitude  are  bound  to  remain  a 
negative  or  at  most  a  merely  critical  force  in  the 
politics  of  the  nation.  However,  they  have  been 
an  important  factor  in  the  present  industrial  unrest  of 
Spain.  Other  contributing  causes  are  the  privations 
or  the  economic  crisis  and  the  agitation  in  military 
circles.  The  consequent  widespread  strikes  and  dis¬ 
turbances  brought  about  the  rise  and  fall  of  several 
ministries  and  at  times  the  placing  of  the  whole 
country  under  martial  law.  The  dissatisfaction  in 
the  army  is  due  to  what  is  held  to  be  favoritism, 
certain  officers  receiving  advancement  through  court 
influences,  and  also  to  the  insufficiency  of  pay  and 
lack  of  adequate  military  organization.  This  re¬ 
sulted  in  the  organization  by  the  officers,  the  gen¬ 
darmerie  and  customs  officials  of  juntas  for  the 
defense  of  their  interests.  So  great  was  their  in¬ 
fluence  in  1917  that  the  army  was  in  actual  revolution 
and  the  political  situation  in  Spain  was  most  critical. 
The  military  juntas  are  reactionary  and  are  opposed 
to  labor  organizations. 

Labor  unions,  or  sindicatos  Catolicos,  as  they  are 
called,  have  been  formed,  however,  and  are  still 
being  formed  among  the  miners,  railroad  men,  and 
men  of  other  trades;  classes  of  social  work  have  been 
established,  employers  are  instructed  in  the  proper 
treatment  of  their  workmen.  Casas  Sociales  with 
recreation  rooms,  co-operative  stores,  theatres,  have 
been  established  in  a  few  cities;  and  last  but  by  no 
means  the  least,  practically  the  entire  population 
has  been  formed  into  an  association  called  El  Sindicato 
Agricola.  With  the  help  and  guidance  of  Father  Nevares 
as  its  prime  mover  and  guiding  star  it  has,  since  its 
establishment  ten  years  ago  enrolled  as  associates 
600,000  families,  representing  about  three  million 
souls.  These  are  formed  into  a  nation-wide  union 
of  6000  sindicatos  or  local  branches  with  divisions  in 
each  province,  while  individual  towns  are  subject 
to  the  province.  It  is  truly  democratic  in  organiza¬ 
tion;  the  workmen  or  farmers  of  each  town  elect  their 
representative,  the  representatives  of  the  towns 
elect  the  chief  of  each  province,  and  the  last  named 
elect  the  general  director  of  the  confederation.  Each 
federation  or  local  branch  takes  care  of  the  temporal 
welfare  of  the  associates,  interests  itself  in  all  disputes 
between  workmen  and  employers,  makes  loans,  and 
has  a  loan  fund  as  well  as  a  sick  fund.  The  organiza¬ 
tion  of  other  unions,  or  sindicatos,  of  workmen  of 
various  trades  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Agrarian 
Federation.  The  railroad  union  has  6000  or  7000 
associates.  Its  worth  was  exhibited  in  the  railway 
strikes  of  1916  and  1917,  when  its  members,  not  being 
convinced  of  the  reason  and  justice  of  the  strike, 
refused  to  strike. 

The  policy  of  reconstruction  is  at  present  much 
discussed  in  Spain.  It  comprises  the  following 
objects:  (1)  the  nationalization  of  the  main  railroad 
lines  and  change  of  legislation  in  regard  to  the  less 
important  lines;  (2)  regulation  of  concessions  of  water¬ 
courses;  (3)  extensive  appropriation  for  public  works; 
(4)  changes  in  the  mining  regulations;  (5)  agricultural 
credit;  (6)  organization  of  agricultural  education  and 


of  refordsting;  (7)  the  creation  of  an  organized  body 
to  shape  economic  policies  during  the  transition  period . 
Included  also  is  the  construction  of  a  large  system  of 
railways.  In  1917  it  was  estimated  that  the  hydro¬ 
electric  power  utilized  in  Spain  is  equal  to  2,000,000 
tons  of  coal,  a  present  value  of  $80,000,000.  It  is 
necessary  to  exploit  water  power  on  account  of  the 
coal  shortage.  The  industrial  situation  in  Spain 
has  been  unique  for  two  reasons,  one  being  that  a 
considerable  proportion  of  employers  has  been  limited 
to  companies  whose  directing  bodies  resided  abroad. 
This  circumstance  introduced  into  labor  questions  a 
national  consideration  together  with  difficulties  of 
international  law.  It  is  proposed  now  that  all 
concessions  for  the  use  of  water  power  and  mines 
must  be  limited  to  individuals  and  companies  living 
in  Spain. 

\  I 

Spalato  and  Macarska,  Diocese  of  (Spala-  i 
tensis  et  Macarscensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 207d), 
in  Jugoslavia,  suffragan  of  Zara,  in  1917  had  a 
Catholic  population  of  201,149  with  about  10,500 
schismatics  and  about  3000  Protestants.  There  are 
98  parishes,  281  secular  and  79  regular  priests. 
Mgr.  Gjivoic,  who  succeeded  to  the  see  11  July, 
1911,  died  27  February,  1917.  He  was  succeeded 
by  one  of  his  two  auxiliaries,  resident  at  Macarska, 

Rt.  Rev.  George  Caric,  born  1867,  elected  titular 
bishop  of  Ceramus  and  auxiliary  to  the  bishop  of 
Spalato,  1906,  being  consecrated  at  Rome  by  Cardinal 
Merry  del  Val.  He  died  17  May,  1921,  and  the  see 
is  still  vacant.  Mgr.  Vincent  Palunko,  titular  bishop 
of  Rhodiopolis  and  auxiliary  to  the  bishop  of  Spalato 
(elected  1904)  resides  at  Spalato. 

Spalding,  James  Field,  b.  at  Enfield,  Connecti¬ 
cut,  in  1839;  d.  at  Boston  on  9  August,  1921.  The  con¬ 
version  of  Mr.  Spalding  to  the  Faith  in  1891  provoked 
a  storm  among  the  Protestants  like  that  caused  by 
Newman’s  abandonment  of  Anglicanism  in  1845. 

He  graduated  from  Williston  Seminary,  Easthampton, 
Mass.,  and  in  1862  from  Williams  College.  He  was 
then  a  Congregationalist,  but  was  dissatisfied  with 
its  doctrine  and  becoming  Episcopalian  about  1868, 
he  was  ordained  deacon  by  Bishop  Lawrence  of 
Massachusetts.  After  rectorships  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y., 
and  Portland,  Conn.,  he  was  assigned  to  Christ 
Church,  Cambridge,  in  1879.  It  was  not  till  twelve  i 
years  afterwards  that  he  entered  the  True  Fold, 
announcing  as  his  reason  that  he  found  the  Epis¬ 
copalian  Church  and  the  entire  Anglican  community 
permeated  with  rationalism  and  free  thinking  and 
unbelief. 

Spalding,  John  Lancaster. — Scholar,  distin¬ 
guished  churchman  and  first  Bishop  of  the  Diocese 
of  Peoria,  Illinois,  b.  at  Lebanon,  Kentucky,  2  June, 
1840;  d.  at  Peoria  25  August,  1916.  He  received  his 
education  at  Mount  St.  Mary’s  College,  Emmits- 
burg,  the  University  of  Louvain,  Belgium,  and  the 
American  College  in  Rome.  After  his  ordination  to 
the  priesthood,  he  was  designated  as  one  of  the 
assistant  priests  at  the  Cathedral  in  Louisville, 
Kentucky,  and  later  was  made  secretary  to  the 
Bishop  of  Louisville  and  chancellor  of  the  diocese. 
From  1872-77  he  was  stationed  at  St.  Michael’s 
Church  in  New  York  City,  where  he  had  gone  to 
write  the  life  of  his  uncle,  the  Most  Rev.  Martin 
John  Spalding,  seventh  Archbishop  of  Baltimore. 
Appointed  first  bishop  of  the  See  of  Peoria  27  Nov., 
1876,  he  was  consecrated  in  New  York  City  by  Car¬ 
dinal  McCloskey  1  May,  1877.  He  was  very  active 
in  the  cause  of  Catholic  higher  education  and  was  one 
of  the  prime  movers  in  the  establishment  of  the  pres¬ 
ent  Catholic  University  at  Washington,  D.  C.  He 
also  cooperated  quite  actively  in  the  movement  for 
Catholic  colonization  of  the  West,  and  in  1902  he  was 


SPARTACUS 


705 


SPEYER 


appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States  as  one 
of  the  arbitrators  in  the  anthracite  coal  strike.  At 
the  height  of  his  power  TLnd  prestige,  he  was  stricken 
with  paralysis  6  Jan.,  1905,  and  three  years  later  he 
was  compelled  to  resign  from  the  active  administration 
of  his  diocese  and  was  given  the  title  of  titular  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Scitopolis.  Among  his  writings  may  be 
mentioned,  “Life  of  the  Most  Rev.  Martin  J.  Spald¬ 
ing,  D.D.”;  “Religion,  Agnosticism  and  Education,” 
“Socialism  and  Labor,”  and  his  essays. 

Reuss,  Biog.  Cycl.  of  the  Catholic  Hierarchy  of  the  United 
Slates  (Milwaukee,  1898);  Shea.  The  Defenders  of  Our  Faith 
(New  York,  1892),  334-35;  The  Catholic  Hist.  Rev.,  Ill,  154. 

Spartacus  Group. — Under  this  name  is  known  the 
extreme  faction  of  the  German  Socialist  movement. 
The  pretext  for  the  birth  of  this  group  was  the  dis¬ 
sension  among  German  Socialists  on  their  attitude 
toward  the  World  War,  and  more  specifically  the 
voting  for  the  war  credit.  While  on  4  August,  1914, 
immediately  after  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
War,  the  Socialist  representatives  in  the  German 
Reichstag  unanimously  voted  for  the  war  credit, 
nevertheless  the  debates  which  preceded  this  voting 
indicated  that  there  was  a  difference  of  opinion 
among  the  Socialists  with  regard  to  the  vital  issue 
of  military  preparedness.  Karl  Liebknecht  was 
among  the  most  violent  antagonists  of  the  Hugo 
Haase  Socialist  faction,  which  stood  for  the  support 
of  the  Imperial  German  Government.  In  Decem¬ 
ber  of  the  same  year,  when  the  German  Chancellor 
made  a  plea  for  additional  war  credits,  Liebknecht 
voted  “no.”  The  final  organization  of  the  Spartacus 
Group  dates  back  to  1917,  when  Liebknecht  and 
Rosa  Luxemburg  came  out  openly  against  the 
tactics  of  the  Independent  Socialist  Party,  accus¬ 
ing  them  of  liberal  or  petty  bourgeois  tendencies. 
Simultaneously  the  Spartacus  Group  combined  its 
efforts  with  the  so-called  group  of  the  Interna¬ 
tionale  and  started  extensive  propaganda  among 
the  German  workers  and  soldiers,  advocating  an 
immediate  social  revolution,  with  the  final  aim  of 
establishing  proletarian  dictatorship.  This  move¬ 
ment  was  largely  influenced  by  the  Bolshevik  rev¬ 
olution  in  Russia.  Financially  the  Bolsheviki  came 
to  the  assistance  of  the  revolutionary  movement 
in  Germany  by  appropriating  10,000,000  rubles  for 
propaganda  purposes  abroad.  This  fund  was  dis¬ 
pensed  through  the  Bureau  of  International  Revolu¬ 
tionary  Propaganda.  Millions  of  leaflets  and 
pamphlets  were  circulated  by  the  Spartacides,  both 
in  Germany  and  Austria.  The  fundamental  aim 
of  the  Spartacus  Group  was  made  clear  in  an  appeal 
to  the  German  workers  in  connection  with  the 
Brest-Litovsk  parleys.  Therein  it  was  stated: 
“There  is  only  one  means  of  putting  an  end  to  the 
present  butchery  and  misery  of  the  workers — the 
overthrow  of  the  government  and  the  bourgeois 
class,  in  the  way  this  was  accomplished  in  Russia.” 
The  Spartacus  Group  also  advocated  a  general 
strike  as  a  measure  calculated  to  bring  about  stop¬ 
page  in  war  industries,  paralyzing  all  economic 
activity. 

With  the  overthrow  of  the  Imperial  German 
Government,  Liebknecht  and  his  associates  endeav¬ 
ored  to  establish  control  over  the  Congress  of 
Soldiers’  and  Workers’  Deputies,  which  was  con¬ 
voked  in  Berlin.  In  this,  however,  the  leaders  of 
the  Spartacus  movement  failed  completely  and  the 
majority  of  the  450  delegates  constituting  said  Con¬ 
gress  repeatedly  voted  in  favor  of  the  platform 
of  the  Independent  Socialists,  adhering  to  Kautsky 
and  Haase.  The  climax  of  the  influence  of  the 
Spartacus  Group  among  the  German  workers  came 
at  the  time  when  one  of  the  well-known  leaders 
of  German  Social  Democracy,  Scheidemann,  joined 


the  German  Republican  Government  announcing 
his  program  of  social  reforms  as  opposed  to  and 
distinguished  from  the  tactics  of  violent  social 
revolution  along  the  lines  advocated  in  the  Com¬ 
munist  Manifesto  of  Karl  Marx.  Armed  uprisings 
spread  over  Germany,  with  the  Spartacides  invari¬ 
ably  leading  the  rebellious  workers  and  the  de¬ 
moralized  soldiery.  In  1919  the  political  situation 
in  Germany  became  critical.  Berlin  and  other  large 
cities  were  actually  besieged  by  Communist 
workers,  and  the  whole  country  was  on  the  verge 
of  a  social  cataclysm.  The  Moscow  Soviet  Mission 
in  Berlin  became  the  headquarters  of  revolutionary 
agitation.  Spartacan  tactics  grew  more  aggressive 
every  day,  until  finally  the  German  Government 
was  compelled  to  arrest  Rosa  Luxemburg  and  Karl 
Liebknecht.  Their  arrest  was  the  turning  point 
in  the  development  of  the  revolutionary  move¬ 
ment  in  Germany.  When  put  under  arrest  in  Ber¬ 
lin,  Liebknecht  and  Luxemburg  had  to  be  convoyed 
from  one  prison  to  another.  While  on  their  way, 
they  were  shot  and  instantly  killed  by  the  soldiers 
under  whose  guard  they  were.  The  actual  circum¬ 
stances  of  Liebknecht’s  and  Luxemburg’s  deaths, 
however,  still  remain  dubious.  With  the  elimina¬ 
tion  of  these  two  Spartacan  leaders,  the  whole 
movement  lost  its  impetus.  The  milder  factions  of 
German  Social  Democracy  again  assumed  control 
over  Socialist  activities.  In  1920  the  different  Ger¬ 
man  Socialist  factions  began  to  investigate  inde¬ 
pendently  the  conditions  in  Soviet  Russia.  Ger¬ 
man  revolutionary  workers  proceeded  to  that  coun¬ 
try  in  the  hope  that  they  would  find  there  ideal 
social  conditions.  However,  the  situation  which 
they  actually  found  converted  them  into  conscious 
and  implacable  enemies  of  the  Soviet  regime.  In 
this  connection  the  report  of  one  of  the  German 
Socialist  leaders,  Dittman,  who  also  studied  the 
Soviet  experiment  in  Russia  herself,  produced  a 
great  impression  on  the  minds  of  the  German 
workers,  and  dealt  a  grave  blow  to  the  Spartacus 
movement.  Aside  from  those  mentioned  above, 
the  Spartacus  Group  counted  among  its  leaders 
Franz  Mehring,  the  author  of  the  “History  of  the 
German  Social  Democracy.”  Theoretically  the 
Spartacus  Group  always  declared  itself  in  favor 
of  orthodox  Marxism,  while  in  matters  of  prac¬ 
tical  action  it  advocated  an  alliance  with  Soviet 
Russia  for  the  purpose  of  forcibly  introducing 
Communism  into  western  countries,  with  the  assist¬ 
ance  of  the  combined  Russian  and  German  Red 
Armies. 

Fraina,  The  Social  Revolution  in  Germany  (Boston,  1919); 
Damenberg,  The  Revolution  in  Germany  in  The  Radical  Review  II, 
(January-March,  1919);  Dittman,  Report  in  Der  Freiheit  (August 
31-September  1,  1920);  Documents  of  the  American  Association 
for  International  Conciliation ,”  I  (1919);  Franke,  Die  Wahrheit 
ueber  Russland  (Berlin,  1920). 

Speyer,  Diocese  of  (Spirensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 
214d),  in  Bavaria,  suffragan  of  Bamberg.  The 
present  diocese  is  a  remnant  of  the  former  diocese 
situated  on  the  right  and  left  banks  of  the  Rhine 
to  within  a  distance  of  nineteen  miles  of  Stuttgart. 
It  comprises,  moreover,  parts  of  the  dioceses  of 
Strasburg,  Metz,  Trier,  Mainz,  and  the  now  sup¬ 
pressed  diocese  of  Worms  and  since  1815  it  is 
coterminus  with  the  Pfalz,  a  political  territory 
created  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna.  The  real  date  of 
its  foundation  is  23  Sept.,  1821,  on  which  day  the 
papal  Bull  of  circumscription  was  published.  During 
the  administration  of  Bishop,  afterwards  Cardinal, 
Geissel,  and  even  more  so  under  that  of  Bishop 
Weis,  the  work  of  building  up  the  diocese  was  begun. 
Due  to  the  World  War  and  the  revolution  of  1918, 
many  changes  have  since  taken  place.  The  consti¬ 
tution  of  the  Republic  has  brought  about  the  sepa- 


SPIRITISM 


706 


SPOKANE 


ration  of  Church  and  State,  although  the  final  separa¬ 
tion  has  not  yet  definitely  taken  place.  The  State, 
which  is  bound  to  compensate  the  Church,  by  reason 
of  the  secularization,  has  been  unable  from  technical 
financial  reasons  to  pay  the  indemnities.  Conse¬ 
quently  the  incomes  of  the  benefices  are  supple¬ 
mented  by  voluntary  contributions  from  the  State, 
which  the  latter  has  the  power  to  withdraw  at  any 
moment.  The  bishops  are  also  concerned  with  regard 
to  the  salaries  of  the  priests.  They  do  not  wish  the 
clergy  to  be  paid  by  the  State,  as  in  that  case  the 
Government  would  have  control  over  them.  The 
independence  of  the  Church  even  in  financial  matters 
has  been  inaugurated  by  the  religionsgesellschciftliche 
(religio-social)  tax  legislation,  which  grants  the 
Church  the  right  of  taxation  such  as  has  been  the 
case  in  Prussia  during  the  past  twenty  years.  The 
democratic  Government  has  already  granted  some 
privileges  to  the  Church,  such  as  the  right  to  make 
new  foundations  without  the  approval  of  the  State. 
One  of  the  most  difficult  problems  of  the  future  will  be 
the  maintenance  of  denominational  schools,  the  only 
privilege  which  the  church  has  retained  in  regard 
to  the  schools  being  the  supervision  and  teaching 
of  religious  instruction.  Those  who  wish  to  teach 
this  branch  must  have  the  Missio  Canonica ,  without 
which  a  teacher  cannot  receive  an  appointment  in 
the  denominational  schools.  The  law  in  regard  to 
the  religious  education  of  children  will  lead  to  many 
evil  results.  Even  a  child  of  fourteen  is  now  lawfully 
able  to  withdraw  from  the  Church.  Owing  to  the 
low  value  of  the  currency,  it  will  be  impossible  to 
build  churches  as  heretofore,  which  will  prove  a 
drawback  to  the  spiritual  development  of  the  people. 
Before  the  war  about  8,000,000  marks  were  annually 
expended  for  this  purpose,  but  now  ten  times  that 
amount  would  not  suffice. 

The  present  incumbent  of  the  diocese  is  the  Rt. 
Rev.  Ludwig  Sebastian,  b.  at  Frankenstein,  6  Oct., 
1862,  ordained  17  Aug.,  1887,  elected  31  July, 
1917.  The  diocese  contains  243  parishes,  94  chap¬ 
laincies,  373  churches,  4  missions.  There  are  about 
1,000,000  inhabitants,  four-fifths  of  whom  are  Cath¬ 
olics.  The  following  clergymen  and  laymen  of  prom¬ 
inence  have  died  since  1912:  Rev.  Joseph  Bischoff 
(Conrad  v.  Bollanden),  a  writer  of  prominence; 
Rev.  Jacob  Frederick  Bussereau,  founder  of  the 
Congregation  of  St.  Paul  for  men  and  women  for  the 
care  of  the  abandoned  and  destitute;  Cardinal  v. 
Bettinger,  formerly  dean  of  the  cathedral  of  Speyer; 
Rev.  Dr.  Joseph  Zimmern,  capitular  of  the  cathedral, 
political  defender  of  the  Church;  Prof.  Jacob  Reeb, 
founder  of  an  educational  institute  for  homeless 
boys.  The  zeal  and  activity  shown  by  Bishop, 
now  Cardinal,  Michael  von  Faulhaber  during  the 
war  is  worthy  of  the  highest  praise.  He  forbade  any 
criticism  of  the  bishops  of  the  Entente,  visited  the 
trenches  at  the  risk  of  his  own  life,  held  conferences 
for  the  military  chaplains  and  preached  to  them. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  war  seventy  young  priests 
became  chaplains  and  served  in  the  hospitals.  A 
number  of  theological  students  were  killed  and  some 
lost  their  vocation.  The  clergy  who  remained  in 
their  parishes  comforted  the  afflicted,  kept  in  com¬ 
munication  with  those  at  the  front,  tried,  when 
possible,  to  procure  food  for  the  starving.  Many  of 
the  church  bells  were  taken  by  the  Government. 

Spiritism  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 221b). — On  17  April, 
1917,  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Office  in  reply 
to  a  query  declared  that  it  was  not  permissible  to 
attend  at  spiritistic  seances  of  any  kind,  even  as  a 
spectator,  with  a  tacit  or  express  protestation  against 
having  any  communication  with  evil  spirits. 

Liljencrants,  Spiritism  and  Religion  (New  York,  1918); 
Crawford,  The  Reality  of  Psychic  Phenomena  (London,  1917); 


Idem.  Hints  and  Observations  for  those  investigating  the  Phenomena 
of  Spiritualism  (New  York,  1918);  Idem,  Experiments  in  Phys¬ 
ical  Science  (London,  1919);  Pope.  Spiritualism,  Occultism  and 
the  Catholic  Church  in  Eccl.  Rev  *  LXIII  (Philadelphia,  1920), 
225-53;  Raupert,  The  New  Black  Magic  (New  York,  1919); 
Roure,  Le  Merveilleux  Spirite  (Paris,  1917),  Preliminary  Report 
of  the  Commission  appointed  to  investigate  modern  spiritualism 
(Philadelphia,  1920). 

Spisz  (Zips),  Diocese  of  (Scepusiensis). —  cf.  C. 
E.,  XV — 761b),  The  late  Bishop  Alexander  Parvi; 
died  24  March,  1919,  and  was  buried  with  great  honor. 
He  built  an  entirely  new  home  for  the  Sisters  of  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  of  Leutschau,  collecting  for  this  pur¬ 
pose  more  than  400,000  crowns,  and  also  erected  a 
training  school  for  teachers.  On  9  December,  1915, 
Marlin  Kheberich,  domestic  prelate,  was  preconized 
titular  Bishop  of  Sabrata  and  appointed  Auxiliary 
Bishop  of  Spisz,  the  first  time  such  an  appointment 
had  occurred  in  Spisz  in  over  one  hundred  years. 
Upon  the  death  of  Bishop  Parvi,  Bishop  Kheberich 
was  unanimously  elected  Bishop  of  Spisz;  but  the 
newly  created  republic  of  Czechoslovakia  having 
since  embraced  the  entire  diocese  he  resigned  the 
bishopric,  remaining,  however,  auxiliary  bishop  and 
major  mitred  provost  of  the  ancient  chapter  of  Spisz. 
During  the  World  Warboth  clergy  and  laity  voluntarily 
sacrificed  their  wealth  to  their  country.  The  bishop 
is  Mgr.  John  Vojtassak,  who  was  chancellor  of  the  dio¬ 
cese  when  he  was  elected  at  the  consistory  of  16  Decem¬ 
ber,  1920.  The  Catholic  population  of  244,000  is  at¬ 
tended  by  220  secular  and  14  regular  priests,  assisted 
by  8  lay  brothers.  There  are  166  parishes  with  166 
churches  and  100  mission  churches;  123  public  chapels; 
7  convents  for  men  and  5  for  women;  1  seminary  with 

6  professors  and  21  students;  1  Catholic  daily  and  2 
other  periodicals.  The  principal  religious  organiza¬ 
tion  among  the  clergy  is  that  of  Saint  Joseph;  such 
associations  among  the  laity  are  many  and  varied. 
The  Government  at  present  contributes  generously 
to  the  support  of  the  Catholic  institutions. 

Spitzberg.  See  Norway,  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of. 

Spokane,  Diocese  of  (Spokanensis)  . — This  dio¬ 
cese  was  established  on  17  December,  1913,  and  com¬ 
prises  the  following  counties  in  the  State  of  Wash¬ 
ington:  Oskanogan,  Ferry,  Stevens,  Pend  Oreille, 
Douglas,  Grant,  Lincoln,  Spokane,  Adams,  Whit¬ 
man,  Benton,  Franklin,  Walla  Walla,  Columbia, 
Garfield  and  Asotin,  and  covers  30,192  square  miles 
of  territory.  The  first  and  present  administrator  of 
the  diocese  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Augustin  F.  Schinner,  b. 
at  Milwaukee  1  May,  1863,  ordained  7  March,  1886, 
elected  first  bishop  of  Superior,  13  May,  1905,  conse¬ 
crated  15  July,  published  11  December  following:  he 
resigned  15  January,  1913,  and  was  transferred  18 
March,  1914,  published  28  May  following.  According 
to  the  statistics  of  1922  the  diocese  contains:  28,608 
Catholics,  including  Irish,  Germans,  Italians  and 
about  1500  Indians,  46  parishes,  97  churches,  51  mis¬ 
sions,  59  stations,  2  convents  for  men  (Jesuits  and 
Franciscans),  1  monastery  for  women  (Poor  Clares), 

7  convents  for  women,  51  secular  priests,  39  regulars, 
32  Jesuit  lay  brothers,  1  Franciscan  brother,  299 
sisters  who  teach  in  academies  and  parish  schools. 
Educational  institutions  in  the  diocese  are:  1  uni¬ 
versity,  32  professors,  615  students,  5  academies,  473 
students  (35  boys  and  438  girls);  1  normal  school,  43 
students;  1  training  -school  for  nurses;  16  parochial 
schools.  The  following  charitable  institutions  exist 
in  the  diocese:  1  orphanage,  4  hospitals,  1  House  of 
the  Good  Shepherd.  Societies  among  the  clergy  are: 
St.  Joseph’s  Ecclesiastical  Society  for  aged  and  infirm 
priests;  among  the  laity:  Catholic  Social  Betterment 
League  and  several  fraternal  organizations.  A  dio¬ 
cesan  magazine  called  “The  Inland  Empire  Catholic 
Messenger’’  is  published  monthly. 


SPRINGFIELD 


707 


STOEGER 


Springfield,  Diocese  of  (Campifontis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 236d)*,  in  Massachusetts,  suffragan  of  Boston. 
The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  M.  O’Leary, 
b.  1875,  ordained  1897,  elected  1G  June,  1921, 
consecrated  8  September  following,  succeeding 
Bishop  Beaven  (d.  5  October,  1920).  The  Catholic 
population  of  the  diocese  is  332,758.  There  are: 
366  secular  priests,  26  regular  priests,  188  churches 
with  resident  priests,  26  missions  with  churches,  2 
colleges  with  915  students,  2  academies,  72  parochial 
schools  with  34,085  pupils,  5  orphan  asylums  with 
626  orphans,  35,751  young  people  under  Catholic 
care,  1  House  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  8  hospitals,  1 
infant  asylum  with  90  inmates,  5  homes  for  the  aged 
poor  with  326  inmates,  3  homes  for  working  girls. 

Stanislawow,  Diocese  of  (Stanislaopoliensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 247a),  of  the  Greek-Ruthenian  Rite 
in  Galicia,  Poland,  suffragan  of  Lwow  (Lemberg). 
Almost  the  entire  diocese  was  laid  waste  during  the 
World  War;  many  of  the  churches  were  desecrated, 
destroyed  or  burnt;  many  priests  were  driven  out  of 
the  country,  and  many  died  in  prison,  but  in  spite 
of  the  numberless  adversities  they  never  failed  in  true 
apostolic  zeal  for  their  flocks.  The  laity  proved 
staunch  defenders  of  their  country,  and  every  town 
of  the  diocese  suffered  the  death  of  at  least  19  of  its 
youth.  The  present  bishop  is  Mgr.  Gregory 
Chomyszyn,  born  at  Chomyszyn  in  1867,  elected 
16  April,  1904,  to  succeed  Mgr.  Szeptycki,  promoted 
to  Lwow.  Among  the  clergy  of  note  recently  de¬ 
ceased  are:  Jeremias  Gommickyj,  O.S.B.M.,  the  first 
rector  of  the  thelogical  seminary  at  Stanislawow,  and 
founder  of  the  convent  of  the  Sisters  Servants  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  exiled  into  Symbirck,  Russia, 
where  he  died  in  1916;  Analbert  Halibej,  spiritual 
director  of  the  theological  seminary,  butchered  by 
Polish  soldiers  in  1919.  Of  the  Catholic  population 
of  1,022,000,  those  belonging  to  the  Greek  Rite  are 
Ukrainians.  The  Redemptorist  Fathers  of  Stanis¬ 
lawow  embraced  the  Greek  Rite  in  1919  and  founded 
their  first  such  monastery  within  the  city  itself. 
There  are  538  secular  and  22  regular  priests  and  12 
lay  brothers;  22  deaneries;  433  parishes;  234  mother 
churches  with  298  affiliated  churches  and  64  chapels; 
5  Reformed  Basilian  monasteries  for  men;  2  monas¬ 
teries  for  women;  1  convent  for  women  with  15 
foundations;  1  theological  seminary;  1  college  for 
boys  with  70  students,  and  1  for  girls  with  40  students; 
1  normal  school  for  girls  with  6  teachers  and  200 
students;  9  orphanages;  12  day  nurseries.  The  govern¬ 
ment  has  established  normal  schools  everywhere; 
about  5  seminaries  for  teachers  of  the  normal  schools, 
and  8  gymnasia.  The  religious  organizations  among 
the  clergy  are:  Society  of  the  Immaculate  Conception, 
and  Association  of  St.  Peter;  and  among  the  laity: 
Association  of  St.  Nicholas,  Apostleship  of  Prayer, 
and  charitable  Association  of  St.  John. 

Stanley-Falls,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (de 
Stanley  Falls;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 247),  in  Belgina 
Congo,  is  still  governed  by  Mgr.  Gabriel-Emile 
Grison,  titular  Bishop  of  Sagalassus.  Mgr.  Grison 
was  born  at  St.  Julien,  in  the  Diocese  of  Verdun  on  25 
December,  1860,  and  ordained  in  December,  1883. 
He  joined  the  priests  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  St.  Quen¬ 
tin  in  1886  and  was  professed  on  13  September,  1887; 
he  was  superior  in  Ecuador  in  1890,  and  was  sent  to 
the  Congo  mission  in  1897,  becoming  Prefect  Apos¬ 
tolic  of  Stanley-Falls  on  4  August,  1904;  appointed 
Vicar  Apostolic  on  12  March,  1908,  and  consecrated 
at  Rome  by  Cardinal  Gotti  on  11  October  following. 
The  vicariate  has  13  Franciscan  Sisters;  348  native 
catechists;  22,929  Catholics  and  20,042  catechumens; 
2991  baptisms  were  administered  last  year.  The  war 
called  away  6  missionaries,  who  were  under  arms  dur¬ 


ing  the  four  years — 3  in  France,  3  in  Kamcrun.  All 
of  them  returned  safely,  but  four  of  them  have  been 
sent  to  Kamcrun  to  replace  the  German  Fathers,  who 
had  that  mission  formerly.  There  are  now  30  priests 
and  5  lay  brothers  in  charge  of  11  missions:  St. 
Gabriel,  Stanleyville  (2),  Avakubi,  Lokandu,  Bana- 
lya,  Basoko,  Bafwalaka,  Beni,  Yanonge  and  Ponthier- 
ville.  All  the  last  four  have  clay- wall  churches, 
the  others  have  brick  churches  in  Roman  or 
Gothic  style;  there  are  at  least  250  small  rural  chapels. 
The  Franciscan  Missionary  Sisters  of  Mary  have 
establishments  at  St.  Gabriel,  Basoko,  and  Stanley¬ 
ville  (left  bank);  the  Marist  Brothers  have  charge  of 
the  state  school  at  Stanleyville  (right  bank).  There 
are  11  central  schools  with  1249  pupils;  and  116  rural 
schools  taught  by  catechists  with  1292  pupils.  The 
Sisters  have  3  girls’  schools  with  120  pupils;  the 
Brothers  have  a  primary  school  at  Stanleyville  with 
300  pupils;  a  clerical  school  with  14  pupils;  and  a 
professional  school  with  50  pupils.  In  October,  1921, 
petite  seminaire  was  opened  at  Bafwalaka  with  22 
students.  Each  mission,  except  Stanleyville  (right 
bank) ,  has  a  dispensary  and  in  case  of  necessity  takes 
in  abandoned  children.  The  Sisters  have  a  small 
leper-hospital  at  St.  Gabriel  and  visit  the  lazaret  for 
sleeping-sickness  victims,  2  miles  from  Stanleyville, 
three  times  a  week;  they  have  charge,  moreover,  of 
the  European  and  the  native  hospitals  of  the  Grand 
Lacs  Railway  at  Stanleyville  (left  bank) .  In  addition 
the  mission  has  14  workshops  and  3  farms  where  the 
natives  are  taught  masonry,  carpentry,  gardening  and 
agriculture. 

Stanton,  William  Jerome,  Jesuit  missionary  b. 
at  Staunton,  Illinois,  8  February,  1870,  d.  at  St. 
Louis,  10  March,  1910,  the  son  of  Thomas  Stanton 
and  Regina  Helen  Brawner.  Stanton  entered  the 
Jesuit  novitiate  near  Florissant,  Missouri,  16  July, 
1887.  In  1894  he  was  sent  to  teach  in  St.  Ignatius 
College,  Chicago,  and  in  1895  to  Detroit.  In  1896 
he  was  sent  to  a  newly  opened  college  at  Belize,  the 
capital  of  British  Honduras,  Central  America.  Here 
he  found  time  to  collect  specimens  of  insects,  crus¬ 
taceans,  reptiles,  etc.,  the  fauna  of  British  Honduras. 
In  1899,  he  returned  to  St.  Louis  for  his  theology, 
but  was  sent  in  1901  to  Manila  where  he  studied  at 
the  observatory  of  the  Spanish  Jesuits  and  was  or¬ 
dained  in  1902,  the  first  American  priest  to  be  or¬ 
dained  in  the  Philippines.  In  1904  he  returned  to 
America  and  soon  after  left  for  Europe  where  he  spent 
his  tertianship  at  Manresa  near  Barcelona,  Spain. 
Exceptional  scientific  gifts  and  equipment  marked  him 
out  for  fine  work  in  entomology  but  he  preferred  to 
go  as  a  missionary  to  the  Indians  he  had  seen  on  his 
vacations  some  years  before  in  British  Honduras. 
In  October,  1905,  he  went  back  to  Belize  and  soon 
left  for  the  west  of  the  colony  to  begin  a  new  mission 
among  the  Mayo  Indians.  He  opened  the  mission 
alone  and  worked  there  for  five  years  in  face  of  every 
hardship,  preaching,  teaching,  being  the  Good 
Shepherd  to  the  half  civilized  natives  of  the  district. 
At  the  end  of  1909,  although  his  quest  for  souls  had 
been  most  fruitful,  the  years  of  hardship  had  ruined 
his  health  and  Father  Stanton  was  forced  to  return 
to  St.  Louis  where  he  died  of  cancer. 

Samuel  Fowle  Telfair,  Jr. 

Stelnamanger,  Diocese  of.  See  Szombathelt 

Stoeger,  Johann  Baptist,  Redemptorist  lay 
brother,  b,  at  Enrersfeld,  near  Vienna,  on  4  October, 
1810;  d.  at  Eggenburg,  Austria,  on  3  November, 
1883.  He  was  received  into  the  Redemptorist  Con¬ 
gregation  as  a  coadjutor  brother  18  March,  1840. 
The  forty-six  years  which  he  passed  in  religion  in  the 
humble  role  of  assistant  cook  and  baker  he  sanctified 


STONE 


708 


STUART 


by  his  humility  and  his  devotion  towards  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  and  Our  Lady.  He  died  with  a  reputation 
of  unusual  holiness  and  the  cause  of  his  canonization 
was  introduced  at  Rome  on  22  December,  1915. 

Stone,  James  Kent,  afterwards  and  better  known 
as  Father  Fidelis,  Passionist,  b.  in  Boston  10 
November,  1840,  d.  14  Oct.,  1921.  He  was  a  grand¬ 
son,  on  the  maternal  side,  of  the  famous  jurist, 
Chancellor  James  Kent.  His  father  was  the  Rev. 
John  Stone.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1861, 
studied  for  a  time  at  Gottingen  in  Germany,  saw 
service  in  the  American  Civil  War  and  became  an 
Episcopal  minister  in  1866.  He  had  been  professor 
of  the  classics  and  president  in  Kenyon  College, 
Ohio,  and  of  Hobart  College,  New  York.  He  be¬ 
came  a  Catholic  in  1869,  after  a  perusal  of  the 
appeal  of  Pope  Pius  IX  to  the  world  outside  of 
the  Church  to  enter  the  fold.  He  was  received,  on 
8  December,  at  Madison,  N.  J.,  by  Dr.  Wigger, 
then  pastor  of  the  church,  and  subsequently  Bishop 
of'  Newark.  The  “Invitation  Heeded”  was  written 
to  explain  his  conversion.  He  was  ordained  priest 
by  Cardinal  McCloskey,  21  December,  1872,  and 
entered  the  Paulist  Community,  but  in  1878  sub¬ 
sequently  became  a  Passionist,  his  two  young 
daughters  having  been  adopted  by  Michael  J. 
O’Connor  of  San  Francisco.  The  mother  of  these 
children  had  died  some  years  previously.  He  spent 
three  years  in  Rome  and  was  then  sent  to  South 
America,  where  he  labored  for  twelve  years  as 
provincial  consultor,  master  of  novices  and  provin¬ 
cial.  He  preached  at  Harvard  in  1896  and  1897 
and  in  1901,  at  the  request  of  President  Eliot,  took 
charge  of  the  1400  pupils  who  attended  the  Summer 
school.  In  1908  he  was  recalled  to  South  America, 
where  he  remained  until  1914  and  was  then  assigned 
to  Mexico  but  was  unable  to  enter  the  country 
because  of  the  civil  wars  that  were  raging  there.  In 
1919  he  retired  to  Norwood  Park,  Chicago,  and  for 
two  years  was  a  victim  of  great  physical  suffering. 
There  his  daughter  joined  him  and  brought  him 
to  her  home  in  California  where  he  had  the  happi¬ 
ness  of  saying  Mass  until  two  days  before  his  death. 
His  famous  book,  “The  Invitation  Heeded,”  had 
gone  through  seventeen  editions  and  had  been 
translated  into  several  languages. 

Strasbourg,  Diocese  of  (Argentinensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIV — 313b),  in  France,  directly  dependent  on 
the  Holy  See.  In  1918  Alsace  was  restored  to  France 
and  the  religious  situation  under  the  Concordat  with 
Germany  was  maintained.  Rt.  Rev.  Charles  Joseph 
Ruch  was  nominated  by  the  French  Government  and 
appointed  bishop  of  Strasbourg  1  August,  1919.  He 
was  b.  at  Nancy  24  September,  1873,  ordained  17 
July,  1897,  elected  titular  bishop  of  Gerasa  and 
coadjutor  bishop  of  Nancy,  14  June,  1913,  conse¬ 
crated  16  July.  He  was  appointed  bishop  of  Nancy 
21  October,  1918,  and  transferred  to  the  see  of  Stras¬ 
bourg  in  1919,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Adolph  Fritzen, 
who  died  in  that  year.  According  to  the  statistics 
for  1921,  the  diocese  contains  720  parishes,  about  860 
churches,  1  monastery  for  men  (Trappists),  15  con¬ 
vents  for  men,  about  1100  secular  priests,  20  religious 
orders  of  women,  1  seminary  with  about  160  semi¬ 
narians.  The  educational  institutions  in  the  diocese 
are:  1  university  at  Strasbourg,  15  professors,  about 
180  theological  students,  2  colleges  for  men,  12 
boarding  schools  for  girls.  The  charitable  institutions 
are  in  a  flourishing  condition.  Among  them  are  sev¬ 
eral  juvenile  institutions,  1  institution  for  the  blind, 
1  for  the  deaf  and  dumb.  All  the  public  institutions 
admit  the  ministry  of  priests  and  most  of  them  are  in 
charge  of  Sisters.  There  are  in  the  diocese  the  follow¬ 
ing  congregations  of  men:  Franciscans,  Capuchins, 


Dominicans,  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Ob- 
lates  of  Mary  Immaculate,  White  Fathers  of  the 
African  Missions,  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Doctrine, 
Marist  Fathers.  Two  associations  have  been  founded 
in  the  diocese  for  the  defence  of  Catholic  rights, 
Catholic  League  of  Alsace  and  the  League  of  Parents. 
Four  German  and  two  French  dailies  are  published 
in  the  diocese. 

Strassmaier,  Johann  Nepomuk,  Assyriologist,  b. 
at  Hagenberg,  Bavaria,  on  15  May,  1846;  d.  at  Lon¬ 
don  on  11  January,  1920;  son  of  Johann  Evangelist 
and  Theresa  (Pichler)  Strassmaier.  After  preliminary 
studies  at  Hagenberg  and  Metten,  and  a  brief  stay  in 
the  Seminary  of  Ratisbon,  he  entered  the  Jesuit 
novitiate  at  Gorheim  near  Sigmaringen.  He  studied 
philosophy  at  Maria  Laach  and  with  two  hundred  fel¬ 
low- Jesuits  served  in  the  ambulance  department  of 
the  German  Army  during  the  War  of  1870,  being 
awarded  a  medal  and  certificate  for  fidelity  to  duty. 
This  .availed  him  but  little,  for  with  his  fellow-religious 
he  was  exiled  soon  after  by  the  German  Protestants 
and  took  refuge  at  Alost  in  Belgium.  The  following 
year  he  crossed  over  to  England  and  completed  his 
studies  at  Ditton  Hall  and  St.  Beuno’s  (Wales),  being 
ordained  in  1876.  Two  years  later  he  was  sent  to 
London,  where  he  began  his  intensive  life  study  of 
the  Babylonian  remains  in  the  British  Museum.  As  a 
result  of  his  labours  he  published  six  valuable  tomes 
of  Assyrian  texts,  translations  and  studies:  “Alpha- 
batisches  Verzeichnis  der  assyrischenund  akkadischen 
Worter”  (1886);  ‘ ‘  Worterverzeichnis  zu  den  babylon- 
ischen  Inschriften  in  Museum  zu  Liverpool”  (1886); 
“Inschriften  von  Nabonidus”  (1886-89);  “Inschriften 
von  Nabuchodonosor”  (1889);  “Inschriften  von  Cy¬ 
rus”  (1889).  Later  he  published  the  inscriptions  of 
Cambyses  and  Darius.  With  Joseph  Epping,  S.  J., 
he  undertook  the  testing  of  the  Babylonian  Calendar- 
Tablets  and  Observation-Lists,  and  after  eight  years’ 
study  and  calculation  they  produced  their  remarkable 
“Astronomisches  aus  Babylon,”  which  contained  quite 
a  number  of  fundamental  discoveries  regarding  Baby¬ 
lonian  astronomy  and  chronology.  One  of  the  greatest 
Oriental  scholars  of  the  age,  Father  Strassmaier  was 
in  addition  one  of  the  best-known  and  most  popular 
spiritual  directors  in  London. 

Stuart,  Janet  Erskine,  Superior  General  of  the 
Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  b.  at  Cottesmore,  Rut¬ 
land,  England,  11  November,  1857;  d.  at  Roe- 
hampton,  London,  21  October,  1914.  She  was  the 
youngest  daughter  of  Rev.  and  Hon.  Andrew  Stuart, 
son  of  the  second  Earl  of  Castlestewart,  the  male 
representative  of  the  royal  Stuarts.  She  became  a 
Catholic  in  1879,  and  three  years  later  entered  the 
novitiate  of  the  Sacred  Heart  at  Roehampton,  where 
she  became  secretary  to  Reverend  Mother  Digby 
(q.  v.).  Professed  in  1889,  she  then  became  mistress 
of  novices,  and  in  1894  succeeded  Mother  Digby  as 
Superior.  When  five  years  later  Mother  Digby 
as  superior  general  visited  her  convents  in  the  United 
States,  Canada  and  Mexico,  Mother  Stuart  accom¬ 
panied  her  and  in  1901  was  sent  to  visit  the  houses  of 
the  Society  in  the  West  Indies  and  South  America. 
In  May,  1911,  on  the  death  of  Mother  Digby,  with 
whom  she  had  worked  for  twenty-nine  years,  Mother 
Stuart  was  called  to  France  as  vicar  general,  pending 
the  election  of  a  new  superior  general.  The  follow¬ 
ing  August  she  was  herself  elected  to  that  office,  and 
went  to  Rome  to  get  the  blessing  of  the  Holy  Father 
on  her  generalate.  Later  she  visited  her  convents 
in  the  eastern  part  of  Europe  and  finally  those  in 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  Japan,  returning  to 
England  by  way  of  America,  where  she  gathered 
together  the  superiors  of  the  various  houses  in  the 
vicariate  at  Manhattan ville,  N.  Y.,  and  made  with 
them  an  eight  days  retreat.  The  last  months  of 


STUHLWEISSENBURG 


709 


SUSPENSION 


Mother  Stuart's  life  were  saddened  by  the  events 
of  the  war;  the  Sacred  Heart  Convent  at  Liege  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Germans  and  the  nuns  fled  to 
Brussels;  several  days  later  word  was  brought  to 
her  that  two  of  her  religious  in  Tournai  had  been 
shot.  She  was  cut  off  from  communication  with 
her  other  houses  on  the  continent,  and  with  the 
help  of  friends  she  left  the  mother  house  at  Ixelles 
and  went  to  Roehampton,  where  she  died  several 
months  later.  Mother  Stuart’s  wide  and  deep 
culture,  her  breadth  of  view,  her  understanding  of 
children,  her  perfect  balance,  her  choice  spirit  as  well 
as  her  distinction  of  style,  are  shown  in  her  two 
published  works  “The  Education  of  Catholic  Girls” 
(1911),  which  established  her  reputation  as  a  great 
educator;  and  the  “Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart” 
(1914),  a  character  sketch,  exquisitely  etched,  of  the 
institute  of  whose  exalted  type  of  spirituality  she  was 
such  a  perfect  expression. 

Edith  Donovan. 

Stuhlweissenburg,  Diocese  of.  See  Szekes- 

FEHERVAR 


Styria,  See  Jugoslavia 

Suau,  Pierre,  historian,  b.  in  Guadeloupe,  West 
Indies,  on  7  June,  1861;  d.  on  15  August,  1916.  For 
a  long  time  on  the  editorial  staff  of  the  Etudes,  Father 
Suau, besides  contributing  to  its  pages,  is  the  author  of 
several  books  which  attracted  considerable  attention, 
notably  his  “History  of  St.  Francis  Borgia,”  “Heroic 
Spain,”  “The  Society  of  Jesus,”  “Rudolph  Hequa- 
viva,”  and  others.  His  “France  in  Madagascar”  was 
crowned  by  the  French  Academy.  He  was  a  quick, 
incisive  writer  whose  broad  strokes  which  sketched  a 
landscape  or  depicted  a  character ,  immediately  held  the 
attention  of  the  reader.  He  was  educated  at  Toulouse 
and  Angers  and  became  a  Jesuit  in  1878.  On  a  scrap 
of  paper,  written  long  before  his  demise,  were  found 
the  words:  “I  request  that  no  one  be  permitted  to 
write  the  smallest  necrological  notice  about  me.” 


schools  with  30  teachers  and  815  pupils;  1  high  school 
with  4  teachers  and  42  pupils;  2  orphanages,  1  for 
boys  with  40  children,  ana  1  for  girls  with  68  children. 
The  Government  to  a  certain  extent  contributes  to 
the  support  of  the  orphanages  and  to  some  of  the 
Catholic  schools.  In  Padang  the  laity  have  the 
Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  and  in  Medan  an  or¬ 
ganization  for  social  uplift,  and  one  for  political 
ends. 

Superior,  Diocese  of  (Superiorensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 336c),  in  Wisconsin,  suffragan  of  Milwaukee. 
According  to  the  statistics  of  1922  there  were  57,509 
Catholics  in  the  diocese,  including  54,224  whites  and 
3285  Indians.  Rt.  Rev.  Augustin  Francis  Schinner, 
first  bishop  of  the  diocese,  resigned  15  Jan.,  1913, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  M.  Koudelka, 
b.  at  Clistowo,  diocese  of  Budweis,  8  Dec.,  1852, 
ordained  8  Oct.,  1875,  consecrated  auxiliary  bishop  of 
Cleveland  and  titular  bishop  of  Germanicopolis  25 
Feb.,  1908,  transferred  to  Milwaukee  as  auxiliary 
bishop,  4  Sept.,  1911,  appointed  to  the  see  of  Superior, 
6  Aug.,  1913,  made  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne 
13  July,  1917.  He  died  24  June,  1921.  He  founded 
the  diocesan  home  for  orphans  in  1914,  and  was  a 
zealous  missionary  among  the  Slavic  races.  The  see 
is  still  vacant.  During  the  war  3  priests  became  chap¬ 
lains  in  the  army,  1135  Catholics  joined  the  army,  220 
joined  the  navy.  Of  these  27  were  killed  and  49 
wounded.  The  diocese  contains  68  parishes,  153 
churches,  85  missions,  28  mission  stations,  11  con¬ 
vents  for  men,  29  for  women  with  256  sisters,  98 
secular  priests,  21  regulars,  7  lay  brothers  and  5 
seminarians  who  are  being  educated  in  seminaries  in 
other  dioceses.  Educational  institutions  include  2 
high  schools,  1  academy,  22  elementary  schools  with 
4355  pupils,  2  industrial  schools  with  302  pupils. 
There  are  8  hospitals  and  1  orphan  asylum  in  the 
diocese.  Ten  public  institutions  admit  the  ministry 
of  priests.  Two  associations  exist  among  the  clergy 
and  eight  among  the  laity. 


Sublimation,  Psychological.  See  Psychoanaly¬ 
sis 

Sumatra,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 333c),  embraces  the  island  of  Sumatra  and 
some  of  the  lesser  surrounding  islands,  including 
Banka  and  Billiton.  The  inhabitants  number 
6,300,000,  of  whom  145,000  are  in  Banka  and  68,- 
500  in  Billiton  The  Catholic  population  is  6754; 
and  includes  5081  Europeans,  912  Japanese  or  Chinese 
and  706  Malays.  There  are  180,000  Protestants, 
600,000  pagans,  and  the  rest  mostly  Mohammedans. 
The  principal  mission  centers  are:  Padang,  Medan, 
Kolta  Radja,  Sawah  Loento,  Font  de  Kock,  Palem- 
bang,  Telok  Betong,  Tandjong  Sakti,  Sambong  in 
Banka,  Manggar  in  Billiton.  The  soil  is  rich  and 
well  cultivated,  yielding  tobacco,  coffee,  tea,  rubber, 
pepper,  wood,  etc.  The  principal  mineral  products 
are  petroleum,  coal  and  gold.  The  present  prefect 
apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Mathias  Brans,  who  succeeded 
the  late  Bishop  Liberatus  Cluts,  d.  23  April,  1921, 
after  a  life  of  zealous  labors,  first  among  the  people 
of  Borneo,  and  lastly  in  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
Sumatra.  Seventeen  Capuchins  look  after  the  7 
larger  and  15  lesser  stations  and  the  15  churches,  and 
frequently  during  the  year  journey  to  about  100 
different  localities  to  attend  the  resident  Catholics. 
They  are  assisted  in  their  labors  by  4  Capuchin  lay 
brothers,  41  Sisters  of  Charity  from  Tilburg,  and  19 
lay  catechists.  For  the  purpose  of  teaching  the 
young,  the  Brothers  of  the  Congregation  of  Tilburg 
and  the  Franciscan  Sisters  from  Dongen  in  Holland 
are  expected  to  take  up  their  residence  in  the  pre¬ 
fecture  this  year  (1922).  There  are  10  elementary 


Susa,  Diocese  of  (Segusiensis;  cf.  C..E., 
XIV — 345a),  in  the  province  of  Turin,  Southern 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Turin.  It  reports  62  parishes, 
130  secular  priests,  a  convent  of  Friars  Minor  Con¬ 
ventuals,  (the  building  being  an  example  of  perfect 
Gothic) ,  an  institute  of  Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of 
St.  Francis,  founded  by  Rt.  Rev.  E.  G.  Rosaz, 
bishop  of  Susa  (d.  1913),  which  has  other  founda¬ 
tions  at  Turin  and  in  Switzerland;  an  institute  of 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  with  foundations  within 
and  without  the  diocese,  with  hospices  for  pupils 
of  the  primary  and  secondary  schools.  There  is  a 
diocesan  seminary  with  60  seminarians.  The  Fran¬ 
ciscan  Sisters  have  charge  of  a  home  for  old  people 
and  of  an  orphanage  for  girls;  the  Sisters  of  Charity 
of  a  hospital  and  infant  asylum  and  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph  of  an  elementary  poor  school,  which  is 
supported  by  the  Government.  A  mutual  benevo¬ 
lent  association  is  established  among  the  clergy  and 
among  the  laity  there  are  circles  for  Catholic  youth 
and  groups  of  Catholic  women  with  their  own  con¬ 
stitutions  and  residences.  “La  Valsura”,  a  Catholic 
weekly,  is  published  by  the  Tipografia  Pia  San  Carlo. 
The  clergy  took  an  active  part  in  all  the  committees 
formed  during  the  war  to  assist  the  families  of  the 
combatants.  The  priests  of  the  city  founded  and 
maintained  for  four  years  the  only  Casa  dei  Soldati. 
The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Umberto  Rossi, 
elected  at  the  Consistory  of  13  June,  1921,  succeed¬ 
ing  Mgr.  Giuseppe  Castelli,  who  was  bishop  of  Susa 
from  1911  until  his  transfer  to  Cuneo. 

Suspension  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 345d),  is  a  censure 
by  which  a  cleric  is  deprived  totally  or  partially  of  his 


SWATOW 


710 


SWATOW 


office  or  of  his  benefice  or  of  both  office  and  benefice. 
Suspension  from  office  means  that  one  is  forbidden 
to  exercise  the  power  of  orders  or  of  jurisdiction,  or  to 
act  as  an  official  administrator;  suspension  from 
jurisdiction  generally  forbids  any  act  of  jurisdiction, 
whether  ordinary  or  delegated,  in  either  forum;  sus¬ 
pension  from  divine  functions  forbids  any  exercise 
of  the  power  of  orders  which  one  has  obtained  through 
ordination  or  by  a  special  privilege;  suspension  from 
orders  forbids  any  exercise  of  the  power  of  orders 
obtained  through  ordination  as  distinct  from  the 
power  of  jurisdiction  or  the  powers  received  by 
special  privilege.  Suspension  from  sacred  orders 
forbids  any  exercise  of  the  power  of  orders  received 
through  major  ordination;  suspension  from  a  particu¬ 
lar  order  forbids  any  act  of  that  order,  and  the  sus¬ 
pended  party  may  not  confer  that  order  on  another 
or  receive  a  higher  order  himself,  or  exercise  it  if  he 
received  it  in  spite  of  this  prohibition. 

No  suspended  cleric  may  be  promoted  to  a  higher 
order.  Anyone  exercising  an  order  from  which  he 
has  been  suspended  becomes  irregular.  While  sus¬ 
pension  imposed  by  the  common  law  of  the  Church 
affects  the  offices  or  benefices  held  anywhere  by  the 
suspended  party,  an  ordinary  cannot  suspend  a  cleric 
from  a  particular  office  or  benefice  held  in  another 
diocese.  Just  as  in  the  case  of  excommunication,  a 
cleric  who  is  suspended  from  the  administration  of 
the  sacraments  or  sacramentals  cannot  lawfully  ad¬ 
minister  them  unless  when  he  has  been  requested  by 
the  faithful  to  do  so.  He  may  always  consider  the 
request  legitimate,  unless  he  was  suspended  by  a 
condemnatory  or  declaratory  sentence,  in  which 
case  it  is  only  in  danger  of  death  that  the  faithful 
may  ask  for  absolution,  or,  if  there  is  no  other  priest 
present,  for  the  other  sacraments  or  sacramentals. 
Again,  no  cleric  under  suspension  after  a  declaratory 
or  condemnatory  sentence  can  validly  exercise  the 
right  of  election,  presentation,  or  nomination,  or 
acquire  any  ecclesiastical  dignity,  office,  benefices 
or  pension.  If  such  a  sentence  were  pronounced  any 
pontifical  favor  received  later  by  the  suspended  cleric 
would  be  of  no  effect,  unless  the  suspension  wa, 
mentioned  in  the  rescript. 

Suspension  reserved  to  the  Holy  See  is  incurred 
ipso  facto  (a)  by  a  consecrating  bishop,  the  assistant 
bishops  or  priests,  and  the  bishop  consecrated  when 
the  consecration  takes  place  without  an  Apostolic 
mandate — general  suspension;  (b)  by  clerics  promoted 
to  orders  by  simony  or  receiving  or  administering  any 
other  sacrament  simoniacally — general  suspension; 

(c)  by  one  who  has  presumed  to  receive  orders  from 
a  person  censured  by  sentence,  or  from  a  notorious 
apostate,  heretic,  or  schismatic — suspension  from 
divine  functions;  those,  however,  who  acted  in  good 
faith  in  receiving  these  orders  are  prohibited  from 
exercising  them,  until  they  receive  a  dispensation; 

(d)  it  is  incurred  for  a  year  by  anyone  who  ordains  a 
person  not  subject  to  him  without  proper  dimissorial 
letters,  or  his  own  subject  without  testimonial  letters, 
or  his  own  subject  without  testimonial  letters  from 
the  ordinaries  of  the  places  where  he  lived  long  enough 
to  contract  a  canonical  impediment,  or  by  one  con¬ 
ferring  major  orders  on  a  candidate  who  lacks  a 
canonical  title,  or  (apart  from  a  privilege)  on  a 
religious  who  does  not  belong  to  a  house  situated  in 
the  territory  of  the  ordaining  bishop,  unless  the 
bishop  of  the  place  of  residence  of  the  religious  con¬ 
sents  or  is  of  a  different  Rite  or  is  absent  or  not 
holding  ordinations  at  the  specified  times  or  has 
died  and  left  no  one  with  episcopal  orders  in  his 
place — suspension  from  conferring  orders;  (e)  by  a 
religious  in  major  orders  whose  profession  has  been 
declared  null  by  reason  of  his  deliberate  deceit — 
general  suspension;  (f)  by  a  chapter  or  those  who 
admit  a  person  elected,  presented  or  nominated, 


before  he  exhibits  the  requisite  letters — suspension 
from  the  right  of  election. 

Suspensions  reserved  to  the  ordinary  are  incurred 
ipso  facto:  (a)  by  a  cleric  who  without  his  ordinary’s 
leave  cites  anyone  enjoying  the  privilege  of  the  forum 
before  a  lay  judge — suspension  from  office;  (b)  by  a 
fugitive  religious  in  sacred  orders  who  has  left  his 
community,  but  with  the  intention  of  returning — 
general  suspension  reserved  to  his  higher  superior. 

Non-reserved  suspension  is  incurred  ipso  facto:  (a) 
by  a  priest  presuming  to  hear  confessions  or  to  absolve 
from  reserved  sins,  without  obtaining  the  necessary 
jurisdiction — suspension  from  hearing  confessions; 
(b)  by  those  who  with  malice  have  had  themselves 
ordained  without  dimissorial  letters  or  with  false 
ones,  or  before  the  canonical  age,  or  without  having 
received  the  lower  orders — suspension  from  the  order 
received;  (c)  by  a  cleric  who  presumes  to  resign  his 
ecclesiastical  office,  benefice,  or  dignity  into  lay 
hands — suspension  from  divine  functions;  by  an 
abbot  or  prelate  nullius  who  has  neglected  to  obtain 
the  necessary  episcopal  blessing  within  the  fixed  time — 
suspension  from  jurisdiction;  (d)  by  a  vicar  capitular 
who  unlawfully  grants  dimissorial  letters  for  ordina¬ 
tion  during  a  vacancy — suspension  from  divine 
functions;  (e)  by  religious  superiors  who  unlawfully 
presume  to  send  their  subjects  to  be  ordained  by  an 
extern  bishop — suspension  from  saying  Mass  for  a 
month . 

Suspension  ex  informata  conscientia. — This  extra¬ 
ordinary  remedy  may  be  applied  by  the  ordinary 
only  when  the  usual  method  of  procedure  cannot  be 
followed  without  grave  inconvenience.  The  decree  is 
generally  but  not  necessarily  to  be  in  writing  and 
should  contain  the  exact  date,  an  express  statement 
that  the  suspension  is  ex  informata  conscientia,  and 
indication  of  the  duration,  which  must  be  temporary, 
unless  the  suspension  is  inflicted  as  a  censure,  in 
which  case  the  cause  must  be  stated,  and  further¬ 
more  should  clearly  mention  what  acts  are  prohibited. 
The  suspended  cleric  may  appeal  to  the  next  higher 
superior.  An  important  change  is  that,  while  it 
may  never  be  inflicted  for  a  notorious  crime,  it  may 
be  imposed  for  a  public  offence:  (a)  if  the  crime  is 
revealed  to  the  ordinary  by  unimpeachable  witnesses 
who  alone  can  prove  it  but  who  cannot  be  induced  to 
give  evidence  in  court,  and  no  judicial  proof  can  be 
obtained  from  others;  or  (b)  if  the  cleric  himself 
prevents  the  judicial  investigation  from  being  begun 
or  completed;  or  (c)  if  the  judicial  process  would 
involve  a  conflict  with  the  civil  law  or  probably 
cause  scandal.  It  rests  with  the  bishop  in  his  dis¬ 
cretion  and  charity  to  reveal  the  cause  or  crime  to 
the  cleric  involved. 

Swatow,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of,  in  China,  Was 
erected  on  6  April,  1914,  under  the  name  of  Chao- 
chau,  by  separation  from  the  Prefecture  Apostolic 
of  Kuan  Tom  (Canton);  on  18  August,  1915,  the  name 
of  the  vicariate  was  officially  changed  to  Swatow. 
The  mission  has  an  area  of  50,000  square  miles  and 
embraces  the  civil  prefectures  of  Chaochau  and 
Kie-yang  and  five  sub-prefectures  of  Honitchow,  viz., 
Chang-ning,  Lu-feng,  Lung-chuan,  Lien-ping,  Ho-ping. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  vicariate  of  Southern 
Kiang-si  and  Fu-kien,  on  the  east  by  the  vicariate  of 
Amoy  and  the  Chinese  Sea,  on  the  south  by  the 
Chinese  Sea  and  on  the  west  by  the  Vicariates  of 
Hong-kong  and  Canton.  The  islands  in  the  Chinese 
Sea  belonging  to  the  civil  districts  mentioned  above 
are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  vicar.  The  vicariate, 
which  has  a  population  of  six  millions,  mostly  of  the 
Holo  and  Kakka  races,  is  under  the  spiritual  care  of 
the  Foreign  Missions.  The  first  and  present  vicar 
Apostolic  is  Mgr.  Adolphe  Rayssac,  b.  at  Lunan  in 
the  diocese  of  Cahors,  France,  on  4  November, 


r  SWEDEN 


711 


SWEDEN- 


1866;  studied  at  Figeac,  Montfaucou,  and  Cahors, 
entered  the  Missions  Etrangeres  at  Paris  in  August, 
1887;  ordained  on  21  Sept.,  1889;  set  out  for  the 
Chinese  mission  three  months  later.  Mgr.  Rayssac 
was  appointed  vicar  apostolic  on  17  July,  1914, 
and  consecrated  at  Hong-kong  on  3  May,  1915. 
From  March,  1915,  till  February,  1917,  he  was 
Apostolic  administrator  of  Canton.  He  resides  at 
Swatow.  The  statistics  of  the  vicariate  for  1917 
recorded  22  European  and  7  Chinese  priests;  224 
churches  and  chapels;  33,695  Catholics;  594  adult 
baptisms,  3107  infant  baptisms  (1976  being  of  pagan 
parentage);  77  confirmations;  5794  annual  and  70,186 
devotional  confessions;  5208  Easter  and  114,619 
devotional  communions;  76  boys’  schools  with  1490 
pupils;  12  girls’  schools  with  497  pupils;  5  orphanages 
with  148  orphans. 

The  notable  events  in  the  vicariate  since  its  erec¬ 
tion  are  as  follows:  In  October,  1915,  Father  Louis 
Etienne,  when  travelling  to  Swatow  to  report  in 
accordance  with  the  French  military  law,  was  shot 
and  stabbed  by  brigands,  but  he  recovered  after 
eight  months  in  a  hospital  at  Hong-kong;  in  1916  the 
Sisters  of  St.  Paul  of  Chartres  were  withdrawn  from 
the  vicariate;  in  1917  the  southern  armies  defeated  the 
northern  forces,  but  in  June,  1918,  Swatow  was 
recovered  by  the  Pekin  Government.  A  very  violent 
earthquake  occurred  on  13  February,  1918,  killing 
hundreds  in  Swatow  and  on  the  island  of  Namoa. 
In  Swatow  the  Catholic  church  was  badly  shaken  and 
is  beyond  repair,  while  in  Chaochowfu  the  tower  of 
the  beautiful  church  of  Notre  Dame  Auxiliatrice  was 
thrown  down  and  the  walls  of  the  building  split. 

Sweden,  (cf.  C.  E.,  XVI — 347a). — The  area  of  the 
monarchy  is  173,035  square  miles  and  the  population 
on  31  December,  1920,  was  5,904,000,  including 
4,161,000  in  the  rural  communes  and  1,743,000  in 
the  cities. 

Education. — In  1919  there  were  77  public  second¬ 
ary  schools  with  27,384  pupils,  51  high  schools  with 
3486  pupils,  2  high  and  7  elementary  technical 
schools  with  about  4000  pupils,  17,085  elementary 
schools  with  24,265  teachers  and  706,841  pupils,  and 
5  navigation  schools.  Education  is  compulsory  and 
free,  and  children  not  attending  the  public  schools 
must  furnish  proofs  of  being  privately  educated. 
There  are  2  universities  at  Upsala  and  at  Lund,  also 
medical,  philosophical,  and  law  faculties  at  Stockholm 
and  Goteborg. 

Social  Conditions. — According  to  the  Poor  Law 
ordinances  issued  in  1918,  the  communes  are  obliged 
to  assist  children  under  16  years  of  age,  if  necessary, 
and  all  those  who  are  disabled  from  disease,  old  age, 
and  infirmity.  In  each  commune,  which  constitutes 
a  poor  district,  there  is  a  board  of  public  assistances. 
In  1919  a  total  of  256,441  received  relief  (140,973  in 
country  parishes,  115,468  in  towns). 

Government. — Sweden  is  a  constitutional  mon¬ 
archy,  with  a  King  and  a  Parliament  of  two  houses. 
The  King  must  be  a  member  of  the  Lutheran  Church, 
and  exercises  his  power  in  concert  with  the  Council 
of  State  and  the  Diet.  The  provincial  administration 
is  entrusted  in  Stockholm  to  a  High  Governor  and  in 
each  of  the  24  governments  to  a  prefect,  who  is 
nominated  by  the  King.  Ecclesiastical  affairs  and 
questions  relating  to  the  primary  schools  are  dealt 
with  by  the  parish  assemblies,  presided  over  by  the 
pastor  of  the  parish. 

Religion. — The  mass  of  the  population  belong  to 
the  Lutheran  Church,  recognized  as  the  State  religion. 
There  are  12  bishoprics,  and  1587  parishes  (1920). 
Upsala  is  the  metropolitan  see.  The  clergy  are  chiefly 
supported  from  the  parishes  and  proceeds  of  church 
lands.  The  Jews  number  about  6000. 

Economic  Conditions. — In  1919  the  number  of 


farms  in  cultivation  was  428,758,  of  which  120,788 
were  of  2  hectares  and  under;  270,511  of  2  to  20 
hectares,  and  34,883  above  100  hectares.  The 
harvest  in  Sweden  was  between  50  per  cent  and  75  per 
cent  more  abundant  than  normal,  but  the  demand 
was  not  equal  to  the  supply.  In  order  to  allay  the 
discontent  caused  by  the  fact  that  large  quantities  of 
foreign  wheat  was  being  imported,  while  Swedish 
wheat  was  lying  unbought,  the  government  raised 
the  duty  on  imported  grain.  In  1920,  286,535  tons 
of  wheat  were  produced,  1,024,757  tons  of  oats, 
1,677,545  tons  of  potatoes,  3,599,014  tons  of  sugar 
beet  and  fodder  roots;  and  4,499,896  tons  of  hay. 
In  1919,  the  value  of  all  crops  was  estimated  at 
2145  million  kroner  (1  krona  =  $.268).  The  public 
forests  in  Sweden  (mostly  on  crown  lands)  have  an 
area  of  8,193,981  hectares,  and  in  1918  yielded 
5,636,240  cubic  metres  of  timber.  In  the  same  year, 
289,113  men,  50,516  women,  34,980  boys  and  10,671 
girls  (under  18  years  of  age)  were  employed  in  the 
factories.  On  15  July,  1921,  the  Sales  Union  which 
had  regulated  the  price  of  timber,  was  dissolved,  and 
the  sales  of  timber,  which  had  shrunk  to  a  low  level, 
improved.  A  new  eight-hour  week  law  went  into 
effect  on  1  January,  1920.  Foreign  competition  has 
been  severely  felt  in  the  iron  and  steel  trade.  About 
4,981,110  tons  of  iron  ore  were  mined  in  1919;  of 
these,  2,418,989  tons  were  exported.  Of  the  493,701 
tons  of  pig  iron  mined  in  1919,  81,578  tons  were 
exported.  In  Sweden,  45,108  persons  were  engaged 
in  mining.  The  foreign  trade  of  Sweden  in  1920, 
included  exports  valued  at  £127,421,500  and  imports 
valued  at  £187,415,833.  At  the  end  of  1919,  the 
railway  mileage  in  Sweden  was  9392,  of  which  3409 
miles  belonged  to  the  state.  The  total  revenue  was 
estimated  at  £71,926,310,  the  expenditure,  £46,792,- 
777.  On  1  January,  1921,  the  total  debt,  chiefly 
contracted  for  productive  purposes,  was  1,270,440,927 
kronor,  or  217  kroner  per  head  of  the  population 
(96  in  1910).  The  assets  in  the  state  were  1,207,- 


806,233  kroner. 

Defence. — The  military  forces  of  Sweden  are 
recruited  on  the  principle  of  universal  suffrage.  The 
peace  standing  (1920)  is  about  86,507  men.  The 
Swedish  navy  is  used  entirely  as  a  coast  defense  force. 

Recent  History. — During  the  World  War, 
Sweden  maintained  the  strictest  neutrality,  although 
its  shipping  suffered  greatly  from  the  submarines  and 
the  allied  blockade.  After  the  war,  Sweden  claimed 
the  Alland  Islands,  which  were,  however,  awarded 
by  the  League  of  Nations  to  Finland.  On  26  May, 
1919,  the  Swedish  Parliament  granted  full  national 
suffrage  to  women,  who  in  1909,  had  been  given 
municipal  suffrage.  In  June,  1919,  the  Swedish 
Congress  of  Independent  Socialists  at  Stockholm, 
voted  to  join  the  “Third  International  at  Moscow” 
and  adopted  a  resolution  favoring  Bolshevist  prin¬ 
ciples.  In  1920,  a  marriage  law  was  passed  depriving 
the  husband  of  personal  guardianship  over  the  wife 
and  of  legal  right  to  dispose  of  the  wife’s  property. 
The  wife  could  acquire  property  in  her  own  right. 
If  both  parties  desired  a  divorce,  no  court  action  was 
required,  the  parties  merely  registered  before  a  judge, 
and  the  marriage  was  automatically  dissolved.  A 
trade  agreement  with  Soviet  Russia  was  signed  in 
February,  1922.  A  consultative  referendum  on  the 
question  of  alcohol  will  take  place  in  August,  1922. 

Sweden,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of,  is  under  the 
guidance  of  Mgr.  Albert  Bitter,  titular  bishop  of 
Doliche.  He  was  born  in  1848  at  Melle,  in  the 
diocese  of  Hildesheim,  was  ordained  in  1874,  and 
spent  his  early  priestly  life  as  a  missionary  in  Sweden, 
first  in  Stockholm  and  then  in  Goteborg.  Later  he 
went  to  Mecklenburg  and  returning  to  Sweden  was 
raised  to  the  episcopacy  and  appointed  vicar  apos¬ 
tolic  1893.  To  his  apostolic  labors  is  largely  due 


SWEDENBORGIANS 


712 


SWITZERLAND 


the  sure  if  slow  progress  of  the  Church  of  Sweden. 
Although  liberty  of  conscience  has  not  yet  been  for¬ 
mally  proclaimed  in  the  Swedish  Constitution,  it  is  a 
practical  fact;  religious  orders  are  allowed  to  develop 
without  government  interference  and  the  Sisters  of 
St.  Joseph  and  the  Grey  Sisters  of  Breslau  conduct 
several  schools  there.  In  1921,  the  first  Catholic 
daily ,  the  ‘  ‘  Credo’  ’ ,  was  published  by  the  same  publish¬ 
ers  who  had  issued  a  Catholic  review  of  that  name  two 
years  earlier.  Statistics  for  1921  give  15  priests,  17 
churches  and  chapels,  5  stations  and  a  Catholic 
population  of  2558. 

Swedenborgians — I.  General  Convention  of  the 
New  Jerusalem  in  the  United  States  of  America. 
In  1912  a  very  complete  Book  of  Worship  was 
adopted  by  the  General  Convention.  In  recent 
years  this  sect  has  suffered  a  decrease  in  nearly  all 
particulars.  In  1921  it  reported  101  churches,  99 
ministers  and  6519  members. 

II.  General  Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem.  This 
sect  centers  its  main  energies  on  the  religious  edu¬ 
cation  of  children  through  the  three  parochial 
schools  which  it  supports.  Its  higher  educational 
center  is  at  Bryn  Athyn,  Pa.,  where  also  an  experi¬ 
ment  at  reviving  the  medieval  guilds  was  attempted 
in  the  erection  of  a  stately  cathedral  under  the 
direction  of  Ralph  Adams  Cram.  The  guild  experi¬ 
ment  was  not  entirely  successful  and  the  architect, 
Mr.  Cram,  withdrew  from  the  undertaking. 

Foreign  missionary  work  is  carried  on  in  Sweden, 
Belgium,  France,  Switzerland,  South  Africa,  Brazil, 
and  Canada.  There  were  in  1916,  6  stations,  5 
American  missionaries,  5  churches  and  310  mem¬ 
bers.  In  1921  they  reported  in  the  United  States 
15  churches,  35  ministers,  and  733  members,  show¬ 
ing  a  slight  decrease  in  members  since  1912. 

Religious  Bodies,  1916  (Washington,  1919);  Year  Book  of  the 
Churches  (New  York,  annual). 

N.  A.  Weber. 

Switzerland  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV— 358a),  a  federal 
republic  in  Central  Europe,  divided  into  22  cantons, 
three  of  which  are  divided  into  half  cantons.  On 
l  December,  1920,  the  area  was  15,976  square  miles 
and  the  population  2,861,508.  According  to  the 
1910  census  the  inhabitants  of  Switzerland  were 
classified  by  native  tongue  as  follows:  2,594,186 
spoke  German,  793,264  spoke  French;  302,578, 
Italian;  23,031  spoke  other  languages.  The  number 
of  foreigners  resident  in  Switzerland  in  1920  was 
412,306.  In  1919  there  were  74,205  births,  30,731 
marriages,  and  57  deaths  and  still  births.  The 
number  of  emigrants  in  1920  was  9276.  The  largest 
cities  with  their  respective  populations  are:  Zurich, 
206,120;  Basle,  135,385;  Bern,  103,385;  St.  Gall, 
69,733;  Lausanne,  67,858.  With  the  exception  of 
the  Moravians  and  two  Lutheran  parishes  in  Geneva, 
all  the  Protestants  of  Switzerland  belong  to  the 
Evangelical  Church.  The  great  majority  of  these 
belong  to  the  “National  Churches,”  organized  accord¬ 
ing  to  cantons.  There  are  differences  in  details  in 
the  constitutions  of  these  cantonal  National  Churches. 
Besides  these  there  are  also  large  independent  Prot¬ 
estant  Churches  and  Evangelical  sects  of  the  most 
varied  kinds.  In  the  census  the  Old  Catholics  are 
not  counted  as  independent  confessions,  but  are 
enumerated  among  the  Catholics.  In  addition  to 
the  Old  Catholic  bishop,  the  Christian  Catholic 
National  Church  is  administered  by  a  national  synod 
which  meets  annually;  besides  the  Old  Catholic 
priests  and  the  bishop,  its  membership  includes  dele¬ 
gates  elected  by  the  parishes.  The  Swiss  Jews  are 
united  for  worship  into  several  communities,  which 
are  organized  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  the 
Confederation  for  associations. 


According  to  the  census  of  1  December,  1920,  the 
number  of  Protestants  amounted  to  2,218,589 
(57  per  cent  of  the  population),  of  Catholics,  1,586,- 
826  (41  per  cent),  and  of  Jews,  20,955  (2  per  cent). 
The  Protestants  are  in  a  majority  in  twelve  cantons, 
and  the  Catholics  in  ten.  Of  the  more  populous 
cantons,  Zurich,  Bern,  Vaud,  Neuchatel,  and  Basle 
are  mainly  Protestant  while  Luzern,  Fribourg, 
Ticino,  Valais,  and  the  Forest  Cantons  are  mainly 
Catholic.  The  Jesuit  order  and  its  affiliated  societies 
cannot  be  received  in  Switzerland,  and  the  foundation 
of  new  convents  and  religious  orders  is  forbidden. 
The  Catholic  population  is  is  governed  by  the  sees 
of  Basle  and  Lugano,  Chur,  St.  Gall,  Lausanne 
and  Geneva,  and  Sion. 

Government. — The  constitution  of  29  May, 
1874,  which  is  still  in  force,  provides  for  a  President 
and  Vice-President,  elected  for  one  year,  and  a 
Parliament  of  2  Chambers,  a  Slander  at  or  State 
Council,  and  a  Nationalrat  or  National  Council. 
The  first  is  composed  of  44  members,  two  for  each 
canton  and  the  Nationalrat  has  189  members, 
chosen  by  the  people,  one  for  each  20,000.  The 
executive  administration  of  the  Confederation  is 
divided  into  7  departments,  each  of  which  is  under 
the  direction  of  a  member  of  the  Federal  Council. 
When  business  relative  to  a  particular  department  is 
considered  in  the  legislature,  the  Councillor  who 
manages  that  department  attends,  answers  questions, 
gives  explanations,  and  joins  in  debate.  Besides 
its  general  administrative  (including  financial)  work, 
the  charge  of  foreign  relations  and  of  the  army,  the 
Council  supervises  the  conduct  of  the  permanent 
civil  service  of  the  Confederation.  By  the  law  of 
1914  the  Department  of  Foreign  Affairs,  which  was  in 
charge  of  the  President  of  the  Council  and  which 
was  changed  every  year,  became  permanent  and 
comprised  three  sections:  viz.  Foreign  Affairs,  In¬ 
ternal  Affairs  and  Commerce.  The  initiative 
and  referendum  prevails,  but  is  seldom  used,  only 
three  times  on  62  laws  passed  between  1905  and  1919. 
Three  of  the  cantons  are  politically  divided — Basle 
into  Stadt  and  Land;  Appenzell  into  Ausser  Rhoden 
and  Inner  Rhoden,  and  Unterwald  into  Obwald  and 
Nidwald.  Each  of  these  parts  of  cantons  sends  one 
member  to  the  State  Council.  In  1919  a  new  group 
of  Peasants,  Artisans,  and  Bourgeois  won  26  seats  in 
the  National  Council.  A  Civil  Code,  combining 
the  old  Teutonic  customary  law  with  the  principles 
of  modern  French  law  was  enacted  in  1912.  A  penal 
code  is  being  prepared  (1919). 

Education. — The  statistics  for  1918  give  302 
kindergartens,  4229  primary  schools  with  13,371 
teachers  and  555,353  pupils,  527  secondary  schools 
with  49,170  pupils,  and  1877  teachers,  128  middle 
schools  with  26,608  pupils  and  1708  teachers.  There 
are  also  special  schools  and  seven  universities.  The 
Academy  of  Neuch&tel  was  transformed  into  a  uni¬ 
versity  in  May,  1909,  but  without  the  faculty  of 
medicine. 

Social  Conditions. — There  is  a  Federal  Insurance 
Law,  entitling  all  Swiss  citizens  to  insurance  against 
illness  and  accident  (passed  in  June,  1911).  Accident 
insurance  is  obligatory  in  industrial  establishments 
under  the  Federal  Liability  Law  and  is  adminis¬ 
tered  by  the  Swiss  Accident  Insurance  Institution. 
On  31  December,  1919,  the  prison  population  con¬ 
sisted  of  3187  of  whom  400  were  women. 

Economic  Conditions. — Agriculture. — It  is  esti¬ 
mated  that  there  are  250,000  separate  farming  prop¬ 
erties  averaging  less  than  15  acres  in  size,  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  which  are  occupied  and  worked  by 
the  owner  or  members  of  his  family.  In  1920,  the 
production  was  as  follows:  wheat,  97,600  metric 
tons;  oats,  45,200  metric  tons;  potatoes,  768,700 
metric  tons;  rye,  37,200  metric  tons.  According  to 


SYDNEY 


713 


SYNOD 


the  estimates  of  the  Swiss  Milk  Office,  created  by  the 
Government  in  1917  to  regulate  the  provisioning  of 
the  country,  milk  production  for  1913  was  estimated 
at  273,000  metric  tons,  with  a  constant  decrease  dur¬ 
ing  the  war  years  to  186,000  tons  in  1919.  The 
amount  of  milk  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese, 
butter,  and  condensed  milk,  in  1919  (53,000  tons)  was 
only  half  the  amount  used  in  1913.  In  view  of  the 
innumerable  strikes  in  the  surrounding  countries, 
the  labor  situation  in  Switzerland  has  been  very  calm. 
The  forty-eight-hour  week  became  effective  for  all 
Swiss  industrial  establishments  on  1  January,  1920. 
xVt  the  end  of  1919  there  were  20  central  trade  unions 
in  the  country  with  a  combined  membership  of 
223,588.  A  Federal  Labor  Bureau  was  established 
in  1921  with  jurisdiction  over  all  labor  questions, 
including  the  drafting  of  bills  regulating  relations 
between  employer  and  employee.  The  Bureau  was 
designed  to  act  also  as  an  intermediary  between  the 
Swiss  government  and  the  labor  organizations  of  the 
League  of  Nations.  In  1918  there  were  9317  fac¬ 
tories,  including  1222  watch  establishments  with 
46,500  employees,  of  whom  some  25,000  were  male. 
The  railway  mileage  of  Switzerland  in  1920  was  3881, 
besides  34  miles  of  foreign  railways  in  the  Confedera¬ 
tion.  The  state  railways  are  being  electrified.  In 
1920  the  foreign  trade  of  Switzerland  included:  im¬ 
ports  valued  at  $712,777,052,  and  exports,  valued  at 
$550,553,435.  In  1921  the  revenue  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  was  estimated  at  £14,333,600,  and  the  expendi¬ 
ture  at  £20,937,600.  The  public  debt  of  the  coun¬ 
try,  exclusive  of  the  railway  debt,  amounted  on  1 
January,  1921,  to  £64,234,264,  mostly  at  5  per  cent. 
The  floating  debt  was  £10,280,000.  The  total  debt 
was  thus  £74,514,264. 

Defence. — Switzerland  depends  for  defence  on  a 
national  militia;  service  being  compulsory  and  uni¬ 
versal.  The  number  of  soldiers  in  peace  time  is 
about  140,000.  In  1920  the  military  budget  was 
£1,930,989. 

The  position  of  Switzerland  in  the  Great  European 
War  (1914),  completely  surrounded  by  belligerent 
Powers,  was  one  of  great  difficulty.  The  nation  as  a 
whole  was  extremely  anxious  to  maintain  neutrality, 
though  in  their  sympathies  the  Swiss  people  were 
sharply  divided.  The  country  suffered  acutely  from 
economic  difficulties.  Besides  maintaining  its  army 
on  a  war  footing  for  the  duration  of  the  war,  Switzer¬ 
land  became  a  clearing  house  for  the  refugees ,  wounded , 
and  prisoners  of  the  belligerents,  while  exiled  monarchs 
and  international  diplomats  made  it  their  headquarters. 
After  the  Revolution  in  Germany,  the  small  districts 
of  Busingen,  Jestelten,  and  Lottstelten  in  Baden 
declared  themselves  united  to  the  canton  of  Schaff- 
hausen.  In  the  popular  referendum  held  on  15  May, 
1920,  1134  cantons  voted  for  and  1034  against  joining 
the  League  of  Nations.  The  popular  vote  favored  it 
by  400,000  to  300,000. 

Sydney,  Archdiocese  of  (Sydneyensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  XIV — 365b),  in  Australia.  In  1917,  12  parishes 
were  separated  from  the  archdiocese  to  help  form  the 
new  diocese  of  Wagga-Wagga.  In  1921  the  centenary 
of  the  foundation  of  the  church  in  Australia  was 
solemnly  celebrated  at  Sydney,  the  hierarchy  of 
Australasia  attending.  On  8  June,  1913,  the  Arch¬ 
bishops  of  Sydney  and  Melbourne  laid  the  foundation 
stone  of  the  new  cathedral  and  £11,000  were  sub¬ 
scribed  on  that  day.  It  is  hoped  that  the  work  will 
be  completed  in  five  years.  The  archdiocese  is  in  a 
flourishing  condition,  due  in  great  part  to  the  zeal 
and  energy  of  its  present  administrator,  Most  Rev. 
Michael  Kelly.  He  was  b.  at  Waterford,  Ireland, 
13  Feb.,  1850,  ordained  1  Nov.,  1872,  rector  of  the 
Irish  College  at  Rome,  1891,  elected  titular  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Achrida  16  July,  1901,  and  coadjutor  of  the 


archdiocese  of  Sydney,  consecrated  15  Aug.  following, 
succeeding  the  late  Cardinal  Moran,  16  Aug.,  1911. 
In  his  episcopate  was  founded  the  Apostolic  Delega¬ 
tion  in  Australia,  Mgr.  Cerretti  being  the  first  dele¬ 
gate.  According  to  the  statistics  of  1922  the  arch¬ 
diocese  contains  86  parishes,  177  churches,  156 
secular  priests,  105  regulars,  270  brothers,  1668 
nuns.  There  are  3  seminaries  in  the  archdiocese  with 
182  seminarians.  Educational  institutions  are:  43 
high  schools,  369  teachers,  5345  students;  144  ele¬ 
mentary  schools,  705  teachers,  34,932  pupils.  No 
census  of  the  Catholic  population  has  been  taken 
since  1911.  The  following  institutions  exist  in  the 
archdiocese:  2  homes  (1  conducted  by  the  Little 
Sisters  of  the  Poor,  1  for  infirm  priests),  9  hospitals, 
3  refuges.  All  the  public  institutions  admit  the 
ministry  of  priests.  Hospitals  receive  small  dona¬ 
tions  from  the  government.  There  are  two  Catholic 
weekly  newspapers:  the  ‘ 'Catholic  Press”  and  the 
“Freeman’s  Journal.”  The  official  records  of  the 
war  show  that  Catholics  enlisted  in  proportion  to  the 
population.  Chaplains  were  sent  from  time  to  time 
with  the  different  divisions.  Two  of  them  were 
decorated  with  the  Officer  Order  of  the  British  Empire. 

Sylvestrines  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 372d). — The  Con¬ 
gregation  of  Sylvestrines  is  formed  by  several  monas¬ 
teries  sui juris,  and  has  a  superior  general,  who,  with 
a  procurator  general  and  a  secretary  general  form  the 
governing  body.  They  are  elected  for  six  years  only 
by  the  capitular  Fathers  assembled  in  general  chapter. 
There  is  no  vicar  general.  The  mother-house  of  the 
congregation  is  the  Monastery  of  St.  Sylvester  on 
Monte  Fano,  though  the  superior  general  resides  at  the 
monastery  of  St.  Stephen  on  Monte  Cacco.  Revised 
constitutions  of  the  congregation  were  confirmed  by 
Alexander  VIII  in  1690,  but  the  present  constitutions 
are  those  approved  by  Gregory  XVI,  4  May,  1838. 
The  monasteries  in  Portugal  are  entirely  extinguished. 
Those  in  Brazil  were  ruled  by  a  vicar,  but  owing  to 
the  difficulties  of  communication  and  local  differences, 
in  the  course  of  time  they  passed  over  to  the  Cassinese 
Congregation  of  Benedictines,  under  which  some  of 
them  still  exist.  There  were  formerly  monasteries  of 
Sylvestrine  Nuns,  which,  however,  have  ceased  to 
exist.  Among  the  saints  of  the  congregation  are: 
Simonettus,  Philip  of  Recanato,  Paulinus  Bigazzini 
of  Perugia,  Bonapars  Ghisleri  of  Jesi,  John  the  Soli¬ 
tary,  Benvenuto  of  Arcevia,  Simon  of  Roccacontrada, 
Bartholomew  a  Cingulo,  and  many  others.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  records  of  the  congregation  are  still  in  manuscript 
in  the  general  archives. 

Synod  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 388a). — Under  the  new 
regime  a  diocesan  synod  is  to  be  held  in  each  diocese 
at  least  every  tenth  year,  to  treat  exclusively  of  the 
special  needs  of  the  clergy  and  laity  of  the  diocese. 
It  can  be  convoked  only  by  the  bishop  or  by  the 
vicar  general  if  specially  delegated,  but  not  by  the 
vicar  capitular,  and  is  to  be  held  ordinarily  in  the 
cathedral.  The  following  persons  are  to  be  invited 
and  must  attend — if  they  are  unable  to  be  present 
they  must  inform  the  bishop  of  their  inability:  the 
vicar  general;  the  cathedral  canons  or  diocesan 
consultors;  the  rector  of  the  higher  diocesan  sem¬ 
inary;  the  vicars  forane;  a  representative  of  each 
collegiate  church,  chosen  by  its  chapter  from  among 
its  members;  the  parish  priests  of  the  city  in  which 
the  synod  is  being  held;  at  least  one  parish  from  each 
vicariate  forane,  chosen  from  among  those  who  are 
charged  there  with  the  cure  of  souls;  abbots  de 
regimine;  and  of  the  superiors  of  each  clerical  order 
or  congregation  in  the  diocese,  appointed  by  the 
provincial,  unless  when  the  provincial  house  is  in 
the  diocese  and  the  provincial  himself  prefers  to 
attend.  The  bishop  may,  if  he  pleases,  invite  all  the 


SYON  ABBEY 


714 


SYRIA 


religious  superiors  and  any  of  the  secular  priests; 
he  can  punish  any  of  those  who  neglect  to  be  present 
after  being  summoned,  except  exempt  religious  not 
acting  as  parish  priests.  Those  who  attend  have 
merely  a  consultive  vote,  the  bishop  being  the  sole 
legislator;  he  alone  signs  the  synodal  constitutions, 
which,  if  promulgated  in  the  synod,  begin  to  bind 
ipso  facto,  unless  the  contrary  is  expressly  provided. 

In  each  diocese  there  are  to  be  selected  not  more 
than  twelve  priests  skilled  in  canon  law,  who  need 
not  belong  to  the  diocese,  to  whom  the  bishop  is  to 
delegate  power  to  act  as  judges;  the  bishop  decides 
the  number  that  ought  to  be  appointed  and  submits 
the  names  to  the  synod  for  its  approval;  if  between 
synods  any  vacancies  occur  the  bishop  can  fill  them 
after  consulting  the  cathedral  chapter;  the  former 
judges  are  called  synodal;  the  latter  pro-synodal, 
but  they  are  otherwise  identified  in  the  eyes  of  the 
law.  They  hold  office  ordinarily  until  the  next 
synod,  but  may  be  re-appointed  and  may  not  be 
removed  by  the  bishop  except  for  grave  cause  and 
after  consulting  the  cathedral  chapter.  The  Code 
does  not  mention  any  obligation  on  the  part  of  the 
bishop  to  send  the  names  of  the  judges  to  Rome,  as 
was  formerly  the  case. 

Syon  Abbey  (cf.C.E.,  XIV— 394c) —On  21  April, 
1920,  the  fifth  centenary  of  the  first  profession  of 
monks  and  nuns  of  the  Bridgettine  monastery  of  Syon 
was  celebrated.  In  honor  of  this  event  Pope  Benedict 
XV  restored  to  the  monastery  of  Syon  its  former 
privileges  of  perpetual  abbacy  and  solemn  vows.  On 
4  May,  the  anniversary  of  the  canonical  election  of 
the  first  abbess  of  Syon,  Rev.  Dame  Mary  Teresa 
Jocelyn  was  blessed  and  installed  by  the  Bishop  of 
Plymouth. 

Syra,  Diocese  of  (Syrensis,  cf.  C.  E.,  XIV— 3195a)  , 
one  of  the  Cyclades  Islands  in  the  Greek  Archi¬ 
pelago,  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Naxos  and 
Tinos.  The  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Anthony 
Macrioniti,  succeeded  to  the  see  in  1912  upon  the 
promotion  of  Bishop  Darmanin  to  the  Archdiocese 
of  Corfu.  He  was  born  in  Smyrna  in  1853,  studied 
at  the  College  of  Propaganda,  and  was  chancellor 
of  the  Archdiocese  of  Smyrna  until  his  appoint¬ 
ment  as  bishop.  The  Catholic  population  of  this 
island  numbers  about  10,000,  living  mostly  in  the 
old  town  or  in  a  few  outlying  villages.  There  are 
a  commercial  school  for  boys  conducted  by  the 
Christian  Brothers — and  an  academy  under  the 
Vincentian  Nuns,  who  also  conduct  a  hospital. 
The  Capuchin  Fathers  have  had  a  residence  and 
church  here  since  the  Seventeenth  Century,  and 
the  Jesuits  have  been  established  on  the  island 
since  the  Eighteenth  Century.  The  1920  statistics 
credit  it  with  25  secular  and  6  regular  clergy,  and 
20  churches  or  chapels. 

Syracuse,  Diocese  of  (Syracusensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 397c),  in  the  state  of  New  York,  suffragan  of 
New  York.  The  present  incumbent  is  the  Rt.  Rev. 
John  Grimes,  b.  at  Lisnagrey,  Ireland,  25  Jan., 
1856,  ordained  19  Feb.,  1882,  rector  of  the  cathedral 
of  Syracuse,  elected  titular  bishop  of  Himeria,  1  Feb., 
1909.  and  coadjutor  bishop  of  Syracuse,  published  29 
April,  consecrated  16  May  following,  succeeded  the 
Rt.  Rev.  Patrick  Ludden,  6  Aug.,  1912.  The 
diocese  contains  98  parishes,  137  churches,  39  mis¬ 
sions,  5  convents  for  men,  6  for  women,  483  Sisters, 
143  secular  priests,  18  regulars,  4  lay  brothers,  25 
seminarians  who  are  being  educated  in  seminaries  of 
other  dioceses.  The  educational  institutions  include: 
11  high  schools,  average  attendance  946  (402  boys, 
544  girls);  3  academies  with  43  teachers,  average 
attendance  579  (boys  321,  girls  258);  34  elementary 


schools  with  430  teachers,  attendance  16,344.  The 
following  charitable  institutions  exist  in  the  diocese: 
3  hospitals,  5  settlement  houses,  1  home  at  Syracuse 
called  the  Ludden  Home  for  Working  Girls.  Regular 
Sunday  services  are  held  at  nine  public  institutions. 
Associations  existing  among  the  clergy  are:  Euchar¬ 
istic  League,  Clerical  Fund,  Society  for  Infirm 
Priests.  Among  the  laity:  Knights  of  Columbus, 
Catholic  Welfare,  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  and 
the  usual  Catholic  societies.  A  paper  called  “The 
Catholic  Sun”  is  published  at  Syracuse. 

Syria  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 405a). — While  four  of  the 
Catholic  Oriental  Rites  have  archbishops  in  Syria, 
the  Latins  are  organized  in  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
Aleppo.  This  flourishing  vicariate  was  almost  ruined 
during  the  war.  Most  of  the  missionaries,  including 
the  Sisters,  were  expelled;  almost  all  the  churches, 
schools,  colleges,  and  other  institutions  were  closed  or 
taken  over  by  the  Turkish  Government.  The  few 
workers  who  remained  were  helpless  to  stay  the 
devastation.  After  the  armistice  in  1918  the  mis¬ 
sionaries  and  Sisters  began  to  return  to  undertake 
the  work  of  restoration;  but  even  in  1922  not  all  the 
vicariate  has  been  blessed  with  peace,  Christians  are 
still  being  slaughtered,  especially  in  parts  of  Cilicia 
and  Northern  Syria,  where  six  of  the  Fathers  had 
already  been  slain.  Most  of  the  faithful,  abandoning 
everything,  have  followed  the  French  forces  into 
exile.  The  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Aleppo  is  ex-officio 
Apostolic  Delegate  to  Syria.  The  present  incumbent 
Mgr.  Frediano  Giannini,  titular  Bishop  of  Serres,  was 
born  at  Bozzano  in  the  diocese  of  Lucca,  Italy,  on  16 
June,  1861;  he  joined  the  Friars  Minor  on  8  August, 
1876,  was  professed  on  22  November,  1881,  ordained 
on  21  December,  1883;  he  was  appointed  custodian  of 
the  Holy  Land,  and  on  19  January,  1905,  named 
vicar  apostolic  and  Apostolic  Delegate.  In  March, 
1920,  he  was  decorated  with  the  Cross  of  the  Com¬ 
manders  of  the  Legion  d’Honneur  by  General  Gouraud 
in  the  name  of  the  French  Government.  In  1921  the 
vicariate  comprised  28  quasi-parishes  and  missions; 
49  houses  of  clerical  religious,  15  of  lay  religious,  and 
90  of  Sisters;  there  are  170  priests,  all  regulars,  130 
Brothers  and  669  Sisters  of  different  congregations. 
There  are  about  7500  Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite  and 
335,000  of  various  Eastern  Rites. 

The  Jesuit  University  at  Beirut  has  faculties  of 
philosophy,  theology,  medicine,  seicnce,  Oriental 
letters,  law,  architecture.  The  university  and  college 
have  about  1000  students.  Annexed  to  the  university 
is  a  seminary  for  students  of  various  Eastern  Rites 
with  thirty-four  seminarians.  The  university  astro¬ 
nomical  observatory  is  located  at  Ksara  on  Mount 
Lebanon.  The  faculties  of  law  and  architecture  are 
dependent  on  the  University  of  Lyons,  and  the 
faculty  of  medicine  belongs  to  the  French  Govern¬ 
ment;  but  all  three  are  under  the  direction  of  the 
Jesuits  who  have  the  appointment  of  the  professors. 
In  addition  in  1919-20  there  were  15  colleges  for  boys 
with  3630  pupils,  and  10  for  girls  with  2230  pupils; 
120  elementary  schools  for  boys  with  10,016  pupils, 
and  64  for  girls  with  11,284  pupils;  today  (1922)  the 
pupils  number  over  30,000;  finally  there  is  a  normal 
school  for  men,  and  one  for  women.  Most  of  the 
teachers  in  the  schools,  most  of  which  are  aided  by 
the  French  Government,  are  religious,  while  the  re¬ 
maining  teachers  are  dependent  on  them.  The 
different  Catholic  Oriental  Rites  have  also  colleges, 
schools,  and  institutions  of  their  own,  but  the  Latin 
schools  receive  pupils  of  all  rites,  and  even  schis¬ 
matics  and  infidels.  The  Catholic  orphanages  con¬ 
tain  more  than  1000  children,  who,  in  addition  to  an 
elementary  education,  receive  suitable  manual  and 
technical  training.  There  are  3  foundling  asylums; 
various  dispensaries;  3  hospitals;  numerous  ouvroirs  or 


SZAMOS-UJVAR 


715 


SZOMBATHELY 


workrooms,  where  poor  girls  can  get  suitable  employ¬ 
ment;  1  home  for  the  aged;  numerous  religious  sodali¬ 
ties  for  boys,  girls,  men  and  women,  with  thousands 
of  members;  conferences  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  in 
most  of  the  larger  cities;  workingmens'  societies; 
circles  for  the  young;  catechetical  societies.  Provi¬ 
sion  is  made  for  giving  the  spiritual  exercises  to 
ecclesiastics  and  the  faithful,  especially  Orientals'. 
The  Jesuits  at  Beirut  have  an  excellent  printing  press, 
where  they  publish  the  journal  “Al-Bachir"  and  the 
periodical,  “Al-Machreq,”  both  in  Arabic. 

Capuchin  Mission. — The  Capuchin  Syrian  mission 
was  established  as  early  as  1825.  Its  present  superior 
is  Fr.  Jerome  de  Lyons.  The  Fathers  have  charge  of 
six  quasi-parishes  or  missionary  districts  at  Beirut, 
Mersina,  Antioch,  Tarsus,  Baaldath  and  Khodulek; 
with  10  churches  and  7  stations,  30  Franciscan  Third 
Order  sodalities  with  2850  tertiaries.  They  have 
organized  and  now  direct  29  charitable  institutions — 
refuges,  work-rooms,  sanatoriums,  and  especially 
orphanages — writh  4700  inmates  or  beneficiaries.  In 
1910  they  had  106  schools  with  6000  pupils;  as  a  sequel 
to  the  war  they  have  had  to  curtail  their  efforts  in  this 
field,  but  they  have  already  24  schools — 3  of  which  are 
colleges — with  62  teachers  and  335  students.  All  the 
schools  and  institutions  receive  Government  aid. 

Szamos-Ujvar,  See  Gherla 

Sze-chwan,  Eastern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Se-ciuensis  orientalis,  cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 419a),  with 
residence  at  Chiong-King-fu,  China,  is  entrusted  to 
the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  the  present 
vicar  apostolic  being  Rt.  Rev.  Celestin-Felix-Joseph 
Phouvellon,  titular  bishop  of  Dansara,  to  which  see 
he  was  elected  on  his  appointment  to  this  vicariate  in 
1891.  The  mission  reports  for  1920-1921  a  Christian 
population  of  58,102,  64  parishes  and  729  mission 
stations,  103  secular  priests,  37  of  whom  are  French 
and  66  Chinese;  4  Brothers,  53  Sisters,  of  whom  7  are 
Europeans;  211  schools  for  boys  with  4168  pupils  and 
159  for  girls  with  3116  pupils.  There  are  a  theological 
seminary  with  25  seminarians  and  a  lower  seminary 
with  60  students,  and  a  probatorium  with  45  students. 
There  are  a  Carmelite  convent  with  10  nuns,  a  hospital 
conducted  by  the  Franciscan  Missionaries  of  Mary 
(7  Sisters),  1  native  convent  of  the  Sacred  Heart  with 
41  Sisters,  who  conduct  2  hospitals;  1  home  for  aged 
women,  with  102  inmates,  2  orphanages  with  394 
orphans.  “La  Vente”  a  weekly  published  in  Chinese 
with  a  supplement  in  French,  has  about  2000  sub¬ 
scribers.  A  printing  press  with  bindery  attached 
issues  Chinese  and  French  books. 


Sz6kesfehervar  (German  Stuhlweissenbijrg, 
Diocese  of  Albaeregalensis,  cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 
317b),  in  Hungary,  suffragan  of  Esztergom.  The 
present  bishop  of  Szekesfeh6rv<lr  is  Dr.  Ottokar 
Prohaszka,  famous  preacher  and  leader  of  the 
Hungarian  Catholic  movement,  b.  at  Nyitra  10 
October,  1858,  professor  of  theology  in  the  University 
of  Budapest,  elected  bishop  11  December,  1905, 
consecrated  in  Rome  by  Pius  X,  21  December  follow¬ 
ing,  succeeding  Mgr.  Varosy,  promoted  to  Kalocsa. 
The  Catholic  population  of  289,772  is  for  the  most 
part  Hungarian;  about  3000  are  either  German  or 
Slavonic.  Hospita  s  wrere  erected  during  the  World 
War  and  equipped  with  the  necessary  furnishings 
and  provided  w  th  ample  food  for  the  care  of  the 
inmates.  Among  the  recently  deceased  of  note  is 
Ferdinand  Zichy,  founder  of  a  political  faction  that 
defended  the  cause  of  Catholicism  in  the  public 
assemblies.  There  are  146  secular  and  33  regular 
priests  and  12  lay  brothers;  99  parishes,  and  132 
churches;  6  monasteries  for  men,  and  1  for  women; 
1  seminary;  2  colleges  for  boys  with  4  teachers  and 
78  students,  and  3  for  girls  with  9  teachers  and  132 
students;  1  high  school  with  14  teachers  and  270 
boys  students;  147  normal  schools  with  268  teachers 
and  20,738  pupils;  3  industrial  schools  with  28 
teachers  and  400  pupils;  1  hospital;  2  orphanages; 
1  day  nursery.  The  Government  supports  the 
Catholic  institutions  liberally  and  all  the  public 
schools  and  gymnasia  admit  religious  instruction. 
The  clergy  have  an  association  for  mission  work; 
and  among  the  laity  there  is  a  popular  Catholic 
organization .  One  Catholic  daily  is  published . 

Szombathely  or  (Steinamanger)  ,  Diocese  of 
(Sabariensis) ,  suffragan  of  Esztergom  in  Hungary. 
Szombathely  was  an  episcopal  see  even  before  the 
invasion  of  the  Huns,  but  King  St.  Stephen  gave  it  to 
the  Bishop  of  Veszprem  and,  in  1777,  the  see  was  re¬ 
constituted.  The  present  incumbent  is  Count  John 
Mikes  von  Zabola,  born  at  Zabola,  Diocese  of  Transyl¬ 
vania,  27  June,  1876,  elected  11  December,  1911. 
Bishop  Mikes  was  imprisoned  in  Budapest  during  the 
Bela  Kuhn  regime  in  1919  and  rescued  by  Catholic 
railroad  workers.  In  the  diocese  there  are  463,511 
Catholics,  194  parishes,  711  churches,  and  stations, 
5  abbeys  and  6  titular  abbots,  2  titular  provosts,  8 
monasteries  for  men  and  20  for  women  with  288 
members,  1  seminary  with  42  seminarians,  1  college 
for  boys  with  2  teachers  and  70  students,  5  colleges  for 
girls  with  210  students,  423  elementary  schools  with 
780  teachers  and  63,607  pupils,  5  industrial  schools, 
3  homes  for  poor,  6  Catholic  publications  and  various 
associations  of  the  clergy  and  laity. 


T 


Tabasco,  Diocese  of  (Tabasquensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV— 423b),  in  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  suffragan 
of  Yucatan,  with  episcopal  residence  at  San  Juan- 
Bautista.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio 
Hernandez,  born  in  Tepijulco,  23  July,  1864,  served 
as  a  canon  of  the  Cathedral  and  vicar  general  of  the 
diocese  of  Chilapa,  and  was  appointed  bishop  2 
December,  1912,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Leonardo 
Castellanos,  app.  22  March,  1908,  d.  19  May,  1912. 
The  diocese  embraces  a  population  of  about  100,000. 
No  recestati 

Tacambaro,  Diocese  of  (Tacambarensis),  in 
Mexico,  erected  by  a  decree  of  29  July,  1913,  which 
took  seven  parishes  from  the  diocese  of  Michoacan 
and  16  from  Zamora  and  formed  them  into  the  new 
diocese.  However,  on  account  of  political  troubles 
the  diocese  was  not  really  organized  until  recently, 
when  the  first  bishop  was  appointed  in  the  person  of 
Rt.  Rev.  Leopoldo  Lara,  23  December,  1920.  He 
was  born  in  Quiroga,  diocese  of  Michoafcan  in  1875 
and  was  serving  as  a  pastor  there  when  he  received 
his  appointment.  Statistics  for  the  diocese  are 
not  yet  published. 

Tahiti,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Insularum 
Tahiti;  cf.  C.  E..  XIV — 430a),  comprises  the  most 
important  of  the  Society  Islands.  It  is  entrusted  to 
the  missionaries  of  Picpus  and  has  its  episcopal  resi¬ 
dence  at  Papeete.  The  present  vicar  apostolic  is 
Rt.  Rev.  Andre-Athanase  Hermel,  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Casium  and  coadjutor  to  the  former  vicar 
15  May,  1905,  succeeding  as  vicar  in  March,  1908. 
According  to  1920  statistics  the  vicariate  comprises 
a  total  population  of  39,230,  of  whom  7770  are 
Catholic,  29,760  Protestants  (of  whom  many  are 
Mormons),  and  1700  Pagans,  The  mission  is  served 
by  30  missionary  priests,  2  lay  brothers,  15  Brothers  of 
Ploermel,  80  catechists,  54  churches  or  chapels, 
22  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny,  1  school  for  boys, 
3  schools  for  girls,  and  13  schools  for  both  boys  and 
girls. 

Taigi,  Anna  Maria,  Blessed.  See  Anna  Maria 
Taigi,  Blessed 

Taiku,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (de  Taikou;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XVI — 85b),  was  formerly  part  of  the  Vicar¬ 
iate  Apostolic  of  Corea.  By  a  decree  of  8  April,  1911, 
the  northern  part  was  taken  to  form  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  Taiku,  and  entrusted  to  the  Society  of 
Foreign  Missions  of  Paris.  Rt.  Rev.  Florian-Jean- 
Baptiste  Demange,  of  this  congregation  was  named 
the  first  Vicar  Apostolic,  and  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Adrassus,  8  April,  1911.  The  vicariate 
takes  its  name  from  the  city  of  Taiku  where  the 
episcopal  residence  is  situated.  By  latest  statistics, 
1920-21,  the  total  Catholic  population  of  this  territory 
numbers  30,672;  it  has  17  European  missionaries,  7 
native  priests,  7  Catechists,  2  European  Sisters  and 
11  native  Sisters,  15  districts,  71  churches  and  chap¬ 
els,  403  mission  stations,  27  schools  for  boys  with  734 
pupils,  5  schools  for  girls  with  364  pupils  and  119 
orphaned  infants  receiving  care.  During  the  year  the 
sacraments  were  administered  as  follows:  405  adults 


baptized  after  receiving  instruction,  303  aultsd 
baptized  at  the  point  of  death,  1533  children  of 
Christian  parents  and  1310  children  of  Pagans  bap¬ 
tized  when  dying;  annual  confessions,  20,828;  confes¬ 
sions  repeated  52,749;  Easter  communions,  20,360; 
communions  repeated,  174,424;  confirmations,  365; 
marriages,  301;  extreme-unctions,  421;  and  holy 
viatica,  282.  At  the  close  of  the  year  the  vicariate 
counted  528  catechumens. 

Tamaulipas  (or  Ciudad  Victoria),  Diocese  of 
(Tamaulipanensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 440c),  com¬ 
prises  the  Mexican  State  of  the  same  name  and  seven 
parishes  in  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz,  suffragan  of  Lin¬ 
ares.  The  present  bishop  is  Mgr.  Jose  Guadalupe 
Ortiz,  b.  at  Momax,  diocese  of  Zacatecas,  12  Decem¬ 
ber,  1867,  elected  24  January,  1919,  and  consecrated 
18  June  following,  to  succeed  Mgr.  Guzman,  de¬ 
ceased.  The  revolution  impeded  to  a  great  extent  the 
progress  of  the  Church  in  this  state.  The  episcopal 
residence  is  at  Ciudad  Victoria,  the  capital  of  Tamauli¬ 
pas.  The  Catholic  population  is  given  at  315,000 
although  the  figures  probably  mean  nominal  Catholics. 
There  are  30  parishes,  45  churches,  25  secular  priests, 
15  sisters,  4  colleges  for  girls  with  20  teachers  and 
400  students,  and  1  asylum. 

Tananarive,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (de 
Tananarive;  cf.  C.  E.  XVI — 85b),  in  Madagascar, 
with  residence  at  Tananarive.  It  comprises  the  terri¬ 
tory  formerly  known  as  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
Central  Madagascar.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Society 
of  Jesus,  the  present  vicar  being  Rt.  Rev.  Henri  de 
Lespinasse  de  Saune,  titular  Bishop  of  Rhizus,  ap¬ 
pointed  coadjutor  to  the  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Central 
Madagascar,  Rt.  Rev.  Jean  Baptiste  Cazet  18  Febru¬ 
ary,  1900,  succeeding  as  vicar  30  August,  1911.  The 
Franciscan  Missionaries  of  Mary  have  arrived  in  the 
vicariate  recently  to  work  among  the  lepers.  They 
have  a  novitiate  here,  as  have  also  the  Sisters  of  Provi¬ 
dence  of  Corence,  and  have  also  founded  a  hospital 
at  Tananarive.  Mgr.  Dantin,  who  was  appointed 
to  be  the  first  Vicar  Apostolic  of  Betafo,  was  conse¬ 
crated  here,  his  consecration  being  the  first  that  has 
ever  taken  place  in  the  capital  of  Madagascar.  An 
upper  seminary  has  been  established  for  recruiting 
native  clergy,  and  the  Premonstratentian  Fathers 
have  been  introduced  into  the  territory  to  work  in  the 
region  of  Vatomandrv .  An  organization  for  the  native 
Catholic  youth,  “Knights  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of 
Jesus,”  has  been  established,  and  a  society  of  native 
religious  under  the  patronage  of  St.  Francis  Xavier 
has  been  founded.  A  bi-monthly  review  is  published 
in  Malgache  and  a  French  monthly,  “Messager  du 
Sacre  Cceur  de  Tananarive,”  is  also  published.  Dur¬ 
ing  a  recent  epidemic  one  of  the  missionaries  deyoted 
himself  entirely  to  caring  for  the  needs  of  the  stricken 
people.  During  the  World  War  a  number  of  the  mis¬ 
sionaries  were  mobilized  and  called  to  France  and  two 
were  killed  at  the  front.  A  number  of  the  native 
Catholics  also  served  in  France  and  the  Orient.  At 
home  the  Catholics  took  an  active  part  in  all  patriotic 
endeavors.  Reverend  Mother  Zenaide,  superior  of 
the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny,  and  a  missionary 
in  Madagascar  for  almost  fifty  years,  was  given  the 


716 


TANGANIKA 


717 


TARAZONA 


Prix  Lange ,  by  the  French  Academy,  and  the  govern¬ 
ment  conferred  upon  her  the  medal  of  honor,  gold 
medal  of  Madagascar  and  the  rosette  of  an  Oflicier 
d’Acadkmie,  in  recognition  of  the  signal  services  ren¬ 
dered  to  the  sick  and  wounded  of  the  French  Army  by 
her  and  her  community,  and  for  their  devotion  to  the 
moral  and  religious  progress  of  the  Malgaches. 
The  vicariate  now  (1922)  counts  a  total  of  108,000 
baptized  Catholics,  6  parishes  in  the  city  of  Tanana¬ 
rive,  302  churches  besides  50  houses  where  the  faithful 
gather  to  practice  the  Faith,  12  convents  of  women, 
44  missionary  priests,  133  Sisters,  40  Brothers,  20  of 
whom  are  Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools,  1  semi¬ 
nary,  35  seminarians,  1  college  for  boys  with  290  stu¬ 
dents,  1  for  girls,  119  elementary  schools  with  179 
teachers  and  17,702  pupils,  1  hospital,  10  homes,  12 
workhouses  and  6  orphanages.  The  two  civil  hos¬ 
pitals  and  1  leprosy  hospital  admit  the  priests  when  it 
is  requested.  On  8  May,  1921,  the  feast  of  St.  Joan 
of  Arc  was  celebrated  with  great  splendor  in  Tanana¬ 
rive. 

Tanganika,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of,  in  former 
German  East  Africa,  now  under  a  British  mandate, 
confided  to  the  White  Fathers  with  residence  at  Notre 
Dame  de  Karema.  The  vicar  apostolic  is  Mgr.  Joseph- 
Marie  Birraux,  b.  at  Bernex,  France,  27  Novembe  r, 
1883,  novice  at  Maison  Carree,  ordained  at  Carthage, 
1908,  missionary  at  Tanganika  1911.  At  the  declara¬ 
tion  of  war  the  territory  of  the  vicariate  was  a  German 
colony  and  the  missionaries  were  interned  but  were 
later  given  their  liberty,  probably  through  fear  of  the 
natives;th  ey  suffered  great  privations  until  the  arrival 
of  the  English  and  Belgians.  In  1919  Father  Birraux 
was  attacked  by  grippe  and  he  left  for  Algiers  on  the 
advice  of  the  doctor.  Returning,  he  was  elected  vicar 
apostolic  and  titular  bishop  of  Ombus  22  April,  1920, 
and  was  consecrated  at  Bernex  23  June  following.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  district  number  about  3,000,000 
negroes,  18,871  of  whom  are  converted  Catholics. 
There  are  13  missions,  13  churches,  13  stations,  6 
convents  of  women,  30  White  Fathers,  10  lay  broth¬ 
ers,  1  seminary  with  65  seminarians,  4  of  whom  are  in 
theological  studies,  241  elementary  schools  with  255 
teachers  and  16,906  pupils. 

Taranto,  Archdiocese  of  (Tarentinensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIV — 450c),  in  southern  Italy.  The  see  is 
filled  by  Most  Rev.  Orazio  Mazzella,  born  in  the 
diocese  of  Benevento  in  1860,  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Cyme  11  February,  1896,  promoted  to  the  arch¬ 
diocese  of  Rossano  24  March,  1898,  made  an  assistant 
at  the  pontifical  throne  15  February,  1901,  and  trans¬ 
ferred  to  Taranto  14  April,  1917.  He  succeeded  Most 
Rev.  Giuseppe  Cecchini,  who  filled  the  see  from  1909 
until  his  death,  17  December,  1916.  The  diocese 
comprises,  according  to  latest  statistics:  27  parishes, 
335  churches,  1  monastery  for  women,  4  convents  for 
men  and  3  for  women,  162  secular  priests,  15  Brothers, 
170  Sisters,  1  seminary,  10  seminarians,  1  higher 
school  for  boys  with  40  students,  3  for  girls  with  150 
students,  1  professional  school  with  4  teachers  and 
40  students,  6  elementary  schools  with  25  teachers 
and  1000  students,  2  homes,  4  asylums  and  3  hospitals. 
One  society  is  formed  among  the  clergy  and  about  100 
different  associations  are  organized  among  the  laity. 
Diocesan  and  inter-parochial  bulletins  are  published. 
The  population  of  the  diocese  numbers  about  202,850. 

Tarapaca,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 415b),  in  Northern  Chile.  The  present 
vicar  is  Mgr.  Jose  Maria  Caro  Rodriguez,  born  at 
Cahuil,  diocese  of  Santiago  de  Chili,  15  November, 
1866,  studied  at  South  American  College,  Rome, 
ordained  1890,  elected  titular  bishop  of  Mylasa  and 
Vicar  Apostolic  of  Tarapaca  5  January,  1912,  and 
consecrated  28  April,  1912.  The  episcopal  residence 


is  in  the  seaport  city  of  Iquique,  an  important  ship¬ 
ping  point  for  nitrate,  with  a  population  of  47,000 
(1918).  In  Iquique  there  are  the  mother  churcn  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception,  three  other  parishes, 
and  seven  chapels.  In  the  saltpetre  district  there  are 
ten  rural  churches  near  the  mines  which  the  pastors 
visit  periodically.  One  of  these  churches,  that  of 
Pica,  has  five  dependent  churches.  In  the  Andes  with 
an  elevation  of  2000  to  4500  meters  above  sea  level 
there  are  four  parish  churches,  one  of  which  is  San 
Lorenzo  de  Tarapacd.  These  churches  from  date 
colonial  expansion  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  and  their  monuments  and  stone  buildings 
recall  a  state  of  ancient  grandeur.  They  owed 
their  importance  to  the  great  traffic  which  re¬ 
sulted  in  the  exploitation  of  these  mines  and  those  of 
Bolivia.  Now  these  places,  with  the  exception  of 
Pica  and  succursals,  are  poor  villages  of  Indians,  who 
are  farmers  or  shepherds.  In  the  vicariate  there  are 
110,000  inhabitants,  14  secular  priests  and  16  reg¬ 
ulars  (6  Franciscans,  8  Salesians,  2  Redemptorists); 
7  lay  brothers;  Salesian  Sisters,  Oblates  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  Sisters  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  and 
Sisters  of  Charity  of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny;  a  “Colegio 
Don  Bosco,”  of  the  Salesian  Fathers,  with  300  boys,  a 
“Colegio  de  Maria  Auxiliadora,”  of  the  Salesian 
Sisters  with  300  girls;  5  elementary  schools  with  430 
pupils,  1  orphanage,  1  House  of  Correction  for  women 
run  by  Sisters  of  Good  Shepherd,  partly  supported 
by  the  Government;  1  hospital  attended  by  the  Sisters 
of  St.  Joseph  of  Cluny;  La  Reparacion  Sacerdotal 
and  Hermanos  de  San  Pedro  for  the  clergy  and  numer¬ 
ous  societies  for  the  laity;  “La  Luz,”  a  religious  weekly 
and  “Las  Cuestiones  Sociales,”  a  social  weekly,  are 
published  besides  numerous  leaflets  and  tracts  of 
pious  and  social  propaganda.  The  important  events 
since  1912,  besides  the  consecration  of  the  vicar 
apostolic  were  the  foundation  of  the  Oblates  of  Sacred 
Heart  and  their  chapel  in  the  diocese,  and  the  erection 
of  a  chapel  of  St.  Peter  in  Cavancha,  a  suburb  of 
Iquique. 

Tarazona,  Diocese  of  (Tirsonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 452b),  includes  part  of  the  provinces  of 
Zaragoza,  Sovia,  Navarra  and  Logrono  and  is  suf¬ 
fragan  to  Saragossa  (Zaragoza),  Spain.  The  bishop 
of  Tarazona  is  administrator  apostolic  of  the  Diocese 
of  Tudela,  which  has  been  suppressed  since  1851. 
The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Isidoro  Badia  y 
Serradell,  b.  at  Isona,  diocese  of  Urgel,  26  April, 
1865,  ordained  1890,  elected  titular  bishop  of  Ascalon 
and  auxiliary  to  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  of  Toledo 
9  January,  1903,  administrator  of  Barbastro,  3 
July,  1907,  transferred  to  Tarazona  27  July,  1917, 
to  succeed  Mgr.  Ozcoidi  y  Udave,  deceased.  Mgr. 
Jaime  Ozcoidi  y  Udave  was  born  at  Pamplona  30 
December,  1850,  studied  at  Calahorra  and  Pamplona, 
elected  bishop  of  Tarazona  14  December,  1905,  con¬ 
secrated  in  Cathedral  of  Vitoria,  July,  1906,  to  succeed 
Mgr.  Salvador  y  Berrera,  transferred;  died  9  October, 
1916.  Bishop  Ozcoidi  restored  the  church  of  La 
Magdalena,  promoted  the  publication  of  unedited 
works  of  the  Venerable  Maria  de  Agreda  and  new 
corrected  editions  of  her  other  writings,  founded 
various  burses  in  the  seminary,  helped  the  re-installa¬ 
tion  of  a  residence  of  Carmelites  in  Tarazona  and  the 
foundation  of  a  College  of  the  Augustinians  at  Agreda, 
Marist  schools  in  Alfaro,  and  supported  free  schools 
for  poor  boys  in  Tarazona.  The  death  occurred 
recently  of  Father  Albericio,  prebendary  canon  for 
sixty  years,  who  wrote  a  Latin  grammar  and  con¬ 
structed  a  wagon-road  up  to  the  Sanctuary  of  Our 
Lady  of  Moncayo,  situated  on  the  mountain  of  that 
name,  1650  metres  above  the  sea-level.  The  im¬ 
portant  happenings  in  the  diocese  since  1912  were  the 
opening  of  the  process  of  beatification  of  Fr.  Ezequiel 


TAEBES) 


718 


TEFFE 


Moreno.  0.  S.  A.,  bishop  of  Pasto,  who  was  born 
in  Alfaro  and  died  in  Monteagudo,  both  in  this 
diocese;  the  translation  of  the  remains  of  Venerable 
Sister  Maria  de  Jesus  de  Agreda  and  the  printing  of 
her  works,  especially  the  celebrated  “Mystic  City  of 
God;”  and  the  process  of  Mother  Vicenta,  native  of 
Cascante  and  founder  of  the  Institute  of  Maria  Imma- 
culata  for  domestic  service.  There  are  in  the  diocese 
(1921),  144,500  Catholics,  147  parishes,  299  churches, 

2  abbeys  of  women,  10  convents  of  men  and  18  of 
women,  380  secular  and  215  regular  priests,  2  houses 
of  Brothers,  670  Sisters,  1  seminary,  112  seminarians, 

3  asylums,  12  hospitals,  5  refuges,  and  many  or¬ 
ganizations  for  clergy  and  laity  in  every  parish. 
In  every  township  there  are  schools  maintained  by 
the  Government  and  in  more  important  places 
colegios  directed  by  religious.  Five  Catholic  papers 
are  published. 

Tarbes  and  Lourdes,  Diocese  of  (Tarbiensis  et 
Lourdensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 453b),  in  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  Hautes-Pyrenees,  France,  suffragan  of  Auch. 
In  consideration  of  the  fact  that  the  celebrated  shrine 
of  Lourdes  is  situated  in  this  diocese,  a  decree  of  20 
April,  1912,  united  the  name  of  Lourdes  to  the  title 
of  the  see,  but  only  as  an  honorary  title,  and  not 
changing  the  episcopal  residence.  A  bull  of  later 
date,  8  December,  1917,  accorded  the  privilege  of 
wearing  the  pallium  to  the  bishop,  but  this  privilege 
is  only  attached  to  the  see  of  Lourdes.  The  present 
bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Frangois-Xavier  Schoepfer  was  born 
in  Wettolsheim,  in  the  diocese  of  Strasbourg  in  1843, 
he  served  as  pastor  of  St.  Pierre  de  Gros-Caillou  in 
Paris,  was  named  a  prothonotary  apostolic  1  June, 
1888,  and  appointed  bishop  14  December,  1899. 
Another  special  privilege  was  granted  to  the  diocese 
in  1918  when  a  rescript  of  Rites  dated  27  February 
gave  permission  for  the  celebration  of  the  feast  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception  in  the  churches  of  Lourdes 
on  25  March,  1918,  the  sixtieth  anniversary  of  the 
sixteenth  apparition  of  Our  Lady,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
Holy  Thursday  fell  on  this  date.  The  diocese  em¬ 
braces  a  Catholic  population  of  206,105;  28  first- 
class  parishes,  300  succursal  parishes,  133  vicariates, 
647  secular  priests,  1  upper  seminary,  5  ecclesiastical 
institutes,  2  houses  of  retreat  and  17  convents  of 
women. 

Tarentaise,  Diocese  of  (Tarantaisensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIV — 454a),  in  the  department  of  Savoie, 
France,  suffragan  of  Chambery,  with  episcopal 
residence  at  Moutiers.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Louis  Termier,  born  in  Chambery,  2  February, 
1860,  ordained  in  1884,  served  as  a  professor  in  Paris 
and  Chambery,  then  as  superior  of  the  lower  seminary 
of  St.  Pierre  d’Albigny  in  October,  1894,  pastor  and 
archpriest  of  Aix-les-Bains,  named  an  honorary 
canon  in  1909  and  appointed  29  November,  1918, 
succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Jean-Baptiste  Biollet,  app. 
16  December,  1907,  d.  10  October,  1918.  The  dio¬ 
cese  embraces  a  ‘Catholic  population  of  68,000;  7 
first  class  and  79  succursal  parishes,  and  22  vicariates 
formerly  supported  by  the  state. 

Tarnow,  Diocese  of  (Tarnoviensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 458c),  in  Western  Galicia,  Poland,  formerly  a 
part  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire.  The  see, 
suffragan  of  Lwow,  is  now  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Leon 
Wallega,  born  in  Moszczenice  in  the  diocese  of 
Przemysl  in  1859,  ordained  in  1883  and  appointed 
bishop  15  April,  1901.  He  is  assisted  by  an  auxiliary, 
Rt.  Rev.  Edward  Komar,  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Alinda  16  June,  1921.  A  decree  of  the  Consistory 
of  30  August,  1921,  changed  the  boundary  line  of  the 
diocese  on  the  side  of  Przemysl.  By  latest  statistics 
the  diocese  has  a  Catholic  population  of  823,936; 


21  deaneries,  181  parishes,  43  filial  parishes,  452 
secular  and  66  regular  clergy,  10  convents  and  620 

religious  women  scattered  through  117  houses. 

\ 

Tarragona,  Archdiocese  of  (Tarraconensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 459b),  in  Catalonia,  Spain.  The 
present  archbishop  is  Cardinal  Francisco  de  Asis 
Vidal  y  Barraquer,  born  in  the  archdiocese  at  Cam- 
brils,  3  October,  1868,  studied  at  Manresa,  at  the 
law  school  in  Barcelona,  and  the  Seminary  of  Tarra¬ 
gona,  ordained  1899,  elected  titular  bishop  of  Pen- 
tacomia  and  administrator  of  Solsona,  25  May, 
1914,  promoted  to  the  archbishopric  7  May,  1919, 
and  created  cardinal  priest  7  March,  1921,  with  the 
title  of  Santa  Sabina.  His  predecessor  was  Mgr. 
Antolin  Lopez  y  Pelaez,  born  at  Manazanal  del 
Puerto,  Diocese  of  Astorga,  31  August,  1866,  priest 
1889,  elected  Bishop  of  Jaca,  14  November,  1904, 
consecrated  at  Burgos,  4  April,  1905,  promoted  to 
Tarragona,  18  July,  1913,  died  23  December,  1918. 
Mgr.  Lopez  y  Pelaez  was  a  member  of  the  Senate  and, 
from  1913,  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Spain.  On  the 
fourth  centenary  of  the  birth  of  St.  Teresa  he  pro¬ 
nounced  a  discourse  at  the  celebration.  In  1914 
he  founded  a  museum  for  the  diocese  of  Tarragona, 
which  dates  from  Apostolic  times.  The  Catholic 
population  numbers  210,000  and  the  diocese  includes 
268  parishes,  600  churches,  20  monasteries  for  men 
and  70  for  women,  1  abbey  for  men  and  1  for  women, 
827  secular  and  256  regular  priests,  3  seminaries,  205 
seminarians,  80  lay  brothers,  560  Sisters,  1  university 
with  59  professors  and  700  students,  21  colegios  for 
boys  with  6000  students  and  24  for  girls  with  4100 
students,  10  high  schools  with  200  boys,  3  academies, 
2  normal  and  28  elementary  schools,  2  homes  for  aged 
poor,  9  asylums,  3  refuges,  5  charity  centers,  3  day 
nurseries,  14  organizations  among  clergy  and  17 
among  laity.  Four  Government  institutions  admit 
the  ministry  of  priests  and  17  Catholic  institutions 
receive  Government  aid.  Four  periodicals  (2  dailies 
and  2  weeklies)  are  published. 

Taubate,  Diocese  of  (Taubatensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 465b),  in  the  state  of  Sao  Paulo,  Brazil,  is 
still  filled  by  its  first  Bishop  Rt.  Rev.  Epaminondas 
Nunes  de  Avila  e  Silva.  It  extends  over  an  area  of 
7722  square  miles  and  according  to  1920  statistics 
has  a  total  population  of  400,000;  39  parishes,  5 
congregations  of  men  and  5  of  women. 

Teano,  Diocese  of.  See  Calvi  and  Teano 

Teffe,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (de  Teffe;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XVI — 69b),  in  Brazil,  was  erected  by  a  decree 
of  23  May,  1910,  which  separated  it,  together  with 
the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Upper  Solimoes,  from  the 
Diocese  of  Amazones  or  Manaos.  The  first  mission 
was  established  in  this  territory  by  Rev.  Father 
Libermann  in  June,  1907,  at  Teffe,  a  little  town  of  600 
inhabitants  about  350  miles  from  Manaos.  A  site 
“Bocca  do  Teffe,”  was  donated  to  the  missionaries 
by  the  State  authorities,  and  a  large  orphanage  and 
industrial  school  for  young  Indians  was  erected  upon 
it.  No  further  aid  however  has  been  received  from 
the  Government  since  1900.  The  first  prefect  apos¬ 
tolic,  Rt.  Rev.  Michel-Alfred  Barat,  C.S.Sp.,  born 
in  Crouzille,  France,  in  1864,  came  to  the  mission  of 
the  Amazonas  in  1906,  served  as  a  teacher  in  the  in¬ 
dustrial  school  at  Paricatuba  from  1906-1908,  and 
was  named  prefect  apostolic  in  August,  1910.  Al¬ 
though  the  territory  comprised  in  this  prefecture 
extends  over  miles  it  includes  only  four  municipalities, 
Teffe,  Fonte-Boa  on  the  Solimoes,  Carauary  and  San 
Felippe,  embracing  a  population  of  35,000.  The  work 
of  the  missionaries  is  chiefly  among  the  mulatto 
“rubberers,”  and  Indian  fishers  or  hunters,  who  live 
in  the  forests  on  the  banks  of  the  Japura,  Jutahy 


TEGGIANO 


719 


TENNESSEE 


and  Junia.  By  a  decree  of  10  September,  1921,  the 
boundaries  on  the  side  of  the  Upper  Solimoes  were 
somewhat  changed.  Teff6,  Fonte-Boa  and  San 
Felippe  have  resident  vicars,  two  other  missionaries 
are  charged  with  the  orphanage  and  industrial  school, 
and  a  third  acts  as  rector  of  the  seminary  at  Teffe. 
This  seminary  was  established  in  1920,  and  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year  a  college  for  boys  was  added  to  it,  and 
plans  are  being  made  to  have  Brothers  established 
here  in  1922.  The  only  priest  from  this  territory 
ordained  yet,  is  Rev.  Manuel  Alemar,  a  former  pupil 
of  the  industrial  school,  ordained  in  Paris  in  1913. 
Rev.  Constant  Tastemin,  secretary  to  the  Prefect, 
is  noted  for  his  knowledge  of  languages  as  well  as  his 
geographical  and  ethnographical  studies.  In  1920  he 
received  a  gold  medal  from  the  Paris  Geographical 
Society  and  in  1922  a  dictionary  and  grammar  of  the 
Tupy  language,  published  in  Vienna  twelve  years 
before,  was  translated  and  published  by  the  Museum 
of  Sao  Paulo,  in  Brazil.  He  has  made  numerous  col¬ 
lections  of  the  vocabularies  of  the  many  native  lan¬ 
guages,  and  placed  them  in  the  hands  of  Monsieur 
Rivet,  a  professor  in  the  Paris  Museum,  for  future 
publication.  By  latest  statistics  the  territory  has 
three  parishes,  5  churches,  6  missions,  2  mission  sta¬ 
tions,  2  convents  of  men,  1  secular  and  10  regular 
clergy  (Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost),  1  seminary,  5 
seminarians,  4  higher  schools  for  boys,  1  professional 
school  with  10  teachers  and  40  students,  2  elementary 
schools  with  2  teachers  and  45  pupils.  Four  of  the 
schools  receive  assistance  from  the  Government,  two 
organizations  are  formed  among  the  laity  and  a  bi¬ 
monthly  bulletin,  “O  Missionario,”  is  published. 

Teggiano,  Diocese  of.  See  Diano 

Tegucigalpa,  Archdiocese  of  (Tegucigalpensis) 
in  the  Republic  of  Honduras,  Central  America. 
The  entire  Republic  of  Honduras  was  erected  into 
the  diocese  of  Comayagua  in  1561,  but  by  a  Decree 
of  2  February,  1916,  it  was  divided  into  three  parts, 
and  the  eastern  part  was  made  the  Archdiocese  of 
Tegucigalpa.  It  comprises  the  civil  provinces  of 
Yoro,  Comayagua,  La  Paz,  Valle,  Tegucigalpa,  Cho- 
luteca,  El  Paraido  and  Oloucho.  By  the  same 
Decree  the  western  part  of  the  old  diocese  was 
formed  into  the  new  diocese  of  Santa  Rosa  de 
Capan,  and  the  northern  part  became  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  San  Pedro  Sula.  The  new  diocese 
and  the  vicariate  are  suffragans  of  Tegucigalpa. 
Most  Reverend  Janne-Maria  Martinez  y  Caba¬ 
nas,  bora  in  Honduras,  12  November,  1842,  ap¬ 
pointed  Bishop  of  Comayagua,  30  January,  1902, 
was  promoted  to  be  first  archbishop  of  Tegucigalpa 
by  the  Decree  of  erection.  Upon  his  death,  11 
August.  1921,  the  government  ordered  that  he 
should  be  buried  with  military  honors,  and  that 
three  days  of  public  mourning  should  be  observed. 
His  successor  has  not  yet  been  appointed  (1922), 
and  no  statistics  are  published  for  the  archdiocese. 

Tehuantepec,  Diocese  of  (Tehuantepecensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 473c),  in  the  State  of  Oaxaca,  Mex¬ 
ico,  suffragan  of  Antequera.  By  a  decree  of  1  August, 
1919,  the  canton  of  Tuxtlas  in  the  State  of  Vera  Cruz 
was  added  to  the  diocese.  This  new  territory  adds 
about  27.000  miles  to  the  diocese  and  comprises  9 
cities  and  500  villages,  with  a  total  population  of 
200,000.  The  episcopal  residence  has  been  trans¬ 
ferred  to  San  Andres  Tuxtla,  and  this  change  having 
been  approved  in  1920,  one  of  the  parochial  churches 
of  this  city  has  been  erected  into  a  temporary  cathe¬ 
dral,  awaiting  the  construction  of  a  new  cathedral. 
The  city  and  the  whole  diocese  are  dedicated  to  St. 
Andrew  the  Apostle,  and  the  Immaculate  Conception. 
The  parish  churches  number  32,  of  which  only  22  have 
46 


resident  priests,  a  great  scarcity  of  clergy  having  been 
caused  by  the  revolutionary  decree  which  expelled 
all  foreigners.  In  addition  to  these  churches  are  a 
number  of  public  sanctuaries  and  chapels,  making 
in  all  about  150.  Before  the  Revolution  three  schools 
for  girls  were  conducted  by  the  Josephine  Sisters,  and 
a  school  under  the  Marist  Brothers  was  established  at 
Tehuantepec.  All  of  these  schools,  with  the  exception 
of  one,  have  been  suppressed  since  1914,  and  this  one 
is  in  course  of  suppression  by  being  converted  from  a 
Catholic  to  a  lay  school.  A  preparatory  school  for 
boys  destined  for  the  seminary  is  conducted  in  the 
new  episcopal  residence,  and  a  school  for  girls  is  to  be 
added  to  this  and  entrusted  to  the  Sisters.  The 
seminary,  which  was  founded  in  1912,  had  four  pro¬ 
fessors  and  130  students  distributed  through  four 
courses,  but  in  1914  the  military  authorities  converted 
it  into  a  hospital.  The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Ignacio  Placencia  y  Moreira,  born  at  Zapopan  in  the 
diocese  of  Guadalajara  in  1867,  studied  at  the  seminary 
in  that  diocese  and  later  served  as  a  professor  there, 
was  made  a  pastor  in  1904,  became  secretary  to  the 
bishop,  then  prebendary  canon  of  the  cathedral,  and 
was  appointed  bishop  15  September,  1907. 

Telese  (or  Cerreto-Sannita)  ,  Diocese  of 
(Thelesinensis  or  Cerretanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 476d),  in  the  province  of  Benevento,  Southern 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Benevento,  with  episcopal  residence 
at  Cerreto-Sannita.  Rt.  Rev.  Angelo-Michele 
Jannachino,  appointed  to  this  see  29  November,  1895, 
retired  and  was  transferred  to  the  titular  see  of 
Lorea  12  January,  1918.  His  successor  was  ap¬ 
pointed  in  the  person  of  Rt.  Rev.  Giuseppe  Signore, 
born  in  Monteroni  in  1872,  made  a  canon  and  rector 
of  the  seminary,  and  appointed  bishop  20  June,  1918. 
By  latest  statistics  the  diocese  comprises  24  parishes, 
72  churches,  3  monasteries  for  men,  6  for  women,  71 
secular  priests  and  8  regulars,  70  Sisters,  1  seminary, 
93  seminarians,  1  higher  school  for  girls  with  4  teach¬ 
ers  and  22  pupils,  1  home,  7  asylums  and  1  refuge 
One  association  is  organized  among  the  clergy  and 
two  among  the  laity.  During  the  World  War  all  the 
clergy  and  laity  of  the  diocese  took  an  active  part, 
either  in  the  ranks,  or  in  charitable  and  patriotic 
works  at  home. 

Temiskaming,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of.  See 
Haileybury,  Diocese  of 

Teneriffe  (or  San  Cristobal  do  Laguna),  Dio¬ 
cese  of  (Tenerifensis  or  Sancti  Christophori  de 
Laguna;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 507a),  comprises  the  Islands 
of  Teneriffe,  Gomera,  La  Palma  and  Hierno  in  the 
Canaries.  It  is  a  suffragan  of  Seville  and  has  its 
episcopal  residence  at  Santa-Cruz.  Rt.  Rev.  Nicolas 
Rey  y  Redondo,  appointed  to  this  see  21  May,  1894, 
died  6  September,  1917,  and  was  succeeded  by  Rt 
Rev.  Gabriel  Llompart  y  Santandreu,  born  in  Inca 
in  the  Balearic  Islands  in  1862,  appointed  bishop  17 
May,  1918.  The  diocese  has  a  Catholic  population 
of  260,707  and  by  1920  statistics  counts  184  parishes, 
divided  among  10  archpresbyteries,  104  priests,  60 
churches,  184  chapels  and  18  convents  with  52 
religious  and  229  Sisters. 

Tennessee  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 508b). — The  area  of 
the  State  of  Tennessee  is  42,022  square  miles.  In 
1920  the  population  was  2,337,885,  an  increase  of  7% 
since  1910.  Of  this,  26.1%  was  urban;  73.9%  was 
rural.  The  average  number  of  inhabitants  to  the 
square  mile  was  56.1,  as  against  52.4  in  1910.  Be¬ 
sides  the  1208  civil  districts,  there  are  also  236  second¬ 
ary  divisions,  comprising  28  cities,  202  towns,  and 
6  villages.  The  largest  cities  are:  Memphis  162,351; 
Nashville  118,342;  Knoxville  77,818;  Chattanooga 


TEPIC 


720 


TERAMO 


57,895.  Of  the  entire  population  (1,173,967  males 
and  1,163, 918  females),  there  are  1,885,993  whites  and 
451,758  negroes  (222,758  males  and  229,119  females). 
The  native  whites  numbered  1 ,870,515  and  the  foreign 
born,  15,478.  Most  of  the  foreign  born  came  from 
England,  Germany,  Ireland,  Italy,  and  Russia.  Of 
the  population  of  ten  years  of  age  and  over  (1,770,- 
762)  182,629  were  illiterate  (10.3%  as  against  13.6 
in  1910). 

Economic  Status. — Tennessee  is  forging  ahead 
agriculturally,  the  number  of  farms  (252,774),  show¬ 
ing  an  increase  of  .27  %  since  1910,  and  the  value  of 
farm  property  ($1,251,964,585),  an  increase  of  104.4% 
In  these  farms  were  included  19,510,856  acres,  of 
which  11,185,302  were  in  improved  land.  The 
value  of  the  live  stock,  including  317,921  horses, 
352,510  mules,  1,161,846  cattle,  346,196  sheep, 
was  $173,522,135.  The  chief  crops  were:  corn  70,- 
639,252  bushels,  worth  $127,150,649;  wheat  6,362,- 
357  bushels,  worth  $14,506,174;  hay  967,314  tons, 
$29,666,979;  tobacco  112,367,567  pounds,  worth 
$24,720,869;  cotton  306,974  bales,  worth  $48,808,866; 
sugar  146,734  tons,  worth  $9,537,710.  The  dairy, 
poultry,  eggs,  honey,  and  wax  were  worth  $50,409,- 
776.  Peanuts  are  grown  in  the  Tennessee  Valley. 
The  wool  clip  in  1919  was  2,052,000  pounds.  Al¬ 
though  the  number  of  manufacturing  establishments 
(4589)  showed  in  1919  a  decrease  of  3.9%  since  1914, 
the  value  of  the  products  ($556,271,000)  revealed  an 
increase  of  179%.  The  113,418  persons  engaged  in 
manufacture  received  for  their  services  $106,690,000; 
the  capital  invested  was  $410,351,000.  The  pro¬ 
ductions  of  the  mines  were:  coal  $13,592,998;  phos¬ 
phates  $2,101,040;  iron  $10,338,159;  clay  products, 
$1,960,226;  limestone  $504,599;  stone  $1,635,573; 
all  others  $17,840,520;  aggregating  $46,012,889. 
The  Mississippi  and  Tennessee  Rivers'are  natural 
waterways  and  the  State  contains  4075  miles  of  rail¬ 
way,  besides  467  miles  of  electric  railway.  The 
bonded  debt,  including  old  bonds  unfunded,  on  13 
June,  1919,  amounted  to  $17,988,352.  The  assessed 
value  of  property  in  the  same  year,  including  real 
and  personal  property,  was  $726,369,281. 

Religion. — According  to  the  Census  Bulletin  of 
1916  the  church  membership  of  all  denominations 
was  840,133;  total  Protestant  bodies  817,118;  Baptists 
South  and  National  311,517;  Regular  Baptists  2582; 
Free  Will  Baptists  4681;  Duck  River,  etc.  (Baptist 
Church  of  Christ)  4589;  Primitive  Baptists  8925; 
Colored  Primitive  Baptists  811;  Congregationalists 
2185;  Disciples  of  Christ  21,672;  Churches  of  Christ 
63,521;  Lutherans  3541;  Methodist  Episcopal 
56,484;  Methodist  Protestant  1759;  Methodist  Epis¬ 
copal  Church,  South,  167,270;  African  Methodists 
23,497;  Presbyterian  Church  in  U.  S.  A.  17,584; 
Cumberland  Presbyterians  27,631;  Presbyterian 
Church  in  U.  S.  25,606;  Presbyterian  Association 
Reformed  of  the  South  Synod  1644;  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  9910;  United  Brethren  in  Christ 
916;  all  other  Protestant  bodies  74,115;  Catholic 
Church  23,015;  Jewish  Congregations  2022.  For 
Catholic  statistics  see  Nashville,  Diocese  of. 

Education. — School  attendance  is  now  com¬ 
pulsory  during  the  entire  term  for  children  between 
7  and  16  years  of  age.  The  employment  of  children 
under  14  years  of  age  in  workshops,  factories  and 
mines  is  illegal.  With  a  scholastic  population  of 
842,199,  of  which  681,470  are  whites  and  160,710 
are  colored,  there  were.  (1920)  enrolled  in  the  public 
schools  of  Tennessee  44&,333  white  children  and 
80,356  negroes.  There  are  separate  schools  for 
whites  and  negroes.  In  1918  the  State  had  7313 
public  elementary  schools,  and  226  public  high 
schools.  The  two  public  normal  schools  had  71 
teachers  and  914  pupils.  In  1917-18  the  ex¬ 
penditure  was  $12,480,163.  Bible  reading  in  the 


public  schools  is  obligatory.  The  laws  governing 
private  and  parochial  schools  are  as  follows:  The 
legislature  shall  exempt  from  taxation  such  property 
as  may  be  held  and  used  for  purposes  purely  religious, 
charitable,  scientific,  literary,  or  educational  (11-28). 
The  flag  must  be  displayed  on  or  near  each  school 
building.  In  1919  a  State  board  of  administration 
was  created  to  consist  of  the  governor,  state  treasurer, 
and  the  general  manager  of  state  institutions,  and  to 
have  charge  of  all  state  institutions,  penal,  reforma¬ 
tory,  and  charitable.  “Victory  Day,”  11  November, 
was  made  a  legal  holiday.  In  the  same  year  a  de¬ 
partment  of  university  extension  to  be  conducted  by 
the  University  of  Tennessee  was  established  for  the 
purpose  of  vocational  and  industrial  training  in  wage 
earning  employments.  Provision  was  also  made  for 
the  removal  of  the  State  Training  and  Agricultural 
School  for  Boys  to  the  “Herbert  Domain”  and  of  the 
inmates  of  the  Tennessee  Industrial  School  to  the  state- 
owned  property  in  Davidson  County,  now  occupied 
by  the  State  Training  and  Agricultural  School  for 
Boys.  The  East  Tennessee  Female  Institute  was 
transferred  to  the  State  University. 

Recent  History  and  Legislation. — In  191-3  were 
passed  an  Act  providing  for  the  parole  of  convicts,  a 
measure  removing  the  disabilities  of  married  women 
on  account  of  coverture  and  a  Vital  Statistics  Act. 
In  1914  a  so-called  nuisance  bill  had  for  its  purpose  the 
closing  of  every  saloon,  gambling  house,  and  dis¬ 
reputable  resort  in  the  State,  by  providing  that  no 
liquor  could  be  sold  within  four  miles  of  a  school. 
In  1917  prohibition  became  more  effective,  by  a  law 
forbidding  the  importation  of  liquor  into  the  State. 
In  1915  it  was  shown  that  the  experiment  of  working 
the  negro  convicts  on  State  roads  was  successful 
enough  to  warrant  its  continuance.  The  contract 
system  of  letting  out  prison  labor  to  private  con¬ 
tractors  was  forbidden.  In  1919  pensions  were 
granted  to  widows  whose  husbands  were  killed  or  died 
while  in  active  service  in  the  Civil  War  and  to  the 
widows  of  deceased  soldiers  who  were  married  to  such 
soldiers  prior  to  the  year  1890,  if  such  widows  are  of 
good  moral  character  and  in  indigent  circumstances. 
The  annual  appropriation  for  the  purpose  is  $1,- 
029,000.  Capital  punishment  was  abolished  in  1915. 
The  Federal  Suffrage  Amendment  was  ratified  on 
18  August,  1920;  the  prohibition  amendment  on  8 
January,  1919. 

During  the  European  War  the  State  contributed 
75,825  soldiers  to  the  United  States  Army  (2.02%). 
The  Tennessee  members  of  the  national  guard  joined 
the  30th  Division  at  Camp  Sevier,  South  Carolina; 
those  of  the  national  army,  the  82d  Division  at  Camp 
Gordon,  Georgia.  The  summary  of  casualties  among 
the  Tennessee  members  of  the  American  Expedition¬ 
ary  Forces  is  as  follows:  deceased,  74  officers,  1762 
men;  prisoners,  7  officers,  54  men;  wounded,  228 
officers,  4065  men. 

Tepic,  Diocese  of  (Tepicensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 
513c),  in  the  territory  of  Tepic,  Mexico,  suffragan  of 
Guadalajara.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Manuel 
Azpeitia  Palomar,  a  canon  of  Guadalajara,  appointed 
a  prothonotary  apostolic  14  July,  1905,  and  named 
bishop  1  August,  1919,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Andr6 
Segura  y  Dominguez,  d.  in  August,  1918.  This 
diocese,  which  covers  an  area  of  11,583  square  miles, 
includes  180,000  inhabitans,  17  parishes,  98  secular 
priests,  10  seminarians,  30  churches  (of  which  one  is 
the  celebrated  church  of  Our  Lady  of  Falpa,)  and  29 
chapels. 

Teramo,  Diocese  of  (Aprutinensis  or  Thera, 
mensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XfV — 514b),  in  southern  Italy^ 
directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  This  see  was  filled 
by  -  Rt.  ReV.  Alessandro  Beniamino  Zanecchia- 


TERESA 


721 


TEXAS 


Gianetti  from  18  June,  1902,  until  his  death  21 
February,  1920.  He  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Settimio  Quadraroli  who  was  appointed  in  September, 
1921.  The  statistics  of  1920  credit  the  diocese  with 
130,000  Catholics,  124  parishes,  210  secular  and  23 
regular  clergy,  40  seminarians,  381  churches  and 
chapels,  11  Brothers  and  15  Sisters. 

Teresa  of  the  Child  Jesus,  Sister,  Carmelite  of 
Lisieux,  better  known  as  the  Little  Flower  of  Jesus, 
b.  at  Alengon,  France,  2  January,  1873;  d.  at  Lisieux 
30  September,  1897.  She  was  the  ninth  child  of 
saintly  parents,  Louis  and  Zelie  Martin,  both  of 
whom  had  washed  to  consecrate  their  lives  to  God  in 
the  cloister.  The  vocation  denied  them  was  given 
to  their  children,  five  of  whom  became  religious,  one 
in  the  Visitation  Order  and  four  in  the  Carmelite 
Convent  at  Lisieux.  Brought  up  in  an  atmosphere 
of  faith  wThere  every  virtue  and  aspiration  were 
carefully  nurtured  and  developed,  her  vocation 
manifested  itself  when  she  was  still  only  a  child. 
Educated  by  the  Benedictines,  when  she  was  fifteen 
she  applied  for  permission  to  enter  the  Carmelite 
Convent,  and  being  refused  by  the  superior,  went  to 
Rome  with  her  father,  as  eager  to  give  her  to  God  as 
she  was  to  give  herself,  to  seek  the  consent  of  the 
Holy  Father,  Leo  XIII,  then  celebrating  his  jubilee. 
He  preferred  to  leave  the  decision  in  the  hands  of  the 
superior,  who  finally  consented  and  on  9  April, 
1888,  at  the  unusual  age  of  fifteen,  Therese  Martin 
entered  the  convent  of  Lisieux  where  two  of  her 
sisters  had  preceded  her.  The  account  of  the  eleven 
years  of  her  religious  life,  marked  by  signal  graces 
and  constant  growth  in  holiness,  is  given  by  Sceur 
Therese  in  her  autobiography,  written  in  obedience 
to  her  superior  and  published  two  years  after  her 
death.  In  1901  it  was  translated  into  English,  and  in 
1912  another  translation,  the  first  complete  edition 
of  the  life  of  the  Servant  of  God ,  containing  the  auto¬ 
biography,  “Letters  and  Spiritual  Counsels, ”  was 
published.  Its  success  was  immediate  and  it  has 
passed  into  many  editions,  spreading  far  and  wide 
the  devotion  to  this  “little”  saint  of  simplicity,  and 
abandonment  in  God’s  service,  of  the  perfect  accomp¬ 
lishment  of  small  duties.  The  fame  of  her  sancity 
and  the  many  miracles  performed  through  her  inter¬ 
cession  caused  the  introduction  of  her  cause  of 
canonization  only  seventeen  years  after  her  death, 
10  June,  1914. 

Edith  Donovan. 

Teresian  Sister.  See  Saint  Teresa  of  Jesus, 
Society  of 

Terlizzi,  Diocese  of.  See  Molfetta,  Terlizzi 

AND  GlOVINAZZO 

Termoli,  Diocese  of  (Thermularum;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 518a) ,  in  the  province  of  Campobasso,  southern 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Benevento.  This  see  is  filled  by 
Rt.  Rev.  Rocco  Caliandro,  born  in  Ceglie  Messapica, 
Italy,  in  1872,  served  as  vicar  general  and  canon 
theologian  of  Oria,  and  was  appointed  bishop  28 
March,  1912,  to  succeed  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Capitoli, 
transferred  to  Bagnorea  14  February,  1911.  The 
diocese  embraces  a  Catholic  population  of  58,800, 
19  parishes,  55  secular  priests,  1  secondary  school  for 
girls  with  5  teachers  and  40  pupils,  50  churches  or 
chapels,  1  asylum  directed  by  4  Sisters  of  Charity, 
and  1  orphanage  for  girls  directed  by  3  Sisters  of 
Charity,  caring  for  15  orphans.  One  society  is 
organized  among  the  clergy  and  the  “Unione  Fem- 
minile  Catholica  Italiana,”  among  the  women  of  the 
diocese. 

Terracine,  Sezze  and  Piperno,  Diocese  of 
(Tebracinensis  ,  Setinensis  and  Privernensis; 


cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 518b),  in  the  province  of  Rome, 
Italy,  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  This  see  is 
at  present  vacant,  Rt.  Rev.  Domenico  Ambrosi, 
who  filled  it  since  1899,  having  died  17  August,  1921. 
These  three  united  dioceses  embrace  a  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  70,000,  and  according  to  1920  statistics  in¬ 
clude  25  parishes,  89  secular  and  20  regular  clergy, 
15  seminarians,  13  Brothers,  98  Sisters  and  62  churches 
and  chapels. 

Teruel,  Diocese  of  (Terulensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 
525c),  in  Aragon,  Spain,  suffragan  of  Saragossa. 
It  has  the  administration  of  the  diocese  of  Albarracin 
(Alboracinensis) .  The  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Juan  Anton  y  de  la  Fuente,  born  in  Burgos  in  1848, 
studied  in  the  diocesan  seminary,  served  as  a  pro¬ 
fessor  there  and  as  a  pastor  and  was  appointed  bishop 
14  December,  1905.  The  Catholic  population  of  the 
diocese  numbers  180,000,  and  it  comprises  104 
parishes  divided  among  6  archpresbyteries,  250 
priests,  252  churches  or  chapels  and  15  convents 
with  40  religious  and  150  Sisters.  Albarracin  is 
credited  with  33  parishes. 

Testimonial  Letters.  See  Novice 

Texas  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 543a). — The  area  of  the 
State  of  Texas  is  262,398  square  miles  of  land  and 
3498  square  miles  of  water.  In  1920  the  population 
was  4,663,228,  an  increase  of  19.7  per  cent  since 
1910.  Of  this  32.4  was  urban;  67.6  was  rural. 
Texas  has  171  cities,  of  which  the  largest  are  Dallas 
158,976;  Fort  Worth  106,482;  San  Antonio  161,379; 
Houston  138,276. 

Economic  Status. — According  to  the  Summary  of 
Manufactures,  issued  by  the  Census  Bureau  in  1919, 
there  are  in  Texas  5724  establishments,  with  131,389 
persons  engaged  in  manufacture,  earning  in  wages 
and  salaries  $147,908,000,  and  turning  out  products 
worth  $999,996,000.  The  capital  invested  was 
$588,797,000.  Texas  ranks  high  agriculturally,  the 
chief  crops  in  1920  being:  maize  174,200,000  bushels; 
wheat  15,925,000  bushels;  oats  44,100,000  bushels; 
rice  9,554,000  bushels.  The  yield  of  cotton  in  1920 
covered  12,576  acres;  and  the  crop  was  4,200,000 
bales,  valued  at  $227,200,000.  In  January,  1921, 
the  State  had  1,187,000  horses,  792,000  mules,  1,184,- 
000  milch  cows,  4,457,000  other  cattle,  3,069,000 
sheep,  and  2,427,000  swine;  the  wool  clip  in  1919 
amounted  to  14,986,000  pounds. 

The  resources  of  the  banks  in  1919  amounted  to 
$723,257,000.  According  to  the  report  of  the  U.  S. 
Comptroller  of  the  Treasury  there  are  in  the  State 
834  State  banks,  73  trust  companies,  38  private 
banks,  and  510  national  banks.  The  total  wealth  of 
the  State  is  $3,128,819,287'.  In  1919  the  bonded  debt 
was  $4,002,000;  the  bonds  being  held  entirely  by 
State  educational  and  charitable  funds.  The  as¬ 
sessed  value  of  real  property  was  $2,060,602,300,  and 
of  personal  property  $939,898,582. 

Religion. — The  Census  Bureau’s  figures  for  1916 
gave  the  number  of  Baptists  as  649,037;  Disciples  of 
Christ  54,836;  Lutherans  37,697;  Methodists  428,409; 
Presbyterians  75,673;  Protestant  Episcopalians  17,- 
116;  Catholics  402,874;  Jewish  Congregations  628. 
Thirty  per  cent .  are  Protestant ,  9  per  cent .  are  Catholic , 
58  per  cent,  have  no  definite  religious  belief,  other 
religions  less  than  1  per  cent. 

In  1914  the  Diocese  of  El  Paso  (q.  v.)  was  erected 
from  territory  taken  from  the  Diocese  of  Tucson, 
Dallas  (q.  v.)  and  San  Antonio  (q.  v.).  For  further 
statistics  see  also  Galveston,  Diocese  of;  Corpus 
Christi,  Diocese  of. 

Mining. — The  following  were  mined  in  the  State 
in  1917:  asphalt  $2,292,036;  clay  products  $3,451,806; 
coal  $4,177,  608;  raw  clay  $22,477;  copper; 
$6315;  natural  gas  $3,192,625;  gypsum  $996,262 


THEATINES 


722 


THEBES 


lime  $361,308;  cement  $3,661,328;  mineral  waters 
$72,175;  petroleum  $42,891,555;  natural  gas  gasoline 
$1,149,441;  quicksilver  $1,136,508;  salt  $564,029; 
sandstone  brick  $65,102;  sand  and  gravel  $716,457; 
silver  $490,930;  stone  $697,540;  graphite,  manganese 
ore,  sulphur,  gems,  etc.,  estimated  at  $11,626,795, 
total  value,  $77,552,369.  The  state  ranks  second 
of  the  United  States  in  the  production  of  quicksilver. 

Communications. — Galveston  is  an  important 
outlet  for  the  cotton  grown  in  the  United  States  and 
as  a  commercial  port  is  second  only  to  New  York. 

The  total  shipping  business  of  the  Galveston  cus¬ 
toms  district  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  30  June, 
1919,  was  $485,564,493;  of  this  the  exports  were  in 
value  $467,869,587.  The  coastwise  commerce  of  the 
port  is  estimated  at  $400,000,000.  Port  Arthur  had 
on  30  June,  1919,  foreign  exports  for  the  year  to  the 
value  of  $57,443,660;  the  value  of  the  imports  was 
$4,684,508.  In  1919  there  were  610  steamships 
and  7  sailing  vessels  at  the  ports  of  Texas,  with  an 
aggregate  tonnage  of  1,182,919.  The  towns  of 
Beaumont  and  Orange  now  share  with  Port  Arthur 
in  the  commercial  benefits  of  deep  water,  all  three 
being  connected  by  the  Sabine  Neches  Canal,  recently 
deepened.  A  permanent  causeway,  over  two  miles 
in  length,  connecting  Galveston  with  the  mainland, 
was  opened  to  traffic  in  May,  1912.  The  level  of  the 
town  has  been  raised  to  protect  it  from  storms .  Texas 
has  128,960  miles  of  public  highways,  13,000  of  which 
are  still  maintained  with  state  aid  (1919).  The  total 
mileage  of  railroads  is  15,931. 

Education. — 'The  enactment  of  a  practical  com¬ 
pulsory  law  for  Texas  by  the  thirty-fourth  Legisla¬ 
ture  marked  a  great  victory  for  the  cause  of  popular 
education  in  the  State.  The  greatest  single  piece  of 
school  legislation  within  recent  years  was  enacted 
into  law  in  1915  when  the  Legislature  appropriated 
$1,000,000  to  aid  the  people  to  provide  for  better 
educational  facilities.  A  recent  law  provides  for  a 
county  board  of  education  in  each  county,  and  au¬ 
thorizes  the  county  superintendent  and  the  county 
board  to  grade  and  classify  the  rural  schools.  The 
employment  of  illiterate  children  under  fourteen 
years  of  age  in  factories  and  mines  is  illegal.  Sepa¬ 
rate  schools  are  provided  for  white  and  colored  chil¬ 
dren.  In  the  1918  scholastic  census  1,098,989 
children  between  7  and  18  (210,278  negroes)  were 
enrolled.  In  1920  the  8401  public  elementary  schools 
had  927,869  enrolled  pupils  and  25,592  teachers; 
the  2621  public  high  schools  had  107,779  pupils  and 
4766  teachers.  There  are  also  6  normal  schools; 
the  two  most  recently  established  being  at  Commerce 
and  Alpine.  The  University  of  Texas  with  304  pro¬ 
fessors  and  4612  students  has  an  income  of  about 
$200,000  yearly.  In  1920  its  legislative  appropria¬ 
tion  was  $925,521;  in  1921,  $915,789.  The  School  of 
Mines  and  Metallurgy  was  established  in  1914;  the 
new  department  covers  education,  engineering,  ex¬ 
tension,  and  graduate  work. 

The  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  has  an  en¬ 
rollment  of  2759.  Grubbs  Vocational  College  at 
Arlington  and  the  John  Tarleton  College  at  Stephens- 
ville,  opened  in  1917,  are  its  branches. 

The  valuation  of  school  property  in  the  state  is 
$48,872,283.  The  expenditure  on  education  in  1920 
was  $25,185,550.  Two  junior  agricultural  colleges 
were  created  in  1917.  The  Prairie  View  State  Col¬ 
lege  (Normal  and  Industrial)  for  colored  youths  had 
40  professors  and  1348  students  in  1914.  The  laws 
governing  private  and  parochial  schools  are  as  follows: 
No  part  of  the  public  school  fund  shall  ever  be  ap¬ 
propriated  for  or  used  for  the  support  of  any  sec¬ 
tarian  school  (VII — 4).  Patriotism  must  be  taught 
ten  minutes  each  day  in  all  schools.  Bible  reading 
in  th@  public  schools  is  neither  permitted  nor  ex¬ 
cluded  . 


Recent  Legislation  and  History. — In  1911 
much  disturbance  along  the  border  was  caused  by  the 
revolution  in  Mexico.  Large  quantities  of  arms  and 
ammunition  were  smuggled  across  the  border  by  the 
Mexican  Revolutionists  and  a  detachment  of  United 
States  Cavalry  was  posted  from  El  Paso  to  Browns¬ 
ville  to  prevent  such  smuggling.  Conditions  became 
so  acute  that  a  patrol  along  the  Rio  Grande  River  wms 
established  to  co-operate  writh  the  United  States 
authorities  in  the  enforcement  of  neutrality.  General 
Reyes,  a  Mexican,  was  arrested  in  San  Antonio  on  the 
charge  of  inciting  a  rebellion  against  a  friendly  coun¬ 
try.  For  further  data  see  Mexico. 

In  June,  1911,  the  international  committee  ap¬ 
pointed  to  decide  on  the  ownership  of  land  within  the 
present  limits  of  El  Paso,  gave  El  Paso  all  the  lands 
north  of  the  boundary  line  of  1864  and  ceded  to 
Mexico  all  the  lands  south  of  that  line.  As  the 
boundary  of  1864  could  not  be  fixed,  the  actual 
settlement  was  deferred.  In  1911  the  following 
legislation  was  passed:  a  law  to  prohibit  the  exhibition 
of  prize  fights  and  other  immoral  shows  by  means  of 
moving  pictures;  an  Act  establishing  a  new  prison 
system,  making  provision  for  a  board  of  prison  com¬ 
missioners  and  for  the  management,  control,  and 
treatment  of  prisoners,  and  another  Act  establish¬ 
ing  a  State  Insurance  Board.  In  1913,  provisions 
were  made  for  suspended  and  indeterminate  sen¬ 
tences  for  criminal  cases  and  the  parole  of  convicted 
persons,  for  presidential  primary  elections  in  the 
State,  a  Bureau  of  Child  and  Animal  Protection,  and 
an  eight-hour  day  for  workmen  Additional  improve¬ 
ments  were  made  to  the  Houston  ship  canal  in  1916. 
A  statutory  measure  put  Texas  in  the  list  of  pro¬ 
hibition  States.  The  sales  provision  of  this  law  was 
declared  unconstitutional  on  the  ground  that  it  con¬ 
flicted  with  local  option,  which  was  incorporated  in 
the  constitution.  Other  provisions  of  this  Act, 
however,  were  declared  void.  The  federal  suffrage 
amendment  was  ratified  on  28  June,  1919,  the  Pro¬ 
hibition  Act,  4  March,  1918. 

During  the  European  War  Texas  contributed  to  the 
United  States  Army  161,065  soldiers  (4.29%).  Most 
of  the  Texas  members  of  the  National  Guard  formed 
a  part  of  the  36th  Division  at  Camp  Bowie,  Texas; 
those  of  the  National  Army,  the  90th  Division  at 
Camp  Travis,  Texas.  The  summary  of  casualties 
among  Texas  men  is  as  follows:  deceased,  127  of¬ 
ficers,  2595  men;  prisoners,  11  officers,  69  men; 
wounded,  325  officers,  7006  men 

Theatines  (cf.  C.  E.  XIV — 556b). — A  decision  of 
the  Sacred  Congregation  of  Religious  having  re¬ 
established  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Family  in 
July,  1916,  the  province  of  that  name  was  dissolved. 
At  present  the  order  is  formed  by  the  Italian  and 
Spanish  provinces.  The  Italian  province  has  three 
houses  in  Italy  and  two.  in  America;  and  the 
Spanish  province  has  three  houses  in  Spain  with 
a  total  of  130  members.  It  has  three  colleges  with 
about  1000  pupils.  Rt.  Rev.  Michael  J.  Cerda  is 
the  present  superior  general.  He  was  born  in  Spain 
in  1859,  and  after  presiding  several  times  over  the 
Spanish  province  was  appointed  general  in  1916. 
In  that  year  Rt.  Rev.  Francis  de  P.  Ragonese, 
former  superior  general,  died  in  Rome. 

Theatre  Movement,  Catholic.  See  Catholic 
Theatre  Movement 

Thebes,  Diocese  of  (Thebanensis  Coptorum; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 563b),  a  diocese  of  the  Coptic  Rite  in 
Egypt  with  residence  at  Tahtah.  The  see,  established 
in  1895,  is  still  filled  by  its  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev. 
Ignace  Glades-Barzi,  born  in  Ghirghe,  in  this  diocese, 
in  1867  and  appointed  bishop  6  March,  1896.  Out 


THERA 


723 


THIRD  ORDERS 


of  a  total  population  of  2,000,000  this  diocese  counts 
15,000  Coptic  Catholics.  It  comprises  36  priests, 
36  schools,  28  churches  and  chapels  and  81  Christian 
communities. 

Thera  (Santorin),  Diocese  of  (Santoriensis), 
one  of  the  Cyclades  Islands  in  *the  Greek  Archi¬ 
pelago,  is  suffragan  to  the  Archdiocese  of  Naxos 
and  Tinos.  The  present  incumbent,  Rt.  Rev.  Michel 
Camilleri,  born  at  Corfu,  in  1854,  was  appointed 
bishop  of  this  see  1  July,  1907.  There  are  only 
about  150  Catholics  on  the  island  and  these  are 
mostly  descended  from  the  Spanish  or  Italian  cru¬ 
saders.  The  diocese  lost  a  prominent  benefactor 
in  the  recent  years  through  the  death  of  Rev. 
Alberto  Issaverdens,  Superior  of  the  Lazarist  Con¬ 
vent,  whcT  founded  and  endowed  an  elementary 
school.  During  the  World  War  none  of  the  clergy 
from  this  diocese  went  to  the  Front,  but  several 
of  the  lay  brothers,  who  all  won  the  admiration  of 
their  non-Catholic  compatriots. 

The  diocese  comprises  1  parish,  13  churches,  2 
monasteries  for  men  (Lazarist  and  Dominican 
Fathers),  and  2  for  women  (Dominican  nuns  and 
Sisters  of  Charity),  5  secular  and  3  regular  clergy, 
2  lay  brothers,  1  secondary  school  for  boys,  with 
6  -teachers  and  25  pupils  and  1  for  girls  with  6 
teachers  and  30  pupils,  1  elementary  school  with  1 
teacher  and  8  pupils,  1  home  for  the  destitute, 
1  orphanage,  1  hospital,  and  1  settlement  house. 
The  Children  of  Mary  are  organized  in  the  diocese. 

Thessalonians,  I  Epistle  to. — For  the  decision 
of  the  Biblical  Commission  on  the  Pauline  doctrine 
of  Parousia  see  Parousia  and  Drum  in  “Ecclesiastical 
Review,”  LIII  (1915),  472-82. 

Third  Orders ,  Regular. — Third  Order  of  St. 
Dominic  (cf.  C.E.,XIV — 638b). — A  further  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  Dominican  Third  Order  has  come  in  the 
Oblates  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament  begun  in  Corpus 
Christi  House,  Leicester,  England,  in  January,  1909, 
under  Miss  Ellerker  and  Miss  Fortey.  It  had  the 
approval  of  Bishop  Brindle  of  Nottingham,  the 
diocesan,  and  was  guided  by  the  inspiration  of 
Father  McNabb,  O.P.,  then  Prior  of  Holy  Cross, 
Leicester.  The  aim  of  this  society  is  “an  attempt  to 
meet  new  wants  in  a  new  way  ” — (“Some  Children  of 
S.  Dominic,”  by  Marie  St.  S.  Ellerker,  C.T.S., 
England,  1916,  p.  3) — i.e.,  by  combining  community 
life  with  the  life  of  women  in  the  world  engaged  in  good 
works  of  all  kinds.  The  Sisters,  though  not  religious, 
take  vows  for  three  years  and  then  for  life,  recite  the 
Divine  Office,  and  have  the  usual  round  of  religious 
exercises  but  without  the  formalities  necessarily 
belonging  to  conventual  rule.  Their  work  is  “to 
refuse  no  work  which  might  be  needed  and  which  we 
were  asked  by  authority  to  undertake”  (ibid.  p.  5), 
and  in  practice  this  has  been  found  to  include  teach¬ 
ing,  assisting  in  parochial  missions  and  missions  to 
non-Catholics,  instructing  children  and  converts, 
catechising,  taking  part  in  the  organization  of  retreat 
work,  in  social  work,  in  local  government,  in  direct¬ 
ing  study-clubs.  Moreover  of  late  years,  they  have 
been  engaged  in  missionary  work  among  the  East 
Indians  in  Trinidad  and  in  extensive  labors  in  the 
Diocese  of  Duluth,  U.  S.  A.,  where  Bishop  McNich- 
olas,  O.P.,  has  become  also  a  second  founder.  They 
number  at  present  only  about  fifty. 

Jarrett,  English  Dominicans  (London,  1921),  208-13. 

Bede  Jarrett. 

Third  Order  Regular  of  St.  Dominic  in  the 
United  States  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 640b). — Brooklyn, 
N .  Y .  The  Dominican  Congregation  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  with  mother-house  at  Holy  Cross  Convent, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  novitiate  at  Amity ville,  L.  I., 


now  numbers  over  665  religious  and  52  novices. 
Mother  Augustine  Fleck  was  elected  prioress  general 
for  six  years  in  1913,  and  re-elected  in  1919  for 
another  term  of  six  years.  She  celebrated  the  golden 
jubilee  of  her  profession  in  September,  1921,  and  was 
honored  by  the  Holy  Father  with  an  autograph  letter 
of  felicitation.  The  constitution  of  the  congregation 
is  being  revised  in  conformity  with  the  new  Code  of 
Canon  Law.  New  foundations  have  been  made  as 
follows:  St.  Agnes’  Parochial  School,  Rockville 
Centre,  L.  I.;  Our  Lady  of  Perpetual  Help  Parochial 
School,  Lindenhurst,  L.  I.;  St.  Mary  Magdalen 
Parochial  School,  Springfield,  L.  I.;  St.  Thomas’ 
Parochial  School,  Woodhaven,  L.  I.;  Normal  School 
for  Training  of  Novices  opened  at  Amityville  in  1920; 
St.  Martin’s  Parochial  School,  Amityville,  L.  I.; 
Corpus  Christi  School,  Mineola,  L.  I.,  to  be  opened 
in  September,  1922.  At  present  the  congregation 
numbers  48  dependent  houses  in  New  York,  Long 
Island,  and  Porto  Rico,  including  44  schools,  1 
sanitarium,  1  infirmary  for  incurables,  2  hospitals. 
Four  of  the  schools  are  for  orphans  with  a  total 
attendance  of  700.  Other  school  children  number 
16,000.  Sanatorium  patients  number  at  least  50 
and  the  infirmary  has  usually  100  patients.  The 
hospital  has  cared  for  about  5000  patients  in  six  years. 
St.  Catherine’s  Hospital,  Brooklyn,  celebrated  its 
golden  jubilee  in  1920. 

Fall  River ,  Mass. — These  Sisters  have  houses  in 
the  Dioceses  of  Albany,  Fall  River,  and  Fargo,  with 
mother-house  at  Fall  River.  In  1915,  they  took 
charge  of  St.  Anne’s  Parochial  School,  Cohoes,  New 
York,  and  in  1920  they  opened  an  academy  and 
boarding  school  for  girls  in  Grafton,  North  Dakota. 
The  foundress  of  the  congregation,  Mother  M. 
Bertrand  Sheridan,  died  20  March,  1915.  The 
congregation  numbers  73  professed  Sisters,  8  novices, 
and  6  postulants,  in  charge  of  2  academies,  1  high 
school  (academic  and  commercial),  and  4  parochial 
schools,  with  a  total  attendance  of  1660  children. 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich. — The  Congregation  of  Our 
Lady  of  the  Sacred  Heart  was  established  in  Michigan, 
22  October,  1877,  at  Traverse  City,  by  Mother 
Aquinata  and  five  Sisters  from  the  Dominican  Con¬ 
vent  on  East  Second  Street,  New  York,  and  was 
formed  into  an  independent  congregation  in  1894. 
The  mother-house  was  transferred  to  Grand  Rapids 
where  St.  John’s  Orphan  Home  was  established  in 
1889.  At  the  first  general  chapter  of  the  congrega¬ 
tion  in  1897,  Mother  Aquinata  was  elected  mother 
general,  which  office  she  held  for  eighteen  years. 
At  her  death,  1  May,  1915,  the  community  numbered 
300  Sisters  who  were  conducting  40  mission  schools, 
2  academies,  1  orphan  asylum,  and  1  high  school  for 
girls.  She  was  succeeded  by  Mother  Mary  Gonsalva , 
the  mother  assistant  and  councillor,  who  died  23 
February,  1921.  In  1919  the  erection  of  a  new 
mother-house  was  begun  in  the  suburbs  of  Grand 
Rapids,  and  the  cornerstone  was  laid  15  June,  1921. 
Mother  M.  Gonsalva  was  succeeded  by  the  present 
superior,  Mother  Mary  Benedicta.  The  member¬ 
ship  has  grown  from  5  to  383  professed  religious, 
together  with  42  novices  and  11  postulants;  45  of  the 
congregation*have  died.  The  Sisters  now  conduct  50 
parochial  schools,  2  academies,  1  high  school  for 
boys,  1  high  school  for  girls,  1  orphan  asylum,  and  1 
nursery.  The  academies  and  high  schools  are 
affiliated  to  the  University  of  Michigan  and  the 
State  Normal  Schools. 

Kenosha,  Wis. — The  Portuguese  Congregation  of 
St.  Catherine  of  Sienna,  driven  from  Portugal  by  the 
revolution  in  1910,  founded  a  house  in  Ontario, 
Diocese  of  Baker  City,  Oregon,  where  they  built  a 
much  needed  hospital .  The  novitiate  was  canonically 
opened  in  October,  1912,  and  in  June,  1920,  wa, 
transferred  to  Kenosha,  Diocese  of  Milwaukees 


THIRD  ORDERS 


724 


THIRD  ORDERS 


Wisconsin.  Mother  Mary  Catherine  Roth  was  the 
first  superior  of  the  congregation  in  America  and  was 
re-elected  vicaress  general  in  July  ,  1912,  at  the  general 
chapter  held  in  Salamanca,  Spain.  The  community 
kept  Holy  Rosary  Hospital  as  a  branch  house  and  in 
the  year  1914  another  mission  was  taken  up  in  Han¬ 
ford,  California,  where  the  Sisters  conduct  Sacred 
Heart  Hospital  and  St.  Rose’s  Parochial  School.  At 
present  the  congregation  numbers  38  professed  Sisters 
and  13  novices. 

Racine,  Wis. — The  Community  of  St.  Catherine  of 
Sienna  with  mother-house  at  Racine,  Wisconsin, 
celebrated  its  golden  jubilee  in  1912.  Mother  Mary 
Hyacintha  Oberbrunner,  who  had  been  prioress 
general  for  thirty-five  years,  died  at  an  advanced  age, 
28  September,  1915.  Mother  Mary  Cecilia  Fox, 
who  was  elected  prioress  general  in  1907,  died  11 
November,  1915.  At  the  general  chapter  25  March, 
1916,  Mother  Mary  Romana  Thom  was  elected  to 
succeed  Mother  Mary  Cecilia  Fox.  The  most  im¬ 
portant  institutions  of  the  congregation,  other  than 
St.  Catherine’s  Academy  and  Day  School  connected 
with  the  mother-house  at  Racine,  Wis.,  are  7  high 
schools,  41  parochial  schools,  and  1  home  for  ladies. 
The  membership  of  the  congregation  is  360,  including 
316  professed  Sisters,  26  novices,  and  18  postulants, 
with  10,000  children  entrusted  to  their  care. 

Saint  Catharine,  Ky. — On  26  April,  1918,  the  St. 
Catherine  of  Sienna  Community,  with  mother-house 
at  St.  Catharine,  near  Springfield,  Ky.,  was  ap¬ 
proved  by  Rome  as  an  independent  congregation. 
Cardinal  Fruhwirth  O.  P.,  was  appointed  cardinal 
protector.  The  rule  conforms  to  the  new  Code  of 
Canon  Law.  On  25  July,  1918,  Mother  Francesca 
Kearney  was  elected  the  first  mother  general.  She 
had  been  elected  prioress  25  July,  1915,  succeeding 
Mother  M.  Aquin,  whose  second  term  of  office  began 
25  July,  1912.  The  following  new  foundations  have 
been  made:  Sacred  Heart  Academy,  Watertown, 
Mass.,  1912;  Sacred  Heart  School,  East  Boston, 
1912;  St.  Anthony  School,  Cedar  Rapids,  Neb., 
1912;  St.  Mary  School,  Dawson,  Neb.,  1913;  St. 
John  School,  North  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1913;  St. 
Patrick  School,  Fremont,  Neb.,  1914;  St.  James 
School,  Kearney,  Neb.,  1915;  St.  Patrick  School, 
Havelock,  Neb.,  1916;  St.  Patrick  School,  Missouri 
Valley,  Iowa,  1916;  St.  Dominic  Academy  for  small 
boys,  Waverly,  Mass.,  1917;  St.  Brendan  School, 
1918;  St.  Patrick  School,  McCook,  Neb.,  1918; 
St.  Mary  School,  Red  Oak,  Iowa,  1919;  St.  Bartholo¬ 
mew  School,  Chicago,  Ill.,  1921;  Sacred  Heart 
School,  South  Bend,  Ind.,  1921;  St.  Catharine  of 
Sienna  Hospital,  McCook,  Neb.,  1921.  The  con¬ 
gregation  numbers  350  members  in  charge  of  2  normal 
schools,  7  academies,  25  parochial  schools,  1  con¬ 
servatory,  and  1  hospital,  with  10,000  children  under 
their  instruction. 

San  Jose,  Cal. — The  Californian  Congregation  of 
the  Queen  of  the  Most  Holy  Rosary,  with  mother- 
house  at  San  Jos6,  Cal.,  was  founded  in  1876  by  three 
Sisters  from  Brooklyn,  who  took  charge  of  St. 
Boniface’s  Parochial  School  in  San  Francisco.  The 
first  regular  convent  of  the  congregation  was  erected 
in  San  Francisco  and  dedicated  29  November,  1883, 
under  the  title  of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  This 
was  the  mother-house  of  the  congregation  definitely 
incorporated  28  January,  1890.  The  present  mother- 
house  and  novitiate  was  established  in  1891,  at 
Mission  San  Jose,  Alameda  Co.,  Cal.  In  1899  a 
second  novitiate  was  established  in  Europe,  in  the 
diocese  of  Li6ge,  and  a  third  in  Mexico  City  in  1921. 
At  present  the  congregation  has  the  following  insti¬ 
tutions:  Immaculate  Conception  Academy,  San 
Francisco,  Cal.;  St.  Boniface’s  Parochial  School, 
San  Francisco,  Cal.;  St.  Anthony’s  Parochial  School, 
San  Francisco,  Cal.;  St.  Elizabeth’s  Parochial 


School,  Oakland,  Cal.;  Sacred  Heart  Academy,  Los 
Angeles,  Cal.;  St.  Michael's  Parochical  School, 
Los  Angeles,  Cal.;  St.  Gabriel’s  Parochial  School, 
Mission  San  Gabriel,  Cal.;  St.  Catherine's  Orphan¬ 
age,  Anaheim,  Cal.;  The  Albertinum  Orphanage, 
Ukiah,  Cal.;  St.  Mary’s  Orphanage,  Mission  San 
Jos6,  Cal.;  St.  Mary’s  Parochial  School,  Portland, 
Ore.;  Holy  Rosary  Parochial  School,  Portland, 
Ore.;  Colegio  de  la  Imaculada  Concepcion,  Ilalpam, 
D.  F.,  Mexico;  Colegio  San  Rafael,  Mexico  City. 
The  congregation  numbers  205  professed  Sisters,  16 
novices,  and  12  postulants. 

San  Rafael ,  Cal. — These  Sisters,  with  mother-house 
at  San  Rafael,  conduct  establishments  in  the  Arch¬ 
diocese  of  San  Francisco  and  in  the  Diocese  of 
Sacramento.  The  Sisters  in  the  community  number 
151;  novices  5;  postulants  9. 

Shepard,  Ohio. — The  work  of  this  congregation, 
with  mother-house  at  Shepard,  Ohio,  is  entirely 
educational.  The  constitutions,  approved  in  1891, 
are  awaiting  in  Rome  the  sanction  of  their  revision 
according  to  the  new  Code  of  Canon  Law.  In 
August,  1915,  the  estate  of  Miss  Blanche  Potter 
at  Eagle  Park,  Ossining-on-Hudson,  N.  Y.,  was 
purchased  as  a  boarding  school  for  girls.  In  July, 
1917,  the  present  mother  general,  Miriam  Masterson, 
succeeded  Mother  Vincentia  Erskine,  who  resigned 
her  office.  Mother  Vincentia  was  born  25  November, 
1852,  at  Hunter,  N.  Y.,  and  received  her  early  edu¬ 
cation  in  New  York  schools.  She  entered  the  Domini¬ 
can  Order  and  made  her  profession  8  April,  1875, 
becoming  novice-mistress  in  1885  and  prioress  in 
1891.  She  was  chosen  for  the  newly-created  office  of 
mother  general  in  1893,  when  the  Holy  See  elevated 
the  congregation  to  the  dignity  of  a  pontifical  insti¬ 
tute.  From  modest  proportions  the  missionary  field 
served  by  the  Sisters  under  Mother  Vincentia  has 
been  increased  to  one  of  importance,  including  21 
parochial  schools  and  4  academies.  Mother  Vin¬ 
centia  was  elected  three  times  to  the  office  of  mother- 
general  and  asked  to  be  released  from  a  fourth 
election.  She  was,  however,  appointed  vicar  general 
in  1917,  which  office  she  held  until  her  death  on  17 
December,  1919.  Closely  associated  with  Mother 
Vincentia  was  Sister  Mary  Thomas  Scanlan,  who 
died  10  December,  1918.  At  present  the  congrega¬ 
tion  numbers  295  professed  religious,  26  novices,  and 
10  postulants.  New  foundations  include  1  academy 
and  5  parochial  schools. 

Sinsinawa,  Wis. — The  Congregation  of  the  Most 
Holy  Rosary,  with  nmther-house  at  Saint  Clara 
Convent,  Sinsinawa,  Wisconsin,  has  been  under  the 
administration  of  Sister  Clara  Conway  as  prioress, 
1849-1854,  Sister  Joanna  Clark,  prioress  1854-1864, 
Mother  M.  Regina  Mulqueeney,  general  superior, 
1864-1867,  Mother  M.  Emily  Power,  general  superior, 
1867-1909,  and  the  present  general  superior  Mother 
Mary  Samuel,  1909.  At  the  death  of  Mother  Emily 
Power  in  1909  there  were  47  convents  with  her  Sisters 
teaching  in  52  schools  located  in  various  dioceses  of 
the  United  States.  In  1888,  after  a  previous  visit 
to  Rome,  Mother  Emily  obtained  from  the  Holy 
See  the  formal  canonical  approval  of  the  revised 
Constitutions  of  the  Congregation,  few  essential 
points  of  which  were  invalidated  by  the  new  Code  of 
Canon  Law.  The  College  of  Saint  Clara,  Sinsinawa, 
Wis.,  was  chartered  in  1901.  Associated  with  Mother 
Emily  in  her  labors  for  Catholic  education  were  many 
gifted  religious,  among  whom  were:  Sisters  Alberta 
Duffy,  Benedicta  Kennedy,  M.  Charles  Borromeo, 
mid  Alexius  Duffy,  all  writers;  Sisters  M.  Reginald 
Kean  and  M.  Bonaventure  Tracy,  successively 
Prioress  of  Saint  Clara  Convent;  Sister  Gertrude 
Power,  superior  of  the  Dominican  congregation  in 
Faribault,  Minn.;  Sister  Mary  George  Adamson, 
who  braved  the  dangers  of  the  World  War  to  make  a 


THIRD  ORDERS 


725 


THIRD  ORDERS 


foundation  of  the  congregation  in  Europe  and  died 
there  in  1918.  Sister  Imelda  Teresa  Swift,  the  noted 
convert  from  the  Salvation  Army,  died  in  1916  in 
this  congregation  as  a  professed  novice.  The  con¬ 
gregation  now  numbers  862  professed  Sisters,  35 
novices,  and  33  postulants.  There  are  63  mission 
houses  besides  the  mother-house.  In  1917  the 
Sisters  took  charge  of  a  school  of  social  science  and 
modern  languages  in  Fribourg,  Switzerland,  Insti- 
tut  des  Hautes  Etudes,  Villa  des  Fougeres.  Rosary 
College  in  River  Forest,  Chicago,  is  now  under 
construction. 

Dominican  Sisters  of  the  Perpetual  Rosary. — These 
Sisters  are  a  contemplative  community,  strictly 
cloistered.  They  chant  the  Divine  Office  in  choir 
according  to  the  Dominican  Rite  and  support  them¬ 
selves  by  making  vestments,  altar  linens,  altar 
breads,  etc.  The  first  foundation  was  at  Hoboken, 
which  is  regarded  as  the  mother-house,  though  each 
house  is  independent  and  governed  by  the  prioress 
of  each  community,  there  being  no  mother  general  or 
provincial.  They  all  observe  the  Rule  of  St.  Aug¬ 
ustine.  The  chief  change  due  to  the  new  Code  of 
Canon  Law  is  the  wearing  of  the  entire  Dominican 
habit  while  collecting,  in  place  of  the  black 
habit  of  outdoor  Sisters  formerly  worn,  and  the  giving 
of  the  white  scapular  to  the  lay  Sisters  in  place  of 
the  black.  Two  of  the  first  four  religious  who  came 
over  from  Belgium  are  recently  deceased.  Mother 
Mary  of  Jesus,  prioress  in  Hoboken  for  twenty  years, 
died  4  October,  1917,  at  the  age  of  seventy;  Mother 
Mary  Dominic,  sub-prioress  in  Hoboken,  died  2 
November,  1920,  at  the  age  of  seventy-eight.  The 
present  prioress  in  Hoboken  is  Mother  Mary  Agnes, 
elected  1  October,  1919,  to  succeed  Mother  Mary 
Imelda,  who  with  thirteen  other  Sisters  established 
a  new  foundation  at  Summit,  N.  J.  The  Sisters 
have  7  houses  in  the  United  States  at  Hoboken, 
N.  J.  (35  professed  Sisters,  4  novices,  8  postulants); 
Hales  Corners,  near  Milwaukee,  Wis.;  Catonsville, 
near  Baltimore,  Md.;  Camden,  N.  J.  (38  perpetual 
professed  Sisters,  6  professed  novices,  3  novices,  3 
postulants,  1  outside  Sister);  Buffalo  N.  Y.;  La 
Crosse,  Wis.  (15  Sisters),  and  Summit,  N.  J. 

Dominican  Nuns  of  the  Congregation  of  St. 
Cajherine  of  Ricci. — This  congregation  is  devoted 
to  the  work  of  retreats  and  to  the  spirit  of  adoration, 
reparation,  and  thanksgiving.  It  was  founded  in 
Glens  Falls,  Diocese  of  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1880,  by 
Lucy  Eaton  Smith  who  took  in  religion  the  name  of 
Sister  Maria  Catherine  de  Ricci.  She  was  bora  in 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  22  March,  1845,  was  received  into 
the  Catholic  Church  18  December,  1865,  went  to 
Europe  seeking  to  fulfill  her  religious  vocation,  and 
returned  to  the  United  States  to  found  a  new  com¬ 
munity  of  the  Dominican  Order,  in  honor  of  St. 
Catherine  of  Ricci.  The  present  mother-house  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  was  opened  in  May,  1887.  Mother 
de  Ricci  died  24  May,  1894,  in  the  new  house  founded 
at  Saratoga,  and  was  succeeded  as  second  provincial 
by  Mother  Mary  Loyola,  who  was  born  8  February, 
1854,  and  was  received  into  the  Church  at  Rome,  22 
July,  1876.  During  Mother  Loyola’s  administration 
an  English-speaking  boarding  school  and  academy 
was  founded  at  Havana,  Cuba,  in  1900,  and  a  home 
for  business  women  was  opened  in  Philadelphia, 
Penn.,  in  1901.  Mother  Loyola  died  23  April, 

1904,  and  was  succeeded  by  Sister  Mary  Bertrand, 
the  present  provincial,  who  was  elected  in  January, 

1905,  succeeded  by  Mother  M.  Frances  in  1915,  and 
re-elected  in  1918  and  1921.  Under  Mother  M. 
Bertrand’s  administration  the  following  foundations 
have  been  made:  in  1908,  an  English-speaking 
boarding  school  and  academy  at  Cienfuegos,  Cuba, 
and  in  connection  therewith  an  orphan  asylum  sup¬ 
ported  by  the  Daughters  of  the  Rosary,  an  organiza¬ 


tion  of  the  best  Catholic  families  of  the  city;  in  1911, 
a  home  for  business  women  in  New  York  City;  in 
1912,  a  home  for  business  women  in  Dayton,  Ohio. 
In  all  these  houses  the  work  of  giving  spiritual 
retreats  is  conducted.  The  congregation  is  steadily 
increasing  in  members  and  now  numbers  89  professed 
religious,  6  novices,  and  5  postulants. 

Third  Order  of  St.  Francis  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 
641a). — In  recent  years  the  Franciscan  Third  Order 
has  been  the  subject  of  several  pontifical  pronounce¬ 
ments.  The  most  important  of  these  are  the  latter 
of  Pius  X  “Tertium  Franciscalium  Ordinem,”  of  8 
September,  1912;  and  the  Encyclical  Letter  of  Bene¬ 
dict  XV  “Sacra  propediem”  of  6  January,  1921. 
In  the  first  of  these  two  letters  which  was  addressed 
to  the  three  ministers-episcopal  of  the  First  Order, 
Pius  X  expressed  his  joy  at  the  new  evidences  of 
activity  amongst  the  tertiaries  tending  to  the  propaga¬ 
tion  of  the  Third  Order.  At  the  same  time  however, 
he  confessed  to  a  fear  that  many  tertiaries  were  in 
danger  of  losing  sight  of  the  proper  purpose  and 
vocation  of  their  order.  The  Third  Order,  he  re¬ 
minded  them,  is  an  order  of  penance,  designed  to 
teach  men  the  love  of  the  Cross  and  the  avoidance  of 
worldliness,  and  to  lead  its  members  in  the  way  of 
evangelical  perfection.  Hence,  Tertiary  fraternities, 
as  such,  must  not  concern  themselves  with  purely 
economic  or  social  questions;  though  individual 
tertiaries  are  encouraged  to  take  part  in  the  social 
works.  In  virtue  of  their  profession  all  tertiaries 
must  avoid  luxurious  living  and  be  ready  to  exercise 
the  works  of  mercy,  spiritual  and  corporal.  In 
regard  to  tertiary  congresses,  the  pontiff  laid  down 
that  such  congresses  may  only  be  held  with  the 
approval  of  the  superiors  of  the  First  Order  and  under 
their  leadership;  the  congresses  may  only  discuss 
matters  properly  pertaining  to  the  order  and  must 
avoid  purely  economic  and  social  questions;  the  acts 
of  the  congress  may  not  be  published  without  the 
sanction  of  the  superiors  of  the  First  Order. 

The  Encyclical  Letter  of  Benedict  XV,  above 
referred  to,  was  published  on  the  occasion  of  the 
seventh  centenary  celebration  of  the  formal  foundation 
of  the  order.  In  this  letter  the  pope  again  urged  the 
tertiaries  to  set  an  example  of  unworldliness  and  in 
particular  called  upon  them  to  cultivate  modesty 
in  dress  in  opposition  to  the  prevalent  fashions  of  the 
day;  but  more  especially  he  bade  them  emulate  the 
example  of  the  first  tertiaries  as  apostles  of  fraternal 
charity  and  good  will  in  a  world  inflamed  by  the 
passions  of  war. 

The  year  1921  witnessed  a  world-wide  celebration 
of  the  seventh  centenary  of  the  order,  culminating 
in  the  international  congress  of  the  tertiaries  held  in 
Rome  in  September  of  that  year.  The  congress  had 
been  convoked  to  meet  in  Assisi,  but  such  were  the 
vast  numbers  attending  it  that  it  was  found  necessary 
to  transfer  the  congress  to  a  city  capable  of  providing 
accommodation  for  the  delegates. 

Of  the  Pontifical  privileges  granted  to  tertiaries  in 
late  years,  the  most  notable  is  the  concession  contained 
in  the  Letter  of  PiuxX,  “Sodalium  e  Tertio  Ordine,” 
of  5  May,  1909,  whereby  tertiaries  by  communication 
of  privileges  share  in  all  the  good  works  of  the  First 
Order  and  enjoy  the  same  indulgences. 

A  movement  to  bring  the  local  tertiary-fraternities 
into  closer  cooperation  with  each  other  for  their 
mutual  benefit  and  encouragement  was  approved  by 
Pius  X  in  his  Letter  “Delectavit  nos”  of  17  December, 
1909,  addressed  to  the  federated  fraternities  in 
Rome.  The  movement  is  but  a  return  to  the  ancient 
practice  of  the  Third  Order  fraternities  in  Italy;  and 
were  it  carried  out  generally,  would  undoubtedly  tend 
to  strengthening  the  Third  Order  as  a  spiritual  force 
in  the  church. 

The  most  recent  statistics  give  the  number  of 


THIRD  ORDERS 


726 


THIRD  ORDERS 


Franciscan  tertiaries  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
First  Order  as  1,525,300  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Friars  Minor  of  the  Leonine  Union;  28,000  under  the 
Friars  Minor  Conventuals;  and  989,500  under  the 
Friars  Minor  Capuchin. 

Father  Cuthbert. 

Third  Order  Regular  of  St.  Francis  in  the 
United  States  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 646b).; — Allegany , 
N.  Y . — This  Franciscan  congregation,  with  mother- 
house  at  St.  Elizabeth’s  Convent,  St.  Bonaventure, 
Allegany,  N.  Y.,  has  at  present  17  foundations, 
including  1  college,  2  academies,  3  high  schools,  14 
parochial  schools,  3  homes  for  working  girls,  1  home 
for  children,  1  day  nursery,  and  2  hospitals.  New 
foundations  have  been  made  in  the  dioceses  of 
Ogdensburg,  Pittsburgh  and  Buffalo.  The  com¬ 
munity  now  numbers  322  members. 

Bay  Settlement ,  Wis. — This  congregation,  with 
mother-house  at  Bay  Settlement,  Green  Bay,  Wis¬ 
consin,  numbers  60  professed  neligious,  4  novices, 
and  5  postulants.  The  present  superior  is  Mother 
M.  Angela,  who  succeeded  Mother  M.  Teresa  in 

1920.  New  foundations  have  been  made  as  follows: 
St.  Fidelis  School,  Meeme,  Wis.,  1917;  St.  Mary’s 
School,  Bear  Creek,  Wis.,  1919;  McCormick  Memor¬ 
ial  Home  for  the  Aged  (20  inmates),  Green  Bay, 
Wis.,  1921.  St.  Aloysius  Institute,  a  boarding  school 
at  Sturgeon  Bay,  Wis.,  was  discontinued  in  July, 

1921.  The  congregation  is  at  present  in  charge  of 
10  parochial  schools  with  1215  pupils,  1  boarding 
school  with  58  pupils  at  Robinson ville,  Wis.,  and 

1  home  for  the  aged. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y . — The  present  superior  of  this  con¬ 
gregation  with  mother-house  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  is 
Sister  M.  De  Pazzi,  elected  2  August,  1919.  The 
present  number  of  foundations  is  41,  of  wdiich  12 
have  been  established  in  the  last  ten  years.  These 
include:  2  hospitals  caring  for  120  patients;  3  homes 
for  the  aged  with  434  inmates;  1  orphan  asylum 
with'  450  orphans;  35  parochial  schools  with  7764 
children.  Perpetual  Adoration  of  the  Most  Blessed 
Sacrament  was  founded  on  27  December,  1902,  and 
this  association,  affiliated  with  the  one  established 
in  Rome,  is  called  The  Association  of  Perpetual 
Adoration  and  Work  for  Poor  Churches.  The  con¬ 
gregation  now  numbers  375  professed  Sisters,  21 
novices,  and  7  postulants,  a  total  of  403  members. 

Clinton,  Iowa. — The  constitutions  of  this  congre¬ 
gation,  with  mother-house  in  Clinton,  Iowa,  have 
been  revised  according  to  the  new  Code  of  Canon 
Law  and  are  in  Rome  for  approval.  The  present 
superior  is  Mother  M.  Fidelis.  The  congregation 
numbers  200  professed  Sisters  and  18  postulants  and 
novices,  having  under  their  care  1  college  and  academy, 

2  hospitals  with  822  patients,  1  old  people’s  home 
with  30  inmates,  and  30  parochial  schools.  There 
are  3005  children  under  their  instruction. 

Dubuque,  Iowa. — This  congregation  with  mother- 
house  at  St.  Francis  Convent,  Dubuque,  Iowa, 
received  the  decree  of  praise  and  the  approval  and 
confirmation  of  its  constitutions  in  1914.  The 
constitutions,  with  revisions  in  conformity  with  the 
new  Code  of  Canon  Law,  are  to  receive  final  approval 
in  1922.  Since  the  death  of  the  foundress  in  1892, 
the  congregation  has  been  governed  successively  by 
Mother  M.  Elizabeth  Hoenig,  Mother  M.  Coletta 
Roehret,  and  Mother  M..  Dominica  Wieneke,  the 
present  superior  general,  elected  in  July,  1920.  Since 
1912  the  congregation  has  taken  charge  of  5  parochial 
schools  in  Iowa,  1  in  South  Dakota,  2  in  Oregon,  and 
1  hospital  in  Iowa.  It  now  has  a  total  of  52  grammar 
schools  and  15  high  schools  and  academies  with  a 
total  enrollment  of  8609  pupils,  2  orphanages,  1 
hospital,  1  home  for  the  aged,  1  home  for  young 
ladies,  1  domestic  department  at  Columbia  College, 


Dubuque,  Iowa.  The  number  of  professed  Sisters 
is  454,  novices  53,  and  postulants  15. 

Millvale,  Penn. — This  congregation,  with  mother- 
house  at  Mt.  Alvernia,  Millvale,  Penn.,  was  founded 
in  1865  from  Buffalo,  N.  Y.  They  established 
a  hospital  in  a  small  frame  dwelling,  which  has  since 
given  place  to  the  large  brick  structure  known  as 
St.  Francis  Hospital,  covering  an  entire  block,  with 
a  capacity  of  600  beds,  and  containing  a  psychopathic 
department.  This  department  maintains  an  occupa¬ 
tion  school,  in  which  weaving,  wicker  work,  sewing 
and  knitting  are  taught  to  patients  whose  condition 
permits  them  to  take  up  the  work.  The  hospital 
maintains  a  hydrotherapeutic  department,  the  largest 
of  its  kind  in  Western  Pennsylvania;  also  a  vocational 
school  for  disabled  soldiers,  and  a  training  school  for 
nurses  which  numbers  126  nurses,  including  pupils 
and  graduate  nurses.  It  has  for  years  maintained  a 
free  dispensary,  and  the  patients  treated  here  during 
the  past  year  number  10,652.  Their  mission  as 
teachers  dates  from  1868,  when  a  colony  of  12  Sisters 
opened  a  house  on  the  South  Side,  then  known  as 
Birmingham,  but  since  incorporated  in  the  city  as 
the  South  Side.  Here  they  took  charge  of  the  school 
connected  with  St.  Michael’s  parish.  In  1871,  at 
the  request  of  Bishop  Domenec  of  Pittsburgh, 
Bishop  Timon  of  Buffalo  released  the  community 
from  his  obedience,  and  a  mother-house  and  novitiate 
were  permanently  established  in  the  Pittsburgh 
diocese  at  the  above  named  place.  In  1884,  through 
the  influence  of  Rev.  Father  Luke,  C.  P.,  the  con¬ 
stitutions  were  approved  for  a  period  of  five  years. 
In  1890,  His  Holiness  Leo  XIII  granted  a  definitive 
approbation,  and  the  Sisters  have  thenceforth  been 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See.  Slight 
changes,  due  to  the  revised  Code  of  Canon  Law, 
have  been  made  affecting  the  novitiate.  The  time 
of  postulancy  has  been  reduced  from  one  year  to  six 
months;  the  time  of  novitiate  from  two  years  to  one 
year;  the  time  of  temporary  vows  has  been  increased 
from  two  to  three  years.  The  development  of  the 
community  called  for  a  larger  mother-house  and 
novitiate,  and  the  present  structure  at  Mt.  Alvernia, 
Millvale,  was  erected  in  1898.  The  community 
numbers  262  professed  Sisters,  18  novices,  14  pos¬ 
tulants,  nnd  18  aspirants.  It  has  17  houses  and  has 
charge  of  2  hospitals,  an  insane  asylum,  a  home  for 
aged  ladies,  an  orphan  asylum,  and  a  home  for  in¬ 
fants  under  five  years  of  age.  As  educators  they 
have  charge  of  15  schools,  attended  by  7300  pupils-, 
and  engaging  138  teachers;  10  of  these  schools  have 
their  own  high  school.  In  connection  with  the  mother- 
house  is  the  Community  Normal  School,  and  a  pre¬ 
paratory  school  in  which  young  ladies  desiring  to 
enter  the  community  begin  their  studies  preparatory 
to  the  normal  course  (students  18,  teachers  4). 

Nevada,  Mo. — This  congregation,  with  mother- 
house  at  Nevada,  Mo.,  has  its  general  mother-house 
in  Switzerland,  from  where  the  first  Sisters  came  to 
America  in  1893.  The  community  now  numbers 
26  professed  Sisters  and  2  postulants,  in  charge  of 
115  orphans. 

Oldenburg,  Ind. — This  congregation,  with  mother- 
house  at  Oldenburg,  Indiana,  was  governed  for 
thirty-six  years  by  Mother  Olivia,  who  was  succeeded 
in  1919  by  Mother  Veneranda.  Mother  Olivia  had 
celebrated  her  golden  jubilee  in  1915,  and  in  1921 
Mother  Veneranda  and  five  Sisters  celebrated  their 
golden  jubilee  and  51  Sisters  their  silver  jubilee. 
To  provide  Perpetual  Adoration  of  the  Blessed  Sacra¬ 
ment,  the  erection  of  a  new  chapel  was  begun  in 
October,  1919.  According  to  the  new  Code  of  Canon 
Law  the  community  submits  a  triennial  report  to  the 
Holy  See,  the  postulate  is  extended  from  three 
months  to  six,  and  novices  are  admitted  to  final  pro¬ 
fession  after  three  years  of  temporary  vows,  instead- 


THIRD  ORDERS 


727 


THIRD  ORDERS 


of  five  years  as  formerly.  The  present  cardinal 
protector  of  the  congregation  is  Cardinal  Merry  del 
Val,  appointed  in  1916,  upon  the  death  of  their 
former  cardinal  protector,  Cardinal  Falconio.  Among 
the  recent  deceased  of  the  community  have  been 
Sister  Julia  (1914);  Sisters  Coletta,  Dominica,  and 
Bonaventure  (1915);  Sisters  Florentine,  Johanna, 
Petronilla,  Genevieve,  and  Augustine  (1916);  Sisters 
Cornelia,  Lidivina  and  Dorothea  (1919).  In  1920 
the  Sisters  for  the  first  time  made  use  of  their  privilege 
as  voters  and  took  part  in  the  presidential  election. 
New  foundations  have  been  made  as  follows:  (1912) 
Kankakee,  Ill.,  Collegehill,  Ind.,  and  Hamilton, 
Ohio;  (1915)  Chillicothe,  Ohio,  Dayton,  Ohio,  and 
Houghville,  Ind.;  (1916)  Bowling  Green,  Mo., 
Fort  Branch,  Ind.,  and  Wichita,  Kan.;  (1919) 
Peoria,  111.;  (1921)  St.  Ann’s,  Jennings  Co.,  Ind. 

Peekskill,  N.  Y. — The  general  mother-house  of  this 
congregation  is  at  Gemona,  Italy,  and  the  present 
general  superior,  Mother  M.  Carmela,  succeeded 
Mother  M.  Assumpta  who  died  in  February,  1912. 
The  provincial  mother-house  and  novitiate  is  at 
Mount  St.  Francis,  Peekskill,  N.  Y.  Mother  M. 
Joseph,  provincial  superior,  succeeded  Mother  M. 
Elizabeth,  who  died  7  October,  1914.  The  present 
number  of  members  is  318,  novices  13,  postulants  8. 
The  congregation  has  charge  of:  1  academy  with  258 
pupils;  3  business  schools  with  200  pupils;  20  paro¬ 
chial  schools  with  6973  children;  1  institution  for  desti¬ 
tute  children  with  950  inmates;  a  reception  and  quar¬ 
antine  house  for  this  institution;  2  boarding  houses 
for  girls  with  75  boarders;  5  day  nurseries  with  300 
children;  1  convalescent  home  with  15  patients. 

Peoria,  III. — This  congregation,  with  mother- 
house  at  Peoria,  Ill.,  has  charge  of  the  following 
hospitals:  St.  Francis’,  Peoria,  Ill.,  6046  patients 
from  July,  1919,  to  July,  1920;  St.  Joseph’s,  Bloom¬ 
ington,  Ill.,  2857  patients;  St.  Anthony’s,  Rockford, 
Ill.,  4931;  St.  Mary’s,  Galesburg,  Ill.,  1386;  St. 
James’,  Pontiac,  Ill.,  509;  St.  Francis’,  Burlington, 
Iowa,  813;  St.  Joseph’s,  Keokuk,  Iowa,  1688;  Sacred 
Heart,  Ft.  Madison,  Iowa,  772;  St.  Francis’,  Esca- 
naba,  Mich.,  1464;  St.  Mary’s,  Marquette,  Mich., 
985;  St.  Joseph’s,  Menominee,  Mich.,  1412;  a  total  of 
11  hospitals  carin'g  for  22,563  patients,  of  whom 
1435  were  charity  patients.  The  Sisters  also  have  a 
hospital  at  Echt,  Holland,  founded  in  1905  by  28 
Sisters  from  America.  The  congregation  numbers 
258  professed  Sisters,  25  novices,  and  12  postulants, 
a  total  of  295  members.  The  present  mother  general 
is  Mother  M.  Anthony. 

Tiffin ,  Ohio. — This  congregation,  with  mother- 
house  at  St.  Francis  Convent,  Tiffin,  Ohio,  was  or¬ 
ganized  in  1868  and  incorporated  in  1869  under 
the  title  Citizen’s  Hospital  and  Orphan  Asylum. 
The  present  superior  is  Mother  Bonaventura.  The 
foundations  of  the  congregation  are:  St.  Francis 
Home  for  the  Aged,  Tiffin,  Ohio,  capacity  100;  St. 
Francis  Orphanage,  Tiffin,  Ohio,  capacity  150;  St. 
Francis  Convent,  Tiffin,  Ohio;  St.  Joseph’s  Hospital, 
Lorain,  Ohio;  Pilgrim  House,  Carey,  Ohio;  parish 
schools  in  Ohio  at  Adrian,  Blakeslee,  Carey,  Custar, 
Fort  Jennings,  Lorain,  Miller  City,  Millersville, 
New  Washington,  Paulding,  Payne,  Tiffin.  The 
congregation  numbers  90  professed  religious,  7 
novices  and  9  postulants. 

Franciscan  Sisters  of  the  Atonement. — These  Sisters 
form  the  Second  Congregation  of  the  Society  of  the 
Atonement  (see  Atonement,  Friars  of  the),  which 
was  originally  a  foundation  at  Graymoor,  N.  Y., 
of  Anglican  Friars  and  Sisters,  who  were  received 
into  the  Catholic  Church  30  October,  1909.  In 
the  Second  Congregation  there  are  now  33  Sisters, 
14  novices,  12  postulants,  and  10  Tertiary  Sisters,  a 
total  of  69.  The  Sisters  have  four  mission  settlement 
houses  as  follows:  one  in  the  large  Italian  parish  of 


Our  Lady  of  Pity  in  the  Bronx,  New  York  City,  for 
mission  settlement  and  catechism  work  among  the 
5000  Catholic  children  attending  public  school;  a 
second  house  in  Hereford,  Texas,  where  two  missionary 
Friars  are  also  laboring;  a  mission  house  in  Tucumcari, 
New  Mexico;  and  a  fourth  house  in  Dover,  Ohio, 
under  the  Capuchin  Fathers.  The  cornerstone  of  a 
new  building  for  the  St.  Clare’s  Mission  Settlement 
House  in  the  Bronx,  N.  Y.,  founded  1919,  was  laid 
16  October,  1921.  There  are  at  present  23  Sisters 
of  the  Atonement  working  in  the  missions.  Their 
special  work  is  catechism  and  social  settlement  work 
for  the  foreign  born  children  of  the  public  schools  and 
their  parents.  Their  constitutions,  based  upon  the 
Franciscan  Rule  and  revised  according  to  the  new 
Code  of  Canon  Law,  have  been  approved  by  his 
late  Eminence  Cardinal  Farley  and  by  the  present 
ordinary  Most  Rev.  Archbishop  Hayes. 

Franciscan  Sisters  of  Baltimore  City. — These  Sisters, 
with  mother-house  at  St.  Mary’s  Abbey,  Mill  Hill, 
London,  were  introduced  into  America  in  1881,  for 
work  among  the  colored  people.  At  the  request  of 
the  late  Cardinal  Gibbons  they  established  them¬ 
selves  in  the  Archdiocese  of  Baltimore,  where  they 
now  have  a  novitiate  and  a  home  accommodating 
300  orphans.  Convents  have  been  opened  in  Nor¬ 
folk  and  Richmond,  Va.,  and  in  Wilmington,  N.  C. 
In  some  of  their  schools  the  Sisters  have  as  many  as 
600  pupils.  From  St.  Mary’s  Abbey,  Mill  Hill, 
Sisters  were  sent  to  open  missions  in  Africa  in  1902, 
and  the  late  Mother  Mary  Paul,  who  was  then 
Superior  of  the  Franciscan  Convent  in  Norfolk,  Va., 
was  chosen  to  be  the  first  superior  to  lead  the  mis¬ 
sionary  band  of  Sisters  to  this  new  field  of  labor  in 
Uganda,  British  East  Africa.  There  are  now  4  con¬ 
vents  of  this  congregation  working  among  the  natives 
of  Uganda,  where  they  have  2  hospitals  and  3  schools. 
The  aggregate  number  of  this  congregation  is  about 
500. 

Franciscan  Sisters  of  Christian  Charity. — This 
congregation  was  founded  9  November,  1869.  The 
mother-house  and  novitiate  is  at  Holy  Family  Con¬ 
vent,  Alverno,  Wisconsin.  The  present  superioress 
is  Mother  M.  Generose,  elected  in  July,  1919.  There 
are  436  professed  Sisters,  42  novices,  and  41  pos¬ 
tulants.  The  Sisters  have  52  parish  schools  distrib¬ 
uted  as  follows:  Green  Bay,  32;  Milwaukee,  4; 
Omaha,  2;  La  Crosse,  3;  Grand  Rapids,  1;  Columbus, 
6;  Superior,  1;  Marquette,  2;  and  a  school  of  music 
at  Marquette.  The  number  of  teachers  actively 
engaged  in  school  work  is  266.  Holy  Family  Hospital 
at  Manitowoc,  Wis.,  Good  Samaritan  Hospital  at 
Zanesville,  Ohio,  and  St.  Joseph’s  Home  for  the 
Aged  at  West  Point,  Neb.,  are  in  charge  of  the  con¬ 
gregation. 

Franciscans  of  the  Immaculate  Conception. — This 
community,  with  mother-house  at  Little  Falls,  Minn. , 
has  charge  of  the  following  institutions:  St.  Gabriel’s 
Hospital,  Little  Falls,  erected  1915,  dedicated  1916; 
St.  Francis’  Hospital,  Breckenridge,  Minn.;  St. 
James  Hospital,  Perham,  Minn.;  St.  Joseph’s  Hospi¬ 
tal,  Dodgeville,  Wis.,  erected  1913-14;  St.  Ansgar’s 
Hospital,  Moorhead,  Minn.,  bought  from  the 
Lutherans  24  October,  1920,  dedicated  and  blessed 
the  same  year;  St.  Ott’s  Orphanage,  Little  Falls, 
Minn.,  averaging  about  120  children  a  year,  the 
children  there  finishing  the  eighth  grade;  Aged  People’s 
Home,  Little  Falls,  Minn.,  averaging  about  35  to  40 
aged  people  a  year.  Connected  with  St.  Gabriel’s, 
St.  Francis’,  and  St.  Ansgar’s  Hospitals  are  training 
schools  for  nurses.  Notable  members  of  the  com¬ 
munity  recently  deceased  are:  Sister  Mary  Rose, 
mother  general  for  twelve  years,  died  7  November, 
1921;  Sister  Mary  Francis,  first  superior,  died  11 
December,  1915;  Sister  Mary  Magdalen,  one  of  the 
oldest  members  of  the  community,  died  28  September , 


THIRD  ORDERS 


728 


THIRD  ORDERS 


1917;  Sister  M.  Baptista,  died  16  February,  1921; 
and  Sister  M.  Joseph,  died  7  April,  1921.  The 
present  superior  of  the  community  is  Mother  M. 
Teresa,  elected  1918  and  re-elected  1921.  The 
community  numbers  74  professed  Sisters  and  21 
novices 

Little  Franciscan  Sisters  of  Mary. — This  community, 
founded  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  has  its  mother-house  at 
Baie-St.-Paul,  Canada.  It  is  affiliated  by  a  diploma 
dated  7  October,  1904,  to  the  Grand  Order  of  the 
Seraphic  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  and  received  its  decree 
of  canonical  erection  25  December,  1914,  on  the 
twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  its  foundation.  The 
three  following  foundresses  successively  governed 
the  institute:  Mother  Mary  Joseph  (1889-93), 
Mother  Mary  Ann  of  Jesus  (1893-1908),  and  Mother 
Mary  Dominic  (1908-20).  The  present  superior 
general  is  Mother  Mary  Clare  of  Assisi.  The  pos¬ 
tulate  for  candidates  lasts  one  year,  and  the  novitiate 
lasts  also  a  year;  then  the  novices  are  admitted  to 
annual  vows  which  they  renew  for  four  years,  after 
which  they  make  perpetual  vows.  To  conform 
with  the  Canonical  Code  the  constitutions  were  sub¬ 
jected  to  slight  changes,  viz.:  facility  to  extend  the 
term  of  the  postulate,  novitiate,  and  temporary 
vows;  also  to  anticipate  the  renewal  of  said  vows  in 
cases  where  it  would  be  impossible  for  the  missionary 
Sisters  to  renew  them  on  date  of  expiration;  while  on 
the  other  hand,  the  Sisters  who  are  to  make  their  per¬ 
petual  vows  must  have  a  dispensation  if  it  is  impos¬ 
sible  for  them  to  be  at  the  mother-house  for  canoni¬ 
cal  examination  on  or  before  thirty  days  previous  to 
date  of  making  their  vows.  The  institute  has  at 
present  17  houses,  of  which  9  are  in  the  United  States. 
Seven  of  these  are  schools  at:  Marinette,  Wis.(1901), 
190  pupils;  Auburn,  Me.  (1904) ,  539  pupils;  Fort  Kent, 
Me.  (1906) ,  580  pupils  (also  a  boarding  school  for  girls 
with  55  and  one  boys’  with  49);  Menominee,  Mich. 
(1907),  179  pupils;  Marquette,  Mich.,  (1911),  191 
pupils;  Eagle  Lake,  Me.  (1916).  260  pupils;  Wallagras, 
Me.  (founded  1898,  closed  1913,  reopened  1920), 
122  pupils;  total  number  of  pupils,  2061.  The 
Sisters  have  a  home  for  the  aged  and  abandoned  of 
both  sexes  at  Worcester,  Mass.,  with  156  inmates, 
and  a  hospital  at  Eagle  Lake,  Me.  (1906),  with  27 
patients,  having  cared  for  2682  patients  since  1912. 
At  Auburn,  Me.,  a  boarding  school  was  closed  last 
year  to  give  more  space  for  class  rooms.  According 
to  1914  statistics  the  institute  had  treated,  cared  for, 
educated  and  instructed  21,267  persons  of  both  sexes 
as  follows:  1255  aged,  1838  patients,  352  insane,  765 
orphans,  17,057  pupils.  Up  to  1921  the  institute 
counts  27  deceased  Sisters  of  whom  2  were  foundresses. 
The  community  comprises  252  professed  religious, 
27  novices,  and  37  postulants. 

Franciscan  Sisters  of  Penance  and  Christian  Charity. 
— This  congregation  has  its  mother-house  and  novitiate 
at  Stella  Niagara,  N.  Y.,  where  there  is  also  a  semi¬ 
nary  for  the  education  of  girls,  with  116  pupils  in 
1921.  In  the  Diocese  of  Buffalo  the  Sisters  conduct 
the  Buffalo  Academy  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  St.  Anne’s 
St.  Joachim's,  St.  Michael’s,  Mt.  Carmel  and  St. 
John’s  (La  Salle,  N.  Y.),  parochial  schools,  having  a 
total  of  2753  pupils  under  the  direction  of  136  Sisters. 
St.  Vincent’s  Orphanage  in  Columbus,  Ohio,  founded 
in  1875,  now  cares  for  248  orphans.  St.  Ann’s 
Foundling  Asylum  was  founded  in  1908,  and  in  1921 
took  care  of  109  infants.  In  these  two  institutions 
34  Sisters  are  employed.  The  Sisters  conduct  six 
parochial  schools  in  the  Diocese  of  Columbus,  where 
1920  children  are  educated  under  the  supervision  of 
52  Sisters.  St.  Aloysius  Academv  in  New  Lexington, 
Ohio,  was  founded  in  1875.  There  are  147  pupils 
in  attendance  here,  with  28  Sisters  in  charge.  In 
Charleston,  W.  Va.,  the  Sisters  are  in  charge  of  the 
Sacred  Heart  School  which  has  344  pupils.  The  two 


Indian  Missions,  St.  Francis  and  Holy  Rosary,  both 
in  South  Dakota,  care  for  555  children.  These 
Missions  were  founded  in  1886  and  1888  respectively. 
In  Nebraska  the  Sisters  have  academies  in  O’Neill 
and  Alliance.  They  have  three  hospitals  in  the  West: 
the  Sacred  Heart  Hospital  in  Havre,  Mont.;  St. 
Joseph’s  Hospital  in  Minot,  North  Dakota.,  and 
St.  Joseph’s  Hospital  in  Alliance,  Neb.  They  have 
parochial  schools  in  Los  Angeles,  Cal.;  Sacramento, 
Cal.;  Portland,  Ore.;  Spokane,  Uniontown,  and 
Cowlitz,  Wash.;  Denver,  Col.;  and  Havre,  Mont. 
In  1921  the  Grace  Day  Nursery  was  opened  in  Sacra¬ 
mento,  Cal.  The  total  number  of  Sisters  working 
in  the  United  States  (1922),  is  446,  including  394 
professed  religious,  31  novices,  and  11  postulants. 
In  their  4  academies,  21  parochial  schools,  2  Indian 
Missions,  3  hospitals,  orphanage,  foundling  asylum, 
day  nursery,  and  2  homes  for  working  girls,  they  care 
for  12,189  seculars. 

The  congregation  throughout  the  world  is  divided 
into  6  provinces,  with  a  total  of  128  convents,  more 
than  45,000  souls  being  confided  to  the  care  of  the 
Sisters,  who  number  2859  professed  religious,  272 
novices,  and  119  postulants,  a  total  of  3250  members. 
Statistics  for  each  province  are  (1920)  as  follows: 
Holland,  717  professed,  65  novices,  18  postulants, 
28  convents;  Germany,  1240  professed,  150  novices, 
70  postulants,  41  convents;  India,  146  professed,  6 
novices,  6  convents;  Brazil,  350  professed,  24  novices, 
17  postulants,  23  convents;  North  America,  386 
professed,  27  novices,  14  postulants,  27  convents; 
Africa,  20  professed,  and  3  convents. 

Franciscan  Sisters  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration. — 
This  community,  with  mother-house  at  St.  Rose 
Convent,  La  Crosse,  Wisconsin,  now  numbers  601 
professed  Sisters,  32  novices,  and  37  postulants. 
They  have  at  present  14  foundations  and  are  in  charge 
of  3  hospitals  caring  for  6412  patients  in  1920,  1 
orphanage  with  212  orphans,  2  academies,  78  paro¬ 
chial  schools  with  11,039  pupils,  and  1  Indian  school. 
The  present  superior  general  is  Mother  M.  Ludovica. 

Poor  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  of  the  Perpetual  Adoration. 
— These  Sisters,  with  mother-house  at  Olpe,  Germany, 
have  a  provincial  house  at  La  Fayette,  Indiana. 
The  present  mother  general  is  Sister  Verena  Schulte, 
elected  1916,  and  the  provincial  superior  is  Sister 

M .  Josepha.  Recently  deceased  religious  of  note  are: 
Sister  M.  Leonarda,  superioress  of  St.  Alexius  Hos¬ 
pital,  Cleveland,  Ohio,  died  2  November,  1916; 
Sister  M.  Engelberta,  superioress  of  St.  Francis 
Convent,  La.  Fayette,  Indiana,  died  1  March,  1918; 
Sister  Alexia,  superior  of  St.  Joseph’s  Hospital, 
Memphis,  Tenn.,  died  26  August,  1919.  New 
foundations  have  been  made  as  follows:  in  1913, 
Sacred  Heart  School,  Gallup,  N.  M.;  St.  Anthony’s 
Orphanage,  Albuquerque,  N.M.;  St.  Francis  Hospital, 
Indianapolis,  Ind.;  in  1914,  St.  Anthony’s  School, 
Columbus,  Neb.;  in  1915,  St.  Edward’s  School, 
Lowell,  Ind.;  in  1916,  St.  Mary’s  Hospital,  Gallup, 

N.  M.;  Immaculate  Conception  School,  Cuba, 
N.  M.;  in  1917,  St.  John’s  School,  Goshen,  Ind.; 
in  1919,  St.  Mary’s  Hospital,  Memphis,  Tenn.; 
St.  Edward’s  School,  Morrison,  Mo.;  St.  Ann’s 
School,  La  Fayette,  Ind.;  in  1920,  St.  John’s  School, 
Earl  Park,  Ind.;.  St.  Francis  School,  Lumberton, 
N.  M.;  St.  Stanislaus  School,  Omaha,  Neb.;  in  1921, 
St.  Mary’s  School,  Huntington,  Ind.;  school  at  San 
Fidel,  N.  M.  The  present  number  of  foundations  is 
76,  including  21  hospitals,  50  schools,  3  orphanages, 
1  home  for  the  aged;  and  St.  Francis  Convent.  The 
community  numbers  830  professed  religious,  66 
novices,  and  15  postulants. 

Missionary  Franciscan  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate 
Conception. — This  congregation  has  its  mother-house 
and  novitiate  in  Rome  and  a  branch  novitiate  at 
Newton,  Mass.  It  was  founded  in  1873  by  Mother 


THIRD  ORDERS 


729 


THIRION 


Mary  Ignatius  of  Jesus,  the  first  house  in  America 
being  established  at  Belle  Prairie,  Minn.  In  1880 
the  mother-house  was  established  in  Rome.  Mother 
Mary  Ignatius  died  in  1894  and  was  succeeded  as 
superior  by  Mother  Mary  of  the  Angels,  during 
whose  term  of  office  an  orphanage  for  colored  children 
was  opened  in  Savannah,  Ga.  (1897)  and  another 
orphanage  opened  in  Jersey  City,  N.  J.  (1898). 
With  the  permission  and  approval  of  the  Sacred 
Congregation  of  Propaganda  a  house  was  opened  in 
Fayum,  Upper  Egypt,  in  1899.  A  flourishing  school 
is  now  carried  on  there  for  the  instruction  of  children 
of  Coptic  and  Mahommedan  parents  as  well  as  those 
few  of  Catholic  parentage.  On  the  expiration  of  the 
term  of  Mother  Mary  of  the  Angels,  Mother  Mary 
Antonia  was  elected  superior  general  in  1900.  She 
died  in  1901  and  was  succeeded  by  Mother  Mary 
Columba.  During  the  twelve  years  of  her  administra¬ 
tion  new  houses  were  opened  in  Augusta,  Ga.  (1901), 
Boston  (1902),  West  Hoboken,  N.  J.  (1904),  Cairo, 
Egypt  (1907),  New  Castle,  Penn.  (1908),  Bronx, 
N.  Y.  (1909),  Belle  Prairie,  Minn.  (1911),  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.  (1911),  Chicago,  111.(1911),  Newton,  Mass. 
(1912),  Montreal,  Canada  (1912),  Pittsburgh,  Penn. 
(1912).  The  first  convent  erected  in  Belle  Prairie 
was  malicious^  destroyed  by  fire  and  the  new  con¬ 
vent  erected  in  1911.  At  the  general  chapter  of  the 
institute  held  in  Rome,  July,  1913,  Mother  Mary 
Agnella  was  elected  superior  general.  During  her 
term  of  office  3  new  houses  were  opened:  Damanhour, 
Egypt  (1913),  Rockford,  Ill.  (1915),  Philadelphia, 
Penn.  (1918).  Mother  Mary  Agnella  died  in  1921. 
Mother  Mary  Benignus,  the  present  superior  general, 
was  elected  in  July,  1919.  In  September  of  that  year 
a  settlement  house  was  opened  in  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
In  January,  1920,  a  mission  was  opened  at  Chester, 
Penn.,  and  in  February,  1921,  a  home  for  Italian 
children  w^as  opened  in  Jamaica  Plain,  Mass.  The 
Convent  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Angels  in  Tenafly,  N.  J., 
which  was  opened  on  16  June,  1921,  serves  as  a  sum¬ 
mer  home  for  the  Sisters  and  is  the  seat  of  publication 
of  their  periodical  “Annals  of  Our  Lady  of  the  An¬ 
gels.”  A  branch  novitiate  was  established  in  Boston 
in  1903  and  transferred  to  Newton,  Mass.,  in  1912. 
The  present  number  of  mission  houses  is  21.  The 
congregation  comprises  190  professed  Sisters,  14  nov¬ 
ices,  and  9  postulants. 

Polish  Franciscan  School  Sisters: — This  con¬ 
gregation  has  its  mother-house  at  St.  Louis,  Mo., 
and  its  novitiate  at 'Ferguson,  Mo.,  the  new  site  for 
the  novitiate  having  been  purchased  in  1921.  The 
present  superior  general  is  Mother  Hilaria.  The 
congregation  numbers  115  professed  religious,  12 
novices,  and  8  postulants,  with  19  foundations. 

Franciscan  Sisters  of  the  Sorrowful  Mother.  See 
Sorrowful  Mother,  Sisters  of  the. 

Bernardine  Sisters  of  St.  Francis.  These  Sisters 
have  their  mother-house  and  novitiate  at  Read¬ 
ing,  Penna.  They  were  founded  in  1894  by  Mother 
Weronica  Grzedowska  who  with  three  Sisters  came 
to  America  from  Zakliczyn  in  Poland,  having  been 
sent  by  the  Bishop  of  Tarnowa.  The  Sisters  opened 
R  small  parochial  school  at  Mt.  Carmel,  Penna. ,  where 
they  remained  for  one  year.  In  1895  they  established 
the  mother-house  at  Reading,  Penna.,  and  the  novi¬ 
tiate  was  opened  there  in  1901.  In  1912  Mother 
Hedwig  Leszczynska,  the  present  general  superior, 
succeeded  Mother  Weronica.  The  latter  died  in 
1916.  The  aim  of  the  congregation  is  to  teach  in 
parochial  elementary  and  higher  schools  and  to  take 
care  of  orphans.  At  present  the  Sisters  have  42 
schools  scattered  throughout  the  States  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut.  They  also 
have  charge  of  St.  Francis  Orphan  Asylum,  Reading, 
Penna.,  incorporated  1905,  and  the  St.  Stanislaus 
Orphan  Asylum,  Nanticoke,  Penna.,  opened  in  1919. 


The  congregation  numbers  230  professed  Sisters, 
70  novices,  and  40  postulants. 

Felician  Sisters,  O.  S.  F.  See  under  Felician 
Sisters 

Third  Order  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel 
(cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 637d).  A  good  deal  of  discussion 
has  recently  taken  place  on  the  origin  of  the  Third 
Order,  but  no  definite  result  has  been  arrived  at. 
Fr.  Gabriel  Wessels  (Analecta  Ordinis  Carmelitarum , 
vol.  Ill,  259  sqq.)  is  of  opinion  that  until  the  end  of 
the  fifteenth  century  there  was  no  real  distinction 
between  the  convents  of  the  Second  and  Third 
Orders,  in  other  terms  that  the  distinction  arises 
from  the  stricter  or  less  strict  observance  of  enclosure 
and  other  points  of  the  rule,  and  as  this  distinction 
resulted  chiefly  from  the  Tridentine  legislation  the 
division  would  seem  to  be  even  somewhat  later  than 
stated  by  this  accurate  and  cautious  observer.  A 
new  rule  for  the  Tertiaries  of  the  Discalced  Car- 
melities  living  in  the  world  was  approved  by  the  Holy 
See  6  March,  1921. 

Benedict  Zimmerman. 

Third  Orders,  Secular. — Secular  Third  Orders 
are  composed  ordinarily  of  lay  persons,  known  as 
tertiaries,  who  aim  at  Christian  perfection  by  follow¬ 
ing  a  rule  approved  for  them  by  the  Holy  See,  em¬ 
bodying  the  spirit  of  a  particular  religious  order 
as  far  as  that  is  compatible  with  their  condition  as 
lay  people.  The  permission  of  the  Holy  See  is  re¬ 
quired  before  a  third  order  can  be  established,  and 
this  has  been  granted  to  the  Premonstratensians, 
Dominicans,  Friars  Minor,  Carmelites,  Augustinians, 
Minims,  Servites,  and  Trinitarians,  while  the  Ben¬ 
edictines  have  their  oblates  who  resemble  the  terti¬ 
aries.  While  religious  of  these  orders  can  enroll 
individual  tertiaries,  permission  of  the  local  ordinary 
is  necessary  for  the  erection  of  a  sodality  of  the  third 
order,  and  special  permission  is  needed  if  the  members 
are  to  wear  a  distinctive  habit  while  assisting  at 
sacred  functions.  No  one  who  has  made  vows  in 
any  religious  institute  can  belong  to  a  third  order, 
except  by  special  permission  of  the  Holy  See,  even 
though  he  had  been  a  tertiary  before  making  his 
vows;  however,  if  he  is  freed  from  his  vows  and 
returns  to  the  world,  his  tertiarian  membership 
revives.  No  one  may  be  a  member  of  two  third 
orders;  though  for  good  reason  a  tertiary  may  pass 
from  one  order  to  another,  or  from  one  sodality  to 
another  in  the  same  order.  Tertiaries  may  be,  but 
are  not  obliged  to  be,  present  as  a  body  at  public 
religious  offices,  but  if  they  do  take  part  they  must 
wear  their  insignia  and  have  their  own  cross;  they 
do  not  share  in  the  indulgences  granted  to  the  first 
and  second  orders ,  except  by  special  indult .  A  general 
blessing  or  deprecative  absolution  with  a  plenary 
indulgence  annexed  may  be  given  publicly  to  all 
tertiaries  on  stated  feasts,  when  they  ‘assemble  for 
that  purpose;  if  the  priest  whose  office  it  is  to  give 
it  is  absent,  any  priest,  secular  or  regular,  who  is 
authorized  to  hear  confessions  may  bestow  it;  further¬ 
more,  the  blessing  may  be  received  priyately  from 
any  confessor  after  sacramental  absolution  on  any 
of  the  specified  feasts  or  the  preceding  day,  and  in 
case  of  Franciscan  tertiaries  on  any  day  also  within 
the  octaves  of  the  feasts. 

Vermeersch-Creusen,  Epit.  jut.  can.  (IUalines,  lyzij, 
698-703. 

Thirion,  Julien,  scientist,  b.  at  Sclayn,  Namur, 
Belgium,  in  1852;  d.  on  23  February,  1918.  He 
studied  at  Namur  and  at  the  age  of  twenty  entered 
the  Society  of  Jesus;  during  his  course  of  training  he 
specialized  in  mathematical  physics  and  subsequently 
he  was  sent  to  Louvain  to  supervise  the  scientific 
training  of  the  young  Jesuits.  As  early  as  1880  ho 
had  contributed  a  number  of  historical  astronomical 


THRACE 


730 


TIERNAN 


to  the  Precis  historiques  (Brussels),  and 
later  published  a  “History  of  Mathematics"  in  the 
same  review.  In  1896  he  was  appointed  secretary  of 
the  Societe  scientifique  de  Bruxelles  and  editor  of  the 
“Annales"  of  the  Society  and  later  of  the  “Revue  des 
questions  scientifiques.”  As  a  professor  Thirion  was 
noted  for  the  lucidity  of  his  exposition  of  intricate 
questions,  which  he  rendered  more  attractive  by  brief 
historical  sketches;  so  in  his  contribution  to  the 
“Revue  des  questions  scientifiques”  the  same  lucidity 
and  attractiveness  are  noted.  Optics  was  his  favorite 
subject,  but  he  contributed  many  interesting  scien¬ 
tific  biographies. 

Schaffers  in  Revue  de  quest,  scient.,  XXVIII  (Louvain,  1920), 
27-52,  giving  bibliography  of  Thirion’s  writings. 

Thrace,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Thraciae 
Bulgarorum),  was  erected  7  April,  1883,  for  the 
Greco-Bulgarian  Catholics  in  European  Turkey. 
The  total  population  of  the  territory  numbers  about 
410,000  and  of  this  number  only  3000  are  Catholic. 
These  are  served  by  16  missionary  priests,  20  churches 
and  chapels,  13  schools  with  500  pupils.  At  present 
(1922)  there  is  no  vicar  apostolic  named  for  this 
territory. 

Three  Rivers,  Diocese  of  (Trifluvianensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIV — 708d),  formed  from  the  Archdiocese  of 
Quebec  to  which  it  is  now  suffragan.  It  comprises 
a  Catholic  population  of  108,000  French  Canadians 
and  about  2300  English  and  other  nationalities. 
During  the  World  War  the  clergy  and  laity  of  this 
diocese  took  an  active  part  in  organizing  works  of 
patriotism  and  charity,  and  large  numbers  of  the 
young  men  joined  the  ranks,  many  of  them  giving  up 
their  lives  and  others  receiving  decorations  of  honor. 
Recently  the  most  important  developments  in  the 
progress  of  the  diocese  have  been  the  holding  of  a 
diocesan  synod,  the  organization  of  the  “Corporation 
ouvriere  Catholique,”  a  society  for  Catholic  working 
men,  and  the  establishment  of  a  semi-weekly  journal. 
The  diocese  has  however  lost  several  prominent  mem¬ 
bers  by  the  deaths  of:  Mgr.  Hermyle  Baril,  P.  A., 
vicar  general  and  administrator  of  the  diocese, 
principal  of  the  normal  school  and  one  time  superior 
of  the  seminary,  died  17  February,  1915;  Canon  H. 
Trahan,  pastor  of  Saint  Severe,  deceased  in  1917; 
His  Honor  Judge  F.  S.  Tourigny,  died  in  1916.  The 
diocese  comprises,  according  to  latest  statistics,  57 
parishes,  80  churches,  4  missions,  9  stations,  1  monas¬ 
tery  for  men,  3  for  women,  1  convent  for  men,  9 
for  women,  135  secular  and  30  regular  clergy,  175 
lay  brothers,  1  seminary  with  355  professors  and  an 
alumni  of  500,  18  higher  schools  for  boys  with  150 
teachers  and  3000  students,  20  higher  schools  for 
girls  with  175  teachers  and  3500  students,  12  aca¬ 
demies  with  60  teachers  and  1800  pupils  (800  boys 
and  1000  girls),  1  normal  school  with  10  teachers  and 
100  pupils,  332  elementary  schools  with  600  teachers 
and  30,000  pupils,  3  industrial  schools,  2  diocesan 
missionary  organizations,  4  homes,  6  orphanages, 

2  hospitals,  1  reformatory,  4  other  charitable  in¬ 
stitutions  and  1  poor  house.  Four  of  the  public 
institutions  permit  the  priests  to  minister  in  them  and 
for  the  most  part  the  schools  receive  financial  aid 
from  the  government.  Among  the  clergy  the  Society 
of  Priests  Adorers,  Society  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the 
St.  Thomas  Aquinas  Fund,  and  the  “Society  d’une 
Messe,”  are  organized,  and  among  the  laity  the 
Third  Orders  of  St.  Francis  and  of  St.  Dominic,  the 
League  of  the  Sacred  Fleart,  and  the  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  Society  are  established,  besides  some  minor 
associations.  The  see  is  at  present  filled  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Frangois-Xavier  Cloutier,  born  in  this  diocese 
in  1848,  ordained  in  1872,  appointed  bishop  8  May, 
1899,  and  named  an  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne 

3  February,  1916. 


Thureau-Dangin,  Paul,  historian,  b.  at  Paris  on 
14  December,  1837;  d.  at  Cannes  on  25  February, 
1913.  He  studied  law,  practiced  in  the  Court  of 
Appeal  in  Paris  and  was  an  auditor  in  the  Conseil 
d’Etat.  His  taste,  however,  was  historical  and  literary 
rather  than  forensic;  and  as  associate  editor  of 
“Le  Frangais"  and  a  contributor  to  “Le  Cor- 
respondant"  he  supported  the  Orleanist  family.  In 
1863  he  published  “La  Pologne  et  les  trait6s  de 
Vienne"  and  four  years  later  he  abandoned  all  his 
other  pursuits  to  devote  himself  to  the  study  of 
history  and  the  interests  of  religion.  In  his  “Histoire 
de  la  Monarchic  de  Juillet"  (7  vols.  1884-92),  his 
documentations,  his  power  of  synthesis,  together  with 
his  accuracy  and  impartiality  reveal  the  master 
historian.  This  work  and  his  zeal  for  the  purity  of 
the  language  won  for  him  in  1893  a  chair  in  the 
French  Academy,  of  which  he  became  perpetual 
secretary  in  1908.  Thureau-Dangin  was  one  of  the 
few  Frenchmen  who  grasped  the  intricacies  of  the 
Oxford  Movement  and  its  consequences,  and  in  his 
“Renaissance  Catholique  en  Angleterre"  (1899) 
he  traces  in  detail  the  simultaneous  development  of 
High  Church  Anglicanism  and  Catholicism  in 
England  from  the  beginning  of  the  Oxford  Movement. 
He  was  inclined  to  liberalism  at  times  in  the  matter, 
for  instance,  of  Biblical  criticism  and  the  relations 
of  the  Church  and  the  State,  but  on  realizing  the 
Church’s  teaching  he  corrected  his  stand  unhesitat¬ 
ingly.  Among  his  other  writings  are  “Royalistes  et 
Republicans"  (1874);  “Paris,  capitale  pendant  la 
revolution  frangaise”  (1872);  and  “Un  predicates 
populaire  dans  l’ltalie  de  la  Renaissance,  Saint 
Bernardin  de  Sienne"  (1896). 

Thuringia  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 712c),  a  new  state  in 
Central  Germany  formed  on  24  December,  1919,  by 
the  union  of  the  former  grand  duchies  of  Saxe- 
Weimar-Eiseanch,  Saxe-Meiningen,  Gotha,  Saxe 
Altenburg-Reuss,  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  Schwarz- 
burg-Sonderhausen.  The  area  is  4546  square  miles; 
the  population  according  to  the  last  census  (1  Decem¬ 
ber,  1910)  was  1,510,538  or  3322  inhabitants  per 
square  miles.  The  capital  is  Weimar;  other  towns  are 
Gera,  Gotha,  Jena,  Eisenach,  Greiz,  Rudolstadin 
Arnstadt,  and  Sonderhausen.  Until  the  formation 
of  the  new  constitution  the  Legislature  (Volksrat) 
was  composed  of  the  deputies  of  the  Legislatures  of 
the  seven  republics;  the  executive  authority  being  in 
the  hands  of  a  ministry  (Staatsrat)  composed  of 
representatives  of  the  government  of  each  of  the 
seven  states. 

Tibet,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Thibetanensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  Ill — 678b,  VI — 603c),  in  China,  with 
episcopal  residence  at  Ta-tsien-lu.  By  a  decree  of 
20  March,  1912,  Propaganda  added  to  this  vicariate 
the  country  between  the  boundaries  of  Tibet  and  the 
territory  of  the  East  Indies  known  as  British  Boutan, 
which  was  too  far  from  Calcutta,  on  which  it  had 
formerly  depended.  The  vicariate  is  entrusted  to 
the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  the  present 
vicar  being  Rt.  Rev.’  Pierre-Philippe  Giraudeau, 
titular  Bishop  of  Thynias.  The  territory  counts 
3789  Catholics  and  600  catechumens  out  of  a  total 
population  of  4,000,000.  It  is  served  by  25  European 
priests,  2  native  priests,  18  churches  and  chapels, 
34  stations,  1  seminary  with  10  students,  21  schools 
with  266  pupils,  2  hospitals,  5  orphanages  and  6 
Chinese  religious. 

Tiernan,  Frances  Christine,  authoress,  known 
more  widely  by  her  pseudonym,  “Christian  Reid,” 
b.  at  Salisbury,  North  Carolina,  on  5  July,  1846;  d. 
there  on  24  March,  1920;  daughter  of  Colonel  Charles 
Frederick  and  Elizabeth  Clarissa  (Caldwell)  Fisher. 


TIERRADENTRO 


731 


TIVOLI 


Her  mother  was  a  Catholic;  her  father  an  Episcopa¬ 
lian.  Colonel  Fisher  fell  at  the  first  battle  of  Manas¬ 
sas,  and  his  daughter  remained  loyal  to  his  Confeder¬ 
ate  ideals  to  the  end.  Beginning  with  “Valerie 
Aylmer"  in  1870,  Christian  Reid  achieved  enviable 
success  as  a  writer  of  elegant  fiction.  In  “The  Land 
of  the  Sky"  she  immortalized  western  North  Caro¬ 
lina,  and  directly  led  to  the  development  of  the 
mountain  country  of  that  State.  Her  war  drama, 
“Under  the  Southern  Cross,"  with  its  impassioned 
presentation  of  the  views  of  the  South  upon  the  con¬ 
stitutional  right  of  secession,  has  enshrined  her  name 
in  the  hearts  of  the  Southerners.  In  1887  she  married 
James  Marquis  Tiernan  and  accompanied  him  to 
Mexico  where  she  sojourned  till  his  death  in  1898. 
While  there  she  wTrote  among  other  fiction  “The  Land 
of  the  Sun"  (1894),  one  of  her  most  interesting  tales. 
Early  in  life  she  was  received  into  the  Catholic  Church 
by  Cardinal  Gibbons,  then  only  Vicar  Apostolic  of 
North  Carolina.  She  practised  her  religion  zealously 
and  to  her  is  mainly  due  the  erection  of  the  Church 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  in  her  native  town.  In  1909 
Christian  Reid  was  honored  with  the  Laetare  Medal 
by  the  University  of  Notre  Dame.  Between  1870 
and  1915  she  wrote  more  than  forty  novels,  of  which 
the  following,  in  addition  to  those  mentioned  above, 
are  the  best  known:  “A  Daughter  of  Bohemia," 
“Heart  of  Steel,"  “The  Picture  of  Las  Cruces," 
“Weighed  in  the  Balance,"  “A  Little  Maid  of  Ar- 
cady,”  “The  Wargrave  Trust,"  “The  Secret  Be¬ 
quest,”  “A  Question  of  Honor." 

.  Tierradentro,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  (de 
Tierradentro),  in  Colombia,  erected  by  a  decree 
of  13  May,  1921.  The  territory  comprised  in 
this  prefecture  was  taken  from  the  diocese  of  Popayan 
and  entrusted  to  the  Lazarists.  No  prefect  has  been 
appointed  yet  and  no  statistics  are  published. 

Time,  Computation  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 726a). — 
In  reckoning  time  the  following  regulations  have  been 
laid  down  in  the  Code  (can.  31-4).  A  day  consists  of 
twenty-four  continuous  hours  beginning  at  mid¬ 
night;  a  week,  of  seven  days;  a  month  means  thirty 
and  a  year  three  hundred  and  sixty-five,  unless  it  is 
stated  that  they  are  to  be  taken  as  in  the  calendar. 
It  is  to  be  noted  that  while  in  canon  law  a  day  implies 
continuity  of  time,  a  week  does  not;  hence  any  seven 
canonical  days,  even  not  continuous,  make  a  week, 
unless  the  law  says  it  refers  to  a  calendar  week. 
The  time  of  day  is  to  be  reckoned  by  the  common 
local  custom,  but  if  there  is  question  of  saying  Mass 
privately,  reading  the  Office  privately,  receiving 
Holy  Communion,  or  observing  the  fast  or  abstinence, 
one  may  also  follow  the  true  or  mean  local  time,  or 
the  regional  or  other  extraordinary  legal  regional  or 
other  extraordinar}'-  legal  time.  Vermeersch-Creusen 
and  Claeys-Bouuaert  believe  this  optional  computa¬ 
tion  of  time  may  be  used  in  regard  to  indulgences 
and  cessation  from  servile  work;  and  the  former  au¬ 
thorities,  contrary  to  Maroto  and  others,  see  no 
difficulty  in  allowing  one  to  recite  the  Breviary,  for 
instance,  according  to  the  true  time,  observe  ab¬ 
stinence  according  to  mean  time,  and  the  Eucharistic 
fast  according  to  local  time.  The  concessions  made 
regarding  the  calculation  of  time  do  not  in  any 
way  affect  the  liturgical  laws.  Moreover,  the 
requirements  of  the  local  civil  law  as  to  the  time  for 
fulfilling  contracts  are  to  be  observed,  unless  the 
contrary  is  expressly  agreed  to  by  the  contracting 
parties. 

If  a  month  or  year  is  expressly  or  equivocally 
mentioned,  e.  g.,  the  month  of  February,  next  year, 
it  is  to  be  taken  as  in  the  calendar.  If  the  exact 
time  at  which  anything  begins  is  mentioned  neither 
expressly  nor  implicitly,  e.  g.,  suspension  from  saying 


Mass  for  a  month  or  two  years,  three  months  vacation 
each  year,  etc.,  the  time  is  to  be  reckoned  from  the 
moment  to  moment  if  the  time  is  continuous  as  in 
the  first  example,  the  months  and  years  are  to  be 
taken  as  in  the  calendar;  if  the  time  is  not  con¬ 
tinuous  as  in  the  second  instance,  week,  month  and 
year  mean  seven,  thirty,  and  three  hundred  and 
sixty-five  days  respectively.  If  the  time  referred 
to  consists  of  several  days,  or  of  one  or  more  weeks, 
months,  or  years,  and  the  term  from  which  the 
period  is  reckoned  is  mentioned  expressly  or  im¬ 
plicitly:  (a)  months,  and  years  are  taken  as  in  the 
calendar;  (b)  if  the  term  coincides  with  the  beginning 
of  the  day,  e.  g.,  two  month’s  vacation  from  15 
August,  the  computation  begins  with  the  first  date 
mentioned,  the  term  ending  at  the  beginning  of  the 
last  day  of  the  same  number,  i.  e.,  at  midnight  of 
14-15  October;  (c)  if  the  term  from  which  a  period 
is  reckoned  does  not  coincide  with  the  beginning  of 
a  day,  e.  g.,  the  fourteenth  year  of  age,  a  year’s 
novitiate,  eight  days  after  the  death  of  a  bishop; 
where,  as  in  the  first  two  examples,  the  timens  begi 
at  the  moment  of  one’s  birth,  or  of  one’s  taking  the 
vows  respectively;  the  first  day  is  not  counted  and 
the  term  finishes  at  the  end  of  the  last  day  of  the 
same  number,  i.  e.,  one  who  entered  the  novitiate 
on  7  September,  1918,  completed  the  two  years  at 
midnight  of  7-8  September,  1920;  (d)  if  the  month 
has  no  corresponding  number,  e.  g.,  one  month  from 
30  January,  the  term  will  end  with  the  beginning  or 
the  end  of  the  last  day  of  the  month,  as  the  case 
may  be;  (e)  where  acts  of  the  same  kind  are  to  be 
repeated  at  stated  times,  e.  g. ,  three  years  to  perpetual 
profession  after  temporary  profession,  three  years  to 
a  new  election,  the  time  finishes  on  the  same  monthly 
date  as  that  on  which  it  began,  but  the  new  act 
may  be  peformed  at  any  time  that  day. 

O’Donnell  in  Irish  Eccl.  Record,  XI  (1918),  50-58;  Ver¬ 
meersch-Creusen,  Epit.  jur.  can.,  94-101;  Maroto,  Institu- 
tiones  jur.  can.,  221-32. 

Tinin,  Diocese  of.  See  Knin 

Tinos,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Naxos  and  Tinos 

Tiraspol  (or  Chersonese)  Diocese  of  (Tiras- 
polensis  seu  Saratovensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 739a) 
in  the  government  of  Cherson,  Russia,  suffragan  of 
Mohileff.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph- 
Louis  Kessler,  born  in  Otrogovca  in  1862,  served  as  a 
pastor,  then  canon,  and  inspector  of  the  upper 
seminary,  and  was  appointed  bishop  1  April,  1904. 
He  has  the  privilege  of  two  suffragan  bishops  who 
reside  at  Tiraspol  and  Saratow,  but  at  present  no 
one  has  been  appointed  to  these  positions.  The 
administrator  apostolic  for  the  Armenians  of  the 
diocese  is  Rev.  Serge  Der  Abraamian  who  resides  at 
Tiflis.  The  episcopal  residence  is  at  Saratow.  By  a 
Consistorial  decree  of  2  August,  1921,  the  boundaries 
of  the  diocese  were  somewhat  changed  by  the  separa¬ 
tion  of  five  parishes  which  were  added  to  the  diocese 
of  Jassy.  The  latest  statistics  available  are  those 
of  1911  which  credit  the  diocese  with  359,823  Catholics 
of  the  Latin  and  Armenian  Rites  (Armenians  37,088); 
125  parishes,  93  chapels,  and  179  secular  priests  of  the 
Latin  Rite;  56  parishes,  5  chapels  and  54  priests  of  the 
Armenian  Rite.  This  is  the  only  Russian  diocese 
which  has  an  upper  and  lower  seminary,  Catholic 
parish  schools  and  a  religious  weekly  (published  in 
German) .  The  two  seminaries  which  are  situated  in 
Saratow  have  161  students  making  lower  studies  and 

26  making  higher  studies. 

Tivoli,  Diocese  of  (Tihirtinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 747b),  in  the  province  of  Rome,  central  Italy, 
directly  dependent  on  the  Holy  See.  This  see  is 
filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Luigi  Scarano,  born  in  Trivento 

27  October,  1867,  served  as  a  canon  and  vicar  general, 


TLAXACALA 


732 


TOKIO 


was  named  a  private  chamberlain  24  May,  1913, 
prothonotary  apostolic  in  1915,  and  appointed  bishop 
22  March,  1917,  succeeding  Rt.  Rev.  Gabriel 
Vettori,  transferred  to  Pistoia  6  December,  1915. 
According  to  1920  statistics  the  Catholic  population 
of  the  diocese  numbers  40,000  and  there  are  42 
parishes,  72  secular  and  35  regular  clergy,  20  seminar¬ 
ians,  68  Sisters  and  108  churches  or  chapels. 

Tlaxacala,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Puebla  de  los 
Angeles 

Todi,  Diocese  of  (Tudertinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 754a),  in  the  province  of  Perugia,  central 
Italy,  directly  subject  to  the  Holy  See.  This  see  is 
filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Luigi  Zaffarami,  born  in  this  diocese 
in  1864,  served  as  archpriest  of  San-Terenziano, 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Sasima  22  January,  1915, 
and  named  administrator  apostolic  of  Todi,  and 
transferred  6  December,  1915.  The  ancient  cathedral 
of  this  diocese  was  dedicated  to  Saint  Terentius,  while 
the  new  one,  built  on  the  ruins  of  the  former,  is  dedi¬ 
cated  to  Our  Lady.  The  diocese  embraces  a  Catholic 
population  of  45,200,  and  according  to  1920  statistics 
has  98  parishes,  99  secular  and  15  regular  clergy,  40 
seminarians,  10  Brothers,  47  Sisters  and  249  Churches 
or  chapls. 

Togo,  French,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Togensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I — 180-189),  in  Western  Africa. 
The  prefecture  apostolic  of  Togo,  erected  in  1892  and 
entrusted  to  the  Fathers  of  the  Divine  Word  of  Steyl, 
Holland,  was  raised  to  a  vicariate  apostolic  16  March, 
1914.  Owing  to  the  conditions  brought  about  by  the 
war,  the  missionaries  were  obliged  to  leave,  and  the 
vicar  apostolic,  Rt.  Rev.  Franz  Wolf,  appointed  by 
the  decree  of  erection,  and  titular  Bishop  of  Byblos, 
is  still  forced  to  remain  in  Europe.  From  January, 
1918,  until  January,  1921,  the  vicariate  was  adminis¬ 
tered  by  Rt.  Rev.  Ignace  Hummel,  Vicar  Apostolic 
of  the  Gold  Coast.  That  year  the  vicariate  was 
given  over  to  the  Society  of  the  African  Missions  of 
Lyons,  and  on  11  January  Monsignor  Jean-Marie 
Cessou  was  named  administrator  of  the  vicariate. 
During  the  World  War  Monsignor  Cessou  with  Rev. 
Father  Alphonse  Seitie  and  six  other  priests  served 
in  various  capacities  and  the  two  named  were  dec¬ 
orated  with  the  Croix  de  Guerre.  The  vicariate,  which 
comprises  the  whole  territory  of  Togo,  entrusted  to 
the  French  by  the  Peace  Conference,  is  divided  into 
nine  districts.  The  Christian  portion  of  the  popula¬ 
tion,  numbering  about  24,942,  is  composed  of  mem¬ 
bers  of  two  tribes,  the  Ewe  and  the  Gengbe.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  latest  statistics  it  comprises  9  quasi-parishes, 
9  missions,  22  churches,  134  mission  stations,  2 
convents  of  religious  with  6  Sisters,  13  missionary 
priests,  6  lay  brothers,  3  seminarians,  10  higher 
schools  for  boys  with  48  teachers  and  1939  pupils, 
1  higher  school  for  girls  with  4  teachers  and  300 
pupils,  1  industrial  school  which  trains  printers, 
blacksmiths,  book-binders,  shoe  makers,  cabinet 
makers,  tailors  and  watch  repairers,  and  has  14 
teachers  and  86  students,  1  home  for  the  destitute, 
and  2  refuges.  The  industrial  school  and  two  of  the 
other  schools  are  partially  supported  by  the  govern¬ 
ment.  The  Congregation  of  Mary  with  46  branches 
for  men,  young  men,  women  and  girls,  is  organized. 

Tokio,  Archdiocese  of  (Tokiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 754d.),  in  Japan.  A  decree  of  13  August, 
1912,  separated  a  portion  of  its  territory  from  the 
archdiocese  and  erected  it  into  the  prefecture 
apostolic  of  Nygata.  The  present  incumbent  of  the 
see  is  Most  Rev.  Jean-Pierre  Rey,  of  the  Society  of 
Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  appointed  1  June,  1912,  to 
succeed  Most  Rev.  Frangois  Bonne,  d.  11  January, 
1912.  Born  in  Julienas,  France,  in  1858,  Arch¬ 


bishop  Rey  made  his  studies  in  Lyons  and  the  sem¬ 
inary  of  the  Foreign  Missionaries  in  Paris,  was 
ordained  in  1882  and  was  sent  to  Japan,  where  he 
became  vicar  general  in  1906.  Latest  statistics 
credit  the  archdiocese  with  15,987,516,  of  whom  9685 
are  Catholic;  28  European  priests,  3  Japanese 
priests,  2  communities  of  men  with  26  religious,  3 
communities  of  women  with  58  Sisters,  17  schools 
with  1872  pupils  and  39  churches  and  chapels. 

Tokio,  Catholic  University  of,  in  Japan.  This 
institution,  conducted  by  the  Jesuits,  originated 
in  the  mind  of  Pope  Pius  X,  in  consequence  of  a 
report  made  to  him  by  the  then  Bishop  of  Port¬ 
land  (now  Cardinal  O’Connell),  on  returning  to 
Rome  from  a  special  embassy  to  the  Mikado  in 
1905.  In  1908,  Fr.  James  Rockliff,  S.J.,  Fr.  Henri 
Boucher,  S.J.,  and  Fr.  Joseph  Dahlman,  S.J.,  went 
to  Japan  to  found  the  university,  landing  at  Yoko¬ 
hama  on  17  October  of  that  year.  Archbishop 
Pierre  Rey  of  Tokio  placed  at  their  disposal  a  resi¬ 
dence  which  had  originally  been  erected  for  a 
Catholic  students’  dormitory.  Here  they  devoted 
themselves  to  the  study  of  the  Japanese  language 
and  customs  until  a  suitable  location  for  the  uni¬ 
versity  buildings  was  secured  in  April,  1912.  This 
plot  consists  of  a  little  less  than  five  acres,  just 
within  the  ancient  rampart  and  moat  of  the  city 
of  Tokio  (pop.  3,000,000),  and  midway  between  the 
two  imperial  palaces,  easily  accessible  by  the  Yoko¬ 
hama  Interurban,  the  City  Belt  Line  and  two  trans- 
urban  electric  lines. 

Government  permission  for  the  opening  of  a 
private  school,  of  college  and  university  rank  ( Koto 
Gakko  and  Daigako)  was  secured,  and  classes 
opened  with  an  enrollment  of  twenty  students  in 
April,  1913.  Faculty  and  students  were  both  housed 
at  this  time  in  old  Japanese  buildings,  standing  on 
the  property,  and  wholly  inadequate  to  the  pur¬ 
pose.  The  erection  of  a  suitable  classroom  build¬ 
ing  was  begun  immediately,  and  at  a  cost  of  120,000 
yen,  was  completed  and  opened  for  classes  in  Sep¬ 
tember,  1914.  This  building  is  of  brick,  with 
wooden  bracings  rendering  it  as  near  earthquake- 
proof  as  anything  not  of  concrete  and  steel  can  be. 
It  has  capacity  for  four  hundred  students,  and  in¬ 
cludes  faculty  offices,  students’  library  and  two  ex¬ 
hibition  halls.  The  faculty  are  still  huddled  into 
the  Japanese  buildings  above  mentioned;  they 
now  number  ten  Fathers  representing  eight  nation¬ 
alities  drawn  from  Europe,  Asia  and  America. 
Twenty  extern  Japanese  professors  are  employed. 
The  enrollment  of  students  has  steadily  grown  to 
one  hundred  and  sixty.  The  first  graduating  exer¬ 
cises  were  held  in  March,  1918,  when  eleven  stu¬ 
dents  were  graduated.  Their  immediate  employ¬ 
ment  in  responsible  positions  by  leading  firms  and 
departments  of  the  Government,  gave  marked  proof 
of  the  reputation  which  the  university  enjoys  for 
a  high  standard  of  studies  and  hard  work.  The 
present  course  of  studies  corresponds  as  closely  to 
that  of  Jesuit  universities  in  other  parts  of  the 
world  as  the  vast  divergence  of  circumstances  will 
permit.  Chinese  takes  the  place  of  Greek,  modern 
European  languages  supplant  Latin.  The  course 
ends  with  two  years  of  Scholastic  philosophy  and 
ethics.  Courses  in  foreign  service,  architecture  and 
journalism  are  expected  in  the  near  future. 

The  legal  status  of  the  university  prior  to  1920 
was  that  of  a  private  institution  recognized  by  the 
Government  but  not  enjoying  an  equality  with 
imperial  schools  of  the  same  rank.  In  1920'  the 
Law  of  Endowments  went  into  effect,  extending  to 
endowed  private  institutions  the  right  to  give  de¬ 
grees  and  enjoy  privileges  equal  to  those  of  imperial 


* 


TOLEDO 


733 


TONG-KINO 


institutions.  The  endowment  fund  prescribed  by 
the  Japanese  Government  for  the  Catholic  Univer¬ 
sity  was  600,000  yen,  about  $300,000.  Until  this 
has  been  collected  the  university  will  exist  only 
on  tolerance.  The  University  is  now  under  the 
Presidency  of  the  Rev.  Herman  Hofman,  S.J.,  who 
was  installed  in  1913.  Its  Japanese  address  is 
Jochi  Daigaku,  Kojimachi,  Tokio,  Japan. 


Toledo,  Archdiocese  of  (Toletanensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIV — 755b.)  in  Spain.  This  see  is  filled  by 
His  Eminence  Cardinal  Almarez  y  Santos,  born  in 
Vallies,  Spain,  in  1847;  he  studied  in  Salamanca, 
was  made  a  vicar  sometime  after  his  ordination,  and 
in  1874  became  canon  magistral  of  the  cathedral  of 
Salamanca.  He  was  later  made  secretary  of  the 
chapter,  honorary  chamberlain,  preacher  of  the 
Royal  Chamber,  and  in  1885  was  named  secretary  to 
the  Bishop  of  Madrid  and  archpriest  of  that  cathedral. 
He  later  became  vicar  capitular,  and  a  professor  in 
the  seminary  and  then  dean  of  the  chapter  in  1891. 
He  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Palencia  18  January, 
1893,  promoted  to  the  archdiocese  of  Seville  18 
April,  1907,  and  was  proposed  by  the  King  for  the 
primatial  see  of  Toledo  12  November,  1920,  and 
transferred  by  the  Consistory,  on  16  December.  In 
1908  the  King  again  honored  him  by  naming  him  a 
senator  in  virtue  of  personal  title,  and  on  27  Novem¬ 
ber,  1911,  he  was  created  a  cardinal  priest.  The 
Cardinal  is  assisted  by  Rt.  Rev.  Matthew  Colon  y 
Canals,  an  Augustinian  Monk,  who  was  appointed 
titular  bishop  of  Andrapa  and  auxiliary  at  Toledo 
29  July,  1921.  The  Archbishop  of  this  see,  besides 
being  Primate  of  Spain,  is  also  Patriarch  of  the  East 
Indies.  The  Catholic  population  of  the  archdiocese 
numbers  400,022;  latest  statistics  credit  it  with 
439  parishes  divided  among  33  archpresbyteries, 
940  priests,  489  chapels  or  sanctuaries,  75  convents 
with  130  religious  and  1025  Sisters. 

Toledo,  Diocese  of  (Toledensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 579c),  comprises  6969  square  miles  in  the  State 
of  Ohio.  In  May,  1921,  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Schrembs, 
appointed  to  this  see  as  its  first  bishop  11  August, 
1911,  was  transferred  to  Cleveland,  leaving  behind 
him  a  record  of  ten  years  accomplishments  only 
equalled  by  the  work  of  the  pioneer  bishops  of  this 
country.  Until  the  appointment  of  his  successor, 
Rt.  Rev.  John  T.  O’Connell  acted  as  administrator, 
and  on  30  November  of  the  same  year  Rt.  Rev.  Sam¬ 
uel  A.  Stritch,  chancellor  of  the  Diocese  of  Nashville, 
was  named  the  second  bishop. 

The  diocese  (1921)  contains  102  parishes,  with  123 
churches,  16  chapels,  21  missions  and  18  stations. 
One  monastery  of  men,  Redemptorists,  at  Lima,  and 
one  of  women,  the  Visitation  nuns,  in  Toledo,  as  well 
as  the  Franciscan  Minor  Conventual  Fathers  and  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy  and  Sisters  of  St.  Francis  (Polish 
Province)  have  been  established  in  the  diocese 
recently.  There  are  now  136  secular  and  45  regular 
priests,  about  700  Sisters  of  whom  160  are  engaged  in 
hospitals  and  refuges,  12  contpmplatives,  and  the 
remainder  occupied  in  school  work.  A  Jesuit  univer¬ 
sity  and  college,  with  24  professors  and  365  students, 
three  academies,  having  923  students,  and  ten  high 
schools,  with  887  students,  provide  for  higher  educa¬ 
tion.  Elementary  schools  number  84,  with  457 
teachers  and  16,541  children  enrolled.  The  diocese 
is  well  provided  with  charitable  institutions,  having 
2  orphanages,  2  homes  for  the  aged,  1  House  of  the 
Good  Shepherd,  4  hospitals,  1  working  girls’  home,  a 
community  house,  a  settlement  house,  and  a  day 
nursery.  In  some  places  a  community  chest  provides 
partial  public  support  to  institutions,  and  in  a  few 
strictly  Catholic  localities  district  schools  are  taught 
by  Sisters.  Almost  every  priest  is  a  member  of  the 


Pactum  Apostolicum,  and  the  Eucharistic  League  is 
well  supported,  a  diocesan  Eucharistic  Conference 
with  a  public  procession  being  held  each  year.  The 
Knights  of  Columbus,  Knights  of  St.  John,  Catholic 
Knights  of  Ohio,  Holy  Name  Society,  National 
Catholic  Welfare  Council,  Ladies’  Catholic  Benefit 
Association,  Catholic  Boy  Scouts,  and  several  Polish, 
Hungarian  and  Slovak  societies  are  in  a  flourishing 
condition.  The  Catholic  population  is  about  122,500, 
comprising  Poles,  Slovaks,  Magyars,  Croatians,  Ital¬ 
ians,  French,  Germans,  Bohemians  and  Greeks. 
During  the  war  the  diocese  sent  out  3  priests  as  chap¬ 
lains  and  took  care  of  two  camps,  Perry  and  Erie, 
within  its  borders. 

Tong-king,  Central,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Tom-kim  Centralis),  one  of  the  divisions  of  the 
French  Colony  of  the  same  name,  in  Asia.  It  is  en¬ 
trusted  to  the  Dominicans,  the  present  vicar  apos¬ 
tolic  being  Rt.  Rev.  Pierre  Munagorri  y  Obyneta, 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Pityus  28  July,  1865. 
The  episcopal  residence  is  at  Bui-tchu.  Out  of  a  total 
population  of  2,000,000  the  vicariate  has  219,250 
Catholics;  these  are  served  by  22  missionary  priests, 
92  native  secular  priests,  129  seminarians,  615 
churches  and  chapels,  75  stations,  3  orphanages,  2 
hospitals,  366  native  Tertiary  Dominican  nuns,  33 
Amantes  de  la  Croix  (native  Sisters),  and  15  Sisters 
of  St.  Paul  of  Chartres. 

Tong-king,  Eastern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Tom-kim  orientalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII — 774d),  one  of 
the  seven  vicariates  comprised  in  the  French  colony 
of  this  name,  in  Indo-China.  It  comprises  four 
provinces,  Hai-duong,  Kienh-an,  Quanh-yen  and 
Mon-cay,  and  includes  a  total  population  of  2,500,- 
000.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Dominicans  of  Spain,  with 
official  residence  at  Hai-phong.  The  present  vicar  is 
Rt.  Rev.  Francisco  Ruiz  de  Azua  who  succeeded  upon 
the  resignation  of  Rt.  Rev.  Nicaise  Arellano,  14 
April,  1919,  after  an  administration  of  13  years. 
Bishop  Ruiz  de  Azua  joined  the  Tong-king  mission 
in  1893,  was  made  provincial  vicar  of  Eastern  Tong- 
king  in  1914,  and  was  named  coadjutor  to  the  vicar 
and  titular  Bishop  of  Cardica  19  June,  1917.  By 
latest  statistics  (1922)  the  vicariate  has  53  secular 
priests,  30  clerics,  13  catechists  of  the  first  grade,  77 
of  the  second  and  41  of  the  third  grade,  and  153 
mission  servants.  Various  schools  and  institutions 
include  a  Latin  school  with  60  pupils,  a  theological 
seminary  with  29  students,  a  college  for  catechists 
with  53  students,  a  school  under  the  Brothers  of 
Christian  Doctrine  with  6  Brothers  teaching  206 
boys,  2  schools  under  the  Sisters  of  St.  Paul  of 
Chartres  with  13  Sisters  teaching  177  girls,  4  houses  of 
Sisters  of  the  Third  Order  of  St.  Dominic,  with  104 
Sisters,  9  orphanages  caring  for  106  orphans,  5  hos¬ 
pitals  caring  for  194  patients,  1  leper  hospital  with  80 
patients,  1  house  of  nursing  Sisters  of  St.  Paul  of 
Chartres,  with  4  Sisters,  and  2  homes  in  which  orph¬ 
ans  are  received,  with  33  children.  The  spiritual 
progress  of  the  vicariate  is  best  shown  by  the  following 
statistics  for  the  past  year:  baptisms  of  catechumens 
362,  baptisms  of  children  of  Christians  3488,  bap¬ 
tisms  of  dying  children  of  pagan  parents  6374,  con¬ 
firmations  3099,  ordinations  22,  confessions  157,613, 
communions  271,341,  extreme  unctions  1526,  mar¬ 
riages  795,  Christian  communities  340.  The  native 
Christians  number,  in  all,  79,510,  and  the  European 
Catholics,  2000. 

Tong -king,  Maritime,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Tom-kim  maritimus;  cf.  C.  E.,  VII — 774d),  one  of 
the  seven  ecclesiastical  divisions  of  Tong-king,  in 
Indo-China.  This  vicariate,  erected  in  1901,  is  still 
under  the  administration  of  its  first  vicar,  Rt.  Rev. 


TONG-KING 


734 


TONG-KING 


Jean-Pierre-Alexandre  Marcou,  of  the  Society  of 
Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  appointed  titular  Bishop 
of  Lysias  18  April,  1895,  and  named  vicar  16  April, 
1901.  He  resides  at  Phat-Diem  and  is  assisted  by  a 
coadjutor,  Rt.  Rev.  Louis-Christian-Marie  de  Coo- 
man,  titular  Bishop  of  Thacia-Montana.  Although 
the  work  of  the  missionaries  in  this  territory  has  met 
with  marked  success  from  a  spiritual  point  of  view, 
they  encounter  great  difficulties  in  the  matter  of  edu¬ 
cation.  The  largest  part  of  the  population  is  of  the 
peasant  class,  engaged  chiefly  in  farming,  with  the 
result  that  a  great  scarcity  of  teachers  for  the  schools, 
is  found.  To  overcome  this  difficulty  however, 
catechism  schools  have  been  established  and  the 
children  learn  the  alphabet  from  the  catechism.  In 
all  the  centers  of  new  Christians  catechists,  numbering 
about  forty  in  all,  give  instruction.  This  territory 
embraces  a  Catholic  population  of  109,000,  and  by 
latest  statistics  comprises  54  parishes,  405  churches 
and  chapels,  521  Christian  communities,  37  mission¬ 
ary  priests,  100  native  priests,  187  catechists,  3 
seminaries,  1  school  for  catechists,  269  seminarians, 
11  houses  of  religious  women,  and  143  native  religious. 
The  institutions  include  68  elementary  schools  with 
80  teachers  and  1915  pupils,  4  asylums,  5  hospitals, 
6  homes,  6  nurseries,  1  leper  asylum  with  68  lepers 
(aided  by  the  State),  and  1  school  for  deaf  mutes. 
The  Society  of  Priests  Adorers  is  organized  among  the 
clergy  and  a  bi-monthly  journal  or  review  is  published 
for  them.  During  the  past  year  there  were  1452 
baptisms  of  infidels,  8196  baptisms  of  dying  children 
of  infidel  parents,  4709  baptisms  of  children  of  Chris¬ 
tian  parents,  495,964  confessions,  and  1,660,291 
communions.  One  of  the  most  renowned  of  the 
clergy  who  has  served  in  this  territory,  was  the  late 
Father  Six,  an  Annamite  priest,  pastor  of  Phat-Diem 
before  the  erection  of  Tong-King  Maritime.  He  was 
well  known  for  his  wisdom  and  his  ability  at  the  court 
of  Hue  and  m  dealing  with  the  high  French  officials. 
He  was  made  an  honorary  minister  of  the  king,  the 
only  priest  who  has  ever  had  this  honor,  and  a 
chevalier  of  the  legion  d’honneur. 

Tong-king,  Northern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Tom-kim  Septentrionalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 778b), 
an  ecclesiastical  division  of  the  French  Colony  of 
Tong-king  in  Asia.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Dominicans, 
its  present  vicar  being  Rt.  Rev.  Maximim  Velasco, 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Amorium  and  coadjutor 
at  Northern  Tong-king,  28  July,  1889,  succeeding  as 
vicar  apostolic  7  February,  1902.  His  coadjutor  at 
present  (1922)  is  Rt.  Rev.  Theodore  Gordaliza,  ap¬ 
pointed  titular  Bishop  of  Abdera  10  August,  1915. 
By  a  decree  of  31  December,  1913,  the  provinces  of 
Lang-son  and  Cao-bang,  and  the  delegations  of  Bao- 
lac,  Quan-ba  and  Dong-yan,  in  the  province  of  Ha- 
giang,  were  separated  from  the  vicariate  and  erected 
into  a  prefecture  apostolic.  The  only  statistics  pub¬ 
lished  are  those  collected  before  this  division  was 
made. 

Tong-king,  Southern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Tom-kim  meridionalis,  cf.  C.  E.,  VII — 774d), 
separated  from  Western  Tong-king  in  1846,  this  ter¬ 
ritory  is  entrusted  to  the  Society  of  Foreign  Missions 
of  Paris,  with  episcopal  residence  at  Xa-doai.  The 
present  vicar  apostolic  is  Rt.  Rev.  Andre-Leonce- 
Joseph  Eloy,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Magydos 
and  vicar  apostolic  11  December,  1912.  The  vicari¬ 
ate  embraces  a  Catholic  population  of  126,000,  and  is 
divided  into  16  districts  and  94  parishes.  Latest 
statistics  credit  it  with  512  churches  or  chapels,  604 
stations,  8  convents  with  130  native  Sisters  (Amantes 
de  la  Croix),  29  European  missionaries  and  133  native 
priests,  210  catechists,  2  seminaries,  265  seminarians, 
20  elementary  schools  with  20  teachers  and  520 


pupils,  428  Christian  doctrine  schools  with  17,500 
pupils,  1  hospital  and  6  orphanages  with  1243  orph¬ 
ans.  The  priests  are  permitted  to  minister  in  1  public 
hospital.  A  diocesan  fund  for  native  clergy  is  estab¬ 
lished.  During  the  World  War  19  of  the  missionaries 
were  mobilized  of  whom  7  returned  to  France  and 
served  there;  1  was  wounded  and  2  received  the  croix 
de  guerre.  When  the  Indo-Chinese  regiments  were 
organized  about  250  Annamite  Catholics  from  this 
vicariate  volunteered  and  many  of  these  also  won  the 
croix  de  guerre. 

Tong-king,  Upper,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Tom-kim  Superioris,  cf.  C.  E.,  VII — 774d),  com¬ 
prises  the  provinces  of  Son-tay,  Tuyem-gnang  and 
Hung-Hoa,  under  the  collective  title  of  Xu-doai.  It 
is  entrusted  to  the  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  the 
present  vicar  being  Rt.  Rev.  Paul-Marie  Ramond, 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Linoe  and  named  first 
vicar  apostolic  of  this  territory  18  April,  1895.  As  in 
other  sections  of  Tong-king,  the  great  handicap  to  the 
work  of  the  mission  is  the  great  scarcity  of  schools. 
There  are  a  number  of  schools  teaching  religion,  but 
no  professional  schools,  and  a  great  need  exists  for 
some  secondary  schools,  and  at  least  one  high  school. 
In  all  Tong-king  there  are  800,000  Christians  whose 
children  are  forced  to  use  the  government  schools 
which  are  often  antagonistic  toward  religion.  If  the 
missionaries  were  in  a  position  to  establish  schools 
they  would  be  patronized  not  only  by  Christian 
children,  but  by  numbers  of  pagans,  and  thus  the  work 
of  conversion  would  be  greatly  facilitated.  However, 
the  very  inadequate  resources  of  the  mission  have 
always  had  to  be  devoted  to  the  work  of  the  native 
clergy  in  spreading  the  Faith  and  in  holding  those 
already  converted.  By  latest  statistics  (1922)  the 
vicariate  comprises  16  parishes,  180  churches  and 
chapels,  16  Christian  communities,  230  stations,  51 
secular  priests  of  whom  23  are  European  and  28  na¬ 
tive,  5  European  and  34  native  Sisters,  2  lower 
seminaries,  68  seminarians,  56  elementary  schools 
with  56  teachers  and  750  pupils,  4  asylums,  4  hos¬ 
pitals,  and  5  nurseries,  besides  places  in  each  parish 
for  receiving  children,  where  they  are  cared  for  or 
entrusted  to  Christian  families.  The  Association  of 
Priests  Adorers  is  formed  among  the  clergy,  and  parish 
bulletins  in  French  and  Annamite  are  published  at 
Hanoi.  Each  year  three  retreats  are  held  at  the 
episcopal  residence  at  Hung-hoa,  for  the  missionaries, 
for  the  native  clergy  and  for  the  catechists.  The 
Catholics  of  the  vicariate  now  number  33,500.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  World  War  five  of  the  missionaries  from  this 
territory  went  to  the  front  and  one  was  killed,  one 
wounded,  one  decorated  with  the  medaille  militaire, 
and  two  with  the  croix  de  guerre.  A  large  number  of 
Annamite  chieftains  took  part  in  the  fighting. 

Tong-king,  Western,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Tom-kim  occidentalis,  cf.  C.  E.,  VII — 774d),  a 
division  of  the  French  colony  of  the  same  name  in 
Indo-China.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Society  of  Foreign 
Missions  of  Paris,  tjie  present  vicar  apostolic  being 
Rt.  Rev.  Pierre- Jean-Marie  Gendreau  appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  Chrysopolis  26  April,  1887,  and  co¬ 
adjutor  to  the  vicar  of  Western  Tong-king,  whom  he 
succeeded  25  April,  1892.  He  was  named  an  assistant 
at  the  pontifical  throne  11  June,  1912.  His  coadjutor 
is  Rt.  Rev.  Louis-Marie-Henri  Bigolet,  titular  Bishop 
of  Antiphrae.  Latest  statistics  credit  the  vicariate 
with  93  parishes,  721  churches  and  chapels,  786  mis¬ 
sion  stations,  137  native  secular  priests  and  36  mis¬ 
sionaries,  461  Sisters,  2  seminaries,  270  seminarians, 

2  higher  schools  for  boys  with  16  teachers  and  539 
pupils,  1  higher  school  for  girls  with  10  teachers  and 
280  pupils,  156  elementary  schools  with  172  teachers 
and  1489  pupils,  5  industrial  schools  with  9  teachers 


TORONTO 


735 


TOURNAI 


and  370  pupils,  and  766  Christian  doctrine  schools 
with  27,992  students.  The  various  institutions  in¬ 
clude  1  house  for  retreats,  4  asylums,  3  hospitals,  1 
refuge  and  7  nurseries.  The  public  university,  ly- 
ceum,  hospitals  and  prisons  permit  the  priests  to 
minister  in  them,  and  1  Catholic  institution  receives 
aid  from  the  government.  A  society  is  organized 
among  the  young  Catholics  of  the  vicariate,  and  2 
journals,  1  review  and  1  “Semaine  Religieuse,”  are 
published.  The  Catholic  population  comprises 
154,000  Annamites  and  3100  French.  Seven  of  the 
missionaries  and  about  6000  Annamite  Catholics  saw 
service  during  the  World  War. 

Toronto,  Archdiocese  of  (Torontinensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XIV — 781d.),  in  Ontario,  Canada.  This 
see  is  filled  by  Most  Rev.  Neil  MacNeil,  born  in 
Hills  Corough  in  the  diocese  of  Antigonish  in  1851; 
he  made  his  studies  in  Antigonish  and  at  Propaganda 
College  in  Rome,  was  ordained  in  1879,  became  a 
professor  and  then  president  of  St.  Francis  Xavier’s 
College,  Antigonish,  founded  the  journals  “Aurore” 
in  1881,  and  “Casket”  in  1890,  and  was  appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  Nilopolis  and  vicar  apostolic  of 
St.  Georges  6  August,  1895,  transferred  to  St. 
Georges  de  Terre-Neuve  18  February,  1904,  pro¬ 
moted  to  the  archdiocese  of  Vancouver  19  January, 
1910,  and  again  transferred  10  April,  1912.  The 
Catholic  population  of  the  archdiocese  numbers 
85,000.  Latest  statistics  credit  it  with  80  parishes, 
32  mission  stations,  113  secular  and  46  regular 
clergy,  1  seminary,  1  college,  10  convents  and 
academies,  112  churches  and  8  hospitals  and  asylums. 

Tortona,  Diocese  of  (Dertonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 784d),  in  the  province  of  Alessandra,  northern 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Genoa.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Simone  Pietro  Grassi,  born  in  Schilpario  in 
1856,  served  as  provost  of  Verdello  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed  bishop  22  January,  1915,  to  succeed  Rt. 
Rev.  Igino  Bandi,  appointed  in  1890,  died  8  Sept., 
1914.  During  the  World  War  200  priests  of  this 
diocese  served  in  the  ranks,  and  25  as  military 
chaplains  at  the  front.  A  number  were  killed  and 
many  received  decorations  of  valor.  All  the  priests 
at  home,  and  the  laity,  took  an  active  part  in  relief 
work  of  all  kinds.  Upon  its  reestablishment  in  1817 
this  diocese  was  taken  from  the  metropolitan  see  of 
Milan  and  made  suffragan  to  Genoa.  It  now  has 
295  parishes,  500  secular  priests,  430  churches,  6 
monasteries  of  men,  4  convents  of  men,  and  40  of 
women,  2  seminaries,  65  seminarians,  3  educational 
institutions  for  bo3'S  with  25  teachers  and  300  stu¬ 
dents,  5  educational  institutions  for  girls,  with  30 
teachers  and  350  pupils,  about  30  asylums  and  10 
hospitals.  A  mutual  aid  society  is  organized  among 
the  clergy  and  a  number  of  associations  among  the 
laity.  Three  diocesan  weeklies  and  fifty  parish 
bulletins  are  published.  A  Eucharistic  Congress  was 
held  in  the  diocese  recently,  as  well  as  a  centenary 
celebration  in  honor  of  St.  Martianus,  believed  by 
ome  to  have  been  the  first  bishop  of  this  see. 

Tortosa,  Diocese  of  (Derthusensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 785c),  in  the  province  of  Tarragona,  Spain, 
suffragan  of  Tarragona.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt. 
Rev.  Pedro  Rocamora  y  Garcia,  born  in  La  Granja 
de  los  Rocamoras  in  1832,  served  as  a  professor  in 
the  seminary  of  his  native  city,  pastor  of  Elche, 
professor  of  theology,  penitentiary  canon  of  the  cathe¬ 
dral  of  Orihuela,  elected  bishop  21  May,  1894. 
The  diocese  comprises  Catholics,  725,388,  and  by 
latest  statistics  has  182  parishes,  723  churches,  10 
monasteries  for  men,  50  houses  of  religious  com¬ 
munities  of  women,  592  priests,  1  seminary,  200 
seminarians,  elementary  schools  in  each  parish,  8 

47 


homes  for  the  aged  and  infirm,  10  asylums,  hospitals 
in  each  parish,  and  6  refuges.  A  number  of  lay 
charitable  centers  and  day  nurseries  are  established, 
and  the  priests  are  permitted  to  minister  in  two 
public  institutions.  Many  associations  are  formed 
among  the  clergy ,  as  well  as  the  laity ,  and  a  number  of 
Catholic  periodicals  are  published  here. 

Toulouse,  Archdiocese  of  (Tolosanensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XIV — 795b),  comprises  the  department  of 
Haute-Garonne,  France.  The  see  is  at  present  filled 
by  Most  Rev.  Jean-Augustin  Germain,  born  in  Beau- 
caire  in  1839,  ordained  in  1863,  served  as  a  pastor  and 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Rodez  19  April,  1897,  pro¬ 
moted  14  December,  1899.  He  is  assisted  by  an 
auxiliary,  Rt.  Rev.  Jean  Raynaud,  titular  Bishop 
of  Germia.  During  the  World  War  260  priests  and 
seminarians  were  mobilized  from  this  territory  and  of 
this  number  38  died,  7  were  decorated  with  the  legion 
d’honneur,  2  with  the  medaille  militaire,  and  80  with 
the  croix  de  guerre.  The  principal  event  of  import¬ 
ance  in  the  archdiocese  recently  was  the  “Semaine 
Sociale”  of  France,  held  here  in  July,  1921.  The 
archdiocese  comprises  about  400,000  Catholics,  and 
is  divided  into  552  parishes,  having  575  churches.  It 
includes  1  abbey  for  men,  1  for  women,  25  convents 
for  women,  700  secular  priests,  1  upper  and  2  lower 
seminaries,  250  seminarians,  1  Catholic  university 
with  27  professors  and  75  students,  3  colleges  for  boys 
with  350  students,  12  colleges  for  girls,  195  Cathoiic 
elementary  schools  with  405  teachers,  teaching 
about  one-fourth  of  all  the  school  children,  an  asso¬ 
ciation  of  diocesan  missionaries  at  Pibrac,  3  houses  of 
retreats  for  ladies,  1  home  under  the  Little  Sisters  of 
the  Poor,  6  orphanages  for  girls,  1  for  boys,  1  home 
for  deaf  mutes  and  1  home  for  the  blind.  Three  soci¬ 
eties,  the  League  for  Deceased  Priests,  Jesus 
Hostie,  and  Priests  Adorers,  are  formed  among 
the  clergy,  and  numerous  associations  are  established 
among  the  laity.  Two  important  daily  papers, 
“Express  du  midi”  and  the  “Telegram,”  are  pub¬ 
lished  here,  as  well  as  three  weeklies  and  a  number  of 
parish  bulletins. 

Tournai,  Diocese  of  (Tornacensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIV — 798b). — Includes  the  entire  province  of 
Hainaut  in  Belgium.  In  the  early  days  of  the  war 
the  Belgians,  assisted  by  some  English  and  French 
troops,  made  a  stand  against  the  Germans  on  tho 
Sambre  and  Mons  but  in  a  few  weeks  the  entire 
diocese  was  occupied  and  was  “despoiled,  ravaged 
and  tortured”  by  German  soldiers.  Rt.  Rev/Charles 
Gustave  Walravens,  Bishop  of  Tournai,  was  taken 
as  a  hostage  by  the  Germans  in  August,  1914,  and  in 
spite  of  his  seventy-four  years  was  obliged  to  journey 
on  foot  part  of  the  way  to  Brussels,  where  he  was 
interned.  He  was  afterwards  released  but  evil  treat¬ 
ment  and  violence  inflicted  by  German  authorities 
on  the  venerable  prelate  hastened  his  death,  which 
occurred  at  Tournai  13  February,  1915.  Nearly  all 
the  bishops  of  Belgium  assisted  at  his  funeral,  18 
February,  where  the  honors  that  the  Germans  wished 
to  render  him  were  banned.  He  was  replaced  6 
December,  1915,  by  Rt.  Rev.  Amedee  Marie  Crooy, 
born  at  Ixelles-Bruxelles,  29  January,  1869,  student 
at  Rome,  religious  preceptor  to  the  King’s  son, 
papal  chamberlain,  enthroned  8  December,  1915. 

In  the  diocese  there  are  1,230,000  Catholics,  35 
cures  with  540  parishes,  1  abbey  for  men,  87  convents 
for  men  and  535  for  women,  1220  secular  priests, 
6500  religious  women.  The  seminary  with  80  sem¬ 
inarians  is  divided  into  an  upper  and  lower  section, 
the  former  at  Tournai  and  the  latter  at  Bonne 
Esperance.  There  are  11  colleges  or  institutes  for 
the  higher  education  of  boys  and  50  colleges  for  girls. 
Throughout*the  diocese  there  are  many  lower  schools 


TOURS 


736 


TRANSYLVANIA 


and  institutions  to  whose  support  the  Government 
contributes.  Ten  Catholic  journals  are  published. 

Tours,  Archdiocese  of  (Turonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 2a),  in  the  department  of  Indre-et-Loire, 
France.  Most  Rev.  Rene-Frangois  Renou,  who  was 
promoted  to  this  see  in  1896,  retired  and  was  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  titular  see  of  Apamea,  2  August,  1913. 
His  successor  is  Most  Rev.  Albert  Negre,  born  in 
Saint  Bonnet  de  Chirac  in  1853,  made  his  studies  at 
the  French  seminary  in  Rome  and  served  as  a  dio¬ 
cesan  missionary,  professor  of  theology  at  Mende, 
vicar  general  and  superior  of  the  upper  seminary,  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Tulle  14  July,  1908,  and  pro¬ 
moted  5  August,  1913.  During  the  World  War  145 
priests  and  seminarians  were  mobilized  from  this 
territory  and  from  this  number  5  priests  and  5  semi¬ 
narians  were  killed,  and  2  were  decorated  with 
the  legion  d’honneur.  Since  the  close  of  the  war  a 
constant  effort  has  been  made  to  reorganize  the  var¬ 
ious  diocesan  works  which  had  become  partly  dis¬ 
rupted,  and  to  launch  new  endeavors  which  should 
help  to  rebuild  the  country,  both  morally  and  phys¬ 
ically.  In  1921  a  Catholic  Congress  was  held, 
and  plans  were  made  for  a  provincial  council 
held  during  Lent  of  the  present  year  (1922),  which 
treated  of  the  social  needs  of  the  people.  A  special 
effort  is  being  made  to  encourage  large  families;  the 
archbishop  has  promised  his  blessing  in  personally 
baptizing  the  fifth  child  in  each  family,  and  every 
child  after  that.  In  a  material  way  encouragement 
is  being  given  by  the  Catholic  merchants  who  make 
reduction  on  merchandise  purchased  by  the  heads  of 
large  families.  Latest  statistics  available  give  the 
population  of  the  archdiocese  as  341,200,  and  credit 
it  with  289  first  class  and  succursal  parishes,  and  50 
vicariates. 

Trani  and  Barletta,  Archdiocese  of  (Trani  et 
Barolensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV— 16d),  with  the  united 
title  of  Nazareth,  and  perpetual  administration  of  the 
diocese  of  Bisceglia  (Vigiliensis).  This  see  is  situated 
in  the  province  of  Bari,  Italy,  and  is  at  present  filled 
by  Most  Rev.  Giuseppe  Leo,  born  in  1864,  in  Andria, 
where  he  served  as  a  Canon;  he  later  became  vicar 
general  of  Cariati,  and  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Nicotera  23  June,  1909,  and  promoted  in  February, 
1920,  to  succeed  Most  Rev.  Giovanni  Regine,  d.  6 
October,  1918.  Barletta  comprises  only  the  city  of 
that  name  and  has  a  Catholic  population  of  46,000; 
5  parishes,  26  secular  priests  and  20  churches  and 
chapels.  Trani  counts  26,500  Catholics,  8  parishes, 
35  secular  and  5  regular  clergy,  100  seminarians,  4 
Brothers,  110  Sisters  and  46  churches  and  chapels. 
Bisceglia  has  a  Catholic  population  of  32,000,  and  6 
parishes  in  the  city,  which  forms  the  whole  diocese; 
46  priests,  15  seminarians  and  15  churches,  chapels 
and  oratories. 

Transaction. — If  a  contentious  controversy  af¬ 
fects  only  the  private  interests  of  the  parties  to  the 
dispute,  the  judge,  in  order  to  avoid  litigation  when 
possible,  is  directed  to  urge  them  to  settle  the  dispute 
out  of  court,  if  it  seems  feasible,  by  transaction,  that 
is  a  friendly  arrangement  under  the  guidance  of  a 
priest,  preferably  one  of  the  synodal  judges,  in 
accordance  with  the  regulations  of  the  civil  law, 
where  that  is  not  contrary  to  Divine  or  ecclesiastical 
law  or  the  enactments  of  the  Code.  Transaction  is 
not  valid,  however,  when  there  is  question  of  crime, 
of  dissolving  the  marriage  bond,  of  titles  to  benefices, 
or  of  spiritual  interests  closely  connected  with 
temporalities. 

Transcendental  Way,  Church  of  the.  See  New 

Thought 


Transvaal,  Northen,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of 
(Transvallensis  Septentrionalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I — 
189c  XV— 20c),  comprises  part  of  the  colony  of  the 
Transvaal,  in  South  Africa.  It  was  erected  by  a 
decree  of  22  December,  1910,  and  entrusted  to  the 
Benedictines  of  the  Primitive  Observance.  The 
present  prefect  apostolic  is  Rev.  Ildefonse  Lanslots, 
of  this  congregation,  born  in  1859,  ordained  in  1881, 
and  named  16  January,  1911.  The  prefecture  com¬ 
prises  two  civil  districts  formerly  belonging  to  the 
vicariate  apostolic  of  Transvaal,  Zoupant-Sberg  and 
Waterberg.  It  counts  (1920)  337  Catholics  out  of  a 
total  population  of  440,000;  these  are  served  by  6 
priests,  3  Brothers,  2  churches  and  5  schools. 

Transvaal,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  the 
(Transvaalensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 45c),  in  South 
Africa,  includes  all  of  the  Transvaal  except  Water¬ 
berg,  Zoutpansberg  and  the  northern  portion  of  the 
original  vicariate.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Oblate 
Fathers  of  Mary  Immaculate,  the  present  vicar  being 
Rt.  Rev.  Charles  Cox,  appointed  15  July,  1914, 
titular  Bishop  of  Dioclea.  From  1912,  after  the  resig¬ 
nation  of  Bishop  Miller,  Bishop  Cox  acted  as  admin¬ 
istrator  of  the  vicariate,  and  on  15  September  follow¬ 
ing  his  appointment  he  was  named  administrator 
apostolic  of  the  vicariate  of  Kimberly.  The  total 
population  of  this  territory  is  1,347,600,  of  whom  20,- 
100  are  Catholic.  This  Catholic  population  includes 
citizens  of  almost  all  the  European  nations,  but  the 
majority  of  Europeans  belong  to  the  Dutch  Churches. 
By  most  recent  statistics  the  vicariate  is  served  by  28 
regular  clergy  of  4  religious  orders,  and  2  secular 
clefgy  assisted  by  21  Brothers  and  304  nuns.  These 
religious  women  belong  to  the  Holy  Family,  Domini¬ 
can,  Good  Shepherd,  Ursuline,  Holy  Cross,  Nazareth, 
Mercy  or  Loreto  congregations.  The  Marist  Brothers 
conduct  a  college  with  93  boarding  and  569  day  stu¬ 
dents,  and  25  convent  schools  having  a  total  of  4591 
pupils,  are  established.  Out  of  this  total  of  5253 
receiving  Catholic  education  only  2158  are  Catholics. 
In  1915  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Family  retired  from 
the  Johannesburg  hospital,  but  they  still  conduct  a 
sanitarium.  The  Christian  Brothers  have  erected  a 
day  college  at  Pretoria  which  will  be  opened  some  time 
this  year  (1922).  The  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society, 
Sacred  Heart  Confraternity,  Children  of  Mary, 
Young  Men’s  Society,  Guild  for  Young  Boys  and 
Girls,  Rosary  Confraternity  and  the  Ladies  of  Charity 
are  established  here.  A  Catholic  weekly,  “The  South¬ 
ern  Cross,”  is  published  and  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul 
Society  publishes  a  parochial  monthly,  “The  Catholic 
News.”  There  are  in  all  33  churches  and  chapels;  one 
of  these,  near  Pretoria,  is  reserved  for  native  lepers 
and  is  served  from  Pretoria.  The  Sisters  teach  hymns 
and  catechism  to  these  people  and  many  converts 
have  been  made  among  them. 

Transylvania  (or  Erdely),  Diocese  of  (Tran- 
sylvaniensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 22d). — This  diocese  is 
a  suffragan  of  Kalocsa,  Hungary,  although  the  whole 
territory  lies  in  that  ceded  after  the  war  by  Hungary 
to  Rumania.  The  see  was  founded  by  King  Saint 
Stephen,  first  king  of  Hungary,  crowned  in  1001. 
Since  the  separation  of  the  territory  of  the  diocese 
from  Hungary  there  has  been  the  greatest  poverty 
among  the  clergy,  as  the  government  of  Rumania  con¬ 
tributes  nothing  towards  the  support  of  Catholic 
schools  or  institutions.  However,  much  is  now  being 
done  to  effect  a  concordat  with  the  State.  In  the 
same  territory  of  the  diocese  of  Transylvania  lies 
the  metropolitan  of  Fogaras,  of  the  Greek  Rumanian 
Rite. 

Rt.  Rev.  Count  Charles  Gustave  Majlath  von 
Szekhely,  born  at  Bakdcsa,  diocese  of  Pecs,  24 
September,  1864,  student  at  Vienna,  priest  6  October, 


TRAPANI 


737 


TRAPPISTS 


1887.  elected  titular  Bishop  of  Marty ropolis  and 
coadjutor  in  Transylvania  15  March,  1897,  succeeded 
to  bishopric  1  July,  1897.  He  resides  at  Gyula- 
Feh<5rvar  (Karlsburg,  Alba  Julia,  Blaj),  which  con¬ 
tains  the  monumental  cathedral  of  St.  Michael, 
founded  in  the  twelfth  century.  Rev.  Samuel 
Prokupek,  papal  chamberlain,  died  in  1920,  as  did 
Rev.  Joseph  Meisel,  Abbot  of  Corona,  who  had 
been  forced  to  emigrate  into  Hungary. 

During  the  war,  when  Transylvania  was  in  Eastern 
Hungary,  many  men  were  soldiers  at  the  front.  Since 
the  war  over  2,000,000  Hungarians  have  been 
separated  from  Hungary  and  now  live  in  new  Rumania 
where  they  have  no  political  autonomy.  Forty 
priests  of  the  diocese  served  with  the  Hungarian 
army,  but  none  of  them  were  killed.  Rev.  Maysas 
Sebestyen  was  killed  by  the  Communists  and  Rev. 
Nicholas  Osiki  by  the  Rumanian  soldiers. 

In  the  diocese  there  are  377,000  Catholics  of  the 
Latin  Rite,  of  whom  about  350,000  are  Hungarian 
and  20,000  German.  There  are  238  parishes,  290 
churches,  100  chapels,  28  monasteries  for  men  and 

1  for  women,  26  convents  for  women,  358  secular 
and  130  regular  priests,  1  seminary  with  28  semina¬ 
rians,  2  academies  with  18  teachers  and  47  pupils, 
7  gymnasia  for  boys  with  125  teachers,  and  2300  stu¬ 
dents,  1  gymnasium  for  girls  with  18  teachers  and  310 
students,  3  business  schools  with  18  teachers  and  727 
students,  28  civic  schools  with  163  teachers  and 
3750  students,  206  elementary  schools  with  556 
teachers  and  23,070  pupils,  3  training  schools  with  19 
teachers  and  280  students,  6  boarding  schools  for 
boys  with  17  teachers  and  550  students,  5  boarding 
schools  for  girls  with  10  teachers  and  260  students, 
10  homes  for  aged  and  poor,  4  orphanages;  and  5 
Catholic  papers  are  published.  Two  societies  are  or¬ 
ganized  among  the  clergy  and  many  varied  ones 
among  the  laity  throughout  the  diocese  have  a  large 
number  of  members. 

Trapani,  Diocese  of  (Drepanensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 23b),  on  western  shore  of  Sicily,  suffragan  of 
Palermo.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Francesco- 
Maria  Raiti,  a  Carmelite  of  the  ancient  observance, 
born  in  Lingua  glossa,  Sicily,  in  1864,  appointed 
Bishop  of  Lipari  22  June,  1903,  and  transferred  6 
December,  1906.  The  city,  which  has  a  population 
of  over  70,000,  has  only,  within  the  last  fifty  years, 
been  entirely  united  with  the  main  land.  By  latest 
statistics  it  comprises  14  parishes,  55  churches,  1 
monastery  for  women,  1  Carmelite  convent  of  men, 
74  secular  and  6  regular  clergy,  1  seminary,  12 
seminarians,  1  college  for  men,  1  normal  school  with 
12  teachers  and  1200  pupils,  2  professional  schools 
with  12  teachers  and  1500  pupils  and  2  elementary 
schools.  The  charitable  institutions  include  1  asylum, 

2  hospitals,  2  orphanages  and  1  day  nursery.  Three 
societies  are  organized  among  the  clergy  and  many 
among  the  laity. 

Trappists  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 24a),  the  common  name 
by  which  the  Cistercians  who  follow  the  reform  in¬ 
augurated  by  the  Abbot  de  Ranc6  at  the  Abbey  of 
La  Trappe,  were  known;  and  now  often  applied  to  the 
entire  Order  of  Reformed  Cistercians. 

As  a  great  number  of  the  monasteries  of  this  order 
are  situated  in  France  and  Belgium,  the  two  countries 
that  suffered  most  during  the  disastrous  World  War, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  they  had  much  to  endure. 
Between  500  and  600  members  were  mobilized  in  the 
armies  of  the  Allies,  of  whom  from  150  to  200  were 
priests  and  from  amongst  these  a  good  number,  in¬ 
cluding  3  abbots,  were  utilized  as  military  chaplains. 
Of  those  mobilized  some  55  to  60  were  killed  in  action, 
many  were  honored  with  citation  on  the  field  of 
battle,  and  no  small  number  received  various  de¬ 


corations  for  exceptional  bravery,  such  as  the  croix 
de  guerre ,  medaille  militairv,  croix  de  la  legion 
d’honneur ,  etc. 

Several  of  the  monasteries  suffered  many  injuries. 
Mont  des  Cats,  near  Mt.  Kernel,  in  Flanders,  of 
which  so  much  mention  was  made  in  the  newspapers, 
and  which  was  one  of  the  most  beautiful  monasteries 
in  the  order,  was  totally  destroyed  in  1917,  and  its 
heroic  abbot,  who  could  neve;'  be  induced  to  abandon 
his  post  of  duty,  even  under  almost  constant  bom¬ 
bardment,  died  from  exposure  and  mental  strain, 
whilst  lying  on  an  improvised  cot  made  of  empty 
provision  boxes,  the  refuse  of  a  nearby  military  camp. 
It  was  at  this  monastery  that  the  Prince  of  Hesse, 
whose  Catholic  mother  was  a  cousin  of  the  former 
Emperor  William,  was  killed  in  a  hand-to-hand  con¬ 
flict  in  the  very  cloisters  of  the  abbey,  in  1915. 
The  next  was  Notre  Dame  d’lgny,  near  Fismes, 
France,  the  abbey  of  the  Most  Rev.  D.  Augustin 
Marre,  actual  abbot  general  of  the  order.  This  was 
first  captured  in  August,  1914,  when  it  suffered  but 
slight  physical  damage.  In  August,  1918,  however, 
whilst  the  invaders  were  in  full  retreat,  they  mined 
the  buildings  with  high-explosives  and,  when  at  a 
safe  distance,  detonated  the  charges,  completely 
destroying  the  monastery,  leaving  but  a  desolate 
heap  of  ruins  where  before  had  stood  one  of  the  most 
ancient  abbeys  of  the  order.  The  third  was  Notre 
Dame  de  Mont  des  Olives  (Oelenberg),  Alsace.  This 
abbey,  but  recently  completed,  was  right  on  the  battle 
front;  it  was  taken  a  couple  of  times  by  the  French, 
then  used  as  military  headquarters  by  the  Germans, 
was  frequently  bombarded  by  both  armies,  and  to  a 
great  extent  destroyed,  especially  its  monumental 
church  and  cloisters.  Fourth  is  Notre  Dame  de 
Mariastern  near  Banja-Luka,  and  not  far  from 
Serajevo,  where  occurred  the  murder  that  was  the 
immediate  excuse  for  the  terrible  conflict.  This 
abbey  housed  the  largest  community  in  the  order, 
embracing  over  200  members,  and  was  proportionate¬ 
ly  prosperous  in  material  affairs.  On  account  of  a 
great  number  of  the  religious  being  of  German  na¬ 
tionality,  and  because  the  neighborhood  was  in¬ 
habited  chiefly  by  Serbs,  Turks,  and  others  not  in 
sympathy  with  these,  its  personnel  was  soon  reduced 
almost  to  extinction  and  its  possessions  very  greatly 
diminished.  Notre  Dame  des  Sept-Douleurs,  at 
El-Athroun,  in  the  Holy  Land,  about  half-way  be¬ 
tween  Jerusalem  and  Jaffa,  was  occupied  by  the 
Turks,  who  badly  damaged  the  buildings,  especially 
their  valuable  library,  as  well  as  their  mill  and  vine¬ 
yards,  these  latter  being  their  principal  means  of 
support.  The  monks  were  dragged  to  the  sea-shore 
whence,  through  the  intervention  of  theTtalian  Consul, 
they  were  finally  repatriated  to  France.  Notre 
Dame  du  Sacre-Cceur,  near  Akbes,  in  Syria,  a  very 
interesting  monastery,  was  devastated  and  the  re¬ 
ligious  kept  for  a  while  as  captives,  during  which 
time  one  of  the  brothers  died  on  a  bench  in  a  railroad 
station,  the  others  being  finally  expelled  from  the 
country. 

The  monasteries  of  Belgium  were  all  occupied  by 
the  invading  army,  and  the  religious  compelled  to 
exile  themselves  to  Holland.  Amongst  those  which 
suffered  most  was  the  Abbey  of  Westmalle,  where 
the  church  was  damaged  and  all  material  that  could 
be  used  for  munitions  of  war  confiscated.  Notre 
Dame  de  St.  Benoit,  at  Achel,  was  just  on  the 
frontier  between  Belgium  and  Holland,  the  line 
intersecting  the  property.  The  monks  were  obliged 
to  take  up  their  abode  in  a  chicken-house  and  other 
out-buildings  of  the  monastery,  within  the  Holland 
line  but  only  a  very  short  distance  from  their  abbey, 
from  which  they  were  separated  by  a  wire  fence, 
heavily  charged  with  electricity;  thus  they  were  al¬ 
ways  within  sight  of  their  beloved  home,  but  threat- 


TREBIZOND 


738 


TRENT 


ened  with  death  if  they  attempted  to  enter  its  sacred 
precincts. 

At  the  present  time  (1922)  all  the  communities 
are  once  more  in  their  monasteries,  except  that  of 
Notre  Dame  d’Igny,  which  is  at  Citeaux,  the  mother- 
house;  and  Notre  Dame  du  Sacre-Cceur  (Akbes), 
which  is  at  Maguzzano,  in  Italy.  One  of  the  good 
effects  of  the  war  was  a  much  closer  union  between 
Church  and  State  in  France,  termed  the  “Union 
Sacree,”  which  has  made  it  possible  for  nearly  all  of 
the  French  monasteries  to  recall  their  “houses  of 
refuge”  which  had  been  established  in  various  parts 
of  the  world  some  twenty  years  ago,  when  under 
threat  of  expulsion  from  their  own  homes.  A  well 
known  house  of  this  kind  was  “Petit  Clairvaux,” 
in  Nova  Scotia,  all  the  members  of  which  are  now  at 
their  home  in  the  Abbey  of  Thymadeuc  Another 
wholesome  effect  was  from  the  influence  that  death 
in  all  its  horror  had  upon  many  serious  minded  men 
in  the  army;  viewing  this  in  immediate  proximity 
for  so  long  a  time,  and  learning  therefrom  the  lesson 
of  the  futility  of  earthly  ambition,  as  well  as  the  vanity 
of  temporal  pleasures,  large  numbers  of  these  turned 
to  God  with  their  whole  heart  and  not  a  few  soldiers, 
from  the  rank  of  commander  down  to  simple  private, 
as  well  as  naval  officers  and  men,  from  the  grade  of 
captain  down,  have  entered  various  monasteries  of 
the  order,  and  are  proving  themselves  fervent  reli¬ 
gious.  New  foundations  have  been  established: 
one  at  Banz,  an  old  ^,nd  beautiful  Benedictine  monas¬ 
tery  in  Bavaria;  another  at  Himenrode  in  the  Rhine¬ 
land;  a  third  in  the  Italian  Tyrol;  as  well  as  some  other 
places.  Cistercian  Nuns  were  also  established  at  the 
well-fitted  monastery  near  the  famous  pilgrimage  of 
Sainte  Anne  d’Auray  (from  whence  was  established 
the  well-known  pilgrimage  shrine  of  Sainte  Anne  de 
Beaupre,  in  Canada).  In  the  same  year  (1921) 
the  Trappistines  of  Notre  Dame  de  Consolation,  at 
Besangon,  the  direct  line  from  the  ancient  nuns  of 
Port-Ro}ral,  were  reinstated  in  the  order.  A  couple 
of  more  houses  of  Trappistines  in  Belgium  were  also 
restored  to  the  order  at  the  same  time.  In  America, 
Notre  Dame  du  Lac,  Oklahoma,  was  destroyed  by 
fire  on  the  feast  of  St.  John,  1916,  and  since  rebuilt, 
the  new  church  and  monastery  having  been  reopened 
on  the  feast  of  the  Assumption,  1921. 

Edmond  M.  Obrecht. 

Trebizond,  Mission  of. — The  mission  originally 
established  in  Georgia  in  1661,  was  confided  to  the 
Capuchin  Order.  For  nearly  two  centuries  these 
missionaries,  having  built  hospitals  and  schools  in 
the  chief  cities,  labored  there  in  comparative  peace. 
But  in  1845,  by  a  decree  of  Nicholas  I,  Tsar  of  Russia, 
they  were  expelled;  the  Mission  of  Georgia  was  aban¬ 
doned,  and  the  Fathers  settled  at  Trebizond,  on 
the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  They  founded  a  new 
mission  there,  and  established  stations,  churches  and 
schools  in  several  of  the  cities.  In  1845  it  was  made 
a  prefecture  apostolic,  but  on  12  September,  1896, 
it  was  reduced  to  the  status  of  a  mission. 

The  Mission  of  Trebizond  has  the  same  boundaries 
as  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Constantinople,  lying 
between  28  degrees  and  39  degrees  E.  longitude, 
and  39  and  42  degrees  N.  latitude.  On  the  southern 
side  the  mission  is  bounded  by  the  Vicariate  of 
Mesopotamia  and  Persia,  and  on  the  northern  side 
by  the  metropolitan  Church  of  Saratof  in  Russia. 
The  people  are  subject  to  the  Turkish  Government, 
but  at  present  are  under  the  control  of  the  Nationalists. 
Various  languages  are  spoken  in  the  mission,  but 
principally  Turkish,  Greek,  Armenian  and  French. 
The  chief  cities  in  the  mission  are  Trebizond,  Erzerum, 
Samsun,  Kerassunda,  Sinope,  Ineboli.  The  popula¬ 
tion  numbers  about  1,500,000.  The  people  are  in 
general  war-like  and  undisciplined;  they  have  no 


industries,  but  engage  in  agriculture  or  in  commerce. 
As  in  all  parts  of  the  East  that  once  had  the  Faith, 
it  is  very  difficult  to  make  conversions:  among  the 
schismatics  on  account  of  their  lack  of  the  spirit  of 
Christianity,  and  among  the  Mohammedans  on  ac¬ 
count  of  their  deeply-rooted  fanaticism.  The  Prot¬ 
estants,  particularly  the  American  societies,  have 
opened  a  good  number  of  schools  in  the  district; 
their  proselytes  are  mostly  Armenians  who  follow 
the  Protestant  exercises  as  long  as  they  receive  sup¬ 
port;  but  after  leaving  they  are  usually  neither  Prot¬ 
estant  nor  schismatic,  becoming  quite  indifferent  in 
religious  matters.  At  the  present  time,  as  a  result 
of  the  War,  the  number  of  Catholics  has  been  greatly 
diminished,  partly  on  account  of  the  massacre  of  the 
Armenians,  and  partly  because  so  many  Catholics 
of  Latin  Rite  were  driven  into  exile.  There  are  at 
the  end  of  1921  only  about  300  Catholics,  mostly  of 
the  Latin  Rite,  who  are  living  in  the  cities  along  the 
sea-coast. 

There  are  Latin  churches  in  the  seven  quasi¬ 
parishes,  Trebizond,  Erzerum,  Kerassunda,  Sinope, 
Samsun,  Ineboli  and  St.  Stephen’s.  In  addition  there 
are  five  chapels  belonging  to  religious  communities. 
There  are  twelve  priests  in  the  Mission  and  four  lay- 
brothers.  The  Fathers  are  assisted  by  the  Christian 
Brothers  in  Trebizond,  the  Marist  Brothers  in  Samsun 
and  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  in  Trebizond,  Kerassunda 
and  Samsun.  Before  the  War  there  was  a  Capuchin 
higher  school  in  Erzerum  with  150  pupils;  a  Christian 
Brothers  school  at  Trebizond  with  120  pupils;  a 
Marist  Brothers  school  at  Samsun  with  200  pupils; 
while  the  schools  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph  had  100 
pupils  at  Trebizond,  120  at  Samsun,  and  60  at 
Kerassunda.  At  the  present  time,  however,  most 
of  the  schools  have  been  destroyed,  but  the  Capuchin 
Fathers  have  one  at  Trebizond  with  90  pupils, 
while  another  has  just  been  started  at  Kerassunda  with 
25.  The  superior  of  the  Mission,  R.  P.  Lorenzo  de 
Monte  Marciano,  was  born  in  Sicily  on  16  December, 
1867,  entered  the  Capuchin  novitiate  in  1883,  and 
after  studying  in  the  East  and  teaching  philosophy  at 
Constantinople  was  named  superior  on  10  November, 
1911.  In  August,  1920  he  was  appointed  Adminis¬ 
trator  Apostolic  of  Smyrna. 

Treja,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Camerino 

Trent,  Diocese  of  (Tridentinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 35d),  in  Styria,  Italy,  directly  subject  to  the 
Holy  See.  The  diocese  had  been  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  Salzburg,  since  1825,  until  a  decree  of  24  February, 
1920,  changed  it  and  made  it  dependent  on  Rome. 
The  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Celestin  Endrici  born  in 
the  diocese  in  1866,  ordained  in  1891,  appointed 
bishop  6  February,  1904,  and  named  an  assistant  at 
the  pontifical  throne  30  March,  1908.  Before  and 
during  the  World  War  his  Lordship  the  Bishop  car¬ 
ried  on  a  fierce  struggle  against  the  Austrian  authori¬ 
ties  to  safeguard  the  native  language  (Italian)  for  the 
country.  By  the  peace  treaty  Trent,  which  com¬ 
prises  the  Southern  part  of  the  Tyrol,  was  given  to 
Italy.  The  diocese  is  divided  into  286  parishes  and 
has  636  churches,  3  monasteries  for  women,  1  abbey 
for  men  and  1  for  women,  38  convents  of  men,  151 
for  women,  1169  secular  and  121  regular  clergy,  194 
Brothers,  1713  Sisters,  2  seminaries,  450  seminari¬ 
ans,  4  secondary  schools  for  boys  with  50  teachers  and 
497  pupils,  10  secondary  schools  for  girls  with  112 
teachers  and  785  pupils,  4  normal  schools  with  120 
teachers  and  1381  pupils,  1  professional  school  with 
23  teachers  and  320  pupils  and  1  industrial  school 
with  7  teachers  and  35  pupils.  All  the  public  institu¬ 
tions  permit  the  priests  to  minister  in  them.  One 
society  is  formed  among  the  clergy  and  17  different 
organizations  among  the  laity,  and  6  Catholic  jour- 


TRENTON 


739 


TRICHUR 


nals  and  15  periodicals  are  published  here.  The  pop¬ 
ulation  of  this  diocese  numbers  approximately  423,375 
Italians  and  165,681  Germans. 

Trenton,  Diocese  of  (Trentonensis;  cf.  C.E., 
XV — 37a),  comprises  5756  square  miles  in  the  State 
of  New  Jersey,  and  is  suffragan  of  New  York.  The 
second  bishop  of  this  see,  Rt.  Rev.  James  Augustin 
MacFaul,  appointed  20  July,  1894,  died  16  June, 

1917.  His  successor  was  appointed  in  the  person  of 
Rt.  Rev.  Thomas  J.  Walsh,  born  in  the  diocese  of 
Philadelphia  in  1873,  made  his  studies  in  Buffalo,  the 
seminary  of  Alleghany  and  in  Rome,  was  ordained  in 
Buffalo  in  1900  and  served  as  pastor  of  the  cathedral, 
secretary  to  the  bishop  and  chancellor  of  the  cathe¬ 
dral  of  Buffalo,  and  was  appointed  bishop  10  May, 

1918.  This  territory  is  the  seat  of  several  military 
camps  which  played  an  important  part  in  mobilization 
and  training  during  the  World  War:  Camp  Dix 
at  Wrights  town,  Camp  Kendrick  at  Lakehurst,  Cape 
May  Naval  Station,  Camp  Alfred  Vail  at  Little 
Silver,  Camp  Edge,  at  Sea  Girt,  Fort  Mott  at  Salem, 
Camp  Raritan  at  Metuchen  and  Fort  Hancock  at 
Sandy  Hook.  Trenton  is  also  the  seat  of  the  state 
prison,  state  reformatory,  state  homes  for  boys  and 
for  girls,  state  hospital,  state  village  of  epileptics, 
state  sanitorium  for  tuberculosis,  New  Jersey  school 
for  deaf  and  the  New  Jersey  home  for  feeble  minded 
women,  all  of  which  institutions  are  served  by  priests 
from  the  diocese.  At  present  (1922)  the  religious 
orders  established  here  include  Franciscan  Fathers, 
Augustinians,  Priests  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Mission,  Fathers  of  the  Pious  Society  of  Missions, 
Order  of  the  Most  Holy  Trinity,  Dominicans,  Brothers 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  and  Christian  Brothers;  women: 
Sisters  of  Charity,  Mission  Helpers  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Sisters  of  St.  Francis,  of  St.  Joseph,  of  Mercy, 
Dominican  Nuns  and  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Child 
Jesus.  Latest  statistics  credit  the  diocese  with  198 
secular  and  33  regular  clergy,  148  churches  with 
resident  priests,  68  missions  with  churches,  84  stations, 
20  chapels,  1  college  with  102  students,  1  preparatory 
school  for  boys  with  77  students,  1  college  for  girls 
with  85  students,'  4  academies  for  girls  with  273 
pupils,  62  parochial  schools  with  27,056  pupils, 
10  high  schools  with  927  pupils,  and  2  orphan  asy¬ 
lums.  A  total  of  30,884  young  people  are  under 
Catholic  care.  The  charitable  institutions  include 
2  hospitals,  4  day  nurseries  and  2  homes  for  the  aged. 

Treviso,  Diocese  of  (Tarvisinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 38b),  in  the  province  of  Venice,  Northern  Italy, 
suffragan  of  Venice.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Andrea  Giacinto  Longhin,  born  in  Campodarsego, 
Italy,  in  1863.  He  entered  the  Congregation  of 
Capuchins  in  1879  and  became  provincial  of  the  Order 
in  Venice,  in  1902,  and  was  appointed  bishop  15  April, 
1904.  In  October,  1919,  he  was  named  an  officer  of 
the  Order  of  Saints  Maurice  and  Lazarus,  by  the 
Italian  King.  The  church  of  the  Great  Mother  in 
this  diocese  was  made  a  minor  basilica  12  June,  1917. 
According  to  1920  statistics  the  Catholic  population 
numbers  453,822;  there  are  219  parishes,  400  secular 
and  30  regular  clergy,  270  seminarians,  22  Brothers, 
300  religious  women  and  400  churches  and  chapels. 

Tricarico,  Diocese  of  (Tricaricensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 40a),  in  the  province  of  Potenza,  Southern 
Italy,  suffragan  of  Acerenza.  Rt.  Rev.  Agapito- 
Augusto-Giovanni  Fiorentini,  app.  to  this  see 
27  June,  1909,  was  transferred  to  Catazaro  25  Sep¬ 
tember,  1919.  He  has  been  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Achille  Grimaldi,  born  in  the  diocese  of  Anglona; 
he  was  named  an  honorary  chamberlain  extra  urban 
9  May,  1907,  rector  of  the  seminary  of  Capua  in  1919 
and  appointed  bishop  in  January,  1921.  The  1920 


statistics  credit  the  diocese  with  80,540  Catholics, 
25  parishes,  170  secular  priests,  30  seminarians,  and 
91  churches  and  chapels. 

Trichinopoly,  Diocese  of  (Tiiichinopolita- 
nensis;  cf.,  C.  E.,  XV — 40d),  in  India,  suffragan  of 
Bombay.  In  order  to  facilitate  administration  this 
diocese  is  divided  into  four  districts,  each  under  a 
vicar  foraine  having  residence  at  Trichinopoly,  Ma¬ 
dura,  Palamcottah  and  Tuticorin  respectively.  The 
district  of  Tuticorin  has  lately  been  formed  out  of  the 
district  of  Palamcottah  and  entrusted  to  the  Indian 
secular  priests  under  a  vicar  foraine  chosen  from 
amongst  them.  These  districts  are  subdivided  into 
sections  numbering  seventy-eight  in  all.  Rt.  Rev. 
John  Mary  Barthe,  S.  J.,  appointed  to  the  see  in  1890. 
was  given  a  coadjutor  in  the  person  of  Rt.  Rev. 
Auguste  Faisandier,  in  1909,  and  upon  his  resignation 
in  1913,  Bishop  Faisandier  succeeded  him  on  19 
December.  Born  inCoubon,  France,  in  1853,  Bishop 
Faisandier  entered  the  Jesuit  Order  in  1874,  went  as 
a  missionary  to  Madura  in  1889,  served  as  a  professor 
in  St.  Joseph  College,  master  of  novices  and  rector  of 
the  scholasticate  of  Shembaganur,  and  was  named 
superior  regular  and  vicar  general  in  1905,  in  which 
capacity  he  served  until  his  appointment.  During  the 
World  War  one  of  the  priests  from  this  diocese, 
Rev.  A.  Constanto,  who  was  serving  as  a  chaplain  in 
the  French  Army,  was  killed  near  Verdun.  The 
diocese  suffered  another  loss  through  the  death  of 
Rev.  Francis  Billard,  who  died  in  Bangalore,  1  Aug¬ 
ust,  1913;  his  remains  were  immediately  transferred 
to  Trichinopoly,  where  they  were  buried  in  a  little 
chapel  erected  in  St.  Mary’s  Tope,  a  settlement  for 
the  Brahmins  whom  this  holy  priest  had  converted  to 
Christianity.  The  total  Catholic  population  of  this 
diocese,  according  to  the  1921  census,  numbers 
279,324,  of  whom  942  are  Europeans  and  Eurasians. 
Latest  statistics  credit  the  diocese  with  78  parishes  or 
stations,  632  churches  and  chapels,  1  convent  of 
Brothers  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  6  convents  of  women, 
29  secular  and  155  regular  clergy  (Jesuits),  34  lay 
brothers  of  whom  30  are  Indians,  560  Sisters,  1 
seminary,  24  seminarians,  1  college  for  boys  with 
110  teachers  and  2476  students,  5  high  schools  with 
125  teachers  and  2200  boy  students  and  400  girl 
students,  3  training  schools  with  17  teachers  and 
208  pupils,  418  elementary  schools  with  886  teachers 
and  21,341  pupils  and  9  industrial  schools  with  20 
teachers  and  492  pupils.  The  various  charitable 
institutions  include  asylums  for  Indian  widows  at 
Trichinopoly  and  Adeikalaburam,  11  dispensaries,  4 
homes  and  St.  Mary’s  Tope,  for  Brahmin  converts. 
All  the  schools  receive  an  annual  grant  from  the 
government.  St.  Joseph’s  College  has  organized  an 
alumni  association,  as  well  as  a  very  active  press 
which  publishes  the  “Messenger  of  the  Sacred  Heart” 
in  Tamil,  “The  Morning  Star”  a  Marian  magazine, 
“The  Magazine”  the  college  periodical,  and  Indian 
Catholic  Truth  Society  pamphlets  in  both  English 
and  vernacular. 

Trichur,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Trichurensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 41b),  in  India,  one  of  the  four  vicar¬ 
iates  of  the  Syro-Malabar  Rite.  According  to  the 
census  of  1920  the  Catholics  of  the  Syrian  Rite  in 
the  vicariate  numbered  106,423,  having  100  churches 
and  4  chapels  served  by  96  native  secular  priests. 
There  are  also  three  monasteries  of  Carmelite  Regular 
Tertiaries  at  Elthuruth,  Ambalakad,  and  Pavaratti, 
with  about  22  professed  and  11  lay  brothers  besides 
a  number  of  novices;  also  six  convents  for  Carmelite 
nuns  with  136  professed  nuns,  two  convents  of  St. 
Clare  with  22  professed  nuns,  and  one  of  the  Holy 
Family  with  13  professed  nuns,  besides  novices,  pos¬ 
tulants,  and  lay  sisters.  There  are  in  the  vicariate 


TRIER 


740 


TRINITARIANS 


1  college,  2  high  schools,  8  lower  secondary  schools  and 
141  elementary  schools,  the  number  of  children  under 
instruction  being  16,954.  A  seminary  at  Trichur 
prepares  candidates  for  the  seminaries  of  Puthempally, 
Kandy  and  Mangalore.  The  Vicar  Apostolic  Francis 
Vazhapilly,  appointed  5  April,  1921,  and  named 
titular  Bishop  of  Philadelphia  two  days  later,  resides 
at  Trichur. 

Trier  (Treves),  Diocese  of  (Trevirensis), 
suffragan  of  Cologne.  Like  many  other  dioceses  in 
Germany  it  has  suffered  innumerable  hardships  and 
privations  in  consequence  of  the  World  War.  Many 
of  the  clergy  who  were  subject  to  military  duty  were 
obliged  to  join  the  ranks,  but  the  majority  of  them 
were  given  duties  as  chaplains  at  the  front  or  in 
hospitals.  The  priests  labored  indefatigably  to 
ameliorate  the  misery  and  distress  caused  by  the 
war,  by  comforting  the  soldiers  and  consoling  the 
relatives  of  those  who  had  fallen  on  the  field  of  battle. 
The  laity  willingly  offered  their  services  and  their 
fortunes  for  the  cause  and  are  enduring  untold  misery 
and  suffering  in  consequence.  The  children  are  the 
object  of  the  greatest  solicitude,  as  it  is  impossible  to 
obtain  adequate  food  for  their  sustenance.  During 
these  days  of  trial  the  diocese  was  ably  administered 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Michael  Felix  Korum,  who  on  15  Aug., 
1921,  had  the  privilege  of  celebrating  his  fortieth 
anniversary  as  bishop.  He  died  4  December,  1921, 
and  his  successor  has  not  yet  been  appointed.  The 
see  also  has  an  auxiliary  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Anthony 
Moench,  titular  Bishop  of  Polystilium. 

In  1912  the  International  Marian  Congress  was 
held  at  Trier.  The  diocese  contains  1,814,240 
German  inhabitants,  of  whom  1,336,888  are  Catholics 
and  477,352  belong  to  other  faiths.  There  are  768 
parishes,  829  churches,  930  mission  churches  and 
chapels,  4  monasteries  and  1  abbey  for  men,  213 
monasteries  with  3855  Sisters,  560  lay  Brothers  in 
16  monasteries.  There  are  1126  secular  and  196 
regular  priests,  55  of  whom  are  either  retired  or  on 
leave  of  absence.  The  diocesan  seminary  is  at  Trier 
and  has  a  regent,  7  clerical  professors,  and  240 
students.  In  1921  there  were  90  gymnasia  (9  or  6 
years*  classical  course),  with  12,100  students  (6500 
boys  and  5600  girls);  2  normal  schools  (500  students); 
4300  common  elementary  schools  with  2600  male 
teachers  and  17  female  teachers  (12,100  students); 

14  industrial  schools  (3600  students);  3  mission 
schools  connected  with  the  convents  of  the  missionary 
orders.  The  following  institutions  are  established 
in  the  diocese:  47  orphan  asylums,  7  homes  for  work¬ 
ing  girls,  10  homes  for  juveniles,  23  homes  for  day 
laborers,  31  refuges,  117  hospitals  in  charge  of 
Sisters,  2  houses  of  correction  in  charge  of  the  Nuns 
of  the  Good  Shepherd,  164  day  nurseries.  The 
following  societies  are  organized  among  the  clergy: 
Unio  Apostolica,  Marian  Congregation,  Pious  Society 
of  Missions.  The  laity  have  organized  religious, 
charitable  and  social  associations  among  which  the 
most  prominent  are:  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul,  Elizabeth  Verein,  numerous  sodalities  for  men 
and  women,  boys  and  girls,  the  Albertus  Magnus 
Association,  Boriomaeus  Association,  Peoples’  League 
for  Catholic  Germany,  Working  Men  and  Women’s 
Association  and  Mechanics’  Association.  A  Catholic 
periodical  for  priests  called  the  “Pastor  Bonus’’  is 
published  in  the  diocese. 

Trieste  and  Capo  d’Istria,  Diocese  of  (Terges- 

TINENSIS  ET  JUSTINOPOLITANENSISJ  cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 
45b),  in  the  provinces  of  Carniola  and  Istria,  Italy, 
suffragan  of  Gorz-Gradiska.  Rt.  Rev.  Andrea 
Karlin,  appointed  to  this  see  6  February,  1911,  retired 
and  was  transferred  to  the  titular  see  of  Themiscyra 

15  December,  1919.  He  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev. 


Angelo  Bartolomasi,  born  in  the  diocese  in  1869, 
studied  at  Graveno,  Chiere  and  Turin,  was  ordained 
in  1892,  served  as  a  curate,  was  later  made  a  canon  of 
the  cathedral  and  professor  in  the  seminary  of 
Chieri.  On  24  November,  1910,  he  was  appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  Derbe  and  auxiliary  at  Turin,  was 
named  first  military  chaplain  of  the  Italian  Army  in 
1915  and  transferred  to  Trieste  and  Capo  d’lstria  15 
December,  1919.  In  1920  he  was  made  president  of 
the  national  committee  of  the  Eucharistic  Congress 
and  an  honorary  member  of  the  permanent  committee 
of  the  international  Eucharistic  Congress.  The  dio¬ 
cese  counts  409,794  Catholics,  8003  Protestants,  228 
parishes  and  vicariates,  429  secondary  parishes  and 
46  regular  clergy. 

Trincomalie,  Diocese  of  (Trincomaliensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XV — 45c),  in  Ceylon,  suffragan  of  Colombo, 
was  created  in  1893  by  a  division  of  the  Diocese  of 
Jaffna.  The  diocese  comprises  the  whole  of  the  East¬ 
ern  Province,  as  well  as  the  District  of  Tamankaduwa. 
Out  of  a  total  population  of  195,000,  the  Catholics 
number  8946,  with  29  churches  and  chapels,  served  by 
15  fathers  and  four  lay  brothers  of  the  French  Prov¬ 
ince  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  with  two  secular  priests. 
Candidates  for  the  priesthood  are  sent  to  Kandy  or 
Trichinopoly  Seminaries.  There  are  45  schools,  with 
2740  pupils  and  two  Convents  of  the  Sisters  of  the 
Apostolic  Carmel  of  Mangalore,  with  two  orphanages 
and  two  Industrial  Schools  attached  to  the  convents. 
A  diocesan  congregation  of  the  native  Sisters  of  the 
Presentation  of  Trincomalie  was  started  in  1920. 
The  present  bishop  is  Gaston  Robichez,  S.J. ,  ap¬ 
pointed  22  March,  1917,  who  resides  at  Batticaloa. 
Born  in  Aire-sur-la-Lys,  France,  in  1867,  he  studied 
at  Sainte  Marie  d’Aire  and  the  lower  seminary  of 
Arras,  and  after  his  ordination  was  given  charge,  suc¬ 
cessively,  of  the  missions  of  Lille,  Amiens,  Boulogne, 
Ceylon  and  Trincomalie,  where  he  served  as  vicar 
general. 

Trinitarians,  Order  of;  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 45d). — 
In  1912  the  Trinitarians  had  7  houses  in  the  Roman 
province,  of  which  3  were  in  Rome,  and  the  others 
in  Rocco  di  Papa,  Palestrina,  Anagni,  and  Leghorn 
in  Etruria.  Dependent  on  the  Roman  province  are 
the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Benadir  in  Italian  Somali¬ 
land,  Africa,  and  4  flourishing  foundations  in  the 
United  States  at  Asbury  Park,  N.  J.,  Long  Branch, 
N.  J.,  Red  Bank,  N.  J.,  and  Harrisburg,  Penn. 
The  spreading  of  the  order  in  North  America  is  due 
to  the  zeal  of  Fr.  Antoninus  a  Jesu,  provincial  of  the 
Roman  province.  The  Spanish  province  numbers 
8  convents  in  Spain,  from  where  the  Trinitarians  were 
expelled  in  1835  but  returned  in  1879;  among  the 
Spanish  houses  is  the  old  convent  of  Cordova. 
Outside  of  Spain,  belonging  to  the  Spanish  province, 
are  the  Roman  College  of  S.  Carlo  alle  Quatro 
Fontane,  a  foundation  in  Cuba,  and  several  in  Chile. 
The  Neopolitan  province  has  4  convents,  and  the 
Austrian  province  has  2  convents,  one  in  Vienna  and 
one  in  Augustendorf.  The  order  numbers  several 
hundred  members,  most  of  whom  are  Spanish  and 
Italian  and  a  few  German  and  French. 

The  Italo-Turkish  War  (1911-12)  brought  troubles 
on  the  Trinitarians  and  immediately  after  the  out¬ 
break  of  the  World  War  (1914)  the  order  gave  its 
buildings  for  the  use  of  the  Red  Cross,  and  the  priests 
cared  for  the  wounded  soldiers  in  the  hospitals.  A 
convalescent  home  opened  in  the  convent  at  Gers- 
hofer  was  supported  by  charitable  contributions  of 
people  in  the  neighborhood.  The  provincial  was 
untiring  in  his  zeal  for  the  wounded.  During  the 
war  communication  with  the  missions  was  entirely 
cut  off.  The  minister  general,  Rev.  Antonio  dell' 
Assunzione,  elected  in  May,  1906,  succeeding  Rev. 


TRINITY  COLLEGE 


741 


TROYES 


Gregorio  di  Gesu  e  Maria  who  had  been  minister 
general  since  1891,  was  succeeded  in  Maj',  1919 
by  Rev.  Francisco  Saverio  dell’  Immacolata.  A  new 
cardinal  protector,  Cardinal  Teodoro  Valfre  di 
Bonzo  was  appointed  3  Feb.,  1920.  Among  the 
notable  deceased  in  1921  were:  Rev.  Ambrogio  di  S. 
Giovanni  Battista,  definitor  general  from  1906-19, 
d.  25  Feb.,  1921,  at  the  age  of  ninety-one  years; 
Rev.  Ramon  de  Nuestra  Senora  de  los  Afflicionados, 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Trinitarian  college  at 
Cardenas,  Cuba,  and  military  chaplain  for  two  years, 
d.  at  Santiago  de  Nubles,  Chile,  31  Oct.,  1921; 
Commander  Joseph  Hercules  Massi,  professed 
Tertiary,  chief  guardian  of  the  Vatican  Museums, 
and  writer,  d.  21  Dec.,  1921. 

The  Trinitarian  Nuns  came  to  the  United  States 
in  1920,  at  the  request  of  Cardinal  Archbishop 
Dougherty  of  Philadelphia.  Four  Sisters  arrived 
in  Bristol,  Penn.,  in  November  and  their  number 
has  since  been  increased  by  American  novices.  The 
Calced  Spanish  Trinitarian  Nuns  have  houses  at: 
Badajoz;  Burgos;  Calig,  Castellon  de  la  Plana; 
S.  Clemente,  Cuenca;  Alcala  la  Real,  Andujar,  and 
Martos,  Jaen;  Villena,  Murcia;  Villoruela,  Salamanca; 
Laredo,  Suances,  and  Suesa,  Santander;  Noya, 
Santiago;  Toboso,  Toledo.  The  Discalced  Spanish 
Trinitarian  Nuns  have  houses  at  Madrid  and  Valencia 
and  dependent  on  the  mother-house  of  Valencia  are 
convents  at  Concentaina,  Estivella,  Rivarrojak, 
Picasent,  Godella,  Benimamet,  Biar,  Ontur,  Casas 
Ibanez,  Castellar,  Vallada,  Burjasot,  Bechi,  Iijona, 
and  Adraneta  del  Meastra.  On  27  Feb.,  1912,  the 
process  of  beatification  of  Sister  Angela  Maria  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  reformer  of  the  Trinitarians 
and  foundress  of  the  convent  at  Toboso,  was  intro¬ 
duced.  Bl.  Anna  Maria  Taigi,  professed  Trinitarian 
tertiary,  was  proclaimed  blessed  30  May,  1920. 

In  July,  1917,  the  Trinitarians  received  from 
Cardinal  Archbishop  Piffl  of  Vienna  the  Imperial 
Jubilee  Church  at  Vienna-Donaustadt.  In  1918  at 
their  general  assembly  the  Holy  Trinity  Brotherhood 
resolved  to  hereafter  hold  their  monthly  services  in 
this  church  instead  of  at  St.  Peter’s.  This  and 
recent  affiliations  of  various  branches  of  the  Brother¬ 
hood  will  re-establish  the  former  unity  existing  be¬ 
tween  the  Brotherhood  and  the  Trinitarian  Order. 
The  present  minister  general,  Rev.  Francisco  Saverio 
dell’  Immacolata,  established  the  “Acta  Ordinis 
Sanctissimae  Trinitatis,”  a  publication  containing  be¬ 
sides  documents  referring  to  the  general  government 
of  the  order,  notes  on  its  history.  The  first  number 
appeared  in  1919. 

Trinity  College,  for  Catholic  women,  situated  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  under  the  direction  of  the  Sisters 
of  Notre  Dame  de  Namur,  has  grown  since  1912, 
from  a  registration  of  160  students  to  363  in  1921. 
This  same  year  the  number  of  degrees  conferred 
was  as  follows:  PhD.,  1;  M.A.,  1;  B.S.,  2;  B.A., 
77.  The  faculty  is  composed  of  11  professors  from 
the  Catholic  University,  3  lay  instructors  and  the 
Sisters  of  Notre  Dame  who  teach  in  various  de¬ 
partments. 

Tripoli,  Archdiocese  of  (Tripolitanensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XV — 60c),  a  see  of  the  Maronite  and  Greek 
Melkite  Rites  in  Syria.  The  Maronite  see  is  filled 
by  Most  Rev.  Anthony  Arida,  born  in  Becharre 
(the  city  of  the  Cedars  of  Lebanon),  in  1863,  studied 
at  St.  Sulpice  at  Issy,  and  in  Paris,  was  ordained  in 
1890,  served  as  secretary  to  the  Patriarch  of  Syria, 
was  made  an  honorary  chamberlain  in  1905  and  con¬ 
secrated  18  June,  1908.  During  the  World  War  all 
this  territory  suffered  severely  and  altogether  the 
diocese  lost  about  100,000  Maronites,  through  per¬ 
secution,  famine,  pestilence  and  other  causes.  The 


bishop  and  priests  did  all  in  their  power  to  relieve  the 
suffering,  and  showed  great  devotion  and  charity  in 
distributing  clothes  and  food  and  in  caring  for  the 
sick.  The  diocese  comprises  45,000  Maronite 
Catholics,  107  parishes,  105  churches,  missions  con¬ 
ducted  by  the  Jesuits,  Vincentians  and  Carmelites, 
at  Hemesia,  Tripoli,  and  Cabayath,  140  Maronite 
secular  priests,  3  monasteries  for  men  and  1  for 
women,  3  convents  for  men  and  about  40  for  women, 
16  lay  brothers,  1  seminary,  15  seminarians,  2  col¬ 
leges  for  boys  and  2  for  girls,  40  elementary  schools 
with  45  teachers  and  about  2000  pupils,  and  1  hospital. 
Various  other  charities  are  conducted  by  the  French 
Sisters  of  Charity  and  of  Mercy.  A  number  of  the 
schools  receive  financial  aid  from  the  French  High 
Commission.  Two  periodicals  are  published  in  the 
diocese. 

The  see  is  a  bishopric  for  the  Greek-Melkite  Rite 
and  is  at  present  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Doumani, 
Basilian,  born  in  Damascus  in  1849,  and  consecrated 
as  first  bishop  21  March,  1897.  On  22  November, 
1915,  the  Turks,  falsely  accusing  him  of  being  a  spy, 
put  to  death  the  Abbe  Anatole  Meseray,  a  French 
priest  who  was  acting  as  secretary  to  the  bishop. 
Following  upon  this  outrage  the  bishop  and  his 
vicar  general,  the  Archimandrite  John  Chimara, 
wrho  sacrificed  himself  to  accompany  his  superior, 
were  exiled  at  Sivas  and  at  Tokat,  where  they  suf¬ 
fered  imprisonment,  cold,  hunger  and  cruelty  for 
three  years  and  a  half.  The  diocese  comprises  about 
6000  Greek  Catholics  who  have  been  cared  for 
by  Bishop  Doumani  for  twenty-six  years.  Latest 
statistics  credit  it  with  15  parishes,  6  churches,  10 
chapels,  16  secular  and  3  regular  clergy  and  11 
elementary  schools  with  11  teachers  and  400  pupils. 
For  the  Latin  Rite  Tripoli  is  a  titular  see.  Those 
Catholics  of  the  Syrian  Rite  residing  here  are  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Beirut. 

Tripoli,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of.  See  Libya, 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of 

Trivento,  Diocese  of  (Triventinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 63a),  in  the  province  of  Campobasso,  Southern 
Italy,  directly  dependent  on  the  Holy  See.  This  see 
is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio  Lega,  born  in  Brisighella 
in  1863,  served  as  vicar  general  of  Tivoli,  named  a 
prelate  of  the  Holy  See  in  1911,  and  appointed  by  the 
Consistory  25  May,  1914.  The  diocese  has  a  Catholic 
population  of  130,000,  59  parishes,  170  secular  priests, 
60  seminarians,  24  nuns  and  133  churches  and 
chapels. 

Troyes,  Diocese  of  (Trecensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 67b),  in  the  department  of  Aube,  France, 
suffragan  of  Sens.  The  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev. 
Marie-Etienne  Laurent  Monnier,  born  in  Poligny, 
France,  in  1847,  studied  under  the  Jesuits  at  Metz 
and  at  St.  Sulpice  in  Paris,  was  ordained  in  1871, 
served  as  rector  of  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Claude,  dean 
of  St.  Aubin,  made  a  titlar  canon  in  1894,  arch¬ 
priest  of  the  cathedral  in  1898  and  appointed  bishop 
12  October,  1907.  The  diocese  is  divided  into  423 
parishes  and  27  vicariates,  comprising  a  total  popula¬ 
tion  of  240,255  of  whom  55,586  are  in  Troyes  proper. 
By  latest  statistics  there  are  290  secular  and  18 
regular  clergy,  2  convents  of  women,  7  convents  of 
men,  2  seminaries,  56  seminarians,  1  diocesan  college 
with  17  teachers  and  150  students,  1  professional 
school  with  4  teachers  and  30  pupils,  20  elementary 
schools  wuth  32  teachers  and  1000  pupils,  3  houses  of 
retreat,  1  asylum  and  1  nursery,  all  other  charitable 
institutions  being  conducted  by  the  state  or  com¬ 
mune.  These,  how'ever,  permit  the  priests  to  minister 
in  them.  A  daily  journal,  “l’Avenir  de  l’Aube,’  ’  and 
a  Catholic  weekly  review  of  the  diocese  are  pub¬ 
lished,  and  the  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society  and 


TRUJILLO 


742 


TUAM 


various  charitable  and  pious  associations  are  well  or¬ 
ganized.  During  the  World  War,  out  of  a  total  of 
100  priests  mobilized,  13  gave  up  their  lives,  3  were 
decorated  with  the  “ legion  d’honneur,”  4  with  the 
“medaille  militaire ”  and  numbers  with  the  “croix 
de  guerre. 

Trujillo,  Diocese  of  (de  Truxillo;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 70a.)  in  Peru,  suffragan  of  Lima.  The  present 
incumbent  of  this  see  is  Rt.  Rev.  Carlos  Garcia 
Irigoyen,  born  in  Lima,  in  1857.  After  starting  his 
studies  at  the  seminary  of  Santo  Tor ibio,  he  left  and 
became  secretary  of  foreign  affairs,  but  returned  in 
1880  and  was  later  ordained.  In  1898  he  became 
secretary  in  particular  to  the  Archbishop  of  Lima 
and  a  canon;  he  served  as  director  of  the  ' ‘Revista 
Catolica,”  ecclesiastical  censor,  collaborator  ^of 
“El  Bien  Social,”  and  founder  and  director  of  “El 
Amigo  del  Clero.”  Named  a  prelate  of  the  Holy 
See  in  1909,  he  was  appointed  bishop  21  March,  1910. 
He  has  been  honored  with  the  cross  Pro  Ecclesia  et 
Pontifice,  and  was  named  an  assistant  at  the  pontifi¬ 
cal  throne  27  June,  1920.  He  is  also  a  member  of 
the  historical  institute  of  Peru.  The  Catholics  of  this 
diocese  total  89,000;  the  remainder  of  the  population 
is  made  up  of  14,000  Chinese  and  500  Protestants. 
The  diocese  comprises,  according  to  1920  statistics, 
20  parishes,  150  priests,  3  seminarians,  250  churches 
and  chapels,  6  congregations  of  men  and  5  of  women. 

Truth  Societies,  Catholic. — England. — The  rec¬ 
ord  of  the  Catholic  Truth  Society  during  the  last 
ten  years  covers  the  difficult  period  of  the  Great 
War,  and  the  remarkable  reorganization  and  expan¬ 
sion  of  its  work  after  the  peace.  The  war  years  were 
a  trying  time.  The  rise  in  the  cost  of  paper  and 
printing  not  only  restricted  the  Society’s  output, 
but  also  made  it  necessary  to  increase  the  sale 
price  of  its  publications,  thus  limiting  their  circula¬ 
tion.  Many  publications  went  out  of  print  and  it 
was  only  by  careful  management  that  its  activity 
was  maintained  even  on  a  restricted  basis.  Never¬ 
theless  much  valuable  work  was  done.  Its  “ Little 
Prayer  Book”  had  been  adopted  by  the  War  Office 
as  the  prayer  book  for  Catholic  soldiers.  Before 
long  the  War  Office  orders  for  the  book  became  so 
large  that  to  supply  them  would  have  entailed 
heavy  loss.  It  was  arranged  that  the  Prayer  Book 
should  be  printed  by  the  War  Office  as  an  official 
publication,  the  Government  paying  a  royalty  to 
the  Society.  Flemish  and  French  translations  of 
the  book  were  also  prepared  for  the  Belgian  refugees 
who  were  crowding  into  England,  and  later  a  little 
manual  of  instruction  was  produced  in  both  these 
languages.  The  final  result  was  the  formation  of 
a  Belgian  Society  for  the  production  of  cheap 
Catholic  literature,  which  was  established  at  Brus¬ 
sels  after  the  armistice. 

The  conditions  for  publishing  work  remained 
difficult  for  long  after  the  war,  but  nevertheless 
the  Catholic  Truth  Society  was  able  to  carry 
through  a  remarkable  work  of  reorganization  and 
expansion.  Many  useful  publications  were  out  of 
print.  These  were  gradually  reprinted jand  put  into 
circulation.  The  work  both  of  literary  control  and 
business  administration  had  so  far  been  carried 
on  by  a  single  general  committee.  In  1920  a  small 
business  committee  was  formed  to  deal  with  admin¬ 
istration  and  propaganda.  At  the  annual  general 
meeting  in  April,  1921,  a  new  scheme  of  organi¬ 
zation  was  adopted;  the  election  of  the  general 
committee  brought  in  a  new  element  of  strength; 
and  the  practical  work  was  divided  between  a  liter¬ 
ary  and  a  business  committee.  Closer  relations 
were  established  with  the-  Catholic  Truth  Society 
of  Ireland  and  large  economies  in  printing  were 


effected  by  entrusting  much  of  the  work  to  firms 
in  Ireland.  The  C.  T.  S.  also  undertook  the  pro¬ 
duction  of  special  literature  for  the  Catholic  Evi¬ 
dence  Guild.  It  was  decided  that  the  time  had 
come  for  the  Society  to  secure  a  working  centre 
in  a  prominent  position  in  London,  and  pending 
this  step  the  business  committee  occupied  a  tempo¬ 
rary  office  near  Westminster  Cathedral,  and  organ¬ 
ized  a  new  propaganda  to  increase  the  membership. 1 
This  included  sermons  in  the  churches,  public  meet¬ 
ings,  and  a  well  organized  circularising  campaign. 
The  membership  rose  rapidly,  and  in  February, 
1922,  extensive  offices  were  secured  in  a  fine  build¬ 
ing  close  to  the  cathedral.  All  the  work  of  the 
Society  was  concentrated  in  these  new  head¬ 
quarters  which  included  offices  for  the  staff,  a  refer¬ 
ence  library  and  an  enquiry  and  information  bureau, 
a  retail  department,  an  extensive  basement  for  the 
storage  and  wholesale  department  of  the  Society’s 
publications.  A  large  hall  was  arranged  for  meet¬ 
ings  and  conferences  and  the  Catholic  Evidence 
Guild  undertook  to  use  it  for  lectures  to  non- 
Catholic  audiences  on  Sunday  afternoons  and  eve¬ 
nings  all  the  year  round.  The  new  centre  was  in¬ 
augurated  on  April  25,  1922*  by  Cardinal  Bourne, 
who  had  from  the  first  been  a  zealous  and  helpful 
promoter  of  the  new  movement.  It  is  hoped  that 
subsidiary  centres  will  be  organized  in  other 
dioceses  throughout  Great  Britain.  The  Society 
has  also  taken  over  the  work  of  the  Bexhill  Library 
(q.  v.),  established  by  Mr.  Reed  Lewis. 

Tuam,  Archdiocese  of  (Tuamensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 79d),  in  Ireland.  The  present  archbishop 
of  this  see,  Most  Rev.  Thomas  P.  Gilmartin,  was 
promoted  9  July,  1918,  to  succeed  Most  Reverend 
John  Heal}''  who  died  16  March  of  that  year  after 
seventeen  years  in  the  see.  Archbishop  Gilmartin 
was  born  near  Castlebar,  County  Mayo  in  1862, 
and  after  an  early  education  at  St.  Jarlath’s  College, 
Tuam,  he  completed  his  studies  at  St.  Patrick’s 
College,  Maynooth,  and  was  ordained  in  1885.  He 
served  as  a  professor  at  St.  Jarlath’s,  and  in  1891  was 
appointed  Dean  of  St.  Patrick’s  College,  which  posi¬ 
tion  he  filled  until  his  election  as  Bishop  of  Clonfert 
18  December,  1909.  He  was  promoted  to  the  arch¬ 
diocese  from  this  see.  During  the  World  War  this 
diocese  sent  two  chaplains  to  the  front  to  serve  with 
the  British  forces,  Rev.  Michael  Divens  and  Rev. 
Michael  Comey,  and  a  third,  Rev.  Goeffrey  Prender- 
gast,  served  as  a  chaplain  with  the  British  forces  in 
Palestine  from  July,  1916,  to  December,  1917.  The 
laity  were  represented  in  the  ranks  in  large  numbers. 
In  1914  the  Benedictine  Nuns,  who  were  forced  to 
leave  their  abbey  at  Ypres  upon  the  arrival  of  the 
Germans,  came  to  Tuam  and  are  now  permanently 
established  in  Kylemore  Abbey,  County  Galway. 
The  abbey,  built  several  years  ago  as  a  private 
residence,  is  of  exceptional  beauty,  and  the  nuns 
have  opened  a  school  here  for  the  higher  education  of 
girls.  The  archdiocese  has  a  purely  Irish  population 
of  about  180,000.  It  is  divided  into  56  parishes 
having  126  churches,  and  comprise  11  monasteries 
for  men  of  the  Third  Order  Regular  of  St.  Francis, 
1  abbey  for  women,  17  convents  for  women,  165 
secular  priests  and  5  regulars,  28  lay  brothers,  200 
nuns,  2  colleges  for  men  with  18  teachers  and  155 
students,  4  secondary  schools  for  girls  with  29 
teachers  and  215  students,  8  high  schools  with  34 
teachers,  790  boys  and  170  girls,  428  elementary 
schools  with  33,i00  pupils  and  4  industrial  schools 
with  300  pupils.  The  charitable  institutions  include, 
1  home,  1  asylum  at  Castlebar,  8  hospitals  and  8 
refuges;  a  number  of  the  hospitals  and  refuges  have 
now,  however,  been  taken  over  by  English  soldiers. 
The  elementary  and  intermediate  schools,  and  the 


TUCSON 


743 


TUNJA 


work  houses  are  assisted  to  some  extent  by  the  Govern  - 
ment.  The  “Pia  Unio  Cleri,”  the  Propagation  of  the 
Faith,  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  and  a 
temperance  society  are  organized  in  the  diocese. 

Tucson,  Diocese  of  (Tucsonensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 84d),  comprises  the  State  of  Arizona,  U.  S.  A., 
an  area  of  133,058  square  miles.  This  see  is  filled  by 
its  second  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Henri  Granjon,  born  in 
Brignais,  France,  in  1863,  studied  at  St.  diamond, 
and  was  ordained  in  1887,  appointed  bishop  19  April; 
1900.  The  Catholic  population  is  made  up  of  8000 
Americans  and  43,000  Mexicans.  The  Franciscan 
Fathers,  Discalced  Carmelites,  Marist  Brothers  and 
Missionary  Sons  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary, 
are  established  here,  as  well  as  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary,  of  Loretto,  and 
Sisters  of  the  Precious  Blood.  By  latest  statistics 
the  diocese  comprises  20  secular  and  41  regular  clergy, 
35  churches  with  resident  priests,  66  missions  with 
churches,  80  mission  stations,  2  ecclesiastical  students, 
1  college  for  boys,  7  academies,  10  parish  schools, 
2500  pupils  in  schools  and  academies,  6  Indian  schools, 

1  orphanage  with  100  inmates,  and  4  hospitals. 

Tucuman,  Diocese  of  (Tucumanensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XV — 85a.)  in  the  Republic  of  Argentina, 
suffragan  of  Buenos  Aires.  This  see  has  been  vacant 
since  the  death  of  Rt.  Rev.  Paulo  Padilla  y  Barcena, 
appointed  as  its  first  bishop  16  January,  1898,  died 
17  October,  1921.  It  is  administered  by  the  auxili¬ 
ary,  Rt.  Rev.  Carlo  Echenique  Altamira,  appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  Themesis,  10  December,  1914. 
According  to  1920  statistics  the  population  of  this 
diocese  totals  400,000;  it  is  divided  into  18  parishes 
served  by  67  chapels. 

Tudela,  Diocese  of  (Tudelensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 85c),  in  the  province  of  Navarre,  Spain,  suf¬ 
fragan  of  Saragossa.  The  “Annuario  Pontificio”  of 
1918  lists  this  diocese  as  united  with  Pamplona,  but 
the  “Annuario  Eclesiastico”  of  Barcelona  unites  it 
with  Tarazona,  as  the  Bishop  of  Tarazona  acts  as 
administrator  of  the  diocese  of  Tudela.  The  terri¬ 
tory  comprises  9  parishes,  28  churches,  4  convents 
of  men  and  9  of  women,  56  secular  and  35  regular 
clergy,  20  Brothers,  1  seminary,  30  seminarians,  1 
college  for  boys  with  5  teachers  and  123  pupils,  1 
college  for  girls  with  8  teachers  and  210  pupils,  11 
elementary  schools  with  16  teachers  and  512  pupils, 

2  asylums  and  1  hospital.  Six  of  the  elementary 
schools  are  assisted  by  the  government.  Two  societies 
are  organized  among  the  laity  and  3  Catholic  peri¬ 
odicals  are  published.  Schools  of  higher  education 
are  conducted  by  the  Jesuits,  with  198  boarding  and 
22  day  students,  and  by  the  Christian  Brothers 
with  190  pupils. 

Tuguegarao,  Diocese  of  (Tuguegaraonensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XV— 85d),  in  the  Philippines,  suffragan 
of  Manila.  The  first  bishop  of  this  see,  Rt.  Rev. 
Maurice  Patrick  Foley,  appointed  10  September, 
1910,  was  transferred  to  Jaro  6  September,  1916, 
and  his  successor  was  named  in  the  person  of  Rt. 
Rev.  Santiago  Sancho,  secretary  to  the  Bishop  of 
Nuova  Caceres,  appointed  5  February,  1917.  The 
same  year  the  Association  of  Christian  Doctrine  was 
organized  in  the  diocese  and  in  1918  a  major  and 
minor  seminary  was  established  in  the  college  of 
San  Jacinto,  under  the  direction  of  the  Fathers  of 
the  Order  of  Preachers.  A  new  building  was  added 
to  the  girls’  college  in  the  diocese,  to  be  used  as  a 
dormitory.  In  1920  an  important  development 
in  the  progress  of  the  diocese  occurred  with  the  foun¬ 
dation  of  the  Catholic  Federation  of  Women  of 
Tuguegarao.  The  objects  of  this  society  are  many: 
to  procure  the  union  of  all  Catholics  in  the  Philip¬ 


pines;  to  promote  universal  charity  and  look  after  the 
cooperation  of  Catholics  in  works  of  charity  such 
as  dispensaries,  protection  of  infancy,  aid  to  the  poor, 
formation  of  clubs  for  women,  guardianship  of  workers, 
libraries,  etc.;  to  help  support  Catholic  institutions; 
to  animate  the  Catholic  press,  instruct  the  people  in 
the  truths  of  the  Catholic  religion,  and  make  manifest 
the  good  works  which  the  Church  is  doing  in  these 
islands,  by  means  of  reviews  and  pamphlets,  and  by 
the  creation  of  centers  of  instruction  and  recreation. 
The  opening  of  an  electric  plant  in  Tuguegarao  and 
Aparri,  in  the  province  of  Cagayan,  in  1921,  promises 
to  be  of  importance  in  the  improvement  of  this  terri¬ 
tory.  By  latest  statistics  (1922)  the  diocese  com¬ 
prises  25  parishes,  44  churches,  19  missions,  29 
secular  priests,  1  seminary,  30  seminarians,  1  college 
for  boys  with  12  teachers,  1  college  for  girls  with 
9  teachers,  1  academy  with  9  teachers  and  260  girls, 
and  2  elementary  schools  with  15  teachers.  A 
society,  “Monte  Pio  del  Clero,”  is  organized  among 
the  clergy,  and  the  Catholic  Federation  of  women, 
among  the  laity. 

Tulancingo,  Diocese  of  (de  Tulancingo; 
cf .  C.  E.,  XV — 86a.),  in  the  state  of  Hidalgo,  Mexico, 
suffragan  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Mexico.  Rt.  Rev. 
Jose-Juan  de  Jesus  Herrera  y  Pina,  appointed  to 
this  see  16  September,  1907,  was  promoted  to  Linares 
7  March,  1921.  His  successor  was  appointed  in  the 
person  of  Rt.  Rev.  Vincent  Castellanos  y  Nunez, 
born  in  the  diocese  of  Zamora,  Spain,  in  1870, 
served  as  secretary  to  the  Archbishop  of  Durango, 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Campeachy  7  February, 
1912,  and  transferred  26  August,  1921.  The  cele¬ 
brated  church  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Angels  is  situated 
in  Tulancingo.  The  diocese  comprises  a  Catholic 
population  of  600,000;  62  parishes,  56  seminarians, 
3  religious  congregations  of  men  and  4  of  women. 

Tulle,  Diocese  of  (Tutelensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV— 
86c),  comprises  the  department  of  Corr&ze,  in 
France.  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Metreau,  appointed  to  this 
see  in  1913,  died  24  April,  1918,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Rt.  Rev.  Jean  Castel,  born  in  Foix,  France,  in 
1868,  ordained  in  1891,  served  as  a  professor  and 
prefect  of  the  Carmelite  school  at  Parmes,  pastor 
and  dean,  named  vicar  general  in  1909  and  arch¬ 
deacon  of  St.  Girons,  and  appointed  bishop  3  August, 
1918.  The  diocese  comprises  289  parishes,  340 
secular  priests  2  houses  of  missionaries,  1  com¬ 
munity  of  Brothers  conducting  an  asylum  for 
foreigners  “La  Celette,”  56  convents  of  religious 
women,  1  diocesan  congregation  of  nursing  Sisters, 

1  upper  seminary  with  30  students,  1  lower  seminary 
with  80  students,  2  secondary  schools  with  30 
teachers  and  220  pupils,  5  elementary  schools  for 
boys  and  42  for  girls,  2  schools  directed  by  religious 
orders,  2  asylums  and  9  hospitals.  Two  Catholic 
periodicals  are  published,  “Semaine  Religieuse”  and 
“Croix  de  la  Corr&ze,”  and  4  important  associa¬ 
tions  are  organized  among  the  laity:  Catholic 
Association  of  French  Youth,  association  for  liberal 
teaching  of  Correze,  an  association  of  the  heads 
of  Catholic  families,  and  the  Society  of  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul.  During  the  World  War  144  priests  and  33 
seminarians  were  mobilized  from  this  diocese,  and  of 
the  number  8  priests  and  9  seminarians  gave  up  their 
lives,  3  were  decorated  with  the  legion  d’honneur, 

2  with  the  Medaille  Militaire  and  57  with  the  croix 
de  guerre. 

Tunja,  Diocese  of  (Tungensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV— 90c.)  in  the  State  of  Boyaca,  Colombia, 
suffragan  of  Bogota.  Since  24  June,  1905,  this  see 
has  been  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio-Edwardo  Mal¬ 
donado  y  Cal vo.  Born  in  Bogota  in  1860  he  studied 


TUNKERS 


744 


TURKISH  EMPIRE 


at  the  South  American  College  in  Rome,  was  or¬ 
dained  in  that  city  in  1885,  returned  to  his  native 
city  and  served  as  a  professor  in  the  seminary,  and 
canon  and  pastor  of  the  cathedral.  The  popula¬ 
tion  of  the  diocese  is  composed  of  750,000  Catholics 
and  10,000  Pagans.  The  territory  is  divided  into 
153  parishes  served  by  145  priests,  159  churches  and 
chapels,  5  religious  congregations  of  men  and  6  of 
women. 

Tunkers.  See  Dunkers 

Turin,  Archdiocese  of  (Taurinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 92d),  in  the  province  of  Piedmont,  northern 
Italy.  This  see  is  filled  by  His  Eminence  Agostino 
Cardinal  Richelmy,  born  in  the  city  of  Turin  in  1850. 
He  was  ordained  in  1872  and  became  a  professor  in  the 
seminary,  and  in  1886,  on  7  June,  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Isrea,  from  which  see  he  was  promoted  to 
the  archdiocese  17  September,  1897.  Two  years 
later  he  was  created  a  cardinal  priest,  19  June,  1899. 
His  auxiliary  is  Rt.  Rev.  Giovanni  Pinardi,  a  Salesian, 
appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Eudocias  24  January, 
1916.  The  Catholic  population  of  the  archdiocese 
numbers  680,600.  It  is  divided  into  276  parishes, 
1405  secular  and  300  regular  clergy,  260  seminarians 
and  986  churches  and  chapels. 

Turkish  Empire,  The;  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 97a),  now 
occupies  a  territory  of  about  174,000  square  miles. 
Although  the  statistical  documents  are  very  incom¬ 
plete,  the  total  population  of  the  empire  is  about 
8,000,000.  In  the  small  European  territory  now  re¬ 
maining  under  Turkish  rule  Moslems  predominate. 
In  Constantinople,  there  are  308,733  Turks,  235,215 
Greeks,  and  297,160  others,  (Greek  Patriarchate 
statistics,  1912).  In  Asia  Minor  the  Turks  form 
seven-tenths  of  the  population,  outnumbering  the 
Greeks  alone  by  four  to  one,  and  the  Greeks  and 
Armenians  together  by  three  to  one.  In  Konia  they 
outnumber  the  Greeks,  twelve  to  one;  in  Angora, 
fourteen  to  one;  in  Costamouni,  thirty-nine  to  one. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  some  districts,  as  Ismid,  they 
form  only  forty-seven  per  cent  of  the  population; 
in  Adana,  one  third  of  the  total. 

The  other  elements  of  the  population  are  the 
Armenians  (Haikans),  belonging  to  the  Indo-Iranic 
group  of  the  Aryan  stock,  found  in  greatest  numbers 
in  the  district  of  the  Caucasus.  Under  Turkish  rule 
their  fate  has  been  deplorable;  constantly  subject  to 
the  raids  of  the  savage  Kurds  and  oppressed  by  the 
Government,  they  have  suffered  massacre  time  and 
again.  According  to  a  secret  report,  published  in 
1919,  the  deportation  of  the  Armenians  had  been 
organized  systematically  from  March  to  October, 
1915,  as  a  pretext  for  destroying  the  race.  Of  the 
entire  Armenian  population  of  1,600,000  to  2,000,000, 
it  is  estimated  that  from  1,000,000  to  1,200,000  were 
deported  and  half  of  these  perished.  The  Circassians, 
or  Cherkesses,  had  their  original  home  in  the  western 
Caucasus,  whence  they  emigrated  into  the  Turkish 
Empire  rather  than  submit  to  the  Russians.  Being 
Moslems  they  were  readily  received  by  the  Porte  and 
are  widely  dispersed  throughout  Asia  Minor.  The 
Jews  are  mostly  descendants  of  Jews  who  came  from 
Spain  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  They 
have  been  less  persecuted  in  Turkey  than  in  any  other 
country  in  Europe  except  England.  The  Dunmehs 
(converts)  are  certain  Jews  who  profess  Islam,  but 
secretly  practise  the  rites  of  Judaism.  Most  of  the 
European  peoples  are  represented.  A  certain  number 
of  these,  the  issue  of  families  long  settled  in  the  East, 
have  lost  their  nationality  and  are  known  as  Levan¬ 
tines.  The  Lazes  are  a  small  tribe  found  in  the  region 
of  Trebizond.  In  the  mountain  region  back  of 
Smyrna  there  are  some  small  tribes  of  Moslems, 

7 


called  Xeibecks,  Avshars,  Youruks,  etc.,  who  lead 
the  life  of  brigands. 

Geography. — Before  the  Great  European  War, 
the  Turkish  Empire  was  made  up  of  (1)  Turkey  in 
Europe;  (2)  Turkey  in  Asia  (Anatolia,  Arabia,  Syria, 
Palestine,  Mesopotamia  and  Kurdistan);  and  (3) 
certain  islands  in  the  Mediterranean.  After  the 
conclusion  of  the  first  Balkan  War  (November,  1913), 
the  Turkish  possessions  in  Europe  were  lessened, 
Turkey  in  Europe  in  part  being  divided  among  the 
Allied  States  (Bulgaria,  Servia,  Montenegro  and 
Greece),  and  in  part  being  created  into  the  indepen¬ 
dent  state  of  Albania.  Cyprus  and  Egypt  formerly 
under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Sultan,  belong  now  to 
the  British,  Cyprus  being  annexed  to  the  British 
Empire  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in  1914,  and 
Egypt  declared  a  Protectorate  in  January,  1915.  The 
Empire  was  reduced  still  further  by  the  Treaty  of 
Sevres  (signed  on  10  August,  1920).  In  Europe, 
Turkey  retains,  mainly  as  a  concession  to  Moham¬ 
medan  feeling,  the  city  of  Constantinople  with  a 
few  miles  behind  it  up  to  the  Chataldja  lines,  but 
the  whole  of  Eastern  Thrace  with  Gallipoli  is  trans¬ 
ferred  to  Greece.  In  Asia,  Turkey  surrended  all  her 
Arab  provinces,  from  the  Taurus  Mountains  north 
of  Aleppo  to  the  Persian  frontier  north  of  Mossul,  i.  e., 
Syria  and  Palestine  and  Mesopotamia,  besides  the 
vast  peninsula  of  Arabia  proper.  The  Treaty  also 
provides  for  the  creation  of  an  independent  Armenian 
State  to  be  carved  out  of  the  old  vilayets  of  Trebizond, 
Erzerum,  Bitlis,  and  Van,  and  of  an  autonomous 
Kurdish  State  to  the  south  of  Armenia  with  eventual 
rights  to  complete  independence.  Smyrna,  the  chief 
seaport  in  Asia  Minor,  goes  to  Greece  with  consider¬ 
able  hinterland  extending  over  100  miles  along  the 
coast.  The  rest  of  Asia  Minor  belongs  to  Turkey. 
Turkey  renounces  all  rights  over  Egypt,  the  Suez 
Canal,  Lybia  (formerly  Tripoli),  and  all  the  islands 
in  the  Mediterranean.  As  the  country  stands  today, 
it  is  bounded  on  the  south  byvSyria,  Mesopotamia;  on 
the  east  by  Persia  and  Armenia;  on  the  north  by  the 
Black  Sea,  and  includes  Anatolia,  Kurdistan,  Cilicia 
(which  the  French  evacuated),  and  part  of  the  Cha¬ 
taldja  Peninsula,  where  Constantinople  is  situated. 

Agriculture  and  Commerce. — Land  in  Turkey  is 
held  under  three  different  forms  of  tenure — namely, 
1st,  as  “Miri,”  or  Crownlands;  2nd,  as  “Vakuf,”  or 
pious  foundations;  and  3rd,  as  “Mulk,”  or  freehold 
property.  The  “Miri”  are  held  direct  from  the 
crown;  the  Government  grants  the  right  to  cultivate 
an  unoccupied  tract  on  the  payment  of  certain  fees, 
but  always  enjoys  seigniory  rights  over  the  land  in 
question.  The  “Vakuf”  comprises  property  dedicated 
for  religious  or  charitable  purposes.  The  “Mulk” 
does  not  exist  to  a  great  extent.  The  land  laws  are 
in  process  of  modification.  A  large  portion  of  the 
State  revenue  is  derived  from  tithes  on  agricultural 
product;  the  system  of  levying  it  is  burdensome  and 
oppressive,  the  general  practice  being  to  farm  it  out 
to  contractors.  Agriculture  is  most  primitive;  the 
chief  crops  being  figs,  coffee,  olives,  nuts,  grapes. 
The  foreign  commerce  of  Turkey  from  31  December, 
1919,  to  1  January,  1920,  in  piastres,  is  given  as 
follows  m  the  U.  S.  Commerce  Report,  of  15  June,  1921: 


Imports  Exports 

England . 2,669,326,438  683,843,156 

France .  784,841,318  7,171,157 

Germany .  115,030,795  25,408,933 

Austria . 59,828,239  622,086,397 

Egypt .  513,116,015  56,706,668 

United  States.... .  808,506,281  498,848,735 


Recent  History. — The  nation  as  it  exists  today, 
diminished  in  area  and  prestige,  is  the  outcome  of 
several  recent  wars  beginning  with  the  Tripolitan 


TURKISH  EMPIRE 


745 


TURKISH  EMPIRE 


War  in  1911,  and  ending  in  the  Treaty  of  Sdvrcs  in 
1920.  In  1913,  Greece,  Servia,  Montenegro,  declared 
war  on  Bulgaria.  The  Turks  took  advantage  of  the 
discord  among  their  enemies  and  the  withdrawal  of 
the  Bulgarian  army  from  Tchataldja  to  march  toward 
Adrianople,  which  they  took  with  ease  on  22  July. 
Bulgaria,  overwhelmingly  beaten,  sued  for  peace. 
•Thus  Bulgaria  lost  Adrianople  and  control  of  railway 
connections  with  Dedeagatch,  her  new  single  seaport 
on  the  Aegean.  For  a  while  a  new  war  threatened 
between  Turkey  and  Greece;  in  October,  Anatolian 
reservists  were  called  to  the  colors  by  the  Turkish 
Government  and  the  center  of  the  Greek  army  was 
moved  to  Kavala,  the  easternmost  point  of  Thrace. 
Diplomatic  relations  were,  however,  resumed  and 
resulted  on  13  November,  1913,  in  the  conclusion  of 
a  treaty  providing  for  the  settlement  of  religious, 
racial,  and  financial  affairs  in  Grecian  Thrace  and 
Macedonia.  In  February,  1914,  the  powers  restored 
Imbros,  Tenedos,  and  Castellorizo,  off  Asia  Minor, 
to  Turkey  and  awarded  to  Greece  all  the  other  islands. 

World  War. — After  the  Balkan  Wars,  Turkey 
determined  to  improve  the  military  and  naval  position 
of  the  government  and  as  evidence  appointed  several 
German  army  officers  of  high  rank  to  positions  of 
prime  importance  in  the  actual  command  of  the  army. 
Therefore,  it  is  easy  to  understand  the  pro-German 
influence  that  led  Turkey  to  cast  her  lot  with  Germany 
in  the  Great  European  War.  Still,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  great  struggle,  it  insisted  on  neutrality,  belying, 
its  statements,  however,  by  mobilizing  immediately. 
Soon  after  the  declaration  of  war,  two  German 
cruisers  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  Goeben  and 
Breslau,  took  refuge  in  the  harbor  of  Constantinople. 
The  Allies  protested  and  the  Turks  answered  by 
abrogating  the  conventions  known  as  the  “Capitula¬ 
tions,”  whereby  foreigners  in  that  country  were  exempt 
from  local  jurisdiction  in  civil  and  criminal  cases. 
The  Vatican  protested  along  with  the  Powers  that  the 
abrogation  put  an  end  to  religious  liberty.  The 
Turks  immediately  closed  the  Dardanelles  to  com¬ 
merce.  On  29  October,  1914,  the  Breslau,  masquerad¬ 
ing  as  a  Turkish  cruiser,  shelled  Russian  towns  on 
the  Black  Sea  and  three  Turkish  torpedo  boats  raided 
Odessa.  On  3  November,  Russia  declared  war  on 
Turkey,  and  on  27  November,  the  Sultan  of  Turkey 
proclaimed  a  Jehad  or  Holy  War  to  be  waged  by  all 
Mohammedans  against  “the  enemies  of  Islam.” 

Except  for  some  spasmodic  uprising  against  French 
rule  in  Morocco  the  Mohammedan  subjects  of 
England  and  France  gave  little  heed  to  this  proclama¬ 
tion.  Coincident  with  Turkey’s  entry  into  the  war, 
the  British  formally  annexed  the  Greek-speaking 
Island  of  Cyprus  and  terminated  Turkish  suzerainty 
in  Egypt.  Already  a  British  force  from  India  had 
landed  at  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  had  taken 
Basra,  on  23  November,  and  were  preparing  for  an 
invasion  of  Mesopotamia  with  Bagdad  as  their 
objective.  In  February,  an  Anglo-French  fleet  of 
more  than  fifty  warships  attempted  to  force  the 
passage  of  the  Dardanelles  and  to  reduce  Constan¬ 
tinople,  but  suffered  such  severe  losses  that  the 
co-operation  of  land  forces  was  deemed  necessary.  In 
April,  British  and  French  forces  from  Egypt  landed 
at  the  eastern  end  of  Gallipoli,  between  Gaba 
Tepe  and  Ari  Burnu  and  suffered  great  losses  under 
the  heavy  fire  of  the  Turks.  The  whole  enterprise 
was  from  the  British  point  of  view  a  ghastly  failure, 
due  to  lack  of  experienced  leadership,  mismanage¬ 
ment,  a  deficient  water  supply,  and  inclement 
weather,  and  cost  Great  Britian  117,000  casualties. 

Serious  fighting  took  place  in  Mesopotamia  and  on 
28  April,  1915,  General  Townshend  was  forced  to 
surrender  Kut-el-Amara  after  being  surrounded  and 
besieged.  His  fate  was  avenged  by  General  F.  S. 
Maude,  who  with  an  augumented  British  force  re¬ 


captured  the  town,  overwhelmed  the  Turkish  army 
at  Dialah  and,  on  11  March,  made  his  triumphal 
entry  into  Bagdad.  Joining  hands  with  the  Russians 
he  marched  on  to  Samarra.  On  the  Russo-Turkish 
front  wore  six  Russian  armies.  In  Armenia  a  decisive 
battle  in  January,  1915,  shattered  the  Turkish  line 
on  the  Arasa  River  and  near  Lake  Totum.  Erzerum 
was  taken  by  the  Russians  after  a  five  days’  assault. 
The  first  Russian  army  captured  Trebizond  in  April 
and  headed  for  Platana  and  Djivizlyk  in  May  and 
June.  Another  penetrated  the  mountains  of  the 
upper  Choruk,  took  Mamakhatum,  Baiburt,  Ardasa, 
Gumushkaneh  and  Erizingan  in  July.  “Old  Armenia” 
was  thus  lost  to  Turkey.  The  other  Russian  armies 
were  not  so  successful.  The  third  army,  barely 
escaped  disaster  in  the  Lake  Van  region.  The  fourth 
and  fifth  were  driven  back  in  northwestern  Persia. 
The  sixth  struggling  westward  along  the  caravan 
route  from  Kermanesh  to  Bagdad  was  hurled  back 
almost  200  miles  into  the  interior  of  Persia.  About 
this  time  a  formidable  uprising  in  Arabia  occurred. 
Under  the  leadership  of  the  insurgent-sheriff  of  Mecca, 
the  Arab  rebels  not  only  established  themselves  in 
Mecca,  but  also  captured  Jedda  and  Kinfunda  and 
beleaguered  Taif.  In  November,  1916,  their  new 
“Kingdom  of  the  Hedjaz”  was  proclaimed. 

After  repelling  a  Turkish  attack  on  the  Suez  Canal, 
early  in  August,  1916,  an  army  of  Australasians, 
Indians,  and  Englishmen,  skirted  the  Mediterranean 
Coast  eastward,  occupied  El  Arish  and  Maghdabah, 
ninety  miles  east  of  the  Canal,  and  struck  northwards 
into  Palestine;  at  Gaza  they  inflicted  a  heavy  loss 
upon  the  Turkish  army,  but  did  not  take  the  city. 
General  Edward  Allenby  succeeded  General  Murray, 
and  succeeded  in  taking  Beersheba,  Gaza,  and  cutting 
the  Jaffa-Jerusalem  railroad.  On  November,  16, 
Jaffa  was  occupied  and  on  10  December,  1917, 
Jerusalem  surrendered  to  the  British. 

According  to  the  Treaty  of  Peace  with  Turkey, 
signed  at  Sevres  on  10  August,  1920,  the  Turkish 
Empire  is  very  much  reduced.  Turkey  cedes  (1) 
Thrace,  west  of  the  Chatalja  and  excepting  only  the 
Derkos  water  supply  to  Greece,  as  well  as  Tenedos 
and  Imbros,  and  the  Islands  in  the  Aegean  occupied 
by  Greece;  (2)  Smyrna  with  the  surrounding  strip, 
comprising  Tireh,  Odemish,  Magnisa,  Akhissar, 
Berg-hama  and  Aivali,  is  to  be  administered  by 
Greece,  under  Turkish  sovereignty,  for  5  years  after 
which  the  territory  may  annex  itself  to  Greece  by 
plebiscite;  (3)  Mesopotamia,  Palestine,  Syria,  Ar¬ 
menia,  and  the  Hejz  became  independent,  the  first 
three  under  mandatories;  (4)  Kurdistan  has  autonomy 
conferred  upon  it;  (5)  Castellorizo  and  the  Dodecanese 
are  ceded  to  Italy.  Turkey  retained  Constantinople, 
but  the  coastal  area  of  the  Dardanelles,  the  Marmora 
and  the  Bosphorus  are  placed  under  the  control  of  a 
“Commission  of  the  Straits”  appointed  by  the  League 
of  Nations.  At  the  same  time  England,  France,  and 
Italy  made  a  tripartite  agreement  in  which  they 
undertook  to  support  each  other  in  maintaining  their 
respective  spheres  of  influence  in  Turkey. 

The  prospective  creation  of  a  free  state  of  Con¬ 
stantinople  led  to  a  demand  by  the  Young  Turks 
that  Damad  Pasha  be  ousted  for  his  alleged  failure 
to  win  for  Turkey  more  concessions  in  the  signing  of 
the  treaty;  the  Sultan  declined  to  remove  him.  Finally 
the  landing  of  additional  Greek  and  Italian  troops  at 
Smyrna  and  Adalia,  together  with  the  seizure  of 
Koneih,  an  important  railway  center  in  Asia  Minor, 
by  the  Nationalist  insurgents,  caused  the  downfall  of 
the  Entente  ministry.  The  Nationalists  immediately 
set  up  a  rival  government  at  Angora.  Soon  they 
controlled  a  large  part  of  Anatolia.  In  the  hope  that 
the  wretched  conditions  in  Turkey  would  be  stabilized, 
an  Anglo-Franco-Italian  army  occupied  Constanti¬ 
nople  on  16  March,  1920,  and  the  Turkish  government 


TUY 


746 


TWILIGHT  SLEEP 


was  informed  that  such  occupation  would  continue 
until  the  terms  of  the  Peace  Treaty  were  fulfilled. 
Seeing  the  impossibility  of  carrying  out  the  terms 
without  prolonged  opposition  the  allies  modified  the 
terms  of  the  treaty  in  a  conference  at  London  in 
February,  1921.  Greece,  however,  insisted  on  im¬ 
posing  the  terms  of  the  Sevres  Treaty,  so  favorable 
to  her,  on  the  Nationalists  and  commenced  to  do  so 
by  force. 

Kemal,  the  Nationalist  leader,  headed  the  forces 
fighting  the  invading  Greeks  in  Asia  Minor. 

Tuy,  Diocese  of  (Tudensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 
105a),  in  the  province  of  Pontevedra,  Spain,  suffragan 
of  Compostello.  This  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Manuel 
Tago  y  Gonzalez,  born  in  the  city  of  Tuy,  in  1865; 
he  made  his  studies  at  the  seminary  there  and  later 
served  as  a  professor  of  Greek,  Hebrew  and  theology, 
was  ordained  in  1888,  made  secretary  to  the  Bishop 
of  Lugo  in  1896,  named  a  canon  the  same  year  and 
raised  to  the  rank  of  theological  canon  in  1904.  He 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Osma  25  August,  1909,  and 
transferred  to  Tuy  4  May,  1917.  He  is  a  member  of 
the  royal  academy  of  history.  The  diocese,  which 
covers  an  area  of  766  square  miles  embraces  a  Catholic 
population  of  278,540.  It  comprises  (1920  statistics) 
277  parishes  divided  among  15  archpresbyteries,  504 
priests,  90  seminarians  and  25  convents  with  125 
religious  and  357  Sisters. 

Twilight  Sleep  is  a  treatment  to  bring  about  pain¬ 
less  childbirth.  In  1847  James  Y.  Simpson  in 
England  used  ether  and  chloroform  in  obstetrical 
practice,  but  little  progress  was  made  until  1902 
when  the  German  physician, Steinbuechel,  introduced 
a  method  in  which  the  expectant  mother  was  in  a 
state  of  quietude  and  rest  similar  to  that  of  a  gentle 
sleep,  hence  the  name  Twilight  Sleep.  This  state 
of  unconsciousness  was  brought  about  by  the  use  of 
a  drug  called  scopolamine  and  doses  of  morphine. 
The  first  was  used  to  intensify  the  action  of  the 
morphine,  which  had  the  tendency  to  prevent 
pain.  Dr.  Charles  Green  of  Harvard,  Dr.  Williams 
of  Johns  Hopkins,  Dr.  Joseph  De  Lee  of  North¬ 
western  University,  Chicago,  and  many  other  eminent 
specialists  in  obstetrics,  after  studying  the  process 
scientifically  and  observing  it  in  many  actual  tests 
abandoned  the  treatment.  Dr.  De  Lee  inspected 
the  methods  as  applied  in  maternity  hospitals  in 
several  of  the  larger  cities  of  Germany  and  found 
that  the  treatment  had  been  rejected  by  the  physicians 
who  had  formerly  advocated  it  and  who  had  studied 
it  under  the  most  favorable  conditions.  In  the 
United  States  the  subject  was  brought  to  the  atten¬ 
tion  of  the  general  public  by  articles  in  some  of  our 
popular  magazines;  but  little  of  the  information 
given  there  was  reliable.  “The  merits  and  dis¬ 
advantages  of  this  treatment  have  been  fully  dis¬ 
cussed  both  medically  and  popularly  to  the  fullest 
extent,  but  its  use  has  been  largely  discontinued  by 
American  obstetricians.  There  is  a  distinct  risk  to 
the  child.  The  percentage  of  still  births  is  increased, 
even  in  series  of  selected  cases,  and  is  due  to  an 
asphyxia”  (Shear’s  “Obstetrics,  Normal  and  Opera¬ 
tive,”  1920).  “The  violence  and  uncertainty  of  the 
whole  treatment,  the  general  bad  impression  given 
to  our  patients  who  are  being  taught  to  approach 
the  ‘horrors  of  labor  in  fear  and  trembling  constitute 
so  severe  an  arraignment  of  this  treatment  of  labor 
cases  that  we  feel  compelled  to  condemn  it,  leaving 
open  the  question  of  the  merits  of  a  single  dose  of 
morphine  and  scopolamine  in  those  cases  in  which 
we  have  hitherto  given  morphine  and  atropin” 
(Dr.  Joseph  L.  Baer). 

The  primary  reason  for  the  treatment  is  the  pre¬ 
vention  of  pain  in  childbirth.  The  effects  which 


directly  result  from  it  are  (1)  danger  to  the  life  of 
the  mother,  (2)  and  of  permanent  and  serious  injury 
to  the  mother,  (3)  danger  to  the  life  of  the  child,  and 
(4)  of  serious  and  permanent  injury  to  the  child. 
There  are  times  when  dangerous  treatments  and 
operations  may  be  used  as  the  only  alternatives  of 
saving  the  life  of  a  patient.  Under  such  conditions 
a  risk  may  be  taken  or  a  part  may  be  amputated  to 
save  the  whole.  But  in  the  application  of  twilight 
sleep  the  lives  of  two  persons  are  involved,  that  of 
the  child  and  that  of  the  mother.  Moreover,  the 
child  has  the  same  claim  to  life  that  the  mother  has. 
A  double  effect  follows  from  the  operation:  (1) 
the  prevention  of  pain  on  the  part  of  the  mother, 
and  (2)  the  four  dangers  given  above.  Under  such 
circumstances  the  good  directly  intended  must  be 
proportional  to  the  evil  effects  which  follow.  In 
twilight  sleep  any  one  of  the  evil  effects  is  more  than 
sufficient  to  offset  the  good  which  is  sought  and 
therefore  the  operation  is  morally  wrong. 

To  further  understand  the  difficulties  which  may 
arise  in  this  matter  we  must  recall  that  the  advocates 
of  twilight  sleep  proposed  it  as  a  treatment  in  normal 
childbirth;  in  their  opinion  it  was  to  have  a  universal 
application .  When  we  consider  its  purpose  and  the 
evils  which  were  necessarily  connected  with  it  we 
must  condemn  the  movement  as  unethical.  In 
isolated  cases  where  the  life  of  the  mother  is  en¬ 
dangered  by  some  organic  trouble,  remedies  may  be 
used,  even  if  they  indirectly  threaten  the  life  of  the 
child  or  injury  to  the  child.  Dr.  De  Lee,  in  his 
latest  book  on  obstetrics  (1920),  claims  that  even 
with  improvements  “while  the  life  dangers  to  the 
mother  can  be  eliminated,  the  patient  must  be  willing 
to  pay  the  price  of  possible  lacerations  and  hem¬ 
orrhage,  and  the  occasional  loss  or  injury  of  the  child 
as  the  cost  of  her  relief  from  suffering.”  Under  these 
conditions  the  remedy  may  not  be  used  in  normal 
pregnancy . 

During  the  past  six  years  other  methods  of  painless 
childbirth  have  been  advocated,  among  them  the 
use  of  nitrous  oxid-oxygen.  It  is  claimed  for  this 
treatment  that  it  relieves  the  pains  of  childbirth  and 
in  no  way  injures  or  endangers  either  mother  or 
child.  More  than  a  hundred  cases  were  taken  care 
of  in  the  Presbyterian  Hospital,  Chicago.  But  a 
prominent  physician  of  Chicago  who  had  followed 
the  above  cases  wrote:  “The  method,  while  perfectly 
safe,  was  abandoned  because  it  was  cumbersome, 
could  be  used  only  in  a  hospital  and  was  enormously 
expensive.  .  .  .  The  results  did  not  show  the 
slightest  improvement  in  any  way  over  the  time 
honored  method  of  a  few  drops  of  chloroform  or 
ether  at  the  beginning  of  each  pain  in  the  late  stage 
of  labor.” 

The  difficulty  in  pronouncing  on  the  ethical  solution 
of  such  operations  is  that  they  are  new  and  the  data 
furnished  may  not  always  be  reliable.  But  the  prin¬ 
ciples  which  should  guide  one  are  of  easy  application. 
If,  as  is  claimed,  these  various  methods  do  not  injure 
child  or  mother  and  at  the  same  time  relieve  the  pain 
of  the  mother  they  may  be  used.  If  the  operation  is 
called  twilight  sleep  the  name  does  not  affect  the 
remedy;  nor  does  it  make  the  first  method  and  motive 
of  the  movement  moral. 

O’Malley,  The  Ethics  of  Medical  Homicide  and  Mutilation  (New 
York,  1919);  McClure's  Magazine  (June,  1911);  De  Lee, 
The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Obstetrics  (1920);  Barnes,  Twilight 
Sleep.  A  report  of  30  cases  and  a  summary  of  5575  cases  re¬ 
ported  in  literature  in  Jour.  Indiana  Med.  Assoc.  (Fort  Wayne, 
1920),  XIII,  259-263  (with  14 references);  Winch,  Twilight  Sleep 
in  general  in  the  practice.  Lancet  (London,  1919),  II,  563  (favor¬ 
able);  Ramsay,  Twilight  Sleep,  its  present  status,  in  Illinois  Med. 
Jour.  (Chicago,  1919),  XXXV,  297  (danger);  Baer,  in  Journal 
of  the  A.  M.  A.  (3  April,  1915,  22  May,  1915);  Davis,  Painless 
Childbirth  and  Eutocia  and  Nitrous  Oxid-Oxygen  Analgesia 
(Chicago,  1916). 

Henry  S.  Spalding 


TYRE 


747 


TYRE 


Tyre,  Archdioces  of  (Tyrensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV— 
109d),  a  see  of  three  rites,  in  Syria.  For  the  Latin 
Rite  the  see  was  united  to  Oristano,  but  is  now  listed 
as  a  titular  see.  For  the  Greek  Melkites  it  is  filled  by 
Most  Rev.  Maximos  Saiegh,  appointed  in  1919. 
There  are  5270  Catholics  of  this  rite,  6  secular  and  10 
regular  clergy,  and  14  churches  and  chapels.  The 
present  incumbent  for  the  Maronite  Rite  is  Most 


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Rev.  Chocrallah  Khoury,  born  in  Lebanon  in  1805, 
ordained  in  1886,  served  as  superior  general  of  the 
Lebanon  mission  of  Kraim,  and  was  appointed  31 
January,  1906.  He  is  the  first  archbishop  for  this 
rite.  Out  of  400,000  inhabitants  there  are  10,000 
Maronite  Catholics  served  by  19  secular  priests  and 
16  churches  and  chapels. 


f 


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T  »  r 

f  ft  f*!  y 


1  I 


Ubanghi  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 115a),  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of,  in  Belgian  Congo,  is  governed  by 
Mgr.  Fulgence  Carnonckel,  a  native  of  Grammont, 
Belgium.  The  mission  of  Ubanghi  was  accepted  by 
the  Belgian  Capuchins  in  January,  1910,  at  the  request 
of  the  Belgian  Government,  and  on  7  April,  1911, 
was  raised  to  a  prefecture  Apostolic.  On  10  Septem¬ 
ber,  Fathers  Fulgence  Carnonckel,  Liberatus  Maas 
of  Turnhout,  Basilius  Tanghe  of  Bruges,  Ferdinandus 
Peeters  of  Antwerp  and  two  lay  brothers,  Humilis 
Ceulemans  of  Gravenwezel  and  Amandus  de  Lannoy 
of  Hoozlede  left  Belgium  to  found  the  mission, 
arriving  on  1  December  at  Bansyville  when  the  first 
station  was  started.  No  missionary  had  even  been 
there,  but  there  were  a  score  of  natives  here  and  there 
who  had  been  baptized  while  doing  military  service. 

The  boundaries  are:  On  the  W.  and  N.  the 
River  Ubanghi  from  1°  30'  N.  lat.  to  the 
junction  of  the  Bomu  and  Uele;  on  the  E.  a 
ilne  from  there  to  the  confluence  of  the  Trim- 
biri  and  Congo,  and  continued  to  the  south 
of  Abumombazi  (3°  38'46"  N.;  22°  5'  E.),  and  on  the 
S.  the  watershed  separating  the  Congo  and  Ubanghi, 
the  Ubanghi  and  Ngiri,  and  then  1°  30'  S.  lat.  to  the 
Ubanghi.  To  the  west  lies  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
French  Equatorial  Congo;  to  the  west  and  north 
the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Ubanghi-Chari-Tchad;  to 
the  east,  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Western  Uelle; 
and  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  New  Antwerp,  the 
latter  also  lying  to  the  south.  Many  languages  are 
spoken  in  the  prefecture  adding  to  the  missionary’s 
labors — -  the  Ngombe  and  Lubala  use  a  Bantu 
tongue,  while  the  Ngbandi,  Banza  and  Bwaka  use 
Sudanese  languages.  The  natives  number  over  150,- 
000.  Sleeping  sickness  is  prevalent.  It  is  curable 
if  treated  without  delay,  consequently  the  mission¬ 
aries  have  established  dispensaries  in  three  stations, 
where  suspected  cases  can  be  treated.  Leprosy 
occurs  here  and  there  but  not  in  a  contagious  form. 
Before  the  arrival  of  the  Belgians  and  especially 
the  missionaries  the  tribes  were  all  cannibal;  now 
cannibalism  is  a  very  rare  occurence.  The  natives 
are  very  superstitous  and  addicted  to  fetichism,  but 
they  are  not  idolators.  Polygamy  is  the  great  ob¬ 
stacle  to  their  conversion,  but  even  that  is  yielding 
slowly.  Catechumens  receive  six  months  special 
training  at  the  mission  station,  before  being- baptized; 
after  baptism  they  remain  there  four  weeks  longer 
to  prepare  for  Holy  Communion.  From  1913  to 
1921  the  number  of  Catholics  has  been  as  follows: 
83;  325;  501;  668;  1361;  2259;  2945;  3467;  4238.  The 
mission  statistics  for  1921  furnished  by  the  Prefect 
Apostolic  who  resides  at  Moleghe  are:  priests  12, 
lay  brothers  5;  Capuchins;  Sisters,  4  (Augustinians 
from  Mons);  churches  and  chapels,  5  public,  2  private 
Catholics  4238;  catechists  61;  chapel  schools  49; 
catechumens  5737;  normal  schools  (for  catechists) 
2,  pupils  37;  rural  schools  45;  pupils  718;  trade 
schools  14,  pupils  115  girls,  86  boys;  orphanages  4; 
orphans  213  boys,  131  girls,  who  receive  secondary 
education;  laboratories  and  dispensaries  3;  hospitals 
2;  with  167  sleeping  sickness  patients;  4  cemeteries; 
baptism  1189  of  which  789  were  solemn  ,  400  in  articulo 
mortis  (186  of  these  baptized  parties  recovered); 
Holy  Communions  105,466;  marriages  80;  ecclesias¬ 


tical  burials  58.  There  are  no  non-Catholics  in  the 
prefecture,  the  attempt  made  by  the  American 
Protestants  in  1916  having  failed  to  make  any  con¬ 
verts.  The  elementary  or  rural  schools  teach  Cris- 
tian  doctrine,  reading  and  writing  of  the  vernacular 
the  secondary  schools  teach  in  addition  elementary 
arithmetic  and  the  history  and  geography  of  Belgium 
and  the  Congo;  the  normal  or  catechists’  schools 
teach  in  addition  the  art  of  speaking  and  corres¬ 
pondence.  The  trade  schools  teach  carpentry, 
brickmaking,  masonry,  tanning,  tailoring  and  shoe¬ 
making. 

Ubanghi-Chari,  Prefecture  Apostolic  of;  (cf. 
C.  E.,  XV — 115a),  in  French  Equatorial  Africa,  is 
confided  to  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  V. 
Rev.  Jean-Rene  Calloch,  C.  S.  Sp.,  b.  in  the  Diocese 
of  Quimper,  France,  in  1876,  appointed  21  January, 
1904,  still  fills  the  see.  On  14  May,  1914,  the  pre¬ 
fecture  was  detached  from  the  Vicariate  of  Central 
Africa  and  the  new  boundaries  were  fixed.  It  is  as 
large  as  France  with  several  millions  of  inhabitants  to 
convert.  Prior  to  the  war  the  missionaries  were 
gaining  foothold  slowly  but  surely.  In  1920  five 
missionaries  did  wonderful  work  in  the  missions 
established.  There  were  (1918)  565  conversions  and 
baptisms,  and  250  children  educated  and  cared  for 
by  the  Bangui  and  the  Bessou  charities. 

Uberaba,  Diocese  of  (de  Uberaba;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 115d),  in  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil,  suffragan  of 
Marianna.  The  word  Uberaba  is  from  I-berab-a, 
which  in  Tupi  means  “smiling  water,”  the  Indian 
name  of  the  ruin  on  which  the  city  stands.  On  8 
July,  1918,  the  parishes  of  St.  Jerome  and  St.  Francis 
were  transferred  to  the  newly-erected  Diocese  of 
Aterrado  (q.  v.).  In  1921  the  diocese  had  an  area 
of  about  58,000  square  miles  (150,000  square  kilo¬ 
meters)  with  44  parishes,  and  a  population  of  about 
375,000,  mostly  Catholics.  The  city  of  Uberaba 
has  13  canons,  of  whom  3  are  supernumerary;  by 
Apostolic  indult  the  canons  are  exempt  from  the 
obligation  of  reciting  the  office  in  common  and  resid¬ 
ing  in  the  episcopal  city.  The  diocesan  statistics 
record  as  follows:  Religious  Orders — Dominicans, 
5  priests,  5  lay  brothers;  Marist  Brothers,  18;  Vincen¬ 
tian  Fathers,  2;  Dominican  Sisters,  20,  with  30 
novices;  Sisters  of  the  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary, 
13;  Portuguese  Sisters  of  Jesus,  Mary  and  Joseph; 
Catholic  press — “Uniao  Popular,”  “Estrella  Matu- 
tina,”  “Mensageiro  do  Rosario,”  and  “A  Cruz;” 
Sodalities — Apostleship  of  Prayer,  Perpetual  Rosary, 
Daughters  of  Mary,  Franciscan  Tertiaries,  Dominican 
Tertiaries,  Crusaders  of  the  Blessed  Sacrament,  St. 
Gerald’s  Association,  Men’s  Rosary  Sodality,  Angeli¬ 
cal  Militia  of  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  St.  Vincent  de 
Paul  Society,  Ladies’  Charitable  Association;  Homes 
— 2  Houses  of  Mercy,  2  Asylums;  Organizations — the 
Altar  Society  to  care  for  poor  churches,  the  Uniao 
Popular,  which  conducts  a  night  school  for  working¬ 
men,  with  40  students;  Schools — besides  many 
parochial  schools  there  are  3  girls’  colleges,  one  with 
700  students,  ranking  as  a  normal  school,  1  diocesan 
gymnasium  with  500  pupils,  and  2  private  Catholic 
schools  conducted  by  secular  ladies.  There  were 


UCAYALI 


749 


UNION 


about  2050  marriages  and  14,000  baptisms  in  the 
diocese  in  the  year  1921. 

Ucayali,  (St.  Francis  of  Ucayali),  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 1 1 7d ) ,  in  Central 
Peru,  is  confided  to  the  Friars  Minor,  and  governed 
by  Very  Rev.  Francesco  Irazola,  O.  F.  M.,  elected 
28  January,  1913.  He  resides  at  St.  Francis  of 
Ucayali. 

The  prefecture  contains  (1920)  10,000  inhabitants 
of  whom  5140  are  Catholic,  and  100  catechumens, 
12  missionary  priests,  10  lay  brothers,  24  churcehs 
and  chapels,  1  parish,  17  Christian  communities  anh 
6  residences. 

Udine,  Archdiocese  of  (IJtinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 118b),  in  Friuli,  Northern  Italy,  directly  subject 
to  the  Holy  See.  This  see  is  filled  by  Most  Rev. 
Antonio  Anastasio  Rossi,  born  in  Milan  in  1864;  he 
made  his  studies  in  Rome,  became  a  professor  in  the 
seminary  of  Pavia,  then  vicar  general  and  honorary 
canon  in  that  diocese,  municipal  counsellor  and  pro¬ 
vincial  1902-08,  was  made  a  private  chamberlain 
in  1905  and  appointed  bishop  8  January,  1910. 
In  February,  1917,  he  was  named  a  grand  officer  of 
the  crown  of  Italy.  The  cathedral,  built  in  1236,  and 
altered  several  times,  was  most  recently  repaired  in 
1912.  The  diocese  comprises  272  parishes,  502 
churches,  4  monasteries  for  men  and  1  for  women,  2 
convents  for  men  and  68  for  women,  644  secular  and 
32  regular  clergy,  10  brothers,  890  Sisters,  1  seminary, 
285  seminarians,  4  higher  schools  for  boys  and  10 
for  girls,  and  18  professional  schools.  One  missionary 
association  carries  on  charitable  works  and  2  homes, 
34  asylums,  10  hospitals,  2  refuges,  1  settlement 
house  and  2  day  nurseries  are  established .  One  society 
is  formed  among  the  clergy,  a  number  among  the 
laity,  and  several  Catholic  periodicals  are  published. 

Uganda,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Ugandensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 413a),  erected  in  1894  as  the  Vicariate 
Apostolic  of  Victoria  Nyanza  Northern,  and  changed 
to  its  present  title  by  a  decree  of  15  January,  1915. 
It  is  entrusted  to  the  White  Fathers,  the  present 
vicar  being  Rt.  Rev.  Henry  Streicher,  named  21 
January,  1897,  and  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Tabraca  1  February,  following.  He  is  assisted  by  a 
coadjutor  Rt.  Rev.  Jean  Forbes,  appointed  titular 
Bishop  of  Vaga,  17  November,  1917.  Episcopal 
residences  are  established  at  Katirondo  and  Kampala. 
The  vicariate,  which  comprises  the  greater  part  of 
the  royalty  of  Uganda,  is  illustrious  for  the  22 
blacks  martyred  for  the  Faith,  who  were  beatified 
in  1920.  Latest  statistics,  collected  in  June,  1919, 
credit  it  with  171,551  Catholics,  60,126  catechumens, 
31  stations,  106  missionary  priests  and  Brothers, 
10  native  priests,  40  European  religious  (White 
Sisters  and  Sisters  of  Marie-Reparatrice) ,  91  native 
Sisters,  1314  catechists,  725  schools  giving  instruc¬ 
tion  to  10,172  boys  and  7622  girls,  and  52  charitable 
institutions  caring  for  378,003  sick  people.  During 
the  year  1918-19  baptism  was  administered  to  3593 
adults,  and  Easter  communions,  and  communions  of 
devotion  totaled  2,085,316. 

Ugento,  Diocese  of  (Uxentinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 119b),  in  the  province  of  Lecce,  Southern 
Italy,  is  suffragan  of  Otranto.  Rt.  Rev.  Luigi  Pug- 
liese,  transferred  to  Ugento  22  July,  1896,  still  (1922) 
fills  the  see.  There  are  in  the  diocese  (1920)  70,000 
Catholics,  30  parishes,  125  secular  and  4  regular 
priests,  10  seminarians,  120  churches  or  chapels. 

Union  of  Christendom  —  Recent  manifestations  of 
the  movement  toward  reunion  may  be  treated 
under  three  heads:  various  sporadic  and  in  a  sense 
local  movements,  generally  affecting  only  a  limited 


constituency;  the  Federal  Council  of  Churches  of 
Christ  in  America;  the  World  Conference  on  Faith 
and  Order. 

I — Most  of  the  sporadic  or  limited  movements 
have  been  treated  in  the  various  articles  on  the  sects, 
but  for  convenience  the  most  important  may  be  sum¬ 
marized  here. 

(1)  A  concordat  was  entered  into  by  members  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  and  of  Congre¬ 
gational  churches  in  the  United  States,  March,  1919, 
bearing  chiefly  on  orders  and  the  ministration  of  the 
sacraments.  It  later  fell  somewhat  into  abeyance 
although  final  disposition  is  to  be  made  in  the  con¬ 
ventions  of  1922. 

(2)  In  1915  a  basis  of  union  was  agreed  upon  by  the 
joint  committees  of  the  Presbyterian,  Methodist,  and 
Congregational  churches  of  Canada,  the  union  to  be 
known  as  “The  United  Church  of  Canada.”  As 
yet  (1922),  however,  the  plan  has  not  been  put  into 
execution. 

(3)  A  similar  union  of  the  Presbyterian,  Methodist 
and  Congregational  churches  of  Australia  was  pro¬ 
posed  in  1918,  full  reports  on  the  result  not  yet  being 
available. 

(4)  In  1919  proposals  were  made  for  church  union 
in  South  India,  the  parties  to  the  proposition  being 
the  Anglican  Church,  the  South  India  United  Church 
(constituted  in  1908  and  embracing  the  two  congre¬ 
gational  bodies:  the  London  Missionary  Society  and 
the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign 
Missions;  and  also  the  Church  of  Scotland,  the 
United  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  and  the  Dutch 
Reformed  Church  of  America)  and  the  Mar  Thoma 
Syrian  Church.  Final  action  has  not  yet  been 
reported. 

(5)  In  1913  at  Kikuyu  in  British  East  Africa  a 
union  meeting,  participated  in  by  Anglicans,  was  held 
(see  Anglicanism).  In  1918  a  similar  meeting 
(without  the  accompanying  incidents)  was  held  at 
the  same  place,  the  associating  parties  being  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  (Anglican),  the  Church 
of  Scotland  Mission,  Africa  Inland  Mission  (an  inter¬ 
church  organization),  and  the  United  Methodist 
Church  Mission,  a  constitution  being  proposed  for  a 
projected  “Alliance  of  Missionary  Societies  in 
British  East  Africa”  and  ratification  is  now  being 
sought. 

(6)  In  1919  and  1920  proposals  were  made  paiticu- 
larly  in  accordance  with  the  statement  of  the  Lambeth 
Conference  fof  1920  or  reunion  between  the  Chuich 
of  England  and  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Church,  but 
were  rejected  by  the  latter  on  the  question  of  epis¬ 
copacy. 

(7)  In  1918  the  Free  Evangelical  Churches  of 
England,  including  Baptists,  Congregationalisms, 
Methodists,  Presbyteiians  and  other  Nonconformist 
bodies,  formed  a  Free  Church  Federation  similar  to 
the  Federal  Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  in 
America. 

(8)  In  1917  three  Lutheran  bodies  in  the  United 
States,  the  Norwegian,  United  Norwegian,  and 
Hauge’s  Synods  united  under  the  title  of  the  Norweg¬ 
ian  Lutheran  Church  of  America,  and  in  1918  three 
other  Lutheran  bodies  in  America,  the  General  Synod, 
the  General  Council,  and  the  United  Synod  South, 
united,  adopting  the  name  United  Lutheran  Church 
in  America. 

(9)  In  1920  in  the  United  States  representatives  of 
the  Armenians,  Baptists,  the  Christian  Church, 
Christian  Union  of  the  United  States,  Congregational¬ 
ists,  Disciples,  Evangelical  Synod  of  North  America, 
Friends  (two  branches),  Methodists  (Primitive), 
Methodist  Episcopalians,  Moravian  Church,  Presby¬ 
terian  Church  in  the  United  States  of  America,  Prot¬ 
estant  Episcopal  Church ,  Reformed  Episcopal  Church , 
Reformed  Church  in  the  Uni  ted  States,  United  Presby- 


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terians,  and  Welsh  Presbyterians,  formulated  plans 
for  a  federal  union  to  be  known  as  the  “United  Church 
of  Chiist  in  America.” 

(10)  The  Alliance  of  Reformed  Churches  through¬ 
out  the  World  holding  the  Presbyterian  System  is  a 
loose  federation  whose  title  is  self-explanatory.  Its 
American  branch  is  the  Council  of  Reformed  Churches 
of  America  holding  the  Presbyterian  System.  There 
have  also  occurred  minor  unions  between  various 
Presbyterian  bodies  (see  Presbyterianism). 

(11)  For  Interchurch  World  Movement  see  Prot¬ 
estantism. 

II.  — While  the  Federal  Council  of  Churches  of 
Christ  in  America  is  a  manifestation  of  the  general 
movement  toward  unity  it  is  in  no  sense  an  attempt 
to  draw  up  a  common  creed  or  form  of  government  or 
of  worship.  The  Council  is  an  officially  constituted 
body,  yet  the  autonomy  of  the  federated  churches 
remains  intact,  the  purpose  being  to  effect  unity  of 
service  and  effort  rather  than  of  faith  or  polity. 

The  organization  of  the  Federal  Council  was  com¬ 
pleted  in  1908,  largely  as  the  result  of  previous  feder¬ 
ative  movements.  It  includes  about  thirty  denomina¬ 
tions,  among  which  are  found  Baptist,  Lutheran, 
Methodist,  Presbyterian,  and  Protestant  Episcopal 
sects.  In  1922  they  reported  a  combined  total  of 
142,472  congregations,  113,761  clergy  and  19,933,115 
members. 

Similar  bodies  outside  of  America  are:  in  England, 
the  National  Council  of  the  Evangelical  Free  Churches 
(mentioned  above,  I,  7),  and  the  Fedeial  Council  of 
the  Evangelical  Free  Churches  which  is  somewhat 
more  inclusive  than  the  former:  in  France,  the  Prot¬ 
estant  Federation  of  France  ( Federation  Protestante 
de  France),  embracing  the  National  Union  of  Re¬ 
formed  Evangelical  Churches,  National  Union  of 
Reformed  Churches.  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church, 
Union  of  Evangelical  Free  Churches,  Evangelical 
Methodist  Church,  Union  of  Baptist  Churches  of 
Northern  France;  in  Switzerland,  the  Union  of  Swiss 
Reformed  Churches  ( Verband  Schweizerischer  Refor- 
mierter  Kirchen ) ,  including  only  the  German-speaking 
churches  of  the  Swiss  Reformed  Church  Conference; 
in  Belgium,  the  Belgian  Protestant  Committee  of 
Union  (Comite  d’ Union  Protestante  Beige),  which 
includes  the  Union  of  Protestant  Evangelical  Churches 
of  Belgium  and  the  Belgian  Christian  Missionary 
Church;  in  Japan,  the  Federation  of  Churches  of 
Japan;  in  Germany,  the  Federal  Council  of  the 
Churches  of  Christ  in  Germany,  which  is  in  process  of 
organization. 

III.  — The  World  Conference  on  Faith  and  Order  is 
a  more  thorough  and  comprehensive  attempt  to  effect 
a  reunion  of  the  churches,  their  ideal  being  a  union 
which  shall  embrace  not  only  the  Protestant  sects 
and  the  Eastern  schismatics,  but  (so  they  state),  the 
Catholic  Church  as  well. 

(a)  History. — The  movement  originated  in  the 
General  Convention  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  at  Cin¬ 
cinnati,  in  1910,  when  the  Rev.  William  T.  Manning, 
rector  of  Trinity  Church,  New  York  (now  bishop), 
introduced  a  resolution  on  reunion  calling  for  the 
appointment  of  a  commission  to  prepare  a  “conference 
for  the  consideration  of  questions  touching  Faith  and 
Order,  and  that  all  Christian  Communions  through¬ 
out  the  world  which  confess  our  Lord  Jesus  Chiist  as 
God  and  Saviour  be  asked  to  unite  with  us  in  arrang¬ 
ing  for  and  conducting  such  a  conference.”  The 
commission  was  appointed  and  $100,000  donated 
by  J.  P-  Morgan  to  help  finance  it.  The  commission 
immediately  began  conferring  with  other  chuiches, 
the  Congregationalists  and  the  Disciples  of  Christ, 
who  were  in  convention  at  the  same  time  as  the  Epis¬ 
copalians,  being  the  first  to  join  the  movement,  after 
having  concomitantly  passed  similar  resolutions  to 
that  mentioned  above.  In  May,  1913,  an  unofficial 


meeting  of  repesentatives  of  American  denomina¬ 
tions  was  held;  meanwhile  deputations  had  gone  to 
Great  Britain  to  arouse  interest  there;  a  North  Amer¬ 
ican  preparatory  conference  took  place  in  January, 
1916,  in  Garden  City,  Long  Island;  and  in  1919  an 
official  American  deputation  visited  Europe  and  the 
Near  East. 

In  Athens  the  delegates  were  well  received  by  the 
Holy  Governing  Synod  of  the  Church  of  Greece, 
which  agreed  to  send  representatives  to  the  World 
Conference.  Other  Eastern  chuiches  took  similar 
action,  the  cordiality  of  the  Church  of  Constantinople 
extending  so  far  as  to  invite  and  permit  one  of  the 
members  of  the  deputation  to  sing  the  Gospel  on 
Easter  Sunday  at  the  cathedral  service.  Practically 
all  the  non-Catholic  chuiches  in  Europe  signified 
their  approval  of  the  movement  and  their  intention 
to  co-operate,  the  churches  in  Russia  and  Germany 
alone  not  being  approached  because  of  disturbed 
internal  conditions  in  those  countries,  although  a  few 
delegates  from  these  churches  finally  attended  the 
meeting  in  1920.  The  deputation  also  visited  Rome, 
being  received  by  his  Holiness  Pope  Benedict  XV, 
who  indicated  that  the  Catholic  Church  could  not 
accept  their  invitation  to  participate  in  the  proposed 
confeience. 

The  churches,  as  they  approved  the  movement, 
appointed  commissions  (not  more  than  three  members 
from  each),  and  these  delegates  convened  in  Geneva, 
Switzerland,  12  August,  1920,  to  arrange  for  its  fur¬ 
ther  conduct.  There  were  present  137  delegates, 
under  the  presidency  of  Bishop  Charles  H.  Brent,  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  diocese  of  Western  New 
York,  representing  about  forty  nations  and  seventy 
Trinitarian  churches.  After  having  been  in  session 
generally  twice  daily  the  Conference  elected  a  con¬ 
tinuation  committee  and  adjourned  on  19  August,  the 
final  benediction  being  given  by.  Bishop  Herzog  of  the 
Old  Catholic  Church.  Since  this  preliminary  meeting 
the  continuation  work  has  consisted  chiefly  in  the 
formation  of  local  groups,  notably  at  Oxfoid  and  Cam¬ 
bridge,  England,  and  at  Philadelphia,  to  discuss  the 
topics  presented  at  Geneva,  in  order  that  definite 
proposals  may  if  possible  be  made  to  the  next  Con¬ 
ference. 

(b)  Aims  and  Methods. — As  previously  intimated 
this  movement  aims  at  effecting  a  universal,  reunited 
church,  and  not  merely  a  federation  of  churches  in 
which  each  constituent  church  would  retain  its  present 
complete  entity,  its  organization,  forms  and  beliefs. 
Practically  it  aims  at  arriving  at  such  a  compromise 
on  questions  of  faith  and  order  as  would  be  acceptable 
to  all  participants  as  the  basis  of  reunion.  It  also 
differs  from  many  similar  movements  in  that  it  seeks 
to  embrace  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  movement. 

To  effect  its  purpose  the  conference  method  has 
been  adopted,  the  intent  being  to  procure  thiough 
small  lepiesentative  bodies  of  delegates  information  on 
the  views  of  the  participant  churches  as  to  the  ques¬ 
tions  involved;  to  bring  about  discussion  of  the  points 
raised;  to  receive  from  the  various  churches  their 
opinions  as  to  what  should  be  the  nature  and  charac¬ 
teristics  of  the  proposed  reunited  church.  The  pre¬ 
liminary  local  discussions  are  especially  for  this  pur¬ 
pose,  it  being  their  task  to  consider  the  questions 
formulated  for  them  and  circulated  by  the  World  Con¬ 
ference.  Furthermore,  the  churches  are  asked  not  to 
pledge  themselves  officially  to  any  answers  to  the 
questions;  their  action  is  to  await  the  final  proposals 
which  may  in  the  future  be  presented  to  them  by  the 
Conference  after  the  results  of  the  preliminary  dis¬ 
cussions  have  been  collated,  discussed  and  acted 
upon.  The  period  necessary  for  the  accomplishment 
of  their  purpose  has  been  estimated  as  “perhaps  one, 
and  possibly  two,  generations.”  Finally,  the  sponsors 
of  the  movement  have  at  all  times  called  attention  to 


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the  necessity  of  prayer  for  the  success  of  the  under¬ 
taking.  The  continuation  committee,  stating  that 
the  first  and  by  far  the  most  important  preparation  is 
that  of  prayer,  has  requested  the  participating 
churches  to  offer  regular  and  special  prayers  for  this 
purpose.  A  "Manual  of  Prayers  for  Unity”  has  been 
issued,  and  an  octave  of  prayers  has  been  appointed 
for  the  week  ending  with  Pentecost,  4  June,  1922. 

What  has  been  the  concrete  result  of  the  twelve 
years  of  work  on  the  part  of  the  movement?  While 
the  preliminary  Conference  at  Geneva  (1920)  was 
somewhat  in  the  nature  of  an  agape,  especially  in  its 
opening  sessions,  it  discussed  in  a  general  way  the 
meaning  of  the  church,  and  what  is  meant  by  unity, 
and  the  place  of  the  Bible  and  a  creed  in  relation  to 
reunion.  The  almost  universal  tendency  of  the 
delegates  seemed  to  indicate  an  inability  on  the  part 
of  their  churches  to  yield  any  substantial  point  in 
questions  of  faith  or  order,  the  lion-episcopal  churches, 
for  example,  standing  for  the  sufficiency  of  their 
orders,  and  the  non-creedal  churches  generally  deny¬ 
ing  any  necessity  of  a  creed  in  the  strict  sense.  How¬ 
ever,  the  meeting  was  not  intended  to  be  definitive 
on  these  points;  and  accordingly  it  instructed  the 
continuation  committee  to  secure  proper  considera¬ 
tion  and  discussion  of  the  topics  mentioned  above. 
This  committee  formulated  the  questions  and  sent 
them  to  the  local  churches  in  the  following  form: 
(1)  What  degree  of  unity  in  Faith  will  be  necessary 
in  a  reunited  Church?  (2)  Is  a  statement  of  this 
one  Faith  in  the  form  of  a  Creed  necessary  or  desir¬ 
able?  (3)  If  so,  what  Creed  should  be  used?  or 
what  other  formulary  would  be  desirable?  (4)  YV  hat 
are  the  proper  uses  of  a  Creed  and  of  a  Confession  of 
Faith? 

(c)  The  Catholic  Church  and  the  Movement—  Before 
speaking  of  the  attitude  of  the  Church  it  may  be  well 
to  indicate  the  attitude  of  the  Movement  toward  the 
Church.  As  stated  previously  the  sponsors  of  the 
movement  entertained  the  hope  that  they  could  pre¬ 
vail  upon  Catholic  delegates  to  enter  into  conference 
with  them;  their  idea  of  a  reunited  Church  is  one 
that  should  include  the  Roman  Church  as  well 
as  the  various  non-Catholic  denominations.  They 
have  accordingly  in  pursuance  of  this  idea  always  been 
courteous  in  their  attitude  toward  the  Church  and 
her  rulers;  in  their  discussions  there  has  not  ap¬ 
peared  any  attack  on  the  Church;  even  after  receiving 
the  definitive  declination  of  the  Pope  to  send  dele¬ 
gates  to  Geneva  they  have  not  changed  their  attitude; 
in  their  "Manual  of  Prayers”  use  is  made  of  some 
excerpts  from  the  Roman  Missal;  and  finally  in  this 
Manual  a  courteous  suggestion  is  made  that  Catholic 
priests  should  say,  and  lay  people  should  have  said, 
votive  Masses  for  the  Reunion  of  Christendom.  The 
general  external  attitude,  in  other  words,  is  that  of 
those  who  desire  an  entente  cordiale  with  the  Church. 
It  is  quite  clear,  however,  that  they  are  unable  to 
understand  why  the  Church  cannot  take  any  official 
part  in  the  movement. 

The  attitude  of  the  Church  toward  the  World 
Conference  presents  a  twofold  aspect:  toward  the 
movement  in  itself,  and  toward  the  movement  as 
seeking  official  Catholic  representation  in  the  Con¬ 
ference.  Toward  the  movement  in  itself,  that  is, 
toward  the  movement  as  constituting  a  sincere  and 
earnest  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  non-Catholic 
denominations  to  arrive  at  some  method  of  ending  the 
deplorable  religious  disunion  which  has  divided  a 
great  part  of  Christianity  into  almost  innumerable 
sects,  the  Church  has  only  sympathy  and  approval. 
The  end  in  itself,  the  Reunion  of  Christendom,  is  one 
which  appeals  especially  to  all  Catholics.  Priests  and 
people  pray  daily  for  this  end,  Masses  are  said, 
novenas  are  offered  up,  an  octave  of  prayer  is  of¬ 
ficially  offered  yearly,  and  some  religious  orders  have 
48 


practically  as  their  chief  end  the  furtherance  of 
religious  unity.  This  does  not,  however,  mean  that 
they  pray  directly  for  the  success  of  the  World  Con¬ 
ference  in  the  concrete.  They  pray  indeed  that  this 
movement  may  serve  at  least  to  lead  some  back 
into  the  bosom  of  the  Church  which  their  fathers  de¬ 
serted;  they  cannot,  however,  admit  the  competency 
of  such  a  tribunal  to  settle  such  questions  as  it  has 
raised;  for  a  Catholic,- only  the  Catholic  Church 
through  its  leader,  the  Pope,  the  Vicar  of  Christ  on 
earth,  can  say  what  is  necessary,  what  is  useful,  in 
matters  of  faith  and  order,  and  this  the  Church  has 
indicated  so  clearly  in  times  past  that  the  question  is 
no  longer  an  open  one. 

Hence  on  the  second  aspect  of  the  attitude  of  the 
Church  the  explanation  is  simple.  The  Church  can 
take  no  official  part  in  the  World  Conference  because 
the  Church  has  been  appointed  by  Jesus  Christ  as  the 
custodian  of  the  deposit  of  faith  which  He  left  with 
it  through  His  apostles.  The  Catholic  Church  is  in 
the  possession  of  the  Truth  and  uncompromisingly, 
yet  in  all  charity,  it  must  decline  any  encroachment 
on  its  Divine  prerogatives.  It  is  not  then  in  a  spirit 
of  aloofness  or  of  lack  of  sympathy  or  understanding 
that  the  Church  acts  as  she  does;  for  the  Church  all 
the  questions  which  the  Conference  raises  as  to  the 
necessity  of  a  Creed,  and  the  like,  are  definitely 
settled.  It  is  hard  indeed  for  a  non-Catholic  to 
appreciate  this  attitude.  An  analogy  taken  from  the- 
field  of  science  may  help.  If  a  non-scientific  man 
should  approach  a  scientist ,  an  astronomer  for  example , 
and  request  the  latter  for  a  conference  with  a  view 
to  a  broader  basis  of  unity  of  belief  on  astronomical 
subjects;  if  he  should  intimate  that  in  astronomy  it 
should  be  sufficient  to  hold  that  the  earth  does  not 
revolve  around  the  sun,  and  that  the  sun  is  only  a 
few  thousand  miles  away  from  the  earth,  and  that 
with  greater  freedom  on  the  part  of  both  to  view  the 
questions  as  they  please,  a  truer  unity  would  be  at¬ 
tained,  the  scientist  could  only  reply  that  the  ques¬ 
tions  had  already  been  decided  against  the  petitioner; 
they  are  no  longer  open;  if  unity  is  desired  it  must  be 
unity  with  the  scientist  on  those  points  which  have 
been  proved  true. 

In  matters  of  faith  and  order  the  Catholic  Church 
is  in  a  position  analogous  to  that  of  the  scientist  in 
regard  to  facts  of  nature.  On  the  word  of  God  the 
Church  is  certain  that  it  is  in  possession  of  the  Truth. 
It  cannot  recede  without  going  counter  to  the  will  of 
God.  If  the  non-Catholic  would' only  try  to  under¬ 
stand  this  merely  from  the  psychological  point  of 
view  he  would  probably  come  nearer  to  a  more  S3^m- 
pathetic  realization  of  the  fact  that  the  Church’s 
refusal  to  treat  with  him  on  a  compromise  basis  is 
absolutely  compatible  with  the  charity  and  the  good 
will  she  professes. 

The  two  points  of  view  outlined  above  are  sub¬ 
stantially  those  held  by  Benedict  XV  when  approached 
by  representatives  of  the  World  Conference.  In 
1914  and  in  1915  he  expressed  his  gratification  at 
learning  of  the  movement,  and  his  hope  that  it  would 
finally  lead  to  the  restoration  of  the  unity  of  the 
mystical  body  of  Christ.  To  the  deputation  of 
1919  he  accorded  a  cordial  personal  welcome;  but  as 
the  report  of  the  deputation  puts  it  "the  contrast 
between  the  Pope’s  personal  attitude  towards  us  and 
his  official  attitude  towards  the  Conference  was  very 
sharp.  One  was  irresistibly  benevolent,  the  other 
irresistibly  rigid.  The  genuineness  of  the  Pope’s 
personal  friendliness  towards  us  was  as  outstanding 
as  the  positiveness  of  his  official  declination  of  our 
invitation.”  In  conclusion  this  final  point  may  best 
be  summed  up  by  the  official  statement  of  Benedict 
XV,  presented  to  the  deputation  by  Archbishop 
Cerretti:  "The  Holy  Father,  after  having  thanked 
them  for  their  visit,  stated  that  as  successor  of  St. 


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Peter  and  Vicar  of  Christ  he  had  no  greater  desire 
than  that  there  should  be  one  fold  and  one  shepherd. 
His  Holiness  added  that  the  teaching  and  practice  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  regarding  the  unity  of 
the  visible  Church  of  Christ  was  well  known  to 
everybody  and  therefore  it  would  not  be  possible  for 
the  Catholic  Church  to  take  part  in  such  a  Congress 
as  the  one  proposed.  His  Holiness,  however,  by  no 
means  wishes  to  disapprove  of  the  Congress  in  ques¬ 
tion  for  those  who  are  not  in  union  with  the  Chair  of 
Peter;  on  the  contrary  he  earnestly  desires  and  prays 
that,  if  the  Congress  is  practicable,  those  who  take 
part  in  it  may,  by  the  grace  of  God,  see  the  light  and 
become  reunited  to  the  visible  Head  of  the  Church, 
by  whom  they  will  be  received  with  open  arms.” 

Mode,  Aims  and  Methods  of  Union  Movements  in  America  in 
American  Journal  of  Theology,  XXIV  (1920),  224;  Johnson, 
Policy  of  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  loc.  cit.,  161;  Gailor, 
Lambeth  Committee  on  Reunion  in  Constructive  Quarterly,  VIII 
(1920),  537;  see  also  loc.  cit.,  IX  (1921),  19,234,  etc.;  Kelly, 
United  Church  of  Canada,  loc.  cit.,  V  (1917),  435;  Answer  to  pre¬ 
ceding,  loc.  cit.,  617;  Cadoux,  Proposed  Creedal  Basis  of  Reunion 
in  Journal  of  Religion,  I  (1921),  592;  Sanford,  The  Origin  and 
History  of  the  Federal  Council  (Hartford,  1916);  Christian  Unity 
at  Work,  record  of  Federal  Council,  1908-1912  (New  York, 
1913)  ;  Library  of  Christian  Co-operation,  record  1912-1916,  6 
vols.  (New  York,  1917)  ;  Federal  Council  Bulletin  (New  York, 
monthly);  Wilson,  Episcopacy  and  Unity,  Anglican  and  non- 
episcopal  relations  (London  and  New  York,  1912)  ;  Headlam, 
Doctrine  of  the  Church  and  Christian  Reunion,  prejudiced  against 
the  Catholic  Church  (London  and  New  York,  1920)  ;  Brown, 
The  Level  Plan  for  Church  Union,  ultra-Protestant  (New  York, 
1910)  ;  Cobb,  The  Meaning  of  Christian  Unity  (New  York,  1915); 
Mallock,  Doctrine  and  Doctrinal  Disruption  (London,  1908); 
Simpson,  The  Catholic  Conception  of  the  Church,  Anglican  dis¬ 
cussion  (New  York,  1914)  . 

The  chief  literature  on  the  World  Conference  is  contained  in 
pamphlets  issued  through  its  secretary,  Robert  Gardiner,  Gardi¬ 
ner,  Maine,  U.  S.  A.;  No.  2,  Report  and  Resolution  of  the  P.  E. 
Church  suggesting  the  Conference;  12,  Hall,  The  World  Con¬ 
ference  and  the  Problem  of  Unity;  16,  Idem,  Questions  of  Faith  and 
Order  for  Consideration  by  the  Proposed  Conference;  17,  Idem, 
A  Bibliography  of  Topics  related  to  Church  Unity;  26,  Haughwout, 
A  World  Movement  for  Christian  Unity;  28,  The  Object  and  Method 
of  Conference;  32,  Report  of  the  Deputation  to  Europe  and  the  East, 
1919;  33,  Report  of  Preliminary  Meeting  at  Geneva,  Switzerland, 
(12-20  Aug.,  1920);  34,  A  Compilation  of  Proposals  for  Christian 
Unity;  the  correspondence  between  Secy.  Gardiner  and  Car¬ 
dinal  Gasparri,  papal  secretary  of  State,  has  also  been  published 
in  a  separate  pamphlet. 

Catholic  references:  Walker,  Problem  of  Reunion  (London  and 
New  York,  1920);  Carson,  Reunion  Essays  (London,  1903); 
d’Herbigny  (tr.  Buchanan);  Vladimir  Soloviev,  a  Russian 
Newman  (London,  1918);  Batiffol,  Leo  XIII  on  Reunion  in 
Constructive  Quarterly,  VII  (1919),  566;  Idem,  Benedict  XV  and 
Reunion,  loc.  cit.,  VI  (1918),  209;  Revue  Anglo-Romaine  (Paris, 
1895-6)  was  a  short-lived  review  devoted  chiefly  to  reunion  of  the 
Anglican  Church  with  Rome.  ^ 

Gerald  Shaughnessy. 


Unitas  Fratrum.  See  Bohemian  Brethren 


United  Evangelical  Church.  See  Albright 
Brethren 


Universal  Messianic  Message,  Church  of  the. 
See  New  Thought 


Universalists  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV—  181b). — This  sect 
reported  in  1922,  in  the  United  States,  650  churches, 
561  ministers,  and  58,566  members. 

Religious  Bodies,  1916  (Washington,  1919);  Year  Book  of  the 
Churches  (New  York,  annual). 

N.  A.  Weber. 


Unyanyembe,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Unia- 
bembensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV— 204d),  in  former  German 
East  Africa,  now  under  Belgian  and  British  mandates, 
is  confided  to  the  White  Fathers  and  had  (1920)  10 
stations,  3678  Catholics,  2889  catechumens,  33  mis¬ 
sionaries,  72  catechists,  6  nuns  of  Our  Lady  of  Africa, 
13  stations  with  resident  priests,  26  schools  with  966 
pupils,  and  30  institutions  of  charity.  The  mission 
is  under  the  administration  of  Rt.  Rev.  Pierre-Henri 
Leonard,  titular  Bishop  of  Tipasa  of  Numidia,  b. 
5  December,  1869,  appointed  vicar  apostolic  of 
Unyanyembe,  27  June,  1912,  consecrated  11  August 
of  the  same  year.  He  resides  at  Ushirombo  or 
Tabora. 


Union  That  Nothing  Be  Lost,  incorporated,  under 
the  laws  of  the  State  of  New  York,  is  the  missionary 
agency  of  the  Society  of  the  Atonement  (q.  v.) .  This 
Society  is  a  new  branch  of  the  III  Order  Regular  of 
St.  Francis,  following  closely  the  Rule  of  the  Friars 
Minor,  and  the  Union  That  Nothing  Be  Lost  has  been 
the  almoner  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  be¬ 
tween  benefactors  and  the  missionaries  and  their 
work  in  the  past  few  years.  The  Society  was  received 
from  Anglicanism  into  the  Catholic  Church  in  1909 
and  the  Union  That  Nothing  Be  Lost  was  a  later 
development;  its  benefactors  number  over  40,000. 
There  is  scarcely  any  part  of  the  foreign  mission  field 
which  has  not  benefited  from  its  ministrations. 


Unitarians.— The  president  of  the  “General  Con¬ 
ference  of  Unitarian  and  other  Christian  Churches” 
is  William  H.  Taft,  former  president  and  now  Chief 
Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States. 
The  Unitarians  reported  in  1921  a  membership  in 
the  United  States  of  51,635,  a  loss  of  30,880  as  com¬ 
pared  with  the  figures  for  1916.  This  loss  is  possibly 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  loosening  of  creedal  obligations 
in  the  other  sects  no  longer  forces  a  Protestant  with 
Unitarian  leanings  to  give  up  his  “orthodox”  af¬ 
filiations. 

Religious  Bodies,  1916  (Washington,  1919);  Year  Book  of  the 
Churches  (New  York,  annual). 

N.  A.  Weber. 


Upper  Nile,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Nili 
Superiors;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV— 205b),  comprises  the 
eastern  portion  of  Uganda,  on  the  Nile.  The  first 
vicar  of  this  territory,  Rt.  Rev.  Henry  Hanlon,  of  the 
Congregation  of  Foreign  Missions  of  Mill  Hill,  Lon¬ 
don,  to  whom  it  is  entrusted,  was  succeeded  in  June, 
1912,  by  Rt.  Rev.  John  Biermans,  titular  Bishop  of 
Gargara.  Bishop  Biermans’  first  work  was  to  make 
an  urgent  appeal  for  funds  in  order  to  bring  more 
priests  to  this  mission.  The  old  Fathers,  most  of 
whom  had  been  laboring  in  this  unhealthy  climate 
from  the  foundation  of  the  vicariate,  were  broken  in 
health  and  new  energy  was  badly  needed.  The 
bishop’s  appeal  met  with  ready  response,  particularly 
in  America  and  Holland  and  within  a  few  years  the 
number  of  priests  had  increased  from  thirty-six  to 
fifty .  A  training  school  f or  catechists  was  established , 
and  a  little  later  the  Bukedi  and  Budama  districts 
were  opened  for  missions.  There  are  now  twenty- 
three  permanent  missions,  sixteen  of  which  are  in  the 
protectorate  of  Uganda,  where  there  are  also  one 
institution  of  native  Sisters,  a  boarding  school  and  a 
high  school.  At  Kamuli  there  is  a  convent  with 
school  and  hospital,  and  an  industrial  school.  Four¬ 
teen  Sisters  are  working  in  the  territory  establishing 
schools  and  hospitals  as  quickly  as  they  can  obtain 
the  necessary  funds.  Although  the  mission  stations 
of  Kisii  and  Asumbi  were  the  only  ones  actually 
destroyed  during  the  World  War,  the  whole  vicariate 
suffered,  and  the  lowering  of  the  exchange  and  the 
increase  in  prices  still  impede  the  progress  of  the 
work.  In  1921  the  vicariate  rejoiced  with  its  bishop 
in  the  celebration  of  the  silver  jubilee  of  his  ordina¬ 
tion.  According  to  1920  statistics  this  territory  has 
18,053  Catholics,  12,000  catechumens,  28  missionary 
priests,  240  catechists,  15  churches  and  chapels  and 
12  schools  with  1649  pupils. 


Urhino,  Archdiocese  of  (  Urbinatensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XV — 221b),  in  Italy,  is  governed  by  Mgr. 
Giacomo  Ghio,  b.  at  Bosia,  in  the  diocese  of  Genoa 
on  23  July,  1858,  and  nominated  to  the  see  on  28 
March,  1912.  The  diocesan  statistics  (1921)  record 
42,500  inhabitants;  99  parishes;  128  priests,  of 
whom  8  are  regulars  (Conventional  and  Friars 
Minor);  1  seminary,  30  students;  4  convents 
(women);  4  educational  establishments;  a  university: 
a  lyceum;  a  gymnasium;  a  technical  school;  a 


URGEL 


753 


URUGUAY 


normal  school;  a  school  of  arts  and  trades;  a  school 
for  women  workers.  There  is  a  local  Catholic  paper, 
the  “Bolletino  diocesano.”  Among  the  recent  local 
events  of  interest  were  the  Eucharistic  congress  in 
1913;  the  confirmation  of  the  cultus  of  Blessed 
Pelingotto  by  the  Congregation  of  Rites  on  12 
November,  i918;  and  the  reorganization  of  the 
Royal  Gallery  of  Art  of  the  Marches,  in  the  Ducal 
Palace,  for  which  many  fine  works  were  recently 
obtained.  Among  the  distinguished  citizens  of 
Urbino  in  days  gone  by  was  Francesco  Paciotto 
(1521-91),  the  greatest  military  architect  of  his  age, 
one  of  whose  notable  works  is  the  fortress  of  Ant¬ 
werp.  Worthy  of  note  also  is  the  new  Cathedral, 
erected  in  the  days  of  Archbishop  Berioli,  from  the 
plans  of  G.  Valladier,  the  fagade  being  the  work  of 
Camillo  Morgia  of  Ravenna. 

Urgel,  Diocese  of  (Urgellensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 223b),  in  the  province  of  Lerida,  Spain,  is 
governed  by  Mgr.  Justino  Guitart  y  Vilardebo,  b. 
at  Barcelona  on  16  December,  1875;  was  appointed 
to  this  see  on  9  January,  1920;  was  consecrated  on 
23  May  following,  and  on  27  July  made  his  entrance 
into  the  valleys  of  Andorra,  of  which  he  is  the 
sovereign  prince.  He  succeeded  Mgr.,  now  Cardinal, 
Benlloch  y  Vivo,  who  was  transferred  to  Burgos  on 

7  January,  1919.  The  diocesan  records  for  1921 
show  170,000  Catholics;  20  archpriests;  620  priests; 
411  parishes  and  575  churches  and  chapels. 

Urhbosna,  Archdiocese  of.  See  Serajevo 

Uritana,  Diocese  of.  See  Oria 

Ursula  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  Society  of  St.  (cf. 
C.E.  XV-22Sa).— Since  the  erection  of  the  gener- 
alate  in  1898  the  superiors  general  have  been: 
Mother  Marie  de  St.  Pierre  Hallez  (1883-89),  who 
obtained  the  revision  by  Rome,  according  to  the 
new  regulations  of  the  Church,  of  the  original  con¬ 
stitutions;  Mother  Marie  Stanislas  Vigouroux 
(1889-95) ;  Mother  Marie  de  St.  Charles  de  Caque- 
roy  (1895-1920),  under  whose  superiorship  the  ex¬ 
pulsions  from  the  French  convents  took  place  and 
who  succeeded  in  keeping  the  members  together, 
opening  houses  in  foreign  lands  where  the  work  and 
spirit  of  the  order  are  still  alive;  Mother  Therese 
du  Rosaire  Tenneson  (1920),  who  has  reopened 
some  of  the  French  houses  as  a  test  of  the  good 
will  of  the  Government.  These  are  family  houses 
for  girls  rather  than  academies,  since  the  nuns  can 
not  teach  any  of  the  subjects  included  in  the 
program  of  education  in  France.  The  nuns  take 
care  of  the  children,  and  lay  professors  comprise 
the  teaching  staff.  The  revised  Code  of  Canon  Law 
did  not  necessitate  any  change  in  the  government 
or  rule  of  the  order,  this  change  having  been  made 
under  the  pontificate  of  Leo  XIII.  The  period  of 
novitiate  is  two  years,  followed  by  five  years  of 
temporary  vows.  After  this  time  ol  probation,  the 
members  are  admitted  to  perpetual  profession. 
The  community  in  New  York  has  its  novitiate  and 
provincial  house  in  the  Convent  of  Our  Lady  of 
Lourdes  (W.  142d  St.),  and  has  acquired  two 
houses  nearby  for  the  Academy  of  Our  Lady  of 
Lourdes,  which  includes  a  commercial  and  secre¬ 
tarial  course. 

Ursulines  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV— 228c).— Under  the 
direct  guidance  of  the  Holy  See,  the  Roman  Canonical 
Union  has  made  steady  progress  since  1912.  Many 
important  affiliations  have  been  effected,  notably 
those  of  the  historic  foundation  at  New  Orleans,  the 
oldest  Ursuline  community  in  the  United  States, 
and  that  of  Santa  Rosa  in  California.  The  original 

8  provinces  have  been  increased  to  11:  the  Greco- 


Italian,  Austria  and  Jugoslavia,  Hungary,  East  of 
France,  West  of  France,  Belgium,  Holland-England, 
North  of  the  United  States,  South  of  the  United 
States,  Brazil  and  Latin- America.  The  total  num¬ 
ber  of  subjects  in  the  Union  is  3617.  The  original 
number  of  communities,  63,  has  been  increased  to  180 
within  the  past  ten  years.  Of  this  number  there  are 
33  houses  in  the  Northern  Province  of  the  United 
States,  governing  71  establishments  of  which  one  is 
a  college  at  New  Rochelle,  numbering  300  students. 
There  are  also  25  academies  or  boarding  schools, 

2  boarding  schools  for  little  boys,  35  parochial  schools, 

6  Indian  missions  in  Montana  and  2  Esquimaux  mis¬ 
sions  in  Alaska.  This  province  numbers  393  pro¬ 
fessed  religious,  and  35  novices.  The  Southern 
Province  of  the  United  States  numbers  341  professed 
religious  and  30  novices.  The  central  novitiates  are 
at  Dallas,  Texas:  Alton,  Ill.;  and  Fishkill,  N.  Y. 
The  present  head  of  the  institute  is  Rev.  Mother 
Angela  de  Notre  Dame,  who  was  re-elected  to  this 
office  in  September,  1920. 

Ursulines  of  Quebec  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV— 229c). — The 
monastery  at  Quebec  has  had  many  improvements 
(such  as  lighting  and  heating)  in  recent  years.  The 
monastery  comprises  17  buildings,  including  4  for 
servants,  mechanics,  and  workmen.  The  little 
chapel  of  the  cloister,  where  the  foundresses  prayed 
for  fifty  years  and  where  Mgr.  de  Laval,  first  Bishop 
of  Quebec,  and  the  Canadian  Jesuit  martyrs  said 
Mass,  was  made  an  oratory  of  the  Sacred  Heart  on 
the  250th  anniversary  of  the  celebration  of  the  first 
Mass  (1642-1892),  to  commemorate  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  the  Confraternity  of  the  Sacred  Heart  in  this 
sanctuary  and  the  first  solemn  feast  in  Canada  in 
1700.  This  was  during  the  superiorship  of  Mother 
Marie  de  1’Assomption  Georgiana  Letourneau,  who 
did  much  for  the  monastery  during  the  nine  years  when 
she  was  at  the  head  of  the  community  (1890-96; 
1908-11).  She  died  5  March,  1916,  and  was  succeeded 
as  superior  in  1911  by  Mother  de  Sainte  Aur&ie 
(Emma  Chaperon),  who  in  turn  was  succeeded 
in  1917  by  the  present  superior,  Mother  Saint  Fran¬ 
cois  de  Borgia  (Alice  Riverin) .  The  constitutions  of 
the  community  have  been  sent  to  Rome  for  ap¬ 
probation  according  to  the  requirements  of  the 
canonical  Code.  There  are  four  foundations  of  the 
community  and  a  branch  house  temporarily  opened 
at  Merici  in  1902.  The  community  numbers  102 
members,  with  about  500  pupils  under  instruction, 
including  65  in  the  normal  school,  founded  in  1857. 
In  1912  their  institution  at  Quebec  was  affiliated  with 
the  Laval  University  and  the  students  may  obtain  a 
diploma  and  degree  from  the  university  upon  passing 
the  necessary  examinations. 

Uruguay  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 230d) ,  a  South  Amer¬ 
ican  Republic,  has  an  area  of  72,153  square  miles,  and 
an  average  of  19.2  people  to  the  square  mile.  In  1919 
the  total  population  was  1 ,462,887 ;  that  of  Montevideo 
City  on  30  November,  1920,  was  361,950.  Of  the 
other  cities,  Paysandu  had  26,000  inhabitants;  Salto 
30,000;  Mercedes  23,000.  In  1919  there  were  39,307 
living  births,  1291  still-births,  7532  marriages  and 
18,904  deaths.  The  surplus  of  births  over  deaths  was 
20,403. 

Religion. — State  and  Church  are  separated,  and 
there  is  complete  religious  liberty.  The  religion  pro¬ 
fessed  by  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  is  Catholic. 
The  Archbishopric  of  Montevideo  (q.  v.)  has  two 
suffragan  bishops,  one  in  Salto  (q.  v.)  and  one  in 
Melo  (q.  v.).  The  1908  census  showed  430,095 
Catholics,  12,232  Protestants,  and  45,470.unspecified. 

Education. — Primary  education  is  obligatory.  In 
1919  there  were  995  public  schools  with  106,905 
enrolled  pupils  and  183  private  schools  with  19,410 


URUGUAYANA 


754 


UTAH 


pupils.  Evening  courses  for  adults  were  attended 
by  5613  pupils  (195  illiterates) .  In  1920  the  Monte¬ 
video  University  had  4165  students  and  344  teachers. 
There  are  also  a  preparatory  school  and  22  other  estab¬ 
lishments  for  secondary  and  higher  education  with 
4143  pupils  in  1919.  There  are  normal  schools  for 
males  and  for  females,  and  a  school  of  arts  and  trades 
supported  by  the  State  where  185  pupils  receive  train¬ 
ing  gratuitously.  At  the  military  college  there  are 
8  professors  and  46  pupils.  There  are  also  many  reli¬ 
gious  seminaries  throughout  the  Republic  with  a  con¬ 
siderable  number  of  pupils,  a  university  for  women,  a 
school  for  the  blind,  and  one  for  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
and  a  school  for  domestic  science. 

Economics. — For  the  year  1920-21  the  receipts 
were  £8,137,015  and  the  expenditures  were  £8,746,- 
614.  The  estimates  of  revenue  and  expenditure  for 
1920-21  were  (4.7  dollars-£l):  $38,043,975  reve¬ 
nue  and  $41,109,088  expenditure. 

Agriculture. — In  Uruguay  the  agricultural  indus¬ 
tries  are  increasing.  The  number  of  people  engaged  in 
agriculture  in  1913-14  was  92,462;  in  1914-15,  98,301 
and  in  1918-19,93, 187.  The  principal  crops  for  the 
year  1919-20  were  as  follows:  wheat  688,407  acres, 
barley  4610  acres,  oats  81,145  acres,  linseed  83,645 
acres.  In  1916  there  were  within  the  republic  7,802,- 
442  head  of  cattle,  567,154  horses,  11,472,852  sheep, 
16,663  mules,  12,218  goats,  and  303,958  pigs.  Wine 
was  produced  chiefly  in  the  departments  of  Monte¬ 
video,  Canelones,  Salto,  Colonia,  and  Paysandu. 
In  1918  there  were  2822  properties  (2638  in  1917)  of 
17,180  acres,  producing  41,888,814  kilos  of  grapes, 
and  5,628,926  gallons  of  wine.  Tobacco  and  olives 
are  also  cultivated. 

Mining. — In  the  northern  departments  several  gold 
mines  are  worked,  and  silver,  copper,  lead,  magnesium 
and  lignite  coal  are  found.  The  supply  of  electricity  is 
used  for  light,  power,  and  traction  in  a  State  monopoly 
according  to  the  bill  passed  20  October,  1912.  In  1918 
there  were  16,017  industrial  and  commercial  estab¬ 
lishments  with  a  capital  of  134,383,782  pesos. 

Foreign  Trade. — The  foreign  trade  for  1919  was  as 
follows:  imports  £8,420,783,  exports  £27,457,991; 
and  in  1920:  imports  £9,632,982,  and  exports  £16,- 
150,344. 

Government. — The  new  Constitution  of  Uruguay, 
which  went  into  effect  on  1  March,  1919,  in  substitu¬ 
tion  for  the  old  Constitution  of  10  September,  1829, 
provides  for  strict  separation  of  powers,  election  of 
members  of  the  high  court  of  justice  by  the  General 
Assembly,  and  cabinet  interpellation.  Executive 
power  is  divided  between  two  branches,  one  part  is 
entrusted  to  a  president  elected  by  popular  vote,  and 
the  other  to  an  administrative  commission  of  nine 
members,  also  elected  by  popular  vote  for  six  years. 
The  administrative  commission  has  all  administrative 
power  not  expressly  reserved  to  the  president  or  some 
other  branch  of  the  Government,  especially  such 
power  as  relates  to  public  instruction,  health,  labor, 
industries,  public  charities,  and  finance.  Minority 
representation  is  provided  for  by  plurality  voting. 
The  President  is  not  allowed  to  leave  the  country 
longer  than  forty-eight  hours  without  the  consent 
of  the  Legislature.  Plenary  power  to  interpret  the 
constitution  rests  with  the  Legislature.  By  Act  of 
the  Uruguayan  Legislature  on  5  August,  1920,  duel¬ 
ling  was  again  legalized. 

Uruguayana,  Diocese  of  (Uruguayensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XV — 233b),  in  Brazil,  suffragan  of  Porto 
Alegre.  The  town  of  Uruguayana,  with  14,800 
inhabitants,  is  720  miles  west  of  Porto  Alegre.  The 
other  principal  cities  included  in  this  diocese  are 
Alegrete  with  11,800  inhabitants,  San  Gabriel  with 
11,000  inhabitants  and  Sant’  Anna  do  Livramentowith 
12,000  inhabitants.  The  first  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev. 


Hermeto  Joseph  Pinheiro,  born  at  Traipu  in  the  dio¬ 
cese  of  Alagoas  in  1870;  he  studied  at  Olinda,  was 
ordained  in  1905,  and  appointed  bishop  12  May,  1911. 
The  total  population  of  the  diocese  numbers  250,000. 
It  has  18  first-class  and  3  second-class  parishes,  3 
convents  of  men,  8  of  women,  15  secular  and  14  regu¬ 
lar  clergy,  72  Sisters,  16  seminarians,  30  mixed 
schools  with  1462  pupils,  5  parochial  schools  for  boys 
with  134  pupils,  4  parochial  schools  for  girls  with  150 
pupils,  2  secondary  schools  for  boys  with  323  pupils, 
and  6  secondary  schools  for  girls  with  861  pupils,  and 
6  hospitals.  A  benefit  society  is  formed  among  the 
clergy  and  several  associations  are  organized  among 
the  laity.  Two  Catholic  periodicals  are  published. 

Utah  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 238a). — The  area  of  the 
State  of  Utah  is  84,990  square  miles,  of  which  2806 
are  of  water  surface.  In  1920  the  population  was 
449,446,  an  increase  of  20%  since  1910.  Of  this, 
48%  was  urban;  52%  was  rural.  The  average  num¬ 
ber  of  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile  was  5.5,  as 
against  4.5  in  1910.  Part  of  Wasatch  County  was 
organized  as  Duchesne  County  in  1915.  Daggett 
County  was  also  organized  during  the  last  decade  from 
part  of  Unitah  County  and  changes  were  made  in 
the  boundaries  of  Rich  and  Summit  Counties.  Be¬ 
sides  the  civil  divisions  (429  primary  and  137  secon¬ 
dary),  the  State  contains  3  Indian  reservations,  and 
part  of  another.  The  largest  cities  are  Salt  Lake 
City  (118,110),  Ogden  (32,804),  Provo  (10,303). 
There  are  441,901  whites,  1446  negroes,  2711  In¬ 
dians,  342  Chinese,  and  2936  Japanese.  The 
foreign-born  whites  numbered  56,455,  and  came 
mostly  from  England,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Germany, 
Greece,  and  Italy.  Of  the  total  population  of  ten 
years  of  age  and  over  (331,530),  there  were  6264 
illiterates  (1.9%).  The  males  outnumbered  the 
females  (232,051  males;  217,345  females). 

Economic  Status. — Agriculture  is  on  the  increase 
in  Utah,  the  number  of  farms  increasing  from  21,667 
in  1910  to  25,662,  in  1920.  The  area  of  farm  land 
was  5,050,410  acres,  of  which  1,715,380  was  improved 
land.  Of  these  farms,  22,218  (86.6%)  were  irrigated. 
The  new  irrigation  enterprises  include  2,359,244  acres, 
with  an  invested  capital  of  about  $33,000,000.  A 
large  part  of  the  irrigated  land  lies  in  the  Great  Salt 
Lake  drainage  basin,  the  water  supply  coming 
principally  from  streams  draining  the  Wasatch  and 
Uintah  Mountains  and  flowing  into  Utah  Lake  and 
Great  Salt  Lake. 

In  1919  the  production  and  value  of  the  leading 
crops  were:  corn  265,361  bushels,  valued  at  $517,456; 
wheat  4,100.979  bushels,  $9,022,154;  oats  1,742,392 
bushels,  $2,069,269;  barley  365,186  bushels,  $620,814; 
potatoes  1,648,400  bushels,  $3,494,607;  hay  1,031,- 
609  bales,  $24,759,397.  In  1917  the  State  produced 
gold  valued  at  $3,355,156;  the  production  of  silver 
amounted  to  13,479,133  ounces;  the  lead  production 
in  1917  was  89,261  short  tons,  valued  at  $15,352,888; 
in  the  same  year  the  copper  production  was  246,- 
674,153  pounds,  valued  at  $67,342,044;  the  zinc 
product  was  10,643  short  tons,  valued  at  $2,171,261; 
the  coal  production  of  the  State  has  steadily  increased, 
amounting  in  1918  to  5,136,825  tons,  valued  at 
$5,405,715.  In  1917  about  60,000  tons  of  salt  were 
produced.  The  State  contained  7,430,084  acres  of 
State  forest  in  1917.  The  latest  census  of  manufac¬ 
tures  (1919)  gives  1160  manufacturing  establishments, 
23,107  persons  engaged,  earning  a  total  of  $27,135,- 
482  for  their  services  and  turning  out  products  worth 
$156,933,071.  The  capital  invested  was  $140,785,- 
034.  The  principal  industries  ranked  by  the  value  of 
products  were:  lead  smelting,  beet  sugar,  slaughtering 
and  meat  packing.  There  are  no  navigable  streams, 
but  good  facilities  for  transportation.  The  railway 
mileage  is  2447;  the  electric  railway  mileage  448. 


UTRECHT 


755 


UTRECHT 


The  ten  savings  banks  had  deposits  amounting  to 
§16,648,228  and  61,000  depositors.  The  State  debt 
in  1920  was  $3,435,000;  the  assessed  valuation  of 
property  $675,000,000. 

Education. — In  1920  the  population  of  school  age 
numbered  159,339,  of  whom  116,385  (73%)  attended 
school.  School  attendance  for  20  weeks  annually 
(10  consecutive),  and  in  large  cities  for  30  weeks 
(10  consecutive),  is  compulsory  on  children  from 
eight  to  sixteen  years  of  age.  In  1918  only  six 
States  exceeded  Utah  in  the  percentage  of  population 
enrolled  in  public  schools,  Utah’s  percentage  being 
24.3  in  comparison  with  Nevada’s  12.7%.  In  this 
year  the  642  public  elementary  schools  had  3449 
teachers  and  110,193  enrolled  pupils;  43  public  high 
schools  with  471  teachers  and  10,097  pupils.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  a  late  report  of  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education,  there  are  just  21  States  which  expend 
more  per  capita  of  the  school  population  than  Utah. 
The  expenditure  for  educational  purposes  was  $5, 
536.554;  the  value  of  the  school  property,  $12,865,451. 
Bible  reading  in  the  public  schools  is  neither  permitted 
nor  excluded .  The  law  governing  private  or  parochial 
schools  is  as  follows:  No  public  appropriation  shall 
be  made  in  support  of  any  school,  seminary,  academy, 
college,  or  university,  not  controlled  by  the  State 
(X — 13).  In  1917  all  public  school  houses  were  de¬ 
clared  to  be  public  centers  where  citizens  could  meet 
and  discuss  any  subjects  or  questions  relating  to 
educational,  economic,  artistic  and  other  interests 
of  citizens.  In  1919  it  was  voted  that  upon  a  majority 
vote  of  taxpayers  of  any  voting  precinct  having  a 
school  population  of  not  less  than  1200,  the  county 
school  board  can  establish  a  standard  high  school, 
but  junior  and  senior  years  may  not  be  established 
until  the  need  is  determined  by  the  State  Board  of 
Education.  Such  a  school  may  not  be  established 
within  twelve  miles  of  an  existing  high  school.  Re¬ 
turned  soldiers  and  sailors  were  given  instruction 
in  the  Agricultural  College  and  University  without 
charge  of  entrance  fees. 

Religion. — The  Mormons  are  still  the  most 
numerous  of  all  religious  denominations,  having  in 
1916,  257,719  members  out  of  all  the  church  members 
in  the  State.  The  Catholics  at  that  time  numbered 
10,000.  The  value  of  the  Mormon  church  property 
was  then  $4,313,908.  Divorce  seems  to  be  on  the 
increase  in  the  State  as  is  seen  in  the  following  statis¬ 
tics:  225  divorces  in  1896;  387  in  1906;  661  in  1916. 
For  further  religious  and  educational  statistics,  see 
Salt  Lake  City,  Diocese  of. 

Recent  History  and  Legislation. — In  1911 
laws  were  passed  to  prevent  the  employment  of 
children  under  fourteen  in  such  establishments  as 
breweries  and  mines;  restrictions  were  also  placed  on 
the  employment  of  women.  The  selling  or  giving 
away  of  tobacco  in  any  form  to  minors  was  forbidden. 
Provision  was  made  for  the  employment  of  convict 
labor  for  the  construction  of  roads.  In  1913  the 
indeterminate  sentence  was  granted  to  persons  con¬ 
victed  of  crime,  and  a  measure  provided  for  mothers’ 
pensions.  A  general  prohibition  law  was  passed  in 
1917  and  strengthened  by  amendments  forbidding 
the  introduction  of  liquor  into  the  State.  In  the 
same  year  an  industrial  board  was  created  and  put 
in  charge  of  the  Workmen’s  Compensation  law,  also 


passed  by  the  same  legislature.  In  1915  a  threatened 
uprising  among  the  Piute  Indians  was  averted  by  the 
prompt  action  of  the  United  States  government  in 
sending  General  Hugh  L.  Scott,  chief  of  staff,  to  adjust 
the  difficulty. 

The  Federal  prohibition  amendment  was  ratified 
on  15  January,  1919,  the  suffrage  amendment,  30 
September,  1919.  There  are  now  64  members  in  the 
State  Legislature,  18  in  the  Senate  and  46  in  the 
House. 

During  the  European  War,  Utah  contributed  17,- 
362  soldiers  (.46%  of  the  United  States  Army). 
The  members  of  the  national  guard  joined  the  40th 
Division  at  Camp  Kearny,  California;  those  of  the 
national  army,  the  91st  Division  at  Camp  Lewis, 
Washington.  The  summary  of  the  casualties  of 
Utah  men  in  the  American  Expeditionary  Force  is  as 
follows:  deceased,  7  officers,  295  men;  prisoners,  7 
men;  wounded,  17  officers,  680  men. 

Utrecht,  Archdiocese  of  (Ultrajectensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XV — 245d),  situated  in  the  Netherlands.  The 
see  is  filled  by  Most  Rev.  Henri  Van  der  Wetering, 
born  in  Hoogland,  in  this  diocese,  in  1850,  ordained  in 
1874,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of  Gaza  and  coadjutor 
to  the  archbishop  8  February,  1895,  succeeding  to  the 
see  on  25  July  following.  On  1  May,  1900,  he  was 
made  an  assistant  at  the  pontifical  throne,  and  on  26 
August,  1920,  he  was  named  a  Knight  of  the  Grand 
Cross  of  the  Order  of  Orange-Nassau.  The  most 
important  developments  in  the  archdiocese  recently 
have  been  the  erection  of  new  parishes,  and  its  divi¬ 
sion  into  22  deaconates.  During  the  World  War  the 
clergy  and  laity  carried  on  many  charitable  works 
among  the  fugitives  who  came  here  from  the  warring 
countries,  and  also  gave  assistance  to  sick  and 
wounded  Germans  and  Austrians,  who,  in  many 
cases  were  received  by  Dutch  families.  The  arch¬ 
diocese  comprises  318  parishes,  420  churches,  1 
monastery  for  men  and  3  for  women,  10  convents  of 
women  with  33  Sisters,  600  secular  and  250  regular 
clergy,  299  lay  brothers,  6  major  and  2  minor  semi¬ 
naries,  having  79  professors  and  266  seminarians,  2 
universities,  Utrecht  and  Groningen,  where  there  is  a 
certain  proportion  of  Catholics  among  both  professors 
and  students,  5  colleges  for  boys  with  55  teachers 
and  655  students,  11  colleges  for  girls  with  86  teachers 
and  1765  students,  2  high  schools  with  18  teachers  and 
81  pupils,  5  normal  schools  with  94  teachers  and  275 
pupils,  3  disciplinarian  schools  with  9  teachers  and 
204  pupils,  a  number  of  academies,  278  elementary 
schools  wdth  1587  teachers  and  49,520  pupils  and  11 
industrial  schools  with  40  teachers  and  576  pupils. 
The  elementary  and  normal  schools  are  salaried  by 
the  government  and  their  buildings  are  supported  by 
the  municipal  authorities;  all  other  schools  are  partly 
supported  by  the  government .  The  various  charitable 
institutions  include:  2  diocesan  missionary  organiza¬ 
tions,  25  homes  for  the  aged  and  destitute,  40  nursing 
homes,  5  hospitals,  20  orphanages,  10  refuges,  5  day 
nurseries,  150  charitable  centers.  Four  associations 
are  formed  among  the  clergy,  10  among  the  laity, 
and  50  Catholic  periodicals  are  published.  In  recent 
years  the  archdiocese  has  lost  three  prominent  clergy 
by  the  deaths  of  Mgr.  Theodore  Roes,  canon  capitular 
and  dean,  Mgr.  Andreas  Jansen,  and  Mgr.  Brouwer, 
vicar  general. 


Vacz,  Diocese  of  (Waitzen;  Vaciensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  XV,  525),  in  Hungary,  suffragan  of  Esztergom 
(Gran),  was  founded  by  King  Stephen  in  the  year 
1001.  The  name  of  the  first  bishop  is  unknown 
but  Clement  II  or  III  held  the  see  in  1055. 
The  cathedral  chapter,  which  was  suppressed  when 
the  Turks  conquered  Vacz,  in  1542,  was  revived  in 
1700.  The  present  bishop,  Msgr.  Stephen  Arpad 
Hanauer,  succeeded  Msgr.  Count  Charles  Emmanuel 
Csaky,  who  held  office  from  1900  until  his  death  on 
16  February,  1919.  Msgr.  Hanauer  is  the  first 
bishop  in  Hungary  who  has  been  nominated  directly 
by  the  Holy  See  without  the  intervention  of  the  civil 
authorities.  He  was  born  at  Papa,  in  the  Diocese  of 
Veszprem,  on  26  December,  1869,  ordained  on  26 
July,  1892,  being  subsequently  spiritual  director  of 
the  Seminary  of  Budapest,  and  chancellor  of  the  See 
of  Veszprem.  As  Bishop  of  Vacz  he  has  the  privilege 
of  the  pallium.  He  has  as  his  coadjutor  Msgr.  Charles 
Gossman,  b.  on  1  January,  1870,  at  Soroksar,  in  the 
Diocese  of  Vacz,  ordained  in  1894,  and  consecrated 
titular  Bishop  of  Castoria  and  auxiliary  of  Vacz  on  5 
October,  1913. 

The  late  bishop  Count  Csaky  displayed  great  en¬ 
ergy  in  the  government  of  his  diocese.  IJe  erected  15 
new  parishes  and  founded  a  diocesan  Altar  Society 
which  provides  the  churches  with  altar  linens  and 
equipment  almost  gratis.  His  life  was  characterized 
by  his  devotion  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament  and  his 
benefactions  to  the  poor  and  at  his  death  he  left 
everything  to  the  Church. 

The  boundaries  of  the  diocese  have  not  been 
changed  in  the  recent  upheaval,  but  it  has  been  di¬ 
vided  by  the  diocesan  synod  of  1921  into  5  arch¬ 
deaneries,  and  25  vicariates  or  deaneries.  There  are 
149  parishes,  14  missions;  187  churches;  7  religious 
houses  for  men,  17  for  Sisters;  349  priests,  of  whom 
300  are  seculars  and  49  regulars;  15  Brothers;  1  sem¬ 
inary,  5  professors,  76  students;  1  boys’  college,  3 
girls’  colleges,  6  high  schools,  60  teachers,  960  pupils, 
of  whom  360  are  girls;  1  boys’  academy,  7  teachers, 
34  pupils;  many  secondary  and  primary  schools  with 
757  teachers  and  72,560  pupils;  1  home  for  the  aged; 
5  orphanages;  2  day  nurseries;  3  hospitals.  The 
Catholic  population  is  920,000. 

The  principal  events  of  importance  in  the  diocese 
since  1912  have  been  the  erection  of  15  new  churches 
and  the  ordination  of  54  priests.  At  the  beginning 
of  November,  1918,  a  great  revolution  broke  out  in 
Hungary  and  on  16  November  the  Socialists  pro¬ 
claimed  a  Hungarian  Republic,  which  on  20  March, 
1919,  turned  into  a  Bolshevist  state;  on  1  August, 
1919,  the  Socialist  republic  was  restored,  and  three 
days  later  the  more  conservative  element  of  the  citi¬ 
zens  got  control.  Subsequently  the  governing  body 
has  declared  that  Hungary  is  by  law  a  limited  mon¬ 
archy,  but  owing  to  political  conditions  the  sovereign 
has  not  yet  been  able  to  assume  power.  During  the 
European  War  the  faithful  founded  a  number  of  hos¬ 
pitals  and  established  many  charitable  centres.  Fol¬ 
lowing  the  example  of  Mgr.  Count  Peter  Vay, 
prothonotary  Apostolic,  the  Catholics  throughout 
Hungary  combined  to  erect  at  Gyor  an  orphanage  for 
the  children  of  soldiers  who  lost  their  lives  in  defense 


V 

of  their  country.  At  present  it  is  supporting  100  of 
their  orphans. 

Vadstena.  See  Bridgettines 

Valleyfield,  Diocese  of  (Campivallensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XV — 261a),  in  Canada,  suffragan  of  Montreal 
The  present  bishop  is  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Medard  Emard, 
who  has  administered  the  diocese  since  1892.  On  23 
May,  1917,  he  was  made  assistant  at  the  pontifical 
throne  and  1  August,  1918,  he  was  appointed  Bishop 
Ordinary  of  the  Canadian  Army.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  Eucharistic  Congresses  of  London,  Mont¬ 
real  and  Malta.  The  Chapter  of  the  Cathedral  of 
Valleyfield  was  erected  by  a  Pontifical  Bull  of  12 
December,  1919.  In  1921  the  diocese  contained  57,- 
045  Catholics  of  Canadian  and  Irish  nationality,  41 
parishes,  43  churches,  7  missions,  1  monastery  for 
men  (Clerics  of  St.  Viator) ,  1  for  women  (Poor  Clares) , 
96  secular  priests,  12  regulars,  30  Brothers,  280  Sisters, 
1  seminary  with  15  seminarians.  The  educational 
institutions  are  2  colleges  for  boys  (70  teachers,  700 
students),  20  convent  schools  for  girls  (280  teachers, 
all  Sisters) ,  5 academies  (17  teachers),  1  normal  school 
(10  professors,  90  students),  215  elementary  schools 
(300  teachers),  1  industrial  school  (2  teachers,  35 
inmates).  The  following  charitable  institutions  exist 
in  the  diocese:  3  orphanages  and  homes  for  the  aged, 
1  hospital. 

Vallombrosan  Order  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 262b). — 
This  order  is  an  ancient  Benedictine  Congregation 
with  the  mother-house  at  Vallombrosa  near  Florence, 
Italy.  The  8  monasteries  for  men  are  S.  Maria  at 
Vallambrosa,  S.  Trinita  at  Florence,  S.  Michele 
at  Passignano,  S.  Maria  di  Montenero  at  Leghorn,  S. 
Giuseppe  di  Pescia  at  Lucca,  La  Badia  Fiorentina  at 
Florence,  S.  Prassede  at  Rome,  and  S.  Maria  de 
Galloro  at  Rome.  The  monasteries  for  women  are 
Spirito  Santo  a  Varlungo  at  Florence,  S.  Girolamo  a 
S.  Gimignano  at  Siena  and  S.  Umilta  di  Faenza  to 
which  is  attached  a  boarding  place  for  Florentine 
ladies.  The  complete  number  of  persons  in  the  order 
is  173.  After  the  promulgation  of  the  Code  of  Canon 
Law,  the  order  published  its  new  constitution,  which 
was  approved  by  Pope  Benedict  XV,  28  May,  1921. 
The  present  abbot  general  of  the  order  is  Dom  Fedele 
Tarani,  elected  in  May,  1920.  The  order  publishes  a 
monthly  periodical  “II  Faggio  Vallombrosano.” 

Valva  and  Sulmona,  Diocese  of  (Valvensis 
et  Stjlmonensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 264c),  in  Italy, 
directly  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Holy  See.  The 
present  administrator  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Nicola  Iezzoni, 
b.  1  May,  1860,  elected  6  December,  1906.  According 
to  the  statistics  of  1920  the  diocese  contained  150,000 
Catholics,  58  parishes,  244  churches  and  chapels,  142 
secular  priests,  48  regulars,  50  seminarians,  20  Broth¬ 
ers  and  30  Sisters.  In  February,  1913,  occurred  the 
death  of  the  celebrated  archaeologist  and  writer,  Rev. 
Giuseppe  Celidonio.  During  the  war  many  of  the 
priests  of  the  diocese  enlisted  in  the  army. 

Vannes,  Diocese  of  (Venetensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 271b),  in  France,  suffragan  of  Rennes.  The 
bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Alcime-Armand  Gouraud,  b.  at 


756 


VANNUTELLI 


757 


VERAPOLY 


Vieillevigne,  France,  13  April,  1856,  ordained  29 
June,  1880,  elected  21  February,  1906,  consecrated 
25  February  following.  In  1921  the  diocese  numbered 
500,000  French  Catholics,  285  parishes,  300  churches, 

2  monasteries  for  men,  3  for  women,  2  abbeys  for 
men,  2  for  women,  220  convents  for  women  with  more 
than  3000  Sisters,  888  secular  and  130  regular  priests, 

5  seminaries  with  400  seminarians  including  some  stu¬ 
dents  at  the  preparatory  seminary.  The  educational 
institutions  are:  3  high  schools  for  boys  (100  teachers 
and  1200  pupils)  3  for  girls,  1  normal  school  (6  teachers 
40  students),  3  training  schools,  (100  teachers  and 
42,600  pupils) .  The  schools  are  not  supported  by  the 
government.  The  following  institutions  exist  in  the 
diocese:  1  house  of  retreats,  35  asylums,  12  hospitals, 

6  day  nurseries.  Four  Catholic  periodicals  are  pub¬ 
lished  in  the  diocese  Numerous  organizations  and 
societies  exist  among  the  clergy  and  laity.  During 
the  war  many  priests  joined  the  army,  ten  of  whom 
received  the  medal  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

Vannutelli,  Serafino,  Cardinal,  Bishop  of  Ostia 
and  Porto,  Dean  of  the  Sacred  College,  b.  at  Gennaz- 
zano,  Italy,  26  November,  1834;  d.  at  Rome,  19 
August,  1915.  He  belonged  to  a  noble  family  most 
conspicuous  at  Genazzano  in  the  Diocese  of  Pales¬ 
trina  .  He  studied  at  the  Capranica ,  and  was  ordained 
priest  at  Rome  on  23  December,  1860,  by  Cardinal 
Patrizi;  he  taught  canon  law  at  the  Roman  Seminary 
and  theology  at  the  Seminary  of  the  Vatican.  He  was 
auditor  at  the  Pontifical  Nunciature  in  Mexico  and 
Munich,  and  subsequently  was  delegate  Apostolic  to 
Ecuador,  Colombia,  Peru  and  Central  America.  He 
became  archbishop  of  Nicaea  in  1869  at  the  age  of 
thirty-five.  In  1865,  he  was  papal  nuncio  at  Brussels 
and  remained  there  until  the  break  with  the  Vatican 
in  1879 .  He  then  went  to  V ienna  in  the  same  capacity 
in  spite  of  the  apparent  failure  at  Brussels,  and  re¬ 
mained  there  seven  years.  In  1887  was  raised  to  the 
cardinalate  and  in  1893  was  named  Archbishop  of 
Bologna,  but  by  a  system  of  rotation  elected  to  be 
Bishop  of  Frascati,  afterwards  becoming  Secretary  of 
Briefs  and  Prefect  of  the  Congregation  of  Bishops  and 
Regulars  and  in  spite  of  his  advanced  age  Grand 
Penitentiary  in  1899.  When  he  offered  his  resignation, 
as  he  was  suffering  from  catarast,  Pope  Leo  XIII 
refused  to  accept  it.  Again  the  system  of  official 
option  brought  him  from  the  See  of  Frascati  to  that 
of  Porto.  Notwithstanding  the  honors  lavished  on  him, 
he  was  remarkable  for  his  great  modesty;  his  unflinch¬ 
ing  toil  in  every  one  of  the  posts  to  which  he  was 
assigned  and  his  tender  piety.  He  was  one  of  the 
great  figures  of  the  Sacred  College. 

Vedruna  de  Mas,  Joaquina  de,  religious  found¬ 
ress,  b.  at  Santa  Marla  del  Pino,  Spain,  16  April, 
1783;  d.  at  Barcelona  on  28  August,  1854;  daughter 
of  Lawrence  and  Teresa  (Vidal)  de  Vedruna.  At  an 
early  age  she  desired  to  enter  the  Carmelites,  but  by 
the  advice  of  her  parents  and  her  confessor,  she 
remained  in  the  world,  marrying  Teodoro  de  Mas. 
Their  union  was  blessed  with  many  children;  two  of 
their  daughters  became  nuns.  Her  husband  died  in 
1816,  and  Joaquina  devoted  herself  to  the  education 
and  training  of  her  children,  and  to  the  care  of  the 
sick  in  a  nearby  hospital.  Her  old  desire  of  con¬ 
secrating  herself  to  God  grew  strong  again  and  on 
6  January,  1826,  when  her  children  no  longer  required 
her  attention,  she  made  the  three  vows  of  religion 
with  her  bishop’s  approval.  Some  weeks  later  she 
founded  the  congregation  of  the  Carmelite  Sisters  of 
Charity,  whose  mission  was  to  protect  poor  girls, 
provide  for  those  who  had  not  a  sufficient  dowry  to 
enter  religion,  and  to  nurse  the  sick  poor.  During 
the  Spanish  civil  war,  she  and  her  companions  were 
forced  to  take  refuge  at  Perpignan  in  France;  they 


returned  subsequently  and  the  congregation  developed 
rapidly.  It  was  confirmed  by  the  Holy  See  in  1890, 
and  today  it  counts  over  200  houses  with  more  than 
1700  sisters.  In  1881,  the  remains  of  the  holy  found¬ 
ress  were  translated  from  Barcelona  to  Vich,  where 
they  were  interred  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Raphael  in 
the  garden  of  the  mother-house  of  the  institute.  The 
renown  of  her  sanctity  as  a  maiden,  as  a  mother, 
and  as  a  religious  has  continued  to  grow  and  on  14 
January,  1920,  the  cause  of  her  canonization  was 
introduced  at  Rome. 

Veglia,  Diocese  of.  See  Krk 

Venosa,  Diocese  of  (Venusinensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 342d),  in  Southern  Italy,  suffragan  of  Acerenza. 
The  present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Angelo  Petrelli, 
b.  at  Arnesano,  Italy,  13  June,  1863,  elected  20  May, 
1913,  consecrated  24  August,  following,  published 
25  May,  1914.  In  1921  the  diocese  contained:  40 
secular  priests,  5  regulars,  1  convent  for  men,  26 
sisters,  1  seminary  with  20  seminarians.  The 
following  institutions  exist  in  the  diocese:  2  homes  for 
destitute  children,  4  industrial  schools  for  girls,  2 
hospitals.  Many  priests  served  in  the  army  during 
the  War,  two  as  chaplains,  one  of  whom  was  formally 
praised  for  his  services  by  the  Chaplain-in-Chief. 
One  priest  who  was  an  officer  was  killed  fighting. 

Ventimiglia,  Diocese  of  (Ventimiliensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XV — 343a),  in  Northern  Italy,  suffragan  of 
Genoa.  The  present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Am- 
brogio  Daffra,  b.  at  Canneto,  Italy,  11  January, 
1841,  ordained  7  December,  1864,  elected  11  July, 
1892,  made  assistant  to  v,ne  pontifical  throne,  27 
February,  1904.  In  1921  the  diocese  contained 
104,000  inhabitants,  75  parishes,  210  secular  and 
regular  priests,  12  houses  of  various  religious  orders 
for  men,  60  convents  for  women,  4  educational 
institutions  for  boys,  15  for  girls.  Eleven  religious 
periodicals  are  published  in  the  diocese. 

Vera  Cruz,  Diocese  of  (Ver^e  Crucis  or  Jala- 
pensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  VI — 344d),  in  the  Mexican  Re¬ 
public,  suffragan  of  the  Archbishopric  of  Mexico. 
The  present  incumbent  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Raphael 
Guizar  Valencia,  b.  at  Zamora,  Spain,  elected  1 
August,  1919.  He  succeeded  the  Rt.  Rev.  Joachim 
Arcade  Pagazza,  who  died  in  August,  1919.  In 
1821  the  diocese  contained  62  parishes,  320  churches, 
3  convents  for  women  with, 47  sisters,  95  secular  priests, 

1  seminary  and  27  seminarians.  The  educational 
institutions  are:  8  colleges  for  men  (29  teachers,  800 
students),  7  colleges  for  women  (2000  students), 

2  normal  schools  and  4  training  schools. 

Verapoly,  Archdiocese  of  (Verapolitana;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XV — 345b),  on  the  Malabar  coast,  India, 
includes  now  only  Christians  of  the  Latin  Rite.  These 
latter  form  a  Catholic  population  of  98,467  having  50 
parishes,  68  churches  and  chapels,  18  missions,  18 
stations,  1  monastery  for  men,  2  convents  for  men, 
11  regular  priests  and  5  novices,  37  secular  priests, 
9  lay  brothers,  33  Carmelite  nuns  and  9  novices  in 
5  convents,  2  native  Brothers  of  St.  Teresa  and  24 
catechists,  2  seminaries  (upper  and  lower),  2  high 
schools  with  62  teachers  and  an  attendance  of  1130 
boys  and  447  girls,  115  elementary  schools  with  an 
attendance  of  6359  boys  and  4336'  girls,  5  convent 
schools  with  1072  girls,  4  orphanages  with  10  boys 
and  156  girls,  1  hospital  with  139  in-patients  and 
13,001  out-patients.  All  schools  receive  government 
aid  except  the  seminaries.  The  Priests’  Mutual  Help 
Association  exists  among  the  clergy,  and  among  the 
laity  there  are  reading-rooms,  literary  associations, 
and  the  Catholic  Association  of  the  Archdiocese  of 
Verapoly.  Several  Catholic  periodicals  are  published. 


VERDUN 


758 


VERMONT 


The  archdiocese  is  confided  to  the  Discalced  Car¬ 
melites.  The  present  administrator  is  the  Most  Rev. 
Angel  Marla  Perez  y  Cecilia,  O.  C.  D.,  at  Burgos, 
Spain,  10  February,  1872,  ordained  10  June,  1895, 
elected  titular  Archbishop  of  Achrida  and  coadjutor 
of  Verapoly  18  June,  1915,  consecrated  28  October 
following.  He  succeeded  Rt.  Rev.  Bernard  Arguin- 
zonis,  who  resigned.  In  1920  there  were  824  conver¬ 
sions. 

Verdun,  Diocese  of  (Virodunensis),  in  France, 
suffragan  of  Besangon.  From  September,  1914,  to 
November,  1918,  more  than  200  parishes  were  oc¬ 
cupied  by  the  enemy  and  communication  with  the 
bishop  of  Verdun  was  practically  cut  off.  The  Holy 
See  confided  the  administration  to  the  bishop  of 
Namur.  At  the  beginning  of  the  battle  of  Verdun  the 
bishop  and  the  diocesan  administration  left  the 
episcopal  city  which  was  being  bombarded  and  burned 
by  the  Germans  and  took  refuge  at  Bar-le-Duc  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  diocese.  They  did  not  return  to 
Verdun  until  1921.  The  seminary  was  successively 
moved  to  Nancy,  to  Paris  and  then  to  Bar-le-Duc, 
and  has  not  yet  been  re-established  at  Verdun.  The 
preparatory  seminary,  established  at  Bar-le-Duc  was 
burned  in  1917.  During  the  war  about  186  priests 
joined  the  army;  of  these  13  were  killed,  20  more  or 
less  seriously  wounded,  and  50  prisoners  in  Germany. 
One  hundred  and  sixty  citations  and  diplomas  of 
honor  and  120  decorations  were  awarded  to  the  priests 
of  the  diocese.  Owing  to  the  war  the  number  of 
priests  in  the  diocese  has  decreased  from  550  in  1914 
to  443  in  1921  and  the  population  which,  with  the 
exception  of  a  small  number  of  Protestants  and  Jews, 
is  entirely  Catholic,  has  decreased  from  242,557 
inhabitants  in  1911  to  190,001  in  1921.  Out  of  572 
churches,  253  remained  intact,  153  were  destroyed 
and  166  were  damaged  Only  a  small  portion  of  the 
much  damaged  cathedral  has  been  restored.  Nine¬ 
teen  of  the  28  deaneries  have  been  destroyed.  131  of 
the  rectories  have  been  completely  ruined  and  86  are 
capable  of  repair.  The  war  also  destroyed  several 
boarding  schools  and  3  hospitals.  It  hastened  the 
dispersion  of  the  religious  communities,  only  one  of 
which  still  remains  in  Verdun.  According  to  the 
statistics  of  1921  the  diocese  contains:  30  first  class 
parishes,  444  succursal  parishes,  74  parochial  chapels, 
443  secular  priests,  2  seminaries,  83  seminarians, 
1  college  for  boys  (15  teachers,  145  students),  8 
elementary  schools  for  boys,  1  agricultural  school 
(2  teachers,  20  pupils) ,  7  boarding  schools  and  schools 
for  girls,  13  hospitals  in  charge  of  sisters,  3  houses  of 
nursing  sisters  and  1  orphanage.  The  following 
public  institutions  admit  the  ministry  of  priests: 
1  lyceum,  2  colleges,  1  lunatic  asylum  and  4  prisons. 
Two  periodicals,  several  parochial  bulletins  and  pious 
pamphlets  are  published  in  the  diocese.  Organiza¬ 
tions  among  the  priests  are:  Associations  des  Pretres 
Adorateurs,  Aid  Association  for  aged  and  infirm 
priests,  Association  for  the  Defense  of  the  Clergy, 
Association  of  prayer  for  living  and  deceased  priests. 
Numerous  religious  and  social  organizations  exist 
among  the  laity. 

Verena,  Saint,  virgin  of  the  third  and  fourth  cen¬ 
turies,  left  by  her  parents  at  their  death,  in  the  care 
of  the  Theban  bishop,  Chaeremon.  Upon  his  martyr¬ 
dom,  she  accompanied  her  kinsman ?  Victor,  of  the 
Theban  Legion,  to  Milan,  where  she  lived  in  the  home 
of  one  Maximus  and  attended  the  persecuted  and 
imprisoned  Christians.  On  learning  of  the  martyr¬ 
dom  of  Victor  at  Agaunum  with  Saint  Maurice  and 
the  whole  Theban  Legion  about  A.D.  286,  Verena 
set  out  to  pray  at  his  grave  on  the  Rhone,  and  finally 
settled  in  solitary  residence  among  the  Alemanni  to 
the  north,  near  what  is  now  the  city  of  Solothurn  in 


Switzerland,  doing  good  and  instructing  the  heathen 
women  of  the  mountains  in  the  Christian  Faith. 
The  Roman  governor  imprisoned  her  because  of  her 
refusal  to  sacrifice  to  the  gods,  but  on  being  taken 
sick  and  learning  that  Verena  prayed  for  his  recovery, 
he  released  her.  The  Roman  Martyrology  gives 
her  feast  on  1  September  and  she  is  especially  venerat¬ 
ed  in  the  territory  of  the  ancient  Diocese  of  Con¬ 
stance,  which  included  the  whole  Alemanni  people, 
and  for  centuries  was  the  largest  and  most  important 
Diocese  of  Germany.  An  ancient  tiny  mountain 
chapel  covers  the  rugged  spot  where  Verena  lived. 

In  recent  years,  interest  in  St.  Verena  has  developed 
in  America  on  account  of  the  increasing  use  of  her 
name  for  girls,  especially  in  the  Middle  West,  and 
because  of  the  more  frequent  use  of  the  name  in 
religious  orders  of  women. 

Vincent  Henry  Huck. 

Vermont  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV— 354b) .—The  area  of  the 
State  of  Vermont  is  9564  square  miles.  In  1920 
the  total  population  was  352,428,  a  decrease  of  1 
per  cent,  since  1910.  Of  this,  31.2%  was  urban; 
68.8  was  rural.  The  average  number  of  inhabitants 
to  the  square  mile  is  38.6,  as  against  39  in  1910. 
Vermont  has  seven  cities  only  three  of  which  exceed 
10,000,  Burlington  22,779;  Rutland  14,954;  Barre 
10,008.  Of  the  whites  in  Vermont,  the  natives 
numbered  307,291,  of  whom  228,325  were  of  native 
parentage,  42,100  of*  foreign  parentage,  36,866  of 
mixed  parentage.  The  foreign-born  whites  (44,526) 
came  chiefly  from  Canada  (French  14,181;  others 
10,687),  Italy  4067;  Ireland  2884;  England  2197. 
There  are  572  negroes.  The  population  of  ten  years 
of  age  and  over  included  8488  illiterates  (3%). 

Economic  Status. — Manufacturing. — The  sum¬ 
mary  of  manufactures  issued  by  the  United  States 
Census  Bureau  for  1919  reveals  1790  establishments, 
employing  38,845  persons,  earning  a  total  wage  of 
$41,429,114,  and  turning  out  products  worth  $168,- 
108,072.  The  capital  invested  was  $134,314,391. 
The  principal  industries  ranked  by  the  value  of  their 
products  were  marble  and  stone  work,  woolen  and 
worsted  goods,  paper  and  wood  pulp,  butter,  machine 
tools,  lumber  and  timber  products. 

Agriculture. — In  1919  the  value  of  the  agricul¬ 
tural  output  of  the  State,  comprising  corn,  wheat, 
rye,  oats,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  and  tobacco,  aggre¬ 
gated  $47,999,600,  an  increase  of  102%  since  1909. 
Vermont  leads  all  the  other  States  of  the  Union  in  the 
number  of  pounds  of  butter  per  capita,  pounds  of 
butter  per  farm,  pounds  of  butter  per  cow,  and  in 
ratio  of  dairy  cows  to  population.  In  1920  Vermont 
had  435,480  cattle  on  farms,  or  nearly  one  third  of 
all  the  cattle  in  New  England.  The  value  of  the 
live  stock  was  $42,385,331;  of  the  dairy  products, 
$27,207,813.  The  State  had  in  the  same  year 
29,075  farms  (a  decrease  of  3634  since  1910),  valued 
at  $222,736,620.  The  marble  quarries  yield  half  of 
the  marble  produced  in  the  United  States.  Talc 
and  granite  are  also  mined.  The  railway  mileage  in 
1919  was  1080;  the  electric  railways  in  the  State  I 
covered  a  total  of  102  miles.  In  1920  the  assessed 
value  of  real  property  was  $187,364,577,  of  personal 
property,  $74,736,570.  One  of  the  most  important 
industrial  developments  of  1911  was  the  building  of 
a  railroad  to  the  asbestos  region  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  State,  which  contains  one  of  the  most  extensive 
asbestos  deposits  in  the  United  States.  At  the  same 
time,  there  was  a  movement  for  the  development  of 
an  international  water  route  by  the  construction  of 
canals  between  Lake  Champlain  and  the  Hudson 
River  on  one  hand ,  and  the  St  Lawrence  River  on  the 
other,  surveys  being  taken  for  the  deepening  of  the 
shallows  in  the  north  end  of  Lake  Champlain. 

Religion. — The  latest  United  States  Census  of 


VIATICUM 


759 


VICAR 


Religious  Denominations  (1916)  gives  the  following 
statistics:  Congregationalists  22,912  members,  212 
churches,  144  ministers;  Baptists  9797  members,  112 
churches,  88  ministers;  Episcopalians  600  members, 
64  churches,  36  ministers;  Free  Baptists  213  mem¬ 
bers,  6  churches;  Adventists  1439  members,  9 
churches,  21  ministers.  For  Catholic  statistics  see 
Burlington,  Diocese  of. 

Education. — In  1920  the  population  of  school 
age  numbered  100,842,  of  whom  67,746  (67.2  per 
cent.)  attended  school .  There  were  16  academies  with 
a  total  attendance  of  1771  students  and  78  high 
schools,  which  in  1918  had  9237  students,  2403 
public  schools  with  2975  teachers.  In  1920  Middle- 
bury  College  had  33  professors  and  instructors  and 
447"  students;  Norwich  University,  29  instructors 
and  250  students;  St.  Michael’s  College,  14  pro¬ 
fessors  and  137  students;  the  State  Agricultural 
College  (est.  1911)  105  students  (1918).  In  1918 
the  University  of  Vermont  had  599  students,  50  on 
the  collegiate  department  teaching  staff,  43  in  the 
professional  department,  64  in  the  engineering 
department.  In  1920  it  had  118  instructors  and  930 
enrolled  students.  There  are  21  Catholic  parochial 
schools  with  229  teachers  and  7743  pupils.  The 
summary  of  school  expenditures  given  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  for  1917-18  is  as  follows: 
teachers’  salaries,  81,390,647;  total  current  expenses, 
82,365,097;  expended  for  outlays,  state,  8171,682; 
city,  8411,680.  The  value  of  the  school  property 
in  the  same  year  is  given  as  85,123,186.  State 
supervision  of  education  is  exercised  through  a 
Commissioner  elected  by  the  Board  of  Education. 
In  1919  a  teachers’  retirement  system  was  estab¬ 
lished.  Bible  reading  in  the  public  schools  is  neither 
permitted  nor  excluded. 

Recent  Legislation  and  History. — In  1911  the 
office  of  Commissioner  of  Weights  and  Measures  was 
created;  provision  was  also  made  for  the  punishment 
of  murder  in  the  first  degree,  giving  the  jury  the 
right  to  fix  the  penalty  either  at  death  or  imprison¬ 
ment  for  life.  Child  labor  was  regulated,  and  the 
prevention  of  the  white  slave  traffic  provided  for. 
In  1913  a  Board  of  Conciliation  and  Arbitration  for 
the  adjustment  of  local  disputes  was  created.  Electro¬ 
cution  was  substituted  for  hanging  as  a  form  of 
capital  punishment.  In  the  same  year  the  State 
constitution  was  amended  as  follows:  Every  Bill 
passed  by  the  Vermont  Legislature  must  be  sub¬ 
mitted  to  the  governor  for  his  approval.  In  case  of 
its  veto,  if  two-thirds  of  each  house  approve  of  it 
again,  it  becomes  laAV.  No  person  was  to  be  declared 
guilty  of  felony  or  treason  by  the  legislature.  No 
charter  of  incorporation  shall  be  granted  by  special 
law  except  for  municipal,  charitable,  educational, 
penal  or  reformatory  corporations>  but  the  General 
Assembly  must  provide  general  laws  for  the  organiza¬ 
tion  of  corporations.  The  time  of  meeting  of  the 
General  Assembly  is  changed  from  October  to 
January;  the  time  of  their  election  from  September 
to  November.  In  1915  an  Act  was  passed  providing 
for  eugenic  marriages.  A  workingmen’s  compensa¬ 
tion  law  Avas  also  passed.  The  establishment  of 
county  tuberculosis  hospitals  has  been  authorized. 
There  Avas  an  attempt  in  1917  to  nullify  the  effects 
of  the  local  option  liquor  laAV  passed  in  1903,  but  the 
people  rejected  the  Prohibition  Act  submitted  to  them 
and  the  local  option  law  stood.  The  Federal  prohibi¬ 
tion  amendment  was  ratified  on  29  January,  1919. 
In  the  same  year  provision  was  made  for  the  com¬ 
mitment  of  Avomen  between  the  ages  of  21  and  45  to 
the  State  School  of  Feeble-Minded,  and  the  com¬ 
mitment  of  dependent  children  to  the  Vermont 
Industrial  School  was  prohibited. 

When  trouble  Avith  Mexico  broke  out  in  1916,  the 
First  Regiment  of  the  Vermont  National  Guard 


immediateljr  mobilized  and  was  one  of  the  first  to 
reach  the  border.  It  was  officially  reported  as  “the 
best  National  Guard  Regiment  in  equipment  and 
general  efficiency”  on  the  border.  In  1917  the  same 
regiment,  though  Avith  a  somewhat  changed  personnel, 
was  drafted  into  Federal  service,  and  thereby  ceased 
to  be  the  National  Guard.  At  this  time  the  regiment 
mustered  55  officers  and  over  2000  men  and  soon 
became  the  157th  Pioneer  Infantry  in  the  famous 
26th  or  “Yankee”  Division.  The  regiment  won  the 
highest  commendation  for  its  fighting  qualities  and 
general  morale.  Other  Vermonters  were  also  on 
active  duty  abroad  with  the  United  States,  English, 
and  French  regiments.  The  summary  of  casualties 
among  the  Vermont  members  of  the  Expeditionary 
Force  is  as  follows:  deceased,  13  officers,  287  men; 
prisoners,  2  officers,  21  men;  wounded,  17  officers, 
680  men. 

Viaticum  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 397b). — If  a  person  has 
received  Holy  Communion  and  later,  on  the  same 
day,  falls  into  danger  of  death  he  is  to  be  urged 
strongly  to  receive  the  Holy  Eucharist  again,  as 
Viaticum;  it  is  both  laAvful  and  fitting  for  him  while 
he  remains  in  danger  of  death  to  receive  the  Holy 
Viaticum  several  times  on  different  days  with  his 
confessor’s  approval.  It  should  be  given  to  the 
faithful  according  to  their  own  Rite,  but  in  case  of 
necessity  any  Rite  is  permissible. 

Viatorians.  See  Saint  Viator,  Clerics  of 

Vicar  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 401a). — There  are 
five  classes  of  parochial  vicars  or  priests  who  act  for  a 
parish  priest  in  the  cure  of  souls,  namely,  the  per¬ 
petual  vicar,  the  vicar  ccconomus,  the  vicar  sub¬ 
stitute,  the  vicar  assistant  and  the  vicar  co-operator. 
When  a  parish  has  been  fully  (plena  jure)  united  to  a 
religious  house,  a  capitular  church  or  other  moral 
person,  a  perpetual  vicar  should  be  appointed  for  the 
actual  cure  of  souls,  and  should  receive  suitable 
compensation.  Except  when  there  is  a  legitimate 
privilege  or  custom  to  the  contrary,  he  should  be 
presented  by  the  religious  superior,  the  chapter,  or 
the  moral  person  as  the  case  calls  for,  and  be  in¬ 
stituted  by  the  local  ordinary  if  found  fitted  by  him. 
Whether  he  is  a  secular  or  religious  his  rights  and 
duties  while  holding  office  are  the  same  as  those  of  a 
parish  priest,  and  he  can  be  removed  only  under  like 
conditions 

As  soon  as  a  parish  becomes  vacant,  a  vicar  cecoro- 
mus  should  be  appointed  by  the  local  ordinary  with 
a  suitable  salary.  Before  His  appointment,  the  gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  parish,  if  no  other  provision  has  been 
made,  is  to  be  taken  over  by  the  vicar  co-operator,  or 
if  there  are  several,  by  the  one  ay  ho  has  held  office 
longest;  if  there  is  no  vicar,  one  of  the  neighborii  g 
parish  priests  takes  charge,  the  ordinary  having  de¬ 
cided  beforehand  which  of  them  should  do  so;  if  the 
parish  is  under  the  care  of  a  religious,  his  local 
superior  should  act .  Those  who  are  thus  empoAvered 
to  take  charge  must  notify  the  local  ordirary  as  soon 
as  the  vacancy  occurs.  A  vicar  ccconomus  has  the 
same  rights  and  duties  as  a  parish  priest  in  the  cure 
of  souls,  but  he  may  not  act  to  the  detriment  of  the 
rights  of  the  parish  priest  or  of  the  parochial  benefice . 
On  the  termination  of  his  office  an  ccconomus  must, 
in  presence  of  the  vica-forane  or  other  priest  named 
by  the  ordinary,  hand  over  to  the  neAV  parish  priest 
or  to  a  succeeding  ccconomus  the  key  of  the  archives 
and  an  inventory  of  the  books,  documents  and  other 
things  belonging  to  the  parish,  and  must  give  an 
accounting  of  the  receipts  and  expenses  during  his 
administration. 

A  vicar  substitute  is  to  be  appointed  by  a  parish 
priest  wit h  the  consent  of  the  local  ordinary  or,  if 
necessary,  of  the  religious  superior,  when  the  parish 


VICAR  APOSTOLIC 


760 


VICTORIA 


priest  is  to  be  away  from  his  parish  for  more  than  a 
week,  or  by  the  ordinary  or  superior,  in  case  the 
parish  priest  is  appealing  to  the  Holy  See  against 
being  deprived  of  his  benefice.  He  has  all  the  rights 
and  duties  of  a  parish  priest  in  the  cure  of  souls,  unless 
the  local  ordinary  or  the  parish  priest  has  curtailed 
them.  A  vicar  substitute  elected  in  case  of  urgent 
necessity  without  the  ordinary’s  approbation  can 
validly  and  licitly  assist  at  marriages  ( Nouv .  Revue 
theol.  1921,  p.  200). 

A  vicar  assistant  is  to  be  given  by  the  local  ordinary 
to  a  parish  priest  who  through  old  age,  lack  of  skill, 
blindness,  or  other  permanent  cause,  is  unable  to 
fulfil  his  duties  properly,  He  should  be  granted  a 
suitable  salary.  If  he  fills  the  parish  priest’s  place  in 
everything,  he  has  all  his  rights  and  duties,  save  the 
obligation  of  applying  Mass  for  the  people;  otherwise 
his  rights  and  duties  are  as  laid  down  in  his  letter  of 
appointment.  If  the  parish  priest  is  mentally  com¬ 
petent,  the  assistant  is  to  work  under  his  directions 
in  accordance  with  the  instructions  contained  in 
the  ordinary’s  letter. 

Vicar  co-operators  are  usually  known  in  English- 
speaking  countries  as  curates  (q.  v.).  Vicars 

ceconomus,  substitute,  or  assistant  can  be  removed  at 
will  by  the  bishop,  or  vicar  capitular,  but  not  by  the 
vicar  general  without  special  authorization.  If  they 
are  religious  they  may  be  similarly  removed  but 
notice  should  be  given  to  their  superior,  who  is  also 
empowered  to  remove  them. 

Vermeersch-Creusen,  Epit.  jur.  can.,  419-430. 

Vicar  Apostolic.  See  Prefect  Apostolic 

Vicar  Capitular,  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 401d). — When 
an  episcopal  vacancy  occurs,  ordy  one  vicar  capitular 
can  be  chosen  by  the  chapter,  otherwise  the  election 
would  be  invalid,  any  custom  to  the  contrary  being 
reprobated;  this  had  long  been  a  disputed  point 
among  canonists.  The  candidate  must  be  chosen  by 
an  absolute  majority  of  the  valid  votes  cast;  he  must 
be  a  priest,  at  least  thirty  years  old,  and  must  not  have 
been  elected,  nominated  or  presented  to  the  vacant 
see,  otherwise  his  selection  would  be  invalid,  and  the 
metropolitan,  or,  if  he  is  dead,  the  senior  suffragan 
bishop  on  learning  the  facts  would  have  to  appoint 
the  vicar  for  that  occasion.  His  election  requires 
no  confirmation;  he  obtains  ordinary  episcopal  juris¬ 
diction  in  spiritual  and  temporal  matters  from  the 
moment  he  makes  his  profession  of  faith,  and  is  bound 
by  the  law  of  residence.  He  must  apply  Mass  for 
the  people,  like  a  bishop;  and  receives  a  salary  the 
amount  of  which  is  fixed  by  a  provincial  council  or 
custom.  If  he  is  a  bishop  he  enjoys  the  honorary 
privileges  of  a  titular  bishop,  otherwise  he  has  only 
those  of  a  titular  apostolic  prothonotary .  If  he  is 
elected  or  nominated  to  the  bishopric  he  can  retain 
his  office  until  he  takes  canonical  possession  of  his 
see  as  bishop. 

Vermeersch-Creusen,  Epit.  jur.  can.,  383-391. 

Vicar  General  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV— 402c).— A  vicar 
general  must  be  a  secular  priest  less  than  thirty  years 
old;  formerly  the  minimum  age  was  twenty-five; 
neither  is  it  requisite  that  he  should  be  of  legitimate 
birth.  If  a  diocese  if  confided  to  the  care  of  regulars, 
the  vicar  general  may  be  selected  from  among  the 
members  of  the  same  order.  A  vicar  general  may  be 
appointed  by  a  residential  bishop  or  an  abbot  or 
prelate  nullius,  but  not  by  a  vicar  or  prefect  apostolic. 
The  latter,  however,  in  virtue  of  a  concession  of 
Benedict  XV  (6  Nov.,  1919)  may,  if  it  is  necessary, 
appoint  vicars  delegate,  who  have  practically  the 
same  powers  and  duties  as  a  vicar  general  (Acta 
Apos.  Sedis,  1920,  p.  120).  The  office  of  vicar  gen¬ 
eral  is  not  to  be  conferred  on  the  canon  penitentiary 
or  a  relative  of  the  bishop,  especially  in  the  first  degree 


or  the  second  combined  with  the  first,  or  except  in 
case  of  necessity,  on  a  parish  priest  or  other  cleric 
having  the  cure  of  souls.  Vicars  general  now  rank 
as  local  ordinaries;  they  possess  ordinary  episcopal 
jurisdiction  throughout  the  diocese  in  virtue  of  their 
office,  except  in  matters  which  the  bishop  has  re¬ 
served  to  himself  or  for  which  the  law  requires  a 
special  episcopal  mandate. 

Under  the  Code  this  mandate  is  needed  to  excar- 
dinate  or  incardinate  clerics,  provide  for  ecclesiastical 
offices,  convoke  diocesan  synods,  nominate  or  in¬ 
stitute  parish  priests,  remove  parochial  vicars,  erect 
pious  associations,  reserve  sics,  grant  dimissorial 
letters,  authorize  marriages  of  conscience,  consecrate 
places,  authorize  the  erection  of  a  church,  declare 
relics  authentic  or  permit  the  sale  of  sacred  relics 
when  the  proof  of  their  authenticity  has  perished, 
fix  the  honorarium  to  be  paid  to  poor  churches  by 
those  celebrating  Mass  there,  erect,  unite  or  collate 
benefices,  grant  canonical  institution  or  authorise  a 
change  of  benefice,  inflict  ecclesiastical  penalties  or 
remit  a  penalty  imposed  by  a  vicar  general  as  judge, 
or  absolve  excommunicated  apostates,  heretics,  or 
schismatics,  after  their  offence  has  been  brought  to  the 
external  forum  of  the  local  ordinary.  Authorities 
differ  as  to  the  nature  of  the  power  a  vicar  general 
receives  with  a  special  mandate;  Stutz  and  Maroto 
call  it  ordinary;  Nicolas  considers  it  delegated; 
Vermeersch-Creusen  consider  it  ordinary  when  the 
mandate  is  granted  in  collating  the  vicarship  or  in 
the  general  formula  of  institution,  but  delegated  when 
granted  separately:  Kinane  says  the  power  is  not 
merely  delegated,  but  is  of  the  same  nature  as  that 
acquired  by  the  general  mandate,  and  consequently 
follows  the  same  rules  in  regard  to  delegation . 

A  vicar  general  has  the  right  of  precedence,  both 
in  public  and  private,  over  all  the  other  diocesan 
clergy,  not  excluding  the  cathedral  dignitaries  and 
canons,  even  in  choir  and  in  capitular  sessions,  unless 
where  a  cleric  has  received  episcopal  consecration 
and  the  vicar  general  has  not;  the  vicar  during  his 
term  of  office  has  a  right  to  the  privileges  and  insignia 
of  a  titular  prothonotary  apostolic,  and,  if  he  is  a 
bishop,  to  the  honorary  privileges  of  a  titular  bishop. 

Vermeersch-Creusen,  Epit.  jur.  can.,  343-51:  Kinane  in 
Irish  Eccl.  Rec.,  XVI  (1920),  507. 

^  Vich,  Diocese  of  (Vicensis,  Ausonensis;  cf. 
C.E.,XV— 405d),  in  Spain,  suffragan  of  Tarragona. 
The  present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Francisco  Munoz 
y  Izquierdo,  b.  at  Burjasot,  28  April,  1868,  ordained 
in  1862,  elected  5  May,  1916,  consecrated  15  Oct., 
published  4  Dec.  following.  He  succeeded  the  Rt. 
Rev.  Jos6  Torras  y  Bages  who  died  7  Feb.,  1916. 
A  congress  of  the  Marian  Congregations  of  Cataluna 
and  the  Balearic  Islands  was  held  at  Vich,  1  May, 
1921.  The  following  distinguished  clergymen  have 
died  since  1912:  Rt.  Rev.  Jose  Torras  y  Bages, 
Bishop  of  Vich,  a  learned  and  cultured  scholar  who 
was  honored  by  Pius  X  and  Benedict  XV,  died  7 
Feb.,  1916;  Very  Rev.  Juan  Collell  y  Cuatrecasas, 
founder  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Little  Servants 
of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  died  Oct.,  1921.  In 
1921  the  diocese  contained:  280  parishes,  580 
churches,  21  convents  for  men,  97  for  women  with 
573  Sisters,  823  secular  priests,  151  regulars,  1  semi¬ 
nary  with  370  seminarians.  The  educational  insti¬ 
tutions  are:  200  schools  for  boys  (220  teachers);  250 
schools  for  girls  (270  teachers);  4  high  schools  (18 
teachers);  1  training  school  (6  teachers,  25  students). 
There  are  also  in  the  diocese  6  asylums,  10  hospitals, 

4  settlement  houses.  Numerous  periodicals  are  pub¬ 
lished  in  the  diocese. 

Victoria,  Diocese  of  (Victoriensis  in  ins. 
Vancouver;  cf.  C.  E.,  Xy— 412c),  in  British 
Columbia.  The  present  administrator  is  the  Rt. 


VICTORIA  NYANZA 


761 


VIRGINIA 


Rev.  Alexander  MacDonald,  b.  at  Malbou,  Canada, 
18  February,  1858,  ordained  8  March,  1884,  elected 
1  October,  1908,  consecrated  3  January,  1909.  In 
1921  the  diocese  contained  12  parishes,  27  churches, 
21  stations,  4  convents  for  men,  8  for  women  with 
109  sisters,  13  secular  priests,  9  regulars,  2  semina¬ 
rians,  2  industrial  schools,  2  hospitals.  One  Catholic 
periodical  is  published  in  the  diocese. 

Victoria  Nyanza,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf. 
C.E.,  XV— 413),  in  Africa.  In  1911  Rwanda  was 
separated  from  the  vicariate  of  Southern  Nyanza  and 
in  August,  1915,  its  name  was  changed  to  Victoria 
Nyanza.  The  present  vicar  is  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph 
S weens  of  the  White  Fathers,  who  succeeded  Rt. 
Rev.  John  Joseph  Hirth  12  December,  1912.  In 
July,  1921  the  vicariate  apostolic  contained  19,000 
Catholics,  27,000  catechumens,  25  churches,  14 
stations,  4  convents  for  women  with  23  Sisters,  6 
native  secular  priests,  36  regulars,  6  Brothers,  2 
seminaries,  85  seminarians,  270  elementary  schools 
(300  teachers,  18,000  pupils),  14  industrial  schools 
(14  teachers,  80  inmates)  and  14  hospitals.  Owing 
to  the  hardships  of  the  climate  the  following  zealous 
missionaries  have  died  since  1914:  Revs.  Joseph 
Fimbel,  Leon  Ulrich,  Herman  Tongerius;  also, 
Sisters  Ludwina,  Roberta,  and  G.  van  der  Sanden. 

Victoria  Nyanza,  Northern,  Vicariate  Apos¬ 
tolic  of.  See  Uganda 


Vacant  he  produced  his  “Dictionnaire  de  la  Bible” 
(Letouzey  et  An6;  Paris,  1895-1913).  This  monu¬ 
mental  work  fills  five  quarto  volumes  numbered  in 
10,926  columns.  It  is  not  controversial,  though  it 
refutes  error  by  exposition;  it  treats  in  separate  articles 
of  each  book  of  scripture,  each  name  of  person  or 
place,  and  the  entire  field  of  biblical  archaeology, 
the  exegesis  being  based  on  the  Fathers,  the  standard 
Catholic  Scripturists,  and  the  ascertained  results  of 
modern  sciences.  In  addition  to  this  work,  Vigouroux 
is  the  author  of  “Le  Manuel  des  sciences  bibliques” 
(in  collaboration  with  his  brother-Sulpician  Bacuez) , 
which  has  run  through  over  a  dozen  editions  and  has 
been  translated  into  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Russian; 
“La  Bible  et  les  decouvertes  modernes  en  Palestine, 
en  Egypte,  et  en  Assyrie”  has  been  reprinted  six  times; 
“Les  livres  saints  et  al  critique  rationaliste,”  a 
refutation  of  the  objections  of  unbelievers  against  the 
Bible,  in  five  volumes,  ran  through  five  editions; 
his  “Bible  polyglotte”  in  8  volumes,  with  the  Hebrew, 
Greek,  Vulgate  Latin  and  French  (Glaire)  versions 
is  a  popular  rather  than  an  erudite  compilation.  In 
1903  Leo  XIII,  who  held  him  in  high  esteem,  ap¬ 
pointed  Vigouroux  consultor  of  the  newly-established 
Biblical  Commission,  a  guarantee  of  the  orthdoxy 
of  his  exegetical  opinions.  In  addition  to  his  rep¬ 
utation  as  a  scholar,  it  may  be  noted  that  Vigouroux 
was  highly  esteemed  at  both  Rome  and  Paris  as  a 
director  of  souls. 


Vienna,  Archdiocese  of  (Vindobon;  cf.  C. 
E.,  XV— 409b),  in  Austria.  The  present  adminis¬ 
trator  is  His  Eminence  Cardinal  Frederick  Gustave 
Piffl.  He  was  b.  at  Koniggratz,  15  October,  1864, 
entered  the  Order  of  the  Canons  Regular  of  St. 
Augustine,  elected  Archbishop  of  Vienna,  2  May, 
1913,  consecrated  1  June,  created  cardinal  priest  25 
May,  1914.  In  1921  the  archdiocese  contained 
2,596,212  Catholics,  all  German  except  a  small 
number  of  Czechoslovakians,  533  parishes,  1089 
churches,  68  monasteries  for  men,  266  convents  for 
women,  3  abbeys  for  men,  982  secular  and  700 
regular  priests,  4  seminaries,  1  university,  11  pro¬ 
fessors,  137  students,  1  college  for  men  with  8  teachers 
and  220  students;  a  large  number  of  secondary  schools, 
academies,  normal  and  industrial  schools  and  chari¬ 
table  institutions  exist  throughout  the  archdiocese. 
The  schools  and  institutions  receive  some  support  from 
the  government.  The  following  distinguished  clergy¬ 
men  have  died  since  1912:  His  Eminence  Francis 
Cardinal  Nagl  (q.  v.) ,  Very  Rev.  Hermanns  Tschokke, 
professor  of  Biblical  Studies  at  the  University  of 
Vienna,  and  for  twenty  years  a  staunch  defender 
of  the  ecclesiastical  matters  under  the  Austrian 
Monarchy.  During  the  war  33  priests  joined  the 
army  and  many  others  cared  for  the  spiritual  needs 
of  the  soldiers  in  the  hopsitals.  Both  clergy  and  laity 
contributed  generously  to  the  war  loans. 


Virgin  Islands.  See  America 


Virginia.  — The  area  of  the  State  is  42,627 
square  miles.  In  1920  the  population  was  2,309,187, 
an  increase  of  12  per  cent,  since  1910.  Of  this,  29.2  /o 
was  urban,  70.8%  was  rural.  The  average 
number  of  inhabitants  per  square  miles  was  57.4  as 
against  51.2  in  1919.  Virginia  has  22  cities,  of  which 
the  largest  with  their  respective  populations  are: 
Richmond  171,667;  Norfolk  115,777;  Roanoke  50,842; 
Portsmouth  54,387;  Lynchburg  29,956;  Petersburg 
31,002;  Newport  News  35,596;  Danville  21,539; 
Alexandria  18,060;  Staunton  10,623;  Charlottesville 
10,688;  Bristol  6,729;  Fredericksburg  5,882;  Win¬ 
chester  6,883;  Clifton  Forge  6,164;  Hampton  6,138; 
Radford  4,627;  Buena  Vista  3,911;  Williamsburg 


>  4g2. 

The  compostion  of  the  population  in  1920  was  as 
ollows:  whites  1,617,909;  negroes  690,017;  Indians 
$24-  Chinese  278.  The  native  whites  numbered 
L, 587, 124,  of  whom  1,534,494  were  of  native  parent- 
ige;  30,514  of  foreign  parentage;  22,116  of  mixed 
parentage.  The  foreign-born,  numbering  30,785 
lame  chiefly  from  England  (3752),  Russia  (5421), 
[taly  (2435),  and  Germany  (2802).  Of  the  popula¬ 
tion  ten  years  of  age  and  over,  195,159  or  11.2  per 
>ent  were  illiterate.  Of  these,  122,322  wer© 
legroes  (23.5  per  cent.).  The  negroes  who  in  1910 
Q9  a  ppnt.  of  the  noDulation  formed  29.9 


Vigouroux,  Ftjlcrain  ,  Biblical  scholar ,  b .  at  N ant- 
d’Aveyron  in  the  Diocese  of  Rodez,  France,  on  13 
February,  1837;  d.  at  Saint  Sulpice,  Issy,  on  21 
February,  1915.  Probably  no  one  in  the  last  half 
of  the  nineteenth  century  did  more  to  spread  a  true 
and  scientific  knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scripture  than 
Fulcran  Vigouroux.  He  studied  at  Rodez  and  Paris 
and  after  his  ordination  on  23  December,  1861,  he 
became  a  Sulpician.  He  subsequently  taught  philos¬ 
ophy  at  Autun  and  Issy,  and  lectured  on  Biblical 
exegesis  with  great  success  in  the  seminary  at  Paris, 
and  after  1890  in  the  Institute  Catholique  (Pans). 
While  holding  this  position  he  undertook  the  com¬ 
pilation  and  publication  of  a  biblical  dictionary ,  and 
with  the  assistance  and  collaboration  of  a  corps  of 
scholars  like  Pierre  Battifol,  Corluy,  Delattre, 
Hyvernat,  Jacquier,  Mangenot,  Many,  Turmel  and 


per  cent  in  1920.  ,  . 

Economic  Status:  The  total  value  of  the  farm¬ 
lands  with  buildings,  implements,  machinery,  and 
live  stock  in  1920  was  $1,196,555,772,  an  increase 
of  91  4  per  cent  in  a  decade.  The  farms  embrace 
more  than  70  per  cent  of  the  total  land  area  or 
18  561 ,112  acres;  over  one-half  representing  improved 
acreage.  The  number  of  farms  was  186,242,  of  which 
54  per  cent  are  free  from  debt,  the  average  value  of 
each  farm,  including  equipment,  being  $6,425,  and 
of  farm  land  per  acre  $40.75.  The  trucking  has  in¬ 
creased  550  per  cent  in  forty  years.  The  State  stands 
first  in  peanuts  (output  4,416,000  bushels,  value 
$6,006,000);  third  in  tobacco  (output  17/, 390 
pounds,  value  $42,574,000).  In  1920  the  \ield  of 
other  crops  was:  corn  42,302,978  bushels,  value 
$78,260,514;  wheat  11,446,027  bushels,  value  $26,- 


VISIT  AD  LIMINA 


762 


VISIT  AD  LIMINA 


783,702;  Irish  potatoes  12,263,374  bushels,  value 
$26,979,423;  sweet  potatoes  and  yams  5,981,348 
bushels,  value  $9,570,164;  oats  1,958,609  bushels, 
value  $2,154,475;  rye  456,689  bushels,  value  $822,039; 
buckwheat  232,507  bushels,  value  $360,390;  barley 
229,301  bushels,  value  $332,490;  and  in  tons  of  hay 
and  forage  1,989,282,  value  $41,847,594.  The 
cultivation  of  alfalfa  is  increasing  and  covers  24,348 
acres.  The  value  of  crops  in  1920  was  $262,252,283 
from  4,579,367  acres.  The  number  of  dairy  cows  in 
the  same  year  was  509,305,  valued  at  $28,596,179. 
Since  1910  the  number  of  sheep  has  decreased  from 
438,719  to  342,367.  The  value  of  live  stock  in  1920 
was  $121,969,281. 

Manufactures. — According  to  the  latest  census  of 
manufactures  (1919)  there  were  in  the  State  5,603 
manufacturing  establishments,  with  an  aggregate 
capital  of  $464,517,000,  employing  119,400  people; 
the  cost  of  raw  material  used  $372,041,000  and  the 
value  of  the  product  to  $641,810,000. 

Mining. — The  mineral  ouput  of  Virginia  in  1918 
was  worth  $37,639,368.  About  10,087,000  tons  of 
coal  and  1,304,000  tons  of  coke  was  mined,  also 
472,337  tons  of  iron  ore  and  562,299  tons  of  pig 
iron.  Norfolk  alone  exported  17,500,000  tons  of 
coal.  There  are  50  accredited  mineral  springs. 

About  855,000,000  feet  of  lumber  were  cut  in 
1918.  In  September,  1919,  there  were  147  banks 
(national)  with  total  resources  of  $430,241,000. 
The  resources  of  the  State  banks  (June  30,  1919) 
amounted  to  $177,814,000.  The  bank  clearings  in 
Richmond  alone  equalled  $4,875,418,760;  deposits 
$94,669,440;  loans  and  discounts  $102,049,839.  The 
total  valuation  of  real  estate  was  $645,144,646, 
divided  as  follows:  counties,  $329,873,554;  cities, 
$315,271,112.  Of  the  total  the  whites  owned  $612,- 
699,391;  negroes,  $32,475,255.  The  building  opera¬ 
tions  of  the  city  of  Richmond  were  $4,118,688. 
The  gross  insurance  risks  written  in  Virginia  in  1919 
were  as  follows:  fire  insurance  $633,887,306;  marine 
insurance  $75,442,221;  life  insurance  $435,668,431. 

The  bonded  debt  of  the  State  amounts  (1919) 
$22,912,216;  the  assessed  value  of  property  for  the 
same  year  was:  real  estate,  $797,414,198;  personal 
$535,859,124;  total  $1,333,273,322.  The  total 
mileage  of  the  State  is  4677.  There  are  12  electric 
companies  with  433  miles  of  track  extending  between 
cities. 

Religion. — The  church  membership  (1916)  was 
949,136,  of  which  the  Baptists  numbered  406,387; 
Methodists  258,785;  Presbyterian  52,564;  Protestant 
Episcopal  33,593;  Disciples  34,220;  Lutherans 
16,040.  The  Catholics  are  given  as  36,671 .  The  value 
of  all  church  property  is  $29,480,547;  the  debt 
$2,081,152. 

For  Catholic  statistics  see  the  articles  on  the 
dioceses  of  Richmond,  Wheeling,  and  Wilming¬ 
ton. 

Education. — The  compulsory  education  law  ap¬ 
plies  to  children  between  the  ages  of  eight  and  twelve 
years  and  requires  attendance  for  16  weeks  each 
3rear.  Two  weeks’  attendance  at  half  time  or  night 
school  equal  one  week  at  day  school.  The  receipts 
from  the  permanent  funds  in  1918  were  $106,749, 
the  receipts  from  appropriations  and  taxation  were 
State:  $2,486,456;  county,  $1,200,197;  local,  $3,747, - 
086;  making  the  total  revenue  receipts  $8,788,842. 
There  was  a  balance  on  hand  in  the  school  year 
1916-17  of  $1,034,496.  The  total  expenditure  in  the 
State  for  instruction  in  1918-19  was  $9,155,363. 
There  are  a  total  of  210,278  colored  pupils  enrolled 
in  the  public  schools.  Statistics  of  public  schools 
(1918)  show  a  school  population  of  658,926;  total 
enrollment,  480,139;  in  high  schools  29,157;  average 
daily  attendance  326,296  teachers  13,904;  number  of 
school  houses  6,743;  school  revenue  $8,788,842; 


salaries  of  teachers  $5,162,470;  annual  cost  of  build¬ 
ing  $1,085,690;  libraries  and  class  equipment  $1,676,- 
918;  total  value  of  school  property  $18,862,254,  an 
increase  in  six  years  of  over  100  per  cent. 

In  1920  the  University  of  Virginia  had  88  pro¬ 
fessors,  18  officials,  931  students,  and  including  the 
summer  school,  2737. 

In  1919  women  were  admitted  to  the  College  of 
William  and  Mary  and  Laurel  Industrial  School  was 
transferred  to  the  State.  The  laws  governing  private 
and  parochial  schools  include  the  following:  the 
State  Board  of  Health  shall  have  the  power  to 
enforce  rules  and  regulations  from  time  to  time, 
requiring  and  providing  for  the  thorough  sanitation 
of  all  schools.  No  appropriations  shall  be  made 
to  any  sectarian  institutions. 

Recent  Legislation  and  History.  —  Several 
important  Acts  were  passed  in  1912,  to  provide  for 
a  new  State  institution  for  the  feeble-minded,  also 
surgical  aid  for  the  indigent,  crippled,  and  deformed, 
the  establishment  of  the  first  juvenile  court  in  the 
State,  primary  elections  for  ail  except  presidential 
electors,  segregation  districts  for  the  residence  of 
white  and  colored  people.  On  1  November,  1916, 
state-wide  prohibition  went  into  effect.  In  the  same 
year,  in  order  to  extend  the  usefulness  of  agricultural 
high  schools  the  Legislature  voted  to  offer  liberal 
terms  to  school  districts  which  wished  to  borrow  from 
from  the  State’s  Literary  Fund  for  the  erection  of 
schools.  Provision  was  also  made  for  a  public 
defender  in  cities  of  50,000  people,  for  two  years. 
Judges  were  authorized  to  substitute  jail  sentences 
in  misdemeanor  cases.  It  was  decided  at  that  time 
that  the  father  and  mother  were  entitled  to  the 
custody,  services,  and  earnings  of  legitimate  children. 
Mothers’  pensions  were  adopted  in  1918.  In  1918 
the  legislature  decided  that  marriage,  when  either 
party  is  a  habitual  criminal,  idiot,  or  insane,  or  is 
affected  with  specific  diseases,  is  under  the  circum¬ 
stance  prohibited.  In  1896  there  were  525  divorces; 
in  1906,  1074;  in  1916,  1886.  The  Federal  Suffrage 
amendment  was  defeated  by  the  Virginia  Legislature 
on  12  February,  1920,  but  the  Prohibition  Amend¬ 
ment  was  ratified  on  10  January,  1918.  During  the 
European  War,  an  artillery  camp  was  established  at 
Lee  Hall  (Camp  Eustis) ,  Camp  Humphreys  for  the 
engineers  at  Accotink;  and  two  embarkation  camps 
at  Newport  News  (Hill  and  Stuart).  Virginia  fur¬ 
nished  to  the  United  States  Army  73,062  men  (1.94 
per  cent).  The  Virginia  members  of  the  national 
guard  were  for  the  most  part  incorporated  into  the 
29th  Division  at  Camp  McClellan,  Alabama;  those 
of  the  National  Army  with  the  80th  Division  at  Camp 
Lee,  Virginia.  The  summary  of  casulaties  among  the 
Virginia  members  of  the  American  Expeditionary 
Force  is  as  follows:  deceased,  71  officers,  1564  men; 
prisoners,  3  officers,  40  men;  wounded,  196  officers, 
4256  men. 

Visit  ad  Limina  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV— 478a).— If 
the  year  appointed  for  the  visit  of  a  bishop  to  the  Holy 
See  falls  wholly  or  partially  within  the  first  two  years 
of  the  episcopacy,  he  may  omit  the  visit  and  the 
diocesan  report  for  that  occasion.  Bishops  residing 
outside  of  Europe  may  limit  their  visits  to  every 
tenth  year.  Vicars  apostolic,  but  not  prefects 
apostolic,  are  bound  to  visit  Rome;  however,  if  it  is 
very  inconvenient  for  them  to  do  so  personally  they 
may  fulfil  their  obligation  by  a  procurator,  even 
one  residing  in  Rome.  However,  both  vicars  and 
prefects  apostolic  must  send  in  quinquennial  reports, 
giving  a  full  account  of  their  pastoral  work,  the  condi¬ 
tion  of  their  missions,  and  whatever  relates  to  the 
welfare  of  their  people;  the  account  must  be  signed  by 
the  vicar  or  prefect  and  by  at  least  one  member  of 
their  council.  In  addition  they  have  to  forward  to 


VISITATION 


703 


VIVES  V  TUTO 


the  Congregation  of  Propaganda  at  the  end  of  each 
year,  a  statement  showing  the  number  of  conversions, 
baptisms,  and  receptions  of  the  sacraments  during 
the  year  together  with  anything  else  worthy  of  notice. 

On  4  November,  1918,  the  Sacred  Consistorial 
Congregation  published  a  Decree  setting  forth  a  list 
of  questions  to  be  answered  by  local  ordinaries  in  the 
quinquennial  diocesan  reports  to  the  Holy  See.  An 
earlier  series  of  queries  for  the  same  purpose  had  been 
drawn  up  in  1909,  but  owing  to  changes  made  by  the 
Code  it  was  necessary  to  modify  them.  The  new 
formula  did  not,  however,  come  into  effect  until  1921. 
The  report  is  to  be  written  in  Latin,  dated  and  sub¬ 
scribed  to  by  the  ordinary;  the  first  report  is  to 
contain  full  careful  answers  to  all  the  questions;  later 
reports  may  omit  referring  to  the  material  conditions 
of  the  diocese  if  it  is  unchanged.  The  formula  is 
divided  into  ten  chapters  comprising  a  hundred  ques¬ 
tions,  many  of  them  being  multiple.  The  first 
chapter  asks  for  data  concerning  the  ordinary  per¬ 
sonally,  the  residential  see,  the  civil  statistics  of  the 
diocese,  the  number  of  Catholics  and  non-Catholics 
the  diversity  of  Rites,  the  number  of  priests,  clerics, 
seminary  students,  whether  there  is  a  cathedral 
chapter  or  a  body  of  diocesan  consultors;  the  number 
of  deaneries,  and  parishes,  whether  any  parishes  are 
based  on  language  or  national ty,  and  not  on  territory, 
and  if  so  by  what  authority;  the  number  of  churches, 
oratories,  celebrated  shrines;  the  statistics  of  re¬ 
ligious  institutes.  The  second  chapter  has  twelve 
main  questions  concerning  the  observance  of  specific 
canons  governing  the  administration  of  temporalities, 
inventories,  and  the  archives.  The  third  chapter 
concerns  the  Faith  and  Divine  worship;  heresy, 
modernism,  superstition,  theosophy,  spiritism,  free¬ 
dom  of  worship,  cemeteries,  observance  of  the 
liturgical  rubrics,  pictures,  statues,  number  and  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  churches,  works  of  art  therein,  whether 
entrance  into  the  churches  during  services  is,  as 
commanded,  always  and  absolutely  free,  custody 
of  and  reverence  to  the  Blessed  Sacrament.  The 
fourth  chapter  concerns  the  ordinary  himself;  his 
income,  residence,  administration  of  temporalities, 
administration  of  confirmation,  ordinations,  con¬ 
fessions,  observation  of  regulations  on  preaching, 
mixed  marriages,  canonical  visitation,  diocesan 
synods,  relations  of  the  civil  authorities  towards 
them  and  the  Church.  The  fifth  chapter  treats  of  the 
diocesan  curia  in  three  queries;  the  sixth  deals  with 
the  spiritual  and  temporal  aspects  of  the  seminary 
in  five  questions.  The  seventh  chapter  has  nine 
questions  treating  in  detail  of  the  observance  of 
clerical  obligations  as  laid  down  in  the  canons;  the 
eighth  has  nine  questions  dealing  with  the  cathedral 
and  other  chapters;  the  ninth  chapter  in  fourteen 
questions  is  concerned  with  the  deans  and  parish 
priests,  especially  in  regard  to  their  homilies,  sermons 
and  catechisms  and  to  the  administration  of  the 
sacraments;  the  tenth  chapter  in  seven  questions  deals 
with  religious,  their  reputation,  usefulness,  obser¬ 
vance  of  the  canons  governing  admission,  enclosure, 
confessions,  canonical  visitation;  the  eleventh  chapter 
has  sixteen  queries  treating  of  the  faithful,  public 
morality,  Christian  lives,  reverence  of  the  clergy  and 
the  Pope,  attendance  at  Mass,  fast  and  abstinence, 
infant  baptism,  Easter  communions,  frequent  com¬ 
munion,  the  last  sacraments,  Catholic  burials,  reli¬ 
gious  marriages,  proportion  of  mixed  marriages,  re¬ 
ligious  education,  especially  of  pupils  attending  public 
schools;  spiritual  care  of  those  just  out  from  school, 
confraternities;  Catholic  social  service  centers,  refuges, 
workshops;  character  of  the  press;  forbidden  societies; 
Socialism;  attitude  of  Catholics  towards  anti-religious 
education:  the  twelfth  chapter  directs  the  ordinary 
particularly,  in  his  first  report  to  state  summarily 
what  he  thinks  of  the  material  and  moral  condition 


of  his  diocese,  his  hopes  and  his  anxieties;  while  in 
later  reports  he  will  tell  how  and  with  what  result 
he  has  carried  out  any  advice  or  orders  he  may  receive 
from  the  Holy  See  in  reply  to  his  earlier  report  and 
whether  in  the  matter  of  faith  and  morals  the  diocese 
has  improved  or  falling  away,  or  whether  it  is  practi¬ 
cally  unchanged,  and  to  what  he  attributes  this  con¬ 
dition  of  affairs. 

Acta  Apostolicae  Sedis  (1918),  487-503. 

Visitation.  Canonical  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 479d). — 
Bishops  are  bound  to  visit  their  diocese  each  year 
either  wholly  or  in  part,  but  so  that  the  entire  diocese 
shall  be  visited  at  least  once  every  five  years.  This 
is  a  personal  obligation,  but  for  just  reasons  the  bishop 
may  depute  the  vicar  general  or  other  priest  to  carry 
it  out.  The  bishop  may  select  any  two  priests  he 
desires  to  assist  Rim  in  this  work,  all  privileges  or 
customs  to  the  contrary  being  now  reprobated..  If  a 
bishop  neglects  to  make  his  visitation,  his  metropolitan 
notifies  the  Holy  See  and  on  obtaining  its  approval 
carries  out  the  visitation.  Exemption  from  the 
bishop’s  jurisdiction  does  not  imply  exemption  from 
episcopal  visitation;  for  the  latter  a  special  apostolic 
rescript  is  required.  However  exempt  religious  are 
subject  to  visitation  only  in  the  cases  laid  down  in  the 
Code.  Thus  the  bishop  must  visit  every  fifth  year 
monasteries  of  nuns  subject  to  regulars,  but  only  to 
enquire  about  the  observance  of  the  enclosure; 
however,  if  the  regular  superior  has  omitted  the  can¬ 
onical  visitation  for  five  years,  the  bishop  is  to  make 
it  for  him.  So,  too,  is  he  to  visit  pontifical  clerical 
congregations,  even  exempt  to  examine  the  church, 
the  sacristy,  and  the  confessionals;  or  if  the  institute 
is  lay,  to  enquire  into  its  internal  discipline  also. 
Parish  priests  or  vicars,  who  are  religious,  are  sub¬ 
ject  to  his  visitation,  except  in  the  matter  of  regular 
observance;  moreover,  he  can  visit  the  churches  of 
exempt  orders  to  see  if  the  regulations  concerning 
unlawful  or  incongruous  devotions  are  being  carried 
out.  If  a  charitable  foundation  is  by  prescription 
or  apostolic  privilege  exempt  from  episcopal  juris¬ 
diction  or  visitation  the  bishop  may  nevertheless 
supervise  its  moral  condition,  its  exercise  of  piety, 
and  the  administration  of  the  scraments  therein. 

An  archbishop  may  not  make  a  canonical  visitation 
of  one  of  his  suffragan  dioceses,  except  when  the  bishop 
has  neglected  this  duty,  and  even  then  he  must  first 
obtain  permission  from  the  Holy  See.  The  visitation 
need  not  be  authorized  by  a  provincial  council 
as  was  formerly  the  case. 

Vitoria,  Diocese  of  (Victoriensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV 
— 489c),  in  Spain,  suffragan  of  Burgos.  The  present 
bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Leopold  Eijo  y  Garay,  b.  at 
Vigo,  14  April,  1878,  ordained  27  December,  1900, 
elected  bishop  of  Tuy,  28  May,  1914,  transferred 
to  Vitoria  22  March,  1917,  took  possession  16  July 
following.  He  succeeded  the  Rt.  Rev.  Melo  y 
Alcade  who  was  transferred.  In  1921  the  diocese 
contained  712  parishes,  967  churches,  1  abbey  for 
men,  89  convents  for  men,  203  for  women,  4138 
professed  sisters,  380  novices,  5  seminaries  with  407 
seminarians.  The  educational  institutions  are:  1 
free  university,  50  professors,  350  students;  3  normal 
schools;  1070  elementary  schools,  1184  teachers, 
67,408  pupils.  The  following  institutions  exist  in 
the  diocese:  14  homes  for  the  aged  and  infirm,  30 
asylums,  59  hospitals,  8 refuges,  12  settlement  houses, 
10  day  nurseries.  All  the  public  institutions  admit 
the  ministry  of  priests.  Five  Catholic  papers  are 
published  in  the  diocese. 

Vives  y  Tuto,  Jose  Calasanzio,  Cardinal,  theo¬ 
logian,  b.  at  San  Andres  de  Llevaneras,  in  the  Diocese 
of  Barcelona,  Spain,  on  15  February,  1854;  d.  at 
Monte  Porzio  Catone,  Rome,  on  7  September,  1913. 


VIVIERS 


764 


VOWS 


After  studying  at  Mataro  he  entered  the  Guatemalan 
province  of  the  Capuchins  on  11  July,  1869,  but 
three  years  later  he  was  driven  into  exile  during  the 
revolution,  and  took  refuge  first  with  the  Jesuits  in 
California  and  later  with  the  Capuchins  at  Toulouse, 
France.  He  was  sent  to  Ecuador,  but  ill-health  com¬ 
pelled  him  to  return  in  1876  to  Toulouse,  where  he 
was  ordained.  He  was  then  named  guardian  of  the 
convent  in  Perpignan,  but  when  the  French  govern¬ 
ment  began  its  anti-Catholic  persecution  in  1880,  he 
with  the  other  Spanish  Capuchins  withdrew  to  Spain. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  arranging  the  union  of  the 
Spanish  Capuchins  with  the  body  of  the  order  from 
which  they  had  been  separated  for  nearly  a  century , 
and  displayed  such  ability  in  the  negotiations  at 
Rome  that  his  superiors  called  him  there  per¬ 
manently  in  1887.  Subsequently  he  was  appointed 
Consultor  of  the  Holy  Office  and  other  congregations, 
examiner  of  the  Roman  clergy,  and  a  member  of  the 
Commission  on  Anglican  Orders,  and  general  definitor 
of  the  Capuchins.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
Plenary  Council  of  La  tin- America,  held  at  Rome  in 
1899,  and  was  raised  to  the  cardinalate  in  the  same 
year.  When  the  Roman  Curia  was  reorganized  in 
1908,  he  was  named  Prefect  of  the  Congregation  of 
Religious  by  Pius  X,  whose  confessor  and  confidential 
adviser  he  was.  To  him  are  due  most  of  the  legislative 
reforms  in  religious  life  introduced  during  the  reign 
of  Pius  X;  and  the  Modernists  attributed  to  his 
inspiration  the  vigorous  unmasking  and  condemnation 
of  their  heretical  theories.  Cardinal  Vives  was 
universally  esteemed  as  a  man  of  exemplary  piety, 
mortified  life,  kind  to  the  poor  and  filled  with  zeal  for 
religion.  In  spite  of  his  executive  labors  he  found 
time  to  write  a  course  of  dogmatic  theology,  which 
enjoys  considerable  popularity  in  Spain,  and  a  number 
of  ascetical  works. 

Viviers,  Diocese  of  (Vivarium;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 493c),  in  France,  suffragan  of  Avignon.  The 
present  administrator  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Michel 
Bonnet,  b.  at  Langogne,  France,  29  September,  1835, 
ordained  December,  1859,  elected  26  June,  1876, 
consecrated  24  August,  made  assistant  at  the  pon¬ 
tifical  throne  28  March,  1879.  The  auxiliary  is  the 
Rt.  Rev.  Paul  Negre,  titular  bishop  of  Cybistra.  In 
1921  the  diocese  contained  365  parishes,  328  succursal 
parishes,  37  vicariates  actually  existing,  1  monastery 
for  men  (Trappists) ,  2  monasteries  for  women  (Car¬ 
melites  and  Poor  Clares),  about  500  secular  priests, 
1  seminary  (67  seminarians) ,  1  preparatory  seminary 
(160  students),  several  teaching  orders  of  Brothers. 
The  educational  institutions  are:  2  secondary  colleges 
for  boys  (25  teachers,  300  students) ,  373  parish  schools 
entirely  supported  by  the  Catholics  (20,000  pupils). 
During  the  war  280  priests  were  mobilized.  Of  these 
10  were  killed,  2  injured,  1  received  the  medal  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  1  the  medaille  militaire,  60  the  croix 
de  guerre.  Of  the  seminarians,  85  joined  the  army, 
19  were  killed,  3  injured,  1  received  the  medaille 
militaire  and  10  the  croix  de  guerre.  The  Union  Dio- 
cesaine  for  cooperative  buying  has  been  established 
among  the  clergy  and  an  association  called  the 
Jeunesse  Catholique  is  flourishing  among  the  laity. 
Six  Catholic  periodicals  are  published  in  the  diocese. 
In  1921  the  diocese  contained  254,308  Catholics, 
mostly  French,  with  a  few  Spaniards  and  Italians  and 
40.000  Protestants. 

Vizeu,  Diocese  of  (Visensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 
496c),  in  the  north  central  part  of  Portugal,  suffragan 
of  Braga.  The  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Antonio  Alv6s 
Ferreira,  born  in  Sardoal  in  the  diocese  of  Portalegre 
in  1864;  he  studied  at  Portalegre  and  Coimbra,  was 
ordained  in  1886,  served  as  rector  of  the  seminary  of 
Santarem,  was  made  a  canon,  then  vicar  general  and 


later,  a  canon  of  Lisbon,  was  named  an  honorary 
chamberlain  in  1899,  prelate  of  the  Holy  See  in  1902, 
and  prothonotarv  apostolic  in  1906,  and  appointed 
titular  Bishop  of  Martyropolis  19  December,  1907, 
and  coadjutor  to  the  bishop  of  Vizeu,  whom  he  suc¬ 
ceeded  2  July,  1911.  The  diocese  comprises  209 
parishes,  1218  churches,  312  secular  priests,  1  semi¬ 
nary  with  10  professors  and  48  seminarians,  1  college 
for'boys  with  12  teachers  and  120  students,  1  college 
for  girls  with  8  teachers  and  58  pupils,  1  home  for  the 
aged,  1  asylum  for  boys  and  girls  and  1  asylum  for 
boys  only,  with  a  training  school  connected  with  it, 
2  civil  and  1  military  hospitals,  and  1  settlement 
house.  A  number  of  societies  are  organized  among 
the  laity  and  6  Catholic  periodicals  are  published. 
During  the  World  War  four  priests  from  this  diocese 
served  as  chaplains  and  one  of  these  died  in  Africa. 

VogiiS,  Charles-Jean-Melchior,  Marquis  de, 
distinguished  Oriental  scholar  and  archaeologist,  b. 
at  Paris  on  18  October,  1829;  d.  there  on  9  Novem¬ 
ber,  1916.  At  an  early  age  he  entered  the  French 
Department  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  was  sent  to 
Russia,  where  in  1851  he  wrote  a  notable  study  on 
Russian  goldwork.  He  left  the  diplomatic  service 
the  following  year  and  travelled  in  Greece,  Syria, 
Palestine  and  the  Orient,  returning  again  in  1861  to 
Syria.  In  1871  he  was  ambassador  at  Constantinople 
and  in  1875  at  Vienna.  Among  the  honors  conferred 
on  him  were:  the  cross  of  Commander  of  the  Legion 
of  Honor,  membership  in  the  Society  of  Anti¬ 
quarians  of  France  (1860),  in  the  Academy  of 
Incriptions  (1868),  and.  in  the  French  Academy 
(1891).  Among  de  Vogue’s  great  works  are  “Les 
eglises  de  la  Terre  Sainte”;  “La  Syrie  Centrale”  (3 
volumes,  Paris,  1865-77),  a  veritable  monument  of 
Oriental  science,  vols.  I  and  II  dealing  with  architec¬ 
ture,  and  vol.  Ill  with  the  Semitic  inscriptions  of 
Palmyra  and  Safa;  “Le  Temple  de  Jerusalem”;  and 
“Melanges  d’archeologie  orientale.”  But  his  in¬ 
terests  were  not  confined  to  Oriental  antiquities;  he 
was  a  prominent  cultivator  and  president  of  the 
Agricultural  Society  of  France;  edited  the  “Memoires 
de  Villars”  in  a  masterly  way;  wrote  “Une  famille 
vivaroise,”  a  charming  account  of  his  family;  and 
was  prominent  in  the  Red  Cross  work  in  France 
during  the  War.  An  outstanding  feature  in  his  career 
was  his  zeal  for  the  Christians  in  the  Orient.  In 
1856  with  Augustin  Cauchy  and  Charles  Lenormant 
be  founded  L’CEuvre  des  Ecoles  d’ Orient,  of  which  he 
hecame  president  in  1900;  in  1860  he  cooperated  with 
Abb6  (later  Cardinal)  Lavigerie  in  succouring  the 
Maronites  when  the  Christians  were  being  martyred 
in  Syria;  while  ambassador  at  Constantinople  he  was 
an  active  protector  of  the  Catholic  missions  in  Turkey 
in  Asia;  and  during  the  European  War  he  inspired  the 
Holy  See  to  intercede  with  the  Sultan  to  spare  the 
Syrians  who  were  being  deliberately  starved  to 
death. 

Jalabert  in  Etudes,  t.  149  (1916),  709-40;  and  Paris  press 
(November,  1916),  Figaro  (11  Nov.),  Temps  (12  Nov.),  Echo 
de  Paris  (15  Nov.). 

Volunteers  of  America.  See  Salvation  Army 

Vows  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 511a). — The  only  private 
vows  now  reserved  to  the  Holy  See  are  a  vow  of 
perfect  and  perpetual  chastity,  and  a  vow  to  enter  a 
religious  institute  having  solemn  vows,  provided 
these  vows  have  been  made  unconditionally  and  after 
the  completion  of  the  party’s  eighteenth  year. 
Formerly  a  vow  to  visit  the  Holy  Land,  Compostella, 
or  the  Tombs  of  the  Apostles  in  Rome  was  likewise 
reserved  to  the  pope.  While  solemn  religious  pro¬ 
fession  still  dissolves  an  unconsummated  marriage  it 
is  to  be  noted  that  a  religious  profession  is  invalid 
unless  it  has  been  preceded  by  a  valid  novitiate,  ac  J 


vows 


705 


VOWS 


that  unless  a  dispensation  has  been  granted  by  the  to  the  Holy  See,  if  they  attempt  marriage,  even 
Holy  See  no  married  person  can  make  a  valid  novitiate  civil  marriage;  the  penalty  is  likewise  incurred  by 
while  his  or  her  marriage  remains  undissolved.  their  partners;  formerly  the  censure  was  reserved  only 

Clerics  in  sacred  orders,  and  regulars  or  nuns  with  to  the  ordinary, 
solemn  vowts  incur  excommunication  reserved  simply 


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Wagga-Wagga,  Diocese  of  (Corvopolitanien- 
sis),  separated  from  the  dioceses  of  Goulburn  and 
Wilcannia  and  erected  into  the  new  diocese  28  July, 
1917.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Murray 
River  to  a  point  ten  miles  west  of  Tocumwal;  on  the 
west  by  a  line  extending  from  that  point  on  the  Mur¬ 
ray,  to  the  western  boundary  of  County  Cooper;  on 
the  north  by  a  line  about  25  miles  north  of  the  South- 
West  Railway,  including  the  irrigation  area,  4  miles 
north  of  Yenda  and  7  miles  east  of  it  to  Ullabo;  thence 
in  a  southeasterly  line  to  Khancoban  and  the  Murray. 
The  first  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Wilfred  Dwyer,  was 
born  in  Maitland,  N.  S.  W.,  12  October,  1869,  and 
was  consecrated  13  October,  1918,  by  the  Apostolic 
Delegate,  Mgr.  Cattaneo,  assisted  by  12  archbishops 
and  bishops,  and  thrity  priests.  The  episcopal  resi¬ 
dence  is  at  Wagga-Wagga.  During  the  past  year 
(1921)  the  diocese  was  greatly  stirred  by  the  Ligouri 
case,  in  which  Bridget  Mary  Partridge,  otherwise 
known  as  Sister  Ligouri,  brought  suit  against  Bishop 
Dwyer  for  slander.  Having  run  away  from  her  con¬ 
vent  and  taken  refuge  with  a  Protestant  family,  she 
later  brought  suit  for  £5000  damages.  The  court, 
however,  wholly  exonerated  the  bishop  after  a  long 
trial  lasting  several  days.  The  Catholic  population 
of  this  territory  comprises  20,000  Irish,  200  English 
and  1000  of  German  descent.  Latest  statistics  credit 
the  diocese  with  18  parishes,  53  churches,  100  mission 
stations,  2  convents  for  men,  15  for  women,  24  secular 
clergy,  8  teaching  Brothers,  132  nuns,  2  colleges  for 
girls  with  12  teachers  and  158  students,  4  high  schools 
with  24  teachers  and  230  pupils,  18  elementary  schools 
with  70  teachers  and  2600  pupils,  and  1  orphanage  for 
girls  with  73  orphans,  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of 
Mercy.  The  priests  minister  in  7  public  hospitals 
and  1  jail.  The  only  aid  any  of  the  Catholic  institu¬ 
tions  receive  from  the  government  is  an  occasional 
gift  of  £50.  The  Hibernian- Australian  Catholic 
Benefit  Society,  the  Australian  Catholic  Guild  and  the 
St.  Vincent  de  Paul  Society  are  established  among  the 
laity. 

Waghadugu,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (de 
Ouagadougou),  erected  by  a  decree  of  2  July,  1921, 
through  a  division  of  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
Sahara.  It  includes  all  the  territory  east  of  a  line 
drawn  from  5°  west  to  a  lake  south  of  the  River  Niger 
in  the  city  of  Timbuctu,  from  here  to  the  boundary 
line  of  the  three  civil  provinces  of  Bandiagara, 
Dedugu  and  Babodiulasso,  included  in  this  Vicariate. 
It  is  entrusted  to  the  White  Fathers,  the  first  vicar 
Apostolic  being  Rt.  Rev.  Joanny  Therenoud,  ap¬ 
pointed  titular  Bishop  of  Sitifis  18  July,  1921,  having 
been  named  vicar  on  5  July  previous. 

Waitzen,  Dioces  of.  See  Vacz 

Wales,  Church  of  England  in.  See  Anglicanism 

Walsh,  William  J.,  Archbishop  of  Dublin;  b. 
there  on  30  January,  1841;  d.  there  on  9  April,  1921. 
He  was  educated  at  St.  Lawrence  O’Toole  Seminary 
and  at  the  Catholic  University,  when  it  was  directed 
by  Doctor  (Cardinal)  Newman.  He  then  went  to 
Maynooth,  and  after  his  regular  course  spent  three 


years  in  higher  studies  in  the  Dunboyne  Establish¬ 
ment.  <£n  1867  at  the  age  of  twenty-six  he  taught  dog¬ 
matic  and  moral  theology.  He  became  vice-president 
of  the  Maynooth  College  in  1878,  and  at  the  death  of 
Dr.  Russell  succeeded  him  as  president.  He  was  an 
authority  on  the  social,  economic  and  educational 
questions  of  the  day  and  a  strong  advocate  of  the 
claims  of  the  Irish  tenantry,  and  in  1881  gave  his 
support  to  Gladstone’s  Land  Bill.  His  “Plain  Expo¬ 
sition”  of  the  Bill  was  published  at  the  time;  in  1883 
his  book  entitled  “The  Queen’s  Colleges  and  the  Royal 
University  of  Ireland”  challenged  public  attention. 
On  the  death  of  Archbishop  McCabe  of  Dublin  in 
1885,  Dr.  Walsh  was  named  his  successor,  in  spite  of 
the  opposition  of  the  Government,  which  sent  Sir 
George  Errington  to  Rome  to  protest  against  the 
appointment.  From  the  beginning,  he  identified  him¬ 
self  with  the  cause  of  the  people,  in  public  meetings, 
the  pulpit  and  the  press.  He  was  present  as  a  witness 
in  the  Parnell  trial  and  gave  evidence  of  the  utmost 
importance;  and  was  many  times  mediator  in  trade 
disputes  and  strikes.  In  recognition  of  his  services, 
he  was  given  the  Freedom  of  the  City  of  Cork  in  1890. 
With  all  these  multiplied  activities  he  was  also  a  writer 
even  on  such  subjects*  as  “Gregorian  Music”  and 
“Bimetalism.”  During  his  entire  episcopal  career  he 
was  deeply  interested  in  the  cause  of  education,  espe¬ 
cially  in  the  matter  of  university  training,  in  which  the 
Catholics  labored  under  grave  disabilities.  As  early 
as  1883  his  treatise,  “The  Queen’s  Colleges  and  the 
Royal  University  of  Ireland”  on  this  question  had 
challenged  public  attention.  At  a  later  date  his 
“Trinity  College  and  the  University  of  Dublin”  and 
“Trinity  College  and  Its  Medical  School”  proved  very 
effective.  When  the  new  National  University  of 
Ireland  was  chartered  he  was  appointed  its  first 
Chancellor.  In  regard  to  recent  history  in  Ireland  he 
pointed  out  in  1917  that  the  National  Party  had  in 
effect  agreed  to  partition  Ireland,  and  he  openly  sup¬ 
ported  the  Republican  candidate  at  the  general  elec¬ 
tion  in  1918;  subscribed  to  the  forbidden  D4il  Eireann 
loan  in  1919;  and  was  vigorous  in  his  denunciation  of 
the  excesses  of  the  British  forces  in  Ireland. 

Wang,  Erik  A.,  pioneer  missionary,  b.  at 
Kongsvinger,  Norway,  on  29  August,  1859;  d.  at 
Bergen  in  1913.  He  was  of  Lutheran  parentage,  but 
in  his  childhood  became  a  Catholic.  After  studying  in 
Denmark,  Norway,  the  Faroe  Islands,  Belgium  (at 
Thiel t),  and  at  the  College  of  Propaganda,  Rome,  he 
was  ordained  in  1882,  and  returning  to  his  native 
land,  founded  numerous  Catholic  stations  and 
churches  there.  He  was  stationed  at  Christiania  as 
curate  (1882-83)  and  as  rector  (1886-99),  and  at 
Tromso  as  rector  (1883-84);  in  the  latter  year  he 
accompanied  the  Prefect-Apostolic  of  Norway  on  his 
visitation  to  Hammerfest  and  Alten.  Subsequently 
he  was  secretary  to  Mgr.  Fellize,  the  prefect  Apostolic, 
and  was  named  a  member  of  the  Council  of  the  prefec¬ 
ture.  In  1899  he  was  nominated  as  rector  at  Bergen, 
and  acted  as  dean  of  Western  Norway.  He  was  editor 
of  “St.  Olav,”  a  Christiania  Catholic  magazine,  and 
contributed  several  articles  to  “The  Catholic  En¬ 
cyclopedia.” 


766 


WARD 


767 


WASHINGTON 


Ward,  Bernard,  ecclesiastical  historian,  b.  on  4 
February,  1857,  at  Old  Hall,  Herts,  England;  d.  at 
Brentwood,  on  21  January,  1920;  son  of  Dr.  W.  G. 
Ward  of  the  Oxford  movement.  He  studied  at  Old 
Hall  and  Oscott  and  was  ordained  in  1882  by  Cardinal 
Manning.  The  greater  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in 
St.  Edmund’s  College,  Old  Hall,  of  which  he  became 
vice  president  in  1890  and  two  years  later  president, 
a  post  he  held  till  1916.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was 
preconized  titular  Bishop  of  Lydda  and  Administrator 
Apostolic  of  the  new  diocese  of  Brentwood,  to  which 
see  he  was  translated  as  its  first  bishop  on  20  July, 
1917.  The  development  of  the  college  at  Old  Hall  is 
largely  due  to  his  initiative  and  energy.  He  wrote  a 
“History  of  St.  Edmund’s  College”  and  “A  Life  of 
St.  Edmund  of  Canterbury;”  these,  however,  were 
but  as  a  prelude  to  “The  Dawn  of  the  Catholic  Revival 
in  England,”  “The  Eve  of  Catholic  Emancipation,” 
and  “The  Sequel  to  Catholic  Emancipation,”  which 
form  a  history  of  the  Church  in  England  from  1780  to 
1850,  and  a  permanent  contribution  to  English 
ecclesiastical  literature.  “The  Priestly  Vocation”  is 
a  volume  of  “The  Library  for  Catholic  Priests  and 
Students,”  of  which  he  was  a  joint  editor.  Mgr. 
Ward  also  wrote  a  “Commentary  on  St.  Luke’s 
Gospel”  and  contributed  articles  to  The  Catholic 
Encyclopedia. 

Ward,  Wilfrid,  biographer  and  essayist,,  b.  at 
Old  Hall,  Herts,  England,  in  1856;  d.  at  Hempstead  on 
9  April,  1916;  son  of  William  G.  Ward,  of  the  Oxford 
Movement  and  brother  of  Bishop  Ward.  He  studied 
at  Old  Hall,  Ushaw,  the  Gregorian  University,  Rome 
and  graduated  later  in  the  London  University.  In 
1890  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  philosophy  at  Ushaw, 
and  in  1906  became  editor  of  “The  Dublin  Review.” 
Beginning  with  a  study  on  the  philosophy  of  religious 
thought, “Witnesses  to  the  Unseen,”  and  inspired  by 
Newman’s  theory  of  development,  Ward  devoted 
most  of  his  life  to  bringing  Catholic  scholars  to  recog¬ 
nize  the  legitimate  clairqs  of  modern  science  and  to 
inducing  the  modern  world  to  consider  without  preju¬ 
dice  the  Catholic  viewpoint.  He  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Synthetic  Society  (1896-1908),  for  the 
discussion  of  the  philosophic  basis  of  religious  belief; 
among  its  members  being  Balfour,  Haldane,  Bryce, 
Sidgwick,  and  Bishop  Gore.  “Men  and  Matters,” 
“Problems  and  Persons,”  “The  Wish  to  Believe,” 
and  “The  Clothes  of  Religion”  contain  most  of  his 
best  philosophic  and  apologetic  writings.  Ward  was 
also  a  biographer  of  high  standing,  his  best  efforts  in 
this  field  being  the  “Life  of  Cardinal  Newman,” 
and  the  biography  of  his  father,  which  appeared  as 
“William  George  Ward  and  the  Oxford  Movement” 
and  “William  George  Ward  and  the  Catholic  Revival;” 
together  with  the  “Life  and  Times  of  Cardinal 
Wiseman”  and  his  “Memoir  of  Aubrey  de  Vere.” 

Father  Cuthbert  and  G.  K.  Chesterton  in  The  Dublin 
Review,  CLIX,  (1916). 

Warsaw,  Archdiocese  of  (Varsaviensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XV — 555b),  in  the  Republic  of  Poland.  On 
14  November,  1918,  the  city  of  Warsaw  again  became 
the  real  capital  of  a  free  and  independent  Poland,  the 
seat  of  Naesebrik  Panstwa,  Chief  of  State,  the  seat  of 
the  Diet,  of  Central  Civil  and  Military  Government, 
and  the  see  of  the  Polish  archbishop  and  cardinal,  His 
Eminence  Alexander  Kakowski.  Born  in  Dembina  in 
1863,  he  was  ordained  in  1886,  served  as  a  professor 
and  then  rector  of  the  upper  seminary,  became  a 
canon  in  1901,  rector  of  the  ecclesiastical  academy  of 
Petrograd  in  1910,  a  prelate  of  the  Holy  See  in  1911, 
and  was  made  archbishop  2  May,  i.913.  On  15 
December,  1919,  he  was  created  a  cardinal  priest.  The 
archbishop  is  assisted  by  two  auxiliaries,  Most  Rev. 
Casirnir  Ruszkiewicz,  titular  Archbishop  of  Nicolia, 
and  lit.  Rev.  Stanislas  Gall,  titular  Bishop  of  Hali- 

49 


carnassus;  the  latter  is  also  chaplain  in  chief  of  the 
Polish  army.  The  cardinal’s  predecessor,  Most  Rev. 
Vincent  Choserat  Popiel,  the  eighth  archbishop  of 
Warsaw  under  the  Russian  government,  died  7 
December,  1912,  after  an  illness  of  two  years.  His 
wise  and  watchful  administration  of  twenty-nine 
years  was  the  longest  of  any  incumbent  of  this  see. 

On  the  very  day  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Russian 
Revolution,  11  March,  1917,  all  the  Polish  bishops 
were  gathered  together  to  celebrate  the  centenary  of 
the  foundation  of  the  Archdiocese  of  Warsaw.  Since 
the  Russian  high  officials  and  most  of  the  members  of 
the  orthodox  Russian  church  have  now  left  the  city, 
it  has  taken  on  a  truly  Catholic  appearance.  The 
magnificent  Russian  Cathedral,  erected  in  1912  out  of 
public  funds,  has,  after  some  necessary  alterations, 
been  turned  over  to  Catholic  worship,  and  some  of  the 
churches  which  had  been  seized  by  the  Russians  have 
been  restored  to  the  Catholics.  There  now  remain 
only  three  churches  for  the  Russians,  one  at  Praga 
being  used  as  the  cathedral.  A  well-known  apostle 
of  Catholicism  in  Poland,  Rev.  Father  Honorat,  a 
Capuchin,  and  founder  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Felix  of 
Cantalice,  died  16  December,  1916.  He  was  the 
founder  of  several  other  religious  organizations,  a 
well-known  spiritual  director  and  writer,  and  an 
ardent  advocate  of  frequent  communion  for  forty 
years  before  the  decree  of  Pius  X. 

The  Archdiocese  of  Warsaw  at  present  comprises 
the  metropolitan  chapter  of  Warsaw  with  twelve 
canons,  and  the  collegiate  chapter  of  Lowicz  with  its 
twelve  canons.  The  diocese  is  divided  into  nineteen 
deaneries:  (1)  Warsaw  (inside  the  city),  comprising 
16  parishes  with  27  non-parochial  churches  and  many 
private  chapels,  among  the  many  humanitarian  insti¬ 
tutions.  Total  souls  569,934;  (2)  Warsaw  (outside 
the  city),  18  parishes  with  97,421  souls;  (3)  Praga,  17 
parishes  with  146,040  souls;  (4)  Biala  (Bialla),  9 
parishes  with  30,407  souls;  (5)  Gostynin,  16  parishes 
with  62,935  souls;  (6)  Goszcyn  (Goshchi),  9  parishes 
with  32,667  souls;  (7)  Gora  Kalwarja,  8  parishes 
with  26,460  souls;  (8)  Grodzisk,  11  parishes  with 
46,995  souls;  (9)  Grojec,  12  parishes  with  43,630 
souls;  (10)  Jadow,  8  parishes  with  43,850  souls; 
(11)  Kaluszyn,  8  parishes  with  22,953  souls;  (12) 
Kutno,  22  parishes  with  80,274  souls;  (13)  Lowicz, 
21  parishes  with  90,730  souls;  (14)  Minsk,  10  par¬ 
ishes  with  51,592  souls;  (15)  Mszczonow  (Mshchonov) 
10  parishes  with  59,563  souls;  (16)  Radzymin  (Rad- 
simin),  8  parishes  with  44,310  souls;  (17)  Rawa,  13 
parishes  with  45,418  souls;  (18)  Skierniewice  (Skerne- 
vitse),  10  parishes  with  41,902  souls;  (19)  Sochaczew 
(Sohatshev),  18  parishes  with  51,670  souls.  Total  of 
244  parishes,  with  1,472,751  souls.  Non-parochial 
churches,  68;  churches  with  monasteries,  12;  public 
and  semi-public  chapels,  171;  private  chapels,  25; 
number  of  secular  clergy,  501;  regular  clergy,  56; 
alumni  of  seminary,  104;  students  of  university,  15; 
nuns,  30;  houses  of  religious  orders,  female,  28; 
faithful  in  Warsaw,  569,934;  in  archdiocese  of  War¬ 
saw,  but  outside  of  city  proper,  902,817;  total  for 
archdiocese,  1,472,751. 

Washington,  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV— 560b). — The 
area  of  the  State  is  69,127  square  miles.  In  1920 
the  population  was  1,356,621,  an  increase  of  18.8  per 
cent  since  1910.  Between  1900  and  1910  the  popula¬ 
tion  jumped  from  518,103  to  1,141,990  (120.4%). 
The  average  number  of  imhabitants  to  the  square 
mile  is  20.3,  as  against  17.1  in  1910  and  7.8  in  1900. 
In  1920,  5.2%  of  the  population  was  urban;  44.8% 
was  rural.  There  are  15  Indian  reservations,  1 
navy  yard,  1  national  park,  and  a  tract  of  unsurveyed 
land.  Pend  Oreille  County  was  organized  from  a 
part  of  Stevens  County  in  1911.  There  are  69 
cities,  of  which  the  largest  with  their  respective  popula- 


WASHINGTON 


768 


WASHINGTON 


tions  are:  Seattle  315,312;  Spokane  104,437;  Tacoma 
96,965;  Bellingham  25,585;  Everett  27,644;  The 
composition  of  the  population  is  as  follows:  whites 
1,319,777;  negroes  6883;  Indians  9061;  Chinese  2363; 
Japanese  17,387.  There  are  1,069,722  native  whites, 
of  whom  711,706  were  of  native  parentage;  214,618  of 
foreign  parentage;  143,398  of  mixed  parentage.  The 
foreign-born  whites,  numbering  149,686,  came 
chiefly  from  Sweden  (34,793),  Norway  (30,304), 
Germany  (22,315);  Canada  (42,988).  Of  the  popula¬ 
tion  ten  years  of  age  and  over,  1.7  per  cent  or  18,526 
were  illiterate. 

Economic  Conditions. — The  number  of  farms  in 
1920  was  66,288;  an  increase  of  10,096  since  1910. 
The  value  of  the  farm  property  was  $1,057,429,848; 
of  the  live  stock  $82,316,130;  and  of  all  crops  (1920) 
$227,212,008.  The  chief  crops  were:  wheat  41,837,- 
090  bushels,  $91,206,642;  oats  8,073,481  bushels, 
$8,073,481;  barley  2,249,856  bushels,  $3,374,792;  corn 
901,905  bushels,  $1,623,433;  potatoes  5,866,710 
bushels,  $12,320,093;  hay  2,013,913  tons,  $47,717,- 
065;  hops  1,615,761  pounds,  $727,092. 

The  total  number  of  farm  animals  for  the  assess¬ 
ment  of  1919  was  given  at  1,787,871  at  a  total  value 
of  $77,572,066,  while  the  dairy  industry  shows  for 
the  same  year  the  following  result:  butter  5,899,678 
pounds,  $3,296,726;  cheese  84,868  pounds,  $28,006; 
total  value  of  dairy  products  $27,620,231. 

According  to  the  Census  of  Manufactures  in  1919, 
there  were  4,919  establishments,  employing  150,482 
persons  earning  for  their  services,  $225,757,000,  and 
producing  goods  worth  $809,635,000.  The  capital 
invested  was  $553,125,000.  The  assessed  valuation 
of  real  property  in  1919  amounted  to  722,761,254; 
of  personal  property,  $179,764,087.  The  outstand¬ 
ing  bonded  debt  was  paid  off  in  1911. 

The  whole  fisheries  output  during  normal  times 
amounts  to  between  $10,000,000  and  $20,000,000 
annually,  the  wide  difference  being  caused  chiefly 
by  the  fluctuation  of  prices  and  difference  in  the  size 
of  the  salmon  run  from  year  to  year.  In  1917  an 
exceptional  year  for  prices — the  total  value  was 
$22,654,688.  During  the  past  30  years  the  value  of 
salmon  taken  from  the  waters  of  the  State  of  Wash¬ 
ington  has  amounted  to  between  $200,000,000  and 
$300,000,000.  In  order  to  encourage  the  fishing 
industry  both  the  Federal  and  State  governments 
maintain  hatcheries  in  the  rivers  and  lakes  and  plant 
millions  of  fry  annually. 

The  total  land  area  of  the  state  is  42,775,040  acres. 
Of  this  approximately  11,983,340  acres  are  included 
in  the  forest  reserves  and  closed  to  entry  and  over  two 
million  acres  are  untaxed  in  Indian  reservations,  and 
over  four  million  are  private  timber  lands.  The 
lumber,  lath,  and  shingles  manufactured  in  1918 
reached  4,603,123,000  feet.  The  coal  mines  pro¬ 
duced  in  1918  4,082,212  tons  of  coal.  The  foreign 
trade  of  the  State  was  as  follows:  '(1918)  imports, 
$326,981,279;  exports,  $258,006,441;  (1919)  imports, 
$195,918,797;  exports,  $292,374,345. 

The  fourteenth  census  gives  the  number  of  farms 
in  Washington  as  66,288  (an  increase  of  10,096  since 
1910),  with  a  total  area  of  13,244,720  acres,  exactly 
31  per  cent  of  the  land  area  in  Washington.  The 
area  of  improved  land  in  these  farms  was  5,520,308 
and  the  value  of  all  farm  property  was  $496,439,617. 
The  area  of  drained  land  was  94,924  acres. 

The  railroad  mileage  of  the  State  is  8046;  the  total 
mileage  of  navigable  rivers  is  approximately  1200. 
In  1911  Seattle  took  advantage  of  the  new  port- 
districting  law  and  created  the  port  of  Seattle  as  a 
separate  muncipality.  The  opening  of  the  Panama 
Canal  resulted  in  negotiations  by  six  leading  Atlantic 
steamship  companies  for  docking  facilities  at  Tacoma 
and  Seattle.  The  Federal  Government  has  large  dry 
docks  and  a  naval  depot  at  Bremerton,  on  Puget 


Sound.  Garrisons  of  the  regular  army  are  main¬ 
tained  at  Spokane,  Seattle,  Vancouver,  and  three 
coast  defence  points  at  the  entrance  to  Puget  Sound 
and  one  at  Bremerton  Navy  Yard. 

Religion. — In  1916  there  were  in  the  State  97,418 
Catholics;  43,293  Methodists;  30,559  Presbyterians; 
18,248  Baptists;  20,435  Lutherans;  17,521  Disciples 
of  Christ;  16,137  Congregationalists;  10,881  Epis¬ 
copalians.  Details  of  the  condition  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  the  State  are  given  in  the  articles  on  the 
dioceses  of  Seattle  and  Spokane. 

Education. — The  laws  that  govern  private  and 
parochial  schools  are  as  follows:  All  schools  publicly 
supported  shall  be  free  from  sectarian  control  or 
influence  (IX-4).  Private  schools  must  be  approved 
by  county  superintendents.  American  history  and 
government  must  be  taught  in  all  high  schools.  In 
1920  there  were  373,108  children  between  the  ages 
of  five  and  twenty;  of  these,  257,332  (69  per  cent) 
attended  school.  In  the  public  schools  formal  reli¬ 
gious  teaching  or  regular  reading  from  the  Bible  is 
not  permitted,  but  moral  training  is  given  and  moral 
principles  are  inculcated.  Provisions  were  made  in 
1919  for  the  establishment  of  continuation  schools  or 
part-time  classes  for  all  children  under  eighteen, 
state  aid  being  provided;  also  for  the  establishment  of 
a  division  of  agriculture  at  the  State  College  at 
Washington,  and  a  new  Normal  school  at  Centralia. 
Education  is  compulsory  for  all  children  between 
eight  and  sixteen  years  old.  In  1920  the  2150  schools 
had  7113  teachers  and  were  attended  by  247,688 
children,  elementary  schools  and  the  281  high  schools 
had  1795  teachers  and  1000  students.  The  total 
expenditures  for  the  year  was  $22,414,510.  The 
average  monthly  salary  paid  to  male  teachers  in  1918 
was  $97.38;  to  women  teachers,  $69.33.  The  annual 
expenditure  for  each  child  has  been  conservatively 
estimated  for  that  year  as  $67.  Beside  the  State 
institutions,  there  were  in  1918,  135  schools  under 
private  and  sectarian  management.  The  12  Catholic 
academies  for  girls  show  an  attendance  of  933  pupils, 
and  the  46  parochial  schools  with  7773  pupils  save 
the  State  an  annual  expense  of  $520,000.  The 
Catholic  charitable  institutions  housed  and  supported 
56  orphans  and  50  aged  and  infirm  persons.  The 
State  University  had  in  1919, 52professors,  28  associat¬ 
ed  and  60  assistant  professors,  55  instructors,  32  as¬ 
sistants,  16  graduate  assistants,  together  with  a  music 
staff  of  12  members,  and  2,547  students. 

Recent  Legislation  and  History. — In  1911  the 
public  service  commission  was  created,  and  the 
nomination  and  election  of  judges  of  courts  of  record, 
original  and  appellate,  on  a  non-partisan  judiciary 
ticket  were  provided  for.  The  initiative,  referendum, 
and  recall  amendment  to  the  constitution  was 
adopted  in  1912.  In  1913  an  industrial  welfare 
commission  was  created  with  power  to  fix  the  mini¬ 
mum  wage  for  women.  In  the  same  year,  mothers 
pensions  were  provided  for,  juvenile  courts  created, 
a  State  Humane  Bureau  established  to  provide  for 
incompetents,  children,  and  minors,  hospitals  for 
tuberculosis  cases  provided  for,  the  death  penalty  for 
murder  was  abolished,  teachers’  pensions  and  retire¬ 
ment  funds  were  created,  and  a  department  of 
agriculture  established.  The  Federal  Prohibition 
Act  was  ratified  on  13  January.  1920;  the  suffrage 
amendment  on  22  March,  1920.  Divorce  is  granted 
now  when  the  parties  are  estranged  and  have 
separated  and  apart  for  eight  years  or  more  and  the 
court  is  satisfied  that  the  parties  can  no  longer  live 
together,  and  in  case  of  chronic  mania  or  dementia 
of  either  party,  having  existed  ten  years  or  more.  The 
war  with  Germany  caused  a  sudden  expansion  in  the 
state’s  industrial  activities,  especially  in  ship-build¬ 
ing.  An  immense  cantonment  for  the  United  States 
soldiers  was  established  at  Camp  Lewis,  outside  of 


WATERFORD 


769 


WELLLINGTON 


Tacoma.  Washington  furnished  during  the  war 
45,154  soldiers  (1.20  per  cent  of  the  United  States 
Army).  The  Washington  members  of  the  newly 
drafted  Nationa'  Army  were  incorporated  into  the 
91st  Division  at  Camp  Lewis.  Especially  active 
was  the  government  cut-up  plant  at  Vancouver, 
Washington,  in  the  spruce  production  for  war  air¬ 
planes.  The  summary  of  casualties  of  Washington 
members  of  the  American  Expeditionary  Force  is  as 
follows:  deceased,  42  officers,  835  men;  prisoners, 

2  officers,  20  men;  wounded,  94  officers,  1077  men. 
After  the  war  considerable  labor  disturbances  marked 
the  State’s  industrial  life.  Radical  agitators  at¬ 
tempted  to  favor  the  flame  of  discontent  caused  by 
high  prices  and  inflated  currency  and  the  climax 
came  at  Centralia  on  11  November,  1919,  when  a 
crowd  of  I.  W.  W.  fired  several  shots  into  a  parade 
of  members  of  the  American  Legion.  One  of  the 
leading  agitators  was  lynched. 

Waterford  and  Lismore,  Diocese  of  (Water- 
fordensis  et  Lismorensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 564d) , 
suffragan  of  Cashel,  Ireland.  Bishop  Sheehan  died 
in  1916  after  a  strenuous  career  as  bishop.  He  re¬ 
established  the  ancient  diocesan  chapter  and  renewed 
the  diocesan  synod  which  had  not  been  held  for  nearly 
two  centuries.  Amongst  his  other  notable  works  were 
the  introduction  of  a  system  of  religious  school  exam¬ 
inations,  the  compilation  of  a  catechism  for  diocesan 
use ,  the  provision  of  clergy  houses  and  the  promotion 
and  improvement  of  ecclesiastical  music  and  cere¬ 
monial.  He  was  succeeded  by  Rt.  Rev.  Bernard 
Hackett,  C.SS.R.,  b.  at  Dungavan,  1863,  ordained 
1888,  superior  of  the  Redemptorist  convent  in  Limerick 
when  he  was  elected  29  January,  1916,  consecrated 
19  March,  1917. 

Rev.  Dr.  Henebery  died  in  1917.  He  had  been  pro¬ 
fessor  of  Old  and  Modern  Irish  in  the  National  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Ireland  and  had  much  reputation  as  a 
scholar.  He  left  no  permanent  work  except  a  still 
unpublished  treatise  of  a  highly  technical  character 
on  Irish  music.  The  year  1917  also  witnessed  the 
death  of  Rev.  M.  P.  O’Hickey,  late  professor  of  Irish 
at  Maynooth,  whose  energy  and  enthusiasm  did  much 
to  foster  a  taste  for  their  native  language  amongst  the 
clergy  of  Ireland,  to  his  exertions  being  largely  due  the 
provision  of  essential  Irish  in  the  curriculum  of  the 
National  University  of  Ireland.  The  Diocese  con¬ 
tains  39  parishes,  77  churches,  10  monasteries,  1 
abbey,  and  6  convents  for  men,  29  convents  for 
women,  120  secular  priests,  46  regulars,  602  Sisters, 

3  seminaries,  2  colleges  for  men  and  1  for  women,  6 
high  schools,  2  training  schools,  3  industrial  schools 
with  an  attendance  of  381;  the  students  in  St.  John’s 
College  and  Mount  Melleray  seminary  are  organized 
for  the  relief  of  foreign  missions.  There  are  10  homes, 
3  asylums  for  the  insane,  7  hospitals,  1  refuge.  Various 
religious  societies  and  an  ecclesiastical  benevolent 
society  are  organized  among  the  clergy  and  among  the 
laity  there  are  various  religious  and  young  men’s 
societies. 

Weale,  William  Henry  James,  antiquarian,  b. 
at  Marylebone,  London,  on  8  March,  1832;  d.  at 
Clapham  Common,  London,  on  26  April,  1917; 
son  of  J.  and  Susan  (Vesien)  Weale.  He  was  educated 
at  King’s  College,  London,  and  from  his  youth  had  a 
fascination  for  art  and  archaeology,  being  especially 
interested  in  the  antiquities  of  Belgium.  In  1849  he 
became  a  Catholic,  and  after  marying  Miss  Helena 
Walton  settled  at  Bruges  in  1855.  Four  years  later 
he  published  “Belgium,  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Cologne, 
an  Archaeological  Guide-Book,”  the  fruit  of  his 
travels  and  studies.  He  continued  his  studies  in 
medieval  Flemish  art  and  was  soon  acknowledged  the 
leading  living  authority  on  the  subject;  he  threw 


valuable  light  especially  on  the  work  of  David,  Mem- 
linc,  the  Van  Eycks  and  other  artists  of  the  early 
Flemish  school.  He  had  an  expert  knowledge 
also  of  early  book-binding,  illuminated  manuscripts 
and  monumental  brasses.  In  1872  he  was  invited 
back  to  England  to  classify  and  describe  the  speci¬ 
mens  of  Flemish  art  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum , 
and  in  1890  was  appointed  keeper  of  the  National  Art 
Library.  He  was  an  honorary  member  of  the  Royal 
Flemish  Academy,  and  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts 
of  Antwerp,  and  an  Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Belgium;  in  addition  he  was  decorated  as  an 
officer  of  the  Order  of  Leopold.  Among  his  writings 
in  addition  to  memoirs  on  the  artists  mentioned 
above:  may  be  mentioned  “Bruges  et  ses  environs” 
(1862);  “Memoire  sur  la  Restauration  de  Monuments 
Publics  en  Belgique”  (1862);  “LeBeffroi:  arts,  heraldi- 
que,  archeologie”  (1863-76);  “La  Flandre:  revue  des 
monuments  d’histoire  et  d’antiquite”  (1867-76); 
“Bibliographia  Liturgica”  (1886);  and  “Peintres 
Brugeois”  (1907-12).  He  also  contributed  an  article 
on  David  Gheeraert  to  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia. 

Weber,  Anselm,  apostle  of  the  Navajo  Indians, 
b.  at  New  Salem,  Michigan,  on  10  November,  1862; 
d.  at  Rochester,  Minnesota,  on  7  March,  1921. 
He  was  educated  at  St.  Francis  College,  Cincinnati, 
and  entered  the  Friars  Minor  in  1882.  After  his 
ordination  seven  years  later,  he  taught  at  Cincinnati, 
and  in  1898  was  sent  as  a  missionary  to  the  Navajos 
in  Arizona.  Two  years  later  he  became  superior  of 
the  mission,  and  established  a  school  at  St.  Michael’s, 
which  proved  very  successful  and  has  had  great 
influence  among  the  Indians.  He  was  instrumental 
in  having  the  reservations  of  the  Navajos  extended 
and  obtained  much  helpful  legislation  for  them. 
In  the  course  of  his  missionary  labors  among  the 
Indians  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  Father  Weber 
became  expert  in  their  language,  and  assisted  his 
brother  Franciscans  in  compiling  their  “Ethnologic 
Dictionary  of  the  Navajo  Language”  (1910).  He 
wrote  a  Navajo-English  “Catechism  of  Christian 
Doctrine,”  and  was  engaged  in  writing  a  Navajo 
grammar  when  his  health  finally  broke  down .  He  was 
a  contributor  to  the  “Indian  Sentinel”  and  “Sendbote 
des  Goettlichen  Herzens  Jesu,”  and  wrote  the  article 
“Navajo  Indians”  for  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia. 

Wellington,  Archdiocese  of  (Wellingtoniensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 580a),  in  New  Zealand.  This  see 
has  been  filled  for  thirty-eight  years  by  Most  Rev. 
Francis-Marie  Redwood,  who  was  appointed  bishop 
in  1874,  and  promoted  upon  the  erection  of  the  see 
into  a  metropolitan  see  in  1887.  In  1913  he  was 
given  a  coadjutor,  with  right  of  succession,  in  the 
person  of  Most  Rev.  Thomas  O’Shea  of  the  Congre¬ 
gation  of  Marists.  He  was  born  in  San  Francisco 
in  1870,  studied  at  St.  Mary’s  Seminary,  Meanee, 
New  Zealand,  and  was  ordained  in  1893,  returning  to 
the  seminary  as  a  professor.  He  later  served  as 
rector  of  St.  Joseph's,  Wellington,  was  made  vicar 
general  in  1907,  and  was  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Gortyna,  9  May,  1913.  In  1915  Archbishop  Red¬ 
wood  celebrated  the  golden  jubilee  of  his  priesthood, 
and  in  1918  Rev.  Dean  Binsfeld  celebrated  the 
diamond  jubilee  or  sixtieth  anniversary  of  his  ordina¬ 
tion.  A  beautiful  Gothic  church  dedicated  to  St. 
Mary  of  the  Angels  was  erected  in  Wellington  City 
in  1920-21.  During  the  World  War  this  diocese  gave 
about  500  of  its  young  men  to  serve  with  the  forces, 
and  large  numbers  fell  in  action  or  died  from  wounds: 
General  F.  E.  Johnston  was  killed  in  France  in  1917, 
and  Colonel  W.  J.  Malone  was  killed  in  Gallipoli  in 
1915.  From  the  ranks  of  the  clergy  14  went  to  the 
front  as  chaplains,  and  one,  Father  McMenamin,  was 
killed  in  action,  and  another,  Father  Patrick  Dore, 


50 


WERNZ 


770 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


died  from  wounds  received.  Rev.  M.  J.  Lewis,  who 
served  as  a  military  chaplain  at  home,  died  at  his 
post  during  the  epidemic  of  1918.  The  diocese  has 
also  suffered  the  loss  of  one  of  its  oldest  missionaries, 
Rev.  Patrick  J.  Smyth,  active  in  missionary  work 
for  thirty  years,  who  died  7  September,  1916,  and 
three  prominent  laymen,  generous  benefactors 
of  the  Church;  Martin  Kennedy,  K.  S.  G.,  d.  1916; 
Sydney  Johnston]  d.  1917,  and  Maurice  O'Connor 
d.  1920.  The  archdiocese  comprises  58,000  whites 
and  2000  Madri  Catholics.  Latest  statistics  credit 
it  with  45  parishes,  127  churches,  3  Madri  Missions, 
38  mission  stations,  2  monasteries  of  men,  4  con¬ 
vents  of  men  and  50  of  women,  48  secular  and  53 
regular  clergy,  30  lay  brothers,  520  nuns,  1  seminary, 
30  seminarians,  2  colleges  for  men  with  16  teachers 
and  200  students,  4  colleges  for  girls  with  25  teachers 
and  390  students,  14  high  schools  with  56  teachers 
and  a  total  attendance  (boys  and  girls)  of  1100, 
57  elementary  schools  with  210  teachers  and  6910 
pupils,  besides  2  elementary  schools  for  Madri 
children  with  4  teachers  and  45  pupils,  3  industrial 
schools  with  14  teachers  and  450  pupils  and  1  board¬ 
ing  school  for  Madri  girls  with  3  teachers  and  50 
pupils.  The  charitable  institutions  include  3  homes, 
1  Catholic  women’s  hostel  and  1  day  nursery;  23 
public  institutions  permit  the  priests  to  minister  in 
them  and  two  of  the  Catholic  homes  receive  govern¬ 
ment  grants.  Two  societies  are  formed  among  the 
clergy  and  ten  among  the  laity. 

Wernz,  Franz  Xaver,  General  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  and  distinguished  canonist,  b.  on  4  December, 
1842,  at  Rottweill,  Wiirtemberg;  d.  at  Rome  on 
20  August,  1914.  He  entered  the  Jesuit  novitiate  on 
5  December,  1852,  and  was  professed  on  2  February, 
1876.  He  was  professor  of  canon  law  at  the  Gregorian 
University  in  1883,  and  its  rector  in  1904,  and  was 
elected  to  the  office  of  general  on  8  September,  1906. 
He  died  in  August,  1914.  Since  1908,  he  had  been 
consultor  of  the  Congregations  of  the  Holy  Office,  of 
the  Consistorial ,  of  the  Index,  and  of  Extraordinary 
Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  and  from  25  April,  1904,  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Commission  for  the  codification 
of  canon  law.  His  obsequies  were  held  at  the  Gesh 
six  days  after  his  death. 

West  Virginia  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV  —  605a) .—The 
area  of  the  State  is  24,170  square  miles,  of  which 
24,022  square  miles  are  land  and  148  square  miles 
are  water.  In  1920  the  population  was  1,463,701,  an 
increase  of  19.9  since  1910.  Of  this  74.8  per  cent  was 
rural,  25.2  per  cent  urban.  The  average  number  of 
inhabitants  to  the  square  mile  was  60.9  as  against 
50.8  in  1910.  There  are  34  cities,  of  which  the 
largest  with  their  respective  populations  are:  Wheeling 
56,208;  Huntington  50,177;  Charleston  39,608; 
Clarksburg  27,869.  The  composition  of  the  popula¬ 
tion  is  as  follows:  whites  1,377,235;  negroes  86,345; 
the  native  whites  numbered  1,315,329,  of  which 
1,232,857  were  of  native  parentage,  56,625  of  foreign 
parentage,  and  25,847  of  mixed  parentage.  The 
foreign-born,  61,906  in  all,  came  chiefly  from  Italy 
(14,147),  Austria  (5115),  Poland  (5799),  England 
(3433),  Russia  (3911).  Of  the  population  ten  years 
of  age  and  over  (1,083,395)  6.4  per  cent,  or  69,413, 
were  illiterate. 

Economic  Status. — Although  the  number  of 
farms  in  1920  shows  a  decrease  of  farming  land,  the 
87,289  farms  in  the  State  were  valued  at  57.7  per 
cent  more  than  in  1910.  The  land  in  farms  is  $9,569,- 
790;  the  value  of  all  farm  property,  $496,439,617; 
of  live  stock,  $67,261,153.  The  production  and  value 
of  the  leading  crops  in  1920  were  as  follows:  hay 
1,099,679  bushels,  $23,746,574;  corn  17,010,357 
bushels,  $29,768,131;  wheat  3,747,812  bushels, 


$8,395,097;  oats  3,054,668  bushels,  $3,054,668; 
rye  186,709  bushels,  $326,749;  buckwheat  537,883 
bushels,  $860,616;  potatoes  2,809,398  bushels, 
$6,461,619;  tobacco  7,587,052  pounds,  $2,731,338; 
fruit  $9,962,747.  The  railroad  mileage  in  the  State 
is  3892,  exclusive  of  the  electric  railways  covering 
660  miles  of  track .  The  assessed  value  of  real  property 
in  1919  was  $767,653,310;  and  of  personal  property, 
$372,631,062.  The  total  bonded  debtedness  of  the 
State  was  $13,500,000  on  1  January,  1920. 

Mining . — In  1918  there  were  89,933,839  tons  of 
coal  mined;  3,349,761  tons  of  coke.  The  production 
of  mineral  gas  was  worth  $57,389,161;  of  clay 
products  $9,608,065.  The  petroleum  wells  yielded 
8,117,300  barrels,  valued  at  $49,078,000.  The  State 
ranks  second  in  the  production  of  coal. 

Manufacturing. — A  preliminary  statement  of  the 
1919  census  of  manufactures  in  the  State  reveals 
2784  establishments,  with  93,812  persons  engaged 
in  manufacture,  earning  a  total  of  $120,047,000, 
producing  goods  valued  at  $471,982,000.  The  capital 
invested  was  $340,119,000. 

Education. — In  1919  the  Barnes  Educational 
Code  of  1916  was  amended  and  re-enacted.  It  pro¬ 
vides  for  a  State  Board  of  Education,  to  consist  of  a 
State  superintendent,  ex-officio,  and  six  members 
appointed  for  six  years  by  the  Governor.  An  ad¬ 
visory  council  is  created  to  assist  in  policies  for  the 
education  of  colored  youth.  The  State  Board  has 
general  control  over  the  State  University,  normal  and 
agricultural  schools,  the  vocational  school,  col¬ 
legiate  institute,  colored  institute  and  the  schools  for 
the  deaf,  blind,  and  all  State  educational  institutions. 
The  State  superintendent  is  elected  for  four  years 
by  the  qualified  voters,  also  a  county  superintendent 
for  each  county.  The  district  Board  of  Education 
consists  of  three  members  and  as  a  corporation  can 
hold  school  property,  provide  school  sites,  buildings, 
equipment,  and  can  appoint  one  school  trustee  for 
each  sub-district.  The  minimum  school  term  is 
now  130  days,  but  will  be  increased  ten  days  each 
year  until  1924,  when  it  will  be  160  days.  Children 
not  less  than  seven  nor  more  than  fourteen  years  of 
age  must  attend  school,  also  those  between  fourteen 
and  sixteen  years  of  age  who  are  not  lawfully  em¬ 
ployed.  Those  who  are  employed  are  expected  to 
attend  evening  or  part  time  school  at  least  5  hours  a 
week  for  20  weeks,  if  such  school  is  in  session  within 
two  miles  from  a  child’s  residence.  Any  district 
may  issue  bonds  for  sites,  buildings,  etc.,  by  three- 
fifths  of  the  votes  cast.  The  laws  governing  private 
and  parochial  schools  are  as  follows:  The  basic 
language  of  instruction  in  the  common  school  branches 
in  public  and  private  schools  shall  be  the  English 
language  only.  Private  schools,  to  be  lawfully 
attended  by  children  of  compulsory  education  age, 
must  be  approved.  They  must  furnish  to  district 
boards  reports  relative  to  attendance  and  instruction. 
The  term  of  the  approved  private  school  must  be 
equal  to  that  of  the  public  school.  The  property 
used  for  educational,  literary,  scientific,  religious  or 
charitable  purposes  may  be  exempted  from  taxation 
(X.-l). 

In  1920  the  6978  public  elementary  schools  had 
341,977  enrolled  pupils  and  10,978  teachers,  and  the 
172  public  high  schools  had  1129  teachers  and 
18,512  pupils.  The  six  public  normal  schools  had 
123  teachers  and  2262  students  in  1917.  The 
expenditure  on  education  in  1920  was  $11,291,536. 
In  1920  the  number  of  children  of  school  age  was 
515,423,  of  whom  321,191  attended  school.  The  value 
of  all  property  used  for  school  purposes  was  $20,- 
245,822;  while  $5,836,335  was  spent  for  maintenance. 
Included  in  the  State  institutions  are:  6  State  hos¬ 
pitals,  an  Industrial  School  for  Boys  at  Pruntytown, 
a  Tuberculosis  Sanitarium  at  Terra  Alta,  a  Colored 


WESTMINSTER 


771 


WESTMINSTER 


Tuberculosis  Sanitarium  at  Denmar,  a  Children’s 
Home  at  Elkins,  and  a  Colored  Orphan’s  Home  at 
Huntington. 

Religion. — The  latest  (1916)  Census  of  Religious 
Denominations  gives  the  following  statistics:  all 
denominations,  427,865  members;  Methodist  Episco¬ 
palians  82,551;  Baptists,  Northern  Convention, 
62,459;  Catholics  60,337;  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South,  53,020;  United  Brethren  in  Christ 
29,426;  Disciples  of  Christ  10,227;  Methodist - 
Protestant  Church  18,948;  Baptists,  National  Con¬ 
vention,  16,238;  Presbyterians  27,349.  The  value 
of  church  property  was  $15,472,996.  For  Catholic 
statistics  see  the  articles  on  the  dioceses  of  Wheeling 
and  Richmond. 

Recent  Legislation  and  History. — The  ques¬ 
tion  of  the  Virginia  debt  rose  with  the  formation  of 
Vest  Virginia  and  has  been  an  important  issue  in 
recent  politics.  At  the  time  of  its  separation  from 
Virginia,  the  new  State  agreed  to  assume  a  just  por¬ 
tion  of  the  public  debt  of  Virginia  prior  to  1861. 
Various  negotiations  failed  to  adjust  it,  as  there  were 
divers  judgments,  some  in  favor  of  West  Virginia 
and  some  against.  Virginia  instituted  suit  in  the 
Supreme  Court,  which  tentatively  fixed  West  Vir¬ 
ginia’s  share  of  the  debt  at  $7,182,507.48,  leaving  the 
question  of  interest  for  later  adjustment.  West 
Virginia  then  created  a  West  Virginia  Debt  Commis¬ 
sion  to  reduce  if  possible  the  amount  of  the  debt, 
preparatory  to  contingent  arrangements  for  payment. 
On  14  June,  1915,  the  Court  issued  a  judgment  against 
West  Virginia  for  $12,393,929.50,  including  accrued 
interest  and  for  5  per  cent  thereafter  until  paid.  In 
June,  1916,  Virginia  asked  the  Supreme  Court  for  a 
writ  of  execution  by  levy  on  public  property  in  West 
Virginia.  This  the  court  denied  in  order  to  give  West 
Virginia  a  reasonable  opportunity  to  pay  the  judg¬ 
ment.  In  February,  1917,  Virginia  filed  application 
for  a  writ  of  mandamus  against  the  Legislature  of 
West  Virginia  to  compel  a  levy  of  a  tax  to  pay  the 
judgment.  On  1  January,  1919,  the  debt  was 
$14,562,867.16.  In  March  West  Virginia  agreed  to 
pay  $1,062,867  in  cash  and  arranged  to  pay  the  rest 
by  an  issue  of  bonds . 

West  Virginia  has  been  the  scene  of  several  strikes, 
those  of  1911  at  Cabin  Creek  and  Paint  Creek  and  the 
collieries  of  Kanawha  Valley  were  serious  enough  to 
call  out  the  militia  and  to  cause  martial  law  to  be 
declared.  On  this  occasion  the  miners  won  the  strike, 
nearly  every  one  of  their  demands  being  granted. 
Recent  legislation  includes  a  state  wide  prohibition 
amendment  to  the  constitution  (1912),  an  inheritance 
tax  (1913),  the  creation  of  a  Public  Utilities  Com¬ 
mission,  a  workmen’s  Compensation  Act  (1913),  the 
establishment  of  a  State  Roads  Commission  (1915), 
of  a  Board  of  Children’s  Guardians  1919),  to  receive 
and  place  neglected  boys  under  sixteen  and  girls 
under  eighteen,  a  Child  Welfare  Commission  (1921), 
also  a  Bureau  of  Negro  Welfare  and  Statistics  (1921), 
the  establishment  of  a  State  industrial  school  for 
colored  boys  from  ten  to  eighteen  years  of  age. 
The  age  of  consent  was  raised  to  sixteen  in  1921. 
The  marking  of  the  West  Virginia-Marylamd  Boun¬ 
dary  was  finished  in  1912 .  Ratification  of  the  Federal 
suffrage  Amendment  was  defeated  on  12  February, 
1920;  but  the  prohibition  amendment  was  ratified  on 
10  January,  1918.  During  the  European  War  the 
United  States  Government  completed  at  an  expense  of 
$60,000,000  two  great  war  industries,  a  projectile 
plant  at  Charleston  and  a  high  explosives  plant  at 
Nitro,  sixteen  miles  down  the  Kanawha. 

At  the  time  of  the  trouble  with  Mexico  in  1916  the 
Second  infantry  regiment  of  the  West  Virginia  Militia 
was  called  into  the  United  States  service  for  duty  on 
the  Mexican  border  and  after  remaining  in  the  State 
mobilization  camp  at  Kanawha  City,  Charleston, 


West  Virginia,  until  the  middle -of  October,  when  it 
was  sent  to  San  Antonio  (Fort  Sam  Houston).  Here 
the  regiment  remained  until  it  was  returned  to  the 
State  and  mustered  out.  When  the  war  with  Ger¬ 
many  broke  out  the  entire  militia  was  drafted  into 
service,  received  their  training  at  Camp  Shelby, 
Mississippi,  and  joined  the  American  Expeditionary 
Forces.  The  West  Virginia  members  of  the  national 
army  were  incorporated  into  the  8Qth  Division  at 
Camp  Lee,  Virginia.  In  all,  West  Virginia  con¬ 
tributed  55,777  soldiers  (1.48  per  cent)  to  the  United 
States  Army. 

Westminster,  Archdiocese  of  (Westmonaster- 
iensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 592d),  erected  and  made 
metropolitan  in  1850  when  it  comprised  the  counties 
of  Middlesex,  Hertfordshire,  Essex  and  London  north 
of  the  Thames.  In  1917  the  county  of  Essex  was 
formed  into  the  separate  diocese  of  Brentwood.  The 
suffragan  sees  of  Westminster  are  Brentwood,  North¬ 
ampton,  Nottingham,  Portsmouth  and  Southwark. 

During  the  World  War  Cardinal  Bourne  in  his 
capacity  of  Archbishop  of  Westminster  stood  forth  as 
the  representative  and  spokesman  of  the  Catholics  of 
the  British  Empire,  and  his  patriotic  services  and 
statesmanlike  utterances  commanded  universal  re¬ 
spect.  Besides  taking  the  lead  in  providing  the  very 
large  number  of  military  and  naval  chaplains  required, 
he  paid  personal  visits  repeatedly  to  the  front  and  to 
the  fleet.  Finally  he  undertook  a  journey  through  the 
East  in  which  he  did  much  to  allay  apprehensions  and 
remove  misunderstandings.  The  public  position  he 
won  himself  before  the  non-Catholic  public  was  shown 
in  the  confidence  placed  in  him  by  the  ministers  of 
state,  by  his  election  to  the  Athenaeum  Club  under 
special  circumstances  of  honor,  and  notably  on  the 
occasion  of  his  episcopal  silver  jubilee  in  1921,  when 
he  received  messages  of  congratulation  testifying  to 
the  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  by  the  rulers  and  rep¬ 
resentatives  of  foreign  powers  as  well  as  those  of  his 
own  country,  men  of  all  classes  and  creeds  joining  in 
this  manifestation  of  good  will.  Since  the  war  he 
has  carried  out  extensive  works  at  the  diocesan  semi¬ 
nary,  St.  Edmund’s  College,  Old  Hall,  where  he  has 
spent  many  thousands  of  pounds  in  thoroughly  repair¬ 
ing  and  largely  remodelling  the  college  buildings,  some 
of  which  date  back  to  the  Eighteenth  Century.  As 
his  own  personal  act  of  thanksgiving  to  God  for  the 
victory  won  by  the  Allies  he  has  added  to  the  college 
church,  at  his  private  expense,  a  spacious  and  beauti¬ 
ful  jubilee  chapel.  In  1918  he  issued  a  notable  pas¬ 
toral  on  the  Social  Question  which  continues  to  influ¬ 
ence  recent  Catholic  thought  and  writings  on  this 
momentous  subject.  The  same  year  on  27  August, 
one  of  the  Archbishop’s  Auxiliaries  died  and  his  suc¬ 
cessor  as  provost  was  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph  Butt,  who  was 
consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Cambysopolis  24  Febru¬ 
ary,  1911.  The  second  auxiliary,  Rt.  Rev.  Manuel 
Bidwell,  was  consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Miletopolis 
8  December,  1917. 

Besides  the  diocesan  seminary,  St.  Edmund’s  Col¬ 
lege  Hall,  and  the  foreign  missionary  college  at  Mill 
Hill,  there  are  in  the  diocese:  a  training  college  for  men 
teachers  in  elementary  schools,  and  eight  other  insti¬ 
tutions  engaged  in  secondary  education.  For  girls 
there  are  60  secondary  schools  and  1  training  college 
for  teachers.  Public  elementary  schools  number  88, 
of  which  84  (including  151  departments)  receive  gov¬ 
ernment  grants.  In  1920-21  there  were  27,904  chil¬ 
dren  on  the  books  of  these  schools,  the  figures  in  pre¬ 
vious  editions  of  the  Catholic  Encyclopedia  for 
1890  and  1900  include  schools  now  in  the  diocese  of 
Brentwood.  Amongst  residential  charitable  institu¬ 
tions  for  children  are  schools  certified  by  the  govern¬ 
ment,  which  are  under  the  administration  of  the  West¬ 
minster  Diocesan  Education  Fund,  and  are  used 


WETTINGEN-MEHRERAU 


772 


WHITE 


jointly  by  the  two  dioceses  of  Westminster  and  Brent¬ 
wood;  1  reformatory,  2  industrial  schools,  9  for  Poor 
Law  children  and  8  schools  for  opthalmic,  mentally 
deficient,  crippled  and  epileptic  children;  4  orphan¬ 
ages  under  the  Rescue  Society.  Other  charitable 
institutions  include  many  other  homes  and  orphan¬ 
ages  for  poor  children,  5  refuges  for  penitents,  a  night 
refuge,  4  asylums  for  aged  poor,  2  almshouses  and  4 
hospitals. 

Much  work  is  done  amongst  the  poor  by  the  Society 
of  St.  Vincent  de  Paul,  the  Ladies  of  Charity  and 
other  organizations  of  the  laity.  Other  societies  watch 
over  the  interests  of  certain  classes.  Such  are:  the 
Converts’  Aid  Society  (for  converted  clergymen), 
the  Catholic  Soldiers’  and  Seamen’s  Associations,  the 
Prisoners’  Aid  Society  and  the  International  Catholic 
Society  for  befriending  girls.  The  Catholic  periodicals 
published  include  “The  Tablet,”  the  “Dublin  Re¬ 
view”  and  the  “Catholic  Directory.” 

Among  the  religious  communities  of  men  established 
in  the  archdiocese  are:  Augustinians,  Augustinians  of 
the  Assumption,  Benedictines,  Canons  Regular  of  the 
Lateran,  Discalced  Carmelites,  Catholic  Missionary 
Society,  Congregation  of  the  Mission,  Dominicans, 
Fathers  of  Charity,  Jesuits,  Marist  Fathers,  Mission¬ 
aries  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Oblates  of  Mary  Immacu¬ 
late,  Oblates  of  St.  Charles,  Oratorians,  Passionists, 
Pious  Society  of  Missions,  Redemptorists,  Fathers  of 
St.  Edmund  (Pontigny),  St.  Joseph’s  Society  for 
Foreign  Missions,  Salesians,  Salvatorians,  Servites, 
Scheut  Fathers,  Missionary  Sons  of  the  Immaculate 
Heart  of  Mary,  Alexian  Brothers,  Brothers  of  Mercy 
and  Marist  Brothers.  Women:  Adoration  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  Adoration  Reparatrice,  Assumption, 
Bon  Secours,  Bon  Secours  (of  Troyes),  Canonesses  of 
St.  Augustine,  Carmelites,  Daughters  of  the  Cross, 
Dominicans,  English  Institute  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary,  Faithful  Companions,  Filles  de  Jesus,  Fran¬ 
ciscans,  Good  Shepherd,  Handmaids  of  the  Sacred 
Heart,  Helpers  of  the  Holy  Souls,  Holy  Child,  Im¬ 
maculate  Conception,  Our  Lady  of  the  Retreat,  Jesus 
and  Mary,  Little  Company  of  Mary,  Little  Sisters  of 
the  Assumption,  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor,  Marie 
Auxiliatrice,  Marie  Reparatrice,  Marist  Sisters,  Most 
Holy  Cross  and  Passion,  Most  Holy  Sacrament,  Notre 
Dame,  Notre  Dame  de  Sion,  Poor  Clares,  Poor  Hand¬ 
maids  of  Jesus,  Poor  Servants  of  the  Mother  of  God, 
Poor  Sisters  of  Nazareth,  Filles  de  la  Sagesse,  Sainte 
Union,  Servants  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Sisters  of  Charity 
(4  congregations  with  17  convents) ,  Sisters  of  Hope,  of 
Mary  and  Joseph,  of  Mercy,  of  Providence,  of  St. 
Joseph,  of  St.  Martha,  of  St.  Martin,  of  St.  Mary,  of 
the  Christian  Retreat,  of  the  Holy  Family,  of  the  Poor 
Child  Jesus,  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  of  the  Sacred  Hearts 
of  Jesus  and  Mary,  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart,  Sis¬ 
ters  Misericorde,  Ursulines,  Ursulines  of  Jesus,  Visi¬ 
tation,  Augustinian  Sisters  of  Meaux,  Daughters  of 
Providence,  Franciscan  Missionaries  of  Mary,  Sisters 
of  Our  Lady  of  the  Missions,  of  St.  Gildas  and  of 
Loreto.  According  to  latest  statistics  there  are  in  the 
archdiocese:  487  priests  (190  regulars) ,  150  churches, 
41  communities  of  men,  141  communities  of  women. 
The  Catholic  population  numbers  260,000  out  of  a 
total  population  of  4,115,461. 

Wettingen-Mehrerau,  Abbacy  Nullius  of;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XV — 607b). — In  the  general  chapter  of  7 
Sept.,  1920,  the  abbot  of  Wettingen,  Mgr.-  Cassian 
Haid  (elected  abbot  August  1919),  was  elected  abbot 
general  of  the  entire  Cistercian  Order  During  the 
world  war  15  clerics  and  34  lay  brothers  served  in  the 
army,  and  6  priests  attended  the  wounded.  Among 
the  recently  deceased  are:  Dominic  Willi,  professed 
Prior  of  Wettingen-Mehrerau,  Abbot  of  the  restored 
monastery  of  Marienstatt,  elected  Bishop  of  Limburg 
in  1898,  died  6  Jan.,  1913.  Abbot  Eugene  Rotz  of 


Wettingen-Mehrerau,  died  7  Aug.,  1917.  Abbot 
Conrad  Kolb,  professed,  elected  Abbot  of  Marien¬ 
statt  25  Aug.,.  1898,  died  21  May,  1918.  The 
abbey  has  93  priests,  and  70  lay  brothers;  2  parishes; 
3  churches;  1  mission  in  Birnan  in  Baden;  2  stations; 
3  abbeys  for  men,  and  6  for  women;  3  theological 
seminaries  with  10  professors  and  20  alumni;  6  colleges 
for  boys  with  40  teachers  and  360  students;  2  colleges 
for  girls  with  20  teachers  and  90  students.  The  6 
colleges  include  1  gymnasium,  2  schools  for  oblates, 
1  commercial  school  and  1  agricultural  school.  A 
Catholic  periodical  is  published  called  “Cistercienser- 
Chronik.” 

Wheeling,  Diocese  of  (Wheelingensis;  cf.  C. 
E.,  XV — 608a),  comprises  21,355  square  miles  in 
the  state  of  West  Virginia,  and  7817  square  miles  in 
the  state  of  Virginia.  It  is  under  the  administration 
of  its  third  bishop,  Rt.  Rev.  Patrick  James  Donahue, 
born  in  Great  Malvern,  England,  in  1849  and  appoint¬ 
ed  bishop  22  January,  1894.  In  1913  the  vicar  general 
of  the  diocese,  Very  Rev.  Monsignor  Joseph  Mullen 
died,  on  24  November,  and  he  has  been  succeeded 
by  Very  Rev.  O.  H.  Moye.  Another  influential 
member  of  the  clergy  was  lost  to  the  diocese  by  the 
death  of  Rev.  John  W.  Werninger,  first  president  of 
St.  Edward’s  College  at  Huntington,  West  Virginia, 
28  November,  1919.  In  the  West  Virginia  section  of 
the  diocese  the  progress  has  been  especially  marked  in 
recent  years;  a  large  new  church  and  parochial  school 
have  been  built  in  Weston,  a  new  parochial  school 
at  Clarksburg  has  been  placed  in  charge  of  the 
Xaverian  Brothers,  at  Mounds ville  a  new  parochial 
school  and  church  have  also  been  built,  and  a  Polish 
school  and  church,  as  well  as  a  church  for  English 
speaking  people,  have  been  erected  at  Weirton. 
A  new  hospital  known  as  St.  Francis  Hospital,  at 
Charlestown,  is  in  charge  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Joseph, 
and  extensive  additions  have  been  made  to  the  Wheel¬ 
ing  and  St.  Mary’s  Hospitals.  The  Catholic  popula¬ 
tion  of  this  territory,  which  totals  approximately 
63,000,  is  composed  of  about  ten  prominent  nationali¬ 
ties,  the  largest  proportion  being  Italians,  Germans, 
Poles  and  Hungarians.  The  diocese  comprises  71 
parishes,  113  churches,  86  missions,  4  monasteries 
for  women,  2  convents  of  men  and  6  of  women,  86 
secular  and  27  regular  clergy,  25  lay  brothers,  332 
nuns,  30  seminarians,  1  college  for  men  with  50 
teachers  and  40  students,  11  high  schools  with  54 
teachers  and  125  pupils,  5  academies  with  30  teachers 
and  720  pupils  (girls) ,  1  training  school  with  4  teachers 
and  35  pupils,  31  elementary  schools  with  125 
teachers  and  4500  pupils,  1  missionary  work,  5 
homes  and  6  hospitals.  Three  societies  are  formed 
among  the  clergy,  and  17  associations  are  organized 
among  the  laity;  one  Catholic  periodical  is  published. 
During  the  World  War  four  of  the  clergy  of  the  dio¬ 
cese  served  as  chaplains, .and  from  the  large  number 
of  the  laity  who  served,  about  fifty  gave  their  lives 
in  the  service. 

White,  Edward  Douglass,  Chief  Justice  of  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court,  b.  at  Lafourche, 
Louisiana,  on  3  November,  1825;  d.  at  Washington 
on  19  May,  1921;  son  of  Edward  and  Catherine  S. 
(Ringgold)  White,  his  father  being  well  known  as  the 
seventh  governor  of  Louisiana.  He  studied  at  Mount 
St.  Mary’s,  Emmitsburg,  the  Jesuit  College  in  New 
Orleans,  and  Georgetown  University;  but  before  gradu¬ 
ating  he  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  Army  during  the 
Civil  War.  In  1868,  he  was  admitted  to  the  Louisiana 
Bar,  thus  following  in  the  footsteps  of  his  father  and 
grandfather,  both  lawyers  of  distinction,  and  six 
years  later  he  was  elected  a  State  Senator.  In  1897, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  bench  of  the  Supreme  Court, 
of  Louisiana,  a  position  he  filled  with  distinction  for 
thirteen  years,  when  he  was  elected  to  the  United 


WHITE  FATHERS 


773 


WHITE  SISTERS 


States  Senate.  In  1894,  he  was  appointed  associate 
justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  by 
President  Cleveland,  and  on  12  December,  1910,  was 
named  Chief  Justice  by  President  Taft,  the  first 
instance  in  which  a  president  named  a  chief  justice  of 
a  different  political  affiliation.  Coming  from  Louisiana 
where  the  civil,  not  the  common,  law  is  the  basis  of 
jurisprudence,  White  is  considered  to  have  been  the 
greatest  authority  on  the  civil  law  who  has  graced 
the  United  States  Supreme  Court  bench.  In  cases 
involving  the  Government  he  was  a  federalist  in  his 
decisions,  for  instance  in  the  insular  cases,  though  he 
delivered  a  minority  decision  against  it  in  the  famous 
Northern  Securities  case.  He  received  the  Laetare 
Medal  from  the  University  of  Notre  Dame  in  1914, 
and  at  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  chancellor  of  the 
Board  of  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 

White  Fathers,  (Missionaries  of  Our  Lady 
of  Africa  of  Algiers;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 613d). — A 
society  of  secular  priests  living  in  community,  and 
laboring  for  the  conversion  of  Africa.  At  present 
the  missionaries  have  under  their  care  the  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of  Ghardaia  and  the  vicariates  apostolic  of 
Uganda,  Victoria-Nyanza,  Kivu,  Unyanyembe,  Tan¬ 
ganyika,  Nyassa,  Banguelo,  Upper  Congo,  Bamoko, 
and  Waghadugu.  The  two  last  were  erected  in  1921 
by  division  of  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Sahara. 
Recruiting  houses  for  the  society  are  in  Quebec 
(Canada),  Belgium,  Holland,  'Germany,  Italy, 
Luxemburg,  Switzerland,  and  France,  in  which  are 
received  those  not  yet  ready  for  the  novitiate.  Those 
desiring  to  become  priests  are  admitted  to  the  novi¬ 
tiate  after  their  philosophical  studies  and  one  year  of 
general  theology.  They  complete  their  studies  and 
are  ordained  at  the  scholasticate  of  Carthage  in  Tunis. 
The  superior  general,  Mgr.  Livinhac,  titular  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Oxrynchus,  resides  at  Maison  Carree  near 
Algiers.  In  July,  1921,  the  society  numbered: 
15  bishops,  1  prefect  apostolic,  645  priests,  225 
brothers,  75  novices,  with  100  pupils  in  the  theological 
classes.  In  the  houses  of  postulants  for  the  novitiate 
were  90  pupils.  The  number  of  neophytes  in  all  the 
vicariates  (June,  1920),  was  305,154,  and  the  number 
preparing  for  baptism  was  120,560.  There  were 
1400  Christians  in  the  mission  established  by  the 
White  Fathers  among  the  Berbers  of  Jurjura  (Alge¬ 
ria),  in  June,  1921;  the  regions  bordering  on  the 
great  lakes  and  the  Sudan  show  the  best  results. 
The  number  of  boys  and  girls  in  the  schools  under 
instruction  of  the  White  Fathers  in  June,  1920,  was 
64,096  and  38,758  respectively.  In  1921  the  French 
Government  named  Fr.  Van  der  Vliet,  missionary  in 
Jerusalem,  Knight  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  in  recog¬ 
nition  of  his  services  during  the  World  War.  Being 
of  Dutch  origin,  he  was  permitted  to  remain  in 
Jerusalem,  where  he  was  able  to  aid  the  French 
religious  expelled  from  the  Holy  Land  and  to  guard 
from  profanation  the  Basilica  and  Seminary  of 
St.  Anne. 

White  Sisters  (Missionary  Sisters  of  Our 
Lady  of  Africa). — A  religious  congregation  estab¬ 
lished  by  Cardinal  Archbishop  Lavigerie  of  Algiers 
to  aid  the  White  Fathers  in  their  evangelization  of 
Africa.  The  first  eight  aspirants  from  Brittany, 
France,  were  trained  in  the  religious  life  by  the 
Sisters  of  the  Congregation  of  St.  Charles  of  Nancy, 
one  of  whom  had  brought  them  safely  to  Algiers. 
The  rules  of  their  institutes  were  drawn  up  by  Arch¬ 
bishop  Lavigerie,  and  after  a  strict  novitiate  the 
candidates  received  the  habit  from  him.  Other 
postulants  from  France  joined  them,  but  some  found 
the  life  too  severe  and  returned  to  their  native  land. 
The  first  mission  party  was  formed  in  1873  and  sent 
to  the  village  of  St.  Cyprien  des  Attafs,  where  the 


archbishop  had  purchased  an  allotment,  intending 
that  the  first  Arab  Christians  would  settle  there 
under  the  immediate  control  of  the  White  Fathers. 
The  Sisters  were  to  teach  the  women  to  take  care  of 
their  new  homes  and  to  bring  up  their  children  in  a 
Christian  manner.  In  1876  St.  Elizabeth’s  Hospital 
was  established  and  there  the  Sisters  still  nurse  their 
numerous  Arab  patients.  A  year  later  the  station 
of  Ste.  Monique  was  founded  nearby;  then  came  the 
mission  of  Les  Ouad  Thias  in  Kabylia,  Beni-Ismail 
and  Djemaa-Saharidj  in  the  same  province.  In  1882 
the  Sisters  were  installed  at  La  Marsa,  near  Carthage, 
where  they  opened  a  school,  an  asylum  for  bereaved 
women,  and  an  orphanage  for  European  girls.  The 
Sisters  were  insufficient  in  number  to  respond  to  the 
many  calls  for  new  mission  stations,  and  recruiting 
houses  were  opened  in  Lyons  and  Paris,  at  Maestricht 
in  Holland,  and  Herent  in  Belgium.  At  the  death 
of  Cardinal  Lavigerie  in  1892,  the  congregation  was 
confided  to  the  care  of  its  superior  general,  Mother 
Marie  Salome.  The  mistress  of  novices  had  received 
a  special  blessing  from  the  cardinal  for  her  little  flock. 

In  1893  the  Sisters  were  at  work  in  11  stations. 
They  are  under  the  spiritual  guidance  of  the  White 
Fathers,  and  have  established  their  works  in  the 
following  vicariates  confided  to  the  care  of  these 
missionaries:  Upper  Congo,  Tanganiyika,  Victoria- 
Nyanza,  Unyanyambe,  Nyassa,  Uganda,  Kivu, 
Banguelo,  Bamoko,  and  Waghadugu;  and  in  the 
prefecture  apostolic  of  Ghardaia.  They  have  estab¬ 
lished  schools,  workrooms,  dispensaries,  hospitals, 
leper-hospitals,  and  asylums.  In  the  villages  of  the 
Kabyles  they  have  infant-schools  and  workrooms 
where  women  and  girls  learn  plain  sewing  and  carpet 
weaving  and  the  sick  are  nursed  in  the  Hospital  of 
Ste.  Eugenie.  In  1910  the  the  French  Red  Cross 
inaugurated  an  important  dispensary  in  Tunis  and 
several  White  Sisters  act  as  nurses.  The  Sisters  also 
have  orphanages,  workrooms,  and  dispensaries  in  the 
protectorate. 

The  congregation  has  grown  and  prospered.  At 
present  there  are  550  professed  nuns  staffed  in  64 
posts,  the  greater  number  being  situated  in  British 
East  and  Central  Africa.  An  aspirant  to  the  order 
must  have  completed  her  sixteenth  year  and  not  be 
over  thirty-five.  Widows  are  not  admitted.  Abne¬ 
gation  of  self  is  the  most  valuable  virtue  for  a  mission¬ 
ary  Sister.  After  a  postulate  of  several  months  the 
aspirant  is  admitted  to  the  novitiate  at  Algiers,  and 
makes  her  first  vows  at  the  end  of  eighteen  months. 
These  vows  are  renewed  annually  for  five  years,  when 
the  Sisters  are  admitted  to  perpetual  profession. 
There  are  no  lay  Sisters  in  the  community;  each  and 
all  are  employed  in  manual  or  apostolic  labor  accord¬ 
ing  to  their  strength  and  aptitudes  or  the  will  of  the 
superiors.  Common  life  is  a  rule,  the  constit ations 
prescribing  that  a  community  must  never  reckon  less 
than  three  members.  In  distant  mission  posts  there 
are  usually  four  or  five  Sisters  so  as  to  fill  the  vacant 
place  in  case  of  sickness  or  other  unforeseen  necessity. 
Though  superfluity  is  obviously  banished  from  the 
Sisters’  livelihood,  the  necessary  has  never  failed 
them,  and  since  the  inauguration  of  the  railway  in 
British  East  Africa  and  elsewhere  the  means  of 
existence  have  been  greatly  facilitated.  A  simple 
habitation,  and  plain,  nutritious  and  sufficient  food 
are  provided.  The  religious  costume  is  composed  of 
a  white  robe  and  scapular;  a  wimple  and  a  white  veil 
indoors  and  on  the  mission;  in  European  centres  the 
Sisters  wear  a  black  veil  and  mantle  over  their  white 
robe  whenever  they  go  abroad.  They  also  wear  a 
silver  crucifix  attached  to  a  red  silk  cord  on  the 
breast,  and  the  rosary  beads,  black  and  white,  are 
suspended  at  the  belt.  The  Sisters  undertake  deeds 
of  mercy  and  charity  of  every  kind  in  behalf  of  the 
African  natives,  and  follow  daily  spiritual  exercises. 


WICHITA 


774 


WINNIPEG 


The  mother  general,  aided  by  several  assistants, 
rules  the  congregation  and  is  under  the  direct  author¬ 
ity  of  the  Holy  See,  though  each  community,  in¬ 
cluding  the  mother-house,  is  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  ordinaries  in  their  respective  dioceses.  A 
postulate  has  been  opened  in  Levis,  P.  Q.,  Canada, 
to  receive  aspirants  from  North  and  South  America. 
The  congregation  received  a  laudatory  Brief  in  1887, 
was  conditionally  approved  for  five  years  in  1888, 
this  approbation  being  received  in  1897  and  1901, 
and  was  definitively  approved  14  Dec.,  1909. 

Wichita,  Diocese  of  (Wichitensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XV — 616b) ,  in  Kansas,  suffragan  of  St.  Louis.  Bishop 
Hennessy  died  13  July,  1920,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Rt.  Rev.  Aug.  J.  Schwertner,  installed  22  June,  1921. 
The  city  of  Wichita  now  has  a  population  of  78,000, 
about  5000  of  whom  are  Catholics.  There  are  in  the 
diocese  85  secular  and  25  regular  priests,  81  churches 
with  resident  pastors,  60  missions  with  churches,  8  hos¬ 
pitals,  49  parish  schools  (4  in  Wichita),  with  4862 
pupils,  1  high  school  with  13  pupils,  3  academies  with 
470  pupils,  and  a  Catholic  population  of  37,000.  The 
Redemptorists  are  now  included  among  the  religious 
orders  of  men  and  the  Loretto  Sisters  and  Franciscan 
Sisters  among  the  women.  A  weekly  called  the 
“Catholic  Advance”  is  the  diocesan  organ.  Three  of 
the  diocesan  priests  served  as  chaplains  during  the 
war. 

Wilhelm,  Joseph,  theologian;  b.  at  Montzen, 
Belgium  in  1845;  d.  at  Aachen,  Germany  on  4 
February,  1920.  He  studied  at  the  University  of 
Liege  and  in  the  German  College  and  Gregorian 
University,  Rome,  and  was  ordained  in  1870.  He 
subsequently  taught  philosophy  for  nine  years,  and 
was  engaged  in  parish  work  in  the  diocese  of  South¬ 
wark,  England,  for  thirty  years,  being  rector  at 
Shoreham  from  1886  till  1899,  and  later  at  Battle 
(1900-11).  He  returned  to  Aachen  in  1911  where  he 
died.  He  is  the  author  of  “The  Family  of  Grace: 
Pedigrees  and  historical  Records  from  1000]  to 
1911”;  “Manual  of  Dogmatic  Theology”  (2  vols., 
in  collaboration  with  T.  B.  Scannell);  “The  Catholic’s 
Manual,”  a  translation  of  Pesch’s  “Das  religiose 
Leben”;  he  collaborated  on  “The Catholic  Dictionary;” 
the  Catholic  Encyclopedia,  and  contributed  to 
various  Catholic  reviews  like  the  “Linzer  theologische 
Quartalschrift,”  and  “Catholic  Fortnightly  Review” 
(St.  Louis);  in  addition  he  assisted  in  producing  the 
English  version  of  Janssen’s  “Geschichte  des  deuts- 
chen  Volkes,”  and  was  editor  of  the  “International 
Catholic  Library.” 

Will  and  Testament  of  Clerics  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 
626d). — Among  the  privileges  now  granted  to  cardi¬ 
nals  is  the  right  to  dispose  as  they  list,  even  by  will, 
of  the  fruits  of  their  benefices,  with  the  following 
limitations:  If  any  cardinal  domiciled  in  Rome  dies 
his  sacred  equipment — excepting  his  rings  and  pecto¬ 
ral  crosses  whether  or  not  containing  relics — and  what¬ 
ever  is  intended  permanently  for  divine  worship,  no 
matter  by  what  source  of  income  it  was  obtained, 
are  to  go  to  the  pontifical  treasury,  unless  the  cardinal 
has  donated  or  bequeathed  them  to  a  church,  a 
public  oratory,  a  pious  place,  or  to  an  ecclesiastic  or 
religious.  The  Holy  See,  however,  expresses  the 
hope  that  he  will  make  his  titular  church  the  bene¬ 
ficiary.  If  a  residential  bishop,  even  though  he  be 
a  cardinal,  dies,  his  sacred  equipment  must  go  to  his 
cathedral;  however,  this  regulation  does  not  apply  to 
his  rings  or  pectoral  cross,  even  if  they  have  relic*, 
though  if  there  are  relics  of  the  Holy  Cross  in  his 
pectoral  cross,  the  relics  are  to  be  delivered  to  his 
successor — nor  does  it  apply  to  objects  not  got  with 
ecclesiastical  funds  or  already  turned  over  as  church 


property.  If  the  bishop  governed  two  dioceses  in 
succession  or  united  dioceses,  these  objects  should  be 
returned  to  the  various  cathedrals  according  to  the 
source  of  the  origin  of  the  money  with  which  they 
were  acquired,  or  if  the  united  dioceses  have  a  common 
revenue,  they  should  be  divided  equally  between 
them.  Bishops,  therefore,  should  leave  a  statement 
showing  what  property  was  obtained  through  their 
private  funds  or  by  donations,  otherwise  it  will  be 
presumed  by  the  canon  law  that  the  property  -was 
acquired  with  revenues  derived  from  the  Church. 
What  is  said  about  residential  bishops  applies  also  to 
any  cleric  wrho  holds  a  secular  or  religious  benefice. 

Novices  in  religious  congregations,  before  making 
their  temporary  vows,  must  make  a  will  disposing 
freely  of  whatever  property  they  have  then  or  may 
acquire  later.  After  their  simple  profession  they 
cannot  lawfully  change  this  will  (validity  is  not  in 
question)  without  leave  of  the  Holy  See  or,  in  case  of 
urgency,  of  a  higher  or  even  of  a  local  superior;  but 
a  change  giving  the  religious  institute  a  notable  part 
of  the  property,  say  about  20  to  25  per  cent,  is  for¬ 
bidden  .  As  the  Code  does  not  refer  to  wills  made  in 
religious  orders  by  those  having  only  simple  vows, 
the  matter  must  be  decided  by  the  Constitutions  of 
the  various  bodies  which  ordinarily  allow  such 
religious  to  dispose  freely  of  their  property  by  will. 

Vermeersch-Creusen,  Epit.  jur.  can. 

Wilmington,  Diocese  of  (Wilmingtoniensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XV— 646d),  including  the  State  of  Dela¬ 
ware,  nine  counties  of  Maryland  and  two  of  Virginia 
east  of  Chesapeake  Bay.  Bishop  Monaghan,  who 
succeeded  in  1897,  still  governs  the  diocese,  which 
now  has  31  parishes,  20  missions,  40  stations,  31  par¬ 
ish  churches,  1  monastery  for  women,  19  convents  for 
women,  38  secular  priests,  21  regulars,  1  lay  brother, 
213  nuns,  15  seminarians,  3  high  schools,  3  academies, 
14  elementary  schools  with  127  teachers  and  an  atten¬ 
dance  of  4988,  1  colored  industrial  school  with  5 
teachers  and  an  attendance  of  664.  There  are  three 
asylums  and  one  home  for  the  aged.  A  diocesan 
benevolent  association  and  the  Priests’  Eucharistic 
League  are  organized  among  the  clergy  and  among  the 
laity  the  Knights  of  Columbus,  the  Daughters  of 
America,  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith 
and  parish  sodalities.  The  Catholic  population  of 
34,300  includes  Americans,  Irish,  German,  English, 
English-Scots,  Italians,  Poles,  Greeks,  Spaniards, 
Portuguese,  Bohemians  and  Ruthenians.  During  the 
war  eight  priests  of  the  diocese  were  in  the  service. 
One  was  chaplain  at  the  naval  base  at  Lewes,  Del., 
where  he  died  of  the  influenza  in  the  service  of  his 
men.  Four  served  at  the  front  in  France,  one  of 
whom,  while  acting  as  a  chaplain,  was  wounded;  the 
other  three  served  as  regular  soldiers  in  the  French 
army.  The  remaining  three  acted  as  chaplains  in  the 
different  camps  in  the  United  States.  Rt.  Rev.  John 
Lyons,  V.  G.,  died  3  April,  1916. 

Winnipeg,  Archdiocese  of  (Winnipegensis), 
erected  4  December,  1915,  comprises  that  portion  of 
the  province  of  Manitoba,  Canada,  situated  to  the 
south  of  the  line  which  divides  townships  44  and  45, 
and  to  the  west  of  Lake  Winnipeg  and  the  Red  River, 
except  that  territory  lying  south  of  the  line  which 
divides  townships  9  and  10,  and  east  of  the  meridian 
between  the  12th  and  13th  ranges  west  of  the  principal 
meridian.  The  first  archbishop  is  Most  Rev.  Alfred 
Arthur  Sinnott,  born  in  Morell,  diocese  of  Charlotte¬ 
town,  22  February,  1877;  he  made  his  studies  in 
Charlottetown  and  in  Rome  and  was  ordained  in 
Montreal  in  1900.  Named  private  chamberlain  in 
1907  he  became  secretary  to  the  apostolic  delegation  of 
Canada,  and  was  appointed  archbishop  9  December, 
1915.  The  Jesuits,  Oblate  Fathers  of  Mary  Immacu- 


WINONA 


WISCONSIN 


/  /5 


late  and  Redemptorists  are  established  in  the  arch¬ 
diocese  as  well  as  the  Gray  Sisters,  Sisters  of  St. 
Joseph,  of  the  Holy  Names  of  Jesus  and  Mary,  of 
Mercy,  Franciscan  Sisters  Missionaries  of  Mary, 
Benedictine  Sisters,  and  Sisters  of  Our  Lady  of  the 
Missions.  The  territory  has  a  Catholic  population  of 
40,000,  and  counts  46  secular  and  18  regular  clergy, 
10  seminarians,  38  churches  with  resident  priests,  55 
mission  chapels,  12  parochial  schools,  11  convents, 
2  orphanages,  1  hospital,  2  asylums  and  2  boarding 
schools  for  Indians. 

Winona,  Diocese  of  (Winonensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV 
— 658b),  in  Minnesota,  suffragan  of  St.  Paul.  The 
present  bishop  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Patrick  R.  Heffron, 
who  has  administered  the  diocese  since  1910.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  statistics  of  1922  the  diocese  contained: 
86  churches  with  resident  priests,  38  missions,  117 
secular  priests,  7  regulars,  35  seminarians  who  are 
being  educated  in  seminaries  of  other  dioceses,  1 
orphan  asylum,  and  4  hospitals.  The  educational 
institutions  are:  1  college  for  boys  (205  students), 
1  college  for  women  (453  students),  3  academies  for 
young  ladies,  28  high  schools  (1278  students),  40 
parish  schools  (7210  pupils),  1  school  for  small  boys 
(45  pupils).  The  Catholics  number  68,800. 

Wisconsin  (c{.  C.  E.,  XV— 66b).— The  area  of  the 
State  is  56,066  square  miles.  In  1920  the  popula¬ 
tion  was  2,632,067,  an  increase  of  12.8%  since  the 
census  of  1910.  Between  1900  and  1910  the  in¬ 
crease  was  also  12.8%.  Of  this,  47.3%  was  urban; 
j2.7%  was  rural.  The  average  number  of  persons 
to  the  square  mile  is  47.6  as  against  42.2  in  1910. 
There  are  132  cities,  of  which  the  largest  are:  Mil¬ 
waukee,  with  a  population  of  457,147;  Racine 
58,593;  Kenosha  40,472;  Superior  39,671 ;  Madison 
38,378.  There  are  four  Indian  reservations.  The 
native  whites  number  2,156,810,  of  whom  1,054,691 
are  of  native  parentage,  736,051  of  foreign  parentage, 
366,065  of  mixed  parentage.  The  foreign  born 
whites,  460,128  in  all,  came  chiefly  from  Germany 
(151,250),  Norway  (45.433),  Sweden  (22,896),  Rus¬ 
sia  (21,447),  Austria,  (19,641),  Italy  (11,187).  There 
are  5201  negroes  and  9611  Indians.  Of  the  popula¬ 
tion  of  ten  years  and  over  (2,069,567),  there  were 
50,397  illiterates  (,2.4%). 

Economic  Status. — According  to  the  Agricultural 
Census  of  1920,  there  were  in  the  State  189,295 
farms,  an  increase  of  12,163  since  1910.  The  land 
area  in  farms  is  22,148,223  acres;  the  value  of  all 
-  farm  property,  $2,677,282,997 :  of  live  stock  $322,- 
312,115;  of  the  crops  $445,387,868.  The  chief  crops 
of  the  State  are:  oats  68.296,223  bushels,  valued  at 
$58,051,788;  corn  44.547.398  bushels,  valued  at  $64,- 
593,729;  hay  $105,006,816;  tobacco  52,454,246 
pounds,  $11,539,932.  In  1920  there  were  in  the  State 
3,050.829  cattle,  including  2,763,483  milch  cows, 
683,364  horses,  479,991  sheep,  and  1,596,419  swine. 
The  wool  cut  was  3,191,940  pounds,  worth  $1,691,728. 
The  dairy  products  brought  $180,306,599  to  the 
State.  The  summary  of  manufactures  for  the  State 
in  1919  reveals  the  following  statistics:  establish¬ 
ments  10.394;  wage  earners  265,200;  capital  $1,- 
372,723,000;  cost  of  materials  $1,130,835,000;  value 
of  products  $1,883,608,000.  Zinc  is  the  chief  mineral 
product.  Iron,  granite,  limestone,  sandstone,  and 
graphite  are  also  mined.  The  railway  mileage  is 
7632.  Milwaukee  is  a  port  of  entry,  its  imports 
in  1919  being  $4,367,381 ;  its  exports  $999,934.  The 
bonded  debt  of  the  State  in  1920  was  $1,935,000; 
the  assessed  value  of  property  in  1919,  $298,538,152. 

Religion. — The  Federal  Census  of  Religious  De¬ 
nominations  in  1916  gave  the  following  figures: 
Catholics  594, S36;  Lutherans  233,685;  Methodists 


65,364;  Congregationalists  30,534;  Baptists  21,464. 

For  details  of  Catholic  information  see  the  ar¬ 
ticles  on  Milwaukee;  Green  Bay;  La  Crosse; 
Superior. 

Education. — In  1913  the  county  educational  sys¬ 
tem  was  reorganized  under  a  county  board  of  educa¬ 
tion,  which  had  extensive  control  over  rural,  ele¬ 
mentary,  and  high  schools.  Two  additional  insti¬ 
tutions  were  provided  at  the  same  time,  an  Indus¬ 
trial  Home  for  Women  in  Fond-du-Lac  County, 
and  a  Home  for  Feebleminded  and  Epileptic  in 
Racine  County.  The  laws  governing  private  and 
parochial  schools  include  the  following:  All 
teachers  of  private  and  parochial  schools  shall  keep 
a  record  embodying  all  the  data  enumerated  in 
this  subsection  [regarding  attendance]  and  such 
record  shall  be  open  to  the  inspection  of  all  truant 
officers  at  any  and  all  reasonable  times.  School 
attendance  is  compulsory  for  all  children  between 
the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen  years,  in  cities  for 
the  entire  year;  in  towns  and  villages  for  6  months 
a  year.  Children  between  fourteen  and  seventeen, 
who  are  regularly  employed,  must  attend  industrial 
or  continuation  schools,  8  hours  a  week.  In  1919-20 
there  were  in  the  elementary  schools,  14,122 
teachers  and  405,467  students;  in  the  high  schools, 
3179  teachers  and  59,776  students.  The  total  ex¬ 
penditure  of  the  State  for  educational  purposes 
in  1919-20  was  $21,385,791;  of  which  upwards  of 
$17,000,000  was  spent  on  the  common  schools,  high 
schools,  and  graded  schools.  There  are  26  day 
schools  for  the  deaf  and  in  1918  out  of  377  high 
schools,  there  were  65  union  and  3  consolidated 
high  schools.  A  State  Library  Commission  main¬ 
tains  circulating  free  school  libraries  comprising 
more  than  1,900,000  volumes.  There  are  8222  school 
houses.  The  Universitjr  of  Wisconsin,  with  a  stu¬ 
dent  enrollment  of  6872,  received  from  the  State  in 
the  year  ending  30  June,  1918,  a  total  of  $1,108,390; 
this,  with  the  students’  tuition  fees  ($550,000),  and 
other  sources  of  income  brought  the  grand  total  of 
university  receipts  up  to  $2,901,453.  Marquette 
University  has  3000  students.  It  is  estimated  that 
there  are  over  73,000  children  in  the  Catholic 
parochial  schools  in  the  State.  The  orphan  asylums 
harbor  nearly  1300  children. 

Recent  History  and  Legislation. — In  1913  a 
minimum  wage  law  was  passed  to  be  administered 
by  the  State  Industrial  Commission.  In  the  same 
year  all  male  persons  were  required  to  pass  a 
medical  examination  before  marriage.  This  was 
declared  unconstitutional  by  the  Circuit  Courts, 
but  the  Supreme  Court  upheld  it,  saying  that  it 
was  a  valid  exercise  of  police  power.  Mothers’ 
pensions  were  provided  for,  but  are  not  extended 
to  children  of  divorced  parents.  A  bonus  was  given 
in  1919  to  war  veterans,  $10  a  month,  also  free 
education  in  the  institutions  of  the  State  by  means 
of  $30  a  month.  A  law  was  also  passed  exempting 
labor,  agricultural,  and  horticultural  organizations 
instituted  for  the  purpose  of  mutual  help  and  not 
having  a  capital  or  conducted  for  profit,  from  the 
anti-trust  laws.  This  gave  labor  unions  the  right 
to  organize.  A  State  Board  of  Conciliation  was 
established.  The  Federal  Suffrage  Amendment  was 
ratified  on  10  June,  1919;  the  Prohibition  Act,  17 
January,  1919. 

During  the  European  War  Wisconsin’s  draft  re¬ 
turns  were  reported  first  of  all  the  States.  She 
originated  the  State  and  County  Councils  of  De¬ 
fence  and  the  observation  of  meatless  and  wheat¬ 
less  days.  The  entire  Wisconsin  National  Guard 
saw  service  at  the  border  of  Mexico,  in  1916,  being 
stationed  at  a  camp  near  Fort  Houston,  San  An¬ 
tonio,  Texas.  As  a  result,  they  were  seasoned 


WLADISLAW 


776 


WYOMING 


soldiers  when  they  were  called  into  Federal  Serv¬ 
ice.  The  National  Guard  mobilized  at  Fort 
Douglas.  Some  companies  of  the  infantry  were 
transferred  to  the  42d  Division,  Rainbow  Division, 
and  as  the  150th  Gun  Battalion,  was  sent  to  Camp 
Mills,  Long  Island,  for  preliminary  training  before 
being  sent  to  France.  The  other  troops  were  in¬ 
corporated  into  the  32d  Division  and  sent  to  Camp 
McArthur..  On  the  way  to  France  some  were  lost 
by  the  torpedoing  of  the  transport  steamer  “Tus- 
cania,”  near  the  coast  of  Ireland.  The  others 
moved  to  the  front  line  in  Alsace,  taking  over  the 
entrenchments  facing  Altkirch  and  Muhlhausen, 
then  near  Chateau  Thierry,  to  relieve  the  Third 
Division.  They  were  also  at  Fismes  and  Verdun. 
The  Wisconsin  members  of  the  National  Army 
were  incorporated  into  the  85th  Division  and  en¬ 
trained  at  Camp  Custer,  Michigan.  On  the  whole 
the  State  contributed  98.211  soldiers  or  2.61%  of 
the  U.  S.  Army.  The  summary  of  casualties  among 
the  Wisconsin  members  of  the  American  Expedi¬ 
tionary  Force  is  as  follows:  deceased,  111  officers, 
2538  men;  prisoners,  6  officers,  72  men;  wounded, 
285  officers,  6801  men. 

Wladislaw,  Diocese  of.  See  Kalisz-Kujawy 

Wloclawek,  Diocese  of.  See  Kalisz-Kujawy 

Wonsan,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (de  Wonsan), 
in  Corea.  This  vicariate  was  erected  by  a  decree  of 
5  August,  1920,  which  divided  the  Vicariate  of  Seoul 
and  took  the  northeastern  provinces  to  constitute  the 
new  vicariate,  which  became  the  third  vicariate 
apostolic  of  Corea.  It  comprises  the  provinces  of 
South  Hamyong  and  North  Hamyong  which  have  a 
population  of  1,760,000.  It  is  entrusted  to  the  Bene¬ 
dictine  Fathers  who  found  only  550  Catholics  there 
when  they  began  their  work  at  the  outset  of  1921. 
This  small  flock  is  served  from  two  mission  stations, 
one  at  Wonsan,  the  other  at  Naipiong;  at  the  former 
there  is  one  priest  assisted  by  three  lay  brothers,  while 
at  Naipiong  there  is  only  one  priest.  The  vicar,  Rt. 
Rev.  Boniface  Sauer,  appointed  titular  Bishop  of 
Appiaria  25  August,  1920,  returned  to  Corea  in  1921 
with  six  more  priests,  and  they,  with  14  lay  brothers 
(5  of  them  Corean  postulants)  are  still  in  Seoul,  where 
the  Europeans  are  studying  the  difficult  language,  but 
as  soon  as  possible  they  will  be  transferred  to  Wonsan. 
The  Father  at  Wonsan  has  opened  an  elementary 
school  which  is  attended  by  80  boys  and  35  girls, 
mostly  pagans. 

World  Conference  on  Faith  and  Order.  See 

Union  of  Christendom 

Writers’  Guild,  Catholic.  See  Catholic 

Writers’  Guild 

• 

Wurzburg,  Diocese  of  (Herbipolensis;  cf. 
C.  E.,  XV — 718c),  in  Bavaria,  suffragan  of  Bamberg. 
The  present  incumbent  is  Rt.  Rev.  Ferdinand 
de  Schloer,  b.  at  Richelback,  2  March,  1839,  ordained 
10  August,  1862,  named  5  March,  1898,  consecrated 
and  enthroned  22  May  following,  assistant  at  the 
pontifical  throne  1  July,  1918.  In  1917  in  presence 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Bamberg  and  the  Bishop  of 
Eichstatt  the  people  solemnly  celebrated  the  three 
hundredth  anniversary  of  Julis  Echter  von  Mesel- 
brunn,  the  greatest  Bishop  of  Bamberg.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  distinguished  clergymen  have  died  since 
1909:  Dr.  Karl  Guido  Braun,  rector,  and  canon  of 
the  cathedral,  distinguished  for  his  activity  in  the 
field  of  social  science  and  for  the  energetic  and 
spirited  stand  which  he  took  in  combating  religious 
errors;  Dr.  Adam  Gopfert,  well  known  for  his  work 
on  moral  theology;  Dr.  Henry  Kihn,  dean  of  the 


cathedral,  at  one  time  professor  at  the  university 
and  author  of  several  well  known  works  on  patrology 
and  canon  law.  During  the  war  the  clergy  and 
laity  who  were  not  actively  engaged  at  the  front, 
rendered  valuable  assistance  in  all  fields  of  war- 
work.  They  nursed  the  sick  in  the  field  hospitals, 
looked  after  the  soldiers  at  the  railroad  stations, 
assisted  widows  and  cared  for  young  children.  Many 
of  the  pastors  supplied  their  soldier  parishioners  with 
literature  and  were  in  constant  communication  with 
them.  Several  homes  for  children  were  established 
and  an  institution  for  crippled  soldiers.  Count  Karl 
zu  Lowunstein  (q.  v.),  leader  of  the  German  Catholic 
party  and  for  many  years  chairman  of  the  central 
committees  of  the  Catholic  Congresses,  joined  the 
Dominicans  in  his  declining  years  and  received 
Holy  Orders.  He  died  in  1921.  In  1921  the  diocese 
contained  456  parishes,  725  churches  (about  one  in 
every  town),  7  mission  stations,  25  monasteries  for 
men,  1  Benedictine  abbey  for  men  at  Munster- 
schwarzach,  300  convents  and  foundations  for 
women,  with  2725  Sisters,  886  secular  priests,  150 
regulars,  190  Brothers,  1  diocesan  seminary  with 
70  seminarians,  6  houses  of  studies.  There  is  1 
university  with  a  Catholic  theological  faculty ,  8 
professors,  14  gymnasia.  All  the  schools  are  under 
the  supervision  of  the  State,  but  courses  are  given 
in  religious  instruction  by  regularly  appointed  pro¬ 
fessors.  In  the  primary  schools  the  pupils  are 
instructed  by  the  parish  priests.  There  are  also  8 
higher  educational  institutions  ( Hohere  schulen ),  for 
girls  under  the  supervision  of  Sisters,  several  private 
schools,  1  normal  school  for  teachers,  900  elementary 
schools,  1750  teachers,  98,000  pupils,  1200  con¬ 
tinuation  schools,  1397  teachers,  37,500  pupils. 

The  following  institutions  exist  in  the  diocese: 
1  institution  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  1  for  the  blind, 
7  homes  for  the  aged  and  for  apprentices,  1  for 
cripples,  2  asylums,  2  educational  institutions,  3 
hospitals  (1  at  Aschaffenburg,  2  at  Wurzburg) 
and  aside  from  these  each  district  has  its  own  hospital, 
3  reformatories  (1  for  boys,  2  for  girls),  1  settlement 
house.  Day  nurseries  under  the  care  of  the  Sisters 
have  been  established  in  nearly  every  town.  The 
ministry  of  priests  is  permitted  in  all  these  institu¬ 
tions.  Owing  to  the  hard  times,  private  institutions 
and  schools  receive  some  support  from  the  state. 
The  following  associations  have  been  formed  among 
the  clergy:  Diocesan  Association  of  Priests,  Marian 
Congregation  for  priests,  Apostolic  Union,  Associa¬ 
tion  for  the  support  of  sick  and  retired  priests, 
Association  of  the  Eucharistic  League,  Association 
for  Priestly  Perseverance,  Missionary  Association 
of  the  World  War.  The  laity  have  the  following 
associations:  Workingmens’  Association,  Associa¬ 
tions  for  journeymen,  apprentices,  merchants,  men 
and  youths,  associations  for  servants,  associations 
for  young  women,  workingwomen,  servants,  busi¬ 
ness  women,  League  for  Catholic  Women.  These 
last  do  not  include  the  Bonifacius  and  mission 
associations  or  any  society  or  fraternity  connected 
with  the  church. 

University  of  Wurzburg. — The  following  is  a 
summary  of  the  attendance  at  the  University  during 
the  winter  and  summer  term  of  1919-1920:  104 
theological  students,  897  law  students  (11  of  whom 
were  women),  1041  medical  students  (91  women), 
481  students  of  dentistry  (27  women),  635  students 
of  philosophy  (65  women),  56  students  of  pharmacy 
(5  women).  In  all  3214  matriculated  students.  To 
these  may  be  added  47  male  auditors  ( Horer )  and  33 
female  auditors  (Horerinnen) . 

Wyoming  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 724c). — The  area 
of  the  State  of  Wyoming  is  97,914  square  miles.  In 
1920  the  population,  was  194,402,  an  increase  of 


WYOMING 


777 


WYOMING 


33.2%  since  1910.  Of  this  number  29.5%  was 
urban;  70.5  was  rural.  The  average  number  of 
inhabitants  to  the  square  mile  is  2,  as  against  1.5  in 
1910.  There  are  21  counties,  7  of  which  have  been 
organized  since  1910.  Yellowstone  Park  is  independ¬ 
ent  of  any  county  organization.  There  is  one  Indian 
reservation.  The  largest  cities  are:  Cheyenne,  with 
a  population  of  13,829;  Casper,  11,447;  Sheridan, 
9175;  Rock  Springs,  6456;  Laramie,  8207.  Of  the 
whites  (190,146),  there  were  164,891  natives  and 
25,255  foreign-born.  The  native  whites  included 
122,884  of  native  parentage,  25,234  of  foreign  parent¬ 
age,  16,255  of  mixed  parentage.  The  foreigh-born 
came  chiefly  from  England  (2505),  Germany  (2292), 
and  Switzerland  (2042).  The  population  of  ten 
years  of  age  or  more  numbered  150,993,  of  whom 
3149  (2.1%)  were  illiterate. 

Economic  Status. —  Manufacturing. — The  latest 
census  of  manufactures  (1919)  reveals  576  establish¬ 
ments  in  Wyoming,  8095  persons  employed,  earning 
a  total  of  $12,891,267,  and  turning  out  products 
worth  $81,445,394.  The  capital  invested  was  $82,- 
287,667  and  the  cost  of  the  materials  $42,250,528. 

Mining. — The  coal  output  for  1918  was  9,438,688 
tons;  the  iron  ore  output  543,846  tons.  In  1917 
2,027,857  pounds  of  copper,  worth  $553,605;  8,978,- 
680  barrels  of  petroleum,  worth  $11,047,876;  and 
182  ounces  of  gold,  worth  $3,762,  were  produced. 

Agriculture . — Live-stock  raising  is  carried  on  exten¬ 
sively  in  the  State,  the  statistics  of  1920  being  as 
follows:  cattle  869,000  head,  valuation  $32,640,000; 
sheep  3,200,000,  valuation,  $32,640,000;  horses 
225,000;  swine  63,000,  worth  $1,159,000;  mules  and 
asses  4,000,  worth  $360,000;  total  value,  $87,884,516. 
The  wool  product  for  1919  was  18,411,773  pounds, 
valued  at  $8,064,838.  In  1920  there  were  15,611 
farms  (an  increase  of  43.3%  since  1910),  having  a 
value  of  $334,410,590.  The  crop  value  in  that  year 
was  $30,270,630.  The  railroad  mileage  is  1924. 
Ther  are  172  telephone  systems,  covering  3000  miles 
of  wire. 

Education. — The  general  supervision  of  public 
schools  is  entrusted  to  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction ;  county  educational  matters  are  under 
the  care  of  the  district  board  of  school  trustees; 
district  educational  matters  under  the  district  board 
of  school  trustees.  The  state  Board  of  Education, 
created  in  1917,  is  composed  of  seven  members,  at 
least  two  of  whom  are  actually  engaged  in  educational 
work.  The  state  superintendent  is  a  member  ex- 
officio,  and  with  the  approval  of  the  governor  appoints 
the  other  members  of  the  board  for  six  years.  The 
State  Commissioner  of  Education  is  secretary  of  the 
board.  The  law  governing  private  and  parochial 
schools  is:  No  money  shall  ever  be  appropriated  to 
any  sectarian  or  religious  institution  or  society.  In 


accordance  with  recognized  interpretation  of  con¬ 
stitutional  law,  Bible  reading  in  the  public  schools  is 
not  practised.  School  attendance  for  children  be¬ 
tween  the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen  is  compulsory. 
In  October,  1920,  the  1477  public  schools  had  150 
male  and  1800  female  teachers,  and  43,077  enrolled 
pupils  (21,376  boys  and  21,701  girls).  The  expendi¬ 
ture  on  education  in  1919-20  was  $4,173,828.  In 
1918  the  district  tax  revenues  were  $799,992.71;  and 
the  earnings  and  income  from  practically  all  the 
school  lands  was  $485,252.06.  In  1919  the  State 
University  had  56  professors  and  913  students.  In 
1917  the  State  accepted  the  terms  of  the  Act  of 
Congress  providing  for  Federal  aid  in  vocational 
education . 

Religion. — The  United  States  Census  of  Religious 
Denominations  (1916),  gives  the  following  statistics: 
Catholics  12,801;  Latter  Day  Saints,  Church  of 
Jesus  Christ,  9447;  Methodist  Episcopal  4293;  Prot¬ 
estant  Episcopal  3890 ;  Presbyterian  Church ,  U .  S .  A . , 
2514;  Congregationalists  1951;  Baptists,  N.  C.,  1841; 
Disciples  of  Christ  763;  Lutheran,  Synodical  Confei- 
ence,  704;  all  other  denominations  301.  For  further 
religious  and  educational  statistics  see  Cheyenne, 
Diocese  of. 

Recent  Legislation  and  History. — The  initia¬ 
tive  and  referendum  was  adopted  in  1911  and  the 
nomination  of  candidates  for  public  office  by  means 
of  the  direct  primary  provided  for  at  the  same  time. 
In  1913  the  marriage  of  white  persons  with  negroes, 
mulattoes,  Mongolians,. and  Malays  was  forbidden. 
The  sale  of  cocaine  was  regulated,  an  eight-hour  day 
for  workmen  on  public  works  provided  for,  railroads 
were  made  liable  for  injuries  to  and  death  of  employ¬ 
ees.  In  1915  were  passed  the  following:  a  measure 
placing  the  husband  and  wife  on  equal  footing  in 
regard  to  ownership  of  property,  also  an  eight-hour 
law  for  women,  a  Workmen’s  Compensation  Bill, 
and  a  mothers’  Pension  law.  In  1917  the  law 
authorized  cities  and  towns  to  purchase  land  not 
over  80  acres  in  extent  for  cemetery  purposes.  Full 
power  is  granted  to  improve  the  land  and  to  sell  the 
plots  to  private  owners  in  exactly  the  same  manner 
as  private  cemetery  companies.  Any  town  estab¬ 
lishing  such  a  cemetery  must  be  allowed  to  do  so  only 
by  a  referendum  vote.  The  Federal  Suffrage  Act 
was  ratified  on  28  January,  1920,  the  Prohibition 
Act  on  16  January,  1919.  During  the  European  War 
Wyoming’s  contribution  to  the  United  States  Army 
was  11,393  men  (.30%).  The  Wyoming  members 
of  the  national  army  formed  a  part  of  the  91st  Divi¬ 
sion  at  Camp  Lewis,  Washington.  The  summary 
of  casualties  among  the  Wyoming  members  of  the 
American  Expeditionary  Force  is  as  follows:  deceased, 
2  officers,  231  men;  prisoners,  3  men;  wounded,  14 
officers,  426  men. 


X 


Xaverian  Brothers  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV— 728b).— 
Since  1912  the  Xaverians  have  become  prominent  in 
educational  matters.  Annually  several  members  are 
sent  to  the  Catholic  Educational  Conventions,  at 
which  some  take  active  part  in  reading  papers,  dis¬ 
putations,  etc.  In  1915  the  third  superior  general, 
Brother  Chrysostom,  died  in  Mayfield,  England. 
As  no  general  chapter  could  be  held  during  the  war, 
Brother  Theophile  acted  as  superior  general  till  1919, 
when  the  general  chapter  elected  Brother  Bernard 
(Gryson)  an  Englishman  by  birth  and  a  Belgian  by 
long  residence,  he  having  taught  classes  in  the  English 
department  at  Bruges,  Belgium,  for  twenty-eight 
years.  The  same  general  chapter  appointed  a  com¬ 
mittee  of  the  provincials  of  America  (Br.  Isidore), 
England,  (Br.  Cyril),  and  Belgium  (Br.  Adolph),  to 
revive  the  constitutions  and  rules  in  conformity  with 
the  new  Code  of  Canon  Law.  Steps  have  been  taken 
to  obtain  the  full  approval  of  the  Congregation  of 
Religious.  According  to  the  revised  constitutions 
the  time  of  postulancy  is  changed  to  six  months. 
To  the  canonical  novitiate  of  one  full  year,  another 
year’s  noviceship  is  added  by  the  rule  of  the  order, 
and  temporary  vows  of  three  years  precede  final  vows. 


The  tenure  of  office  of  minor  superiors  is  three  years, 
and  limited  to  six.  The  election  for  delegates  to  the 
general  and  provincial  chapters  is  also  according  to 
the  Code.  In  the  United  States  the  Xaverians  have 
opened  six  new  foundations.  Catholic  high  school, 
Clarksburg,  W.  Va.  (1914);  Catholic  high  schools  at 
Wichita,  Kans.  (1916);  Utica,  N.  Y.  (1917);  Rich¬ 
mond,  Va.  (1917);  parochial  school,  Alexandria,  Va. 
(1918);  Holy  Cross  School,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  (1920). 
In  1921  the  novitiate  was  transferred  to  Old  Point 
Comfort,  Va.,  where  all  the  rules  and  regulations 
prescribed  by  canon  law  are  strictly  followed.  The 
Brothers  have  (1921)  a  total  of  32  establishments  in 
the  United  States,  of  which  6  are  preparatory  schools 
for  colleges,  5  of  them  accepting  boarders,  7  high 
schools  connected  with  parishes,  with  a  teaching  staff 
of  108  Brothers,  17  parochial  schools  taught  by  92 
Brothers.  There  are  also  6  industrial  schools  and 
homes  in  charge  of  51  Brothers.  The  number  of 
Brothers  otherwise  employed  is  13,  and  there  are  6 
superannuated  and  infirm,  making  a  total  of  270 
professed  members,  with  29  scholastics  and  novices. 
The  Brothers  are  in  charge  of  6540  boys. 


Y 


Yap.  See  Caroline  Islands 

Yii-kiang,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (Fuchow  or 
Eastern  Kiang-si;  cf.  C.  E.,  VIII — 634d),  in  China, 
was  formerly  erected  under  the  name  of  Eastern 
Kiang-si  on  25  April,  1885,  it  was  changed  into 
Fuchow  on  25  April,  1920;  finally,  by  a  decree  of  1 
June,  1921,  at  the  demand  of  Mgr.  Clerc-Renaud, 
Fuchow,  which  is  a  common  name  in  China,  was 
changed  to  Yii-kiang.  It  comprises  4  districts, 
namely,  Fuchowfu,  Kienchungfu,-Kwamgsinfu  and 
Iaochowfu,  covering  an  area  of  about  21,621  square 
miles,  has  a  total  population  of  8,000,000  and  is 
entrusted  to  the  Lazarists  The  vicar  is  Rt.  Rev. 
Jean-Louis  Clerc-Renaud,  Lazarist,  titular  Bishop  of 
Elis,  b.  18  June,  1866,  appointed  vicar  Apostolic  of 
Kiang-si,  10  August,  1912,  consecrated  3  November, 
vicar  Apostolic  of  Fu-chow  in  October,  1920  (Yii- 
Kiang  in  1921).  He  resides  at  Yii-kiang.  There  are 
in  the  vicariate  (1920  census):  29,642  Catholics, 
2868  catechumens,  15  European  and  4  Chinese 
Lazarist  priests,  13  native  priests,  393  Christian 
settlements  where  a  mission  is  preached  every  year, 

24  residences,  24  churches,  117  public  chapels,  12 
oratories,  141  schools  of  prayer  with  2509  pupils, 

3  primary  schools  with  72  pupils,  30  catechists  with 
1702  students.  The  Sisters  of  Charity  have  a  house 
with  262  teachers. 

Young  Men’s  Christian  Association. — An  inter¬ 
national,  interdenominational,  Protestant,  lay  organi¬ 
zation,  founded  for  a  predominantly  religious  purpose, 
but  aiming  now  at  the  spiritual,  intellectual,  physical 
and  social  improvement  (a)  of  its  members;  (b)  of 
young  men  in  general,  and  (c)  of  boys,  the  young  men 
of  tomorrow. 

General  Description:  Government,  Char¬ 
acter. — Due  to  the  exclusively  religious  character 
of  its  foundation  its  members  were  at  first  Protestants 
only,  but  with  the  expansion  of  its  activities  it  later 
admitted  persons  not  belonging  to  any  Protestant 
denomination,  as  well  as  members  of  those  Protestant 
denominations  (e.  g.  Unitarians)  not  at  first  included. 
Accordingly  two  classes  of  members  were  thereafter 
recognized:  active  and  associate.  Only  active  mem¬ 
bers  have  the  right  to  vote  and  to  hold  office  in  the 
Association.  To  be  eligible  to  active  membership 
one  must  be  a  member  in  regular  standing  of  an 
“evangelical”  Church.  Any  young  man  of  good 
moral  character  is  eligible  for  associate  membership. 
While  the  “evangelical  test”  for  active  membership 
has  varied  according  to  country  and  time  the  “Port¬ 
land  test”  of  the  United  States  organization  is  the 
clearest  definition  of  what  is  meant  by  “evangelical” 
(Christian  in  the  title  being  practically  synonymously 
used).  This  test,  so-called  because  passed  at  the 
Portland  convention  in  1869,  states:  “That,  as  these 
organizations  bear  the  name  of  Christian  and  profess 
to  be  engaged  directly  in  the  Savior’s  service,  so  it  is 
clearly  their  duty  to  maintain  the  control  and  manage¬ 
ment  of  all  their  affairs  in  the  hands  of  those  who  pro¬ 
fess  to  love  and  publicly  avow  their  faith  in  Jesus, 
the  Redeemer,  as  divine,  and  who  testify  their  faith 
by  becoming  and  remaining  members  of  churches 
held  to  be  evangelical;  and  that  such  persons,  and 

779 


none  others,  should  be  allowed  to  vote  or  hold  office.” 

“And  we  hold  those  churches  to  be  evangelical 
which,  maintaining  the  Holy  Scriptures  to  be  the 
only  infallible  rule  of  faith  and  practise,  do  believe  in 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (the  only  begotten  Son  of  the 
Father,  King  of  Kings,  and  Lord  of  Lords,  in  whom 
dwelleth  the  fullness  of  the  Godhead  bodily,  and  who 
was  made  sin  for  us,  though  knowing  no  sin,  bearing 
our  sins  in  his  own  body  on  the  tree),  as  the  only 
name  under  heaven,  given  among  men,  whereby  we 
must  be  saved  from  everlasting  punishment.” 

Outside  of  America  the  membership  qualification 
varies,  the  British  organization  admitting  to  full 
membership  “any  person  who  gives  decided  evidence 
of  his  conversion  to  God,”  while  in  Holland  no 
restriction  is  made.  A  red  triangle  is  used  as  the 
insignia  of  the  Association,  the  color  signifying  sac¬ 
rifice,  and  the  three  sides,  the  body,  mind,  and  spirit 
to  be  consecrated  to  God. 

The  Association  is  a  combination  of  civic  units, 
each  independent,  which  combine  to  form  state  and 
national  organizations.  Salaried  officers  (usually  a 
general  secretary  and  an  executive  secretary,  and 
other  minor  officials),  conduct  the  affairs  of  each  unit 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Board  of  Directors,  who 
are  elected  by  the  active  members.  There  are  also 
committees  of  members,  composed  of  volunteers,  to 
whom  is  assigned  supervision  over  various  activities. 
There  are  in  the  United  States  three  training  schools 
for  secretaries,  one  at  Chicago,  one  at  Springfield, 
Mass.,  and  one  at  Nashville,  and  four  summer 
schools  for  the  same  purpose.  National  conventions 
of  delegates  from  the  units  are  held  every  three  years, 
no  unit  not  observing  the  laws  of  the  Association, 
especially  that  defining  the  status  of  active  and 
associate  membership,  being  allowed  representation. 
The  National  Convention  in  turn  elects  the  members 
of  the  International  Committee .  There  are  in  addition 
state  organizations  meeting  annually  or  biennially, 
similar  in  form  to  the  national  body,  the  chi^f  purpose 
of  these  two  general  organizations  being  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  new  civic  units . 

Each  civic  unit  usually  has  a  home  or  club-house, 
as  a  rule  providing  a  gymnasium,  auditorium,  and 
offices  for  the  organization  and  very  often  rooming 
accommodations  for  a  limited  number  of  individual 
members.  While  each  civic  unit  naturally  does  not 
participate  in  all  the  activities ,  the  work  of  the  organ¬ 
ization  as  a  whole  includes  Railroad  (railroad  work¬ 
ers),  Industrial,  Student,  Army  and  Navy,  Colored 
Men’s,  Educational,  Physical,  Boys’,  Foreign  Work, 
and  Religious  Departments.  Considerable  attention 
is  paid  in  many  centers  to  immigrants.  In  the 
educational  department  are  included  general  (usually 
night)  schools,  vocational  and  industrial  training, 
while  co-ordinated  with  it  are  the  Bible  classes  which 
are  a  feature  of  nearly  every  unit,  being  conducted 
almost  always  by  laymen.  The  expenses  of  the 
organizations  are  met  by  the  membership  dues  and 
by  contributions  from  the  public,  the  latter  amounting 
usually  to  about  25%  of  the  whole,  a  custom  inten¬ 
tionally  adopted  as  a  means  of  sustaining  interest  in 
the  Association  and  its  work . 

History. — The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  received  its  name  and 


YOUNG  MEN’S  CHRISTIAN 


780 


YOUNG  MEN’S  CHRISTIAN 


definite  organization  6  June,  1844,  in  London,  when 
George  Williams,  its  founder,  met  with  eleven  asso¬ 
ciates  to  enlarge,  and  crystallize  the  work  and  purposes 
of  an  association  for  Bible  reading  and  prayer  which 
he  had  organized  seven  years  before.  Several  socie¬ 
ties  of  a  similar  nature  had  existed  previous  to  this 
time,  seme  as  early  as  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
some  of  the  pre-existing  societies  joined  the  Associa¬ 
tion  in  a  body.  In  1845  the  first  paid  secretary  was 
appointed;  in  1847  organized  Bible  work  was  started. 
By  1851  the  Association  had  spread  to  many  places 
in  England,  to  Germany,  Switzerland,  France,  and 
had  been  established  in  Montreal,  Boston  and  New 
York  in  America.  The  first  international  meeting 
(United  States  and  Canada)  occurred  in  1854,  and 
the  first  intercontinental  at  Paris  in  1855.  The 
Central  International  Committee  was  formed  in  1878 
with  headquarters  in  Geneva.  In  1894  on  the  occa¬ 
sion  of  the  jubilee  of  the  Association,  George  Williams, 
its  founder,  was  knighted  by  Queen  Victoria.  The 
British  branch  took  up  educational  work  in  1864  and 
in  the  World  War  1914-18  performed  welfare  work 
among  the  soldiers  and  sailors,  while  since  the  war 
it  has  been  active  among  the  ex-service  men. 

In  the  United  States  the  Association  had  attained 
a  membership  of  25,000  by  1860.  The  Civil  War 
forced  many  of  the  units  to  disband  and  the  life  of  the 
entire  organization  was  threatened.  However,  the 
leaders  turned  their  attention  to  the  army,  and  wel¬ 
fare  work  consisting  of  devotional  meetings,  Bible 
and  hymn-book  distribution,  sermons,  and  the  like, 
and  material  aid  of  various  kinds  occupied  the  Asso¬ 
ciation  almost  exclusively.  As  a  result  of  their  gen¬ 
eral  introduction  to  the  public  through  these  activities 
the  Association  took  on  a  new  lease  of  life  after  the 
cessation  of  hostilities.  More  attention  was  now 
paid  to  the  auxiliary  works ,  such  as  physical  and  men¬ 
tal  education  and  the  organization  recorded  a  rapid 
yearly  increase . 

In  the  meanwhile  the  question  of  the  membership 
test  was  causing  considerable  discussion.  The 
American  organization  at  first  followed  the  tl ‘Paris 
basis”  of  1855  which  reads  as  follows:  “The  Young 
Men’s  Christian  Associations  seek  to  unite  those 
young  men  who,  regarding  Jesus  Christ  as  their  God 
and  Saviour,  according  to  the  Holy  Scriptures,  desire 
to  be  his  disciples  in  their  doctrine  and  in  their  life, 
and  to  associate  their  efforts  for  the  extension  of  his 
kingdom  among  young  men.”  This  was  reaffirmed 
at  Albany  in  1866  but  in  1868  at  Detroit  the  “Evan¬ 
gelical  Church  test”  was  adopted.  To  define  more 
clearly  the  term  “evangelical”  the  “Portland  test,” 
as  given  abave,  was  adopted  in  1869.  Gradually 
the  individual  units,  which  had  at  no  time  been  unan¬ 
imous  in  their  test,  adopted  that  of  1869,  and  by  1885 
this  test  uniformly  prevailed  in  the  United  States, 
the  penalty  for  its  infraction  by  a  unit  being  exclusion 
from  the  conventions.  Since  1885  the  growth  of  the 
United  States  organization  has  been  rapid,  and  the 
scope  of  its  activities  has  gradually  enlarged,  till 
today  it  includes  the  various  branches  enumerated 
above.  In  the  World  War  the  Association  in  co¬ 
operation  with  the  Government  undertook  welfare 
work  among  the  soldiers  and  sailors,  in  cities,  in 
camps  and  overseas.  Its  conduct  of  this  work, 
particularly  among  the  overseas  troops,  brought  down 
upon  the  Association  severe  adverse  criticism,  chiefly 
because  of  its  methods .  Although  many  have  claimed 
that  these  charges  were  unjustified  it  remains  true 
that  the  Association  was  the  only  one  of  the  various 
organizations  thus  engaged  to  be  generally  criticized 
by  the  soldiers.  In  distinctively  religious  lines,  apart 
from  its  work  of  conducting  Bible  classes  and  devo¬ 
tional  meetings  and  directing  drifters  back  to  their 
church,  the  Association  has  in  recent  years  taken  an 
active  interest  in  Protestant  proselytizing  movements . 


In  1916  the  Pan-Protestant  Congress  at  Panama 
inaugurated  a  movement  to  make  Latin  America 
Protestant  (see  Protestantism).  The  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
gave  the  fourth  largest  proportionate  donation  for 
this  work,  while  a  further  active  interest  is  also  being 
taken  in  the  work.  In  the  reconstruction  work  in 
Europe  after  the  war  both  the  Y .  M .  C .  A .  and  the 
Y.  W.  C.  A.  have  played  a  prominent  part,  the 
religious  side  of  the  work  being  strongly  featured  as 
one  of  the  leading  aims  behind  the  material  aid  which 
is^  being  given.  In  1920  the  Association  reported 
8789  centers;  6250  in  Europe,  32  in  Africa,  386  in 
Asia,  23  in  Australasia,  and  2098  in  America.  Its 
total  membership  in  the  United  States  in  1921  was 
739,438,  of  whom  304,399  were  active  members.  The 
total  property  and  funds  in  the  United  States  in  1921 
was  $121,000,000  and  its  total  income  $29,000,000. 

Catholics  and  the  Y.  M.  C.  A. — Attracted  by 
the  facilities  for  physical  training  and  recreation 
which  the  Association  afforded,  and  not  fully  under¬ 
standing  its  religious  character,  Catholic  young  men 
in  large  numbers  joined  the  organization  as  associate 
members.  In  1914,  according  to  reliable  estimates 
based  on  statistics  furnished  by  the  Association 
officials  (see  Garesche  infra) ,  out  of  a  total  members- 
ship  of  625,598  in  the  United  States  there  were  about 
146,000  Catholics,  approximately  23.5%.  The  total 
associate  membership  was  254,830,  the  Catholics 
constituting  57.34%.  Exact  figures  are  today  unob¬ 
tainable,  but  if  the  Catholics  still  constitute  the  same 
proportion  (probably  they  are  less  numerous  now, 
o'&ing  to  the  increased  facilities  obtainable  in  Catho¬ 
lic  societies),  they  number  about  240,000  in  1922. 
In  many  individual  units  in  1914  there  were  more 
Catholics  than  members  of  any  other  Church  and  in 
nearly  all  units  the  number  of  Catholics  ranks  high 
in  comparison  with  those  from  other  Churches.  The 
presence  of  such  a  large  number  of  Catholics  in  an 
association  which  was  founded  for  a  religious  purpose 
under  Protestant  auspices  and  which  today  retains 
its  religious  aims  and  methods,  in  some  points  devel¬ 
oped  far  beyond  those  of  its  early  stages,  raises  various 
questions  which  may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  (a) 
Is  the  Association  really  a  Protestant  organization? 
(b)  Does  it  make  any  difference  from  the  point  of  view 
of  religion  and  faith  if  a  Catholic  belongs  to  it? 

Before  answering  these  questions  it  will  be  well  to 
explain  the  status  of  the  Catholic  in  the  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
The  fact  that  he  is  admitted  only  as  an  associate 
member  can  only  be  interpreted  to  mean  that  he  is 
not  a  Christian  in  the  sense  in  which  the  word  is  used 
in  the  title  of  the  Association.  In  point  of  fact  he  is 
equivalently  placed  by  the  constitution  of  the  Asso¬ 
ciation  in  the  same  religious  category  as  Jews  and 
Unitarians.  That  this  distinction  was,  as  first  for¬ 
mulated,  intended  to  bar  out  Unitarians  and  that 
there  was  no  thought  of  its  reference  to  Catholics 
has  always  been  asserted  by  the  leaders  of  the  Asso¬ 
ciation  and  is  undoubtedly  true.  They  did  not 
expect  that  Catholics  would  apply  for  admission  to 
such  an  association.  However,  the  presence  of  the 
clause  proclaiming  the  Bible  to  be  the  sole  rule  of 
faith  and  practice  safeguarded  Protestant  control 
when  Catholics  began  to  join.  In  justice  to  the 
Association  it  must  be  admitted  that  its  leaders 
repudiate  any  intention  of  .denying  to  Catholics  the 
title  of  Christian:  the  Portland  test,  they  say,  was 
intended  to  define  evangelical ,  not  Christian.  Grant¬ 
ing  this,  it  is  clear  that  then  the  title  of  the  Association 
should  be  evangelical  or  Protestant,  not  Christian 
which  is  a  much  more  inclusive  term  than  as  used  in 
the  Association  title. 

The  answer  to  the  question  as  to  the  Protestant 
character  of  the  Association  is  best  given  in  the  words 
of  Association  leaders.  In  1915  the  general  secretary 
of  the  Chicago  Y.  M.  C.  A.  said  to  a  Catholic  priest 


YOUNG  MEN’S  CHRISTIAN 


781 


YOUNG  MEN’S  CHRISTIAN 


in  reply  to  questions  on  the  subject  of  Catholic  mem¬ 
bership,  “The  Y .  M.  C.  A.  is  essentially  a  Protestant 
organization.  In  my  judgment  it  should  remain 
distinctly  Protestant.  I  will  be  frank  and  say  that 
in  my  opinion  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  should  not  include 
loyal  Catholic  young  men  in  its  active  membership. 

They  are  out  of  place  there . Indeed,  taking 

into' consideration  the  present  [1915]  attitude  of  the 
Catholic  Church  toward  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  it  is  my 
belief  that  a  Catholic  young  man  shows  a  want  of 
loyalty  when  he  enters  the  \  .  M.  C.  A.”  In  1919 
the  general  secretary  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  International 
Committee  in  New'  York,  speaking  in  behalf  of  the 
Inter-Church  Emergency  Campaign  said:  “When 
President  Wilson  wired  the  \  .  M.  C.  A.  that  the 
United  States  needed  it  in  the  war,  before  I  paid  any 
attention  to  athletics,  to  educational  work,  I  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  form  a  committee  on  evangelical  work  in 

the  churches . The  result  was  the  evolution 

of  a  religious  program.  Prior  to  this  evangelical 
work;  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  had  a  few  score  of  clergymen 
employed  as  secretaries.  Now  we  have  over  3,000 
ordained  secretaries.  Now  we  have  the  direct  leader¬ 
ship  of  such  men  as  Clarence  Barbour,  President  of 
Rochester  Theological  Seminary;  President  J.  Ross 
Stevenson  of  Princeton  [Divinity  School];  President 
Henry  Churchill  King  of  Oberlin  College;  more  than 
200  clergymen,  the  leading  clergymen  of  every 
denomination.  We  sent  these  200  men  overseas 
that  the  boys  might  hear  the  best  preachers  of  the 
country.  We  sent  5,000,000  copies  of  the  New 

Testament  to  the  Allied  armies . When  the 

story  of  the  war  is  written,  if  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  yes, 
and  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.  are  not  on  record  as  the  identified 
Evangelical  Church  of  America ,  then  I,  and  many 
others,  will  hand  in  our  resignations,  for  the  *Y*  will 
have  lost  its  interest.”  These  statements  make  per¬ 
fectly  clear  the  fact  that  the  Association  is  essentially 
a  Protestant  organization  having  for  its  chief  aim  the 
furtherance  of  Protestant  principles  and  ideas.  This 
aim  is  especially  apparent  in  the  co-operation  ex¬ 
tended  to  Protestant  missionary  work  in  Latin  Amer¬ 
ica,  already  referred  to,  and  in  the  after-the-war  work 
in  Europe.  A  further  indication  of  the  Protestant 
character  of  the  Association,  is  the  action  of  the  Central 
Branch  at  Philadelphia  which  has  adopted  a  ruling, 
taking  effect  in  the  beginning  of  1922,  limiting  in  the 
future  its  respective  non-Protestant  groups  to  five 
per  cent  of  the  total  enrollment. 

The  reconstruction  work  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  is  a 
combination  of  evangelization  and  material,  educa¬ 
tional  and  recreational  aid,  extended  through  centers 
chiefly  in  France,  Belgium  and  Italy,  including  Rome. 
The  interdenominational  character  of  the  Associaiton 
leading  them  necessarily  to  adopt  the  “least  common 
denominator”  in  religion,  the  spiritual  education 
that  they  offer  is  as  a  consequence  not  acceptable  to 
Catholics  because  of  the  minimizing  of  of  practice  and 
belief  which  it  entails.  Yet  the  leaders  of  the  work 
went  even  further  and  in  a  pamphlet  issued  in  Italy 
(“Che  cosa  '  la  Y.  M.  C.  A.  :  cio  che  si  propone, 
etc.”),  announced  that  in  addition  to  physical  and 
intellectual  training  it  proposed  to  give  also  a  “spirit¬ 
ual  education”  through  free  conferences  on  spiritual 
and  religious  problems  “characterized  by  greater 
liberty  of  thought  and  a  wide  tolerance,  above  and 
apart  from  any  church  or  creed.”  Such  a  course  was 
in  effect  a  system  of  proselytizing  although  the 
Association  in  the  same  pamphlet  disavowed  any  such 
intention.  As  a  result  of  such  actions  on  the  part  of 
the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  other  similar  organizations,  the 
Sacred  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Office  issued  a 
Letter  to  the  bishops  (5  Nov.,  1920),  warning  them 
against  such  organizations,  their  methods,  and  aims, 
and  their  religious  indifferentism  as  constituting  a 
grave  danger  to  Catholics  who  should  accept  their 


ministrations.  Although  this  Letter  was  directed 
against  several  organizations  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  was 
the  only  one  to  be  named  specifically.  Of  the  Asso¬ 
ciation  the  Letter,  while  acknowledging  the  material 
aid  which  it  had  rendered  “to  a  large  number  of 
unhappy  persons  in  the  world  war,”  and' while  finding 
no  fault  with  its  general  material  activities  says, 
“this  society  indeed  makes  profession  of  a  sincere  love 
for  young  people,  as  if  it  had  no  dearer  aim  than  to 
give  them  facilities  for  corporal  and  mental  develop¬ 
ment;  but  at  the  same  time  it  destroys  their  faith  and 
declares  that  it  proposes  to  purify  it  and  to  impart  a 
more  perfect  knowledge  of  life  ‘above  any  church  and 
beyond  any  religious  creed’.”  As  to  the  attitude 
toward  Catholic  members  in  the  United  States  it  is 
only  fair  to  add  that  with  few  exceptions  there  has 
been  no  attempt  to  proselytize  among  them .  At  times 
lukewarm  Catholics  on  entering  the  Association  have 
been  urged  to  join  their  Church  again,  in  accordance 
with  the  general  policy  of  seeking  to  have  its  members 
affiliated  with  some  church. 

The  answer  to  the  second  question  as  to  the  relation 
between  Catholic  faith  and  membership  in  the  Asso¬ 
ciation  has  in  effect  been  already  given.  A  Catholic 
member  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  cannot  blink  the  fact  that 
he  is  enrolled  in  a  distinctively  Protestant  organiza¬ 
tion'.  Even  though  he  utilizes  only  the  recreational 
features  he  is  constantly  in  an  “evangelical”  atmos¬ 
phere  of  religious  indifferentism  (the  theory  that  one 
church  is  as  good  as  another) ,  which  is  of  itself  suffi¬ 
cient  to  constitute  a  perpetual,  at  least  remote,  danger 
to  his  faith,  and  he  is  supporting  by  his  membership 
and  by  his  contributions  all  the  activities  which  the 
Association  conducts .  There  may ,  or  may  not  be ,  for 
circumstances  alter  cases,  any  direct  danger  to  his 
faith,  but  his  connection  with  their  work  among  the 
Catholics  of  South  America  and  Europe,  slight  though 
this  connection  may  be  personally,  is  a  fact  which 
must  be  weighed  in  conscience  by  a  Catholic  when 
enrolling  himself  as  a  member  of  the  Young  Men’s 
Christian  Association. 

The  Young  Women’s  Christian  Association, 
although  not  officially  connected  with  the  Y.M.C.A., 
nor  historically  sprung  from  it,  is  similar  in  character 
and  scope  in  its  work  for  young  women.  This  organ¬ 
ization  is  the  result  of  the  uniting  of  several  smaller 
independent  societies  originating  in  various  countries, 
chiefly  during  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
In  Great  Britain  in  1855  two  prayer  unions  with 
purely  spiritual  aims  were  founded  simultaneously  in 
different  places.  These  two  united  in  1877  as  the 
Y.  W.  C.  A.,  with  broader  activities  but  with  prac¬ 
tically  the  same  purpose.  Special  attention  was 
thereafter  paid  to  social  work,  the  aim  being  to 
remedy  conditions  through  hotels,  traveler’s  aid, 
factory  helpers  and  the  like.  The  Association  spread 
to  the  English  colonies  and  also  became  connected 
with  similar  organizations  in  the  United  States.  In 
the  United  States  various  women’s  societies  were 
founded  in  the  same  period.  The  Y.  W.  C.  A.  of 
Boston  was  founded  in  1866.  A  conference  of 
twenty-three  similar  organizations  was  held  at  Hart¬ 
ford  in  1871,  the  oldest  unit  member  being  the 
Ladies’  Christian  Union  of  New  York.  In  1875  this 
conference  adopted  the  name  “International  Confer¬ 
ence  of  Women’s  Christian  Associations.”  In  1891 
after  a  union  with  some  Canadian  societies  the  title 
“International  Board  of  Women’s  and  \oung 
Women’s  Christian  Associations”  was  adopted.  In 
the  meanwhile  there  were  many  other  independent 
organizations,  especially  student  societies  in  the 
Middle  West.  In  1886  nine  of  such  state  organiza¬ 
tions  united  under  the  title  “The  American  Com¬ 
mittee,”  the  oldest  unit  in  this  union  being  that 
founded  at  the  State  Normal  School,  Normal,  Ill., 
in  1873.  In  1906  the  International  Board  and  the 


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American  Committee  united  to  form  the  “Young 
Women’s  Christian  Associations  of  the  United  States 
of  America.”  The  World’s  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  of  which 
the  American  association  is  a  member,  was  organized 
in  1894,  the  first  world  conference  being  held  in  1898 
in  London.  In  the  world  conference  in  Switzerland 
in  1920,  twenty-eight  countries  were  represented. 
The  location  of  the  World’s  Association  headquarters 
is  determined  by  each  world  conference  which  meets 
quadrennially.  The  government  of  the  Y.  W.  C.  A. 
is  essentially  similar  to  that  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  and 
its  activities  are  of  the  same  general  nature,  there 
being  specific  differences  because  of  the  fact  that  their 
work  is  for  young  women  and  presents  problems  not 
arising  in  the  men’s  organizations.  A  blue  triangle  is 
the  insignia  of  the  Y.  W.  C.  A. 

In  1921  the  Association  in  the  United  States  num¬ 
bered  287  city  and  town  units  with  a  membership  of 
314,219,  county  units  27,  with  a  membership  of 
8853,  and  740  student  units,  with  a  membership  of 
61,508,  the  total  being  1054  units  and  384,580  mem¬ 
bers.  These  figures  were  incomplete  and  in  1922 
there  were  said  to  be  1075  units  and  559,000  members. 
According  to  the  incomplete  returns  of  1921  the  value 
of  the  real  property  of  the  Association  in  that  year 
was  $11,244,369,  its  expenses  were  $6,366,349,  and 
its  contribution  to  national,  world’s  and  foreign  Work 
was  over  $2,000,000.  In  1914  out  of  a  total  member¬ 
ship  of  342,305  it  was  reliably  estimated  on  infor¬ 
mation  furnished  by  various  units  that  there  were 
about  40,000  Catholic  members  (nearly  7  per  cent  of 
the  total)  in  the  organization. 

The  Young  Women’s  Christian  Association  pre¬ 
sents  the  same  religious  aspect  as  the  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
The  “basis”  of  the  British  organization  is  as  follows: 
“Faith  in  God  the  Father  as  Creator,  and  in  Jesus 
Christ  His  only  Son,  as  Lord  and  Saviour,  and  in  the 
Holy  Spirit  as  Revealer  of  Truth  and  source  of  power 
for  life  and  service,  according  to  the  teaching  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures. 

“The  aim  of  the  Y.  W.  C.  A.  is:  To  call  young 
women  and  girls  to  the  allegiance  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  the  fellowship  of  His  Church  and  the  service 
of  His  Kingdom. 

“To  unite  them  in  a  fellowship  of  prayer,  Bible 
study  and  service  through  which  they  may  make  their 
contribution  to  the  spiritual,  moral  and  social  prog¬ 
ress  of  the  world. 

“To  make  available  for  them  all  that  will  minister 
to  character,  mental  capacity  and  physical  health.” 

The  basis  of  the  World’s  Y.  W.  C.  A.  was  at  first 
the  foregoing  but  the  Stockholm  conference  limited 
it  to  the  first  paragraph  of  the  same. 

In  the  United  States  previous  to  1906  the  Inter¬ 
national  Board  admitted  Catholics  to  full  member¬ 
ship,  including  the  right  to  vote,  if  a  unit  so  desired. 
The  American  Committee  granted  voting  membership 
to  members  of  the  Protestant  evangelical  Churches 
only.  After  the  union  of  1906  units  which  were 
formerly  members  of  the  International  Board  were 
allowed  to  retain  their  basis  of  membership;  but  the 
new  body  adopted  the  following  specifications  which 
are  binding  on  all  units  with  the  aforesaid  exception: 
“After  the  adoption  of  this  constitution,  any  Young 
Women’s  Christian  Association  not  privileged  to 
become  a  charter  member  may  be  admitted  to  this 
organization  upon  application  to  the  National  Board 
and  upon  filing  with  it  a  copy  of  its  constitution, 
showing  that  its  active  membership — that  is,  the 
voting  and  office-holding  membership — is  limited 
to  women  who  are  members  of  Protestant  Evangelical 
Churches.” 

“By  Protestant  Evangelical  Churches  are  meant 
those  churches  which,  because  of  their  essential 
oneness  in  Jesus  Christ  as  their  Divine  Lord  and 
Savior,  are  entitled  to  representation  in  the  Federal 


Council  of  the  Churches  of  Christ  under  the  action  of 
the  Inter-Church  Conference  held  in  New  York  Citv 
November,  1905.”  y* 

The  objective  of  the  American  organization  is 
stated  as  follows:  “To  advance  the  physical,  social, 
intellectual,  moral  and  spiritual  interests  of  young 
women.  .  .  .  To  bring  them  to  such  knowledge 
oi  Jesus  Christ  as  shall  mean  for  the  individual  fulness 
of  life  and  development  of  character,  and  shall  make 
the  organization  as  a  whole  an  effective  agency  in  the 
bringing  in  of  the  Kingdom  of  God.” 

The  religious  and  Protestant  character  is  further 
apparent  from  the  following  excerpts  from  its  official 
Hand  Book:  “The  objective  of  the  Association  is  the 

development  of  Christian  character . This 

is  the  element  which  unifies  all  the  work,  which  makes 
the  cafeteria  and  the  sewing  class,  the  gymnasium 
and  the  dormitory,  the  travel  class,  and  the  cross 
country  club,  the  Hallowe’en  party  and  the  warm 
welcome  of  the  Association  building  as  essentially 
religious  in  purpose  as  the  Bible  circle  or  the  Vesper 
service.  In  the  prof oundest  sense  of  the  word  all  work 
of  the  Association  is  religious  work.” 

On  another  page  the  Hand  Book,  after  stating  that 
the  Association’s  definition  of  Evangelical  Churches 
is  that  of  the  Federal  Council  of  the  Churches  of 
Christ,  states:  “In  brief,  then,  the  Association  is  in 
a  position  to  render  the  deepest  and  most  fundamental 
service  to  young  women  in  that  it  is  directed  by  those 
pledged  to  the  fulfillment  of  its  purpose,  and  voting 
power  is  vested  in  those  who  are  members  of  the 
churches  listed  in  the  Federal  Council  of  Churches  or 
eligible  to  be  so  listed.” 

The  direct  religious  activities  of  the  Y.  W.  C.  A. 
are  also  practically  the  same  as  those  of  the  Y.'m! 
C.  A.  so  that  all  things  considered  the  question  of 
Catholic  membership  in  this  organization  is  identical 
in  all  aspects  with  that  of  membership  in  the  Y.  M. 
C.  A.,  even  in  the  units  which  allow  Catholics  to  vote] 

Williams,  Life  of  Sir  Geo.  Williams  (New  York,  1906) • 
Doggett,  History  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  I,  Founding  the  Y .  M  C  A  ’ 
(New  York,  1916);  Shipton,  History  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A  in 
London  ( London,  1864);  Stevenson,  Historical  Records  of' the 
K'  v'  (London,  1884);  Idem,  The  Jubilee  of 

K-  C-'  A-'J8&  (London,  1894);  Morse,  History  of  the 
North  American  Y.  M  C.  A.  ( New  York,  1913);  Idem,  Fifty 
Years  of  Federation  of  Y.  M.  C.  A.  in  No.  America  (New  York 
1905);  Religious  Interviews,  etc.  (New  York,  1916);  Hurrey 
The  Red  Trtimgle  in  Latin  America  in  Pan  American  Magazine, 
XXVT  Y-M-  ™  So.  America,  loc.  cit.,  XXXI 

(1920) ,  2 97;  Congress  on  Christian  Work  in  Latin  America 
Reports  (Commission  VII)  (New  York,  1917);  Meredith,  The 
1.  M.  C.  A.  and  the  Russian  Orthodox  Church  (New  York 
1921);  Mayo,  That  Damn  Y  (defence  of  the  Association’s  war 
work);  (New  York,  1920);  Hendricks,  Handbook  of  Social 
Resources  of  the  United  States  (Washington,  1921);  Year  Book 
of  the  Churches  (New  York,  annual);  Association  Year  Book 
(New  York,  annual).  The  Association  conducts  a  flourishing 
publication  house,  issuing  many  books,  pamphlets  and  maga¬ 
zines.  Among  the  latter  are  American  Youth;  Association  Men 
(2  editions);  Association  Seminar;  the  following  are  issued  in 
connection  with  work  among  foreign  students  in  the  United 
States;  El  Estudiante  Latino- Americano;  Christian  China;  The 
Philippine  Herald;  Hindustan  Christian  Student.  All  mentioned 
except  Association  Men  and  Seminar  (monthly)  are  monthly 
during  school-year. 

Information  on  the  Y .  W .  C .  A .  can  be  found  in  the  magazines 
issued  by  the  press  of  the  National  Association:  The  Association 
Monthly;  Foreign-Born  (monthly);  the  following  publications  are 
issued  at  London  and  New  York;  The  Y.  W .  C.  A.  and  Recon¬ 
struction;  The  Y.  W.  C.  A.  and  Education;  The  Y.  W.  C.  A.  in 
the  20th  Century. 

The  best  Catholic  source  on  the  organizations,  on  the  problem 
of  Catholic  membership,  and  on  the  question  of  providing  for 
Catholic  young  men  and  women  organizations  with  similar 
facilities  is  a  series  of  articles  by  Garesche  (ed.),  in  The  Queen’s 
Work,  II,  III,  IV,  V  (1915-16),  passim.  Garesche,  The 
Y .  M .  C.  A.,  a  Protestant  Organization  in  America,  XVII  (1917), 
289;  Idem,  The  Y.  M.  C.  A.’s  Protestantism,  loc.  cit.,  315; 
Idem,  Catholic  Recreational  Centers,  loc.  cit.,  XXVI  (1922), 
478;  A  Profession  of  Faith  by  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  in  American 
Ecclesiastical  Review,  LX VI  (1922),  297;  Beattie,  A  Great 
Evangelical  Drive  in  America,  XXI  (1919),  168;  Epistola  ad 
locorum  ordinarios,  qua  eorum  vigilantia  excitatur  circa  nova 
quaedam  acatholicorum  molimina  contra  fidem  in  Acta  A.  S . , 
XII  (1920),  595,  and  in  American  Eccl.  Rev.,  LXIV  (1921), 
269;  Fisher,  The  Holy  Office  and  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  in  America, 


YOUNG  WOMEN’S  CHRISTIAN 


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YUN-NAN 


XXIV  (1920-21),  450;  The  Bishops  and  (he  Y.M.C.A.in 
American  Eccl.  Rev.  LXIV  (1921),  242.  -  See  also  articles  on 
various  Catholic  societies,  Catholic  social  work,  social  reform, 
etc. 

Gerald  Shaughnessy. 

Young  Women’s  Christian  Association.  See 

Young  Men’s  Christian  Association 

Yucatan,  Archdiocese  of  (Yucatanensis; 
cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 737c),  in  Mexico.  The  present 
archbishop  is  Most  Rev.  Martin  Tristschler  y 
Cordova,  who  has  occupied  the  see  since  1900.  He 
was  born  in  the  Diocese  of  Puebla,  26  May,  1868, 
studied  at  the  South  American  College  at  Rome 
from  June,  1883  to  August,  1893,  doctor  of 
philosophy  at  nineteen  and  of  theology  at  twenty- 
three,  ordained  12  December,  1891,  elected  Bishop 
of  Yucatan,  28  July,  1900,  consecrated  18  November 
following,  first  Archbishop  of  Yucatan  11  November, 
1906. 

The  archdiocese  has  (1922)  27  parishes,  166 
churches,  2  mission  groups,  47  secular  and  7  regular 
priests,  42  Sisters,  1  seminary  with  16  seminarians, 
1  college  for  men  with  16  teachers  and  231  students, 
4  for  women  with  26  teachers  and  724  students,  6 
elementary  schools  with  26  teachers  and  527  pupils, 
1  orphan  asylum  for  boys  with  20  inmates,  1  charita¬ 
ble  centre.  Ninety  per  cent  of  the  population  is 
Catholic.  Two  societies  are  organized  among  the 
clergy  and  three  among  the  laity. 

On  24  September,  1915,  Salvador  Alvardo, 
Governor  of  Yucatan,  sent  a  group  of  fanatics  to 
invade  the  cathedral  during  the  night;  they  destroyed 
the  sacred  images,  the  altars  and  even  the  organ, 
and  desecrated  the  cemeteries.  The  Spanish  clergy 
and  the  nuns  dedicated  to  education  in  the  college 
of  St.  Teresa  of  Jesus  and  Mary  were  exiled,  their 
property  seized  and  secularized,  colleges,  hospitals 
and  institutions  were  confiscated  by  the  fanatics 
until  there  was  nothing  more  left.  The  bishop' 
house  was  converted  into  an  official  building.  But 
little  by  little  some  of  the  clergy  returned  and  have 
ventured  to  open  schools.  Finally  several  Yucatan 


gentry  founded  the  “Universidad  Ibero  Americana"; 
but  in  this  and  in  the  private  schools  the  law  of 
religious  prohibition  is  in  force. 

Yukon  and  Prince  Rupert ,  Vicariate  Apostolic 
of  (cf.  C.  E.,XV — 738a),  in  Canada.  The  former 
prefecture  apostolic  was  erected  into  a  vicariate  on  20 
Nov.,  1916.  Its  area  is  about  520,000  sq.  miles.  The 
present  and  first  vicar  is  the  Rt.  Rev.  Emile-Marie 
Bunoz,  b.  at  Sales,  France,  24  February,  1864,  or¬ 
dained  28  March,  1891,  elected  titular  bishop  of 
Tentyra  and  made  vicar  apostolic  of  Yukon  13  June, 
1917,  consecrated  at  Vancouver  18  Oct.  following, 
published  10  March,  1919.  In  1921  the  vicariate  had 
8000  Catholics,  5  quasi-parishes,  37  churches,  32 
missions,  10  stations,  3  convents  for  women  with  28 
Sisters,  2  secular  priests,  12  regulars  (Oblates  of  Mary 
Immaculate),  2  seminarians,  who  are  being  educated 
in  other  dioceses,  and  1  hospital.  The  secondary  edu¬ 
cational  institutions  are:  2  parochial  schools,  1 
academy,  1  Indian  industrial  school,  2  Catholic  Indian 
schools  conducted  by  laymen  under  the  supervision 
of  priests. 

Yun-nan,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 
738b),  in  China,  has  37  parishes,  132  churches,  201 
stations,  26  European  missionaries,  16  Chinese  priests, 
1  convent  for  women  “Chinese  Maidens,”  17,500 
Catholics,  1  seminary  with  40  seminarians,  1  college 
for  women  with  3  students,  1  normal  school  with  3 
teachers  and  23  pupils,  1  home  for  the  aged  poor,  19 
orphanages,  1  hospital,  110  schools  with  2100  pupils. 
There  is  no  aid  from  the  government  for  any  of  these 
institutions,  and  only  one  orphanage  admits  the 
ministry  of  priests.  In  several  districts  the  associa¬ 
tion  of  the  “Bona  Mors”  is  organized.  The  vicariate 
is  entrusted  to  the  Foreign  Missions  of  Paris,  under 
the  administration  (1922)  of  Rt.  Rev.  Charles- 
Marie-Felix  de  Gorostarzu,  titular  Bishop  of  Aila, 
b.  at  St.  Vincent  de  Fyrosse,  France,  6  October,  1860, 
appointed  vicar  Apostolic  of  Yun-nan  10  December, 
1907,  consecrated  29  March,  1908.  He  resides  at 
Yun-nan-fu. 


z 


Zacatecas,  Diocese  of  (cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 740b),  in 
the  State  of  Zacatecas,  Mexico,  is  suffragan  of  Guada¬ 
lajara.  By  a  decree  of  16  January,  1920,  the  boun¬ 
daries  of  Zacateca  and  that  of  St.  Louis  de  Potosi 
were  modified;  making  an  area  of  about  22,806  square 
miles.  The  see  is  filled  by  Rt.  Rev.  Miguel  de  la 
Mora,  b.  14  August,  1874,  ordained  30  November, 
1897,  doctor  of  theology,  superior  and  prefect  of 
studies  at  the  seminary  of  Guadalajara,  magistral 
chancellor  in  November,  1908,  elected  9  February, 
1911,  consecrated  7  May  following  to  succeed  Mgr. 
Jose  Alva,  b.  5  October,  1841;  d.  July,  1910.  There 
are  in  the  diocese:  26  parishes,  40  succursals,  129 
secular  and  7  regular  priests,  2  congregations  of  men 
and  3  of  women,  and  100  Catholic  schools. 

Zagrab  (Agram)  ,  Archdiocese  of  (Zagra- 
biensis;  cf.  C.  E.,  I — 225c);  in  the  ancient  Kingdom  of 
Croatia,  formerly  a  part  of  Hungary  but  now  in  Jugo¬ 
slavia.  Most  Rev.  George  Posilovic,  who  filled  this 
see  from  1894,  died  26  April,  1914,  and  was  succeeded 
by  the  present  incumbent,  Most  Rev.  Anthony  Bauer. 
Archbishop  Bauer,  b.  in  this  diocese  1856,  the  author 
of  numerous  works  of  apologetics  and  a  member  of 
the  Southern  Slavonic  Academy  of  Sciences  was 
appointed  titular  Archbishop  of  Pessinus  20  January, 
1911,  and  made  coadjutor  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Agram.  His  auxiliaries  are  (1921)  Rt.  Rev.  Joseph 
Lang,  and  for  the  Greek  Rite,  Rt.  Rev.  Dominic 
Premus.  In  1916  there  were  in  this  diocese  1,572,778 
Catholics  of  the  Latin  Rite,  3074  Uniat  Greeks,  144,- 
932  Orthodox  Greeks;  351  parishes,  622  secular  and 
75  regular  clergy. 

Zahm,  John  Augustine,  American  author  and 
scientist,  b.  at  Lexington,  Ohio,  in  1851,  d.  in  Mun¬ 
ich,  Germany,  1921.  He  was  educated  at  Notre 
Dame  University,  Indiana,  and  upon  graduation 
entered  the  Congregation  of  the  Holy  Cross,  and 
was  ordained  piiest  in  1875.  He  filled  various  posi¬ 
tions  in  the  Congregation,  at  one  time  being  provin¬ 
cial  from  1898  to  1906.  He  was  the  author  (some¬ 
times  under  the  pseudonym  of  Mozans),  of  a 
number  of  books  covering  a  large  variety  of  sub¬ 
jects;  among  these  were:  “Evolution  and  Dogma,” 
“Scientific  Theory  and  Catholic  Doctrine,”  “Along 
the  Andes  and  down  the  Amazon,”  “The  Quest  of  El 
Dorado.”  He  was  an  enthusiastic  Dante  student 
and  assembled  at  Notre  Dame  one  of  the  three 
largest  of  the  Dante  libraries  in  America.  He  was 
a  scholarly  and  brilliant  writer.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Roosevelt  Scientific  Expedition  to  South 
America  and  on  that  and  other  trips  collected  maps, 
photographs,  relics,  curios,  etc.,  which  were  added 
to  the  valuable  collection  of  fifteen  hundred  vol¬ 
umes  of  South  American  history  and  research  work 
at  Notre  Dame  University. 

Zante,  Diocese  of.  See  Corfu,  Zante,  Cep- 

HALONIA 

Zanzibar,  Northern,  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
(Zanzibarensis  or  Zanguebarensis  septentrio- 
nalis;  cf.  C.  E.,  XV — 750c),  on  the  east  coast  of 
Africa,  comprises  the  Island  of  Zanzibar,  Piemba, 
and  British  East  Africa  (now  Kena  Colony),  with  the 


exception  of  the  Kena  Province,  and  the  provinces 
north  of  the  Kikuyu  Escarpment;  it  is  confided  to  the 
Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  population  of  the 
vicariate  numbers  800,000,  of  whom  9000  are  Catho¬ 
lics  with  about  as  many  catechumens;  the  chief 
languages  spoken  are  Kiswajili,  Kikuyu,  Kitaita 
and  Kikambu.  The  present  (1922)  vicar  apostolic 
is  Rt.  Rev.  John  Gerald  Neville,  C.  S.  Sp.,  titular 
Bishop  of  Carrhae,  b.  in  Dublin,  Ireland,  29  October, 
1859,  appointed  vicar  apostolic  1  September,  1913, 
consecrated  titular  Bishop  of  Carrhae  28  October  1913. 

The  mission  has  22  priests  and  11  lay  brothers 
(members  of  the  Society  of  the  Holy  Ghost),  211 
catechists,  30  nuns  (Sisters  of  Loreto,  of  the  Precious 
Blood,  and  White  Sisters) ,  66  principal  and  secondary 
stations,  13  churches,  30  chapels,  72  schools  (three 
of  which  are  high  schools) ,  with  3633  pupils;  5  normal 
schools,  with  100  students;  5  professional  schools, 
with  65  pupils;  9  orphanages,  with  161  orphans;  2 
leper  asylums,  with  100  inmates;  6  hospitals,  29 
pharmacies,  3  asylums  for  the  poor,  with  100  inmates, 
and  1  junior  seminary.  There  is  no  aid  from  the 
State  for  educational  purposes,  an  annual  sum  being 
contributed  from  the  government  towards  the  upkeep 
of  the  leper  asylum.  Nine  of  the  priests  were  called 
away  during  the  War;  four  of  the  missions  were 
closed,  two  being  within  the  war  zone,  and  the  two 
others  because  of  the  diminished  personnel,  but  at 
the  present  (1922),  they  are  in  full  swing,  and  new 
ones  have  been  opened.  Three  of  the  priests  acted 
as  military  chaplains  during  the  African  Campaign, 
one  of  whom,  Father  Demaison,  was  decorated  with 
tne  Military  Cross;  two  houses  were  used  as  hospital 
by  the  government. 

Zanzibar,  Southern  (Dar-es-Salaam;  cf.  C. 
E. ,  XVI — 85c) ,  Vicartate  Apostolic  of.  Before  the 
year  1888,  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Dar-es-Salaam 
and  the  Prefecture  of  Lindi  were  under  the  j  urisidiction 
of  the  Bishop  of  Zanzibar,  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  the  year  the 
Benedictines  of  St.  Odilia  in  Bavaria,  to  whom  part 
of  the  district  was  committed,  came  to  Dar-es-Salaam, 
and  settled  near  the  coast  at  a  place  called  Pugu;  the 
little  band  counted  1  priest,  9  Brothers  and  4  Sisters. 
The  following  year  during  an  outbreak  of  the  Arabs, 
the  station  was  destroyed,  some  of  the  missionaries 
were  killed,  others  captured,  but  later  ransomed  at 
a  high  price.  When  at  length  the  efforts  of  the 
missionaries  bore  fruit  and  the  number  of  stations 
increased  the  mission  was  made  independent  and 
called  the  Prefecture  Apostolic  of  Dar-es-Salaam 
(1894),  with  Mgr.  Maurus  Hartmann  as  superior;  in 
1902  the  prefecture  became  the  Vicariate  Apostolic  of 
Southern  Zanzibar,  under  the  government  of  Mgr. 
Cassianus  Spies,  and  on  10  August,  1906,  the  name 
was  changed  from  Southern  Zanzibar  to  Dar-es- 
Salaam.  On  12  November,  1913,  the  vicariate  was 
divided  into  two  parts,  the  northern  region  retaining 
the  old  name  while  the  southern  became  the  Prefecture 
Apostolic  of  Lindi,  under  the  rule  of  Mgr.  Willebror- 
dus  Ley.  In  1905,  a  new  persecution  known  as 
“Magi-Magi”  broke  out  among  the  natives;  almost 
all  the  stations  in  the  prefecture  of  Lindi  were 
destroyed  and  seven  of  the  missionaries,  among  them 


784 


ZEMAITI 


785 


ZEMAITI 


the  Vicar  Apostolic,  were  killed,  while  the  others 
had  to  flee  the  country  for  a  time.  In  1917,  the 
missionaries  of  German  nationality  were  prohibited 
from  carrying  on  their  missionary  work  and  in  Sep¬ 
tember,  1920,  the  Vicar  Apostolic,  Mgr.  Spreiter, 
O.  S.  B.,  and  all  his  fellow-Germans  were  repatriated 
by  the  British  Government.  In  the  meantime 
Father  Joseph  Laaue,  with  some  missionaries,  mostly 
belonging  to  the  White  Fathers,  have  taken  over  the 
care  of  the  prefecture  and  vicariate  by  order  of  the 
Cardinal  Prefect  of  Propaganda.  In  1921,  the  vica¬ 
riate  was  entrusted  to  the  Swiss  Capuchins  and  to 
the  Fathers  of  the  Institute  of  Consolation,  and  the 
prefecture  to  the  Swiss  Benedictines.  In  the  thirty- 
three  years  that  have  elapsed  since  the  separate 
mission  was  founded  seventy  of  the  missionaries  have 
laid  down  their  lives  there;  1  bishop,  14  priests; 
27  brothers  and  28  nuns,  all  belonging  to  the  Bene¬ 
dictine  Congregation  of  St.  Ottilien. 

The  boundaries  of  the  Vicariate  together  with  the 
Prefecture  are:  on  the  north  from  the  Indian  Ocean 
to  Mbweni,  then  the  boundary  separating  the  civil 
provinces  of  Bagamoyo  and  Mogoro  from  Dar-es- 
Salaam  and  Rufigi,  then  the  rivers  Ruaha  and 
Umerowe  as  far  as  the  railway  from  the  eastern  coast 
to  Lake  Tanganyika,  then  along  the  railway  as 
far  as  Kilimatinde;  on  the  west  a  line  from  Kilimatinde 
along  the  railway  as  far  as  Lake  Nyasa  and  34' 
longitude,  then  along  Lake  Nyssa  to  the  Portuguese 
territory,  but  so  as  to  include  the  entire  districts  of 
Uhehe  and  Ugogo  and  Ubena  in  the  Vicariate  of 
Dar-es-Salaam;  on  the  south  the  river  Rovuma  as 
far  as  the  Indian  Ocean,  i.  e.,  the  boundary  between 
the  British  and  the  Portuguese  territories;  on  the  east 
the  Indian  Ocean,  the  rivers  Mbenkuru  and  Ruhuyc 
separating  the  vicariate  and  the  prefecture.  The 
ecclesiastical  boundaries  are:  on  the  north  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Bagamoyo;  on  the  west  the 
Vicariate  Apostolic  of  Tanganyika;  on  the  south  the 
Prelature  nullius  of  Mozambique.  The  mission  is 
entirely  within  the  Tanganyika  territory,  over  which 
the  British  have  a  mandate  since  the  War. 

Almost  all  the  natives  use  the  Kisqahil  language, 
though  each  tribe  has  its  own  language  as  well,  the 
principal  ones  being  Ivihehe,  Kipogoro,  Ivigogo, 
Kingui,  and  Kinyassa.  In  the  vicariate  of  Dar-es- 
Salaam  there  were  according  to  the  census  of  1914, 
approximately  568,800  natives,  while  the  prefecture 
of  Lindi  had  485,800.  At  the  end  of  1921,  the  vicar¬ 
iate  had  7847  neophytes,  295  catechumens,  69  elem¬ 
entary  schools,  and  76  catechists;  while  the  prefecture 
had  14,419  neophytes,  4,802  catechumens,  141 
elementary  schools  and  161  catechists.  In  the 
eastern  part  of  the  vicariate  there  are  9  Swiss  Capu¬ 
chin  priests,  6  Brothers,  and  9  Sisters;  while  in  the 
western  part  there  are  6  priests  of  the  Institute  of 
Consolata  of  Turin.  In  the  prefecture  of  Lindi,  there 
are  assigned  to  the  mission  13  Swiss  Benedictines 
(8  priests  and  5  Brothers),  and  6  White  Fathers. 
While  awaiting  the  separation  of  the  three  missions 
just  mentioned,  Father  Joseph  Laaue  of  the  White 
Fathers  is  administrator  general. 

Zemaiti,  Diocese  of  (Samogitiensis;  cf.  C.  E., 
XIII — 421),  in  Lithuania.  The  present  incumbent 
of  this  see  is  Mgr.  Francesco  Karewicz,  b.  at  Masiady, 
in  this  diocese,  on  17  September,  1861;  chancellor  of 
the  cathedral  of  Mohileff,  and  appointed  bishop  of 
Zemaiti  on  20  February,  1914,  in  succession  to  Mgr. 
Cyrtowt,  who  died  on  20  September,  1913.  This  dio¬ 
cese  was  erected  in  1417  by  the  Council  of  Constance 
at  the  request  of  Witold  the  Great,  with  its  see  at 
Varna  or  Medininki,  and  was  confirmed  by  Pope 
Martin  V  in  1421 .  In  1849  it  comprised  the  provinces 
of  Kauna  (Kovno)  and  Kiron,  with  an  area  of  about 
23,800  square  miles.  In  1864  the  episcopal  see, 


diocesan  seminary,  chapter,  and  consistory  were  trans¬ 
ferred  by  the  civil  authorities  from  Varna  to  Kauna, 
and  in  1895  the  Chruch  of  St.  Peter  and  Paul  was 
declared  the  cathedral  church  of  Leo  XIII.  On  26 
April,  1921,  the  cathedral  church  on  the  five  hun¬ 
dredth  anniversary  of  the  foundation  of  the  diocese 
was  made  a  minor  basilica,  the  solemnities  of  the 
erection  being  held  at  Kauna  on  11  September, 
1921.  The  diocesan  patron  is  St.  John  the  Baptist, 
the  external  celebration  being  held  on  the  Sundy 
before  the  feast  of  St.  Peter  and  Paul. 

In  1921  there  were  in  the  diocese:  360  parishes,  415 
churches,  1  monastery  of  monks,  1  convent  of  nuns 
with  solemn  vows;  649  secular,  6  regular  priests,  17 
lay  brothers;  1,300,000  Catholics;  1  seminary,  14 
professors,  109  students;  1  university;  1  boys’  college, 
7  professors,  98  students;  1  girls’  college,  8  professors, 
90  students;  10  primary  schools,  23  teachers, 
500  pupils;  4  industrial  schools,  12  teachers,  i20 
pupils;  12  hospitals  and  orphanages;  7  day  nurseries; 
priests  are  permitted  to  exercise  their  ministry  in  all 
the  schools.  The  Lithuanian  Government  supports 
all  the  Catholic  schools  in  the  diocese  governed  by 
Catholic  associations  like  the  Saule  (Sol)  or  Ziburys 
(Faz)  or  by  private  persons.  Furthermore,  in  all 
neutral  or  mixed  schools  the  doctrines  of  Catholicism 
are  taught. 

Societies. — The  clergy  have  a  mutual  assurance 
society,  and  a  diocesan  temperance  sodality.  The 
following  are  the  societies,  among  the  laity:  (a) 
Catholic  Society  of  Lithuanian  Women  or  “L.  K. 
Moteru  Draugiji,’-’  founded  in  1908.  It  has  80 
branches,  publishes  a  review  called  “Moteris,”  and 
supports  or  directs  about  30  institutions:  schools, 
libraries,  orphanages,  etc.;  (b)  The  “Motinele” 
(‘little  mother’)  association,  for  the  support  of  youths 
pursuing  high  studies;  (c)  Society  of  St.  Casimir, 
for  publishing  and  distributing  good  books;  (d) 
temperance  societies;  (e)  the  Action  catholique; 
(f)  the  Christian  Democratic  Party;  (g)  the  “Lietuvos 
Darbo  Federacija”  or  Federation  of  Workingmen; 
(h)  St.  Zita’s  Society,  for  servants;  (i)  Our  Lady’s 
Society,  for  servants;  (j)  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  con¬ 
ferences;  (k)  the  “Ateitininkai”  association  of  young 
.students;  (1)  the  “Pavasaris”  association  of  Catholic 
young  men.  •  _ 

There  are  1 ,300,000  Catholics  in  the  diocese,  almost 
all  Lithuanians.  In  the  cities  and  some  parts  of  the 
country  there  are  groups  that  speak  Polish  at  home, 
but  they  do  not  amount  to  over  4  per  cent.  There 
are  2  Catholic  daily  papers  and  12  periodicals. 

Among  the  clergy  and  laity  who  have  died  since 
1912  mention  should  be  made  of  Petrus  Krauciunas,  a 
layman,  a  master  of  theology,  noted  teacher,  philo¬ 
logist,  and  patriot,  who  died  in  1912;  Joannes  Bal- 
vocius,  a  priest  and  a  popular  writer;  Gaspar  Cirtautas 
bishop  of  the  diocese,  who  restored  and  adorned  the 
cathedral,  and  died  in  1913;  Riauba,  Dovydaitis, 
and  Juozapavici  the  first  Lithuanian  soldiers  to  die 
in  the  struggle  to  liberate  their  fatherland  in  1918. 

Notable  diocesan  events  since  1912:  (1)  the  pre¬ 
conization  of  the  present  bishop  Mgr.  Franciscus 
Karevicus  in  1914;  (2)  letter  of  Pope  Benedict  XV 
to  the  bishop  in  which  he  consoled  the  oppressed  peo¬ 
ple  of  Lithuania  and  appointed  20  May,  1917  as  the 
day  on  which  a  collection  was  to  be  taken  up  in  all 
the  churches  in  the  world  for  the  war  victims  in 
Lithuania  ( Welkollekte) ;  (3)  the  nomination  of 

Archbishop  Achille  Ratti,  now  Pope  Pius  XI,  as 
visitor  Apostolic  to  Lithuania;  he  came  the  diocese 
in  January,  1920;  (4)  the  500th  aniversary  of  the 
erection  of  the  diocese;  (5)  the  granting  of  the  title 
and  privileges  of  a  minor  basilica  to  the  cathedral 
church  at  Kauna  on  26  April,  1921;  (6)  the  Bull 
“Maxime  interest”  of  9  June,  1920,  transferring  part 
of  the  civil  province  of  Courland,  with  about  100,000 


ZION  CITY 


786 


ZMUDZ 


Catholics  from  the  Diocese  of  Zamaiti  to  that  of 
Iiiga;  (7)  the  repulse  of  the  Russian  Bolshevist  forces 
attempting  to  enter  Lithuania  in  1919;  (8)  the  erec¬ 
tion  of  a  university  with  a  Catholic  faculty  in  Kaunas 
on  16  February,  1922. 

For  more  than  two  years  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  Lithuania,  and  especially  the  Diocese  of  Zemaiti, 
was  the  scene  of  the  most  sanguinary  fighting  be¬ 
tween  the  Germans  and  the  Russians  in  which  the 
country  was  laid  waste.  Various  societies  were 
established  to  repair  the  damages  and  alleviate  the 
sufferings  caused  by  the  war.  Chief  among  these 
are  the  “Draugija  nukentejusiems  del  karo  SelptF’or 
“Society  for  aiding  the  war  sufferers,”  “Litauischer 


Verein  fur  Kriegshilfe”  with  40  branches  at  Wilna, 
Kauna,  and  other  places  in  Lithuania,  and  100 
branches  in  Russian  territory,  where  200,000  persons 
who  had  been  forced  into  exile  by  the  war  were 
helped  by  this  society.  The  society  also  supported 
2  colleges  or  gymnasia,  more  than  100  intermediate 
and  primary  schools  and  similar  institutions  in 
Petrograd,  Moscow,  Voronez,  and  other  places. 

Zion  City.  See  New  Thought 

Zips,  Diocese  of.  See  Spisz 

Zmudz,  Diocese  of.  See  Zemaiti 


t 


